FOR THE PEOPLE
FOR EDVCATION
FOR SCIENCE

LIBRARY

OF

THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL HISTORY

JOURNAL

t

• Quarterly

MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE:

EDITED BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F. R. S., &c.,

AN1>

E. RAY LANKESTER, B.A. Oxon., F.R.M.S.

VOLUME IX. — New. Series.
SiiUtb Illustrations on S&oob anb £lone.

LONDON:

JOHN CHURCHILL AND SONS, NEW BURLINGTON STREET.

'ob , r(,0 ^

PRINTED BY

J. E. ADLABD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE, E.C.

MEMOIRS.

New Observations upon the Minute Anatomy of the
Papilljeo/ Me Frog’s Tongue. By Lionel S. Beale,
M.B., F.R.S., Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians,
Professor of Physiology anil of Geueral and Morbid Ana-
tomy in King’s College, London ; Physician to King’s
College Hospital, &c.1 With Plates I — IV.

In this paper I propose to give the results of some recent
investigations upon the minute anatomy of the beautiful
fungiform papillae of the tongue of the little green tree-frog
(Hyla arborea). The specimens have been prepared accord-
ing to the principles laid down in former communications.
The success I have met with in this and other minute anato-
mical inquiries is, I believe, almost entirely due to the pro-
cess of investigation which I have adopted for some years
past, and which enables me to render specimens very trans-
parent, and to demonstrate all the tissues in one specimen,
a result which, as far as I am aware, can be obtained in no
other way. By this plan sections are obtained so exceedingly
thin, without the destruction even of the most delicate tissues,
that they may be examined under the highest powers which it
is possible to obtain (TV magnifying 1700 linear, and magni-
fying about 3000 linear).

The following are among the most recent contributions to
the anatomy of the papillae of the frog’s tongue :

W aller : “ Minute Structure of the Papillae and Nerves
of the Tongue of the Frog and Toad,” ‘ Philosophical Trans-
actions,’ 1847.

Billroth : “ Ueber die Epithelzellen der frosch-zunge,
sowie liber den Bau der cylinder-und flimmerepithelien unci
ihr Verhaltniss zum bindegewebc,” ‘ Archiv fur Anat. Phvs.,’
1858, S. 163.

Hoyer : “ Mikroskopiche Untersuchungen iibt?r die zunge
des Froschcs,” ‘Archiv fur Anat. Phys.,’ 1859, S. 488.

1 This paper has been reprinted from the ‘Phil. Trans. but lias been
carefully revised by the author for this Journal. Several additions have been
made to it, and a new figure added.

VOL. IX. NEW SER.

A

2

Axel Key : “ Ueber d. Endigungen d. Geschmacksnerven
in der zunge Frosches,” ‘Muller’s Archiv,’ 1861, S. 329.

Hartmann: “ Ueber die Endigungsweise der nerven in
den Papillae-fungiformes der Froschzunge,” ‘ Archiv fiir Anat.
Phys.,’ 1863, S. 634.

Engei.mann : “ On the Terminations of the Gustatory
Nerve in the Frog’s Tongue,” ‘Siebold und Kolliker’s
Zeitschrift,’ Bd. xviii, heft i.

In Part I of ‘ Max Schultze’s Archiv ’ for 1868 will be
found “ A Memoir on the Taste Papillae of the Tongue,” by
Dr. Christian Loven, translated from the Swedish, to which
attention may be directed. The author records the demon-
stration of some peculiar cells which are probably connected
with the sense of taste in the higher vertebrata. The cells in
question, which are interspersed amongst the ordinary
epithelial cells, perhaps correspond with the mass of cells of
the papillae of the frog’s tongue described in this paper, which
are, without doubt, very intimately connected with the nerve-
fibres of the plexus, which I have demonstrated, at the
summit of the papilla.

Although the views of Axel Key are supported by
schematic figures which do not accurately represent the real
arrangement of the tissues, they approach much nearer to the
truth than those of other observers. He describes two kinds
of cells at the summit of the papilla, epithelial cells and special
cells concerned in taste. I have not been able to verify his
statements in this particular. He has not demonstrated the
peculiar network at the summit of the papilla which is seen
so distinctly in my specimens, and his delineations of the pro-
longation of the axis-cylinder alone, and its division into
fibres far too fine to be visible by the magnifying powers
employed, and the abrupt cessation of the white substance
delineated by him, are evidently schematic, — indeed, he does
not pretend that the figures referred to are copies from nature.
Still his inferences regarding the division of the nerve-fibres
into very fine fibres which pass into the epithelium-like tissue
at the summit of the papilla, approach much nearer to the
actual arrangement than those of any other observers with
which I am acquainted.

Among the later researches upon the mode of termination of
the nerves are those by Dr. Hartmann. These are concluded in
the number of Reichert and Du Bois-Reymond’s * Archiv’ for
1863. The drawings of the papillae accompanying this memoir,
especially fig. 65, PI. 18, which I have copied (see fig. 24,
PI. IV, of this memoir), form an excellent illustration of the

3

fact that the most beautiful and well-defined structures may
be rendered quite invisible by being soaked in aqueous solu-
tion of bichromate of potash for three days, one day in car-
mine solution, and then in caustic soda !

In order that I may not express myself against the mode of
preparation followed by this and many other observers in
Germany in the present day more strongly than is justified
by the results obtained as shown by their own drawings, I
■would refer to Hartmann’s figure. Of this drawing it is
not too much to say that it represents nothing sufficiently
definite to enable any one to form an idea of the structure of
the part. The drawing, and I conclude the preparation from
which it was taken, are far behind the day ; and it seems to
me most remarkable that after all the anatomical research of
the last twenty years an observer should publish such a figure
as this as a representation of natural structure. The nerve-
fibres are completely altered by the mode of investigation
followed, and the finer fibres are of course destroyed or
rendered invisible. Nor can I admit that the epithelium
upon the summit of the papillae represented in his fig. 64
gives a correct idea of this structure.

Unfortunately, Engelmann, who is the last writer on the
subject, does not appear to have seen my paper, which was pub-
lished three years before his own memoir. He, however, con-
firms some of my observations, but has evidently failed to see
the numerous nuclei connected with the subdivisions of the
nerve-fibres, and represented in my figures 1, 2, and 3.
That remarkable and intricate plexus of the very finest
nerve-fibres which I have described and figured has also
escaped his observation. But it would have been impossible
for him to demonstrate these and many other points by the
process of investigation which he followed, while the papillae
of the Rana temporaria are not at all well adapted for study-
ing the finest ramifications of the nerve-fibres.

It may be proved conclusively by experiments that soaking
delicate animal tissues in dilute aqueous solution of bichro-
mate of potash renders invisible and destrojs structures
which can be demonstrated by other means. Iuquiries con-
ducted by the aid of such plans of preparation retard rather
than advance anatomical inquiry, for some of the most im-
portant anatomical characters are rendered completely invi-
sible. The very conflicting opinions now entertained by
observers in Germany upon the structure of these papillte,
render it important that they should be studied again with,
the advantage of the highest powers and the most advan-
tageous methods of preparation which we now possess.

4

In this communication I shall only attempt to describe
briefly those points which I believe to be new, and which are,
I conceive, demonstrated in my specimens for the first time.
Most of the points described in this paper were demonstrated
in 1862, and the specimens have been repeatedly studied and
shown to other observers. The points described could still be
demonstrated in the same specimens in June, 1864.

The structures entering into the formation of the papilla
are the following :

1. The connective tissue which forms the body of the

papilla.

2. The “ epithelium.”

3. The nerve-fibres in the body of the papilla, and the

fibres prolonged from them which form a plexus upon

its summit.

4. Nerve-fibres ramifying in the connective tissue, upon

the capillary vessels and amongst the muscular fibres.

5. The muscular fibres.

6. The vessels.

The Connective Tissue.

The nerves, vessels, and muscular fibres are embedded in a
very transparent basis-substance which exhibits a slightly
striated or fibrous appearance when stretched, but this struc-
ture in all the papillae of the Hyla is exceedingly delicate and
transparent.

The great majority of the masses of germinal matter (nuclei)
seen in this basis or connective substance are undoubtedly con-
nected with the nerves, vessels, and muscular fibres, but there
are a few which seem to belong to the connective substance
alone, and may therefore be called “ connective-tissue cor-
jmscles .” It is possible that these at an earlier period may
have been connected with nerves or muscles ; at any rate,
they are the descendants of the same nuclei or masses of ger-
minal matter as the nuclei taking part in the production of
these tissues.

I consider that indefinite connective tissue of this kind
results principally from the accumulation of the remains of
higher structures, especially nerve-fibres, which were in a
state of functional activity at an earlier period of life. At an
early period of development nuclei (masses of germinal mat-
ter) can alone be detected. As development proceeds, tissue
is formed by these nuclei, and increases as age advances. The
large and fully-formed fungiform papillae have twice as many
nerve-fibres as smaller and younger ones. During the
development of such an organ as one of these papillae many

5

changes occur, and much texture is probably produced and
removed before the papilla attains its fully developed state. That
passive substance called connective tissue which remains and
occupies the intervals between the higher tissues, which
possess active and special endowments, slowly accumulates,
but undergoes condensation as the organ advances in age.
Amongst this are a few nuclei which can no longer produce
anything but indefinite “ connective tissue” of the same cha-
racter. In PI. II, fig. 9, it would have been impossible, had
the specimen been prepared in the usual manner, to have
determined if the nuclei marked a, b were nuclei of the
muscle concerned in producing muscle, or connective-tissue
corpuscles concerned in the formation of connective tissue
only. This question requires restudy from a new point of
view. It is quite certain that many of the masses of germi-
nal matter (nuclei) figured in all my drawings in connexion
with nerves, vessels, muscles, and other tissues, would, if the
specimens had been prepared in a different manner, so that
their connexions were not so very distinctly seen, have been
called “ CONNECTIVE-TISSUE CORPUSCLES.”

The drawings accompanying my paper explain the rela-
tion which I believe the essential structures entering into the
formation of the papilla bear to the indefinite connective
tissue in which they lie embedded.

Epithelium.

The so-called epithelium upon the summit of the papilla of
the frog’s tongue (PI. I, fig. 1, a) differs from the epithelium
attached to its sides {b), that covering the simple papillae (c),
and that on the surface of the tongue generally, in many im-
portant characters. As is wTell known, it is not ciliated. The
cells differ from the ciliated cells in several points. They are
smaller than these. The nucleus is very large in proportion
to the entire cell. The cells are not easily separated from one
another, as is the case with the ciliated epithelium. These
cells form a compact mass, the upper surface of which is con-
vex. This is adherent by its lower surface to the summit of
the papilla, and it is not detached without employing force.
The cells do not separate one by one, as occurs with the ordi-
nary epithelium, but the whole collection is usually detached
entire, and then it is, I believe, torn away.

Although some observers would assert that the two or three
layers of cells represented in my drawings do not exist, but
that the appearance is produced by the cells of a single layer
being pushed over one another by pressure, I am convinced

6

that in this mass upon the summit of the papilla of the Hyla
there is more than the single layer of cells represented by
Hartmann, who is the latest observer on this point.

Hartmann’s representation (/. c.) of this very same struc-
ture from the summit of the papilla of the Hyla is very
different from my drawings. Not only do we represent these
same cells of very different shapes, but the nucleus in my
specimens is three or four times as large in proportion to the
cell as represented by him.

The general outline of the free surface is convex (a, a, a,
fig. 1, PI. I), and the tissue which intervenes between the
nuclei appears very transparent and projects a little, so as to
give the convex summit a honeycombed appearance (PI. II,
%• 7)-

The under concave surface of this hemispheroidal mass
which adheres to the summit of the papilla of the Ilyla’s
tongue, corresponds to the exact area over which the nerve-
fibres of the papilla are distributed, as will presently be
shown. The shape of these cell-like bodies, of which the
mass is composed, and their connexion with fibres, is shown in
PL II, fig. 3, and in the very highly magnified specimen repre-
sented in fig. 2, PI. I. These figures, I believe, represent the
actual arrangement, but the point is most difficult of investiga-
tion. In the intervals between what would be called, if they
were capable of complete separation from one another, the in-
dividual cells, fibres are seen. These fibres do not, I think,
arise simply from the pressure to which the masses have been
subjected. I have represented the arrangement as I believe
it to be in PI. II, fig. 6, from the central part of one of the
hemispheroidal masses. I regard the entire hemispheroidal
mass as resembling in its essential structure the network I
have described at the summit of the papilla, but the masses
of germinal matter are so very close together and the fibres
60 much interlaced with one another, that it is most difficult
to unravel the mass without destroying it. The arrange-
ment at the surface is seen in PI. II, fig, 7.

The epithelium of the tongue generally is easily removed,
but many of these hemispheroidal masses remain connected
with the summits of the papillae to which they belong. From
what I have stated, it will, I think} be admitted that, the con-
stituent parts of the mass at the summit of the papilla could
not be properly called epithelial cells, so that, with reference
to the termination of the nerves in the papilla, I think it is
more correct to say that nerves may be traced to special
bodies or cells which form a hemispheroidal mass attached to
the summit of the papilla, than to assert that the separate

I

bodies, which compose the mass in which nerves terminate,
are actual epithelial cells.

In the simple papillae (PL I, fig. 1, d) of the frog’s
tongue, a “ nucleus ” of a nerve sometimes projects beyond
the outline of the papilla and lies amongst the epithelium.
This nucleus, however, adheres to the papilla when all the
epithelial cells have been detached. It might from its posi-
tion be easily mistaken for an epithelial cell, but it is no
more really related to this structure than is a ganglion-cell,
or a caudate nerve-cell of the spinal cord. The cells of the
ciliated epithelium of the frog’s tongue are not in any in-
stance, as far as I am able to observe, connected with the
nerve-fibres. It is probable that the opposite inference,
which is still held by many observers, has resulted from the
observation of such a nucleus as is represented in PI. I,
fig. 1, d, projecting beyond and adherent to the surface of
the papilla. It is really continuous with the delicate nerve-
fibres (e) ramifying in the substance of the papilla, but it is
not an epithelial cell, and remains adherent after every par-
ticle of epithelium has been removed.

More recently, the view that the finest ramifications of
the nerve-fibres run amongst the epithelial cells of various
tissues has been gaining ground, but it is probable this
will turn out incorrect.

The nervous tissue is in all cases structurally distinct from
every other tissue, in every part of its distribution. It never
blends with epithelium any more than it blends with fibrous
tissue, cartilage, bone, or muscle. If nerves exert any direct
influence upon the nutrition of any of these tissues, the in-
fluence must be exerted through some distance. The results
of anatomical research render any physiological doctrine
which maintains that nerves act through their structural
continuity with other tissues untenable. My own observa-
tions lead me to conclude that nerves do not directly influence
the processes of nutrition, growth, or development at all.
They act only indirectly, and affect the supply of nutrient
matter distributed, by modifying the calibre of the vessels,
and hence regulate the supply of blood which passes to the
capillaries. The nerves, I believe, really exert their in-
fluence upon the contractile muscular coat of the small
arteries and veins alone, and do not act directly upon any
other tissues.

The Nerves.

With regard to the trunks of the nerves, I remark the fol-
lowing facts of importance :

8

1. That the bundle of nerve-fibres distributed to a papilla
always divides into two bundles which pursue opposite direc-
tions. The division of the bundle may take place just at the
base of the papilla, or at some distance from it, but it always
occurs (PI. I, fig. 1).

2. Fine pale nerve-fibres pass from the same trunk of dark-
bordered fibres as that which gives off the bundle of nerves
to the papilla. The fine fibres ramify —

a. Amongst the muscular fibres of the tongue (figs. 1, 9).

b. Upon the vessels (fig. 1, i, i, i).

c. In the connective tissue of the tongue generally, and
also in the simple papillae (fig. 1, d, e ).

The division of the bundle at the base of a papilla is
shown in PI. I, fig. 1, and in PI. Ill, fig. 10, is a diagram
to indicate the manner in which the nerve-plexuses at the
summits of the papillae are connected together by commissural
fibres. Thus, in action the papillae may be associated to-
gether. The bearing of this arrangement upon the existence
of complete nervous circuits is discussed in my ‘ Archives,’
vol. iv. The bundle in the central part of the papilla con-
sists of dark-bordered fibres, which frequently cross and
interlace with one another in this part of their course. They
vary much in diameter, some being so fine as scarcely to be
visible.

As the bundle passes towards the summit of the papilla,
the individual fibres divide and subdivide into finer branches.
Now, as I have before remarked, nerves so near their distri-
bution as these do not usually possess an axis-cylinder as a
structure distinct from the white substance. The white sub-
stance does not abruptly cease, while the axis-cylinder is
alone prolonged onwards by itself as is often described, but
the entire fibre divides and subdivides. In fact dark-bordered
nerve-fibres, near their ultimate ramifications, always consist
of fatty albuminous material embedded in a transparent matrix
of connective tissue. The “ tubular membrane,” “white sub-
stance,” and “ axis-cylinder” can never be demonstrated as
distinct structures near the peripheral distribution of nerves.
The “ tubular membrane ” is nothing more than the trans-
parent matrix in which one or more nerve- fibres are em-
bedded.

The dark-bordered fibres divide into finer fibres about the
level of the ring or half-ring of capillaries at the summit of
the papilla. As the fibres are exceedingly transparent, they
are usually lost from view about this point. For example,
Hartmann’s figures convey the idea that distinct dark-
bordered fibres can be followed as high as this point, but

9

that they cannot be traced further. Above this spot the
papilla is a little thickened and the tissue more granular,
and hence it is not to be wondered at that great difficulty
should have been experienced in demonstrating the further
course of the nerves, or that many different views should be
entertained upon the oft-debated question of the mode of
ending of nerves in this situation ; but it is most certain that
the fibres do divide and subdivide into finer and much more
transparent fibres at this point, and that these again divide
and subdivide and form an elaborate plexus in the summit of
the papilla, which has not been before described.

By reference to my figures, the arrangement, which is not
easily described with accuracy, will be at once understood, so
that a minute description of it would be superfluous.

Above the plexus c (PI. II, fig. 3), and below the epitlie-
lium-like organ at the summit of the papilla (a), is a layer ( b )
which appears to be composed of granular matter. In my
most perfect specimens, however, this “ granular layer,”
when examined by very high powers under the influence of
a good light, is seen to consist of a plexus of extremely fine
fibres which interlace with one another in every direction,
but which pass from the plexus above to the epithelium-like
nervous (?) organ upon the summit of the papilla (PI. I,
fig. 2). I believe this granular appearance to result from
the extreme delicacy and fineness of the nerve- fibres at this
part of their course. In like manner the “ granular matter ”
seen in the grey matter of the cerebral convolutions and that
of the retina, results mainly from the breaking down of very
fine and delicate nerve-fibres, which undergo disintegration
very soon after death, unless they are subjected to special
methods of preparation.

Of the existence of the elaborate network of nerve-fibres
with the large nuclei, represented in PI. II, fig. 3, c, there
can be no question whatever ; but there may be some differ-
ence of opinion regarding the exact relation of the very fine
nerve-fibres at the summit of the papilla, to the peculiar cells
which surmount it, and the ultimate ramification of the
fibres of the elaborate plexus just described. However, there
are but two possible arrangements :

1. That the nerves form a network of exceedingly fine
fibres upon the summit of the papilla, upon which the bases
of the epithelium-like cells impinge.

2. That the very fine nerve-fibres are really continuous
with the peculiar and epithelium-like cells ; in which case
these bodies must be regarded as part of the nervous
apparatus.

10

There seems to me to be so much strong evidence in
favour of the last view, that I venture to express a decided
opinion that this is the truth. In many specimens I have
seen, and most distinctly, tbe delicate network of fibres re-
presented in PL II, fig. 3, continuous with the fine nerve-
fibres in the summit of the papilla, and I have demonstrated
the continuity of these fine fibres with the matter of which
the outer part of these peculiar cells consists (Pis. I & II, figs. 2,
3, 6). I have also seen what I consider to be nerve-fibres in
the intervals between some of these cells (fig. T). Upon
the whole I am justified in the inference that there is a
structural* continuity between the matter which intervenes
between the masses of germinal matter at the summit of the
papilla and the nerve-fibi'es in its axis, and I consider that
an impression produced upon the surface of these peculiar
cells may be conducted by continuity of tissue to the bundle
of nerve-fibres in the body of the papilla. These peculiar
cells in the summit of the papilla cannot therefore be re-
garded as epithelium, and the mass constitutes a peculiar
organ which belongs, not to epithelial structures, but to the
nervous system.

Although there can be no doubt whatever as to the exist-
ence of an intricate and exceedingly delicate nervous net-
work or plexus at the summit of every papilla, such a plexus
might be connected with the nerves according to one of two
very different arrangements :

1. The plexus might be formed at the extremity of a nerve
or nerves, as represented in diagram (PI. IV, fig. 17).

2. The plexus might form a part of the course of a nerve
or nerves, as represented in diagram (PI. IV, fig. 18).

If the first be true, the network must be terminal, and im-
pressions must be conveyed along the fibre, of which the
plexus is but the terminal expansion, direct from periphery
to centre. If the second arrangement is correct, the network
forms a part of a continuous circuit or of continuous circuits.
I believe the division of the nerves at the base of the papilla,
already adverted to, is alone sufficient to justify us in accept-
ing the second conclusion as the more probable ; but when
this fact is considered with reference to those which I have
adduced in my paper published in the c Transactions ’ for
1863, and that in the ‘ Proceedings 3 for June, 1864, and the
observations published in several papers in vols. ii, iii, and
iv of my ‘ Archives/ and in the Croonian Lecture for 1 865,

I think the general view in favour of complete circuits is
the only one which the anatomical facts render tenable. The
mode of branching and division of trunks and individual
fibres is represented in PI. IAr, figs. 20, 21, 22, 23.

11

From the number and size of the nerve-fibres constituting
the bundle in the centre of the papilla, we should infer that
the finest ramifications resulting from the subdivision of these
branches would be very numerous, since it has been shown
that the fine fibres resulting from the subdivision of a single
dark-bordered fibre in the frog’s bladder, palate, skin, and
muscle, constitute plexuses or networks which pass over a
very extended area. The mode of formation of a nerve-
plexus is represented in PI. Ill, figs. 11 and 14. In these
beautiful little organs the numerous fibres resulting from the
subdivision of the dark-bordered fibres are distributed over a
comparatively small extent of tissue, forming the summit of
the papilla. Still, we have the same formation of plexuses,
the constant change in the direction taken by fibres, and the
same crossing and intercrossing which have been noticed in
other situations. In fact, the nerve distribution in these
organs presents the same typical arrangement as is met with
in other tissues, but it is compressed into a very small space.

Nowr, with regard to the epithelium-like structure upon
the summit, it has been shown that the nerve-fibres are pro-
bably continuous with the material lying between the large
nuclei. In fact, if the interpretation of the appearances
which I have given be correct, the arrangement may be ex-
pressed thus :

The material marked a (PI. I, fig. 2) is a continuation
of the nervous structure or tissue, while the matter marked b
bears the same relation to this as the so-called nucleus of a
nerve bears to its fibre, or that of an epithelial cell to its wall.
If this be so, the matter which is freely exposed at the very
summit of the papilla is at least structurally continuous with
nerve-tissue, if it is not to be regarded as nerve itself. My
own opinion is that it is just as much nerve-tissue as a fine
nerve-fibre is nerve-tissue, or the caudate process of a nerve-
cell is nerve-tissue. The formed matter is produced by the
large masses of germinal matter which are so very numerous,
just as the formed matter of a central nerve-cell results from
changes occurring in its germinal matter.

It may not be out of place here to consider how the
elaborate organ connected with the bundle of nerve-fibres of
the papilla may act during life. As already stated, the free
surface is uneven, and the arrangement is such that there are
many elevations projecting, like fibres, by slightly varying
distances, from the general surfaces. Now, from the intricate
interlacement of the nerve-fibres in the summit of a papilla,
as well as at the point between this and the peculiar organ
ti.Pl. II, fig. 3, b ), it is obvious that a fibre given off from one

12

coming from the extreme left of the papilla, for example, may
be situated a very short distance from a fibre coming from
the opposite side. Any object, therefore, which connects the
exposed projections would produce a temporary disturbance
in the nerve-currents which are traversing these fibres, aud
this alteration in the current would, of course, produce a
change in the cell or cells which form part of the same circuit
in the nerve-centre. Any strong pressure would influence all
the fibres distributed to this delicate nervous ors:an.

The supposed mode of action is explained by the plan
(PI. II, fig. 4).

Nerve-fibres ramifying upon the capillary vessels, in the con-
nective tissue, and upon the muscular fibres.

Many of the so-called connective-tissue corpuscles, with
their anastomosing processes or “ tubes,” are really nerve-
nuclei and very fine pale nerve-fibres, as has already been
shown in observations upon the frog’s bladder. In the tongue
I have followed these fine fibres in very many specimens.
They can only be seen and traced in specimens prepared in
syrup, glycerine, or other viscid medium miscible in all pro-
portions with water.

In PI. I, fig. 1,/, and in fig. 8, one of these fine branches,
coming oft' from a bundle of dark-bordered fibres, is repre-
sented. Now, if examined by a low power, this might be
mistaken for a fibre of connective tissue ; but it really con-
sists of several very fine fibres, which in their arrangement
exhibit the same peculiarities observed in nerves ramifying
in larger trunks (PL IV, figs. 20, 23). Tbe fine branches
divide and subdivide, and the delicate fibres resulting from
their division can be followed for a very long distance. The
finest are composed of several finer fibres, and they form net-
works or plexuses, the meshes of which vary much in size.

The branches which are distributed around the capillaries,
in the connective tissue, and to the muscular fibres, seem to
result from the division and subdivision of the same fibres
(PL I, fig. 1).

Nerves which are constantly distributed external to the
capillary vessels and in the connective tissue have been
demonstrated by me (PL III, fig. 15) (see ‘ Archives,’ vol. iv,
p. 19). I consider these fibres as the afferent fibres through
which an impression conveyed from the surface or from the
tissues around capillaries influences the motor nerves distri-
buted to the small arteries from which the capillaries are
derived. It is probable that these nerve-fibres pass to the

13

very same set of central cells as that from which the vaso-
motor fibres take their rise. It is through these fibres that
changes in the nutrition of the tissues may affect the circula-
tion in the neighbouring vessels.

In these fungiform papillae, then, there are —

1. The bundle of nerve-fibres which is distributed to the
sensitive nervous organ at the summit.

2. Delicate fibres which may be traced to fibres running in
the same bundles as purely sensitive fibres. These delicate
fibres are distributed —

a. Around the capillaries of the papilla (PI. I, fig. 1, i).

See also PI. Ill, fig. 15.

b. Some fibres ramify in the connective tissue of the

simple papillae (PI. I, fig. 1).

c. Some are distributed to the muscular fibres (figs. 1

& 9).

Now, the first and second fibres are probably sensitive,
excitor, or afferent, whilst the last must be motor. From this
observation it follows that certain afferent and motor fibres
are intimately related at their distribution, a conclusion
already arrived at in my investigations upon the distribution
of the nerves to the frog’s bladder, the palate, and pharynx.
Moreover, I think that fibres passing from the plexus of sensi-
tive fibres at the summit of the papilla, establish here and
there a structural continuity between these and the fibres
ramifying in the connective tissue and around the capillary
vessels. It is very difficult to obtain a specimen which
renders this perfectly certain, but I have been led to a similar
conclusion in investigations upon the corpuscula tactus of the
human subject. The physiological interest and importance of
this branch of anatomical inquiry are so great, and it pro-
mises to lead to such important results, that it cannot be too
minutely or too patiently worked out.

Of the Muscles.

The muscular fibres of the papilla (PI. I, fig. 1, h ) are the
continuations of muscular fibres in the substance of the
tongue. They are excellent examples of branching striped
muscle. The finest branches are less than 5 0 ‘ 0 0th of an inch
in diameter, but these exhibit the most distinct transverse
markings. The markings, however, gradually cease, and the
fibre becomes a mere line, which is lost in the connective
tissue at the summit of the papilla. The arrangement will be
understood if figs. 1 & 9 be referred to.

The so-called nuclei or masses of germinal matter in con-

14

nection with, these fine muscular fibres present several points
which will well repay attentive study. These masses of
germinal matter are sometimes twice or three times the width
of the fibre with which they are connected. In a paper pub-
lished in Part XIV of my ‘Archives5 I have adduced facts
whirli render it probable that these nuclei or masses of
germinal matter change their position in a very remarkable
manner during life.

The conclusions I have arrived at upon this point are as
follows :

The masses of germinal matter appear to move along the
surface of the already formed muscular tissue, and as they
move part of their substance becomes converted into muscle
(PI. Ill, fig. 13). It is in this way that new muscle is formed
and new muscular tissue is added to that already produced.
The germinal matter itself does not diminish in size, because
it absorbs as much pabulum as will compensate for what it
loses of its own substance by conversion into tissue. In the
young muscle the nucleus increases in size.

From what I have observed, I think that these oval masses
of germinal matter move in different directions, but always in
a line with the fibrillated structure, so that in a muscle some
will be moving upwards, some downwards ; and when the
nuclei are arranged in rows or straight lines, the nuclei lying
in adjacent lines will be moving in opposite directions.
During the formation of a muscle these masses undergo divi-
sion in two directions, longitudinally and transversely. The
two masses which result from the division of one will pass in
opposite directions.

As is well known, the position of these nuclei with respect
to the formed muscular tissue is very different in different
cases. Sometimes they are in the very centre of the elemen-
tary fibre, as in the constantly growing fibres of the heart,
sometimes upon its surface only, sometimes distributed at
very equal distances throughout its substance. Wherever
these nuclei are situated, new muscular tissue may be pro-
duced, and it is only in these situations that muscular tissue
ever is produced ; so that by the position of the nuclei we
learn the seat of formation of new muscle at different periods
of life.

The facts which I regard as favorable to the view above
expressed concerning the movements of the masses of germinal
matter of muscle, are derived from many sources, but I will
refer to some observed in the case of the muscles of the
papillae of the tongue. Here the muscular fibre is very thin
and delicate, and very favorable for observation. The mass

15

of germinal matter is very much wider than the muscle.
Often three or four of these masses are seen close together
(PI. II, fig. 9), while for some distance above and below the
muscular fibre is destitute of nuclei. The narrowest extre-
mity of the oval mass is directed in some cases towards the
terminal extremity of the muscle, in others towards its base.
There are often three or four fine fibres branching off from
one stem, and gradually tapering in fine threads towards their
insertion at the summit of the papilla (figs. 1 & 9). The
nuclei are three or four times as wide as these fibres.
The greatest difference is observed in the distance between
contiguous nuclei connected with the very same fibre. If the
muscle had gone on growing uniformly iu all parts siuce the
earliest period of its development, the nuclei would be sepa-
rated from one another by equal distances, or by distances
gradually but regularly increasing or diminishing from one
extremity of the fibre towards the other.

I think the irregular arrangement of the nuclei in these
muscular fibres of the tongue is to be accounted for by their
movements. Perhaps, of a collection of these nuclei close
together, two may be moving upwards towards the narrow
extremity of the muscle which is inserted into the connective
tissue, while the third may be moving in the opposite direc-
tion.

Iu some instances a “ fault ” is observed in the production
of the muscular tissue, as if the nucleus had bridged over a
space and formed a thin layer or band of muscular tissue,
which, when fully formed, was separated by a narrow space
or interval from the rest of the muscle. See PI. Ill, fig. 12.

In cases in which the nuclei are distributed at intervals
throughout the muscular tissue, as in the large elementary fibres
of the muscles of the frog, the formation of the contractile mate-
rial gradually ceases as the elementary fibre attains its full
size. A\'hen this point has been reached some of the nuclei
gradually diminish in size, and their original seat is marked
by a collection of granules. These granules are sometimes
absorbed, and the seat of the original nucleus is marked by a
short line which gradually tapers at the two extremities until
it is lost.

It is almost needless to say that no alteration produced by
the different contractions of the muscle in different parts,
would account for the position of the nuclei observed in the
fine fibres of the papillae of the frog’s tongue.

These views, it need scarcely be said, differ entirely from
those generally entertained upon the development and forma-
tion of muscular tissue. They are supported bv detailed

lb

observations made in all classes of animals, and in the same
species at different periods of age. There are some facts in
connection with the changes occurring in disease which afford
support to this view, which involves three positions. That
in the nutrition of muscle the pabulum invariably becomes con-
verted into germinal matter ; that the latter undergoes change,
and gradually becomes contractile tissue ; and that all the con-
tractile material of muscle was once in the state of the material
of which the nuclei or masses of germinal matter are composed.
It is not deposited from the blood, nor produced by the action
of the nuclei at a distance, but it results from a change in the
very matter of the nucleus itself. The manner in which this
occurs has been already discussed in the paper above referred
to (‘Archives,’ No. XIV). It was shown that the oval
nucleus could be followed into a very fine band of contractile
tissue or fibrilla (PI. Ill, fig. 13). We pass from the matter
of the nucleus into very transparent imperfectly formed
tissue in which no transverse lines are perceptible, and from
this into fully developed contractile material in which the
characteristic transverse markings are fully developed.

Of the Capillaries.

The capillaries of the papilla of the frog’s tongue are re-
markable for their large size. In the common frog there is a
complete vascular ring at the summit of the papilla, through
which the bundle of nerve-fibres distributed to this part pass.
In the Hyla the same is observed in some of the papillae, but
the more common arrangement may be described as a half
ring or a simple loop, bent upon one side at its upper part
(PI. I, fig. 1).

When the large capillaries of the papilla are distended
with transparent Prussian-blue injection, their Avails are seen
to be of extreme tenuity and transparency. Connected with
the transparent tissue are numerous oval masses of germinal
matter (nuclei), which are separated from one another by very
short intervals. Some of these masses project slightly from
the inner surface of the vessel into its interior, but the
majority seem to be upon its external surface. Of an oval
form, many of these latter gradually taper into thin fibres
■which are continuous Avith the tissue of Avhich the vascular
Avail is constituted. The delicate membrane constituting the
vascular Avail exhibits longitudinal stride, which are probably
produced in its formation, and by its external surface is con-
nected Avith the delicate connective tissue Avhich forms, as it
Avere, the basis-substance of the papilla, and intervenes

17

between all the important tissues which are found in it.
This is proved by the fact that the vessel is moved when the
transparent connective tissue at some distance from it is drawn
in a direction from the vessel.

The most interesting point I have observed in connection
with the anatomy of these vessels is the existence of very fine
nerve-fibres. These form a lax network around the capillary.

I have traced these fine fibres continuous with undoubted
nerve-trunks in many instances, and have followed the latter
into the trunks of dark-bordered fibres, from which the
bundle in the papilla is derived. A similar arrangement of
fine nerve-fibres has been demonstrated in connection with
other capillary vessels of the frog. These fine nerve-fibres
are very distinct in several of my specimens.

I have indeed observed, in my paper published in the
‘Phil. Trans.’ for 1863, contrary to the statements of most
anatomists, that capillary vessels generally are freely supplied
with nerves, but the latter and their nuclei have been re-
garded as connective-tissue fibres and connective-tissue cor-
puscles ; I have shown in certain specimens that, of the two
fibres resulting from the subdivision of a dark-bordered fibre,
one was distributed to the fibres of voluntary muscle, while
the other ramified over the vessels supplying the muscle
(PI. Ill, fig. 15). These facts, it need scarcely be said, are of
great importance with reference to determining the structure
of the mechanism concerned in nervous action.

I have not succeeded in demonstrating lymphatic vessels in
the papillae of the frog’s tongue.

Besides the various nuclei described, there are several
round, oval, and variously shaped bodies, about the size of a
frog’s blood-corpuscle, which are composed principally of
minute oil-globules and granules. These are not coloured by
carmine. Many contain a small mass of germinal matter
(nucleus) in the centre, which is, of course, coloured. In
some of the smaller ones this mass of germinal matter is
much larger in proportion to the entire “ cell.” These bodies
resemble many of the fat-cells of the frog, and I think it pro-
bable they are of this nature. It is, however, possible that
these masses may be altered lymph-corpuscles. The Hylse
which I examined had been for some time in confinement,
and contained very little adipose tissue.

Conclusions.

1. That fine nerve-fibres ramify in the connective tissue of
which the simple papilla; are composed, and that connected

VOL. IX. NEW SER. B

18

with these fine nerve-fibres are oval masses of germinal
matter or nuclei, which, with the fine nerve-fibres themselves,
have been usually regarded as “ connective-tissue corpuscles.”

2. That neither the epithelial cells of the frog’s tongue
generally, nor those covering the simple papillae, are connected
with nerve-fibres.

3. That the mass consisting of epithelium-like cells upon
the summit of the fungiform papilla is connected with the
nerve-fibres, but it is not an epithelial structure.

4. That the dark-bordered sensitive fibres constituting the
bundle of nerves in the axis of the papilla divide near its
summit into numerous very fine branches, with which nuclei
are connected. Thus is formed a plexus or network of
exceedingly fine fibres upon the summit of each papilla ;
from this network numerous fine fibres may be traced into
the special nervous organ, composed of epithelium-like cells
upon the summit, with every one of which nerve-fibres appear
to be connected.

5. That the bundle of nerve-fibres distributed to a papilla
always divides into two bundles which pursue opposite direc-
tions. The division of the bundle may take place just at the
base of the papilla, or at some distance from it, but it always
occurs.

6. That fine pale nerve-fibres pass from the same trunk of
dark-bordered fibres as that which gives off the bundle of
nerves to the papilla. The fine fibres ramify —

a. Amongst the muscular fibres of the tongue.

b. Upon the vessels.

c. In the connective-tissue of the tongue generally, and

also in the simple papillae.

7. That the fine ‘ nucleated ’ nerve-fibres ramify freely
amongst the delicate branching muscular fibres of the papillae,
and form plexuses or networks which exhibit no nerve-ends
or terminations, nor in any case does a nerve-fibre penetrate
through the sarcolemma or investing tissue of the fibre, or
connect itself with the nuclei of the muscle. As many of the
muscular fibres are so very fine and narrow, the distribution
of the nerves, and their exact relation to the contractile tissue,
can be demonstrated very distinctly in the case of the muscles
of the papillae of the frog’s tongue.

19

On certain Butterfly Scales characteristic of Sex.

(Second paper.) By T. W. Wonfor, Brighton.

With Plate V.

In a former paper on the above subject I endeavoured to
show that in three English genera of Lepidoptera, viz.,
Polyommatus, Pieris, and Hipparchia, there were on the
males alone, and on the upper surface of the wings, certain
peculiar forms of scales, to which the names “ battledore” and
“plumule” have been given ; these scales, I argued, might,
therefore, be taken as characteristic of sex. Having con-
tinued my observations among other species of the same
families of continental and tropical habitats, and obtained a
confirmation of the view that wherever these “ plumules” and
“ battledores” are found they are only on male insects, I
have thought it right to lay the result of my inquiries before
the microscopical world, especially as another family, the
Argynnidse or Fritillaries, must be added to the list of those
where the males possess a distinctive scale, and certain spe-
cies of the Polyommati and a division of the Fritillaries are
found to be wanting in what may be called the male charac-
teristic.

Commencing with the “ whites,” I have found, this spring,
on the “ black-veined white,” Aporia Cratcegi (PI. Y, fig.
1), a scale differing from those of all the other whites, as
will be seen by reference to the former paper. This butter-
fly lepidopterists have placed in a separate division of the
Pieridae, to which the name Aporia has been well given, in
allusion to the apparent freedom from scales, and the almost
transparent nature of its wings ; this insect completes the
British Pieridae in which I have been able to detect “ plu-
mules.”

Turning to tropical Pieridae, Pieris Larima (fig. 2), an
African form of the large-white, presents a “ plumule,” as
might be expected, somewhat resembling that of P. brassiere,
but at the same time of a more delicate form, and terminated
by a triangular fringe. This is a much more difficult object
to resolve, as far as the scale markings are concerned. Pieris
Pigea (fig. S ), a Chinese insect, exhibits a well-marked
variety of scale. Pieris Epicharis (fig. 4), a very beautiful
Asiatic insect, common in most collections and cases sent to
this • country, presents not only a peculiarly shaped scale,
but has also an enormously developed bulb. Perhaps the
most peculiar scale I have met with among the Pieridae is
that belonging to P. Agathina (fig. 5), an insect from the

20

island of Java, in which, while the ball-and-socket appen-
dage is present, the fringe is wanting. Some who have seen
this scale have compared it to a lobster-pot, for the top of
the scale is hollow, the points not meeting and closing as in
other scales ; this is figured from a slide prepared by Norman,
of the City Road. Fig. 6 is from Anthocharis Danai, a
tropical representative of the English Orange-tip. The ma-
jority of the members of this group have a patch of bright-
red or orange on the tips of the anterior wings, while the
under side of the posterior wings is beautifully marked with
green and pearl-white. Fig. 7 is from A. Antevippe, and
fig. 8 from A. Evippe, two African members of this group.

Many other examples might be given, but a sufficient
number have been adduced to show that through the family
of the Fieri dse, in the males alone, are found scales of a cer-
tain type differing in the different species, but whether suffi-
ciently distinct from each other as to make them available
for determining species seems doubtful. Though, as has
been seen, the fringe or tassel-like termination is not present
in all the Pieridae, yet they all appear to have the peculiar
ball-and-socket-like bulb at the base of the scale.

Among the Polyommati all the continental and tropical
species of the “ blues ” proper, which I have been able to
obtain, exhibit some modification of the “ battledore ” scales
figured by microscopists. I have figured those found on
blues, which, though common on the continent, have but
seldom been taken in Britain, and are, therefore, at present
not classed as British insects. They are P. Dory las (fig. 9),
P. Argus (fig. 10), and P. (Egon (fig. 11). A male of this
last has been taken near Brighton this season by a boy, and
therefore has as great a claim as P. bceticus to be considered
British. I have used the term “ blues ” proper advisedly,
for strange though it appear, the “ battledore ” is found only
on those males of this group which have blue or bluish wings.
It would seem that when, as regards colour, the males
resemble in personal appearance the females, they are without
what I call another male characteristic. As was mentioned
before, the males of the blues proper are of some shade of
blue, while the females are brown and only dashed or spotted
with that colour. Other species are of brown hue and without
the blue scales, and among these the males, as far as my obser-
vations are concerned, do not possess any peculiar scale. Mr.
J. Watson, of Manchester, who has been working on plumules
and battledores, remarks, “ No species, however, the males of
which are brown, yields these scales and he has found
battledores on 121 species belonging to this group.

21

The Fritillaries, or at least that division of them in which
the underside of the wings is marked with metallic spots,
present tasselled scales of a very decided character, differing
essentially from those of the Pieridae, on the one hand, and
from the Hipparchiae, which they somewhat resemble, on the
other. Some are of a very long, narrow, and ribbon-like
form, with the tassel at the apex, while others are shorter
and broader. Their position on the wings differs from that
of the other groups, for, instead of being placed in rows
beneath the ordinary scales, they are situated on the nervures,
or black veins of the upper surface, and are mingled in some
species with scales or hairs of a unique shape. Fig. 12 is from
Argynnis Aglaia (dark green fritillary) ; fig. 13, A Paphia
(silver-washed fritillary), on which are found also the Indian
club-like scale or hair (fig. 14). A. Adippe (fig. 15, high
brown fritillary), and figs. 16, 17, and 19, are from foreign
fritillaries, in the last of which the scale (fig. 18) is also
found. It is strange, too, the difference of opacity in these
scales ; for while with the exception of the apices, which in
all are nearly transparent, figs. 12 and 19 are opaque in the
basal half, fig. 15 in the upper half, figs. 13 and 17 in the
whole of the ribbon, and fig. 16 for four fifths of its length.

While examining the wings and scales of butterflies, and
watching the escape of some hundreds of butterflies and
moths from the pupa cases, I have been struck by several
points, some of which are worthy the consideration of micro-
scopists. First, the almost endless variety of shape of the
scales among the Lepidoptera ; some of the most common
forms are figured in all books on the microscope, but there
is room for plenty of work in this direction. The colour of
scales is not only of almost every shade possible, but when
viewed in situ, if the stage be rotated, as great a change
of colour will be often seen as with polarized objects ; some
colours (as, for example, the green in the orange-tip), prove
on examination to be yellow and black scales intermingled.
Again, when scales are viewed as transparent objects, the
colour in the majority either vanishes or becomes a dull
yellowish brown. Hence arises the question, To what is
the colour due ? Many circumstances lead to a belief that
the scales can be inflated, and that the insects possess not
only the power of inflation at will, but also of raising the
rows of scales. I have often caught and killed butterflies in
which the rows of scales, instead of lying flat, were at an
angle to the wing membrane. From this I have inferred
that the insects possessed the power of rendering them-
selves more buoyant. I do not think the “ battledores ” or

22

“ plumules ” have much to do with rendering their male
owners more vigorous on the wing, for I have generally-
found the rule to be greater activity and speed among the
females. The markings, too, are very varied ; and though
much has been done in this direction, much more remains
to be worked out. The last point has reference to the way
in which the wings expand and the scales are drawn out
when an insect escapes from the pupa case. Some have
thought that each scale expanded in size along with the wing-
membrane itself, the air breathed by the newly developed
insect entering between the two laminae, and causing their
enlargement ; others, that they depended on the age and
vigour of the insect ; in fact, being small in the newly deve-
loped, and of full size in one of mature age — assuming, what
is not the case, increase in size as the insect becomes older.
If a portion of that part of the pupa case which covers the
Avingbe removed a day or two before an insect escapes, it will
be found the scales are all of full size ; or if a wing of a newly
escaped insect be taken before the wing has time to expand,
it will be seen that the scales are not only of full size, but
packed closely together both laterally and longitudinally, as
fig. 20. As the wing-membrane expands, the rows of scales
are drawn further and wider apart, until they present the
appearance seen in a fullyr- developed wing (fig. 21). There
is, therefore, literally no growth of scales after the insect
emerges from the pupa case, but simply a lateral and longi-
tudinal opening out, or double telescopic unfolding of the
wings. Fig. 22 represents the actual size of the wing of the
large white P. brassiere when emerging from the pupa case ;
fig. 23 shows the full-sized wing of the same butterfly. An
analogous state of things is seen in the leaves of some plants
having scales or hairs, notably in the case of the Deutzia
scabra, whose stellate scales are well known. If one leaf of
an unexpanded bud be removed, the stellate scales will be
found of full size, but so crowded as to completely cover the
leaf ; if either a fully-formed leaf be taken, or the leaf oppo-
site to that removed be allowed to grow, the scales will be
found not to have increased in size, but only to be more widely
separated by the lateral and longitudinal expansion of the
leaf itself.

23

Description of an Entomostracan inhabiting a Coal
Mine. By G. Stewardson Brady, C.M.Z.S., &c.

With Plate VI.

The interest attaching to the little animal here described
lies chiefly in the peculiarity of its habitat. The members of
the order Copepoda, to which it belongs, are widely distri-
buted, inhabiting in vast numbers both fresh and salt w'ater.
They occur abundantly in lakes, ponds, and ditches, where
they are chiefly represented by various species of the genera
Cyclops, Diaptomus, and Canthocamptus ; in brackish water
by Temora, Tachidius, &c. ; and in the sea by a large number
of families and genera of free-swimming habits. But besides
these there is a large group of species which are entirely
parasitic, being found in the branchial cavities of Ascidians
and in other analogous situations. But the species now
under notice was found living under circumstances widely
different from any of these. The roof of a part of the work-
ings of Cramlington Colliery is kept constantly wet by the
percolation of water from above, and here, amongst a slimy,
gelatinous, vegetable growth, consisting apparently of imper-
fectly developed algae, such as Chaetophora (?), this little
creature lives and multiplies. In anatomical structure it
does not depart very widely from the genus Canthocamptus,
under which I have here placed it ; but there is great diffi-
culty in accurately ascertaining the structure of the limbs and
maxillary organs of animals so minute as this, and of which
no great supply of specimens is easily attainable. The posi-
tion here assigned it must, therefore, be looked upon as
merely provisional.

Order. — Copepoda.

Family. — Harpactid.e.

Genus. — Canthocamptus.

Canthocamptus cryptorum, nov. sp.

Body slender, gradually tapered, the cephalothorax not
very much stouter than the abdomen ; first segment equal in
length to the following five ; superior antennae eight-jointed,
those of the female (PI. VI, fig. 2) slightly1 tapering from base to
apex, somewhat constricted at the fifth joint ; joints not much
differing in length, fifth and seventh rather the shortest,
sparingly setose, and having no distinct flagellum ; two long
setae from the upper margin of the second joint, five or six
fr.>m the third, one or two from the fourth, fifth, sixth, and

24

seventh, and about six from the apical joint, two of which are
much longer than the rest. — First four joints of the upper
antennae of the male (fig. 3) stouter than the rest, the fourth
swollen and bearing six or eight setae, penultimate joint very
short, last joint bearing four short terminal setae. Inferior
antennae (fig. 4) bi-articulate, bearing a short secondary branch.
Lower foot-jaw (fig. 5) weak, chelate, terminal claw slender
and slightly curved. First pair of feet (fig. 6) two-branched,
both branches tri-articulate, and of nearly equal length ;
terminal joints the longest, basal joint of the inner branch
hearing round its distal margin a spinous fringe ; terminal
joint scarcely twice as long as the middle one, and armed
with one short and one very long apical seta, the middle joint
having one seta at its apex ; the terminal joint of the outer
branch has two long but unequal apical setae, one strong spine,
and on the outer margin two short and one rather longer
spine ; the preceding joints are armed with a similar arrange-
ment of spines. Inner branch of second pair of feet (fig. 7)
uni-articulate, with two long and equal apical and several
shorter marginal setae. Third and fourth pairs of feet (fig. 8)
longer, but in other respects nearly similar to the second ; the
arrangement of the setae of the inner branch is, however,
slightly different ; the outer branches of the second, third,
and fourth pairs are three-jointed, the middle joint in the
second pair is, however, much shorter than the others, while
in the third and fourth pairs the last two joints are long and
nearly equal, the first being the shortest. Fifth foot laminar
composed of two segments (fig. 9), each of which is fringed
with long ciliated setae. Terminal abdominal segments short ;
tail-setae finely plumose, more than half the length of the
body. The lower border of the last abdominal ring between
the two caudal segments (fig. 10) is strongly pectinated.
Eyes wanting (?). Length (exclusive of tail-setae), T‘Tth of
an inch.

Habitat. Roof of the low main, West Cramlington Colliery,
near Newcastle.

The credit of the discovery of this species is due to my
friend Mr. Thomas Atthey, of Gosforth, who kindly forwarded
to me specimens, both living and mounted for the micro-
scope.

25

On Vaginicola valvata.

By C. J. Muller, Esq.

With Plate VII.

In October last I found attached to filaments of a Conferva,
occurring in the brackish water of a ditch draining the marsh-
land at Eastbourne, numerous specimens of Vaginicola
valvata (PI. VII, fig. 1). Having kept them under daily obser-
vation for some time, I am enabled to furnish a few particulars
of the life-history of these curious animalcules.

If a case containing a single specimen be kept sufficiently
long under microscopic observation, the following phenomena
will probably be witnessed. The creature, having retreated
into its cell and remained for a time quiescent, with its
cilia withdrawn and apparently obliterated (fig. 2), there
ultimately appears at the base, just above the stalk by which
it is attached to the cell, a conical fissure (fig. 3). Very
soon after this has made its appearance, a wavy line of divi-
sion shows itself at the upper extremity of the animalcule
(fig. 4). These fissures gradually enlarge and elongate, the
lower one becomes forked in appearance (fig. 5), and the two
lines approximate until they meet (fig. 6). Pulsating
vesicles are active on both sides of the line of fission, and in
each division, at a spot marked a in fig. 6, a languid move-
ment of internal cilia may be observed. The animalcule now
extends itself somewhat, but without protruding from the
cell ; all at once it contracts itself with a jerk, and then there
expand, by slow degrees, two distinct animals (fig. 7), the one
being longer than the other. This action of fission occupies
about one hour.

As yet, however, the upper portions of both creatures are
unformed and incomplete ; they are mere rounded extremi-
ties, with an obscure internal languid movement of cilia.
They elongate somewhat, and, after a time, acquire a curious
contorted appearance (fig. 8). While in this state the
upper extremity of each begins to assume a disc-like form,
the cilia increase in size and activity of movement, and, by
degrees, a greater and greater portion of the tube becomes
occupied; a dense, transparent fluid appears at the upper
extremity, and is seen to oscillate backward and forward,
under the influence of the cilia, somewhat in the manner of
the balance wheel of a watch, but with a slow, steady motion.
The cilia appear to be engaged in this wray in shaping and
constructing the upper extremity. After a time the two

20

animalcules suddenly jerk back into the tube simultaneously,
and then again almost immediately emerge, the longer of the
two with a perfectly formed upper extremity (fig. 9) ; the
smaller one is a little later in perfecting the part. The
whole process occupies about three hours.

We have not yet done, however, with our Vaginicola.
After a time it will be seen that one of the two, generally the
smaller one, exhibits a delicate ring or band at about one
third its length from the lower extremity. Sooner or later,
after enjoying life in its ordinary condition for a day or two,
it will retreat into its cell and become quiescent, leaving its
companion still protruding and actively engaged in feeding.
The cilia at the upper extremity now become absorbed, and
there grow out from the ring or band before mentioned small
filaments, which vibrate slowly. In about two hours it will
present the appearance shown in fig. 11. When the cilia
have attained sufficient length, the body begins to wriggle
about until it finally separates from its attachment in the cell.
It then turns completely round, so as to bring the base fore-
most, and gently works its way to the mouth of the tube,
where it squeezes past its companion, which still remains
lolling out (fig. 12), and goes off swimming, a free and inde-
pendent animal of the shape shown in fig. 13. It darts about
rapidly, now fishing apparently among invisible animalcules,
anon rolling along and waddling as if enjoying itself, occa-
sionally darting off in a perfectly straight line and imping-
ing with force upon a filament of Conferva, where it will
remain for a time feeding apparently upon something found
in the locality. This may go on for hours without any
change in the aspect of the creature ; but frequently after
one of its violent bumps against a piece of Conferva it will
remain at the spot, and rapidly attach itself to the same by the
front extremity (fig. 14). The action of the cilia now ceases,
and they appear to become gradually absorbed. In a few
minutes it stretches itself out, and again rapidly contracts, as
if trying whether the attachment were perfect. In about ten
minutes the form has assumed that given in fig. 15. The cilia
appear as a rigid fringe, looking like the teeth of a comb.
Every now and then the body contracts and again expands,
and on each occasion the direction of the fringe is reversed.
Anon will be perceived the formation of a delicate membrane
(fig. 16) surrounding tlie entire organism (the new tube or
case). After the lapse of twelve or eighteen hours the form
assumes the appearance shown in fig.. 17. Cilia now begin
to appear at the upper extremity, while the fringe of old cilia,
v hich seems to serve the purpose of keeping expanded the

27

new case, becomes gradually obliterated. At last the upper
extremity begins to develope shape (fig. 18), the ends of the
new tube are displayed, the cilia at the mouth begin to play,
and finally is reproduced a perfect copy of the original
animal (fig. 1) in the enjoyment of independent existence
and inhabiting a house of its own. In the course of time I
presume this new creature will divide itself, and its compa-
nion go through the same career, establishing itself in a new
home.

I have not been able to ascertain with satisfaction what
becomes of the animalcule left in the tube after the migration
of its companion — whether it goes on dividing itself again
and again, whether it undergoes a change like its companion,
or whether it gradually ceases to exist. The advanced
season of the year is unfavorable for further observation at
present.

In numerous instances I have found the solitary Vagini-
cola become filled with vacuoles, then subsequently with dark
granules in active molecular motion, and which, after a time
(while the animalcule is yet alive), are discharged in enor-
mous quantity, and have the perfect appearance of Bacteria.
The body then diminishes in size, becomes separated from
attachment to the cell, and floats out a shapeless mass, and,
to all appearance, quite destitute of life, but it does not
dissolve away even after the lapse of several hours.

Where specimens exist on Conferva numerous empty cells
are found, therefore it may be safely inferred that the creature
habitually, after a time abandons its cell.

Monograph of Monera. By Ernst Hackel*

With Plates IX & X.

* [Note by Professor E. Perceval Wright, M.D., of
Dublin. — Professor Haeckel’s ‘ Monographic der Moneren ’
appeared in the £ Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Medicin und
Naturwissenschaft,’ band iv, heft 1, which was published
on the 1st of May, 1868. Attention had been directed to
this group by Haeckel in his ‘ Generelle Morpliologie,’ and
again in his “ Natiirliche Schopfungsgeschichte.” The ap-
pearance of this Monograph was, therefore, very welcome to
all workers in this interesting field of research. I had at
first intended, at the request of the Editors, printing in
this Journal a resume of the principal facts detailed in this

28

Memoir; but I found it quite impossible to do justice to the
subject in even a lengthy resume ; and I thought it much
preferable to give a faithful translation of the Monograph,
even though it were not possible to convey thereby to the
reader that charming perspicuity of style that characterises
the writings of Professor Haeckel. In this the Editors fully
agreed with me.

The translation is the work of my friend, Mr. W. F.
Kirby, one of the assistants in the Museum of Natural
History of the Royal Dublin Society, and one who is well
known as an accomplished Entomologist ; but I have read
and revised every word of it, and I believe it will be
found to convey to the reader an accurate idea of the
facts and reasonings of Professor Haeckel. The German
scholar will recollect the difficulty of translating into Eng-
lish many German technical words ; and considerations of
expense have, in many instances, induced me to leave sen-
tences as they were at first printed, though it would have
been easy to have reduced them into better English than
that in which they now appear. The matter is so good and
so valuable that the language may well be forgiven. The
latter portion of the Memoir will appear in the April number of
this Journal.]

I. — Historical Introduction.

In my ‘ Generelle Morphologie der Organismen,’1 I have
called those forms of life standing at the lowest grade of
organization Monera,2 their whole body, in a fully deve-
loped and freely moving condition, consists of an entirely
homogeneous and structureless substance, a living particle
of albumen, capable of nourishment and reproduction. These
simplest and most imperfect of all organisms are, in many
respects, of the highest interest.3 For the albumen-like, or-
ganic matter meets us here as the material substratum of all
life-phenomena, apparently not only under the simplest form
as yet actually observed, but also under the simplest form
which can well be imagined. Simpler and more incomplete
organisms than the Monera cannot be conceived.

Indeed, the whole body of the Monera, however strange
this may sound, represents nothing more than a single, tho-
roughly homogeneous particle of albumen, in a firmly adhe-
sive condition. The external form is quite irregular, con-

1 Ernst Haeckel, 1 Generelle Morphologie der Organismen,’ Berlin 1866.
2 vols.

2 How'ipriQ, simple.

3 L. c., vol. i, cap. v, p. 135 ; cap. vi, p. 182 ; vol. ii, p. xxii.

29

tinually changing, globularly contracted when at rest. Our
sharpest discrimination can detect no trace of an internal
structure, or of a formation from dissimilar parts. As the
homogeneous, albuminous mass of the body of the Moner
does not even exhibit a differentiation into an inner nucleus
and an outer plasma, and as, moreover, the whole body
consists of a homogeneous plasma, or protoplasma, the organic
matter here does not even reach the importance of the sim-
plest cell. It remains in the lowest imaginable grade of
organic individuality, as that of one of the simplest of the
Gymnocytodes.

The question which has been so often debated during the
last twenty years as to a boundary between the animal and
vegetable kingdoms will be decided by the Monera, or, more
correctly, they will prove that a perfect separation of both
kingdoms, in the manner in which it is usually attempted,
is impossible. The Monera are apparently such peculiar or-
ganisms that they can be classed with equal propriety, or
rather with equal arbitrariness, as primitive animals or as
primitive plants. They may just as well be regarded as the
first beginnings of animal as of vegetable organization.
But as no one mark of distinction inclines them more to
one side than to the other it seems most correct at present to
class them as intermediate between true animals and true
plants ; and to assign them with the Rliizopoda, Amoebae,
Diatomaceae, Flagellata, &c., to that ill-defined kingdom be-
tween the animal and vegetable kingdoms which I have
called the kingdom of primitive forms, or Protista.1

The Monera are indeed Protista. They are neither ani-
mals nor plants. They are organisms of the most primitive
kind : among which the distinction between animals and
plants does not yet exist. But the term “ organism ” itself
seems scarcely applicable to these simplest forms of life ; for
in the whole conception of the “ organism ” is especially im-
plied the construction of the whole from dissimilar parts, —
from organs or limbs. At least, two separate parts must
be united to complete the description of a body as an organ-
ism in this original sense. Every true Amoeba, every true
(i. e., nucleus-including) animal and vegetable cell, every
animal-egg, is, in this sense, already an elementary organ-
ism, composed of two different organs, the inner nucleus
and the outer cell-matter (Plasma or Protoplasma). Com-
pared with these last the Monera are strictly “ organisms
without organs.” Only in a physiological sense can we still

1 to TrpwTHTTov, the first of all, primordial. * Geuerelle Morphologie,’
vol. i, pp. 203, 215 ; vol. ii, p. xx.

30

call them organisms ; as individual portions of organic mat-
ter, which fulfil the essential life-functions of all organisms,
nourishment, growth, and reproduction. But all these dif-
ferent functions are not yet limited to different parts. They
are all still executed equally by every part of the body. If
the natural history of the Monera is already, on these
grounds, of the highest interest as well for morphology as
for physiology, this interest will be still more increased by
the extraordinary importance which these very simple or-
ganisms possess for the important doctrine of spontaneous
generation, or archegony. I have shown in my ‘ General
Morphology ’ that the acceptation of a genuine arche-
gony (once or repeated) has at present become a logical
postulate of scientific natural history. Most naturalists who
have discussed this question rationally believed that they
must designate simple cells as the simplest organism pro-
duced thereby, from which all others developed them-
selves. But every true cell already shows a division into two
different parts, i. e., nucleus and plasma. The immediate
production of such an object from spontaneous genera-
tion is obviously only conceivable with difficulty ; but it is
much easier to conceive of the production of an entirely
homogeneous, organic substance, such as the structureless
albumen-body of the Monera.

On these grounds, and on others to be hereafter discussed,
it seems well at the present time, now we are just at the
beginning of our knowledge of these very interesting pri-
mordial forms, to put together everything known about
them. I received the first impulse to attempt this
monograph from a series of new observations on some
hitherto unknown Monera, which I had an opportunity of
making, in the winter of 1866 — 1867, on the coast of
Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands. Before detailing these
observations, I think it advisable to give a short, historical
sketch of the certain information hitherto published concern-
ing Monera. I may also mention that I restrict myself entirely
to true Monera, i. e., to naked Plasma-bodies without nuclei,
or essential organs ; and that I shall pay no regard to the
Protoplasta, distinguished by the possessions of one or more
nuclei (Amoebae, Arcellae, &c.) : nor to the Bhizopoda, Sipho-
nea, &c., distinguished from these latter by a distinct shell
or membrane.

The first Moner whose natural history was fully investigated
was Protogenes primordiulis / which I observed, in the spring

'Ernst Haeckel, “On the Sarcode Bodies of the Rhizopoda;” ‘Zeit-
schrift fur wissensch. Zoologie,’ 1865, xv Bd., p. 360, Taf. xxvi, fig. 12.

31

of 1864, in the Mediterranean, off Nice. AVhen swimming
freely in sea-water, this moner looks like a transparent, glo-
bular particle of mucus, of about linm. diameter (smaller
specimens measure only OT mm. diameter). Only about a
third of this measurement applies to the inner central
portion of the body, the homogeneous solid sarcode ball,
while the outer two thirds consists entirely of thousands
of fine, radiating, mucous threads. These threads, the
so-called pseudopods, some of which run simple and some
twisted and anastomosed to the periphery, radiate im-
mediately from the periphery of the central albuminous
body. They show throughout, the same life-phenomena
as the similar sarcode threads of the true Rhizopoda (Acyt-
taria and Radiolaria). The solidified, albuminous mass
of the whole body was in continual motion, now slower,
now faster, which was easy to follow by the passive move-
ments of the fine and usually numerous particles scattered
in the albuminous mass. The sarcode threads constantly
varied in number, form, and size ; they ramified and anasto-
mosed, separated again, and were drawn back into the cen-
tral, principal mass. In short, they exhibited exactly the
same appearance which has been so often and fully described
by Max Schultze1 in the Polythalamia, and by myself in the
Radiolaria2. Nourishment was also taken, by the Proto-
genes, in the same manner as by the last-named, true Rhizo-
poda. Smaller bodies (Diatomace®, unicellular Algae, &c.)
remained hanging on the glutinous surface of the albumen
threads, if they accidentally came in contact with them,
they were surrounded by them, and then slowly drawn into the
central albuminous mass. Larger bodies, such as, for ex-
ample, Peridiuiae (1. c. fig. 2), were finally entirely sur-
rounded by the body of the Protogenes ; afterwards, certain
contents of the victim were first assimilated ; and the Pro-
togenes then immediately moved away from the indigestible
shell. In a shallow watch-glass, with a little sea water left
standing for some time, the Protogenes spread itself out at
the bottom in the form of a thin, hyaline, mucilaginous plate.
This plate had very irregular, jagged outlines, and a dia-
meter of from 3 to 4 mm. But the most important point
which I could ascertain respecting the Protogenes was its
reproduction by spontaneous fission. This was accomplished
by a simple division of the globular, mucilaginous body into

1 Max Schultze, ‘On the Organism of the Polythalamia,’ Leipsig, 1854,
P- 17.

■ Ernst Haeckel, ‘Die Radiolarien, eine Monographie,’ Berlin, 1862,

p. 86.

32

two halves, without this being preceded by a special motion-
less or encysted condition, &c.

My Protogenes primordialis is probably veiy nearly re-
lated to Amoeba porrecta / observed by Max Schultze in the
Adriatic Sea at Ancona. This Moner is indeed very much
smaller than Protogenes primordialis, but is very similar to
it in the slight consistence of the sarcode body, as well as
in the rapidly-moving, granular current, and in the rami-
fying and anastomosing appearance of the pseudopods. It
also wants the nucleus and the contractile vesicle, which
characterise the true Amoebae. It would, therefore, be more
correct to designate it Protogenes porrectus. However, the
history of its reproduction and development is unknown ;
and without this knowledge, as we shall see, we cannot with
certainty decide on the systematic relationship and position
of Monera, so that the nature of Amoeba porrecta as a true
Protogenes must remain doubtful.

Of the greatest importance for the natural history of
Monera are £ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Monaden,’ pub-
lished by L. Cienkowski in I860.1 2 These interesting contribu-
tions are so much the more important as they are the produc-
tions of a naturalist who knows how to be as quick and
clever in his observations as he is careful and critical in his
conclusions. Cienkowski describes the life-histories of five
different organisms of the simplest kind, which he divided
into two distinct groups : — Monadina zoosporea, which re-
produce themselves by numerous spores — (1) Monas {amyli),
(2) Pseudospora, (3) Colpodella and Monadina tetraplast^:,
which increase by the formation of two or more actinophrys-
like buds, (4) Vampyrella, and (5) Nuclearia. In both
groups an encysted and motionless condition precedes the
multiplication of the naked plasma bodies, which nourish
themselves like the Rhizopoda. The three genera Pseudo-
spora, Colpodella, and Nuclearia do not further interest us
here, as their plasma body already encloses a nucleus and
vacuoles, and, therefore, possesses the character of a cell.
On the other hand, Monas {amyli) and Vampyrella are true
Monera, whose naked plasma body possesses neither nuclei
nor contractile vesicles. As the term Monas has many signi-
fications, to avoid changes I have called the Monas amyli,
to which Cienkowski would confine this genus, Protomonas
amyli (‘ Gen. Morphol.,’ vol. ii, p. 23).

Protomonas amyli was hitherto the only Monera in which

1 Max Schultze, 1. c., p. 8, pi. vii, fig. 18.

2 L. Cienkowski, “ Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Monaden Scliultze’s
* Archiv f. Mikroskop. Auat.,’ 18G5. Bd. i, p. 203, Taf. xii — xiv.

33

the formation of sporules had been observed. The homo-
geneous plasma body of this species lives in decaying
Nitellae, and resembles a small Actinophrys, or a small
Amoeba porrecta, without nucleus, and without contractile
vesicles. When it assumes the stationary condition, it con-
tracts itself into a roundish plasma body, which then be-
comes surrounded with a membrane (encysted). Then the
body breaks up into a great number of homogeneous sporules,
which are spindle-shaped and very contractile, and move
about with a serpentine motion, like an Anguillula, by
means of one or two rather long cilia. Several sporules
often adhere (by growing together), and form a plasmodium,
which, after taking nourishment, returns to the stationary
condition (Cienkowski, 1. c. p. 213, tab. xii, figs. 1 — 5.)

The genus Vampyrella does not reproduce itself by sporules,
but by two or four actinophrys-like buds. The homoge-
neous plasma body is distinguished by its brick-red colour.
Cienkowski defines three different species of this genus.
Vampyrella spirogyree (1. c. figs. 44 — 56) forms, in the
stationary condition, globular bladders, whose thin membrane
encloses a homogeneous red plasma body. This separates,
by division, first into two, then into four germs, which
break through the outer envelope, and then move about like
red Amoebae, with pointed processes of very various form.
These germs bore through the cell-walls of the Spirogyra,
with their pointed pseudopods, whereupon they draw out
the plasmic contents, and absorb them into themselves.
The green contents of the former receive, by digestion, a
red colour. In the same way Vampyrella pendula (1. c. p.
221, figs. 57 — 63) bores into the cells of other algae
((Edogonise, Bulbochaetae), and sucks out their plasma. It
is distinguished by a thread-like process, which proceeds
from the plasma body of the pear-shaped cyst, through its
pointed stem to the base, and by the want of granular
currents in the actinophrys-like pseudopods. Vampyrella
vorax, a third species, lives, on the contrary, on Diatomaceae,
Euglenae, and Uesmidiaceae, which its formless plasma body
envelopes, and then forms cysts of very various form and
size (1. c. p. 223, figs. 64 — 73).

Finally, in my ‘General Morphology’ (vol. i, p. 133)
I have described a small Amoeba- like Monera, under the
name of Protamoeba primitiva, which is distinguished from
the previously mentioned Monadinoe of Cienkowski, by re-
producing itself by fission alone, without previously passing
into a stationary condition, or encysting itself. In this re-
spect it resembles Protogenes primordialis, from which, how-

VOL. IX. NEW SER.

c

34

ever, it is distinguished by the short, blunt, and non-confluent
pseudopods. The more precise description of this Protamceba
will be given below.

In the year 1866 Richard Greef observed several Monera
on the coast at Ostend very similar to my Protogenes primor-
dialis, and like it of considerable size. He has shown me
numerous drawings, which show very great variations in
form, like the plasmodia of Myxomycetce. The particulars
are not yet published.

As I spent three months in the winter of 1866-67 at
Lanzarote, one of the Canary Islands, to make observations
on the lower marine animals, my investigations wrere directed
towards the Hydromedusce and the true Rhizopoda , and
especially to the Monera, and my expectations of meeting
with some were not disappointed. The Protomyxa figured on
Plate IX, and the Myxastrum represented on Plate X, enrich
the natural history of these very simple organisms with new
forms. It is probable that Monera are very widely dis-
tributed, and it is likely that they constantly arise from
spontaneous generation. The greatest difficulty in searching
for them is their first recognition, as most observers are not
prepared to recognise in the small, formless, thoroughly
homogeneous slimy atom an independent and fully developed
organism. May I, therefore, warmly recommend the Monera
to the special observation of microscopical observers.

II. — Descriptions of new Monera.

1. Protomyxa aurantiaca.

See Plate IX, figs. 1 — 12.

On many of the Coast-lines of the Canary Islands the
spirally twisted calcareous shells of Spirula Peronii are
found thrown up by the sea in large quantities. I found
them, for example, heaped up in particular abundance on
the south-east coast of the island Lanzarote on the small flat
banks of the island, and on the isthmuses which lie before the
seaport town of Puerto del Arrecife, and partially surround
the harbour. During my three months’ residence in Arrecife
I confidently hoped to obtain living specimens of this re-
markable Cephalopod, or, at least, such as would be fit for
anatomical examination, as our knowledge of the softer parts
of its body is extremely incomplete. I offered the fishermen
of Arrecife a high reward if they would bring me a live or

35

even the entire dead body of a Spirilla. This was just as
unavailing as the many searches which my three travelling
companions and I made on our marine excursions, and among
the masses of Spirilla thrown upon the shore. It is certain
that the Spirilla only reaches the Canary Islands very rarely,
if at all, in a living state, since all the fishermen uniformly
assured us positively that the well-known Spirula shells were
always, (lead, and that they never enclosed or were inhabited
by a living animal. All that I could procure were some
white remains of the encompassing mantle, adhering to a
few shells which, however, did not enable me to ascertain
anything of the structure of the body of the Spirula. These
unsatisfactory remains ivere frequently driven into the har-
bour of Arrecife, and on some days a strong south wind
would drive ashore unusually large quantities of empty
Spirula shells, along with numerous Physalia, and Yelella,
and other pelagic animals of the island Lanzarote.

Although my hopes respecting the Spirula itself were not
fulfilled, I nevertheless found on the empty calcareous shells
of this cephalopod driven ashore in January, 1867, a Pro-
tozoan organism of the Mouera group, which was of the
greatest interest to me, and whose life-history I have delineated
on Plate IX.

As I sought carefully for some remains of a mantle still
adhering to the shells, among a great quantity of Spirula
shells which were floating on the surface of the harbour of
Arrecife, and which I had drawn up in a bucket along with
Physalia, Abyla, Hippopodius, and other pelagic animals, I
noticed an empty Spirula shell, whose ordinary, shining por-
celain-white was obscured, in several places, by small red
flakes. Under a strong lens these flakes were seen to be
partly in groups of thickly-placed very small red dots, and
partly in extremely fine ramifying arborescent figures.

The red dots were easily detached from the surface of the
Spirula shell, with needles, under the dissecting microscope.
With a higher magnifying power each dot resolved itself
into a tolerably opaque, orange-red ball, covered with a
thick structureless membrane. The diameter of the whole
body measures in most 0T5 mm., in the largest 0'2 mm., in
the smallest 0T2 mm. (PI. IX, fig. 1). The membrane of
the ball appeared entire, structureless, glassy, colourless, and
translucent. Only a number of (from five to ten) very fine
parallel striae were to be noticed, which ran concentrically
round the centre of the ball, apparently indications of the
separation of the structureless mass into layers. Radiating
striae, pore-like formations, or other openings, were not ob-

36

servable in the membrane of the ball. The base also by
which it was attached to the Spirula shell (apparently only
very loosely) showed nothing particularly remarkable. The
consistence of the membrane, as far as it could be ascertained
from the pressure of the overlying-glass, was that of a tole-
rably tough and very elastic jelly, somewhat comparable to
that of the umbrella of the firmer Medusae ; for instance,
those of Trachynema and Rhizostoma. Like the latter, this
membrane showed itself very indifferent to reagents ; it
was not coloured by the application of carmine, nor by
iodine and sidphuric acid. After long remaining in iodine
it became of a pale yellow. Acetic acid did not much alter
it, nor did any of the mineral acids. In caustic potash
it swelled up and dissolved slowly.

The orange-red contents of the balls appeared in unin-
jured specimens within the closed, globular membrane, as
a thoroughly homogeneous, consistent, obscurely granulated
mass, in which might be observed very numerous, exceed-
ingly fine particles, and a small quantity of strongly refract-
ing red grains. On moderate compression with the stage-
glass, the balls allowed themselves to be pretty strongly
compressed spheroidally, and took the shape of a double
convex lens of 0‘3 mm. diameter. On relaxation of the
pressure, they expanded again to their former globular form.
The opaque centre of the balls became under pressure more
transparent, without, however, exhibiting any structure.

My first impression that the balls were eggs already ap-
peared to me wholly improbable, as there was no appearance
of a germ-cell (nucleus) throughout the homogeneous con-
tents. It was soon entirely set aside by the different stages
of development exhibited by several of the balls, as well
as by the behaviour of the contents when pressed out of
the halls.

While in most of the balls the contents lay everywhere
thickly on the inside of the membrane, and entirely filled
the interior of the whole membranous envelope, in some in-
dividuals the contents were a little retracted and apparently
thickened ; and a space filled with a clear fluid interposed
between the membrane and the thickened contents (fig. 2).
In some balls the edge of the central thickened orange-red
mass was a perfectly defined and regular boundary line. In
others, on the contrary, it appeared to be regularly indented.
There were about twenty indentations to be seen on the
edge of the red ball. On examination of the surface it
ajipeared that these indentations were the indication of a
regular series of convex eminences on the entire surface of

37

the thickened ball. Lastly, other balls which were appa-
rently further developed showed plainly that these indenta-
tions were not merely on the surface of the thickened con-
tents, but were only the external sign of the breaking up of
the whole globular orange-red mass into a great number of
small balls. In the most developed individuals the entire
orange-red contents of the balls was, indeed, divided into
nothing else but small balls of 0'017 mm. These lay
scarcely pressed together, and touched each other only slightly,
something like a heap of cannon balls. Again, they had
moved apart from each other in such a way that they no
longer filled up the entire hollow of the sphere, but were
much more separated from each other by a small quantity
of the clear fluid which had previously collected between
the hyaline membrane and the thickened contents (fig. 3).
The number of small orange-red balls which resulted from
the dissolution of the original large ball was about two hun-
dred at its subsequent bursting.

Next, I attempted to arrive at a closer knowledge of the
orange-red contents of the undivided balls by bursting
the membrane. This was easily effected. As soon as the
pressure of the covering-glass had exceeded a certain point, the
membrane burst usually in one place, rarely in several at
once ; and the orange-red contents oozed slowly out. The
hyaline structureless membrane remaining in a very wrinkled
condition.

The solid contents of the balls, which had the moderate
consistence of the organic plasma or protoplasma, issued
from the burst fracture very slowly and gradually ; and
spread itself out between the stage-glass and the cover-
ing-glass, so that the edges appeared like roundish obtuse
patches of dissimilar size. By cautious shifting of the
covering-glass, it was tolerably easy to move the trans-
parent shrivelled and collapsed jelly-like envelope of the
burst ball on one side, so that the orange-red contents lay
isolated under the covering-glass. On the application of
moderate pressure, it appeared like a shapeless, roundish mass,
whose edge fluctuated about in irregular projections of dif-
ferent size ; some projections appeared to be notched. It
was plain at the first glance that the whole mass was struc-
tureless and homogeneous. Only a veiy large quantity of
the already mentioned very fine punctiform particles and
a smaller number of larger globular granules were scattered
through the completely homogeneous substance. The
latter was throughout the whole mass of a pale reddish
colour, as well as at the edge, where it only spread out as

38

a very thin layer. The bright orange-red. colour of the
Avhole halls was apparently chiefly caused by the orange-red
and rather strongly shining granules.

The chemical examination of the pale reddish yellow
structureless body substance soon showed it to be of an
albuminous nature. It showed the same reactions which
are presented in a similar manner by the plasma or proto-
plasma of Cytodiae, and the cells of animals, protozoa and
plants. Carmine coloured the whole mass dark red, iodine
dark brown. Mineral acids produced a granular coagula-
tion. Nitric acid coloured the plasma dark yellowish brown ;
sulphuric acid, verdigris-green. The last reaction reminded
me of the similar colouring of the pigments of the Aeantho-
metra by sulphuric acid. The larger as well as the smaller
granules in the structureless ground substance were not
affected by potash, while the plasma slowly dissolved in it.
There was not the slightest trace of any differentiation or
structure in the empty exuded plasma.

The further developed balls which contained a great quan-
tity of little orange-red bodies, instead of the large, homoge-
neous plasma-ball, were also tolerably easy to burst. Their
structureless envelope, however, was somewhat harder and
more consistent. The orange-red contents which exuded
from the burst envelope separated in water into single par-
ticles, which were easily separated from each other. The
single balls were all of the same size, of 0017 mm. diameter.
They were entirely naked and uncovered, formed simply
and solely of the reddish yellow plasma, in which were sus-
pended a quantity of very fine and small shining orange-
red particles. The larger reddish yellow and red globular
granules, which were dispersed through the plasma of the
undivided balls, were entirely absent here. They were also
wanting, too, in those balls in which the furrows on the
surface showed the commencement of the separation of the
plasma into smaller balls. There was as little trace of a
nucleus or of a contractile vesicle in the small balls as in
the large undivided balls.

The small orange-red balls, which were apparently pro-
duced by the division of the one large plasma ball, showed
no movement during my first examination. Instead of this,
amoeba-like motions soon afterwards commenced in one of
the large undivided orange-red balls, which I had with
great care freed from their structureless envelope, not by
bursting them under the microscope by the pressure of the
covering-glass, but by piercing and tearing them with two
pointed needles in a watch-glass with sea water. How-

39

ever, these amoeba-like movements were not particularly
rapid and soon ceased. They wore not to be compared
with the rapid motions of the pretty stellar and arborescent
figures which I had remarked with the orange-red balls in
the white Spirula shell, and which I am just about to
describe.

Examined by a low magnifier and by direct light these
forms had a very pretty appearance. The opaque, shining,
white porcelain-like Spirula shell looked as if it was adorned
with scattered, star-shaped reddish-yellow pigment cells,
like those which are so common in the skin of the lower
vertebrata (fishes, amphibia). Each star-like flake con-
tained an irregular, roundish, central mass of about 0 2 to
0 3 mm. in diameter, and a number (usually from five to ten)
of large branches which radiated from the central mass, and
moved very finely and prettily. On the application of a
stronger power a change of form was observable both in the
central mass and in the branches and their twigs, which
was produced by the spontaneous contraction of the starlike
body. One might have thought that he had chromatophores
before his eyes on the surface of the Spirula. But no trace
of a mantle remained on the completely naked, apparently
long wave-tossed Spirula shell ; and I therefore recognised
in the prettily-streaked body a large organism allied to the
Ehizopoda. In order to examine it better by reflected light
it was absolutely necessary to detach it from the opaque
Spirula shell. Several attempts to detach it with a fine
cataract needle, or to raise it with a thin splinter of the
shell itself, failed totally. I brought under the microscope
only small shapeless fragments of the reddish-yellow proto-
plasma. I therefore laid two larger fragments of the shell
which had each a reddish-yellow star adhering to them, in
a shallow watch-glass with sea water which I covered writh
another watch-glass, and put aside in a damp room. My
intention of inducing the Rhizopod to creep down suc-
ceeded with one specimen in a few hours ; with two others
next day ; and I had now the pleasure of examining at my
leisure this remarkable organism which had moved from the
Spirula shell into the watch-glass, and had expanded itself
here (fig. 11, 12). Each star-shaped body now showed
more plainly, with the aid of a stronger magnifying power
without a covering-glass, a beautiful plasma or sarcode net, as
fully developed, and with as numerous meshes, as is found
among the Polythalamia and Radiolaria, Myxomyceta and
Lieberkuhni®.

The central plasma mass formed a flat, transparent disc, of

40

irregular roundish but nearly circular outline, and of about
0'2 to 0-3 mm. in diameter. On the edge it projected from six
to eight stout protoplasma stems, each of which ramified into
a very slender tree. These stems, of from O’Ol to 0 03 mm.
diameter at the base, forked immediately into two, rarely
into three, branches, which, after running a short distance,
again forked, and so on. At each division the diameter of
the forked twigs was conspicuously less, so that each branch
was usually not half so strong as the next stronger branch of
the preceding series. The branches were nearly all slightly
and delicately curved, seldom quite straight. The neigh-
bouring branches of the third or fourth series already began
to unite ; and the anastomoses of the branches always be-
came more numerous towards the periphery, so that the
outer branches formed a nearly coherent, peripheral, sar-
code net. The form of the anastomosis was very irregular,
being towards the periphery more and more crescent-shaped,
and at the basement more irregularly polygonal. On the
whole, the plasma net was very similar to that which Claparede
has figured in his Lieberlcuhnia Wageneri}

The reddish-yellow colour was most intense in the centre
of the body ; which also appeared to display the thickest
layer of plasma ; and in the principal stems which branched
from the periphery. Near the latter the colour was always
fainter ; and the finest twigs seemed coloured pale reddish
yellow. The colour was nowhere so intensely orange red as
in the previously described balls. As in the last, the colour
here also arose from a diffused reddish yellow of the struc-
tureless ground substance, as if produced by a lively yellow-
ish-red tint of the granules therein suspended.

The central disc-shaped mass of the body, as well as the
projecting branches and their twigs, were entirely transpa-
rent, and also plainly showed with the greatest clearness and
under the strongest magnifier that the entire mass of the
body was entirely structureless and homogeneous, without
any combination of cells or cellular forms. This fact was
proved by the finer and coarser red granules, which streamed
here and there in the sarcode net, as well as by the foreign
bodies and food (namely, Diatomacese) dispersed here and
there in the plasma. These last were also seized like the
red granules, and carried away passively by the current which
was caused by the active movements of the albuminous |
molecules of the homogeneous plasma. In their chemical com-
position the albuminous bodies of the plasma or the sarcode

1 Claparede and Lachmann, ‘ Etudes sur les Infusoires et les Rliizopodes ’
(1858), vol. i, p. 464, pi. xxiii.

41

were not different from those of the red balls which were
previously described, and showed precisely the same re-
actions. The appearance of currents of the sarcode, or of
the free plasma (protoplasma), particularly as they manifest
themselves in the true Rhizopoda (Acyttaria and lladio-
laria), have been for the last thirty-three years so carefully
examined and so universally known, that it would be super-
fluous to re-describe it in detail in the organism before us.
Dujardin1 and Max Scliultze2 in the Polythalamia, Clapa-
rede and Lachtnann in Actinophrys, Acanthometra and
Lieberkuhnia,3 Johannes Muller,4 and myself5 in the Radi-
olaria, De Baxy, 6 and Cienkowski7 in the Myxomycetee,
have so consistently described and so fully figured this
very interesting and important phenomena, that there can
be no longer any doubt of its real existence and frequent
occurrence. However, since 1862 Reichert has attempted
in numerous papers to show its impossibility, and that
the discoveries and observations of all the above-mentioned
naturalists were false, because inconsistent with his dogmatic
vitalistic ideas of nature. 1 have already shown in my
papers on the sarcode body of the Rhizopoda the entire
groundlessness and perversity of Reichert’s assertions. I
should not have alluded to the subject here if Reichert had
not, in a recently published large treatise, himself accepted
the plasma theory' of the sarcode which he had attacked, and
attempted so to misrepresent the matter, that he seems to
represent himself as the special discoverer of the pheno-
menon which he formerly declared to be impossible, but
which was in fact long ago fully demonstrated. The follow-
ing (III) portion of my treatise will discuss this matter more
particularly.

The orange-coloured Rhizopod-like organism which I
foimd on the Spirula shell, and which I propose to desig-
nate Protomyxa aurantiaca , shows the phenomenon of the
sarcode current in the most remarkable manner. Its red-
dish-yellow sarcode is to a considerable extent semiliquid,
somewhat as in Thalassicola among the Radiolaria, in Gro-

1 Dujardin, “Observations nouvelles, &c. ‘ Annales des Sciences Nat.,’
1835, 2 ser., tom. iii., p. 112, et seq.

2 Max Schultze, 1. c., p. 16, et seq.

3 Claparede et Lachmann, 1. c., vol. i, p. 416 and 464.

4 Johannes Muller, “ Ueber die Thalassicollen, Poly cyst inen und Acantho-
metren ‘ Abliandl. der Berlin Akad,’ 1858, p. 3, et seq.

s Ernst Haeckel, ‘Die Radiolarien,’ pp. 89 — 126 and pp. 127 — 159.

6 De Bary, “ Die Mycetozoen ‘ Zeitschrift fur wissensch. Zool.,’ 1860,
vol. x, p. 88, et seq.

7 Cienkowski, “ Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Myxomyceten” ;
“Pricgskeiins Jahrbiicker fiir wissensch. Botanik,’ iii, p. 325, et seq.

42

mia among the Acyttaria, or in Physarum among the Myxo-
mycetse. The numerous scattered red granules which are set
in motion by the reciprocal movements of the disarranged
plasma molecules, and are passively carried away by the
active sarcode current, allowed the courses of the current to
be very clearly traced. These courses have no fixed direc-
tion, and are in continual change. With the larger stream-
threads one could often plainly notice a centrifugal close to
a centripetal stream. The rapidity, direction, and strength
of the streams varied continually. The broad polygonal
sarcode patches which were easily seen to form at the anas-
tomosis of two branches of the stream appeared and dis-
appeared ; and thus showed with remarkable clearness the
thoroughly homogeneous character of the entire contractile
plasma substance. Nothing could be perceived of a division
into a thicker outer layer and a thinner fluid inner layer, as
occurs in many Hhizopoda and Myxomyceta?.

Besides the numerous red granules, other larger foreign
bodies were carried away by the sarcode current ; these had
been taken as nourishment, especially pelagic infusoria and
Diatomaceae, which form the chief nourishment of the Proto-
myxa. The individual represented at fig. 11 had devoured
two Isthmiac and three 'l'intinnoidse with a siliceous net-
work (two Dictyocysta elegans and one D. mitra ), and was
nevertheless already again on the point of drawing a Peri-
dinium into its body. Food was taken in the same way as
in the true Rhizopoda. The process of taking food could
plainly be followed with free swimming Diatomaceae, which
I placed in the watch-glass containing the Protomyxa. As
soon as a stretched-out plasma thread came in contact with
one of these bodies, a stronger flow of plasma to this side
followed. Neighbouring threads gathered round and coa-
lesced with the first. In a short time the siliceous cell of
the diatom was surrounded by a layer of protoplasma, and
was now drawn into the central mass of the body by retrac-
tion of the divided plasma threads. The digestion of the
prey consisted simply in an extraction and assimilation of
the yellowish-brown plasma contents of the siliceous cell.
The siliceous membrane of the prey did not seem to be at
all affected ; and the empty shell was again rejected by the
contraction of the soft, central mass.

(To be continued.)

43

On the Colouring Matters of Blue Decayed Wood. By
H. C. Sorby, F.R.S.

Decayed wood, coloured blue by the spawn of Peziza
cerugnosa (see ‘ Quart. Journ. of Science/ V, 222) contains
several colouring matters. None of these are sensibly solu-
ble in water, but they are dissolved by alcohol with varying
facility, so that they may be separated with a little care. On
digesting with the aid of heat a portion of the wood in a
moderate quantity of alcohol, a solution of dull neutral tint
is obtained, and the wood is left of a bluer green. On agi-
tating the alcoholic solution with bisulphide of carbon, that
liquid abstracts a small quantity of a yellow colour, which
does not present any facts of particular interest. The alco-
holic solution is a mixture of a claret colour, very easily
dissolved by alcohol, and a blue, soluble with much greater
difficulty, so that, on evaporating to dryness and redissolving
in a little alcohol, the blue colour is left and the claret dis-
solved, which may be still further purified by evaporating to
dryness and redissolving a second time. It is then of a
decided claret colour, with no trace of blue or green, and the
spectrum shows a strong absorption at the blue end, gradually
becoming less towards the red. Adopting the scale and
nomenclature described in my paper in the ‘ Proceedings of

the Royal Society/1 the spectrum is about 3f...9 11 — .

The addition of a little ammonia turns it green, and deve-
lops an absorption band in the orange, the centre being at 3.
Citric acid restores it to the original state, unless so much
ammonia has been added as to produce decomposition. Sul-
phite of soda has no effect on an acid solution, so that the
colour may be described as C al0 anq (3). I have not yet met
I with such a colour in any ^>ther substance.

The blue colour may be obtained in greater purity by
digesting the wood several times in fresh alcohol, so as to
remove all the claret colour, when at length a clear blue-
i green solution is obtained, which, however, is only pale. The
spectrum, as seen in a tube two inches long, shows a well-
marked absorption band in the red at 1/, with a small
amount of the extreme blue partially obscured. On adding
ammonia the colour is changed to a dull yellow, and the band
removed ; but it is evidently decomposed, since citric acid
does not restore it to the former state. A small quantity of
nitric acid added to the original only serves to make it a

1 1867, xv, 433.

44

clearer blue. Sulphite of soda has no effect on an acid solu-
tion, and, therefore, the colour is C alt (4) . I have not yet

met with this in any other substance, and it is interesting as
being one of the very few blue colours soluble in water or
alcohol which belong to my group C. These are as follows :
Phyco-cyan 1 C aq* (2-f- 4|)

Blue colour from the
flowers of Salvia patens
Aniline blue C alj (3-i-).

When the alcoholic solution of the blue of the wood is
diluted with water and agitated with ether it is precipitated
from the solution, and collects at the line of junction of the
water and supernatant ether ; but when agitated with ben-
zole this liquid rises to the top coloured blue. The solution
may, however, be obtained in a more simple manner by
digesting the wood in benzole, which dissolves more colour
than alcohol, and it is of a fine green-blue tinge. The spec-
trum is the same as that of the alcoholic solution ; but both
of these fade in the course of a few days, even when sealed
up in glass tubes, so that neither can be kept as a permanent
object.

jC aqQ (4 H)

On the Epithelium of the Cornea of the Ox. By John
Cleland, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology,
Galway.

(From the ‘ Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’ new series, No. i.)

It is well known that there are many appearances in
stratified epithelia not easily explained by that simplest
theory of their growth which is naturally first suggested, and
is no doubt in all instances partially true ; namely, that cells
originating in a deep position pass gradually to the surface
as they grow and alter in figure, while those superficial to
them are cast or dissolved, and others behind them follow in
their steps. Thus the elliptic cells in the deeper strata of
the epithelium of the trachea can scarcely be supposed to be
developed into the ciliated columns which lie over them ; and
it cannot be imagined that in the ureter the large and irre-
gularly shaped cells are altered so as to form the smaller and
flatter cells found on the surface.

1 Cohn, ‘ Arcliiv. fur Microskopische Anatomic,’ 1807.

45

In the cuticle, it is obvious that the horny portion is
formed of cells derived from the deeper part and progressively
finding their way to the surface where they are cast off ; but
the elongated form of the cells resting on the dermis, and the
size of these as compared with those above them, shows that
in this part there is another mode of growth not yet suffi-
ciently investigated. The epithelium of the cornea, whilst
it presents the same general arrangement of parts as the
cuticle, is a much more delicate structure; and on account
of the individual cells being more readily separated, it is
much more easily examined : it may be studied without
much difficulty with the aid of carmine-staining and bi-
chromate of potash. In the human subject the deepest layer
of the corneal epithelium consists of cells not more elongated,
in comparison with those superficial to them, than the deepest
cells of the cuticle ; but in the ox, the sheep, and the horse,-
and probably other animals, it presents the appearance of a
stratum of columnar epithelium, the cells of which are as
elongated in form as those of any columnar epithelium in the
body. In the ox the cells are of large size. The elongated
cells now mentioned, flat at one extremity, and pointed or
caudate at the other, differ from those of columnar epithe-
lium, not only in forming the deepest instead of the most
superficial layer, but in having the flat extremity resting on
the subjacent parts. The whole thickness of the epithelium,
when swollen by the action of the bichromate, can be easily
detached from the surface of the cornea, "which is left quite
clear of any structure from which the epithelium could be
derived ; for the only nuclei which it exhibits are the long-
shaped nuclei in its interior, which are totally different in
appearance from the nuclei of the epithelium. When the
detached epithelium is examined in vertical sections, the
elongated elements forming its deepest, layer are seen to
lie closely together with their flattened extremities in a line,
and each cell exhibiting only one nucleus, which is always
at a considerable distance from the corneal extremity. Thus
it is very obvious that the epithelium is not derived from the
subjacent cornea, but that the cornea and epithelium are
•wholly independent structures adhering together.

Immediately superficial to the columnar stratum is a layer
of cells of irregular shape, about twice as broad as the
columnar, but by no means so elongated. They are rounded
and even in outline at the superfical extremity, but are
jagged at the other, sending in processes or digitations which
may be three or four in number, and which appear to fit in
between the tapering points of the columnar cells. The cells

46

resting on this layer are still less elongated and smaller; and
it is in this region, in the middle depth of the epithelium,
that it is most difficult to distinguish the component elements
as they lie in position. Carrying the examination still
ontowards ward the surface, large cells are again met with,
superimposed on which are others of a flatter form ; and at
last the squamous layer is reached which covers all.

By subjecting the dyed epithelium to a strong solution of
the bichromate of potash, its elements may be completely
isolated, and then there are seen floating numerous smaller
corpuscles than could be well distinguished when the parts
are in position. Among these are apparently free nuclei, and
others in minute corpuscles of spheroidal or less regular form ;
also, bluntly spindle-shaped cells, containing sometimes a
single nucleus, sometimes two, and occasionally a nucleus in
process of division. These spindle-shaped cells have their
position between the processes of the columnar stratum and
among the digitated cells which are next to it.

Here and there in the columnar stratum an appearance of
great importance is seen, namely, cells in various stages of
decadence. Cell-walls, shrivelled and narrow, without any
appearance of a nucleus, occur, which might be supposed to
have been torn and deprived of the nucleus in manipulation
were it not that the other stages of old age are observed.
Columnal cells retaining their general form are noticed,
which have the nucleus replaced by an air cavity with gene-
rally the appearance of thickening of the Avail round it, as if
from desiccation of the cell contents : numerous others may
be seen in which, Avhile the cell contents seem yet unaltered,
the nucleus is partially replaced by an air cavity lying close
to the remaining portion. Other cells beside the columnar
may sometimes be found undergoing the same degeneration;
and in the sheep these air cavities are specially numerous in
the squamous stratum of the corneal epithelium.

The appearances noAv described seem to prove conclusively
tAvo points ; firstly, that the corneal epithelial cells are not
developed in regular succession from the deepest part and
pushed outAvards as they groAv ; and, secondly, that they are
not all cast off at the surface, but that some of them degene-
rate and are absorbed in a deep position.

The source of origin of the columnar stratum is not to be
found on its deep surface ; and the digitated cells are certainly
not altered and more fully developed columnar cells. But it
is alleged by Dr. Schneider, as quoted by Dr. Sharpey,1 that
the elongated cells of the deepest layer of the corneal
1 Quain’s ‘ Anatomy,’ seventh edition, p. lvi.

47

epithelium, although not themselves passing to the surface,
detach from their outer extremities, by repeated division of
their nuclei and cell-walls, a series of progeny one after
another, from which are derived the other strata. The proof
that this is not the mode of growth of the corneal epithelium
of the ox is that the columnar cells have never more than
I one nucleus each, and none of them present any trace of such
budding ; and also that the superjacent digitated cells are
larger than those more superficial. Altogether there can be
little or no doubt that the cells of the columnar stratum are
derived from corpuscles which grow inwards, and that the
spindle-shaped cells above described are, some of them,

' destined to become developed into columnar cells. We
i must suppose that the digitated cells are developed in the
! same manner ; and in that case the corneal epithelium may
be regarded as having its germinal stratum in its middle
depth, from which growth proceeds towards both the cornea
and the free surface.

The degenerated cells with air cavities, found in the
deepest stratum, point to a circumstance not hitherto ob-
served, nor possibly suspected, namely, that the old elements
of a stratified epithelium are not always thrown off at the
surface ; for in this instance they degenerate and disappear
in their original position, their parts being doubtless ulti-
mately absorbed, in like manner as a degenerated muscular
fibre is absorbed in the uterus after labour, or in a striped
muscle.

While, however, the importance of the preceding observa-
tion consists principally in demonstrating the possibility of
modes of growth more or less similar to that described in the
corneal epithelium of the ox occurring in other stratified
epithelia, it is not hastily to be presumed that the growth of
the general epidermis necessarily proceeds in the same way
as that of the corneal epithelium. In particular, it must be
recollected that the corneal epithelium is uniquely situated in
being spread over a non-vascular texture, and in being con-
tinuous at its periphery with a denser epithelium which has
blood-vessels beneath it ; and it may be therefore fairly ques-
tioned how far it derives its nourishment from beneath, and
how far from the vessels around it.

A further investigation into the growth of the cuticle is
naturally suggested by the facts now brought forward, and I
have to regret that as yet I have not had time to pursue that
subject with sufficient care. But I may' mention that in the
deep parts of a delicate piece of cuticle I have been able to
see cells with the nucleus partially replaced by a cavity, and
others in which it was wholly so.

48

Description of a Species of Trematode from the Indian

Elephant, with Remarks on its Affinities. By T.

Spencer Cobbold, M.D , F.R.S., F.L.S.

(Read at the Meeting of the British Association at Norwich.)

On the 24th of June of the present year I received a small
bottle containing two flukes. It was accompanied by a note
from Dr. Baird, F.R.S., stating that the specimens had been
transmitted to him from India by Dr. Hugh Cleghorn. On
the phial itself was a brief notice to the following effect : —
Distoma taken from Liver of Elephant at Rangoon, forwarded
for classification to Professor Cobbold by Vet.-Surgeon J.
Thacker. Madras Army.” This is all I know of the history
of these two entozoa. On naked-eye inspection it was clear
to me that they were identical in character with a larger
series of specimens previously exhibited by Professor Huxley
during the delivery of a recent course of lectures at the
Royal College of Surgeons. Having communicated to Pro-
fessor Huxley the facts as above stated, I received permission
to make use of his set of specimens, originally fifteen in
number, for the purposes of comparison and description.
This series was placed in Mr. Flower’s hands last February,
and six of the individuals were subsequently selected and
mounted, with the view to their being added to the valuable
collection of entozoa contained in the Hunterian Museum.

The first thing to be determined is as to whether or not
these flukes are new to science. In this relation, therefore,
I have to remark that so far back as the year 1847, Dr.
Jackson, in his ‘ Descriptive Catalogue of the Anatomical
Museum of the Boston Society for Medical Improvement,’
incidentally mentions the occurrence of flukes from the Indian
elephant. Though several examples were removed from the
biliary ducts and duodenum, along with many specimens of
Ascaris lonchoptera, it does not appear that any of them
have been properly described. In all likelihood (if the flukes
are still preserved in the Boston Museum) it will be found
that they specifically correspond with those in our possession.
I may add that the late C. M. Diesing, in the appendix to
his well-known ‘ Systema Helminthum,’ had already, in
1850, noticed Jackson’s statement (vol. ii, p. 560), and also
subsequently in his more recent ‘ Revision der Mvzelmin-
then’ (p. 50). In the last-named work, which bears the
date of 1858, Diesing still regarded the entozoon as a doubt-
fully distinct form, allowing it, however, to appear under the
title of Distomum elephantis. In my synopsis of the Disto-

49

midae, communicated to the Linnean Society in 1 859, I
admitted it, conjecturally, as a good species (‘ Proceed.’ for
1860, Zoology, vol. v, p. 9). The determination has since
proved correct, for it now turns out that this elephant-fluke
(judging from those in our hands) is not only a distinct
species, but that it differs also generically from the Distomes
properly so called. In point of fact, it is a sort of transition-
type between the genera Fasciola and Campula. This last-
named genus I established in 1857 for a form which I found
in the liver-ducts of the common porpoise ; but as the species
under consideration comes rather more closely to the genus
Fasciola than to Campula, I shall not seek to complicate mat-
ters by adding yet another generic type. Anyhow, the
nomenclature must be altered, consequently I herewith cor-
rectly name, and for the first time fully describe, the species
as follows :

Fasciola Jacksonii, Cobbold. — Body armed throughout
with minute spines, orbicular, usually folded at either end
towards the ventral aspect, thus presenting a concavo-convex
form ; oral sucker terminal, with reproductive papilla about
midway between it and the ventral acetabulum ; intromittent
organ in length ; digestive apparatus with two main zig-
zag-shaped canals, giving off alternating branches at the
angles thus formed, the ultimate caecal ramifications together
occupying the whole extent of the body ; length, when un-
rolled, from to ; breadth, to 4/'.

Supplementary Note. — In all the specimens the alimentary
tubes are filled with inspissated bile, and so completely so
as to supersede the necessity of any attempts at artificial
injection. Examples may now be seen in the Museum of the
Royal College of Surgeons.

Enumeration of Micro-lichens parasitic 1 on other
Lichens. By W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S.

The Lichens to which the present communication refers
constitute an increasingly large and important group — for
the most part of athalline forms — whose apothecia (with or
without spermogonia or pycnidia) alone represent the plant :
minute in size, frequently obscure and difficult of observa-

1 I here use the term “ parasitic ” in its popular sense, including both
“ Epiphytes ” and “ true Parasites,” as these are defined in the recent
‘ Phytopathologie ’ (1868, p. 11) of Professor Hallier, of Jena. I cannot,
however, agree with that distinguished German professor, or generally with

VOL. IX. NEW SER. D

50

tion, requiring for the determination of their structure and
place in classification the patient use of the microscope.1 The
group is a most heterogeneous one, comprising many genera
and species that are at least anomalous :2 that have been im-
perfectly studied : and that are comparatively little known.
There are several advantages, I think, from bringing
them together and studying them in a group. I believe
that a satisfactory study will result in a great reduction of
their generic and specific names. The present names —
• — generic especially — must be considered as only provisional.
As matters stand, different names are probably given to the
same parasite as it grows on different Lichens. It will be
found, moreover, I doubt not, that the number of Lichens of
the lower groups ( e . g. in the single genus Lecidea, or its
numerous and varied sections or sub-genera) which occur in
an athalline parasitic form are more numerous than we at
present suppose.

Various members of the group of micro-parasites enume-
rated in the following list should rather be transferred to the
provisional family of Fungo-Uchens ,3 and may ultimately be
claimed as Fungi proper. The difficulty of separating the
lower Lichens from the lower Fungi is, however, daily be-
coming greater and greater.4 The old diagnostic of the

Nylander or other authorities, who regard Lichens as mere Epiphytes. I have
elsewhere pointed out (“Is Lichen-Growth detrimental to Forest and Fruit
Trees?” ‘Report of the British Association,’ 1S67, p. 87) that the faorganic
constituents of the Lichen-thallus prove Lichens to be as truly parasitic as are
the lower Fungi. The distinction drawn, therefore, by Haliier (pp. 215 and
217) between Lichens and Fungi, as being in the one case“echteepiphyten”
and in the other “ echte parasiten,” is not true to nature. Korber
designates the group of athalline Micro-lichens here enumerated “ Lichenes
Parasitici ; Pseudo-lichenes, Auct.,” and describes them in an appendix.
But the designation in question does not apply more properly to this
interesting group of microscopic Lichens than it does, e.g. to the corti-
colous species of the genera Eoernia, Ramalina, Usnea, Lecanora, Lecidea ,
or Verrucaria. His group is, moreover, most heterogeneous, for he includes,
e.g. Lecidea resince, Fr., which occurs directly on the bark, as well as its
resinous exudates, of various Coniferse; and which, moreover, is classed
among Fungi by Fries, Nylander, and Berkeley.

1 Vide also the .author’s ‘ History of British Lichens,’ p. 309, and Ny-
lander’s ‘ Synopsis Methodica Lichenum,’ p. 58.

2 Korber (in his ‘Parerga Lichenologica,’ 1865, p. 452) classes them
separately as “ Lichenes parasitici while they constitute the “ Pseudo-
lichenes ” of Krempelhuber (‘ Lich. Flora Bayerns,’ p. 86) and other authors.

3 Anzi, in his ‘ Symbola Lichenum rariorum vel novorum It alias
superioris,’ 1866, enumerates as “inter Lichenes et Fungos ambiguse”
species of the genera Abrotliallus, Conida, Phacopsis, Celidium, Arthonia,
Xenospherria, Phceospora, and Tichothecium.

4 Vide the author’s paper on Arthonia melaspermella, ‘Journ. Linn.
Society,’ Botany, v. ix ; and ‘ N. Z. Lich. and Fungi,’ Trans. Royal Society
of Edin., vol. xxiv, pp. 423, 434.

51

blue reaction with iodine has long since been proved falla-
cious, inasmuch as, while it is absent in many true Lichens,
it is present in many true Fungi. Professor Karsten1 de-
scribes a beautiful violet colour as developed in the stylo-
spores of some Sphaeriee by a dilute solution of iodine, and
he refers to this as the first known example of a starch-reaction
in the stylo spores or spores of Fungi. A similar reaction occurs,
however, in the filamentous excrescences of some species of
Erysiphe (Tul.), in the tissues of the fruit of Septoria ulmi
(Mold), and in the mycelium of Polystigma rubrum and P.
fulvum (Bary). Currey2 describes the same starch-reaction in
the spores of Amylospora tremelloides. Nylander points out in
various papers3 how impossible it is to draw any sharp boun-
dary-line between Lichens and Fungi. The hymenium in
Fungi is generally yellow with iodine, just as it is (or some
of its elements are) under the same reagent occasionally in
true Lichens. In Hysterium elatinum, Fr., as in the Lichen-
genus Graphis, the hymenial gelatine4 is not coloured by
iodine, but the spores become blue. In like manner, Hyste-
rium Prostii, Dub. cannot be distinguished from the Lichen-
genus Opegrapha. In some true Lichens (e. g. Parmelia arn-
bigua ) the hymenial gelatine is either not coloured or obscurely
coloured by iodine. Professor de Bary, a first-rate authority
on the anatomy and physiology of Fungi, regards gonidia
as the only means of distinguishing Lichens from Fungi
(Ascomycetes) .5 Inasmuch, therefore, as the parasite-
genera Abrothallus, Celidium, Scutula, Phacopsis, and
Sphinctrina , do not possess gonidia, he would arrange them
with Fungi : as did Montagne,6 a Cryptogamist who
was equally at home among Lichens and Fungi. Such
a distinction would enable Lichenologists to appropriate cer-
tain plants hitherto considered Fungi, such as Agyrium

1 “ On the Peculiarities of some Stylospores of Sp/uerice,” ‘ Botaniscbe
Untersuehungen,’ 1S66 ; or translated by Dallas iu ‘ Annals of Nat. His-
tory,’ vol. xix, 1867, p. 356. Vide also ‘Quarterly Journal of Science,’
July, 1867, p. 392. If, however, Karsten is correctly translated by Dallas,
I am not led to place much confidence in his accuracy of observation or
judiciousness of inference.

2 ‘Quart. Journal of Science,’ July, 1867, p. 392. Vide also author’s
paper on Arth. melaspermella, p. 284.

3 “On Distinction between Lichens and Fungi,” ‘Flora,’ 1864, pp.
421 and 558. “Ad Historiam reactionis lodi apud Lichenes et Fungos
Notula,” ‘ Flora,’ 1865.

* Vide author’s paper on Arth. melaspermella, p. 2 S3.

5 “ On the Morphology and Physiology of Lichens and Fungi,”
in Holfmeister’s ‘Handbuch der Physiologischen Botanik,’ 1S66, p.

271.

6 ‘Ann. des Sciences Nat.,’ vol. xvi, 3rd ser., p. 78.

rufum, Fr.,1 2 which Nylander3 describes as a true Lichen,
having not only an amylaceous hymenium, but gonidia under-
neath the apothecium. But the same awkward and artifi-
cial distinction would exclude from the Lichens all athalline —
and consequently a-gonidic — forms, possessed, nevertheless, of
all the other attributes of true Lichens. Moreover, it ■would
appear that gonidia are not peculiar to Lichens, as
contradistinguished from Fungi, for Gasparini3 regards
Penicillium glaucum as a gonidic form of Alternaria. My
own opinion is that there is no boundary-line in nature be-
tween Lichens and Fungi, and that all attempts, therefore,
of Lichcnologists or Fungologists — of Botanists or Chemists
— to discover any scientific means of differential diagnosis
must prove futile. I hold that the position in classification
of doubtful plants must be the result of a compromise or
agreement between Lichenologists and Fungologists.

The somewhat long list of micro-parasites after recorded
illustrates well the tendency of Naturalists of the present day
to distinguish what are presumed to be new forms or condi-
tions of life by separate names, whether generic, specific, or
varietal. There is too much of what the Germans call ex-
pressively “ species-spielerei” — playing at species — a sort of
pseudo-scientific recreation that Haeckel4 compares to the
amusement of collecting postage-stamps, or similar trifling
— the recreation of so-called Herbarium or Parlour-botanists,
who have had generally the most limited opportunities of
observation, or whose minds are only able to apprehend
minutiae, and cannot grasp generalities. Such Botanists are
characterised in modern phraseology as “ splitters,” in con-
tradistinction to “ lumpers” or “ dumpers j” the former
delighting in the multiplication of minute divisions and of
names, the latter reducing both the divisions and technical
terms. It is unfortunate that grounds should exist for such
a distinction of fellow-workers in all departments of science ;
but that it does exist, and that the elaborators predominate
largely over the generalisers, there can be no doubt. Licheno-
logists are too much mere nomenclators rather than Biolo-
gists — mere systematists — mere searchers for or labellers of
forms that are “ rare” or “ new” — given to the discernment
of minute differences rather than of general resemblances —
mere collectors of plants and formers of herbaria. Their

1 Vide author’s paper on Arlh. melaspermella, p. 277.

2 ‘Flora,’ 1864, pp. 421 and 558.

3 ‘ Ann. Nat. Ilist.,’ vol. xviii, 1866, p. 344. Vide also author’s paper
on Arlh. melaspermella, p. 282.

4 ‘ Gencrcllc Morphologic der Organismen,’ Berlin, 1866.

greatest ambition is the detection, description, and nomencla-
ture of a “ new” species ; but only a small proportion of the
so-called “ new” species, constantly being added to the
Lichen-Flora of Britain or the world, is destined to stability ;
very few indeed of the host of names conferred on supposed
“ new” genera, species, or varieties, are necessary in science
or useful to the student. The British student of Lichenology
is bewildered by the number of “ new species” that are being
daily added even to the British Lichen-Flora, while as yet
there is no simple and philosophical arrangement of the
common forms that are already well known. It would be
wrong to depi'eciate the labours — the enthusiasm and perse-
verance— of the searchers for and discoverers of “ new spe-
cies but it is quite permissible to express strongly the
opinion that I cannot place their labours in the same
category with those of the Biologists, who, working in great
measure, nevertheless, with thematerials of thespecies-hunters,
reduce such discoveries to their proper place in a simple
systematic arrangement : who study plants in all phases of
growth, and who are thus led and enabled to enlarge the
definitions of groups, to diminish names, and to simplify
classification on natural principles.

I rejoice to find that the views on botanical classification and
nomenclature which I have long been led to entertain are sub-
stantially those which are held and published by some of the
most eminent Naturalists of the present day — by those, to
wit, whose experience has been the greatest and most xraried.
Professor Agassiz, for instance, in his recent work on Brazil,
asserts that “ the discovery of a new species .... is now
almost the lowest kind of scientific w ork ”! Mr. Bentham, the
present distinguished President of the Linnean Socity, com-
mends “ subjects of inquiry much more important than
differences in external form” to “Naturalists residing in
countries where no new forms are to be discovered.”1 Dr.
Muller, the learned Director of the Botanical Garden of
Melbourne, remarks that, “ through want of extensive field
studies, untenable limits are assigned to a vast number of
supposed specific forms and that “ the vain attempt to
drawr lines of specific demarcation between mere varieties or
races .... has largely tended to suggest the theory of
transmutation.”2

The subjoined list does not profess to be complete. It is
intended only as a contribution to the subject to which it

1 Presidential Address, ‘Journal of Linnean Society,’ “Zoology,” No. 42,
186S, pp. kx, xcv, xeix.

5 ‘ Vegetation of the Chatham Islands.’

refers : its aim being to invite or incite other Liclienologists to
make similar contributions, in order, in course of time, to the
compilation of as full a list as is attainable. It represents
only the information to which I have access in my own
library. There are so many labourers in the Lichenological
field in all parts of the Continent, and, indeed, now in all
parts of the world — observers wrho are constantly publishing
their results in multitudinous forms that are unknown or in-
accessible to me — that completeness in such a list as mine is
unattainable. It refers exclusively to Lichens whose names
or descriptions have been already recorded — for the most part
by Continental authors. The micro-parasites met with by
myself — many of which are, so far as I can ascertain, newr,
and which require accompanying plates for the elucidation of
their structure — are reserved for publication in another paper.

The present list relates to the lower Lichens, most of them
athalline. Some of the higher Lichens are also, however,
occasionally parasitic on other species, e. g. I have met with
various Parmelice or Physcice parasitic on other Parmelice or
on Umbilicaria, in alpine or arctic countries. But there is
no difficulty in their determination ; and a consideration of
them does not, therefore, form part of the object of the pre-
sent paper. Of an intermediate character between the para-
sitic Parmelice in question and the parasitic Lecidece and
other Lichens, presently to be enumerated, are the fol-
lowing :

1. Ephebe pubescens, Fr. — On the protothallus of Stereo-
caulon tomentosum and S. condensation (Korb., Syst., 11
and 14).

E. byssoides (Carrington, Irish Crypt., p. 7) creeps over
Hepaticce, e. g. Frullania tamarisci, v. microphylla.

2. Normandina Jungermannice, Del. Mudd., 268.

Syn. Lenormandia, Del. Hepp, 476; Nyl., exs. 89.

Verrucaria pulchella, Borr.

Endocarpon, Ilook. Leiglit.

Coccocarpia, Bab.

On various Hepaticce, especially species of Frullania, Radula,
and Jungermannia, e. g. J. dilatata (Hepp, 476), F. tama-
risci (Carrington, Irish Crypt., 7) ; on certain mosses, e. g.
Hypnum cupressiforme (Nyl., Prod., 174); on various saxi-
colous Scytonemata (Nyl.) ; as well as on several Lichens,
e. g. Pannaria triptophylla and P. plumbea.

The spores described by Leighton (Brit. Angioc. Lich.,
13, and Nylander, Prod., 173) probably belong to a para-
sitic Fungus = Sphceria Borreri, Tul., 128 (Korb., Svst.,
101).

55

The Nonnandina itself is, by some observers, regarded
merely as the young thallus of a Pannaria, e. g. P. plumbea
or rubiginosa (Tul. and Ivcirb.), or Parmelia, e. g. P. perlata
(Schrer).

Acharius referred this Lichen to the genus Thelephora
(Fungi).

3. Lecanora cerina, Ach. — Parasitic occasionally on dead
Lichens, as well as on mosses, wood, &c., in Spitzbergen
( fide Th. Fries, L. Spitsb., 25).

4. L. vitellina, Ach. — Also parasitic on dead Lichens, as
well as on mosses, stones, ground, fabricated wood, and other
materials, ( e.g . weathered vertebrae of reindeer), in Spitzber-
gen (fide Th. Fries, L. Spitsb., 19).

5. L. subfusca, Ach., and Urceolaria scruposa, Ach., are
sometimes athalline, their apothccia being grafted, as it were,
on the thallus of other species. But Nylander draws a ques-
tionable or unnecessary distinction between sucli cases as
these, which are accidentally and exceptionally parasitic
(Syn., 58), and Micro-lichens, which are regularly and
normally so.

The athalline form of U. scruposa is (pr. p. at least) =
Stictis lichenicola, Mont, (fide Myl., Prod., 96), which, ac-
cording to Berkeley (Brit. Fungology, p. 375), is a Fungus
parasitic on the thallus of various foliaceous Cladonice.

Genus I. — Lecidea, Ach.

Under this head systematists have classed a very hetero-
geneous group of Lichens, differing both in the colour of the
apothecia and in the form, colour, and size of the spores.
Several have the characters of the true Lecidece as they are
defined by modern systematists, e. g. Th. Fries or Mudd ; that
is, they have simple, colourless spores and black apothecia.
In others the spores are 2- or more-locular; varying much
in length and breadth ; coloured or colourless. Several be-
long to the sub-genus Buellia, one to Raphiospora, and one to
Biatora. No rigid classification is necessary, nor is it scien-
tific, for e.g. the spores of L. vernalis, which are usually
simple, are sometimes, in the athalline forms, 2-locular ;
while apothecia that are usually brown sometimes assume a
black hue, and spores that are generally colourless acquire
a yellow, olive, or brown tint with age. Besides, it is no part
of our present object to arrange according to any scheme of
classification the very different, and too frequently ano-
malous, Lichens which occur in the athalline state occasionally
or always. Our knowledge of them is not yet sufficiently

50

complete to warrant us in making any such attempt. Addi-
tions are daily being made to their number, and the relation
they bear to the structures on which they grow is becoming
better understood. All that is at present aimed at is to
arrange them in a group under the most recent names given
them by systematists ; so that, by exhibiting the confusion
which exists regarding their place in classification, some
inducement may be held forth to study them more carefully
than hitherto.

The parasites at present classed under Lecidea may be con-
veniently grouped according to the character of the spores as
follows :

a. Spores usually simple and colourless.

Species 1. Lecidea vitellinaria, Nyl.

Synonyms. Lecidella, Korb., Parerga, p. 459 ;

Leiglit., Exs., No. 182.

Lecidea Pitensis, Lonnr.

On thallus of Lecanora vitellina, both saxicolous and
terricolous forms (Nyl., Prod., 126 ; Mudd, 212; Th. Fries,
Arct., 222). Spores 8, ellipsoid or subspherical. Nylander
suggests that it may be regarded as an athalline form of
Lecidea parasema, an opinion in which I quite concur.

2. L.inquinans, Tul., Mem., 117. Nyl., Syn., 179 ; Lindsay,

Monograph of Abrothallus, 6.

Syn. Abrothallus , Tul.

Nesolechia, Korb.

Lecidea argillacea, Korb., Syst., 255, Parerg.
462 ; which, however, is described as usually
having a thallus, and when athalline as occur-
ring on that of Verrucaria epigaea, Acli.

L. parasitica, pr. p. Tul., 117, the spores of
which at once separate it.

On the sterile thallus of Bceomyces rufus and B. roseus
(Nyl., Prod., 145 ; Syn., 179) ; or of Lecidea decolorans
(Tul., 117).

Spores 4-8, ellipsoid or oblong. Tulasne says he has in
vain searched for pycnidia. Nylander (Prod., 145) places
this Lichen and Abrothallus oxysporus in his section Epithallia
of the genus Lecidea, and in his ‘ Enumeration generale’ (127)
he includes L. oxysporella ; while Stizenberger (£ Beitrag zur
Flechten-systematik,’ 162) apparently arranges under Epi-
thallia the genera Phacopsis and Nesolechia. It is, at least,
most arbitrary and unscientific to place Lichens so closely allied
as L. inquinans, L. oxyspora and L. oxysporella in separate
genera or subgenera !

3. L oxysporella, Nyl., Prod., 145.

57

On thallus of Cladonia digit ata.

Spores as in Abrothallus oxysporus (q. v.), but smaller.

4. L. associata, Th. Fries, Lich. Spitsberg., 42.

On thallus of Lecanora tartarea. Spores 8, ellipsoid or
subspherical. “ Ad fungos facile rejicienda,” says Fries.

5. L. Cetraricola, Lindsay (Observations on Greenland

Lichens).

On thallus of Cetraria Islandica, Braemar, Scotland ; and
Dovrefjeldt, Norway.

Spores very small, ellipsoid.

6. L. vemalis, Ach. (Nyl., Scand., 201), on dead Peltidece.
Apothecia reddish ; spores sometimes in this athalline form

are obscurely 2-locular, oblong.

7. L. episema, Nyl., Prod., 125.

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea and Squamaria saxicola.
Spores sometimes 2 — 4-locular, ellipsoid, or oblong. Ny-
lander suggests that it should perhaps be considered an athal-
line form of Lecidea parasema, whose spores, however, are
pretty constantly simple.

B. Spores 2- or more-locular, usually coloured (brown).

8. L. parasitica, Flk. (Nyl., Prod., 144).

Syn. L. inspersa, Tul., Mem., 118 : Leight., Exs.,
No. 183.

L. lygcea, Hepp.

Biatora, Fw.

Buellia, Flk.

Dactylospora Florkei, Kbrb., Syst., 271.

D. inspersa, Mudd.

Leciographa Florkei, Korb., Par.

Celidium insitivum, Korb., Syst., 217.
Celidiopsis, Korb., Par., 458.

(To be continued.)

On Rhabdopletjra, a New Form of Polyzoa, from Deep-
Sea Dredging in Shetland. By Professor Allman,
F K S

With Plate VIII.

I am indebted to the JRev. A. Merle Norman for having
placed in my hands for examination some of the products of
dredgings recently carried on at various depths in the Shet-
land seas by Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys and himself. Among
these by far the most interesting is a Polyzoon obtained
from a depth of ninety fathoms. It is not only generically

58

distinct from all previously known forms, but is in many
respects so peculiar as to render it necessary to regard it as
the representative of a still more general section of the class.

The following characters will afford generic and specific
diagnoses of the new Polyzoon.

PHABDOPLEUPA, Allman.

Ccenoecium consisting of a branched, adherent, membranous
tube, in rvhose walls, along their adherent side, a rigid
chitinous rod extends, and whose branches terminate each in
a free open tube, through which the Polypides emerge.

Lophophore hippocrepial, with a shield-like process on the
haemal side of the tentacular series ; Polypides connected to
the chitinous rod by a flexible cord or funiculus.

Name. — ’Pa/3 Sog, rod, and vrXevpov, side, in allusion to
the rod-like structure which is developed in the walls of the
ccenoecium.

Rhabdopleura Normani, Allman. PI. VIII.

Ccenoecium sub-alternately branched ; ectocyst delicate,
transparent, and colourless : free portion of the ccenoecial
tubes of the same diameter as the adherent portion, and very
distinctly and regularly annulated.

Habitat. Creeping over the surface of dead shells from a
depth of ninety fathoms.

Locality. Shetland seas, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, Esq., and Rev.
A. Merle Norman.

The remarkable polyzoon for which the genus Phabdo-
pleura has been constituted is eminently distinguished by the
presence within its ccenoecium of a rigid chitinous rod (blasto-
phore) (fig. 1 d, d, d). This rod runs along the adherent side
of the ccenoecium, but is not found in the free prolongations of
the branches through which the polypides move in the acts of
exsertion and retraction. The rod contains an axile channel,
which is very evident in the younger parts of the ccenoecium,
where it may be seen to be filled with agranular pulp (fig. 9),
but in the older parts the channel appears to have become
nearly or even quite obliterated.

At the points where the rod gives attachment to the funi-
culus or cord, by which the polypides are connected to it,
a slight enlargement of its diameter forms a sort of platform
for the attachment of the cord, and at these points a very
thin transverse septum would appear to be stretched across
the tube, which thus becomes divided into a series of sepa-
rate chambers, one appropriated to each polypide. The

59

septum, however, cannot always be demonstrated, and, in
some cases at least, appears to be incomplete.

Most of the polypides are attached laterally to the rod by
means of their funiculus, but ultimately the rod ends by
giving support to a terminal polypide similarly attached to it.

The tubes a, a, a, from which the polypides emerge, are of the
same diameter as that of the rest of the coencecium, of which,
indeed, they are simple continuations. At their commence-
ment they are adherent like the other portions, but they
soon become free, and then ascend, more or less vertically,
from the surface of attachment. They are beautifully annu-
lated, the annulation being due to circular ridges, into which
the outer surface of the ectocyst is raised, and which follow
one another at short intervals, and with perfect regularity.
The inner surface of the tube is quite smooth. The annu-
lated condition may occasionally be traced for a little dis-
tance backwards on the adherent portion, while the rest of
the adherent portion exhibits, under proper illumination, a
peculiar marking in the form of slightly elevated and very
faintly marked ridges (fig. 4), which are seen upon the upper
side of the tube, and wliih here take an oblique course from
the margins towards the centre, till each is interrupted by
meeting the corresponding ridge from the opposite side.

The whole of the tubular cocncccium, both the free and the
adherent portion, is perfectly hyalline, so that the adherent
portion, which has not the distinct annulation of the free
tubes to assist in rendering it visible, is liable to be over-
looked under too low a power and with insufficient illumina-
tion. Under such circumstances the polyzoon presents an
anomalous appearance, the dark opaque central rod, with its
appended polypides and the free annulated tube being the
only parts visible.

The polypides are hippocrepian. They are, indeed, as
completely so as in Plumatella or any other typical hippo-
crepian polyzoon. My specimens, however, being such only
as had been for several months immersed in strong spirits,
do not allow me to speak with certainty as to the existence
of the calyeiform membrane which connects the bases of the
tentacles in all the other known typical hippocrepians.
Neither can I say whether an epistome — another striking
and important feature in all hitherto known hippocrepian
Polyzoa — is or is not present in Rhabdofleura. These
and some other points of structure must remain undeter-
mined until the examination of living specimens shall afford
an opportunity of seeing the soft parts in an unaltered con-
dition, and of witnessing the natural evolution of the poly'-

60

pide and the display of its organs, in a way which no needle
of the anatomist can ever be expected to imitate.

A feature, however, of great interest in the structure of the
polypide of Rhabdopleura was very satisfactorily made out
from my specimens. This consists in a remarkable shield-like
organ (fig. 2 b ) , which is borne on the convex edge of the body
of the lophophore. It lies outside of the tentacular crown, the
haemal side of which it covers and conceals, at least in the
contracted state in which the polypides necessarily existed
in my specimens. It is of a somewhat pyramidal form, and
might be taken for a very large and peculiarly developed
epistome, were it not that its position, lying as it does to the
haemal side of the mouth instead of lying between the mouth
and anus, as well as the phenomena of development to be
presently described, oppose themselves to this view of its
homologies.

It may be that the continuity of the tentacular series
is interrupted at the base of the shield. The parts, however,
are at this spot so completely hidden by the shield that an
examination of living specimens will be necessary, in order
to enable us to say with certainty whether this be really the
case, or whether the tentacles pass uninterruptedly round
the lophophore, as in other hippocrepian forms. In either
case the shield lies entirely outside of the tentacular series.
As in other hippocrepians, no gizzard is here developed in
the alimentary tract.

From the anal side of the alimentary canal at some dis-
tance above the fundus of the stomach, a flexible cord, the
“funiculus” (fig. 1 c, c, c, fig. 2 d, d), passes backwards
until it reaches the rod to which it then becomes attached.
The flexibility of the funiculus contrasts with the rigidity of
the rod ; and during life it must have freely yielded to the
motions of the polypide in the acts of exsertion and retraction.
Indeed, its extensibility must be very great in order to allow
of the exsertion of the polypide from the extremity of the
tube. It is accompanied by a long fasciculus of muscular fibres
(fig. 2 d'), which is attached to the chitinous rod at the point
which gives attachment to the funiculus ; and at the point
where this is attached to the body of the polypide it divides
into two bands, one passing along the right side, and the other
along the left side of the body, to be attached, each at its own
side, to the pharynx below the lophophore. These fibres
constitute the great retractive muscles of the polypide.

But besides conducting the retractor muscles to their
point of attachment to the rod, the funiculus usually pre-
sents a series of dilatations. A greater or less number of

G1

these appear subsequently to coalesce, and ultimately form a
single large oval or somewhat reniform body, which clothes
itself in a firm, dark brown, ehitinous capsule, and, after the
disappearance of the polypide, remains behind in the tube
(fig. 1, e, e, and fig. 3). I regard it as a statoblast. The
formation of statoblasts in Rhabdopleura would thus cor-
respond in most points to what we know of their formation
in Plumatellce, Alcyonella, and other freshwater phylacto-
ccematous polyzoa where they are also developed in the sub-
stance of the funiculus. The statoblasts of Rhabdopleura,
however, differ from the corresponding bodies in the fresh-
water genera by being less definite in form and size. Their
contents consist of clear spherical bodies resembling cells,
but destitute of distinct nucleus. My specimens afford no
evidence of any portion of the animal specially devoted to
the formation of ova or of spermatozoa.

By the aid of acetic acid it was possible, in some of the
younger parts of the camfecium, to separate the endocyst
from the investing ectocyst as a very delicate membrane ;
only faint indications were obtained of that portion of it
which, during the retracted state of the polypide, becomes
reflected over the tentacles, so as to form the tentacular
sheath.

In some parts of the ccencccium the polypides may be seen
in various stages of maturity, and an opportunity has been
thus afforded to me of determining some important points
in the development of the bud.

In a very early state (fig.5) the bud may be seen as a minute,
flattened, somewhat rhomboidal body, attached by a short thick
peduncle, the rudimental funiculus, to a little proGess of the
rod similar to that which gives attachment to the funiculus
of the adult polypide. In a slightly more advanced stage
(fig. 6) the bud has somewhat increased in size, and there
may be now seen, projecting from its distal edge, two short,
cylindrical, tentacula-like processes (6). Careful exami-
nation now renders it evident that the greater part of the
bud is enclosed between two fleshy plates (a) united to one
another in a part of their circumference, and free in the
remainder. It is from between the two plates, where their
edges remain disunited, that the two tentacular processes
project. These processes are the two arms of the crescentric
lophophore, showing, as yet, however, no trace of tentacles.

In a more advanced stage (fig. 7) all theparts have still further
increased in size, the arms of the lophophore ( b ) project to a
greater distance from between the edges of the right and left
valve-like plates, and each carries a double series of minute
hemispherical tubercles ; these are the rudiments of the ten-

62

tacles. The two plates may now be compared to the covers
of a book attached to one another along the back, but
having the remainder of their edges free. They are com-
posed of elongated prismatic cells. While the arms of the
lophophore project from between their distal free edges, the
fundus of the stomach (c) with the attached funiculus (d) may
be seen projecting from between the proximal edges. The
funiculus is still short and thick.

As development proceeds the lophophore (fig. 8, b ) becomes
greatly increased in size, and the minute tubercles of the pre-
vious stage now show themselves as unmistakable tentacles.
The whole of the body, however, with the exception of the pro-
jecting arms of the lophophore, and the cul-de-sac of the
stomach with the funiculus, is still enclosed between the two
valve-like plates which have hitherto kept pace with the
general enlargment of the bud.

In the further progress of the development the plates
cease to keep pace with the growth of the other parts, and
by the time the polypide has attained its full size and adult
form they cover but a small portion of the whole, and may
now be seen as the peculiar shield-like organ (fig. 2, b ) which
performs so important a part in the morphology of Rhabdo-
pleura.

In thus following the development of Rhabdopeeura it
is impossible not to be struck with the resemblance of the
valve-like fleshy plates to the mantle of a lamellibrancliiate
mollusc, whose lobes lie, as here, to the right and left of the
body, instead of being placed dorsally and ventrally, as in
the Brachiopoda. The conviction is thus forced upon us that
the right and left plates of the young Rhabdopeeura may,
after all, be the representatives of the mantle-lobes of a
Lamellibranch.

If this be so, a new light is thereby thrown upon the
morphology of the Polyzoa, whose relations must then be
admitted to be more intimate with the Lamellibranchiata than
with the Brachiopoda, with which the Polyzoa have of late
years been associated. Indeed, the most important differ-
ence between a Polyzoon and a Lamellibranch will be found in
the direction of the intestine, which, instead of finally bending1
towards the closed or dorsal edge of the mantle, retains its
original neural flexure, and runs at once towards the open or
ventral edge. The absence of a heart and specialised respi-
ratory apparatus is of comparatively slight importance, and,
like the degraded condition of the nervous system, only shows
the low stage of development on which the Polyzoa rest.

1 See Huxley, article “Mollusca,” in ‘English Cyclopaedia,’ and “Lectures
on Comparative Anatomy.”

63

Further, the two arms of the lophophore will represent the
labial tentacles of a Lamellibraneh ; and since that portion of
the endocyst which forms the tentacular sheath in the
retracted state of the polypide is apparently continuous with
the posterior edge of the mantle, there can be no difficulty in
finding, in the ccrncecium of a Polyzoon the representative
of the siphon of a Lamellibraneh.

It should also be noticed that the whole polypide of Rhab-
doplcura is remarkably compressed from side to side, a fact
which further bears out the views here maintained of its
relations — views, however, which are in no "way inconsistent
with the obvious relations of the Polyzoa to the Tunicala.

The following diagrammatic figures will facilitate a compre-
hension of the relations here attempted to be proved between
a Polyzoon and a Lamellibraneh.

Fig. 1. — Diagrammatic Section of a Lamellibranchiate Mollusc.
a, stomach ; l, intestine; b' anus; c, labial pulp ; d, ventral edge of mantle ;
d' dorsal edge of mantle; e, siphon ; f, pedal ganglion ; g, cephalic
ganglion; A, parietal splanchnic ganglion; i, heart; k, posterior re-
tractor muscle ; k' anterior retractor muscle.

Fig. 2. — Diagrammatic Section of a Dud of Rhabdopleura.
a, stomach; b, intestine; 6', anus; e, lophophore ; d, ventral or open edge of
mantle ; d' dorsal or closed edge of mantle ; e, coenoccium ; e' reflected
portion of endocyst forming tentacular sheath.

64

Note on a Point in the Habits of the Diatomaceje and
Desmidiaceas. By Arthur Mead Edwards.

(From the ‘Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History,’ vol. xi.)

Although most writers on tlie subject are in the habit of
stating that many of the genera of Diatomaceae in the living
state are free, or non-adherent to other larger algae or sub-
merged substances, yet always since I first began the study
of the Protophytes, as is well known to my fellow-students
with whom I have from time to time discussed the subject, I
have held that all species are, at some period of their exis-
tence, in an adherent or attached condition, growing upon, for
the most part, aquatic vegetation of a larger size. I have
also frequently expressed the opinion that the adherent con-
dition of any species was but temporary and conditional ;
otherwise I could not see how the wide distribution of forms,
such as Cocconeis scutellum, an extremely widely diffused
marine species usually found attached to larger algae, or
Tabellaria flocculosa, an equally cosmopolitan fresh- water
species found almost invariably attached, was provided for,
as no motile spores of any kind are known to exist in this
family, although such may be the case.

At the outset of my studies of these extremely interesting
organisms I naturally accepted the classification laid before
me by the authorities on the subject, and referred the forms
I found to one or the other of the divisions of free or attached
genera, and, in fact, went so far as to construct and adopt
terms expressing these two conditions. The adherent forms I
grouped under the general head of Epiphytaceae and the free
under that of Eleutheraceae. As my studies progressed,
however, I was continually meeting with cases in which this
arbitrary mode of division would not apply, and the natural
conclusion come to was that the method was defective, as it
did not agree with facts. At last I have thus to publish my
conviction that such a division of the Diatomaceae into free
and attached genera does not exist in nature, and that most
if not all species are free at one period of their existence and
attached at another. I have seen several species which are
almost universally ranked as fixed species existing in a
natural state free and possessed of motion which they never
displayed in their attached condition. Although it is not
my intention at the present time to go very deeply into this
subject, yet I desire to record that I have noted the following
instances of such occurrences among others of a similar kind.

05

Gomphonema acuminatum and a Cocconema, the species of
which was not at the time determined, moved about in a
vigorous manner when found naturally detached, and also
when freed from their stipes by violence. Again, several
years ago I made a gathering of Schizonema cruciger, a
species which consists of siliceous frustules enclosed within
tubes of membranous material glowing upon other sub-
merged matter, having its frustules free and swimming
actively about upon the surface of the water without any signs
of investing tubes, which, however, were found empty hut
standing erect and adherent at the bottom of the ditch inha-
bited by the Schizonema. I have noticed that bare stipes of
an Achnanthes, without any pendent frustules, are by no
means uncommon, and also Gomphonema stipes can be found
in the same condition. In such cases, doubtless, the freed
frustules might be found near by, and, in fact, I have in
what may be called “free” gatherings, floating upon the
surface of the water, observed Cocconeis, Achnanthes, and
other forms which at one time I was in the habit of classi-
fying as Epiphytacca;. Once I freed by violence Schizo-
nema GreviUei and a Synedra which accompanied it, and
they both moved about in a rather lively manner, although
the motion of the Schizonema -was much more vigorous than
that of the Synedra. This was not remarkable, as the frus-
tules of Schizonema and Homceocladia are well known to be
freely movable within their investing tubes, although I do not
remember to have seen the fact of their activity without that
enclosure recorded. The observance of these facts of the mo-
tion of the detached frustules of such well-known forms as Schi-
zonema, Gomphonema and Achnanthes, calls up in the mind the
question of the individuality of the Diatomaceous frustule,
and it is a point to which I would call the attention of
students as one deserving and, in fact, calling for further
and searching investigation. If the whole frond of a Homceo-
cladia with its myriads of enclosed frustules is an individual,
then is the usually free Nitzschia, a single frustule of which
cannot be morphologically distinguished from a single de-
tached frustule of Homceocladia, also an individual ? — and is a
Navicula an individual as well as the group of similar forms
enclosed within the tube of a Schizonema or the gelatinous
frond of a Mastogloia ? Again, is a Cyclotella an individual as
well as the long chain of discs which go to make up the frond
of a Melosira or Podosira ? Upon this point I shall, hereafter,
have more to say, merely begging the record of an observed
fact bearing thereon by students of this extremely interesting
and, I am convinced, important branch of natural history.

VOL. IX. — NEW SEll. E

66

I desire to place on record that I have seen at least two
apparently and generally acknowledged free species of Des-
midiaceae attached to a submerged aquatic moss. One
was, Closterium, species not determined, which was for a long
time (as during the most of last summer the specimens were
growing in one of my aquaria) attached pretty firmly, by
means of a true stipes or stalk of no great length, to the
leaves of the moss, and that so strongly that it required some
considerable force to detach it. By rocking the covering
glass upon the slide, upon which the specimen of moss was
placed during observation by means of the microscope, the
Closterium could be made to swing about from side to side
upon its stipes without becoming detached. The other
species, observed at the same time, was a Micrasterias, and
this was fixed, generally in pairs, to the same moss, by its
broadest side, or by both valves, so as to present a “ front
view” (as it is termed when speaking of Diatomaceae) to
the observer, thus presenting an analogy to the genus Epi-
themia of that family which occurs growing after the same
manner ; Cocconeis, on the contrary, is attached by means of
the whole of one of the valves. The stipes of the Closterium
was, of course, at the end of the frustule where the valve
comes to a point, after the manner of a Cocconema, which
genus Closterium resembles much in form. In neither of
these cases do I designate the species, as that I deem hardly
of importance, the mere fact of Desmidiaceae being found
under such conditions being the important one. At the
same time it is as well to mention that these species were
thus found during the month of August, or in the midst of
the summer, the same forms having been observed free and
movable in the early part of the spring.

I have now to place upon record my opinion that the
Desmidiaceae are governed by very much the same law as
applies to their apparently near allies the Diatomaceae ; that
is to say, that they are all at some period of their existence
attached, and at another free.

67

On Naked Fresh-Water Radiolaria. By Dr. Gustav
Woldemer Focke, of Bremen.1

The distribution of animals in the older strata of the earth’s
crust would lead one to assume that fresh-water lakes could not
have been inhabited until a late period, and, indeed, the distri-
bution of living beings in fresh and salt waters is now very dis-
proportionate. With regard to many orders of the animal
kingdom, nature seems to have made some feeble attempts to
populate fresh waters, and then to have given up the matter ;
with others the distribution in both quarters is tolerably equal,
although no very important physiological differences seem to
exist; with the majority the sea presents a most decided pre-
dominance. Until recently Radiolaria have been found only
in the sea, or at least shell-less free-living forms have never
yet been observed in fresh water. In the middle of last
summer I, to my great surprise, discovered at the same
source three different kinds of creatures which presented
decided characters of Radiolaria. As most of the inhabitants
of the sea belonging to this order are enclosed in hard
porous shells, the examination of their tissue elements is
rendered difficult to a great degree ; consequently, the oppor-
tunity of examining these free-living forms from fresh water
offer a very desirable facility for making a minute investigation.

Unfortunately the information which can be supplied con-
cerning these creatures is as yet extremely fragmentary. Of
the history of their development no particulars can be given.
The present report, therefore, will merely indicate the exist-
ence of shell-less fresh-water Radiolaria, in order to give some
notion of the facts relating to them, and to attract the atten-
tion of any other observer, since the systematic determina-
tion and the physiological description of these creatures can-
not be attempted with any prospect of success until more
minute investigations have been made. The creatures have
a restricted range of locality, and in that range are probably
quite as scarce, since numerous organisms, some of which are
smaller, existing together with them, have been recognised
for a long time, and minutely described. The locality in
which fresh-water Radiolaria have been found is moor-pools,
that is to say, places in peat moors into which flow streams
from neighbouring sandy parts or old waste downs; into
these is discharged a scanty stream of water, which remains

1 Dr. Focke is evidently unaware of the researches of Mr. Archer, of
Dublin, on this subject, who has already in this Journal characterised one, at
least, of Dr. Focke’s genera. See “ Dublin Club Minutes.”

68

at an almost constant temperature of 8° R. by day, and is
never dried up. The fauna of these moor-pools, with regard
to the character of the creatures inhabiting them, the number
of the species they contain, and the rarity of these species,
varies very much from time to time ; this is probably due
partly to differences in the quantity of water in the stream,
and partly to some mixture of it with rain water or water
from some other source. Desmidiacese and Diatomaceae were
also observed ; the number of forms was small, some of the
species being rare, but the variety of specimens not very
remarkable. At different periods of the year the predomi-
nant species inhabiting these pools are replaced by others.
With regard to the Radiolaria, nothing has yet been deter-
mined on this point, since from the time of their discovery
attention has been almost exclusively devoted to the new and
particular forms brought under notice during three months of
summer.

The first sign of Radiolaria was presented in a small glass
vessel filled with moor water, one side of which, turned
towards the light, presented a bright-green lining, formed by
numerous Desmidiaceae. Whilst searching amongst the green
globules, discs, fronds, &c., for fitting specimens, I met with
a small green round body, which appeared to be surrounded
by a layer of jelly-like material. After this had been re-
moved with a pipette, and placed upon an object-bearer, I
found that it was a globular body indicating Pandiorna vnorum
or some allied form. On repeated examination I discovered
that there was a great difference between the impression that
had been made bv the object first presented and that of the
round body in the field of the microscope; the conviction
was consequently forced upon me either that I had not
removed the proper body with the pipette, or that its cha-
racter had been altered during the transmission. Whilst
endeavouring to clear up this obscurity by employing a
stronger magnifying power, I was called away. On my return
I was not a little surprised at the change that had occurred.
A covering of delicate sarcode had developed itself as a broad
border around the globular body, from which numerous
extremely fine, long, and pointed processes now passed out-
wards in a radiating direction. By peculiar to-and-fro
movements which accompanied the elongation and retraction
of these processes, slow and irregular locomotion, apparently
working in one fixed direction, was produced. This, then,
was a discovery of a previously unrecognised animalcule,
which, indeed, at first sight seemed to bear some affinity to
the Rhizopoda, and, in particular, to the Actinophrys, but

f»9

which was, as the following description will show, a shell-less
fresh-water member of the Radiolaria.

The most careful investigation was at first attended with
but little gain ; nevertheless, the mass of sarcode presented
at first one, and afterwards several, green globules, which
varied somewhat in size; as the number of these globules
was constantly two, four, eight, or sixteen, processes of divi-
sion So frequently observed in similar instances were indi-
cated. In these creatures could be recognised a dark double
contour of integument, which enclosed the green globules ;
within this was discovered a mass of nuclei, which at one
part, namely at that lying close to the inner surface of the
membrane, appeared of a green colour, and at other parts
was colourless ; this presented a very dark contour, refracted
the light strongly, and varied somewhat in extent. About
the green globules wTas next presented a broader border of
sarcode — that delicate, extremely fine, and ever-moving
substance which consists sometimes of mucous elements, some-
times of very fine, tortuous, and intercrossing lines, with
granules scattered here and there between them. From this
layer of sarcode start up pyramidal tongue-shaped processes,
and very fine spiny threads composed of the same substance,
and always placed at right angles to the tangents of the
spherical body, from which they radiate in all directions.
As these long processes end in extremely fine points, and are
constantly extended and retracted, thus probably causing the
movements of the whole mass, their actual limits may be the
better determined the smaller the magnifying power employed,
since with powerful objectives their points are removed too
rapidly from the adapted focus. The pyramidal tongue-
shaped processes without doubt take part in these movements,
since they can be seen to arise and disappear ; their move-
ments, however, seem to be slower, but cannot be satisfactorily
investigated in consequence of the general commotion.

The different parts of such an organism, so far as they can
be optically determined, might, then, be reckoned from within
outwards as follows :

1. The centre of the sphere is filled by colourless plasma
strewn with granules varying in size, which in itself, or in
consequence of the presence of the very broadly and darkly
contoured granules, refracts the light strongly on, or appears
brighter than, the surrounding water. This contrast is
presented most distinctly before the focus is closely adapted,
and when the details cannot yet be recognised with precision.

2. In the outer portion — that lying close to the including
membrane — of the plasma which is strewn with colourless

70

granules, exist largish, green-coloured corpuscles, and here
and there, in the midst of these, dark specks ; these green
corpuscles are scattered very irregularly, and often slowly
change their positions. They vary somewhat in size, being
on the average about -g-Vo"' iQ diameter. I counted about
one hundred of these in one body.

The spherical body sometimes presents in its interior a
bright and sharply defined gap; this, which will be again
referred to, appears like a vacuole.

3. The border of plasma enclosing the granules forms a
compact membrane, clear as water, and showing a broad
contour, which is darker and more sharply defined exter-
nally, and appears, in the majority of instances, to be the
covering of the sphere. Examples are not wanting which
prove that this membrane is very extensible, and capable of
being ^projected externally at several parts of its circumfer-
ence. This membrane, however, should not be regarded
merely as an enveloping structure to include the contents
of the body from the surrounding media, and to prevent
changes in its form, since in the marine Radiolaria it is con-
cerned in the formation of the shell. In the fresh-water
forms the membrane is sometimes roughened, and, present-
ing, as it were, a transition stage in the process of incrusta-
tion, is elevated at the base of each sarcode process into a
swollen protuberance, which projects in the form of a half-
sphere, and carries upon its summit the process. Both
protuberances and sarcode processes are often provided with
chitinous sheaths, which remain unaltered after death. The
extraordinary delicacy of the enveloping membrane admits
of no chemical examination; the slightest touch, and even
the dropping of distilled or rain water of a different tempera-
ture, causes the whole of it to coagulate into a shapeless mass.

4. The outer layer of sarcode, whilst contracted, is so
transparent and delicate that it will often fail to supply an
optical impression of its existence or extent. When visible,
it appears as a symmetrical covering closely surrounding the
central capsule, and with the same light-refracting power ;
thus at the most the contours of the envelope are somewhat
widened, but to what extent it is difficult to estimate with
the spherical form, as a change is induced hv the slight dis-
placement of the focus. When any part of the outer layer
of sarcode gradually becomes visible, a faint shadow is
formed about the lining membrane for a distance corre-
sponding to that of the indistinct contour, which is rendered
clear only by rapid movement of the light. With regard to
the optical peculiarities of this layer of sarcode, nothing more

71

can be indicated ; and much labour and trouble, and the
employment of all accessory means at command, supply one
merely with the fact that there is something present, with-
out being capable in the slightest degree of denoting what
its characters may be. In this sarcode arc presented light
and dark spots, delicate, tortuous threads, very small gra-
nules, and now and then a larger vesicle, indicating a limit
by faintly shadowed lines which always disappear instantly
when looked at closely. These threads, granules, &c., always
keep at some distance from the outer border line, so that a
still brighter margin surrounds the transparent inner mass.
In some instances the outer limit of this margin was found
curled and plicated ; it is a question, however, whether these
individuals which presented this condition were in a state of
perfect vitality.

From this layer of sarcode, which at the most can be dis-
tinguished only as a faint clouding around the enveloping
membrane, now arise processes which, by virtue of their
prismatic or cylindrically conical forms, can be better dis-
cerned. At times they are found completely retracted;
afterwards, some make their appearance at different parts of
the circumference, and one can generally declare, so long as
the lining membrane of the capsule is preserved, or remains
not essentially altered, that these processes extend in a
radiating direction, and are placed at right angles to the
tangents of the spherical body. The most frequent form is
that of a long needle with a very fine tip, which always
remains straight even when the needle itself is slightly
curved at its lower part. Among these needle-shaped pro-
cesses exist, in several Radiolaria, flattened and lancet-shaped
prolongations, which do not extend to so great a length,
and which, like the former, take the direction of the radii of
the spherical body. These, however, are distributed more
sparingly over the surface, and are never projected simul-
taneously with the needle-shaped processes. When, during
a long sojourn under the microscope, a complete unfolding at
all parts of the sarcode layer has taken place, these tongue-
shaped processes may be seen distributed with moderate
symmetry, and appear in number to bear a proportion to the
finer and longer processes of one to four or five. Nothing
more precise can as yet be supplied with regard to these
processes ; and as during their full unfolding the movement
becomes more active, and a rapid change of place continues
to be associated with a more frequent rising and sinking in
the water, it becomes extremely difficult, with the frequent
change of focus and the concern about retaining the object

72

in the field of the microscope, to state precisely whether this
or that process stands in the same row, or is placed above or
below the other.

The fundamental form of the fresh-water Radiolaria seems
to be the sphere, but this does not, however, preserve the
stability which, in the majority of Rhizopods, is dependent
upon the shell, nor does it present that rapid, proteus-like
change of form shown by the Amoebae, &c. The spherical
contour may, indeed, be converted into an oval or becomes
a triangular one, with very rounded angles, when external
influences are not opposed. When the determined direction
of the creature’s movements is obstructed the whole body
flows in an irregular and elongated form about the obstruct-
ing object, and seeks the nearest passage; next follows an
irregular, unsym metrical distribution of the sarcode pro-
cesses on its surface. These changes in form take place
slowly, and the previous condition is slowly regained.

To the clear, sharply defined, and vacuole-like spot occasion-
ally observed within the central capsule the less importance
is to be attached, as the specimens which presented this had
probably ceased to live.

Neither an accurate determination of the size of these
creatures, nor more precise details as to colour can be given.
The division processes appear to reduce the diameter of the
central capsule. No measure of full-grown specimens can as
yet be given, and the variable form of the body stands in the
way of this. The size of the species described in this report
fluctuates between — tV” - The colour appears only

darker or lighter, with changes in the illumination ; the rela-
tion, however, between the coloured and transparent granules
in the sarcode undergoes change, and the coloration conse-
quently acquires an altered character. The observed tints of
green and red correspond more to the colours of the Infusoria
than to those of chlorophyll and the red Algae. With regard
to the sarcode no further information can as yet be given in
addition to that already dealt with by other observers in
good works on the Rhizopoda, &c. The hitherto obscured
divergence of the processes in a radiating direction hardly
permits the notion that a fusion of any of these processes
generally takes place, and such has not yet been made out
during processes of division. Very frequently the most
flattened processes are filled with plasma-corpuscles.

The fresh-water Radiolaria cannot be easily confounded
with allied Rhizopoda, and as the first glance finds something
so characteristic, they cannot be considered as Desmidiacese.
Actinophrys is very similar in form, but possesses a con-

73

tractile vesicle, and never retracts its processes, which, again,
are always less numerous. Any confusion, however, will
always be prevented hv observance of the rapid movements
in one direction which these Radiolaria present.

By far the greater part of the marine Radiolaria bears a
hard trellised shell and firm spines, spiculae, hooks, &c. The
fresh-water Radiolaria being shell-less and unprotected, their
structure is consequently more simple, and they will therefore
fall into a place in systematic arrangements before the more
protected marine Radiolaria — according to HackeFs system,
before Tlialassicola — and thus extend the ranks of the
Radiolaria.

Dr. Focke gives full details concerning these species of
shell-less fresh-water Radiolaria, and refers the reader to
appended illustrative plates.

No. 1. — The first species presented at first sight four green
globules, surrounded by a border of sarcode and needle-shaped
and tongue-like processes. Division processes were indicated
by the fact that these globules were found in other specimens
in groups of two, eight, and sixteen. The granules within the

enveloping membrane, particularly those near the periphery
of the body, were subjected to rapid movements. In these
forms the sarcode layer and processes can scarcely be di

74

tinguished at the first examination, but become extended
after remaining at rest for a time under the microscope.
The movement of the bodies is constant, slowly progressive,
and apparently in a direction towards the light. The glo-
bular bodies formed by processes of division are sometimes
separated into two or more groups, each of which retains its
own envelope of sarcode. When this has taken place the
contours of the globular bodies become very irregular, and
the bodies themselves are more widely separated. The whole
of the creature is sometimes broken up into a number of
isolated bodies, each of which is perfectly round, and fur-
nished with its own layer of sarcode and with processes.
Very long fine processes are sometimes thrown out from one
body to another and connect the two. These isolated glo-
bular bodies also undergo division processes. One of these,
with included globules, and furnished with a long process,
suspended by which the whole moves backwards and forwards
like a pendulum, is represented by fig. 1. Some of the
creatures here described undergo the following changes : — The
processes are gradually retracted into the sarcode layer, a
part of which is then elongated, and presents internally
separated particles of the lining membrane enclosing isolated
masses of green granules. The lining membrane is some-
times lengthened in a pyriform shape and becomes distended
near the small end, and presents there a vacuole-like vesicle.

Finally, after death the elongated mass of sarcode breaks
down into molecular matter, the enveloping membrane of the
capsule retains its dark and distinct contour, the colourless
granules are removed, and the green granules withdrawn
from their original position near the perpihery.

No. II (fig. 2). — Two forms are described. The first con-

75

sists of a somewhat smaller body than that of the preceding
species. In this the gramiles lying near the enveloping
membrane are coloured red instead of green. The border of
sarcode is narrower, and the processes, for the most part, are
needle-shaped. The second form is represented by much
paler specimens, with coarsely granular contents ; these are
surrounded by a broad border of sarcode bearing very small
processes, and often show a large, bright, and sharply defined
circular gap (vacuole?). Whether this form really represents
a distinct species remains as yet undecided.

No. Ill (fig. 3a, 3b). — This species is represented by green

bodies, which are supplied with a narrow border of sarcode
and a considerable number of needle-shaped processes. They
differ from the first species in their size, the absence of
tongue-shaped processes, the number and distribution of the
needle-shaped processes, and in the increased proportion of
green-coloured granules. The form of these creatures is
circular, oval, or triangular, with very rounded angles.
With a very highly magnifying power a cellular structure
may be observed in the enveloping membrane, particularly at
its outer surface, where each needle-shaped process is placed
on the summit of an elevated cell. The lower part of each
long needle-shaped process is often enclosed in a fine sheath
(chitiue ?), which may be recognised after the death and dis-
section of the creature. This sheath, which is about 7177/" in
length and in breadth, is inserted into the summit of
the swelling on the surface of the lining membrane. (This
is illustrated by an ideal figure at 3b.)

In conclusion. Dr. Focke states that he has reasons for
believing that Eremosphaera viridis belongs properly to the
Radiolaria. This organism, which presents a large green
globular body, and multiplies by twofold division, was first
considered to be a germ-corpuscle, and afterwards one of the
Algse.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Our esteemed correspondent Count Castracane requests
us to correct two expressions in the translation of his paper
on the “ Reproduction of the Diatomaceae” in the last number.
In page 258, line 24 from the top, for “ vessel ” read “ cell
and in page 259, line 22, instead of “ inclosed in ” read
“ enclosing.”

Adulteration of Tobacco with Starch. — The Government have
been recently carrying on prosecutions against tobacco manu-
facturers and dealers for having in their possession tobacco
adulterated with starch. Amongst the numerous adultera-
tions to which tobacco is exposed it was not till very recently
suspected that starch was ever employed. Of course, such an
adulteration, if suspected, could he easily detected by the aid
of the microscope. This arises from the fact that the mature
leaf of the tobacco — the part that is used in commerce — pos-
sesses no perceptible traces of starch. It is true that during
the early stages of the growth of the tobacco traces of exceed-
ingly minute granules — which are true starch-granules — can
he detected. These, however, are very different from the starch
detected by the Government officers in the tobacco seized
in the prosecutions alluded to. In all the cases the starch
Avas either wheat- or rice-starch. In some cases the starch
had been boiled before application had been made of it to
the tobacco leaf, but this did not interfere with its ready detec-
tion under the microscope,by the aid of its reaction with iodine.
The quantity varied from 2 to 7 per cent. This quantity
is very small ; but, practically, it is found that tobacco
smeared with starch will take up more water, and thus the
tobacco is made to weigh more by the addition of starch.
The starch in these cases, however, has not been added so
much with the object of increasing the Aveight of the tobacco
as to enable the manufacturers to improve the Avorkable pro-
perties of the tobacco. In all cases this adulteration was found
in the Irish roll tobacco, and it is in the manufacture of this

77

article that the flour of the cereal plants was found of advantage.
Great praise is due to the Inland Revenue for carrying out
this prosecution so successfully, and thereby protecting the
honest trader. These prosecutions could scarcely have been
carried on but by the aid of the microscope. It was through
the energy and intelligence possessed by Mr. Philips, the
superintendent of the Inland Revenue Laboratory at Somer-
set House, that this instrument was placed in the hands of
the revenue officers under his guidance ; and this is not the
first instance of extensive frauds having been detected by its
agency. — E. L.

Coccoliths and Coccospheres. By G. C. Wallich. Sep-
tember 7th, 1868. — In a lecture “ On a Piece of Chalk,”
delivered by Prof. Huxley to working men during the recent
meeting of the British Association, and published with the
author’s initials in the September number of ‘ Macmillan’s
Magazine,’ attention is directed to certain minute bodies, to
which he gave the name of “ coccoliths,” as met with in
soundings obtained in 1857 by Capt. Dagman in H.M.S.
“ Cyclops.” Speaking of these bodies, the author says,
“ Dr. Wallich verified my observation, and added the interest-
ing discovery that not unfrequently bodies similar to these
coccoliths were aggregated together into spheroids, which he
termed coccospheres.” He goes on to say that “ A few years
ago Mr. Sorby, in making a careful examination of the chalk,
by means of sections and otherwise, observed, as Ehrenberg
had done before him, that much of the granular basis pos-
sesses a definite form. Comparing these formed particles with
those in the Atlantic soundings, he found the two to be
identical, and thus proved that the chalk, like the soundings,
contains these mysterious coccoliths and coccospheres.”

In the above extract I will, with your permission, point
out one or two inaccuracies, no doubt unintentional, on Prof.
Huxley’s part, but of sufficient importance to induce me to
beg you ■will afford me the opportunity of correcting them,
and at the same time of drawing the attention of naturalists
to some additional facts connected with the bodies in question.

The occurrence of the spheroidal objects to which I as-
signed the name of coccospheres, as being most intimately
connected with the coccoliths of Prof. Huxley, was detected
by me in North Atlantic soundings, whilst on the surveying
cruise of H.M.S. “ Bulldog,” in July, 1860, a general notice
of their existence having appeared in my * Notes on the pre-
sence of Animal Life at great Depths in the Sea ’ in Novem-
ber of the same year, and a detailed description, with figures

78

and measurements, having been published by me in the
‘Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist.’ in July, 1851. The identifica-
tion of the coccoliths of the soundings with those of the
chalk (to the last of which attention was drawn by E hr ten-
berg and Mr. Sorby) was announced for the first time in the
two papers just referred to, Mr. Sorby’s paper having
appeared in the ‘Annals’ in September, 1861. In this
paper Mr. Sorby actually refers to the spheroidal bodies
under the name I gave them. The merit of the identifica-
tion spoken of by Prof. Huxley, such as it is, I have there-
fore a right to claim as mine.

The coccoliths, however, cannot correctly be said to be
“ aggregated together into the spheroids,” as stated in the
lecture They are in reality arranged, at intervals, over the
surface of the spheroidal cell, on which their concave sur-
faces rest, and which is, to this extent, a separate portion
of the structure. When detached, as they invariably appear
to be in the chalk and the fossil earths (of which I shall
have occasion to say a word presently), they bear the same
relation to the supporting cell that the fallen fruit bears to
the tree that bore it, and nothing more.

Of their true position in the organic world I am ignorant.
But I have these important facts to add (referred toby me
incidentally in a paper on “The Polycystina,” which was
read before the Royal Microscopical Society in May, 1865, and
published in the ‘ Transactions ’ of that Society), that I have
detected coccoliths in abundance, and retaining their normal
characters, in some of the fossil siliceous earths of Barbadoes,
&c., and that coccospheres have been met with by me pro-
fusely in a living, or perhaps it would be more safe to say a
recent, condition, in material collected at the surface of the
open seas of.ihe tropics, and also in dredgings from shoal
water obtained off the south coast of England.

It only remains for me to add that, so far as the chemical
nature of these bodies can be ascertained by reagents and the
polariscope, there is reason to believe that carbonate of lime
enters largely into their composition ; and they furnish us
with another striking example, in which simplicity of struc-
ture has enabled an organism to weather the vicissitudes to
which the surface of the globe has been subject, and under
the operation of which more complex forms have ceased to
exist. — Athen<Bum for Sept. 19, 1868.

Prof. Huxley, at Mr. Sorby’s request, replied to this letter
and defended Mr. Sorby’s claim. See also his paper in the
last number of this Journal.

79

Nachet’s and other Immersion Lenses A correspondent

wishes for the opinion of the readers of the Journal on the
comparative merits of immersion and other lenses, for various
forms of work. We shall be happy to insert any remarks
upon the subject, based on experience.

Cell Diagnosis — We are anxious to suggest to those who
have the time the importance of a series of observations on
the various forms of tissue, the hairs, pollen-grains, raphides,
and starch-granules of plants. Any observer who will care-
fully examine a genus at a time, in these respects, as Mr.
Gulliver has done qu& Raphides, would perform valuable
work. We should be pleased to publish a series of such
papers.

Pain. — Some time ago a very small quantity of a fine silky
substance wras brought to England from California under
the above name, and it was used as an object for the
microscope, on account of its beautiful structure. Mr. Bing-
ham, in his very interesting paper on the “Volcanic Pheno-
mena of the Hawaiian Islands,” says — “ Palu is the silky
covering of the opening fronds of several species of tree ferns,
and is exported in large quantities to California, for beds,
&c.” (p. 4:26). The trade is so extensive that “ corduroy
roads” are made to the station where it is collected, and
■whole districts are leased for the “ Palu business,” and there
is a large number of “ Pa/w-pickers.” The Palu is collected
at Kelauea, which is the most tropical region in Hawaiia ;
the tree ferns have stems fifteen feet high to the base of the
frond, and eight or twelve inches in diameter.

REVIEWS.

One Thousand Objects for the Microscope. By M. C.

Cooke. With 500 figures. London: Warne and Co.

Mr. Cooke is so well known to the scientific world as an
active and careful observer with the microscope, that any
work from his pen would be sure to be welcome. In this
little book he has done a really excellent service to the
young microscopic observer. At the present day, many
persons possess microscopes who have no one near them to
point out the many objects of interest around them on
which to employ the microscope. Mr. Cooke here comes
forward as their guide ; and by the aid of 500 very cleverly
executed engravings displays the variety of objects for mi-
croscopic research, which may be collected from the vege-
table and animal kingdoms. As Mr. Cooke has not classi-
fied the objects, it would be impossible for us to give any-
thing like an idea of their nature or variety. It will suffice
for us to say that he gives illustrations and descriptions of
minute animals and plants, also of the minute anatomy
of both ; and of the parts, such as hairs and scales ; and the
secretions, such as starch, of the various members of both
animal and vegetable kingdoms. The work is dedicated to
the members of the Quekett Club, of which Mr. Cooke was
one of the founders. He offers it as the gift of a father to
his children ; and we are sure his hope will be realized, — ■
“ that it may be bread and not a stone.”

The Record of Zoological Literature, 18(17. Volume Fourth.

Van Voorst.

Another volume of this exceedingly valuable work has
appeared ; and an arrangement has been suggested by the
able editor, Dr. Albert Gunther, and acted upon by the
publisher, which enables those interested in a special de-

81

partment of zoology to purchase a part of the ‘ Record ’
containing that which relates to their subject, without
having to pay for the whole. The vertebrates form one
part ; the insects, spiders, and myriopods another ; and the
rest of the invertebrates, a third. It is this last volume
which will be of most interest to our readers, containing as
it does the literature relating to the minuter forms of animal
life. Dr. Edouard von Martens has given account of the
papers and separate works relating to the class Mollusca,
and to the great group of Crustacea, which appeared during
the year 1867 ; whilst Professor Perceval Wright, of Trinity
College, Dublin, has done the same for the Molluscoida,
Rotifera, Annelida, Scolecida, Echinodermata, Caelenterata
and Protozoa. The study of all these groups is intimately
associated with the microscope ; and it is pleasant to see the
pages of this Journal not unfrequentlv referred to in the
‘Record.’ No fitter recorder than Dr. Wright could have
been found for the work, which he has done with the same
ability as in former years. We could, however, wish one
thing ; and that is, that space would permit the recorders to
give a short account of many of the papers which now are
merely entered by their titles. Though, in our own chro-
nicle, we attempt to keep a record of the current literature
relating to microscopic organisms, it is yet not possible for
us to obtain the same survey as the yearly recorder ; and in
his pages will be found references to some works and papers
on microzoological subjects which have not come under our
notice : besides this, many of those who work with the
microscope are doubtless interested in special branches of
zoology ; and to those the Zoological Record will be invalu-
able. As a matter of duty, those who wish for the progress
of zoological science in this country, and who can afford it,
as we trust many can, should prove their regard for science
by the purchase of the ‘ Zoological Record.’

VOL. ix. — new seR.

f

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

Histology. Nerve. — Researches on the Intimate Struc-
ture of the Brain. Second series. By Lockhart Clarke.
7 plates. Philosoph. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1st part, 1868.

Studies on the Structure of the Cortical Substance of
the Human Brain, Part II. By Rudolf Arndt. 2 plates,
15 pages. Max Schultze’s Archiv, 1868, 4th part.

Changes in the Nervous System -which follow the
Amputation of Limbs. By Dr. Dickenson. Journal of
Anatomy, No. Ill, p. 88, pi. iv.

Nerve-corpuscles of the Penis and Clitoris in Mamma-
lia and Birds. By W. Bense. Henle u. Pfeufer’s Zeitsch.,
xxiii, p. 1.

End-apparatus of certain Nerves. By Ludwig Letzerich.
1 plate. Virchow's Archiv, part 4, 1868. 1 plate.

Mode of Termination of Nerves in the Testicle. By
L. Letzerich. Virchow's Archiv, March, 1868. — The au-
thor states that the nerve-fibres pierce the membrana
propria of the tubuli seminiferi, and end in a more or less
irregular pyramidal mass of protoplasm, in which lie clear
elliptic nuclei. The ends of the fibres lie, therefore, in close
relation to the outer layer of secreting cells. — Journal of
Anatomy, November, 1868.

Structure of Nerve-fibres. By Dr. Grandly. Bull, de
V Acad. Roy. de Belgique, xxv, p. 304. — From obsenations
made into the structure of nerve-fibres immersed when
perfectly fresh into solution of nitrate of silver, Dr. Grandry
concludes that the axial cylinder is composed of two sub-
stances of different physical and chemical properties, which
present a regular disposition. It probably consists of trans-

83

verscly arranged discs, separated from each other by a
substance which possesses different properties from the discs
themselves. A resemblance, therefore, may be traced
between its structure and that of striped muscle. He con-
cludes, also, that two different substances exist within the
nerve-cell which appear to possess, as in the axial cylinder, a
disc-like arrangement. — Journal of Anatomy, November,
1868.

Reply to W. Krause on the Membrana Fenestrata of
the Retina. By Hensen. 4 pages. Max Schultze’s Archiv,
1868, 3rd part.

Muscle. — Structure of Striped Muscular Tissue. By
W. Krause. Henle u. Pfeifer’s Zeitsch. 4th Part. 1868.

Contributions to the Knowledge of the Smooth Muscle-
fibres. By Dr. Schwalbe. 1 plate, 17 pages. Schultze’s
Archiv, 1868. 4th Part.

The Ciliary Muscle in Fish, Birds and Quadrupeds. By
R. J. Lee. Journal of Anatomy, No. Ill, p. 14.

On the Ciliary Muscle of Domestic Mammalia. By
Dr. Flemming. 2 plates, 22 pages. Max Schultze’s Ar-
chiv, 1868, 4th part. — Consult in connection with this
F. E. Schulze’s paper in No. IV, 1867, of the same
Archiv.

Blood, Lymph, and Vessels. — The so-called Amoeboid
Movements, and Cohnheim’s Inflammation phenomena.
Bv Dr. Ddnitz. Reich, u. Reymond’s Archiv, 3rd part.
1868.

The Exudation of Blood-cells, &c. By W. Koster. Neder-
landsch Archief voor Genees- en Natur-kunde, III, 3rd part,
1868. — W. Koster’s paper affords an exemplification, in
addition to others already given in this series, of the close
alliance existing between physiology and pathology. It
consists chiefly of illustrations, drawn from pathology, of
the fact originally observed by Cohnheim, of Berlin, that,
“ By a simple and easily repeated experiment with the
mesentery of a frog, we can satisfy ourselves that in the
commencement of an inflammatory process, while the red
blood-cells are still carried along with great rapidity through
the axis of the vessel, the colourless blood-cells remain
firmly adherent to the inner surface of the minute veins and
capillary vessels. We speedily see, particularly in the
minute veins, the colourless blood-cells penetrate into and
soon through the wall, and gradually diffuse themselves in
the intervening tissue. At the same time they, now and
then, like Amoebae, alter their form, acquire oue or more
pointed outrunners ; in a word, distinctly manifest their

■vr

84

contractility.” From the foregoing the following corollaries
are deducible : — The analogy between pus-cells and colourless
blood-cells ; the impossibility of distinguishing the two in
the blood ; the morphological agreement between a recent
exudation (as in pneumonia or pleuritis) and the product of
purulent softening of the same, on microscopical examina-
tion, &c. — Journal of Anatomy, November, 1868.

New Experiments on the Genesis of Leucocytes. By
Dr. Onimus. Robin’s Journal, November and December,
1868.

On Capillary Vascular Systems in the Gasteropoda.
By Professor C. Wedl. Anzeige der Akad. der Wiss. in
Wien, July 23rd, 1868, p. 179. — The theory proposed by
Milne-Edwards, that in the Mollusca the arterial and venous
systems are not united by a capillary system, but that a
system of lacunae destitute of proper walls intervenes be-
tween them, is not confirmed in the Gasteropoda investi-
gated by the author. In Helix, Limax, Turbo, Limnceus,
and Murex he has ascertained the existence of closed capil-
lary systems, with proper walls and characteristic of the
different organs; these may be displayed by injection either
from the arterial or the venous side. The existence of a
lacunar system must be denied even in the respiratory
organs. Nor could he convince himself that the vascular
system is open either towards the cavity of the body or the
outer surface. Hence the theory of the imperfect circula-
tion of the blood in the Gasteropoda is, at least, not of
universal application.

These observations of Professor Wedl’s are of greater
importance when considered in connection with Mr. Charles
Kobertson’s recent account of a similar condition of things
in Helix pomatia. Mr. Robertson’s observations are re-
ported by him at p. 148 of Vol. VII of our Journal.

On the Lymphatic Vessels in the Tail of the Young of Batra-
chia. By C. Langer. Anzeige der Akad. der Wiss. in Wien,
July 23, 1868. Successful injections of this system of vessels
facilitated the detection of many uninjected vessels, which
could be traced from the ends of the injected portions of the
tubes for a long distance in the tissue of the border of the tail.
They not only permitted the arrangement of the whole system,
but also the structure, connection and termination of the
individual vessels to be investigated.

The author found that they have sharply marked, even
outlines, without any indentations. Their appearance, as
regards the constitution of the walls and the form of the
nuclei, was hardly different from that of the fine blood-

85

vessels. The limitation of the capillary lymphatic ducts by
proper walls is easily ascertained in this object.

The capillary lymphatic vessels form a network, which in
the smaller tadpoles, and in the fine border of the tail in
larger ones, is diffused only in a single layer, but is overlaid
on both sides with the network of blood-capillaries.

At the margin of the vascular regions there are capillary
lymphatic loops, of which some are remarkably narrowed ;
but even in the interior of the border, thread-like anastomos-
ing branches are also met with so much narrowed that their
complete impermeability seems a matter of course. This
supposition is rendered still more probable by the discovery
of similar portions attached to injected ducts. In this case
they had also in part become coloured, but were only per-
meated as far as to the narrow part, usually furnished with a
nucleus, where the coloration was limited to the form of a
pointed narrow stripe.

Csecal terminations of the lymphatic tubules also occur ;
these issue broadly from the wall of a capillary, and usually
terminate quickly in a point, after producing a nucleus. It
is possible that some of these extremities may be only appa-
rently constructed in this manner, and really represent only
one arm of a very narrow loop, the continuity of which can-
not be traced; but appended portions which run out. into a
fine point, free on all sides, can hardly be regarded as any-
thing but true caecal terminations of lateral ramifications.

The signification of these, as also of the very narrow
thread-like loops, must be genetic. In favour of this view is
their similarity to the corresponding forms of the blood-
capillaries, which are regarded and described as tubules in
course of development. We must, however, in the author's
opinion, know precisely what influence contractility and the
treatment of the object may have upon the form of the finest
vascular tubes, before we can with certainty regard all these
vascular appendages as transition forms of new ducts.

Origin of Minute Lymphatic Vessels. By N. Afonas-
siew. Virchow’s Archiv, July, 1808. — N. Afonassiew, by
employing the method of physiological injection introduced
by his teacher (Chrzonszczewsky), has arrived at the results
stated as follows : — The connective-tissue-corpuscles are inde-
pendent cells, and form, through the union of their processes,
a system of anastomosing nutritive canals, from which the
finest lymphatic capillaries, possessing independent walls,
arise. This view is not in accordance with the opinion
entertained by certain anatomists of the Vienna school, who
consider that the lymphatics arise from mere sp ices in the

86

connective tissue. Afonassiew has also inquired into the very
curious observations made by Recklinghausen, Ludwig,
Dybkowsky, and Schweigger-Seidel into the existence of
minute pores between the epithelium-cells forming the free
surface of the serous membranes, and through which orifices
the serous cavities communicate with the lymph-vessels.
He regards it as affording origin to them, and as acting like an
intermediate system during the process of nutrition between
the blood and the lymph. — Journal of Anatomy , November,
1868.

Gland. — Structure of the Kidney in Birds. By II. Lind-
gren. — IJenle u. Pfeufer’s Zcitschr., xxxiii, p. 15.

Structure of the Kidney (in Bats and Children). By
M. Gross. Robin's Journal. — M. Gross investigates the
structure of the kidney in bats and children by the method
of isolating the tubes by the action of hydrochloric acid. The
straight tubes of the medulla pass towards the surface of the
cortical substance, where they branch; the branches then
bend backwards into the medulla, form the looped tubes of
Iienle, which again pass into the convoluted tubes and
capsules of Malpighi. — Journal of Anatomy, November, 1868.

The Lorenzinian Ampulke of the Selachians. By Franz
Boll. 1 plate, 17 pages. Max Schultze's Archiv, 1868,
4th part.

The Goblet Cells of the Intestinal Mucous Membrane.
By Theodore Emier. Virchow's Archiv, March, 1868. —
Theodore Emier communicates a long article on the goblet
cells of the intestinal mucous membrane. He reviews the
previously published papers on this subject. He adduces
numerous observations and arguments in opposition to Sachs
and others, in favour of the view that the goblet cells are
definite structures, and not artificial productions. He
describes and figures the mouths (stomata) of these cells
opening between the free ends of the cylindrical epithelium,
and points out that from their deeper ends, as well as from
their narrow extremity of the cylindrical cells, processes pass
off into the subjacent mucous membrane. — Journal of Anatomy,
November, 1868.

Goblet Cells and Ciliated Epithelium of Mollusca. By
Itabl. Rrickhard. — Rabl. Riickhard regards the striated
appearance of the intestinal epithelium as due to folds in
tbe cell-membrane. In Buccinium undatum he recognises
goblet-shaped cells like those described in the vertebrata,
situated between the ordinary cylindrical epithelium. — Journ.
of Anat., loc. cit.

Tegument. — On the Morphogv of Hairs. By Hr. A.

87

Goette, of Tubingen. 2 plates. Max Schultze’s Archiv, 1868,
3rd part. — This is an exceedingly valuable paper of fifty pages
in length, in which the whole question is reviewed and dis-
cussed in connectibn with a large series of new observations.

The Mode of Growth of the Bristles of the Chitons.
Kblliker und Sieb. Zeitschr., 1868, part 3.

General. — Structure of the Araneidte. By Drs. Reinhold
Bueholz and Leonhard Laudois. Reich, u. Reymond’s Archiv,
2nd part, 1868. 2 plates.

Vegetal. — Outlines of a Comparative Anatomy of Folia-
ceous Mosses. 9 plates. By P. G. Lorentz. Pringsheim’s
Jahrbucher, 3rd part, 1868.

Researches on the Structure of the Pistil. By M. P.
van Tieghem. Annales des Sciences Naturelles ( Bot unique •),
ser. 5, vol. ix, p. 127.

Embryology. — Development of the Semilunar Valves. By
Dr. Morris Tonge. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, April, 1868.

Researches on the Development of Osseous Fish. By C.
Kupffer, Professor in Kiel. 3 plates, 64 pages. Max
Schultze’s Archiv, 3rd part.

Researches on the First Rudiments of the Vertebrate
Body. By Professor Wilhelm His. Leipzig, F. Vogel. —
This is a quarto volume of 237 pages, and 12 large plates. It
is a most important contribution to the subject.

Development in Ovo of Certain Crustacea. By MM.
Edouard van Benedeu and E. Bessells. Bull. Acad. Roy.
Belgique, 1868. — The authors recognise two distinct types of
development. In the first, which is seen in the marine
Amphipods, the Copepods, and certain Lernese, there is
found in every point of the egg’s surface a layer of cells,
which is nothing more than the vitelline globules devoid of
their nutritive matter. There is total segmentation. In the
second — as in most Lerneae — there is a progressive formation
of the blastoderm, without total segmentation. The fresh-
water Amphipods belong to this group-.

Microzoology and Microphytology.— A New Species of Sar-
coptidae of the genus Glyciphaga. By Ch. Robin. Robin’s
Journal, November and December, 1868. 3 plates.

Monograph of the Recent British Ostracoda. By
George S. Bradv. (Complete.) 19 plates. Linnceun Trans-
actions, Part II, 1868.

Bryozoa of the Adriatic. By C. Heller. 6 plates. —
Trans. Zool. Bot. Soc. of Vienna, xvii.

A Contribution to the Anatomy and Development of the
Phvlactolsematous Fresh-water Bryozoa, especially of Alcy-
onella fungosa, Pall., sp. By II. Nitsche. Reich, und Rey-
mond’s Archiv, part 4, 1868. 4 plates.

88

Observations on Polyzoa, sub-order Phylactolaemata.
With 9 plates. By Alpheus Hyatt. Proceedings of the
Essex Institute, vols. iv and v, 1866 — 1868. Salem,
Mass., U.S.A. — A very careful and valuable description of
the organization of the fresh-water Polyzoa. Many histo-
logical details are given, and some remarks on general
homologies are offered. We cannot agree to any “neces-
sity ” for speaking of the fixed end of a polyzoon as its
“ anterior,” and the free end as its “ posterior ” extremity.
Anterior and posterior in relation to what? If in relation
to the activity of the animal, then assuredly the oral ex-
tremity must be called — as is usual — “ anterior.” But
“ anterior” and “ posterior” are bad words to use in homo-
logical nomenclature. They then mean nothing. Three spe-
cimens of Fredericella, four of Plumatella, one Pectinatella,
and one Cristatella, are here described. The plates are
executed in white on a black ground. Synoptical tables of
great precision and detail are given.

Observations on British Zoophytes and Protozoa. By
T. Strethill Wright, F.R.S. 1 plate. Proc. Roy. Phys.
Soc. Edinb., vol. iii.

On the Anatomy of Gordius. By Dr. H. Grenadier.
Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie, September, 1868.
— In this contribution is given a full description of the
anatomical composition of Gordius' ornatus taken from the
abdomen of a Mantis in the Philippine Islands. The result
of Dr. Grenacher’s investigations on this specimen, which
was a female, and also on specimens of G. aquaticus and
G. subbifurcus, differ from those previously reported by
Meisner, particularly with regard to the termination of
the intestinal canal and the generative organs. The so-
called excretory orifice at the posterior extremity of G.
ornatus leads into a cloaca, the lining membrane of which
is evidently an inward extension of the external integument,
as it is covered hy • short pointed papillae. This cloacal
cavity is surrounded by circular fibres of a muscular cha-
racter; superiorly, it is continuous with a wide tube which
forms the receptaculum seminis. In the front wall of this
tube, near the opening of the cloaca, is the slit-like orifice
of the intestinal canal. A section through the body of the
creature, near its extremity, presents four tubes : two lateral,
the oviducts, and two median, the receptaculum seminis
and the intestine. The oviducts are somewhat tortuous, and
terminate in front in the ovaries, which in this specimen
were distended with closely packed polygonal cells. The
intestinal canal passes, for a short distance, in front of the

80

receptaculum semiuis, and then passes to one side of
it. In specimens of G. aquations and G. subbifurcus
the receptaculum seminis was found to contain abundant
sperma, and to occupy almost the whole of the section.
The internal organs are separated by abundant, perien-
teric, cellular tissue. Iu male specimens of G. aquations
and G. subbifurcus , Dr. Grenacher found at the extre-
mity of the tail a wide flask-shaped cloaca, placed at right
angles to the long axis of the body. At the posterior wall
of this were three openings — one, the intestinal orifice,
placed superiorly and iu the median line, and the remaining
two, which formed the external openings of the vasa defe-
rentia, placed interiorly and on either side.

Dr. Grenacher, in his conclusions concerning the much-
disputed point of an oral orifice in these creatures, states
that so long as the Gordius is parasitic there is a distinct
mouth iu direct communication with the intestinal canal ;
but when the parasite has passed from the body of its host
and commences a free life, the mouth is more or less oblite-
rated. Sometimes a trace can be discerned of this opening,
sometimes it is altogether absent ; the anterior portion of
the intestines at the same time undergoes atrophy, and its
place is occupied by cellular tissue.

Noctiluca miliaris. By Dr. Donitz. 1 plate. Reich, u.
ReymoncTs Archiv, 2nd part, 1868.

On Noctiluca milaris, Sur. By J. Victor Carus. 2
pages. Max Schultze’s Archiv, 1868, 3rd part.

in No. 2, says Dr. Carus, of the ‘Archiv fur Anatomie,
Physiologie/ &c., by Reichert and Revmond which, although
published in May, has only just come into my hands, there
is a paper by Dr. W. Donitz, on Noctiluca. Dr. Donitz has
mentioned on page 145 that he has discovered an inexplic-
able error in that part of the ‘ Manual of Zoology ’ which
has been written by me. It is that I have described in the
diagnosis of Noctiluca a gelatinous parenchyma, as com-
parable to the mucous tissue of the higher animals. Thank-
ful as I am to have my errors corrected (for I know my works
are no more free from them than those of Dr. Donitz are), I
must, however, repudiate statements such as are made
in the remarks of Dr. Donitz. I say, in page 568 of the
‘Manual/ “The ‘ parenchyma * of the body (of Noctiluca),
which shows no contractile bubbles, consists of a homoge-
neous glutinous substance, through which numbers of nume-
rously ramified fine ‘ parenchyma strings ’ reach like a skele-
ton from the nucleus and the stomach towards the circum-
ference, on which arc found small bodies, enlarging towards

90

the interior, which show the same movement as the granules
in the pseudopodia of the Rhizopoda. The fibres become
finer and finer towards the surface of the animal, until at
last they form a meshwork under the outside skin, which is
fastened to the same by a finely granulated, cellular
layer.” For every one who wishes to read I thought this
clear enough. The difference between my view and that of
Dr. Donitz is that the substance between the sarcode skeleton
(, geriist ), which I have taken to be organic, he has considered
to be salt water. If I have used a term (in the shortly
framed diagnosis, which was meant merely to sharply charac-
terise the one group from the other) which suggested a cellu-
lar multiplicity, I may, perhaps, be to blame ; it cannot be
imputed to me, however, in direct contradiction to my un-
mentioned full description, that I imagined for one instant
there could be a parallel drawn between the substance of the
Noctiluca and the connective substance of the vertebrate
animals.

Dr. Donitz goes on to say, in page 146, “These cells ['the
obviously cellular layer’ of the outer skin, as mentioned above
by me] are nothing more than the meshes themselves, which,
bjr a superficial examination, could betaken for an epithelial-
like layer. To suppose that there are cells here, one would
be obliged before all things to prove the presence of a nucleus,
which would be exceedingly difficult in this case.”

Dr. Donitz, who has not seen the nuclei, may excuse him-
self on account of the difficulty. But to attribute to me,
who have seen the nuclei, a merely superficial examination,
is certainly extraordinary, the more so that he has not given
himself the trouble to see if others besides myself have
observed the same. But now, in the twelfth number of the
‘ Zeitschrift v. Wissenschaft. Zoologie/ page 564, there is a
paper by W. Engelmann, on the “ Cellular Multiplicity of
the Noctilucte,” of which Dr. Donitz should have been aware
if he thought necessary to make remarks on this animal.
There the nuclei are mentioned, figured, and measured.
Seeing that Engelmann and I have come quite independently
to the same view of the structure of the Noctiluca, I think
that our almost simultaneously published views may be con-
sidered as confirming one the other.

On which side is the superficiality, if not of the exami-
nation, at least of the critic, I leave the reader to decide. —
Leipzig, 15th September.

On Naked Fresli-water Radiolaria. By Dr. Gustav
Woldemar Focke, of Bremen. Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaft -
liche Zoologie, heft 3, September, 1868. "We give this paper
elsewhere in full.

91

Diatoms of Upper Tatra. By J. Sclmman. 4 plates
(separate). Zool. Bot. Society of Vienna, 1807.

Action of Light on Algae and some Allied Organisms.
By A. Famiutzin. Pringsheim’s J ahrbucher fur wiss. Botanik,
vol. vi, 1st and 2nd part, 1868, p. 1.

Mycological Notes. By F. Hildebrand. 3 plates. Pring-
sheim’s J ahrbucher , 3rd part, 1868.

On the Physiological History of the Mucedinse. By Ph.
van Tieghem. Annates des Sciences Nat. ( Botan .), vol. viii,
ser. 5.

On the Relations of the Gonidia of Algae and those of
Lichens. Botan. Zeitung, 1868.

On the Change of Gonidia of Lichens into Zoospores. By
MM. Famintzin and Boranetzky. Ann. Sci. Nat. {Botany),
ser. 5, vol. viii.

Microscopic Diagnosis — The Typical Value of the Lingual
Dentition in the right Distribution of the Genera of Gaste-
ropoda into Natural Groups and Families. By John Denis
Macdonald, M.D., F.R.S. 1 plate. Annals of Nat. History,
October, 1868. — This paper will, without doubt, be of interest
to many of our readers in whose hands we have recently
placed sis plates of figures of molluscous odontophores, with-
out, we regret to think, any new or important remarks upon
them. Dr. Macdonald’s paper will be found to be a really
philosophical attempt to advance our knowledge on this
subject. It is impossible to abstract a paper which is itself
much condensed. As to the value of the lingual ribbon as a
microscopic means of diagnosis, Dr. Gray (who has written
much on this subject) remarks —

“ 1 think that Dr. Macdouahl has committed an error
that is common to young naturalists — has mistaken an
analogy for an affinity. The form of the lateral teeth of the
odontophore is, no doubt, a good specific (and, may be,
generic) character ; but I think that Dr. Macdonald’s table
proves that it is not the character of a family. The cha-
racter of a family should be derived from the consideration
of the whole animal — its form, the form and development of
the teeth, and the form of the shell and operculum ; and not
from any one character, such as the form of the lateral
lingual teeth, especially if it brings together in the same
family such a series of incongruous genera, and separates
nearly allied genera as they are separated in Dr. Mac-
donald’s list. Therefore I cannot agree with him that ‘ the
lingual dentition appears to be the only appeal,’ or that the
best means for arranging the genera and families is accord-
ing to the form of the lateral teeth. I think, if any one will
consult Dr. Macdonald’s plate, he must perceive that the

92

lateral teeth gradually pass from one form to the other ; and

1 cannot conceive any reason why all the forms figured may
not belong to the genera of one family.”

On the Boring of Certain Annelids. By Dr. McIntosh.

2 plates. Annals of Natural History, October, 1868. — Dr.
McIntosh shows that a chemical explanation of the means
of boring of Leucodore is untenable, since that Annelid bores
in shale. He figures the bristles of the fifth segment, which
differ from those observed by Mr. Bay Laukester in a
species of boring Leucodore. It is probable that, in this
case, “microscopic diagnosis” will prove the existence of
two common species of this genus.

Apparatus. — Camera Lucida. Scientific Opinion, No-
vember, 1868. — A new camera-lucida to be employed in
taking sketches of living creatures, such as infusoria, has
been constructed by Mr. Charles Collins, optician. The
design is by Dr. Colies, of Calcutta. In using the ordinary
camera-lucida, or the tint-glass reflector, the body of the
instrument must be placed horizontally, or nearly so.
Hence, when unmounted preparations in liquid are laid
upon the stage they move out of the field of view, or the
liquid in which they are placed does so, and no adequate
sketch can be made. This difficulty is obviated in the
new camera by placing a right-angled tube containing a
right-angled prism at its angle, between the body of the
microscope and the eye-piece. The stage being then placed
in the horizontal position, and the image being thrown up-
wards, this latter is reflected horizontally by the prism, and
is bent up by the tint-glass reflector to the eye. We believe
the new camera will be found an extremely useful accessory
by the working naturalist.

Manual of Microscopic Photography. By Oscar Reichardt
and Carl Sturenburg. Quandt and Handel, Leipzig, 1868. —
This is an excellent little pamphlet, of some seventy pages,
giving the necessary instructions and useful suggestions as to
the art of photographing microscopic objects. Four illustra-
tive photographs are given. The first is a cross-section of
Hippuris vulgaris, and is magnified only lT2. Fig. 2 is a sun-
picture of a bit of the tracheae of the silkworm caterpillar,
magnified 4-2. Both these photographs are intended to be
examined with a lens. The two other figures are portions of
P/eurosigma angulatum, one enlarged 3(l°o) the other 87T50.
The original negatives were taken on collodion- albumen, and
Gundlach’s glycerine-immersion objective No. 7 was used. A
second enlarged picture was then taken. They appear to be
satisfactory specimens, though not equalling some of Lieut. -
Col. Woodward’s. Gundlach, of Berlin, sells a camera

93

movable on an upright by rack-work, and adapted for fitting
over the microscope, which is described and recommended in
this little hook. The hook may be had of Mr. David Nutt,
foreign bookseller, Bedford Street, Covent Garden.

Micro-Photography. By M. Jules Girard. — I have re-
cently taken some pictures, the result of powerful enlarge-
ments of diatoms varying from 800 to 1200 diameters.
To obtain clear objects suitable for enlargement, it is
necessary to establish a relation between the lens and
the length of the camera ; and the more powerful the
lens, and longer the camera used, the greater will be this
relation. There exists, however, a very variable limit, which
is incapable of being passed without altering the sharpness
of the object, and which, is the result of experimental trials
between these two combinations. As the intensity of the
light diminishes proportionally to the distance of the object,
it is necessary to have recourse to a condenser often com-
posed of several lenses corrected so as to prevent distor-
tion, which gives sufficient illumination to impress the
sensitive surface. The focussing must be rigorously exact,
as the most inappreciable digression of the microscopic
screw is sufficient to injure the sharpness of the object.
If enlargements of extraordinary size are required, a pro-
cess similar to that used for making ordinary photographic
enlargements may be employed. A small negative may first
be obtained upon a tbin strip of glass, which is afterwards
magnified by means of the microscope. This method is a
very delicate one, and necessitates very careful focussing
with a magnifier, in order that the most minute details may
be rendered as sharply as possible. In developing there is
likewise the difficulty of obtaining a suitable degree of inten-
sity for the object : if the process is pushed too far, the light
will be unable to penetrate ; if the development is insufficient,
the negative will lack clearness. Thus the pictures taken
direct possess the double advantage of being easy to produce,
and more exact copies of the original. — A Paper read before
the French Photographic Society, extract from ‘ Scientific
Opinion ,’ No. 6.

On taking Temperatures in Connection with the Micro-
scope. Bv Th. Engelmann. 8 pages. Max Schultze’s Archiv,
3rd part,' 1868.

A New Hot-Plate for the Microscope. By Dr. Alexis
Schklarewski. 3 pages. Max Schultze’s Archiv, 1868, 3rd

part.

Hcematoxylin-Colour. By H. Frey. — Max Schultze’s
Archiv, 1868, 3rd part.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dublin Microscopical Club.

16/7« July , 18G8.

Mr. Archer showed fresh specimens of Chantransia clialylea
and of Batrachospermum moniliforme, simultaneously, in order to
draw attention to a point of agreement in structure between
these Algrn, although of only morphological import ; thus, how-
ever, tending to confirm the modern view of putting Chantransiacese
and Batrachospermaceae side by side in the system. In Batracho-
spermum, as is well known, the tips of the cells at the summits of
the branches are each often produced into a very long filiform ap-
pendage, terminating in a somewhat thickened bacillar extremity ;
in this extremity seem to be condensed the cell-contents, leaving
the filiform, stalk-like cell hyaline. Now, in Chantrausia quite a
similar prolongation of some of the cells terminating the lateral
branches is to be seen ; they are, however, much fewer, as not by
any means every cell is so terminated, nor are they quite so
slender, but otherwise they seem to agree with those of Batra-
chospermum in structure. This character in Chantransia does
not seem to be noticed ; and whilst Mr. Archer took the opportu-
nity to allude to Hr. Graf zu Solms-Laubach’s paper in the ‘ Bota-
nische Zeitung,’ describing the fructification in Batrachospermum,
he ventured to suggest that, arguing upon the admitted similarity
to some extent in morphological structure, further supported by
these filiform processes, we might, perhaps, look out for a similar
fructification in Chantransia.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright showed specimens of the spicules of
Steletta nux (Sel.); also spicules from a new species of Steletta
discovered by him at the Seychelles, and described their general
points of distinction.

Mr. Crow exhibited a section of Coralline limestone from
Honduras.

Dr. John Barker desired to place on record the discovery of
Amoeba quadrilineata (Carter) in this country. It was interest-
ing to iiote the occurrence of a form not hitherto met with else-
where than in the tanks of India. This is a minute form, of a
broadly pyriform figure, not unlike A. Umax in general contour
and mode of progression, but is readily distinguishable by the

generally four longitudinal lines running down its sides, which
lines seem to be due to so many extremely narrow folds or
creases ; these become, indeed, sometimes obliterated when the
auimal becomes more than usually broadened out, but they
again appear on its reassumiug its somewhat pear-shaped figure,
and during active progression. It was curious to observe the
vigorous flow of the granules down the middle of the body for
about two thirds of its length, when they seemed to become sud-
denly arrested, and quietly lay by to one or other side, thus leaving
the anterior one third and a portion of each lateral margin of the
animal hyaline; from the anterior margin the very broad and
shallow, lobe-like pseudopodia became extended, whilst at the
opposite or posterior end occurred the nucleus and vacuole, ex-
actly as described by Carter. As in other forms which agree
with this in admitting of an anterior and a posterior end being
discriminated, such as A. Umax and A. villosa — the pseudopodia
being given oft’ only at one end — the progression of this form was
pretty rapid, and executed in tolerably straight lines or slight
curves, thus calling to miud the movements of the curious amoeboid
bodies described by Mr. Archer in StephanospJiccra pluvialis, in
which instance, however, these consisted of the modified primor-
dial cells of that curious organism. Dr. Barker had bad these
specimens tolerably abundantly in a gathering, in which they lasted
some six weeks, without undergoing any change. Their minute-
ness and comparative hyaline character rendered them, however,
somewhat readily overlooked.

Rev. E. O’Meara showed RJiizosolenia robusta.

Mr. Archer showed a really copious gathering of the Poly-
chaftus he had brought forward at a previous meeting, and ven-
tured to describe as Polycluetus spinulosus. A dip from this
gathering would sometimes show six or eight of this very elegant
rotatorian in one field ; in fact, twro or three dips would probably
disclose more specimens of this form than he had, perhaps, seen
altogether before. He regretted the pool (near Carrig moun-
tain) whence these were taken had since dried up, especially as
this fine species seems to be rather rare ; but still he thought
that, if sought for, it must turn up in other similar localities.

August 20 th, 1868.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a rounded pellucid cyst, enclosing a
number of the empty frustules of a Gomphonema, which wrere
quite destitute of contents — in fact, as clean as if prepared by
acid. Dr. Barker, with whom Mr. O’Meara seemed to coincide,
thought this must represent some phase in the history of the
diatom, from which view Mr. Ai’cher was inclined to dissent, con-
ceiving this “ cyst” rather to be that of some rhizopodous creature,
and its germs discharged, and hence wrould regard the diatoma-
ceous shells as representing simply the indigestible remains of the
animal’s last dinner.

96

Rev. E. O’Meara showed examples of Amphiprora duplex ,
taken at Bray for the first time, after repeated searchings in the
locality.

Rev. E. O’Meara, on the part of the Rev. T. G. Stokes, men-
tioned that the diatom recorded by the latter, in the Minutes of
the Club, January, 1866, as Triceratium Robertsianum, should, on
Greville’s own authority, have been recorded as Triceratium
extuberans.

Mr. Crowe exhibited a copious gathering, from the original
Bray-head locality, of Sfephanosphoera pluvial is in fine condition
and activity, showing that after all we had pilfered away from the
very circumscribed little pool in which it occurred, there was still
enough left for its perpetuation.

Mr. Crowe also exhibited a section of limestone from Gascony.

Dr. Moore showed specimens of a Stigeoclonium, probably S.
tenue, which had overgrown and much choked the leaves of
Ouvirandra fenestralis in the warm house in the Botanic Garden.
This plant is very prone to become enveloped by various Confer-
voids, and it had proved very difficult to grow it at all so as to
show the well-known and very remarkable peculiarity of the leaves.

Mr. Archer showed specimens, taken near Arklow, of the
Coelastrum, brought forward by him at the Club meeting, July
18th, 1867, which was gathered on that occasion in Wales, and
called by him Coelastrum Cambricum. The present were the first
found in Ireland. This form differs from C. cubicuin, in having
one, not three external tubercles to the cells. Some of the pre-
sent specimens showed young coenobia formed within the parent
cells, and almost ready to make their exit, which is accomplished
by the bursting of the inflated wall of the parent cell. In the
same gathering occurred numerous specimens of Scenedesmus
obtusus, also showing young coenobia within the old cells, and all
sizes of young colonies, some escaped, others, as mentioned, still
within the expanded parent cell— a state of things which, if it
had been seen by those who regard that the colonies increase in
number of cells by simple self-division of an original cell longitu-
dinally, and form the well-known double rows by a further
oblique division, would have controverted that view, the truth
being, as shown by Nageli, and as the present specimens proved,
the young ccenobium is formed by the simultaneous division of
the whole contents of the parent cell into the characteristic
arrangement proper to the individual form ; and the only ultimate
change, until new self-division sets in, yet observed, being an in-
crease in size of the constituent cells of the ccenobium.

September 1 7th, 1868.

Mr. Kirby showed silk from cocoons of Attacus Cynthia, or
Eria silkworm, which he had succeeded in rearing in the open air,
in the neighbourhood of Dublin, during the past year.

Dr. Frazer showed hydrated silica with vegetations of crypto-

97

gams, their markings produced by gelatinizing silica, and resem-
bling the dendritic appearance of many opaline minerals ; but
Dr. Frazer believed, from his observations, that the true cause of
the latter markings was arborescent forms of red and brown oxide
of manganese.

Professor E. Perceval "Wright exhibited a specimen of Hyalo-
nema, which he had dredged up from a depth of 480 fathoms,
about thirty miles to sea, off the coast of Setubal, near Lisbon.
He exhibited the beautiful arrangement of one set of spicula,
which form a delicate, open network, covering the otherwise open
oscula. He stated that he regarded the siliceous axis as the stem
of the sponge mass, called Carteria by his friend, Dr. J. E. Gray,
and that he had determined that the end of the axis — as had been
suggested by Loven — where the fibres become loose, is that one
imbedded in the mud, the sponge mass crowning the summit, and
presenting a somewhat different form in different specimens,
though Dr. Wright would here remark that he inclined to believe
that almost all the species referable to Wyville Thomson’s Order,
Yitrea, will be found to be pretty constant in their external forms.
From the examination of perfect specimens — nowr for the first
time — will it be possible to determine the exact position in this
sponge of all the beautiful spicula figured by Dr. Bowerbank,
Max Sehultze, and others.

When the sponge mass is washed away or destroyed, then the
parasitic Palythoa, which appears to be very common, grows up
over that portion of the stem left uncovered by the mud, and
presents the appearance figured by Brandt and others. Speci-
mens of this parasite were seen protruding their tentacles, a suf-
ficient answer to the supposition of Bowerbank that they are the
oscula of the sponges. Mouths they have certainly, but not at the
service of the sponge (Hyalonema).

The Hyalonema would appear to occur at this depth in great
quantities ; and in addition to the Palythoa, an Adamsia, a Sertu-
larian, and some pretty specimens of a Pollicipes, were all found
living, attached to its glassy stem. Professor Wright was greatly
indebted to Professor Bocage, of Lisbon, for his assistance in these
researches.

Mr. Archer cursorily exhibited a few new or rare forms of
Desmidieae, chiefly Staurastra, taken on an excursion to County
Galway, in company with Dr. Barker ; as, however, he had not
yet had time to examine them with all the critical care requisite,
he could only hope to return to them more minutely on another
occasion. A few forms in Cosmarium and Staurastrum he thought
he must defer till perhaps some time or other he might have an
opportunity to compare them with certain Continental forms ; two
or three he might describe as new on his own authority, whilst
two or three more were identical with others occurring nearer
home, which he had for some time in his mind’s eye as new, but it
would be a work of patience and delay to see authentic examples
of foreign forms. A few British forms turned upon these gather-

VOL. IX. NEW SER. G

98

ings which he had never found on the eastern side of this island,
and were now exhibited. Amongst these were Cosmarium ovale
(probably the largest species in the genus), Cosmarium connatum ,
Cosmarium amcenum, Tetrachastrum pinnatifidum, Staurastrum
gracile. Staurastrum Pringsheimii (Reinscli), and Micrastrias
Jennerie (Ralfs), both rare here, wrere likewise exhibited from
the Connemara gatherings. One or two other minute types of
algae of seemingly rare or local occurrence likewise presented
themselves.

Resolved, — That the Club cannot separate on this their first
meeting after the recent Railway Accident at Abergele on the 20th
of August last, without expressing their very deep regret at the
loss they have sustained by the death of their associate member,
the Hon. Judge Berwick. He was a most constant attendant at
the Club meetings, and took a very lively interest in the pro-
ceedings. His genial presence will not soon be forgotten by the
members.

Royal Microscopical Society.

October 14 tli, 1868.

This was the first meeting of the season.

The chair was taken by Mr. James Glaisheb, F.R.S., Pre-
sident of the Society.

After some remarks from the President as to the publication of
the transactions of the Society, the following papers were read :

“ On a new form of Heliostat,” by Lieutenant-Colonel Wood-
ward and Hr. Maddox.

“ On the Fungiform Papillae of the Frog's Tongue,” by Dr.
Maddox.

Some remarks were made by Mr. Henry Lees on Jacket’s
Binocular, and Mr. Mayall, the photographer, expressed his
opinion on the photographs of Nobert’s test-plates, made by
Lieutenant-Colonel Woodward, and described by him in the
Journal for October last. Considerable discussion followed Mr.
Mayall’s observations.

November 11th, 1868.

The President in the Chair.

Professor Asa Gray was elected an Honorary Fellow, and other
private business was transacted.

The Secretary announced the donation of a series of eggs of
Lepidoptera from Mr. Norman, and a collection of material from
the Gulf Stream from Lieutenant Cbimno, which was handed
over to Major Owen to examine and distribute to the Fellows
of the Society.

A paper on the “ Venation of Leaves ” by Mr. Gorham was

read. It did not relate to any branch of microscopical science.
Professor Asa Gray and Dr. Maxwell Masters, who were present,
made some remarks from a purely botanical point of view.

Mr. Kent read a paper “ On the Branchial Organs of Mysis,”
in which he described the long filamentous processes of the six
pairs of natatory feet of the trunk of this Crustacean as bran-
chial organs, giving as his principal reason that they were in
constant motion, and did not present on search any striped mus-
cular tissue, whence the motion was inferred to be involuntary.1

Living specimens of Mysis sp. from the docks were exhibited.

Mr. Baker of Holbom exhibited a marvellous slide of over 350
diatoms of various genera and species arranged in order in a space
of about a quarter of an inch. A slide of ten species of typical
test-diatoms was also exhibited. These slides, which appear com-
pletely to baffle all explanation of the method in which they have
been set up, were prepared by a German manipulator, J. Moeller,
of Wedel in Holstein, by whom they are sent to this country for
sale. It was resolved to purchase one of the slides of test diatoms.

December 9th, 1S6S.

The President in the Chair.

Dr. Carpenter exhibited numerous specimens of Foraminifera,
&c., obtained during his deep-sea dredging expedition, and made
a few remarks thereon. He could not bring before the Society a
formal paper for publication, as it was due to the Koval Society,
under whose auspices the expedition was fitted out, that that
Society should receive the first regular paper on the subject.
The expedition was suggested by the extraordinary results that
had been obtained in deep-sea dredging off the coast of Norway
by Professor Sars, who was Inspector of Fisheries to the Swedish
Government, and had therefore all the requisite appliances at his
disposal. It was proposed by his friend Professor Wyville
Thomson that the Government should be requested, through the
Council of the Society, to furnish a vessel for a similar expedition
off the British coasts. The request having been made, aud liber-
ally complied with, that part of the coast between Scotland (Cape
Koss) and the Faroe Islands was fixed upon for operations. The
vessel, “ The Lightning,” with himself and Professor Thomson on
board, duly arrived on the ground, but the weather being very
unfavorable, operations could not be commenced for several

1 G. O. Sars, in his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustaces d’eau douce de
Norvege, 1807/ gives a very different account of the branchial organs of
Mysis, to which we would draw the author’s attention. Instead of distinct
gills, he states that there are, under the cephalothorax, at the bases of the
feet, six peculiar organs, forming tlexuous cylindrical tumours of the sides
of the body, containing blood, aud communicating with the lateral slits of
the heart ; they are homologous with the branchial vessels of Decapods, but
are here peculiarly developed, so as to perform the function of gills. Mr.
Kent should also consult Dr. Dohrn’s recent paper on Cuma. — E. R. L.

100

days. A second object of the expedition was to ascertain the
temperature of the sea at great depths. For this purpose, they
sank three thermometers at each trial, and on account of the
uncertainty of registering minimum thermometers, no observation
in which at least two of them did not agree was relied upon.
They were much astonished to find in one series of observations
that at a depth of 500 fathoms the temperature of the sea was
only 32° Fahr., for other observers, Sir John Herschel and Dr.
Wallich, had given 39° Fahr., as the lowest deep-sea temperature.
This cold temperature did not extend beyond a limited area ; for
on each side of it, and also further westward, the temperature
was much higher; and they supposed it to be due to a cold
current from the north, meeting here with the Gulf Stream, which
latter then passes in a forked direction on each side of the cold
area. The range of the surface temperature was from 50° to
54° Fahr., generally about 52° Fahr.

It has long been an interesting question whether animal life
existed in the sea beyond a very limited depth. Sir John Eoss
more than fifty years ago brought up a star-fish from a depth said
to be 1000 fathoms, but which was probably 700 or 800 fathoms.
It was subsequently stated by the late Professor Forbes that
animal life could not exist below 300 fathoms, and his dictum was
for a long time generally accepted by the scientific world : but the
remarkable results recently obtained by Professor Sars at a depth
of 450 fathoms had completely disproved the statements made by
Professor Forbes.

Dredging having commenced they came upon a sand bank at a
depth of 480 fathoms, where the temperature was 49° Fahr., and
which they found contained abundance of Foraminifera. At a
depth of 530 fathoms they got a good dredge of Globigerime mud,
which was found to contain Coccoliths, Coccospheres, new Bhizo-
pods, Molluscs, Crustacea, Crinoids, &c., together with masses of
siliceous sponges which wfeen washed had a most beantiful appear-
ance. By another dredge at 650 fathoms they brought up this
GlobigerinsD mud containing all the varieties of Foraminifera,
Crustacea, Sponges, Ehizopods, &c., found in previous dredgings,
but not in such great abundance. This is the greatest depth from
which such living species have been recovered. The Globigerinse
mud, which they found very widely extended, is of a very viscid
character, aad consists of a kind of protoplasmic network in which
is imbedded the Globigerinae, Coccoliths and other calcareous
particles. A portion of this mud has been submitted to Professor
Huxley, and his examination confirms the view taken of it
expressed in his paper in the last number of the ‘ Quarterly Jour-
nal of Microscopal Science.’ Their opinion, therefore, is, that
given a wrarm temperature and a gradual subsidence, animal
life quay exist at any depth. He closed his observations by sug-
gesting that there should be no discussion, as he had brought no
paper before the Society, and discussion would no doubt ensue
when his paper was read before the Boyal Society.

101

Dr. Wallich requested that there might be a discussion, as he
considered that Dr. Carpenter had led the Society to infer that
it was Professor Sars who had disproved Forbes’ dictum that
animal life could not exist below 300 fathoms, and that reflections
were thus thrown upon the results obtained by him, Dr. Wallich,
in 1860, several years before the observations of Professor Sars,
and as there was a correspondence going on between himself and
Dr. Carpenter on the subject, he thought the results of other
observers ought not at the present time to have been brought
forward.

Dr. Carpenter replied that he merely mentioned Professor
Sars’ observations to show the origin of the present expedition,
and he was quite ready to admit that the results of Dr. Wallich
were obtained before those of Professor Sars : all that he said was
that Professor Sars’ observations had completely settled the
question of the incorrectness of Professor Forbes’ views.

The President remarked that it was understood when Dr.
Carpenter consented to come before the Society that there was
to be no discussion.

Dr. Carpenter then called attention to the objects exhibited
under the Microscopes. These were specimens of Cystellaria,
Globigerina, Lituola, Bhabdammina, Testularia, Astrorhiza limi-
cola, Milidine, Cornuspira, Khizocrinus, Tubes of Pectinaria,
Tubes of Annelids, &c. The formation of these tubes is very
remarkable. They consist of sand grains or minute shells built
up with great regularity and glued together with a ferruginous
cement which requires strong nitric acid to dissolve it. In one
specimen of Globigerina, the animal itself was to be seen.

A vote of thanks was then passed to Dr. Carpenter for bring-
ing his results before the Society; aud also to Mr. Charles Baker,
for the loan of six microscopes and lamps wherewith to sup-
plement the Society’s instruments in exhibiting the large number
of specimens on view.

In accordance with Bye-law No. 18, a Besolution of the Council,
which had been read three times before the Society, to remove
from the books the names of ten Fellows wTho were more than two
years in arrear with their subscriptions, was balloted for, and
there being the requisite majority in favour of the Besolution,
their names were removed accordingly.

The President reminded the Society that at the last meeting he
announced the presentation to the Society by Lieutenant Chimno
of a quantity of mud from deep-sea dredgings, and that Major
Owen had undertaken a preliminary investigation of it. Major
Owen had now completed that investigation, and the mud having
been arranged in eight classes dredged from depths varying from
2000 to 14,000 feet, it was now ready for distribution, and any
Fellow desirous of assisting at its complete examination should
apply to the Council for that purpose.

Dr. Carpenter called attention to a new description of case for
keeping slides, which had been made for him by Mr. Collins. It

was in the form of a book, and so made that a series of trays could
bo laid upon each other and closed in by a slide at the front. It
could then be kept on an ordinary bookshelf.

Quexcett Microscopical Club.

(Meeting at University College, London.)

June 26th, 1868. Mr. Arthur E. Durham, F.L.S., President,
in the chair. — Mr. J. A. Archer read a paper on “ Tobacco,” in
which the culture of the plant, its manufacture, adulterations, &c.,
were fully described, aided by numerous diagrams in illustration
of its microscopical characters.

The Secretary for Foreign Correspondence announced the
communications and donations which had been received from the
Continent and United States, and exhibited a slide received from
Germany, on which were mounted 400 diatoms, representing 370
species. The names of gentlemen proposed as officers for the
ensuing year were read, and notice was given of some alterations
in the bye-laws to be submitted at the next meeting.

Thirteen members were elected.

The annual excursion dinner took place on J une 23rd. An
excursion to Box Hill and the neighbourhood was made during
the day, and in the evening forty-four members dined together at
Leathei'head, the President occupying the chair.

July 24 tli, 1868. The President in the chair. — This being the
annual general meeting of the club, the report of the committee
was read.

The treasurer’s report, showing a very satisfactory balance
sheet, was read ; several alterations in the bye-laws were adopted,
aud the following gentlemen were elected as officers for the ensuing
year :

President. — Mr. Arthur E. Durham. Vice-Presidents. — Dr.
R. Braithwaite, Mr. M. C. Cooke, Dr. J. M. Dempsey, Mr. F. C.
Roper. Committee. — Mr. T. W. Burr, Mr. F. W. Gay, Dr.

W. J. Gray, Mr. R. T. Lewis, Mr. J. Bockett, Mr. T. Kettering-
ham. Treasurer. — Mr. Robert Ilardwieke. Hon. Secretary. —
Mr. Witham M. Bywmter. lion. Secretary for Foreign Corre-
spondence.— Mr. M. C. Cooke.

The President concluded his year of office by delivering an
address, in the course of which he warmly congratulated the
members upon the continued success of the club, and upon the
highly satisfactory nature of the reports which had been pre-
sented.

A cordial vote of thanks to the President was unanimously
carried, and his address wras ordered to be printed and circulated
amongst the members.

Ten members were elected.

103

Communications from abroad were read, and the proceedings
terminated with the usual conversazione.

August 25th, 1SG8. The President in the chair. — Mr. Marti-
nelli read a paper on “ Tubules of Crabshell.”

Mr. S. J. Mclntire called attention to some living specimens
of mosquitoes and British gnats, and an interesting discussion
followed.

Mr. Brain explained the construction of a patent collecting
bottle, which its inventor, Mr. Edward AYright, had presented to
the club.

Eight members were elected.

September J25th , 1S68. The President in the chair. — Nume-
rous presents were announced.

Mr. Slade read a paper on “The Preparation of Bone and
Teeth for Microscopical Examination.”

The alleged visitation of mosquitoes, which was discussed at the
previous meeting, was again referred to, and some carefully pre-
pared specimens of the lancets, as well as some living insects,
were exhibited.

At the conversazione which followed, Moller’s type-slide and
other interesting objects were exhibited.

Four members were elected.

October 23 rd, 1868. The President in the chair. — Amongst the
numerous donations 125 slides for the cabinet (contributed by
Messrs. Cooke, Russell, Edmunds, and Groves) were announced.

Mr. Mclntire read a paper on “ Cheyletus.”

Mr. T. C. AYhite described a new varnish for microscopical
purposes.

Mr. Bockett exhibited a case to contain six live-boxes.

Mr. George described a new form of collecting-bottle.

Air. Suffolk explained the details of his proposed class for
instruction in the use of the microscope.

Mr. Cooke repeated his offer to give a series of demonstrations
on microscopic fungi.

Eight members were elected.

Xovember 21th, 1868. The President in the chair. — Mr. Curtis
read a paper by Mr. Tatem on “ Melicerta.”

Mr. Low read a paper “ On the Uses and Structure of the Fly’s
Proboscis.”

Mr. Burgess exhibited a new form of collecting-box.

In accordance with notice given in October, the meeting was
made “ special,” and the following addition to the Bye-Laws was
adopted, viz., “ That any member desirous of compounding for his
future subscriptions may do so at any time by payment of the sum
of £10, all such sums to be duly invested in such manner as the
Committee may direct.”

Six new members were elected.

104

Extea Meetings. December 11 th, 1868. — This evening the
first of a series of extra meetings was held in the Library by per-
mission of the Council of University College. The object of these
meetings being to afford to members additional opportunities of
exhibiting objects and conversing thereon, no business of a formal
character was transacted. About seventy members were present,
and objects of varied character and interest were placed under the
microscopes.

These meetings, which are entirely supplementary to the
regular meetings, will be repeated on the second Fridays in the
months of January, February, and March, at seven o’clock.

Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.

Ordinary Meeting, March 31s£, 1868.

Edward Schunck, Ph.D., F.E.S., &c. President, in the chair.

“ A Search for Solid Bodies in the Atmosphere,” by It. Angus
Smith, Ph.D., F.R.S., &c.

I have so frequently for many years attempted to find, and
have found, organic substances which have passed from the air
into liquids in which they were collected, that perhaps the Society
will scarcely attend to another attempt, although it indicates, I
think, some progress. It was in the year 1847 that I first col-
lected what I believe was matter from the respiration and per-
spiration, and found that as it was kept it grew into distinct
confirmed forms.

Whilst examining some matters relating to the cattle plague I
found one or two remarkable points. I had before that time
used aspirators to pass the air through liquids, except in the oxi-
dation experiments. At that time I used simply a bottle which
contained a little water. The bottle was filled with the air of the
place and the water shaken in it. The difference of air was remark-
able. A very few repetitions would cause the liquid to be muddy,
and the particles found in many places were distinctly organic.

Lately I tried the same plan on a larger scale. A bottle of
the capacity of c.c. was filled with air and shaken with water.
The bottle again filled and shaken with the same water, and this
was repeated 500 times, nearly equal to 2 ^ million cbc., or 2495
litres. As this could not be done in a short time, there was con-
siderable variety of weather, but chiefly dry, with a westerly
wind. The operation was conducted behind my laboratory, in
the neighbourhood of places not very clear, it is true, but from
which the wind was blowing to all parts of the town. I did not
observe any dust blowing, but if there was dust it was such as
we may be called on to breathe. The liquid was clouded, and the
unaided eye could perceive that particles, very light, were float-
iug. When examined by a microscope the scene was varied in a
very high degree — there was evidently organic life. I thought it

105

better to carry the whole to Mr. Dancer, and to leave him to do
the rest, as my knowledge of microscopic forms is so trifling com-
pared to his. It may, however, interest the Society to hear of a
few of these previous attempts, the latest made till recently. I
shall, therefore, read from a report to be found in the appendix to
that on the cattle plague.

Mr. Crookes also brought me some cotton through which air
from an infected place had passed. It was examined at the same
time. Taking cotton in the mass, nothing decided was seen ; but
when it was washed some of the separate films were coated over
with small, nearly round bodies, presenting no structure, or at
least only feeble traces of it, and perhaps to be called cells. I
had not sent gun-cotton, as I intended, to Mr. Crookes, fearing
the rules of the post ; otherwise there would have been more cer-
tainty that the bodies spoken of did not exist previously on the
cotton. However, Mr. Dancer, who has examined cotton
with the microscope oftener than most persons, even of those
experienced in the subject, had never observed a similar appear-
ance.

The liquid had also a number of similar bodies floating in it.

It was then that Mr. Crookes sent a liquid which he had con-
densed from the air of an infected cowshed, at a space a little
above the head of a diseased cow. It was also examined, and it
presented similar indications of very numerous small bodies.
Not being a professed microscopist, I shall not attempt a descrip-
tion, but add that they clearly belonged to the organic world,
and were not in all cases mere debris. We found also one body
a good deal larger than the rest ; it resembled somewhat a Para-
mecium, although clearly not one.

We found no motion whatever, and only this latter substance
could be adduced as an absolute proof of anything organized
being present. Next day I examined the same liquid ; and,
whether from the fact of time being given for development, or
from other causes, there was a very abundant motion. There
were at least six specimens in the field at a time, of a body re-
sembling the Euglena, although smaller than I have seen it. When
these minute bodies occur, it is clear that more may exist, and
germs in this early stage are too indefinite to be described. The
existence of vital sparks in the organic substance of the air
alluded to is all I wish to assert, confirming by a different method
the observations of others. It might, of course, be said that
since the bottle was opened at Mr. Dancer’s the air at that
place may have communicated them. I answer that, before it
was opened, a good glass could detect floating matter ; some of it,
however, as the microscope proved, indefinite enough.

Finding this, and fearing that the long time needful to collect
liquid from the atmosphere might expose it also to much dust, I
used a bottle of about 100 cubic inches dimensions, and putting
with it a very little water, not above five cubic centimetres, I
pumped out the air of the bottle, allowing the air of the place to

106

enter. This was done six times for each sample, the water shaken
each time, and the result examined. This was done with the
same bottle that was used in my early experiments with perman-
ganate, and by the same method, except that water instead of
that salt was used. At first considerable numbers of moving
particles were found ; but it was needful to examine the water
used, and here occurred a difficulty. It was not until we had
carefully treated with chemicals, and then with distilled water,
again and again, that we could trust it. Particles seemed to
rise with the vapour, and if so, why not with the evaporating
water of impure places ?

Having kept an assistant at the work for a week, and having my-
self examined the air of three cow-houses, I came to the conclu-
sion that the air of cow-houses and stables is to be recognised as
containing more particles than the air of the street in which my
laboratory is, and of the room in which I sit, and that it contains
minute bodies, which sometimes move, if not at first, yet after a
time, even if the bottle has not been opened in the interval.
There is found in reality a considerable mass of debris with hairs
or fine fibres, which even the eye, or at least a good pocket lens,
can detect. After making about two dozen trials, we have not
been able to obtain it otherwise. Even in the quiet office at the
laboratory there seemed some indications.

I found similar indications in a cow-house with healthy cows,
so I do not pretend to have distinguished the poison of cattle
plague in these forms ; but it is clear that where these exist
there may be room for any ferment or fomites of disease, and I
do not doubt that one class is the poison itself in its earliest
stage. It would be interesting to develop it farther.

I have recorded elsewhere that I condensed the liquid from
the air of a flower garden, and found in it, or imagined I found,
the smell of flowers. I do not remember that I looked much to
the solid or floating particles, thinking them to be blown from
the ground, but it does not affect the result whether they be found
constantly in the air or are raised by the action of currents.

“ Microscopical Examination of the Solid Particles from the
Air of Manchester,” by J. B. Dancer, E.R.A.S.

The air had been washed in distilled water, and the solid
matter which subsided was collected in a small stoppered bottle,
and on the 13th of this month Dr. Smith requested me to ex-
amine the matter contained in this water. An illness prevented
me from giving it so much attention as I could have wished.

The water containing this air- washing was first examined with
a power of 50 diameters only, for the pin-pose of getting a general
knowledge of its contents ; afterwards magnifying powers varying
from 120 to 1600 diameters were employed.

During the first observations few living organisms were no-
ticed ; but, as it afterwards proved, the germs of plant and animal
life (probably in a dormant condition) were present.

I will now endeavour to describe the objects found in this

107

matter, and begin in the order in which they appeared most
abundant.

1st. Fungoid matter. — Spores or sporidiae appeared in numbers,
and, to ascertain as nearly as possible the numerical proportion
of these minute bodies in a single drop of the fluid, the contents
of the bottle were well shaken, and then one drop was taken up
with a pipette ; this was spread out by compression to a circle
half an inch in diameter. A magnifying power was then em-
ployed, which gave a field of view of an area exactly 100th of an
inch in diameter, and it was found that more than 100 spores
were contained in this space ; consequently the average number
of spores in a single drop would be 250,000. These spores varied
from 10,000th to 50,000th of an inch in diameter. The peculiar
molecular motion in the spores was observable for a short time,
until they settled on to the bottom of the glass plate ; they then
became motionless.

The mycelium of these minute fungi were similar to that of rust
or mildew fas it is commonly named), such as is found on straw
or decaying vegetation.

"When the bottle had remained for thirty-six hours in a room
at a temperature of 60°, the quantity of fungi had visibly in-
creased, and the delicate mycelial thread-like roots had completely
entangled the fibrous objects contained in the bottle, and formed
them into a mass.

On the third day a number of ciliated zoospores were observed
moving freely amongst the sporidiae. I could not detect any
great variety of fungi in the contents of the bottle, but I cannot
presume to say that all the visible spores belonged to one species ;
and as there are more than 2000 different kinds of fungi, it is pos-
sible that spores of other species might be present, but not under
conditions favorable for their development. Some very pretty
chain-like threads of Conidia were visible in some of the examina-
tions.

The next in quantity is vegetable tissue. Some of this formed
a very interesting object, with a high power, and the greater por-
tion exhibited what is called pitted structure. The larger parti-
cles of this had evidently been partially burnt, and quite brown
in colour, and were from coniferous plants, showing with great
distinctness the broad marginal bands surrounding the pits ;
others had reticulations small in diameter. They reminded me
of perforated particles so abundant in some kinds of coal.

The brown or charred objects were probably particles of par-
tially burnt wood used in lighting fires.

Along 'with these reticulated objects were fragments of vegeta-
tion, resembling in structure hay and straw and hay seeds, and
some extremely thin and transparent tissue showing no structure.
These were doubtless some portions of weather-worn vegetation.
A few hairs of leaves of plants and fibres, similar in appearance
to flax, were seen, and, as might have been expected in this city,
cotton filaments, some white, others coloured, were numerous,

108

red and blue being the predominant colours. A few granules of
starch, seen by the aid of the polariscope, and several long ellip-
tical bodies, similar to the pollen of the lily, were noticed. After
this dust from the atmosphere had been kept quiet for three or
four days, animalculse made their appearance in considerable
numbers, the monads being the most numerous. Amongst these
were noticed some comparatively large specimens of Paramecium
amelia , in company with some very active Rotifers ; but after a
few days the animal life rapidly decreased, and in twelve days no
animalculse could be detected.

Hairs of animals. — Very few of these were noticed, with the
exception of wool ; of this both white and coloured specimens
were mixed up along with the filaments of cotton.

After each examination as much of the drop of water as could
be collected by the pipette wras returned to the bottle, in order
to ascertain if any new development of animal or vegetable life
would take place, and the stopper of the bottle was replaced as
quickly as possible to prevent the admission of the particles from
the air in the room ; and I am tolerably certain that the objects
named in this paper are those which the bottle contained when
Dr. Smith brought it to me.

The particles floating in the atmosphere will differ in character
according to the season of the year, the direction of the wind, and
the locality in which they are collected, and, as might be expected,
are much less in quantity after rain.

The small amount of fluid now remaining in the bottle emits
the peculiar odour of mildew, and at present the fungoid matter
appears inactive.

For the purpose of obtaining a rough approximation of the
number of spores or germs of organic matter contained in the
fluid received from Dr. Smith, I measured a quantity by the
pipette, and found it contained 150 drops of the size used in each
examination. Now, I have previously stated that in each drop
there were about 250,000 of these spores, and as there were 150
drops, the sum total reaches the startling number of 371 millions,
and these, exclusive of other substances, were collected from 2 495
litres of the air of this city1 — a quantity which wmuld be respired
in about ten hours by a man of ordinary size when actively
employed. I have to add that there wras a marked absence of
particles of carbon amongst the collected matter.

MICROSCOPICAL ANU NATURAL HISTORY SECTION.

February 2477«, 1868. J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S., President of
the Section, in the chair.

Mr. Sidebotham sent two beautifully finished water-colour
drawings, accompanied by the following note :

“ I send you a couple of drawings of the dry-rot fungus
Merulius lachrymans, remarkably fine. Mr. Lynde, our treasurer,

1 Behind Dr. It. Angus Smith’s laboratory.

109

brought me the specimens, which he had met with during the
demolition of some old buildings. The drawings are of the
natural size. It is very rarely that such perfect specimens are
found, showing, as this one does, the curious structure of the
species, and its connexion with both the pore and the gill-bearing
divisions of fungi.”

Mr. Dancer exhibited some sand from the sea-shore at Santos,
South America. This sand was remarkably silvery in appearance,
a large portion of it consisting of minute plates of mica, and very
transparent fragments of quartz, which made it an interesting
object for the polariscope. It was rich also in Foraminifera,
spines of Spatangus, and fragments of Coralline.

“ Remarks on Molecular Activity as shown under the Micro-
scope,” by J. B. Dancer, F.R.A.S.

The author stated that, during the last thirty years, he had met
with many microscopical observers who were not acquainted with
the phenomenon to which the name of molecular action has been
given. This class of microscopists had confined their attention
to objects requiring a very moderate amount of magnifying power,
and generally to dry objects ; but when their investigations
extended to minute objects immersed in fluid which required
powers of 800 to 1500 diameters, they were startled by the appear-
ance of particles in active motion, not moving in a direct line, but
ribrating as if attracted and then repelled by each other, some
single, and others in clusters.

Many instances have come under the author’s notice in which
these objects have been regarded by microscopists as animalcuhe.
They have given rise to many very ingenious speculations, some
of which are connected with spontaneous generation; these
observers would have been saved much labour if they had been
acquainted with the experiments of the late Dr. Robert Brown on
active molecules.

The author does not imagine that the members of this section
are wholly unacquainted with the experiments of the early micro-
scopists on this subject, but in the abscence of more important
matter he thinks a brief account of the early observations on
these so-called active molecules may interest them.

The moving particles had been noticed by Leuwenhock,
Stephen Gray, Button, and others who supposed them to be
animated matter.

In the year 1827 the late Dr. Robert Brown, whilst engaged
in the microscopical investigation of the unimpregnated ovulum,
noticed that the pollen of the Clarckia pulchella was filled with
particles which appeared in active motion when immersed in
water. These observations were followed by the examination of
the pollen of other plants, the particles of which he found to
exhibit similar activity. For some time he was exceedingly per-
plexed with these phenomena, and was disposed to believe that he
had really seen in these minute bodies the supposed constituents
or elementary molecules of organic bodies, first so considered by

110

Buffon, Wrisberg, Muller, and Milne-Edwards, and on examining
various animal and vegetable tissues, whether living or dead, he
found, as he had expected, that active molecules were visible by
merely bruising the substances in water.

Continuing his observations, he found that particles from a
bruised specimen of fossil wood appeared to consist entirely of
these moving bodies. Erom this he inferred that these molecules
were not limited to organic bodies, or even to their products.

After this he proceeded to examine minerals, simple earths,
metals, and many other substances too numerous to mention, and
with similar results.

Some writers who commented on these experiments, but who
had not carefully followed his communications, asserted that Dr.
Brown imagined these particles to be animated — and this state-
ment was generally believed.

In 1829 the author’s late father repeated many of Dr. Brown’s
experiments, and, to prove that these moving particles could not
be animalculse, he placed some crystals and minerals in a crucible
which he subjected to a red heat, ground portions of them to
powder, then put it into distilled water, and showed the particles
in motion to his scientific friends. It is now well known that all
kinds of matter, if reduced to sufficiently small particles, and
placed in a medium in which they will not readily sink, will
exhibit these movements.

Now, as this phenomenon occurs in the cells of plants, the yolk
of the egg, and in decomposing animal and vegetable matter, it is
not surprising that the early microscopists, and, indeed, modern
ones, should have mistaken them for animalculae. The particles
which exhibit the greatest activity are exceedingly minute, rang-
ing from 10,000th to 30,000th of au inch in diameter ; they
remain active a considerable time if they are nearly of the same
specific gravity as the solution in which they are immersed. One
simple mode of producing them is to rub a little gamboge in
water, on a glass slide, and place a thin glass cover on it, using a
power of from 800 to 1200 diameters. They can easily be dis-
tinguished with less magnifying power, but are not so effectually
shown. If they are required for prolonged examination, Dr.
Brown recommends that the solution of gamboge be mixed with
a little almond oil. The minute globules of water are thus sur-
rounded by oil, and rapid evaporation is prevented.

The cause of the phenomenon is not yet satisfactorily accounted
for. Some have imagined that it is the physical repulsion of the
particles when uninfluenced by gravitation. The author has
tried many experiments with electricity and magnetism without
success. He thinks that the movement may possibly be con-
nected with the absorption and radiation of heat.

Those interested in Dr. Brown’s experiments and observations
on active molecules can refer to his republished papers in vol. i,
of the Bay Society’s publications for 1866.

Ill

After the meeting slides containing active molecules were
exhibited to the members.

A conversation took place on the preservation of dried plants,
in which Mr. Bailey stated that he uses with success glue with
carbolic acid for attaching them to the paper, as a preservation
against mites, placing also a few crystals of the dry acid in his
cabinet.

At the meeting held on November 3rd, Professor W. C. Wil-
liamson, F.R.S., called the attention of the Society to the struc-
ture of the Calamite from the Upper Coal-measures represented
in Pig. 478 of the 5th edition of Lyell’s ‘ Manual of Geology.’
He pointed out the existence of one Calamite within another, the
former representing the pith and the latter the exterior of the
bark, the pith and bark being separated by a well-defined woody
zone. This woody zone consists of a series of tissues radiating,
as in the recent Conifera, from the pith to the bark ; but instead
of being all alike, they consist of two structures, which are
arranged in alternating wedges. One of these is entirely com-
posed of elongated cells, which being arranged in linear
rows radiating from pith to bark, and being separated from the
former by a defined line, this tissue is to be regarded as a modified
form of pleurenchyma rather than of parenchyma. The interme-
diate radiating lamina; or wedges resemble slices cut out of a
coniferous Dadoxylon, having the same reticulated fibres and
muriform medullary rays, the latter consisting of a single verti-
cal row of cells. These structures replace corresponding wedges
in the Calamites recently described by E. W. Binney, Esq., but
in which latter the wedges consist wholly of masses of scalariform
tissue unfurnished with medullary rays. Immediately below
each node Professor Williamson pointed out the existence of a
verticil of prolongations of the pith, penetrating the cellular
wedges of the woody layer like spokes of a wheel. These he
terms “ verticil! ate medullary radii,” to distinguish them from
the ordinary medullary rays of the fibrous wedges. These fibrous
and cellular wedges run uninterruptedly in a longitudinal direc-
tion along each joint or internode of the Calamite, but at each
node their arrangement is altered. If prolonged, the cellular
wedges of one joint would run into the fibrous wedges of those
above and below' it. But as the fibres of the fibrous wedges are
continued from one internode to the other, they break up as they
approach each node, their fibrous laminae being twisted in an ex-
traordinary manner as they cross the node, in order to redistri-
bute themselves right and left to the fibrous wedges of the joint
above. In this part of the plant the fibrous laminae, aud medul-
lary rays, and the cells of the cellular layer become intermingled
in a remarkable way. At the base of each cellular lamina espe-
cially the fibres radiate from a common centre in an almost
inexplicable manner.

112

Bristol Microscopical Society.

The usual monthly meeting of this Society was held on the
19th of November, at the Philosophical Institution, Bristol, Mr.
W. J. Fedden, Vice-President, in the chair. The formal busi-
ness having been transacted, Dr. C. T. Hudson read a paper “ On
Triarthra longiseta .” Dr. Hudson entered minutely into the
anatomy of this curious Rotifer, and illustrated his communication
by diagrams and microscopical preparations.

MEMOIRS.

Monograph of Monera. By Ernst Hackel.

With Plates IX & X.

( Continued from p. 42.)

No nuclei or nucleus-like form could be perceived
throughout the entire plasma body of the Protomyxa, nor
contractile vesicles, if we understand by these, fixed organs
which, although without a differentiated wall, still occupy defi-
nite positions in the body. Nevertheless, a great number of
vacuoli were dispersed through the body, as well in the
central mass as in the thicker branches. These appeared in
the form of paler and more circular spots (fig. 11, 11 v) of
different sizes, the largest of 0 03 mm. diameter. If one
observed the same vacuole for a little time, its dilatation
and contraction, and its appearance and disappearance could
be distinctly observed. The former as well as the latter
occurred very slowly, and required from about two to three
minutes in the largest. By contraction the size of the vacu-
ole became smaller and smaller, at last the clear space
entirely vanished ; and it appeared as if the yellowish-red
plasma had flowed together over it. If the place w here the
vacuole had vanished was watched, the vacuole would some-
times be seen to reappear slowly in the same place. A paler
point appeared which became slowly larger and larger ; it
often exceeded its former boundary ; another time it did
not attain to it. But very often the vacuole remained
invisible, and instead of this one, one or more new vacuoli
appeared in other places, some near and some very distant.
Sometimes in the place of a large vanished vacuole ap-
peared a number (ten to twenty) of small vacuoli in the
neighbourhood, either irregularly scattered or grouped in
a circle over the place of the vanished vacuole. All this
shows that the contractile cavities in the body of the Proto-
myxa are really vacuoli, i. e., wall-less cavities filled with a
watery fluid in the middle of the homogeneous sarcode
parenchyma, like those which also occur in many Rhizo-

VOL. IX. NEW SER. H

114

pocla, Myxomycetse, &c. They are also not true contractile
vesicles such as occur in the true Infusoria (Ciliata), and
in some Amoebae ( e.g ., A. quadrilineata). These latter are dis-
tinct and permanent organs, no matter whether they can be
perceived to have an essential wall or not. True contractile
vesicles always occupy precisely the same situations in the
body, while the vacuoli appear and disappear here and there
in the solid albuminous mass of the plasmaparenchyma.
From this definition of vacuoli as distinguished from con-
tractile vesicles it is naturally in no way disputed but that
transitional intermediate forms between both occur. On
the contrary, I consider it very probable that the contractile
vesicles are developed from simple vacuoli phylogenetieally
(by natural selection).

The vacuoli, as well as the red granules which are scattered
in the homogeneous plasma of the Protomyxa and lie every-
where and wander everywhere, are appearances which stand
in the closest relation to the change of substance (StofFwechsel)
of this Moner. I tried to keep the Protomyxa in shallow
watch-glasses with sea- water and succeeded, with the best
results. 1 placed the small watch-glasses, each of which con-
tained a single Protomyxa, in a larger glass filled with water,
and inverted a large glass over it, so as to form a very roomy,
damp chamber ; and in this manner I succeeded in keeping
the Protomyxa alive more than three weeks, and in observ-
ing the phenomena of their nourishment and reproduction
in full detail. The next fact which I ascertained by con-
tinual daily observation was that the number of the vacuoli
and of the red granules was in direct proportion to the quan-
tity of food taken. I kept some Protomyxse in pure sea-
water without food, while I supplied others with plenty of
Diatomacese for food. In the first, the number of the red
granules as well as of the vacuoli had, after a few days,
already perceptibly diminished, while in the others they
continued the same, and from better nourishment even
increased. The individuals which were best fed with dia-
toms were quite filled with red granules, so that the sarcode
was thickly clouded ; and the middle yiarts of the body espe-
cially appeared quite opaque. Presently a greater number
of larger and smaller vacuoli appeared on all the edges and
extremities. On the other hand the hungry individuals
were pale, more yellow than red coloured ; the number of
red granules had remarkably diminished, as well as the num-
ber of vacuoli, and finally disappeared entirely (comp. figs.
11 and 12).

It is plain from this that the granules scattered in the sar-

115

code are the products of a change of substance. It is extremely
probable that they are assimilated substances which are pro-
duced by the chemical action of the digestive sarcode from the
food taken, and are afterwards changed again into sarcode
In . my article “ Ueber den Sarcodekorperder Rhizopoden,” I
have tried to show that this hypothesis is also probable with
the granules which are found in the protoplasma of the true
Rhizopoda (Acyttaria and Radiolaria) , and that their num-
ber likewise corresponds to the quantity of food taken and
digested. In the Radiolaria this hypothesis ajipeared to
become especially probable, since the granules in several
species are red coloured (in Acanlhostaurus purpurascens,
Acanthochiasma rubescens, and Actinelius purpureus)}

Not only the quantity of the graunles and of the vacuoli, but
also the strength and rapidity of the sarcode current, seems to
be dependent in the Protomyxa on the amount of nourishment
taken. Although this fact is much more difficult than the
foregoing to recognise and establish ; and although many
adaptations to external circumstances such as light, temper-
ature, &c., seem to affect the strength and rapidity of the
plasma current, I think I have convinced myself of its cor-
rectness by continued observations and by comparison of
the extremes. In the hungry individuals in which granules
and vacuoli had diminished in number, the current in the
branched mucilaginous threads was also weaker and slower
(Fig. 12). Presently the anastomoses of the branches of
the stream disappeared ; and instead, a large number of
extremely fine, divergent, but not anastomosing mucilagi-
nous threads were extended from the periphery of the sar-
code net. On the contrary, the crescent-shaped anastomoses
were especially numerous in the well-fed individuals, and
the peripheral cluster of hair -like and non-anastomosing mu-
cilaginous threads was wanting (Fig. 11). But it must
here be observed that some of these well-fed individuals
after resting for some time drew in their pseudopods,
and finally contracting themselves into a globular mass of
jelly, surrounded themselves with a covering. Before 1
enter on this encysted state of rest, and the reproductive
phenomena of the Protomyxa connected with it, I will say
something about the sensitiveness of this Moner. That the
true Rhizopoda (Acyttaria, Heliozoa, and Radiolaria) as well
as many Rhizopod-like organisms (Amoeba, Arcella, Actino-
phrys) were formerly universally and unhesitatingly classed
as true animals, arose partly" from the animal-like shape of
many of the forms of their shells (mollusciform Polythala-
mia), and partly from their nourishment being more animal

116

than vegetable, but was chiefly grounded on the motion and
sensitiveness of these organisms.

As on the one hand the phenomenon of motion seems
to indicate a definite will, so on the other hand the power
seems to indicate a distinct sensitiveness ; and finally some
would attribute to these living lumps of jelly a true soul or a
so-called spirit, just as they do to men and other true animals.
In these respects, too, our Protomyxa is allied to the true
Rhizopoda, and shows particularly the same appearances of
sensitiveness which I have described in one place in the
Radiolaria (1. c. p. 128), in another place in Protogenes pri-
mordialis (1. c. p. 362). This “ organic intelligence ” of the
Protomyxa shows itself chiefly and principally in this : that
every foreign body which touches its surfaces, especially a
moved or self-moving body, produces an increased flow of
sarcode to the touched and “ sensitive ” part of the body.
In taking food this Avas plainly to be seen. But if I care-
fully touched the Protomyxa under the dissecting micro-
scope with a very fine needle, this irritation also immediately
induced a strong flow of sarcode ; and the needle point AAras
regularly surrounded Avith it. But as soon as I tried to
pierce the interior of the sarcode body with the needle, and
moved it forcibly backAvards and forwards, all the pseudo-
pods were retracted, and the Avhole sarcode body contracted
itself into a shapeless lump. As a similar or like “ sensi-
tiveness ” is a quality universally present throughout all
organic protoplasm, and is recognised in like manner in
animals, protozoa, and plants, it naturally proves as little
for the animal nature of the Protomyxa as for that of the
true Rhizopoda and other Protozoa. The Protomyxa is, on
the grounds of this sensitiveness, just as little^of an animal as
the sensitive Mimosa.

In the course of these experiments on sensitiveness I tore
several specimens of Protomyxa to pieces, one into tAvo nearly
equal halves, a second into three, and a third specimen into
five rather unequal large pieces. Each of these pieces imme-
diately shrunk together into an irregular, roundish, sarcode
lump, which at first lay motionless for some time ; but it
soon began to expand into a flat disc, and to extend small,
stumpy projections here and there from the periphery;
these became slowly longer and longer, began to branch
out dichotomosely, and to form anastomoses Avith their tAA'igs,
and the entire plasma net was soon again reneAved as if
nothing had happened. Each of the artificially produced
fragments moved about as spontaneously and livelily as the
undivided Protomyxa. The artificial divisibility of the

117

Protomyxa is proved by these experiments. This pheno-
menon, remarkable in itself, is of the greatest interest
both for the doctrine of individuality (Tectology) gene-
rally, and for the natural history of the Protozoa spe-
cially. It has recently lost much of its marvel, that divisi-
bility by artificial separation is in all probability a very
general quality of the lower organisms ( i . e., the Protozoa),
since it appears in much higher organized as well as in more
strongly differentiated animals and plants.

I will take this opportunity of observing that during my
stay at Lanzarote, I made many experiments on the artificial
division of the Hydro-medusae, which were followed by the
most surprising results. The extraordinary divisibility and
powers of reproduction in the common fresh-water hydra
have been universally known since Trembley’s time,, and
have also been established in the marine Hydrozoa by Dal-
yell’s experiments. On the other hand, the possibility of
artificially dividing the medusae themselves (Gymnoph-
thalmata) , was previously unknown. My experiments
proved that it prevails to an amazing extent in many
medusae, especially in those belonging to the family Thau-
mantiadce of Gegenbaur (Laodicei of Agassiz). In several
species of this family I could divide the umbrella into
more than a hundred pieces ; and from each piece, pro-
vided it only contained a portion of the margin of the
umbrella, grew in a few days (from two to four) a complete
small medusa. Merely a loosened shred of the fringe
on which the base, the adjoining piece of the edge of
the umbrella, remained, formed a medusa in a few days.
The result that I obtained with other hydro-medusae was
still more surprising. Here I could divide the globular
non-differentiated cell-mass (or the ciliated globular larva)
which had come out of the egg-furrows into several pieces, and
from each piece was developed a complete larva. As I shall
detail these experiments in division in another place, they
are only casually mentioned here.

As soon as I had perceived the complete nature of the orange-
red star-shaped specks on the Spirula shell as Rhizopod-like
Protozoa, the idea naturally forced itself upon me that the
neighbouring previously described red balls were torpid
or encysted individuals of the same species ; and that those
balls in which the contracted orange-red contents were di-
vided into numerous small balls were connected with
monogenetic reproduction.

The red balls which I carefully detached from the Spirula
shell, and placed in shallow watch-glasses filled with sea

118

water in a large damp room, in a few days (four to six)
already allowed me in some specimens to follow the indivi-
dual development of the Protomyxa further. In all the
balls the orange-red plasma contents divided, after it had
retracted itself from the hyaline capsular wall, into a great
number (several hundreds) of small round, thoroughly struc-
tureless, naked halls. This division did not stop with
a repeated bipartite division of the encysted plasma-body ;
but, meantime, a great number of individual centres of at-
traction in the homogeneous plasma mass were differenti-
ated, and similar plasma portions congregated round these
central points. rlhe process wmuld consequently be better
conceived as a germ formation (Monosporogonia), than as
a process of division or gemmation.1

The small red balls (of 0 017 mm. diameter) remained
several days longer in the thick-walled cyst, entirely filling
its interior without any further change being perceptible in
them. When I placed them again under the microscope
after the lapse of about a week, I noticed in some of them a
slow movement of the balls inside the cyst. The motion
consisted in no regular rotation of the balls, but in a slow
change of place among them, in which they crowded in all
directions among each other without any fixed order.

Some hours afterwards the motion had become livelier ;
and the red balls had assumed a pear-shaped form, in which
one end was produced into a fine point. In their confused
motions within the cyst they changed the shape of their soft,
pear-shaped bodies many times, becoming sometimes drawn
out into a longer, sometimes into a shorter club-shaped body,
and sometimes they became twisted.

Next day I found one of the cysts burst ; the empty
collapsed wall lay shrivelled at the bottom of the watch-glass,
and a great number of small club- or pear-shaped red bodies
moved about freely in the sea-water. It now appeared that
the red balls were the sporules of the Protomyxa, and that
they danced about after issuing from the cyst like Flagellata,
or like the sporules of Algse. I now burst, with a slight
pressure of the object-glass, another cyst, in which the motion
of the germs inside was already perceptible, and immediately
saw the small, red, pear-shaped bodies issue in a thick swarm
from the burst membrane (fig. 4). Immediately after the exit
the form was more slender, being drawn out into a longer tail
at the front end, and the motion was perceptibly accelerated
(fig. 5). The form of the free sporules (fig. 5) or the tail-
bearing germs (or rather germ-cytodes) was slender, pear-
1 Vide ‘Generelle Morphologie,’ vol. ii, p. 70.

119

shaped, from the rounded base to the finely drawn out
point about 0‘06 mm. long, at the broadest point (just before
the hinder rounded -off end) 0’012 mm. broad. The hinder
portion of the sporule soon became more globular, rounded
itself off more egg-shaped, and very gradually became atten-
uated in a conical slender neck, which then produced itself,
becoming thinner, into a very fine tail. The motion of this
tail (flagellum) was more pendulous or parabolical than
serpentine. The tail dragged along the entire germ with it
by its continuous and very lively motions. The germ was
thoroughly simple and homogeneous throughout its whole
mass, without a trace of any nucleus or contractile vacuole,
likewise without a trace of membrane, and was entirely com-
posed of the yellowish-red ground substance of the plasma,
in which very fine red granules were imbedded. On applica-
tion of solution of iodine the germs were immediately
brought to a standstill, and coloured deep yellowish-brown.
It was now quite manifest that the entire germ was structure-
less throughout, and thereby the morphological status of the
simplest conceivable organic individual was that of a naked
cytode or gymnocytode. Besides the extremely fine red
granules, there was no difference in composition throughout
the homogeneous plasma-mass to be observed. The tail was
nothing more than a drawn-out hair-like projection of the
plasma or of the sarcode itself. When the movements of the
sporules (or the swarming gymnocytodians) of Protomyxa
were more closely observed, they were found to be extremely
similar to those of the sporules of the Myxomycetae. De
Bary’s description applies as well to the one as to the other.
The motions of the spores consist in an advancing movement
towards the front end, combined with a rotation of the whole
body on its longitudinal axis, whereby if it is extended it
winds itself in the curve of a cone, wdiose base is formed by
the circumscribed front end, and wrhose point is formed by
the hinder end. The base describes the largest circle, and
every other point on the surface of the body a smaller one in
proportion as it lies nearer the hinder end. Meantime the
cilium was always undulating like a whip-lash from one side
to the other, which motion produced a backward waving or
swinging in the body. The rotation is often wanting, and
the last form of movement is alone present, or both alternate
with one another. Simultaneously with these movements and
changes of places, the body shows continual changes in its
outline — worm-like twistings, alternating on different sides,
contraction into a more globular form and re-expansion, peri-
staltic contractions, and, finally, the protrusion of small

120

pointed processes, which are again retracted, Amoeba-like, in
continual change, and are renewed afresh, and which gene-
rally appear most numerous at the rounded-off hinder end.

The spores of the Protomyxae resembled those of the
MyxomycettE in form as well as in their movements, with
this difference only, that the former, as long as they swarm,
show no appearance of vacuoli. The next stages of both
spores are also quite similar. Both come to rest after some
time, assume an Amoeba-like position, and then develop (at
least partially) by assimilating plasmodia.

The swarming time of the Protomyxa spores seems to last
at least one day ; at least, I never saw them come to rest on
the same day on which they issued from the cyst. On the
following day I mostly found them lying quiet at the bottom
of the watch-glass ; the tail of the spore was drawn in, and
the pear-shaped form of the body was exchanged for that of
an irregular roundish disc, whose star-shaped circumference
was drawn out into several processes. The reddish-yellow
plasma bodies now completely resembled in outline the spores
of Myxomycetse when they have come to rest, or likewise
Amoeba radiosa of Ehrenberg ; only the surrounding pro-
jecting processes (usually from five to twenty in number)
were sometimes more of a slender cone-shape, and were
sometimes more club-shaped (fig. 6). Most of the processes
were simple, but, at this stage, the largest already began to
divide themselves dichotomously, or repeatedly to ramify
themselves. The protrusion and retraction of the ever-chang-
ing processes was accomplished throughout in the same
manner as in the lively moving species of Amoeba. A short
time after the sporules of the Protomyxa had become
stationary, and had passed into their Amoeba-like condition,
they already began to take nourishment. With a drop of
water I introduced a number of small Diatomaceae into the
watch-glass, and those Amoebae which came in contact with
the Diatomaceae attached their processes to them, and began
to close round them in the usual manner. The Naviculae
were soon entirely enclosed by single Amoebae, whose whole
bodies, as it were, seemed to form only a thin mucous film
over them (figs. 8, 9). The yellowish-brown plasma-contents
of the siliceous skeleton of the diatom were assimilated by the
Amoeba, which then drew itself back from the empty shelly
covering, and recommenced the characteristic Amoeba motions,
the constant protrusion and retraction of the ever-changing
finger-like processes. The volume of the small Amoeba
increased, perhaps, about twice or thrice by the digestion of
a Navicula, and now the processes also began to lengthen,

121

to ramify more, and already to form an anastomosis here and
there.

After nourishment had been taken, vacuoli first began to
appear in the Amoeba, but these were entirely absent both in
the stationary and in the swarming spores. Generally there
appeared first a single vacuolum, less frequently two or three
together, like bright, slowly pulsating, circular spots in the
reddish-yellow Amoeba-body. But it could be already estab-
lished, by continuous observation, that the vacuoli were not
constant retractile vesicles, but were accumulations of fluid
within the contractile homogeneous plasma-parenchyma.
They sometimes appeared in one place, sometimes in another,
without reappearing after they had vanished. I could many
times immediately follow in the swarms of Protomyxa under
my eyes the formation of a plasmodium by the growing
together (concrescence) of two or more Amoebae. Some-
times it happened that two Amoebae, which had left a Navicula
free at the opposite ends, and had drawn themselves over it,
by meeting in the middle, flowed together into one (figs. 8, 9).
After the subsequent digestion the united plasma-mass with-
drew itself, like a single Amoeba-like individual, from the
empty siliceous shell. But in the free Amoebae also, which
met upon the glass and touched with their outstretched
pseudopods, the process of union could be immediately
observed. There, when the Amoebae crept near and among
each other in thick groups on the surface of the glass, I often
saw three or four unite together at once (fig. 7) . Thus origi-
nated larger plasmodia, which already showed a transition to
the above-described full-grown Protomyxa (fig. 10), from
their larger number of vacuoli, and from the more numerous
ramifications and anastomoses of the extended processes.
Whether the formation of a plasmodium, i.e. the origination
of larger sarcode bodies by concrescence of several Amcebse, is
a necessary and inseparable process in the development of
the growing Protomyxa, or a mere accidental and indifferent
one, I am unable to decide. But I think the latter case is
more probable. I isolated several simple Amoebae singly in
small glasses, and furnished them with plenty of diatoma-
ceous nourishment. In a few days they became perceptibly
larger, and attained from four to six times their original
volumes. The pseudopods became longer, and formed more
numerous branches and anastomoses. There is no reason for
presuming that none of the above-mentioned Amoebae, by such
continuous growth, could reach the full size of the completely
developed Protomyxa, and could then reproduce itself just as
well, and in the same manner, by sporogony as the plasmodia.

122

These last, as a compound of several united Amoebae, would
only have the advantage of growing quicker and becoming
stationary sooner than the single Amoebae. To complete the
natural history of the Protomyxa, it still remained only to
observe the encysting of the adult form, the transition from
the free-moving plasmodia to the stationary red balls which
had attached themselves to the Spivula-shell near the latter.
I succeeded in establishing this also. Two of the largest of
the best-fed plasmodia, which contained very numerous
vacuoli, and which had formed a very extended sarcode net,
with many branches and anastomoses, after some time began
to slacken their extremely rapid currents, and to simplify
their pseudopods. The siliceous shells of the many absorbed
Diatomaceae were rejected, and the branches and twigs of the
pseudopods were successively retracted. At last they drew
back the main stems, which had ’every where become simple,
into the central plasma-body, and the entirely homogeneous
sarcode body took the form of an irregular lump, and finally
rounded itself into a regular ball.

Now commenced the separation of the covering of the
cyst, in which the sharply defined single outline of the
orange-red plasma-balls passed into a perceptible, though
certainly fine, double outline. A second, and then a third,
concentric boundary line soon followed this, and then the
proper concentric hyaline cyst-covering appeared somewhat
quickly (in the course of a day), its layers corresponded with
the stated breaks of the separated gelatinous skin. At
first a quantity of vacuoli were still perceptible in the
plasma during the encysting process, which appeared and
disappeared here and there, but visibly decreased in num-
bers ; and after the complete development of the cyst-cover-
ing no vacuoli could be any longer perceived in the orange-red
plasma, now interspersed with numerous granules. The en-
cysted plasma-ball was now no longer to be distinguished
from those red balls whose transition to the mass of sporules
I have above described. Thus was the cycle of the genera-
tion of the Protomyxa completed, and the course of its simple
and remarkable life-history established. Protomyxa auran-
tiaca is a Moner which, like the Vampyrella and Protomonas ,
appears in two different conditions during the course of its
individual life. In its free-moving condition the Protomyxa
appears as a naked Gymno-moner, of the morphological im-
portance of a Plastidien (cytode), as simple as can be con-
ceived, which successively assumes three different modifica-
tions : — I. The swarming flagellate condition, a free swim-
ming, naked, tailed, pear-shaped, sporule (fig. 5). II. The

123

creeping Amoeba condition, an Amoeba of the simplest kind
(Protamceba), without a nucleus and without a contractile
vesicle, without ramification and reticulation of the pseudo-
pods (fig. 6). III. The reticulated Rhizopod condition, a
colossal naked plasmodium, with ramification and reticulation
of the pseudopods, and with formation of vacuoli (figs. 10-12).
In the immovable condition the Protoinyxa appeared, on
the other hand, as an encased Lepomonies, as a Lepocytode.
enclosed by a separate membrane, consisting of a thoroughly
homogeneous globular plasma-body, and a structureless mem-
branous covering separated from it (fig. 1). The plasma-
body divides by monosporogony into numerous small balls
(figs. 2, 3), which, after their exit from the burst membrane
of the cyst (fig. 4), swarm about as Flagellata (fig. 5). With
this the simple cycle of the generation of the Protomyxa is
completed.1

II. — 2. Myxastrum radians.

See Plate X, figs. 13 — 24.

On the quay of Puerto del Arrecife, the port of the Canary
island Lanzarote, on the fiat places of the harbour’s beach
which are left uncovered by the water at low tide, several
Actiniae are to be found in great quantities, especially a
brownish-green Anemone, besides thick tufts of Codium
tomentosum and other Algae. The fine brown mud which
covers the stony bottom of these fiat places contains, among
other forms, numerous Diatomaceae and Polythalamia. In
order to study the latter, and, if possible, to ascertain some-
thing about their reproduction, I collected a little of this mud
and let it stand for some time in a shallow covered glass
basin. After some days, as I stirred up the mud in one of
these glasses, which I held against the light, with a glass rod,
I perceived among the dark particles which had been stirred
up and were floating about in the water (Diatomacem, bits
of stone, &c.) single small, transparent, pale grey dots, just
visible to the naked eye, which much reminded me of Acti-
nosphcsrium Eichhornii, Stein Adinophrys Eichhornii,
Ehrenberg), of our fresh waters, (which is visible under
similar circumstances. Placed under the microscope, it

’ My Protomyxa are probably very closely allied to the white eg°--like
balls which Ecker found in dead eggs of Lymnaus stagnalis, (‘ Zeitscur. fur
Wiss. Zool.,’ 1851, vol. iii, p. 412, tab xiii, figs. 1 — 4). The.globular cysts,
from which issued sporules with two tails (Cercomonadae) remind us front
Ecker’s description extremely of Protomyxa. Unfortunately their further
development was not observed.

124

immediately appeared that these bodies did not belong to
the true Rhizopoda, but, perhaps, to one of those very simi-
lar organisms of the simplest kind. Under a stronger mag-
nifier (fig. 24), these bodies looked like small globular par-
ticles of jelly, whose central plasma-body radiated from its
whole periphery a very large quantity of fine, radial, mucous
threads (pseudopods). This peripheral zone of threads was
about as broad, or only a little broader, at most twice as
broad, as the diameter of the central sarcode mass, from
which these radiated. This measured about -01 mm., so that
the entire diameter of the body of the largest individuals was
•03 mm., but in the longest extension of the rays reached
•05 mm. The threads which proceeded from the surface of the
ball of jelly with a tolerably broad conical base rapidly nar-
rowed, and terminated in a very fine point. Ramifications
of the threads were very unusual, and were not here and there
observable as simple, seldom repeated, forked divisions, which
ran at a very sharp angle partly from the base, and some-
what more from the outer portion of the threads. Anasto-
moses were also very sparingly present, except in those por-
tions where nourishment had just been taken (fig. 23).

The entire substance of the body of this slender, nume-
rously rayed jelly-star was throughout structureless and
homogeneous. The similarly constructed sarcode mass of
the central ball passed its periphery unbroken over the out-
stretched threads. The only bodies which could be perceived
in the structureless, pale yellowish, or nearly colourless,
ground substance, were numerous very small interspersed,
bright shining particles, and a small number of larger,
also strongly refracting, granules. If these granules sus-
pended in the plasma of the jelly-star were continuously
observed, a very slow and deliberate change of position could
be noticed among them, apparently the indication of a slow
current of the sarcode, which demonstrated that the mass
Avas of very considerable consistency. This was, indeed,
manifested by the superposition of a covering-glass, by the
moderate pi-essure of Avhich the globular body Avas but a little
flattened. The nearest adjoining bundles of threads Avere
broken off, and their detached points, some of them bent
several times, swam about in the Avater. By continued pres-
sure a still larger quantity of the protruded pseudopods Avere
loosened ; others Avere very sloAvly retracted. On increased
pressure the Avhole body Avas reduced to a shapeless mass,
Avhich did not, however, spread itself out flat on the stage,
but broke into many irregular pieces. All these phenomena
apparently indicated an unusual consistency and toughness

125

of the congealed plasma, in a similar way to that of several
Diatomacea? and our Actinosphcerium Eichhornii, as opposed
to most of the other Rhizopoda.

In its entire form and size, in the consistency of the
tough and inflexible plasma-threads, their slight inclination
to ramification and anastomosis, and slow-moving granules,
this Moner resembles the well-known Actinosphcerium Eich-
hornii as also in its taking of nourishment. This it was easy to
observe as soon as one followed the small bodies which, swim-
ming about in the water round'our jelly-ball, came within the
circle of its rays. These were especially Diatomaceae, Peri-
diniae, the Nauplius-form of different Crustacea, and several
Infusoria (fig. 23).

As soon as one of these swarming bodies came among the
rays of the Moner it rested on it, apparently in consequence
of the slimy nature of their surface. On trying to disengage
itself it irritated the neighbouring pseudopods by its uneasy
motions, and now these spread themselves slowly over the
captured prey from all sides, just as is known to occur in
Actinospluerium. Usually, single threads were to be ob-
served among them, which, after longer continued contact,
formed a true anastomosis. But these did not always appear
to envelope the prey and to surround it with a continuous
sarcode covering, as is the case in most true Rhizopoda.
Rather it seemed that the stiff pseudopods, which pressed
closer and closer round the captured prey, often only dragged
it to the surface of the central plasma-ball, and finally drew
it into the tough viscous mass itself (fig. 23). On the surface,
a shallow groove formed for the reception of the foreign body
became deeper5 and deeper, and finally closed again over
it. Sometimes a small quantity of sea-water wTas sucked in
with it at the same time, so that the morsel seemed to lie in a
vacuole of circular outline. The swallowed prey, whose
movements had generally already ceased before it was taken
into the central body, was now slowly and gradually drawn
into the centre of the latter, and there digested. The in-
digestible remains were slowly rejected in the same way,
generally encompassed by a little fluid, as by a globular alveo-
lus. The surface of the central viscous ball opened at an
indifferent spot, and between the bases of the pseudopods the
excrementa issued forth. While in all these respects our
Moner is very similar to the well-known Actinosphcerium Eich-
hornii, on the other hand it showed by closer examination such
differences as to prove itself to be a very different Protozoon.
Actinosphserium is easily distinguished from all known simi-
lar Protozoa by two different anatomical peculiarities — first.

126

by the palpable division of the body into a central (inner)
and a peripheral (outer) layer ; and, secondly, by the peculiar
structure of the pseudopods. Its central or inner mass
consists of a sarcode body, which contains numerous true
nucleated cells. On the other hand, the external sarcode
encloses numerous closely pressed vacuoli, which give the
entire outside an alveolar appearance. Each pseudopod
consists of a firmer hyaline axis-substance, which proceeds
from the inner portion, and of a thinner outer substance,
full of moving granules, which envelopes the former. By
these histological differences Actinosphaerium is already
closely allied to the Radiolaria, from which it is, however,
substantially different, as the cell-containing central mass is
not separated from the peripheral sarcode by a special
membrane (central capsule). At the same time, it is distin-
guished from the true Actinophrys ( A.sol .) by those substantial
differences which ally the latter by its homogeneous sarcode
body closely to the Monera. In any case it is very unjusti-
fiable to consider these two very distinct Protozoa as two
different species of the one genus Actinophrys. Stein’s
separation of the true Actinophrys (A. sot.) from the much
higher organized Actino splicer ium ( Eichhornii ) is, under all
circumstances, necessary. Actinosphaerium is a true Rliizo-
pod, intermediate between the Acyttaria and the Radiolaria,
and which I have therefore placed between both in my
‘ General Morphology’ (vol. ii, p. xxviii) , as the representative
of a particular (third) main division of the true Rhizopoda
[Heliozoa) .

The viscous little star represented in figs. 23, 24, contains in
its perfectly homogeneous sarcode body, neither the nucleus
holding cells nor the bladder-like vacuoli of Actinosphaerium.
The difference between an inner and outer layer in the tho-
roughly homogeneous pseudopods is also wanting. Our
Moner might rather be associated with the true Actinophrys
(A. sot.) . But it does not possess the characteristic vacuoli (the
large contraticle vesicles on the surface) of the latter, and is
so especially distinguished by its peculiar reproduction that
it is to be considered as the representative of a new genus,
for which I propose the name Myxastrum. The species
figured from Arrecife I call Myxastrum radians

The granules which are scattered through the sarcode body
of the Myxastrum are found in very different quantities,
always in proportion to the amount of nourishment taken.
In this respect Myxastrum conducts itself like Protomyxa
and the true Rhizopoda. After a full meal, a large quantity
of granules appear, which allow us to follow very clearly the

slow and variable circulation-current in the parenchyma of
the solid plasma-body and its pseudopods, and visib'v also
on their surfaces. It is exactly as in the Acanthometra, its
course is constantly changing. Ramification, anastomosis,
and flattening-out of the rigid pseudopods is rare. In long-
fasting individuals the quantity of sarcode-granules is con-
siderably decreased. At last they seem to vanish entirely.
The Myxastrum increased by artificial division, like Proto-
myxa. In two individuals, one of which I had torn in two
pieces and the other in three (under the dissecting micro-
scope), each piece slowly rounded itself into an independent
viscid ball, which gradually began to stretch out its retracted
pseudopods again, and then took nourishment itself like the
undivided individuals. 1 have already described a similar
artificial divisibility in the allied Actinosphcerium Eichhornii
(in 1862).

The active movements of the whole body were as weak and
slow in Myxastrum as in Actinosphaerium ; but it was able to
move itself on the stage very slowly and unsteadily, appa-
rently rotating or rolling, or pushing itself along on the
spine-like pseudopods like a sea-urchin. The fortunate re-
sult that my researches in the life-history of Protomyxa had
had, permitted me to hope to observe a similarly complete
development-cycle in Myxastrum also. I isolated several of
the largest and best-fed Myxastri in separate watch-glasses
with sea-water. I kept these in a spacious damp room for
several weeks, "without the Myxastri dying.

During the first few days the isolated Myxastri showed no
alteration. But then I observed first in one, and then in a
second individual, that the viscous little star had retracted
its ra\s, and contracted itself into a perfectly simple viscous
ball with a smooth surface. All remainsof the previously
taken nourishment were removed, and no traces of any
objects could be observed in the entirely homogeneous sar-
code body, except the numerous fine granules. A few days
later a double sharp contour, instead of the former single
one, became visible, and now it appeared that the Myxas-
trum had encysted itself like the Protomyxa. The cyst-
membrane, at first very thin, became slowly thicker and
thicker, new concentric layers were separated in it, and,
finally, its thickness reached an eighth of the diameter of the
enclosed plasma-ball (fig. 13).

The encysted Myxastrum, as well as the encysted Pro-
tomyxa, resembled a perfectly simple globular Lepocytode,
a perfectly structureless and homogeneous plasma-ball of
•008 mm. diameter. Chemically, too, it showed the same

128

reactions as the encysted Protomyxa. The membrane was
similarly structureless, but tougher, thicker, and more con-
sistent. My hopes of being able to follow the further deve
lopment of the encysted Myxastrum, as well as of the Pro-
tomyxa, now seemed not unlikely to be fulfilled. To observe
this I daily inspected the encapsuled plasma-balls, which I
kept carefully isolated in small watch-glasses in the damp
room. At length, after a fortnight of fruitless expectation,
a change was visible. The homogeneous plasma-ball began
to show a great number of radiating stripes, and to divide
itself into the direction of these stripes, as in the yelk-furrows
of Sagitta. After three or four days the entire plasma-ball
was divided into about fifty thickened conical portions, whose
points met in the centre of the ball, while the rounded bases
of the slender cones touched the inside of the wall of the
cyst (fig. 14) . Between the isolated, conical, radiating plasma-
portions, whose substance evidently thickened slowly, a small
quantity of a clear watery fluid collected. A change of
form now slowly commenced in the radiating plasma-portions,
whereby their original globular shape became more and
more spindle shaped. At the same time the inner points of
the spindles (which were pointed at both ends) withdrew
from the centre, in which fluid collected (figs. 15, 16).

Each of the extended spindle-shaped plasma-bodies, which
had originated from the radial separation of the simple
plasma-body, now began singly to be clothed with a thin
covering, which was visible as a distinct double outline
between the single spindles (figs. 15, 16). The length of
the spindle-shaped bodies measured only '003 mm. ; their
greatest breadth (in the middle) ‘0015 mm.; the thickness
of their outer covering '00012 mm. This membrane con-
sisted, as it appeared from the chemical reactions, of silix.
Isolated, one would have taken each single spindle for
a small diatom, something like a Navicula (fig. 17). But
the nucleus which the Diatomaceae possess was wanting
in the entirely structureless plasma-body. Each spindle was,
in fact, a simple cytode, not a true (nucleus-containing)
cell.

In this condition, protected by the firm siliceous case, and
externally still by the common cyst-case of the older body,
the spindle-shaped germs of the Myxastrum remain, pro-
bably under their natural conditions, for some time. After
the lapse of a whole week no remarkable change was visible
in them, and, as the time of my stay at Lanzarote drew to-
wards its close, I determined to burst the only two cysts
which were still left, and to see if the further development

129

of tlie germ would then ensue. This actually succeeded.
After I had burst the two globular cysts (which, from the
firmness of the hyaline cyst-membrane, required a rather
considerable pressure) the spindle-shaped siliceous spores
separated from each other, and dispersed themselves in the
water. For the first two days there was no alteration and
no movement to he observed in them. They lay irregularly
and apparently unaltered at the bottom of the watch-glass.
At length, on the third day', I observed that from one end
of several siliceous spindles projected a hyaline, finger-shaped,
rounded process, about one third or one fourth as long as the
spindle. At the opposite end the plasma-contents of the
siliceous covering were depressed, and a clear opening was
here observable (fig. 18). This opening slowly grew larger,
while the plasma at the other end expanded more and more
in proportion. Thus, finally^, the entire homogeneous plasma-
body of the spindle-shaped spore issued from its siliceous
covering, contracted itself into a ball, and remained lying
motionless in front of the empty covering (figs. IT, 20).
The separated plasma-ball was entirely homogeneous and
structureless, only interspersed with exceedingly fine gra-
nules, which were not yet susceptible of measurement under
a magnifying power of 500 diameters.

There was also no trace of a nucleus or of a vacuole
to be observed after the application of several reagents. The
naked spore was, indeed, an entirely structureless sarcode
ball. In the empty siliceous membrane there was also no
structure to be observed. Examined by the strongest magni-
fiers and polarized light, both in fluid and dried, the thin
siliceous covering showed no markings on the surface.
Whether the narrow hole through which the naked spore or
germ-cytodc escaped from its siliceous covering pre-existed,
or was first formed from the rupture of the plasma by dis-
solution of the siliceous covering at the point — whether this
hole existed at both ends of the spindle-shaped spore-mem-
brane, or only at one end — and whether, in the last case, it was
at the inner (central) or outer (peripheral) end of the radiating
siliceous spindles — I was unable to determine.

For two hours after the plasma-body of the Myxastrum
issues from its spindle-shaped siliceous covering it remains
lying motionless, as a naked plasma-ball, before the empty
covering. Then its previously smooth surface becomes
entirely covered with fine bristles (fig. 21). These bristles
are nothing else than radial projections of the plasma, which
gradually lengthen, and finally equal, and even exceed, the
diameter of the central plasma-ball (fig. 22). It was soon

VOL. IX. — NEW SER.

i

130

to be observed, also, that the granules of the central sarcode
mass passed into these radiating pseudopods, and that the
same game of granule-circulation commenced as I have de-
scribed above in the full-grown Myxastrum. Now, too,
already, small foreign bodies, which accidentally came in
contact with the pseudopods, adhered to them, and were
drawn slowly into the central mass of the body, to be there
digested. Apparently these small radiating balls of *008
mm. diameter already possess the form of the thirty to
fifty times larger full-grown Myxastrum, and the latter can
develop itself from the former by simple growth. Special
processes of differentiation, or any other changes besides the
simplest growth, are then no longer necessary. On some of
the small Actinophrys-like germs which had taken food were
also to be observed already, here and there, scanty ramifica-
tions and anastomoses of the radiating pseudopods. On the
other hand, as in the full-grown Myxastrum, neither vacuoli
nor the differentiation of a nucleus existed in the uniformly
homogeneous plasma-body. Under natural circumstances
the encysted Myxastrum probably remains a long time before
its cyst-membrane dissolves or bursts, and the first opportu-
nity for further development is given to the siliceous spores.
Apparently this development would not yet have taken place
in the cysts which I examined if I had not artificially burst
the covering.

Myxastrum radians is, as follows from the foregoing com-
plete picture of its generation-cycle, or of its individual (life-
history) cycle of development, a Moner which, like Pro-
tomyxa, Protomonas, and Vampyrella, appears during the
course of its individual life in two different conditions — a
motionless and a freely moving condition. In its freely
moving condition, during which nourishment is taken,
Myxastrum much resembles a true Actinophrys (A. sol.), and
essentially differs from it only in the want of any vacuoli.
In the motionless condition,, on the other hand, during which
reproduction takes place, Myxastrum jn’esents a globular
cyst, whose homogeneous plasma-contents break up by radial
division (diradiation) into a number of motionless spindle-
shaped spores. Each spore develops a siliceous covering,
and then resembles a Navicula (without a nucleus). When
the motionless condition changes again into the free-moving
state the cyst bursts, the spores issue from their siliceous
covering, and at once reassume the shape of a globular radia-
ting Actinophrys-like plasma-body, which by simple growth
changes into the form of the adult Myxastrum.

131

3. — II. Myxodictyum sociale.

See Plate X, figs. 31 — 33.

In the course of my journey homewards from the Canary
Islands I spent ten days of the second fortnight of March,
1867, at the little Spanish town of Algesiras, which lies
opposite Gibraltar on the western shore of the charming bay
of Algesiras. Here I hoped to meet with some of the rich
swarms of oceanic life which have been observed at different
times in the Straits of Gibraltar. But nothing of the
expected abundance appeared, except a few Physaliae, Ye-
lellae, and other pelagic hydromedusse, although I daily
explored the bay in all directions with my boat. The results
of surface fishing with the fine net were also very discourag-
ing ; the haul consisting mainly of small medusae (EucopidseJ
and of a great quantity of Noctiluca, Acanthometra, and of
polycyttarian Radiolaria (Collozoum, Sphserozoum, Collo-
sphaera, and Siphonosphaera.) In order to examine the Acan-
thometrae, which on some days were rather common and in
a perfect condition, and to trace the appearances of motion in
their pseudopods, I several times scooped up water directly
from the surface of the sea with glasses, and aft^r they had
stood quiet for some time I again scooped the surface of the
water standing in the glasses with a shallow watch-glass.
This method, requiring undoubtedly some patience and care,
is very much to be recommended when we wish to observe
the sarcode movements of the pseudopods of small Radiolaria,
and the true granular movements in the sarcode current, in
fresh objects perfectly at rest. Among several Acanthometrae
and Ommatidae which I obtained in this way I fortunately
chanced to meet with the remarkable Rhizopod-like Moner,
which I describe below as Myxodictyum sociale.

As I adjusted the focus of the microscope with a moderate
power over the surface of the water on which the Acantho-
metrae floated, I noticed a group of small roundish radiating
bodies lying thickly together, each of which resembled a
small Actinophrys. When magnified 400 diameters this
group presented the appearance shown at fig. 31. On a
portion of the surface which formed a circle of about 0’35
mm. diameter, a group of seventeen transparent finely-
punctured radiating bodies appeared, each of which presented
much the appearance of an expanded Actinophrys (sol.), or
Trichodiscus. From each body radiated numerous fine
branching and anastomosing threads, which united them-
selves with those of the neighbouring bodies. In the threads

132

was observable the characteristic granular movements, the
appearance and disappearance of branches and anastomoses,
which mark the pseudopods of the true Rhizopoda ; and the
granular movements passed from one body to the other (ng.
31). Each of the seventeen Actinophrysan-like bodies thus
united exhibited a homogeneous disc of 003--004 mm. dia-
meter, and was separated from the neighbouring ones by as
considerable, or, at most, two or three times as considerable
an interval. Each body appeared to be formed of a
thoroughly homogeneous substance throughout its entire
substance, a consistent plasma, which perfectly resembled the
sarcode of the Protomyxa or of the Radiolaria. There was
just as little trace of any kind of structure or of differentia-
tion to be observed in this slimy albuminous body as in
Protomyxa ; any difference between a firmer cortical layer
and a softer body-substance was completely wanting; vacuoli
seemed to be quite absent. The very fine granules, mostly
too fine to admit of measurement, which were scattered
through the entirely homogeneous ground substance, were
continually in slow motion. A few scattered larger granules
could be easily traced on their route throughout the mass of
the body, through the pseudopods, their twigs and anastomoses,
and from one body to another. The sarcode-current was
rather slow, not nearly so rapid as in Protomyxa and in
Protogenes, but, on the other hand, not so slow as in
Myxastrum. One could very plainly see how the larger
granules, which had lain at the periphery, were conveyed
along single pseudopods by the plasma-current as far as the
points of the very fine threads ; how that they turned round
here and ran back again, or were carried over by a lamelli-
form anastomosis to one of the neighbouring threads. This
thread extended by anastomosis with the thread of a neigh-
bom ing body into the substance of the latter, so that one
could see the granule during this transition. From this
point the same granule could again pass to another body,
and so on. By continued observation it soon appeared in-
disputable that the entire coherent plasma-body consisted of
a single large completely homogeneous sarcode -net, and that
the seventeen separate radiating plasma-bodies were in some
measure only larger accumulations of the sarcode mass at
the knots of this net. The meshes of the net were poly-
gonal, mostly five- or six-angled, of between ’001 — ‘002 mm.
diameter, but otherwise quite irregular in form. While some
pseudopods sent out new branches, and these formed anasto-
moses by junction with the neighbouring threads, in other
places larger meshes were formed by the influx of sarcode

133

into some threads ceasing ; and at times an interruption oc-
curred in the midst of the course of a current. The central
part of a thread thus interrupted, was drawn back into
its. own thickened base, in place of which the peripheral
portion was carried over in the course of the current of the
neighbouring thread. With the fine granules small foreign
bodies also circulated along the threads ; these had accident-
ally touched the surface of the threads, been captured, and
were now seized up by the sarcode-current, and carried along
by it. That the sarcode is actually a consistent substance,
and that the granules and foreign bodies suspended in it are
really carried along by the flowing and ever-changing plasma-
stream, can be observed as certainly in Myxodictyum as in
Protogenes and in the true Rhizopoda (Acyttaria and Radio-
laria). In all probability the taking of nourishment also
proceeds in Myxodictyum exactly as in the last-mentioned
Protozoa. Certainly, in the single example which I observed
at Algesiras, and which I could only examine for a few hours,
there were no larger foreign bodies, such as diatoms, peri-
dinise, &c., to be observed inside the plasma-substance.
However, in the true Rhizopoda, as well as in Protogenes
and Myxastrum, when they have recently taken abundance
of nourishment, as soon as the indigestible remains are re-
jected, all foreign bodies may be absent. The great number
of circulating granules in the plasma-body of the Myxo-
dictyum seem to indicate that abundant nourishment had
been recently taken, and there is no reason to believe the
above-mentioned phenomena to be different in it from those
observed in Myxastrum, in Protomyxa, and in the true
Rhizopoda.

The appearance presented by the remarkable net-like sar-
code body of Myxodictyum socicde under a high power (400
diam. fig. 31) strikingly resembles the similar appearance
which a Polycyttarian or social Radiolarian ( e . g. Collozoum,
Collosphsera) displays under a low power.1 The seventeen
separate radiating sarcode-layers, which lie in the meshes of
the net, correspond to the separate central capsules (morpho-
logical individuals) of the Polycyttarian colony. Imagine
a colony of Collozoum without the central capsules, the
alveolus, which carries the sarcode-net, and the yellow cells,
which are interspersed herein, and you have a complete
picture of the Myxodictyum.

This comparison is of importance for the morphological
explanation of the Myxodictyum. For the entire body ap-

1 Compare the figures of Sphcerozovm italicum (Taf. xxxiii, Gg. 1); and of
Collozoum inerme (Taf. xxxv, fig. 13) of niv ‘Monograph of Eadioiaria.’

134

parently does not indicate a single simple individual, but a
colony of Moners. The seventeen separate, star-shaped, and
radiating Actinophryan-like plasma-bodies are likewise many
morphological individuals of the first class, and the entire
plasma-net is, notwithstanding its absolute simplicity, already
an individual of a higher (second) class. It is, in some
respects, a colony-forming Actinophrys or Protogenes.
Morphologically defined wth more strictness, each of the
seventeen naked homogeneous plasma-stars is a gymnocy-
tode, and the entire body a very simple individual of the
second order, or an organ (this expression taken in a purely
morphological sense, as I have used it in my Tectology).

As similar colonies of Monera had not been previously
known, it would have been of great interest to have observed
the Myxodictyum longer, and especially to have witnessed its
reproduction, and to have seen if it passed into a state of
rest, or rather into another organism. Unfortunately, it was
impossible for me to obtain information about this. But I
observed at least a change during the few hours in which I
had the Myxodictyum under notice.

After I had sketched the drawing of Myxodictyum re-
produced at fig. 31, and had sufficiently examined the phe-
nomena of the motions of the sarcode, in order to establish
their identity with those of the Rhizopoda, I put the glass
aside to sketch a few Acanthometrae, which I had caught at
the same time. Three hours later, I placed the watch-glass
with the Myxodictyum again under the microscope. The
slimy net still lay, in the previously described form, on the
surface of the water, and the slow current of the sarcode
continued moving uninterruptedly. The separate Actino-
phryan-like bodies had but moved a little further from each
other, about three or four times their diameter ; the meshes
of the net appeared larger, and the circumference of the
whole group, which was formerly nearly circular, wras now
more irregularly polygonal, and at the same time somewhat
lengthened in one direction. On closer examination, I dis-
covered that there were only fifteen individuals present in the
net. At first I suspected that, perhaps, the two missing indi-
viduals had coalesced with two of the remaining ones, and
were united with them. But it proved, on a thorough
inspection, that they had separately detached themselves from
the colony, and now swam isolated at the edge of the watch-
glass on the surface of the water. Each of the two bodies
had a nearly circular circumference, from which radiated a
rich circlet of ramifying and anastomosing pseudopods, like
an Actinophrys {sol.), without contractile vesicles (fig. 33).

( To be continued.)

133

Enumeration of Micro-lichens parasitic on other
Lichens. By W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S.

{Continued from page 57.)

Calicium stigonellum , Salwey (excl. syn.).

On thallus (1) of several Pertusarice, corticolous and saxi-
colous, in various conditions of growth, especially variora-
rioid, e.g. P. communis and Wulfenii ; (2) of various Lecanorce,
e. g. L. parella, L. tartarea, var. Turneri, L. subfusca ; (3)
of various Peltidece j and (4) of Bceomyces rufus Nyl. ;
Mudd, Brit. Licli., 224; and in my herbarium, 1856, from
Cliffiig, Cleveland, on a Pertusaria ; Richardson and Leigh-
ton (Lichens of Arctic America,1) on Peltidece and Hypna ;
Tul., 118, on Bceomyces ; Korb., Syst., 217, on Lecanora
subfusca ; and generally on a variety of saxicolous, crus-
taceous Lichens.

Spores 8, oblong or ellipsoid, 4- rarely 2-locular ;
yellow, becoming brown.

9. L. scabrosa, Ach.

Syn. Lichen scabrosus, E. Bot., t. 1878, pr. p.

L. citrinellus, E. Bot., t. 1877, pr. p.

Lecidea flavovirescens, Fries.

,, ,, var., Seiner.

L. citrinella, var., Ach.

Buellia scabrosa , Korb., Syst., 227 ; Th. Fries,
Arct., 232.

On sterile thallus of Bceomyces 'rufus and B. placophyllus ;
sometimes only associated therewith (Nyl., Prod., 142 ;
Scand., 247 ; Th. Flies).

Spores 8, sub-ellipsoid, 2-locular, brown. Korber
(Syst., 277) describes it also with a proper thallus. Nylander
suggests that L. Hookeri, Schser., which has its proper thallus,
may be referred to L. scabrosa. L. Hookeri is itself affected
by a parasite, Verrucaria innata (<p v.).

10. L. micraspis, Smrf.

Syn. L. saxatilis, Naeg. ; Hepp, 145.

L. Schcereri, Fw.

Trachylia saxatilis, Rabenhorst,

Buellia, Korb., Syst., 228.

Acolium, Mass.

Calicium, Seiner.

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea and Squamariu saxicola
1 ‘Journal of Linnean Society,’ vol. ix, Botany, 1867, p. 154.

136

(Nyl., Prod., 140) ; on sterile thallus of Pertusaria ocellata,
Wallr., var. corallina, Ach. (Rabenhorst, Lich. Europ. Exs.,
Fasc. xxviii).

Spores 8, minute, 2-locular, brown. Korber (Syst.,
228) describes a proper thallus, with spermogonia. Ny lan-
der suggests that it may be considered a form of L. disci-
formis.

11. L. Egedeana, Linds. (Observ. on Greenland Lichens).

On sterile thallus of Parmelia saxatilis.

Spores 8, broadly ellipsoid, 2-locular, brown.

12. L. glaucomaria, Nyl., Prod., 144.

On thallus of Lecanora glaucoma and Physcia parietina,

(Nyl.).

Spores oblong, 2 — 4-locular, colourless, sometimes becom-
ing brown.

13. L. sagedioides, Nyl., Prod., 140.

Syn. Homalea, Nyl.

Miscboblastia lecanorina, Mass., Rich., 41.

Berengeria, Trevis.

Urceolaria cinerea, v. vulgaris, subv. polygonia
f., Carov.

U. cinerea, v. alba, subv. deedalea, Scliaer.

On thallus of certain terricolous and saxicolous Verrucarice
(Nyl.).

Spores 8, ovoid, 2-locular, colourless, becoming brown.
Massalongo describes it as having a proper thallus.

14. L. Endocarpicola, Linds., Observations on New
Licheicolous Micro-Fungi.

On Endocarpon hepaticum, Ach.

Spores 8, ellipsoid, colourless, simple or 3-septate.

15. L. uniseptata, Nyl. (Enum., 127) ; Switzerland.

I have not met with a description of the characters of
this or the following, which, however, belong to that section
of Lecidea having compound sjmres.

16. L. aliena, Nyl. (Enum., 127); California.

c. Spores linear or acicular, and multilocular.

17. L. arenicola, Nyl. (Mudd, 186).

Syn. L. citrinella, var., Nyl. (f. Mudd).

Raphiospora, Mudd.

On thallus of Bceomyces rufus .

Spores acicular, frequently flexuosc, 8 — 12-locular, colour-
less. There seems no good ground for regarding it otherwise
than as an athalline form of L. citrinella, Ach.

d. Character of Spores not known to me.

18. L. cristata, Leight. (in letter, 1858).

137

On thallus of Lecanora glaucoma ; in my herbarium from
Barmouth (1856).

19. L. orygnuea, Nyl.

On Sticta Urvil/ei, Del., Straits of Magellan.

Occurring on Lichens, but having a most doubtful claim
to be classed in the genus Lecidea, or, perhaps, among Lichens
at all, are —

20. L. Cladoniaria, Nyl., Enum., Suppl., 339; Linds., N. Z.

Licli. and Fungi, 442 ;x Observ. on Greenland
Lichens.

On the squanmles of the horizontal thallus of Cladonia
bellidiflora, and on anamorphoses of the podetia of C. unci-
alis.

Spores 8, oblong, colourless, simple? Possesses pycnidia.

21. L. Alectorice, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 441.

On thallus and lower surface of apothecia of Neuropogon

Taylori, Hook.

Spores 4-locular, oval, or ellipsoid.

22. L. obscuroides, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 441.
On thallus of a variety of Physcia obscura, Ehrh.

Spores simple, ellipsoid, pale brown or yellow. Under

the name L. obscuroides it is possible I have included two
parasitic Fungi or Fungo-lichens — one on the type (P.
obscura), and the other on its leprose condition.

Genus II. — Biatorina, Mass. Th. Fries, Arct., 185.

Species 1. B. tuberculosa, Th. Fr., Arct.. 185 ; Spits-
berg., 36.

On thallus of various Peltidece, and of Solorina crocea.
Spores 8, fusiform, 2-locular, yellow, or colourless.
Possesses spermogonia.

2. B. Stereocaulorum, Th. Fr., Arct. 188 ; Spitsb., 36.

On thallus or phyllocladia of Stereocaulon tomentosurn, var
alpinum, and S. denudatum.

Spores 8, oblong, 2-locular, colourless.

Genus III. — Buellia, Be Not., Th. Fries, Arct., 225.

Species 1. B. urceolata, Th. Fr., Arct., 233 ; Spitsb., 45.
Syn. Leciographa, Korb., Par., 464.

Lecidea parasitica, Smrf.

On thallus of Verrucaria sphinctrinoides , Nyl. ; Lecidea

1 “Observations on New Lichens and Fungi collected in Otago, New
Zealand * Trans. Royal Society of Edin./ vol. xxiv, 1867.

138

obscurata, Smrf ; L. pezizoidea, Ach. ; L. vernalis , L., and
other Lichens.

Yar. deminuta, Th. Fr.

Syn. Calicium turbinatum, Smrf.

Lecidea parasitica, var., Th. Fries, Yet. Ak. Forh.

On thallus of Lecidea cuprea, Smrf.

Spores 8, oblong, 2 — 4-locular, brown.

2. B. convexa, Th. Fr., Arct., 234 ; Spitsb., 45.

Syn., Leciographa, Korb., Par., 464.

On saxicolous and frequently dead thallus of P/iyscia
coesia, P. obscura, Placodium elegans, and Lecanora chloro-
pliana.

Spores 8, oblong, 4-locular, brown. In all probability
this and the foregoing should be united with Lecidea para-
sitica, Flk.

Genus IY. — Abrothallus, De Not.1 Till., 112; Linds.,

Hist. Brit. Lichens, p. 311; Monogr. Abrothallus, p. 7 ;2

Mudd, 224 ; Mass., Rich., 88.

Species 1. A. Smithii, Tub, 115; Linds., N. Z. Lich. and
Fungi, 447 ; Monogr. Abrothallus, 8 ; Hist. Brit.
Lich., 312.

Syn. A. Bertmnus , j De N t Mass Rich 88>

A. Buelhanus , ) ’ ’ ’

A. parasiticus, Nyl., Prod., 55.

A. pulverulentus , Anzi.

Parmelia saxatilis, v. parasitica, Sm.

P. conspersa, v. abortiva, Schser.

Bidtora Parmeliarum, Fw.

Lecidea, Smrf.

Endocarpon parasiticum, Ach.

Lichen parasiticus, Sm., E. Bot., t. 1866.

On thallus of Parmelia saxatilis, and var. omphalodes, P.
conspersa , P. caperata, P. physodes, P. tiliacea, P. sinuosa,
P. olivacea ; Sticta fuliginosa, S. sylvatica, S. limbala ; Rica-
solia pallida ; Cetraria glauca, C. pinastri, C. Islandica ;
Physcia pulverulenta (Anzi) , Evernia prunastri, Usuca barbata.

Spores 6 — 8, soleaform, 2-locular, brown. Possesses
pycnidia.

1 Krempelhuber (‘Licli. H. Bayerns,’ 275) classes Abrothallus in the
Nesolerhice (q. v.j.

2 Lindsay, “ Monograph of the Sub-genus Abrothallus ‘ Quart. Journal
of Microscopical Science,’ 1857.

139

2. A. microspermus, Tul., 115 ; Hepp, 471 ; Linds., N. Z.

Lich. and Fungi, 447 ; Monogr. Abroth., 8 ; Korb.,

Syst., 216.

Syn. Lecidea thallicola, Mass.

On thallus of Parmelia caperata.

Spores small, colourless or brown (Hepp) ; of same form
as in preceding (Tul.).

3. A. Welwitzschii, Tul., 115; Linds., Monogr. Abroth.,

8; Hist. Brit. Lich., 315; Korb., Par., 456;

Hepp, 370 and 371 ; Leight., Exs., 191.

Syn. Sticta fuliginosa, v. abortiva, Scliaer.

Abrothallus Smithii, v. pulverulenta, Linds.,
Monogr. Abroth., 34.

On thallus or apothecia of Sticta sylvatica with its var.
Dufourii, Del.,1 2 and S. fuliginosa.

Spores 6 — 8 ; otherwise as in A. Smithii, Tul. I refer
both microspermus and Welwitzschii, as mere forms, to A.
Smithii?

4. A. oxysportts, Tul., 116; Hepp, 37; Mudd, 225;

Linds., K. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 410 ; Monogr.

Abroth., 30.

Syn. Lecidea, Kyi., Prod., 145.

Nesolechia, Korb.

Lichen ampullaceus, Wulf.

On thallus of Parmelia sax at ilis, P. conspersa, P. caperata,
P. Borreri, P. sinuosa, Cetraria glauca, Evernia furfur acea.

Spores simple, sometimes 2-locular or physcioid, ellip-
soid, straight, sometimes curved,3 colourless. Possesses sper-
mogonia. The plant is apparently rare in Germany7 and
Italy, as neither Korber nor Massalongo had met with it
(fide Korb., Par., 462).

5. A. Curreyi, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 409.

On thallus of Parmelia perforata.

Spores 8, simple, ellipsoid, colourless.

6. A. Moorei, Linds., Observations on new Lichenicolous
Micro-Fungi.

On Cladonia bellidiflora, Ach., Kelly’s Green, Ireland.

Spores 8, ellipsoid, simple, colourless.

7. A. Usnece, Rabenhorst, Exs., 537 ; Linds., N. Z. Lich.

and Fungi, 444.

On thallus, cephalodia and apothecia, of Usnea barbata,
vars. florida, ceratina, and plicata.

1 Associated here sometimes with Celidium Pelvetii (q. v.), Hepp, 370.

2 Linds., ‘Monograph Abrothallus,’ 8.

3 Linds., “ N. Z. Lichens,” ‘Trans. Linn. Society,’ vol. xxv, p. 514.

140

Spores ellipsoid-oblong, soleaform (2-locular) , brown. Ap-
parently possesses pycnidia.

8. A. Friesii, Hepp, 464.

On thallns of Verrucaria chlorotica, Ach.

Spores very small, soleaform (2-locular) , brown. •

A. exilis, Flk., Hepp, 473 ; Mass., Rich., 88; and var.
macrospora, Hepp, 473; is a Lecidea, with a proper thallns
(Nyl., Prod., 136).

A. arthonioides , Mass., Rich., 89, is also apparently a
Lecidea (Fee).

A. Ricasolii, Mass., Rich., 89 ; syn. Buellia, Korb., Par.,
189; has also a proper thallns, and grows on tree-barks.
It apparently includes (according to Korber) Massalongo’s
A. arthonioides and Fee’s Buellia arthonioides.

Genus V. — Scutula, Tal., 118. Linds., Hist. Brit.

Lich., 316.

Species 1. S. Wallrothii, Tul., 119; Hepp, 135 ; Linds.,
Hist. Brit. Lich.j 316.

Syn. Peziza miliaris, Walk.

Biatora Heerii, Hepp, 135.

Biatorina, Anzi.

Lecidea anomala, Fr., var. Wallrothii, Nyl.,
Scand., 202.

On Peltidea canina and P. rufescens, Korb., Par., 454 ;
on various Peltidece and Solorince, Nyl., Scand.

Spores 6 — 8, small, ovate-ellipsoid, 2-locular, colour-
less. Possesses both spermogonia and pycnidia. A Lichen
in so far as concerns the blue reaction of the hy menial ele-
ments with iodine. If this plant is to be referred to the
Lecideee, it will belong to that small section that possesses
pycnidia in addition to spermogonia.1

2. S. Krempelhuberi, Korb., Par., 455.

On Solorina saccata.

Spores 8, very minute, ellipsoid, 2-locular, colourless.

3. S. Stereocaulorum, Anzi (Korb., Par., 455).

* Syn. Lecidea, Anzi.

On thalline scales, or phyllocladia, (“ thallus-schuppen ”)
of Stereocaulon tomentosum, v. alpinum, and S. fastigiatuni
(Korb., Par.). But under the head Stereocaulon, in his
‘ Parerga,’ Korber mentions neither a species nor variety
fastigiatum ; nor does he mention it in his ‘ Systema/

Spores 8, small, acutely ellipsoid, 2-locular, colourless.

1 Vide paper by the author on “Polymorphism in the Pructification of
Lichens,” ‘ Quart. Journal of Microscopical Science,’ January, 1S68.

141

Genus VI. — Celidium, Tul., Mem., 120. Linds., Hist
Brit. Lichens, 317 ; N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 448.

Species 1. C. Stictarum, Tul., 121 ; Hep]), 590 ; Linds.,
Hist. Brit. Lich., 317 ; N. Z. Lich. and Fungi,
451.

Syn. Plectocarpon, Fee.

Sphceria, De Not.

Lecanora parasitica, Auct.

Dothidea Lichenum, Smrf.

Biatora adligata, v. involuta, Fee.

Sticta pulmonacea, y.pleurocarpa, Ach. ; Seiner.,
Exs., 550.

Delisea, Fee.

On apothecia, thallus, or cephalodia of Sticta puhnonaria,
S. scrubiculata, S. Freycinetii, and Ricasolia corrosa (Korb.,
Par., 456).

Spores 4 — 8, oblong or ellipsoid, 4-locular, pale yel-
low or colourless, sometimes becoming brown. Possesses
spermogonia. Nylander (Prod. 52) refers it to the Fungi ;
though he points out its affinity to the Arthonice [e. g. A.
parasemoides and A. abrothallina.

2. C. fusco-purpureum, Tub, Mem., 121.

Syn. Spilodium, Mass.

On Peltidea canina.

Spores 6 — 8, ovate-oblong, simple, colourless. Possesses
spermogonia seated in the centre of the cluster of apothecia.

3. C. varium, Tul., Mem., 125. Korb., Par., 456.

Syn. Phacopsis, Tul.; Linds., Hist. Brit. Lich., 318.

On thallus and apothecia of Physcia parieiina.

Spores 6 — 8, small, oblong, 4-locular, colourless, becoming
brown.

4. C. dubium, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 449.

On sterile thallus of Sticta granulata and S. rubella ; on
sterile and fertile thallus of S. fossulata.

Spores unknown ; apparently possesses spermogonia or
pycnidia.

5. C. Pelvetii, Hepp, 372 and 589. Linds., N. Z. Lich.
and Fungi, 450.

Syn. Sticta aurata, v. abortiva, Scheer., Exs., 558.

On thallus of Sticta aurata.

Spores 8, soleaform (2-locular), pale yellow or colour-
less. It is, perhaps, this species that is referred to (but not
named) in Hepp, 370, on S. sylvatica , v. Dufourii.

6. C. furfuraceum , Anzi.

142

On thallus of Lecidea rheetica (Hepp), L. petrcca, and
Lecanora glaucoma.

Tulasne (Mem., 125) mentions a Celidium as black-mottling
Placodium albescens and Squamaria saxicola. Should this
differ from the other so-called species, it may appropriately
stand provisionally as —

C. squarnariicolum.

C. muscigenum, Anzi, Symb. I have not
seen Anzi’s work, and do not know on what (if any) Lichen
this species is parasitic. Nor do I know what is his C. varians,
Dav. Korher, in his f Parerga ’ (457), includes it in his
Celidium grumosum , which is a synonym of Arthonia varians,
Nyl. (q. v.).

Genus VII. — Conida, Mass ; Korb., Par., 458.

Species 1. C. clemens, Tub, Mem., 124.

Syn. Phacopsis, Tul.

Arthonia, Th. Fr., Spitsb., 46.

Conida apotheciorum, Mass.

Sphceria, Mass.

Placodium Goppertianum, Korb., Par., 458.

On the apothecia of Squamaria saxicola, S. chrysoleuca,
Placodium albescens, Hfftn., and P. murorum, Ilffm.

Spores 8, small, oblong, 2-locular, colourless. The para-
site black-mottles the epithecium of S. chrysoleuca. Inter-
mixed with the spermogonia of that Squamaria, on its thallus,
other parasites occur, externally black (Nyl., Scand., 131).
The ordinary spermogonia of S. chrysoleuca are described and
figured in my “ Memoir on the Spermogonia and Pycnidia of
the Higher Lichens ” (* Trans. Royal Society of Edinburgh,’
vol. xxii, 1859, p. 260, pi. xv, figs. 15 — 17).

Genus VIII. — Phacopsis, Tul., Mem., 124. Linds., Hist.

Brit. Lich., 318 ; N. Z. Licli. and Fungi, 446.

Species 1. P. vulpina, Tul., Mem., 126. Hepp, 474;

Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 446.

Syn. Evernia vulpina, var., Fr. ; Mass.

On thallus of Evernia vulpina.

Spores simple, oblong or ellipsoid, colourless.

2. P . psoromoides , Hepp, 475 ; Korb., Par., 459.

Syn. Endocarpon, Borr. ; Mudd, 267.

Endopyrenium dcedaleum, Ivrmp.

Dermatocarpon, Th. Fries, L. Arct. 255.

On Lecanora mutabilis, Ach. Mudd describes the spores

143

he found in Hepp’s plant as simple and hyaline and the
plant itself as referable to Borrer’s Endocarpon psoromoides.
The spores of the latter, as represented by Leighton (Brit.
Angioc. Lichens, pi. ii, fig. 4), are 4-locular and brown ;
which spores Hepp refers to a parasitic Sphceria (<S. urceolata,
Schaer. == Xenosp/ueria Engeliuna. (q. v.)

In Hepp’s plant I found two different forms of spore —
the one colourless, becoming sometimes brown, 2-locular or
simple ; the other brown and 4-locular, becoming submuri-
form. The latter spores are doubtless referable to the parasitic
Xenosp/ueria, whose perithecia are scarcely distinguishable
from the associated, very minute, black, verrucarioid spermo-
gonia, which are full of atomic, spherical spermatia. The
hymenium of the Xenosp/ueria gives no blue reaction with
iodine. The paraphyses are obscure, nor could I distinctly
make out the thecse. The spores of the Phacopsis resemble
those of Celidium Pelvetii, being narrowly ellipsoid or fusi-
form, colourless, simple, becoming 2-locular in age, some-
times soleaform and brown, as in Abrothallus Stnithii ; the
soleaform character being best developed under iodine ;
•00045" long and •00015" broad.

Genus IX. — Arthoxia, Ach., pr. p.

Species 1. A. varians, Dav. (Nyl., Scand., 260).

Syn. A. glaucomaria, Nyl., Prod., 168 ; Syn. Arthon .,
98. Leight., Ann. Nat. Hist., Oct., 1856;
Exs. 247.

A. parasemoules, Nyl., Prod., 168 ; Mudd, 251.

Celidium grumosum, Korb., Par., 457.

,, sordidum, Anzi.

„ varians, Arnold.

Lecanoru glaucoma, v. varians, Ach.

L. lainea, Ach.

L. rimata, v. orbata, Schoer.

Biatora verrucarioides, Hepp.

Conida sordida, Mass.

Sphceria Lichenis sordidi, Mass., Rich., 4. *

On apothecia and sometimes thallus of Lecanora glaucoma ,1 2
L. subfusca, and Lecidea parasema (Nyl., Scand. ; and Prod.,
1(58). On thallus of Physcia parietina and various Lecanora;
(Nyl., Prod.) ; on apothecia of Lecanora cenisea, Ach. (= var.
atrynea, Ach., of L. subfusca ), Mudd, in my herbarium

1 Fries describes the sporidia as simple, hyaline, and endocarpoid.

8 Associated sometimes with Lecidea rjlaucornaria (q. v.).

144

from Cleveland ; on the soredia of Isidium corallinum, Ach.
(Hardy).1

Spores 6 — 8, oblong, 2 — 4-locular, colourless. Possesses
spermogonia. Th. Fries describes, without naming (Arct.,
105), a parasite on the apothecia of L. subfusca, v. lainea,
Ach., which has yellowish 2-locular spores, but which,
nevertheless, may prove referable to A. varians.

2. A. punctella, Nyl. (Mudd, 252).

On thallus of Lecidea albo-atra ; of Lecanora erysibe, Ach.,
Carroll, in my herbarium from Cork ; and Isidium coral-
linum (Hardy) .

Spores soleaform (2-locular), colourless.

3. A. abrothallina, Nyl.

I have met with no description of its characters. A. cal-
cicola, Nyl. (Prod., 168), is apparently athalline ; but not
parasitic on other Lichens ; a category to which belongs a
considerable number of varieties of species that are usually
possessed of a proper thallus.

Genus X. — Opegrapha, Ach.

Species 1. 0. Monspeliensis, Nyl., Prod., 153.

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea.

Spores oblong, brown.

2. O. anomea, Nyl., Prod., 153.

On Variolaria amara, which is Perlusaria communis, v.
sorediata, Fr., according to Nylander (Prod., 98).

Spores oblong, 4-locular, colourless.

Genus XI. — Sphinctrina, Fr. Mudd, 255. Nyl., Syn.,
142 (whole genus parasitic).

Species 1. — S. turbinata, Pers. (Ilepp, 326 ; Leight., Exs.,
132; Mudd, Exs., 241 ; Schaer, Exs., 6).

Syn. Calicium, Pers. Fungi.

C. sessile, Sm.

Cyphelium, Hepp, 326.

Sphceria sphincterica, Sow. Fungi, t. 286; Moug.
and Nestler, *366.

Lichen gelasinatus, With.

On thallus of various Perlusarice, both saxicolous and corti-
colous ; e. g. P. communis and P. Wulfenii (Nyl., Piod.,
33 ; Syn., 143) ; sometimes of Lecanora parella, Urceolaria
scruposa, and other crustaeeous Lichens; of Parmelia saxatilis

In letter of May, 1862.

145

and Lecidea canescens (near Chichester, communicated by
W. C. Cooke in letter of May, 1866).

Spores 8, minute, spherical, simple, brown.

Yar. microcephala, Nyl. ; Mudd, 256.

Syn. Sphinctrina microcephala, Nyl., Prod., 84.

Calicium, Tul., Mem., 78.

Sphinctrina tubaformis, Korb., Syst., 305.

S. piniperda, Korb., Par., 288.

S. pinicola, Korb.

S. microscopica, Anzi.

Cyphelium, Hepp.

On thallus of Pertusaria melaleuca, Dub., and P. communis
(Nyl., Prod., 34; Syn., 144). On young thallus of P. Wul-
fenii, Korb., Par. Associated, and apt to be confounded,
with a parasitic Fungus, Spilomium pertusariicolum, Nyl.
(Syn., 144 ; Enum., 91).

Korber (Parerga, 288) describes S. microcephala, Sm.
(E. Bot., t. 1865), as having a proper thallus. According
to Nylander (Prod., 34), the Calicium microcephalum of
Smith (E. Bot., t. 1865) and Borrer (Lichenographia Britan.,
130) is only a form of S. turbinata, and, therefore, = var.
microcephala, as above. But Mudd (255) refers it to S.
anglica, Nyl.

Several authors regarded S. turbinata and its varieties as
Fungi, e. g. Persoon (Tent. Disp. Fung., Suppl., p. 59) ; M. C.
Cooke, in his ‘ Index Sowerbyr, Mougeot and Nestler.
Berkeley does so still (Brit. Fungology, 1860, p. 373); but
Cooke wrote me, in 1866, “ It has been included with Fungi,
but I scarcely think it should rank with them.” In a sub-
sequent letter he says, more decidedly, “ I do not think
Sphinctrina should be associated with Fungi.”

2. S. anglica, Nyl., Syn., 143 ; Mudd, 255.

Syn. Calicium microcephalum, Sm., E. Bot., t. 1865 ;

Borr., Lich. Britan., 130.

Spores spherical, ellipsoid or oblong, simple and brown
Mudd describes a proper thallus.

3. S. fuscescens, Nyl., Syn., 143.

Spores ellipsoid, brown. Cape of Good Hope.

4. S. leucopoda, Nyl., Syn., 144.

On thallus (perhaps) of Pertusaria leioplaca. Virginia,
U. S.

Spores spherical, brown.

5. S. gomphilloides, Nyl., Syn., 144.

On thallus (perhaps) of Pertusaria communis ; associated
with a Sirosiphon.

Spores 8, oblong, 1 -septate.

VOL. IX. — NEW SER.

K

146

Genus XII. — Stenocybe, Nyl. Mudd, 256.

Species 1. S. eusporum, Nyl.

Syn. Calicium, Nyl., Prod., 32.

Stenocybe major, Nyl.

Sphinctrina septata, Leight., Exs., 228.

On thallus of Thelotrema lepadinum and Graphis elegans ,
but also with a proper thallus (Mudd, 256).

Spores large, oblong-fusiform, 2 — 4 locular, brown.

Genus XIII. — Calicttjm, Pers. Mudd, 256.

Species 1. C. citrinum, Leight. ; Nyl., Syn., 149.

Syn. Coniocybe, Leight.

Cyphelium pulver arias, Auersw.

On thallus of Lecidea lucida (Mudd, 261).

Spores oblong, simple or obscurely 2-locular, brown.

2. C. paroicum, Ach. ; Nyl., Syn., 145.

Syn. C. corynellum, v. Ach.

C. chlorinum, Stenh.

On thallus of Lecanora Hcematomma and its sterile condi-
tion Lepraria chlorina, Ach. (Nyl., Scand., 38).

Spores ellipsoid, simple, brown.

3. C. disseminatum, Fr. ; Nyl., Prod., 28.

Syn. C. micro cephalum, v. Fr.

Cyphelium, Ach.

C. atomarium, Ach.

Throughout France ; only sometimes parasitic or athalline.
Spores simple, browm, oblong or spherical.

Genus XIV. — Trachylta, Fr., pr. p. Nyl., Scand., 44.

Species 1. T. stigonella, Ach. ; Nyl., Syn., 167.

Syn. Calicium, Fr.

C. inquinans, v. sessile, Schaer.

C. sessile, Pers.

Cyphelium, Ach.

Acolium, De Not.

A. inquinans, v. sessile, Korb.

A. tympanellum v., Korb.

On thallus of various Pertusariae — especially in their vario-
larioid condition, e. g. P. communis, P. Wulfenii , andP. coc-
codes (Nyl., Prod., 28 ; Syn., 167 ; Mudd, 254).

Spores 8, small, 2-locular, brown.

(To be continued.)

147

On the Structure and Relationships of the Simple or
Nucleated, and the Compound or Punctate Forms of
Tiialassicollid.e. By John D. Macdonald, M.D.,F.R.S.,
Staff Surgeon, R.N. (With Plate XI.)

Having perused Dr. Wallich's observations on the Thalas-
sicollidae in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History’
for February, 18G9, I was induced to review my notes upon
this subject, reaching as far back as 1852, the year just sub-
sequent to that in which Professor Huxley’s excellent paper
upon Thalassicolla was published ; and though I can do little
more than follow in his footsteps, yet the little material col-
lected by me, as well as the accompanying figures (which are
all original), may be acceptable to the students of the Pro-
tozoa. On the authority of Muller, one of the two forms of
Thalassicolla punctata, described by Huxley with great
accuracy, has received the name of Sphaerozoum, originally
applied to something ambiguously described by Meyen, while
the -other, or that with fenestrated capsules, has been named
Collosphaera. It would seem, however, that Thalassicolla
nucleata has escaped the criticism of the bibliographers,
being retained as the nominal representative of the family.
I shall at once proceed to the description of the figures,
making such comments as may be suggested in passing.

Sphcerozoum and Collosphaera.

Fig. 1. A.n example of Sphserozoum, taken in the towing-
net off the Cape of Good Hope, natural size.

Fig. 2. Portion of the same, as seen with a quarter-inch
power, but neither the central vacuolated portion, nor the ex-
ternal common gelatinous envelope, is represented. The struc-
ture of the puncta is simply as follows : — Beginning at the
so-called nucleus, and proceeding outwards, we observe — first,
(a) a bright yellowish, highly refracting, fatty globule; one,
two, or more such globules being uniformly present in all the
puncta of the same specimen, apparently in accordance with
the stage of its development, and probably in some way con-
nected with reproduction. •

Secondly, (6), a mass of much smaller rounded, transparent,
but not so highly refracting granules.

Thirdly, (c), a distinct cell-membrane investing the fore-
going parts.

Fourthly, f d ), a plastic exudation upon the surface of the

148

latter cell, in which the yellow granular bodies or sarcoblasts
(e) are imbedded.

Fifthly, (/), radiating and branched filaments, and in fully
formed specimens, a clearly defined pellicle (g) upon the
surface of the plastic granular material, thus including the
sarcoblasts. The pellicle here spoken of may possibly corre-
spond with the tubulated or fenestrated membrane forming
the nidus of siliceous deposit in Collosphaera, though we find
it coexisting with a zone of simple or compound spicules in
many examples of Sphserozoum, while such spicules never
coexist with the siliceous capsules of Collosphaera. In other
forms of Protozoa, however, both siliceous capsules and radi-
ating spicules are present.

Fig 3 represents a specimen of Collosphaera of the natural
size.

Fig. 4 gives the analysis of one of the puncta of Fig. 3,
highly magnified, and taking the parts from without inwards.

( a ) A perfect punctum.

( b ) The fenestrated capsule.

(c) Animal cell-membrane surrounded by the yellow sarco-
blasts.

(. d ) Purple granular and crystalline matter contained
within the last-mentioned cell.

( e ) Transparent, highly refracting, spherical globule, im-
bedded in the granular and crystalline matter, but, as also in
the case of Spluerozoum, without distinct cell-membrane.

Fig. 5. Another example of Sphserozoum, natural size.

Fig. 6. The same considerably magnified to show the
superficial distribution of the puncta between the central
vacuolated substance and the gelatinous test.

Thalassicolla nucleata.

Fig. 7. Thalassicotla nucleata, natural size, with its trans-
parent test and dark central spot.

Fig. 8. The same as seen with a low power, and exhibiting
the following parts, from without inwards :

(a) The test.

(. b ) The vacuolated substance situated between the test and
the nucleus.

(c) The sarcoblasts scattered amongst the roots of ( d ) the
branched fibrous bands arising from (e) the external mem-
brane of the central body, and here, like it, invested with
black pigment granules.1

1 Any cyclosis so called occurring amongst these granules 1ms always
appeared to me to be simple molecular motion, as in the choroid cells of the
ox, &c.

149

(/) A zone of pale bluish, rounded granules, in the
middle of which is ( g ) a well-defined cell- membrane, con-
taining numerous salmon-coloured or yellowish fatty globules
of uniform size ( h ).

Thalassicolla differs from Sphaerozoum and Collosphsera in
the nucleus being at least commonly multiglobular, with a
distinct cell investment, while they differ from it in possessing
a pellicle, cell, shell, or spicules, external to or including the
sarcoblasts. We find points of resemblance in the external
gelatinous test, the vacuolated matrix, peripheral in Thalassi-
colla, and central in the other forms ; in the radiating
branched fibres and the sarcoblasts, the cell-wall immediately
surrounded by these last, and its granular contents. More-
over, the plastic matter in which the sarcoblasts are im-
bedded in Sphaerozoum may represent the dark pigment of
Thalassicolla nucleata.

Though these simple forms of animal life may be stated to
possess a nucleus, yet does this nucleus not only differ con-
siderably in the two leading types above described, but it
would appear to hold no relation to the nucleus of Amoeba,
or the other better known Protozoa.

As to the question of the simple or compound nature of
the punctate forms, Dr. Wallich states that “isolated free
floating individuals of the Sphaerozoum and Collosphaera type
are constantly to be met with,” and are to be found “ not only
as free floating organisms, but also within the digestive
cavities of Hydrozoa, of far too minute size to have been able
to swallow them in the aggregate state;” but anybody
acquainted with the filmy and destructible nature of the
connecting substance in some specimens would doubt much
that those “ free floating individuals ” were not detached
from a normally composite mass. My own experience quite
accords with that of Dr. Wallich above quoted, but I must
say that it would not warrant me to arrive at the same con-
clusion. I rather incline to the belief that at least one
mode of increase is by fission, as indicated by the dumb-bell-
like, and moniliform character of the masses, so frequently
observed. 1 have only to add to these remarks, that I have re-
peatedly seen Thalassicolla nucleata give out a phosphorescent
light on being irritated or pressed between twro slips of glass ;
any argument, therefore, founded upon the assumed absence
of this phosphorescence cannot be sound.

150

On New Forms of Diatomace^e from Dredgings off the

Arran Islands, County Galway. By the Rev.

Eugene O’Meara. Third Series.

(With Plate XII.)

The forms from the Arran material referred to in this my
third paper on the subject have already, from time to time,
been exhibited at the meetings of the Dublin Microscopical
Club, so that nothing remains to be done respecting them
except to add the minute details of description.

Pleurosigma giganteum, Grun., var. baccatum (PI. XII,
fig. 1). — I give the general description of P. giganteum, by
Grunow, as the best introduction to the peculiarity of this
variety. “A very large Pleurosigma ; on the secondary side lan-
ceolate, with obtuse apices, nearly straight; median line slightly
sigmoid; striae transverse, fine, 50 — 55" in 0001"; longitudinal
striae somewhat finer and more remote ; decussate lines ex-
tremely fine, more than 70 in O'OOl"; colour in the dry
frustule pale yellowish; length, 0'01 10" — 0'0170", breadth
0'0016" — 0'0022". A very well distinguished species; I
know no other that can be confounded with this fine Pleuro-
sigma. The delicate structure and uncommon size, as well
as the nearly straight figure, distinguish it from all others.”
Grunow — £ Ueber neue oder ungenugend gekante Algen ;
Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich - Koniglichen Zoologisch-
botanischen Geselschaft in Wien,’ Band x, p. 559.

The foregoing description of P. giganteum agrees with that
of the form now under consideration in all respects except
that the decussate lines referred to have not been noticed.
The distinguishing characteristic of this variety is a chain of
bead-like dots which adorns the outward margin as well as
both sides of the median line.

Plagiogramma costatum (fig. 2), n. s. — Valve sublinear,
slightly inflated' in the centre ; length 0’0034", breadth
0 0009"; apices cuneate ; vittae, two central and one at either
end ; striae costate, pervious. The forms of this genus
hitherto described are represented as having moniliform
striae. Greville, in his paper on the genus Plagiogramma,
‘ J. M. S.’, 1859, 207, remarks — “The species are furnished
in almost every instance with conspicuous moniliform striae.
There is, however, in P. ornatum an approach towards the
costae of Odontidium.” Further on (p. 209), the striae of the
last-named species are described as moniliform-costate. Ralfs,
in Pritchard’s, ‘Infusoria ’ (p. 774), includes the moniliform

151

striae among the characteristics of the genus ; his words are,
“ moniliform, generally interrupted stiiae.”

The present form, which occurred not unfrequently in the
Arran material, stands distinguished from the species hitherto
described by its plainly costate striae.

Grunow has described a species named Grecillianum,
“ striis transversis tenuibus,” which in this particular ap-
proaches P. costatum, but in outline, as well as by the fact
of having but two central vittae, is manifestly distinct from
the present form.

Melosira Wrightii (fig. 3), n. s. — Diameter ‘0016". The
front view exhibits the appearance of a crown ; the sides,
rising from the lower margin, curve slightly outwards, and
after a little bending inwards and then downwards form a
broad circular rim around a central depressed space, in which
latter are two distinct nodules. The valve is perfectly
hyaline, and without sculpture of any sort. Several forms of
this species occurred exhibiting the side view, I considered
them to be Melosira Westii, until I was fortunate enough
to procure a front view, when I was convinced that they
belong to a different species.

Pinnularia marginata (fig. 4), n. s. — Valve elliptico-
linear, very slightly constricted in the middle ; length
0 0018, breadth 00008 ; striae costale, submarginal, with a
tolerably broad span between their inner termination and the
median line; the median space bounded by double lines,
which spring at either side from the angles of the central
nodule, and curving gently outwards for about half their
length bend inwards and meet in a sharp angle at the
terminal nodule.

Pinnularia scutellum (fig. 5),n. s. — Valve broadly elliptical;
length 0 0027, breadth 0 0020 ; striae costate, radiating
towards the apices, leaving a narrow submarginal space,
not reaching the median line ; central nodule large ; the
median space large, lenticular, ornamented with a row of
minute dots close to the outside of the boundary line.

Amphiprora costata (fig. 6), n. s. — Valve elliptical, much
constricted in the middle ; length 0 0064, breadth at widest
part 00019, at the constriction, 00009. The keel costate;
costae slightly radiating towards the apices, very short at
first, gradually increasing in length for about one eighth the
length of the entire frustule, then gradually decreasing till
they disappear, about one eighth of the entire length of the
valve from the central constriction.

152

Facts bearing on the Structure and Arrangement of a
Nervous Mechanism demonstrated in the Auricle of the
Frog’s Heart. By Lionel S. Beale, M.B., F.R.S. ;
Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians; Physician
to King’s College Hospital ; Professor of Physiology in
King’s College, London. With Plate XIII.

The rhythmic contractions of a portion of the muscular
tissue of the heart continue for some time after it has been
severed from the rest of the organ and removed from the body.
A closely allied fact is observed in the case of the muscular
coat of the intestinal canal ; and in some muscles of insect
larvae, which have been removed from the body with due care,
the muscular tissue continues to contract for some time after its
removal. The muscles of the common maggot will retain
their contractility for an hour or more after they have been
placed upon a glass slide (“ Croonian Lecture,” ‘ Proceedings
of Royal Society,’ May 11, 1865, p. 229).

In all these instances careful observation will prove, not
only that nerves have been removed with the contracting
tissue, but that nerve-ganglia, or nerve-ganglion-cells, the
centres with which the nerves are connected, are intact.
The movements observed may, therefore, he dependent upon
the action of the ganglion-cells. Pieces of muscle entirely
separated from the nerve-cells cease to contract very soon after
their removal, while, as is well known, if pieces of the
ventricle of the heart of a frog, in which ganglia are knoivn
to be situated, be removed, rhythmic contractions continue to
take place for some time, but if those parts of the ventricle
which are destitute of ganglia be selected, the incisions made
are sufficient to stop rhythmic movements.

If, then, we could demonstrate the distribution and arrange-
ment of the nerves amongst the muscular fibres of the heart,
and trace them to and from the ganglion-cells with which
they are connected, we might, perhaps, be able to form some
notion of the general arrangement of the nervous mechanism
concerned in reflex movements ; and the conclusions arrived
at might he of the greatest assistance in enabling us to trace
out the changes which are essential to the simplest kinds of
nervous action.

The inquiry is, however, one of great practical difficulty,
since it would be useless to attempt to follow a nerve, or even
a bundle of nerves in their ramifications amongst the mus-

153

cular fibres of the ventricle of the smallest and thinnest
heart. They change the planes in which they ramify so
continually that, in preparing sections thin enough for obser-
vation, we should inevitably fail to trace the same fibre, even
for the distance of tlie jjotli of an inch. In the thinnest
part of the auricle, however, we have an extended section
already made for us; and in the hyla this is so very thin
that there is but a single layer of muscular fibres, and I have
succeeded in tracing the nerves amongst the delicate ramifi-
cations of the reticulated muscular tissue for a considerable
distance. See PI. XIII, fig. 1.

Distribution of the nerves to the muscular fibres. — In this
beautiful texture the finest branches of nerves are seen to
form networks amongst the muscular fibres. No end-organs
or end-plates of any kind are to be detected anywhere ; but
so fine are the fibres, and so separated from one another, that
if such organs existed they could hardly escape observation,
more especially as we find, very clearly demonstrated,
nerve-fibres very much finer than those connected with
the so-called end-organs in other situations ; nor does the
nerve- fibre penetrate the sarcolemma, for in these muscular
fibres this structure is absent. Bundles of fine, pale, “ nucle-
ated ” nerve-fibres are seen ramifying amongst the muscular
fibres, and dividing into finer and still finer branches, the
finest being less than To o'ou o^1 °f an inch in diameter, but .
these can, nevertheless, be followed for long distances. The
masses of germinal matter of the nerves (nuclei) are often
situated very close to the muscular fibres, as in the lower part
of fig. 2, to the right ; but they can, nevertheless, be seen to
be connected with the nerve-fibres only, and not with the
muscular tissue.

The nerve-cells. — The only nerve-cells in the cardiac ganglia
are the oval or pyriform cells I have fully described else-
where. Some have but two fibres, but many have five or six,
or even more, which may run parallel to or be curled spirally
round one another for a short distance from the cell ; but
they do not run far before they pursue opposite directions as
they pass from the cell with which they are connected. I
have preparations of the thin part of the auricle of the frog’s
heart, in which fibres can be seen to leave the ganglion-cells
and be followed for some distance to their ultimate distribu-
tion upon the muscular fibres.

Fig. 1. — I have figured a single ganglion-cell with
its straight and spiral fibres. I have not, indeed, succeeded
in tracing a nerve-fibre from the cell to its peripheral distri-
bution and back again to the same cell ; but at the same

154

time it will be admitted that, at least in this instance, we
have some very definite data to argue from.

In the tissue I have figured there are no capillary vessels ;
only one kind of nerve-fibres ; only one nerve-centre ; con-
nective tissue between the muscular fibres, in which very fine
nerve-fibres can be followed ; no sarcolemma to confuse us ;
very fine muscular fibres, some less than the xoVo^1 °f an
inch in diameter, over and under which the nerves can be
seen to pass ; and lastly, masses of germinal matter belonging
to (a) the muscular tissue, (b) the nerves, and ( c ) the connective
tissue. Moreover, these tissues form together a very thin ex-
pansion, one surface of which, during life, is in contact with
the blood, while the other is free within the pericardial cavity.

The facts ascertained by a careful examination of the speci-
mens almost compel us to infer that the fibres leaving each
nerve-cell are afferent and efferent. And it is really not
venturing far beyond the conclusion to which direct observa-
tion leads us if we conclude that a nerve-fibre leaves a nerve-
cell, and, after ramifying amongst muscular fibres, passes
near to the inner surface of the auricle, and then returns to
the same cell. An impression made upon the last part of the
fibre, as from the mere stretching to which it would be sub-
jected by the dilatation of the auricle with blood, or by the
blood itself affecting the current traversing it, would cause
• momentary change in the cell, and an augmentation of the
intensity of the current sufficient to cause sudden contraction
of the muscular fibres. The changes' which caused the con-
traction ceasing, the muscular fibres would again be relaxed-,
after which more blood would be poured into the cavity, and
the distension of its walls would bring about a repetition of
the same phenomena as before, which would be immediately
followed by contraction, and so on.

The spherical and oval gangli on-cells , as distinguished
from the angular and caudate nerve-cells, are sufficient for
the production of reflex action. This class of cells is the
only one that exists in the invertebrata where reflex actions
are remarkable. These cells are highly developed in the lower
vertebrata, and are well formed and active in mammalia and
man at a period of development when the angular and
caudate cells are still in an embryonic and incomplete state,
and, as yet, incapable of performing any office or work.

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

The Royal Microscopical Society. — We have received two
circulars relative to a change which is about to be made in
the mode of publishing the ‘ Transactions ’ of the above
Society. It appears that in future they are no longer to be
published under the auspices of the Society in the well-known
‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science/ edited by Dr.
Lankenster and his son, hut in a new monthly journal to be
issued by Mr. Hardwicke, and edited by Dr. Lawson. We
shall be glad to see both these journals thrive. Of the con-
tinued success of the old Journal we have no doubt, more
especially as the wholesome competition about to be created
will stimulate editors and publishers. Of the new one we
can, of course, say nothing at present. Our object in refer-
ring to this circumstance is, however, not so much to direct
the attention of microscopical observers to it, as to express
the opinion that a Society which has been at the trouble and
expense of obtaining a Royal Charter of incorporation, and
which has changed its members into “ fellows,” should
publish its own transactions independently of any periodical,
however respectable and useful it may be. Whilst the Society
was content to pursue its labours unostentateously, and when
all the members were charged the moderate annual subscrip-
tion of a guinea, the publication of its transactions in some
periodical was justifiable, but after the changes which have
been made (whether they were proper or not is a matter of
taste), we think it hardly consistent that the transactions
should serve as a shuttlecock for rival publishers. If our
anticipations should not be fulfilled, and it should be found
that the circle of microscopical readers is not sufficiently ex-
tended to support a second journal, then the members will
have to be referred back to the old Journal, or to some new
literary protege of the council, and any one desirous of bind-
ing the * Proceedings ’ continuously, and placing them for
reference upon his shelves, must take with them whatever

156

may appear in tlie journal in which they have been published.
But there is even a more serious objection than this. Recent
events elsewhere have shown that connections of this kind
are not conducive to good feeling amongst the members of the
council of a learned society, and we should indeed be sorry to
see dissatisfaction arise in this one, which might necessitate
a “ Committee of Inquiry,” accompanied, as such proceedings
usually are, by all the amenities of a scientific controversy.
We have no desire to place any obstruction in the way of the
council, but it is obviously our duty to mention these matters
before the trouble has arisen. It appears to us that they have
made more than one mistake. The charter of incorporation
and change of names has in nowise elevated the Society or
its members, hut has entailed an expenditure which has not
alone necessitated an increased subscription to new members
(a double tariff, in fact), but has so reduced the funds as to
render it a matter of difficulty to pay the postage on the
‘ Transactions.’ The publication of those in the old Journal
a day longer than was necessary was another mistake ; the
transference to a rival, a third. The Council should charge
all members alike, publish their own ‘ Transactions,’ and limit
their moral responsibility to the record of what passes at their
meetings. If these hints pass unheeded now, the time will
come when they will he remembered. — The Quarterly
Journal of Science.

New “White-Cloud” Lamp Shade. — I have for a long time
experienced a want, in which, I think, most workers with
the microscope will sympathise with me — that of a really
good and efficient shade for the lamp.

That the shades now commonly in use are far from fulfil-
ling the required conditions will, I think, be readily con-
ceded. The old conical paper shade is a very primitive
contrivance; it does not sufficiently exclude the light, soon
gets scorched, dirty, and misshapen, and is, besides, clumsy
and awkward to adopt in many instances.

The so-called “ Fiddian ” metallic chimney, although a step
in advance of the paper shade, still has several serious defects.
Unlike the conical shade, it shuts out too much light, throw-
ing the table into such deep shadow that it becomes necessary
to have another lamp in order to find one’s slides or acces-
sories; moreover, this shadow, being deepest immediately
around the base of the lamp, it is impossible to throw the
light downwards on to the mirror without tilting it forwards,
a manifest objection with a paraffin lamp, to which alone is
the metallic chimney applicable.

157

Then, again, the white lining is always chipping off and is
troublesome to replace, by an amateur especially ; consider-
able heat is radiated from its bright metal sides; and, finally,
the cost, although not much in itself, when added on to the
price of a lamp, makes the total amount to a considerable
sum.

These considerations led me to try some experiments, which
have resulted in the production of a shade so satisfactory, not
only to myself, but also to those of my friends to whom it has
been shown, that I am induced to send a description of it to
the ‘ Quarterly Journal,’ thinking it might be of interest to
some of its readers.

The shade consists of a short cylinder made of unglazed
earthenware, coloured black on the out-
side and for about an inch from the top
on the inside, the rest of the inside
beins left white. It is of such a size
as will just allow' of its passing over
the chimney of the lamp, about two or
two and a half inches in diameter and
about four inches in length. On one
side of this cylinder an opening is made
about tw'o inches long by an inch in
width. The cylinder is to be passed
over the chimney of the lamp, and may
be supported either by three projecting
arms carried by the burner or, what
is perhaps better, it may be attached in
the manner shown in the figure (which
shows the shade fitted to a travelling
lamp, drawn to a scale of one quarter),
to a short cylinder which is capable
of sliding up and dowm upon a tube
carrying the lamp.

The chief advantages of these shades are these :

It is easily adopted to any form of lamp, whether oil,
paraffin, camphine, or gas.

It takes up very little space, and is therefore particularly
applicable to travelling lamps.

Being open at the bottom, it casts no dowmvard shadow
whatever, so that the light can be readily thrown upon
the mirror without the necessity for tipping the lamp
forwards.

The material and colour of the shade effectually prevent
the radiation of heat, w'hilst the pure “ dead ” w'hite of the
inside gives a most perfect “white-cloud” illumination.

158

It is readily raised, loAvered, or, if thought desirable, re-
moved altogether from the lamp.

It can be made cheaply. Mr. Baker, of High Holborn, is
taking steps to produce this shade, and will, I have no doubt,
be able to supply it at a trifling cost. — Henry F. Hailes.

Dr. Woodward’s Paper in the October Number.— Mr. Glaisher,
in his late address to the Microscopical Society, states that
Dr. Woodward’s paper on Roberts’ test-plate was published
in the Journal without acknowledgment of its having been
sent for publication by the Society. This is very true,
because it was not sent for publication by the Society, but
was published by Dr. Woodward’s special request in the forth-
coming number of the Journal.

Snow Crystals. — A Mr. Charles Belcher, of Bedford, has
made the startling discovery (!) that snow consists of crystals,
and has written a letter on the subject to the ‘ Times.’ The
leading journal, with its characteristic appreciation of scientific
fact, publishes the astounding announcement (!) Is not this
a powerful argument in favour of science-teaching in our
schools ? — Scientific Opinion.

The Fauna of the Gulf Stream at Great Depths. — The in-
vestigations ordered by the new Superintendent of the Coast
Survey, Professor Pierce, of Harvard College, into the marine
fauna of the Gulf Stream, in connection with the regular
duties of the survey, have begun to produce their natural
result, in such valuable contributions to science as we have
now before us. The line of the present survey was “ in a
section between Key West and Havana, incidentally with
the purpose of sounding out the line for the telegraph cable.”
Although the work was interrupted, and the casts made with
the dredge few, “ the interesting fact was disclosed that
animal life exists at great depths, in as great a diversity
and as great an abundance as in shallow water.” By
two casts in 270 fathoms off Havana, Crustacea and worms,
numerous dead shells of gasteropods and pteropods, living
terebratulae, and seven species of bryozoa, besides echini,
starfishes, and an abundance of corals, hydroids, and
foraminiferse, were taken. Only one species of seaweed,
however, was mixed with this luxuriant animal life, which
corresponds with similar results of deep-sea dredging in the
European seas, and shows that “ the greater number of deep-
sea animals must be carnivorous.” They found, also, that a
porous limestone was in process of formation, “ composed

159

apparently of the remains of the same animals which were
found living.” In a cast made in 350 fathoms nothing was
brought up but a few dead corals. “ The echinoderms appear
to have a wide distribution in depths,” and the gorgonias
(sea-fans) are represented in 270 fathoms, by at least two
species known to belong to the West Indian fauna, in
moderate depths. The results of this attempt are certainly
very interesting and important to marine zoology, although
no casts were made in the deepest parts of the channel.

With our present knowledge it is premature to assume the
existence of the higher forms of animal life in the profound
abysses of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, but dredging in
the Gulf of Mexico may he carried to such a depth as to have
a most important, if not decisive, bearing upon this question,
since the Coast Survey have sounded over 9000 feet in one
instance, and several times to the extent of 6000 feet.

Dredging has been very recently carried on at enormous
depths by the Scandinavian expedition to Spitzbergen ; for it
is stated, in the November number of the ‘ Annals and
Magazine of Natural History,’ that Messrs. Malmgren and
Sraitt have dredged up a variety of animals from a depth
of 2000 feet, near Spitzbergen. — American Naturalist,
January.

Microscopy in Russia. — Some of the papers published in
German and French as well as in the Russian language in
the ‘Memoirs of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St.
Petersburg’ are exceedingly valuable and beautifully illus-
trated. M. Owsjannikow has sent us some memoirs
published by him within the last few years ; one, “ On the
Structure of the Ear in the Lamprey,” is exceedingly good,
as also that “ On the Auditory Organ in Cephalopoda .” The
important papers of Kowalewsky “ On the Development of
Amphioxus ” and on other subjects appear in the academy’s
memoirs.

Beck’s Concentric Rotating Stage. — The main object of
this stage is to afford the means of giving a concentric
rotation to the object in the field of view of the micro-
scope; this is accomplished in the following manner: —
The stage is fitted into a strong ring, which is firmly
attached to the limb of the microscope, and is moved round
by a rack-and-pinion adjustment, or, if a quick movement
is desired, on pulling out the milled head as far as the
stop will allow, a rapid rotation of the stage can be made
with the hand. The top stage-plate has two sliding rests for
clamping an object, and a movable hinged arm is fitted to

160

the lower rest as a stop for Maltwood’s finder. Th®sW
underneath is fitted with Brown’s iris diaphragm, which

ittached to the bottom plate by means of a lever, and which,

1(51

when not required, can be turned on one side, where it is
quite out of the way of any apparatus which may be required
in the supplementary body. The ring in which the whole of
the stage rotates is divided into degrees on the edge, and
serves the purpose of a goniometq^. — It. and J. Beck.

A Microscopic Cause of Death. — At a recent meeting of the
New York Pathological Society Ur. Neptet called attention
to a state of the brain causing sudden death in infants.
After stating the particulars of a case, he said — “ In such
cases the microscope alone can reveal the real cause of death,
and show the enormous changes which have taken place,
especially in the white substance of the brain, as can be seen
in any microscopical section taken from this specimen. We
find accumulations of granule-cells or granule-globules lately
described by Virchow, for the explanation of which I must
say a few words with regard to the whole pathological
process. Formerly the brain and spinal cord were considered
as consisting of nothing else but specific nervous elements —
ganglionic-cells and nerve-fibres. Afterwards Purkinje and
Valentin described the epithelium of the ventricles under the
name of ependyma, but Virchow, in 1853, showed that,
besides the nervous elements, there are others belonging to
the connective tissue group, which he named neuroglia. He
showed, moreover, that in the nervous centres, just the same
as in every other organ, we must make a distinction between
pathological processes affecting the specific elements (paren-
chymatous processes) and those taking place principally in
the interstitial connective tissue (interstitial processes). For
instance, what the French call ramollissement jaune (yellow'
softening of the brain) is nothing else but fatty degeneration
of the cells of the neuroglia, but not of the ganglionic cells.
In cases of stillborn children, or of many of those who died in
the early period of life, we find the cellular elements of the
neuroglia increased in size (hypertrophy), then increased in
number (hyperplasy), and finally undergoing fatty degene-
ration, so that, instead of single cells of the neuroglia, w-e find
in these cases accumulations of granule-cells or granule-glo-
bules. In fact, we have interstitial encephalitis and inter-
stitial myelitis, which explains the cause of death. Virchow
found such diffuse interstitial encephalitis and myelitis in the
infant, either accompanying constitutional syphilis of the
parents or the acute exanthemata, especially smallpox of the
mother, puerperal and other constitutional disturbances of the
mother. He thinks that in those cases where the infants do
not die this condition of the nervous centres may possibly be

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. L

162

the starting-point for subsequent idiocy or infantile paralysis.
Graefe has lately described a peculiar sloughing of the cornea
of both eyes in infants, where at the post-mortem such a
diffuse interstitial encephalitis has been found by Cohnheim
and Hirschberg. — The Medical Record, Dec. 1st, 1868.

Surirella Capronii, Kitton. — This is a new species of Suri-
rella recently described by Mr. F. Kitton from specimens
found by Dr. E. Capron, at Shere, near Guildford, and by
M. de Brebisson at Falaise, Normandy. Its peculiarity con-
sists chiefly in one or two horn-like processes which project
from the longitudinal median line.

Lichen Zoospores. — In the ‘ Annales des Sciences Natu-
relles,’ vol. viii, MM. Famintzin and Boranetzky give the
results of their experiments on the gonidia of Lichens, and
the transformation of their contents into zoospm-es. The
common yellow Lichen, Physcia parietina, was the species
employed. The thallus was for many weeks subjected to
continual moisture until decomposed, and the conidia isolated.
The conidia thus obtained were w'ashed and deposited on
pieces of lime bark. The changes they underwent were
precisely those whicli M. Nageli describes in a species of
Cystococcus, which our authors consider to be nothing more
than Lichen-conidia in transformation. A portion of the
conidia had their contents changed into zoospores, the rest
passed through the stages of cell division and fissuration.
The zoospores are elongated and narrowed at one extremity,
which is furnished with two vibratile cilia. The period
varied from four to six weeks from the time of commencing
the disintegration of the thallus to the development of
zoospores. The presence of zoospores in Algse has long been
demonstrated; more recently they were detected in Fungi;
and now, at least, three genera of Lichens, viz. Physcia,
Evernia, and Cladonia, are shown to possess them. An
examination of the conidia of Peltigera has led our authors to
the conclusion that they are identical with an Alga (Poly-
coccus), and that those of Collema develop into organisms
similar to Nostoc.

A New Microscope. — The Messrs. Solomons, of Marlborough
Street, have produced a microscope with two object-glasses —
one, a 1 in. English, the other a Jin., of German make, with
slow and fine adjustments, condenser on stand, live-box,
&c., packed in a mahogany stand. It is sold at a low price,
and appears to be well adapted for students and amateur
microscopists.

REVIEWS.

The Anatomical Memoirs of John Goodsir, F.R.S., edited
by IV. Turner, M.D. With a Biographical Memoir by
Henry Lonsdale, M.D. Two vols. Edinburgh : Adam
and Charles Black.

The name of John Goodsir is not, perhaps, so familiar to
microscopical observers as that of many others who have done
less service to science by the aid of the microscope. The fact
is, the late Professor in Anatomy prosecuted his researches in
anatomy and physiology from a very exalted point of view, and
the microscope was only used by him, as it always ought to be
used, as a means of observation subservient to the higher
generalizations of biological science. At the same time these
memoirs abundantly show that the microscope was one of
the most frequent instruments employed in his anatomical
and physiological researches. One of the earliest memoirs in
these volumes is that on “ The Development of the Pulps and
Sacs of the Human Teeth ; ” and although not an exclusively
microscopical subject, he could not have carried on his re-
searches on this subject or have arrived at his conclusions
without the aid of the microscope.

It is not, however, for researches with the microscope
upon special subjects that Goodsir’s memoirs have a claim
upon the attention of microscopical observers ; but for his
papers and lectures he may justly be said to be one of that
great school of observers, with Schleiden and Schwann at
their head, who have changed the whole face of physio-
logical and anatomical science by their discoveries of the
nature of the cell and its functions by the aid of the microscope.

The position of Goodsir in relation to the great move-
ment which took place after the publication of Schleiden’s
paper on phytogenesis in 1838 is so well described by Dr.
Lonsdale in his biographical sketch that we venture to in
troduce rather a long passage for the benefit of our readers :

164

“ Like all the early observers of ‘ the cell,’ Dr. Goodsir met with diffi-
culties. Granted a cell, with its walls, its contents, its nucleus and
nucleolus, what then ? Did the formation of cells depend on an endo-
genous or exogenous growth, a fissiparous division, or a gemmiferous
thrusting forth of new cells or materials? Theory often ran in advance
of observation, and Goodsir, too anxious for a foremost place in the race
of competition, went boldly onwards; for, with too many of that period,
instead of comparing microscopic observation with the data furnished by
the test-tube and the philosophical balance, the desire was to be able to cry
* Eureka !’ before your neighbour. This mode of procedure could excite
no surprise ; histology was an almost untrodden field, the explorers of
which were enthusiastic and impressionable. The new developmental
anatomy attracted dilettanti and idealists, as well as the legitimists in
science, and came to be viewed in the highest light as an Archimedean
lever to the biological world — a consummation devoutly to be wished by
the physicist, physiologist, and positivist, all of whom took part in the
discussion of a subject that seemed specially to concern the anatomist
alone. The geometrician saw the fundamental form of nature repre-
sented in the cell — a hollow spheroid or ellipsoid ; the physiologist would
have it that all the processes engaged in the vital functions rest upon a
combination, recombination, or multiplication of cells ; and Comte, rising
with his philosophy still higher, found in the life of the single cell a type
and the source of not only the functions of individual man, but also of the
grand etre — humanity. Even the lover of the aesthetical, struck by the
histological elements, both in their origin and coalesced functions, glorified
them into a form of beauty charmingly consonant with bis beau ideal of
life, and his higher aspirations towards the primitive ajsthetic standard.
Goodsir, no less speculative than scientific, was not the least conspicuous
supporter of the new doctrines that bid lair, at one time, to make the cell
the whole science of life.

“ Of the lectures delivered in the theatre of the Royal College of
Surgeons in the summer of 1842 and winter of 1842-43, a portion was
devoted to the consideration of practical subjects — ex. gr. surgical patho-
logy ; another portion embraced anatomical and physiological questions of
current or rather special interest to the younger members of his audience,
and were afterwards woven into a work — ‘Anatomical and Pathological
Observations,’ (vide vol. ii, p. 387). The prominent doctrines enunciated
by Goodsir in these lectures mainly rested on the existence of centres of
force connected with the nutritive and reproductive changes in the normal
and pathological processes. The term ‘centres of nutrition,’ or ‘germinal
centres,’ as employed by him, obviously possessed a similar signification
to that which at this time is attached by Dr. Beale to his ‘germinal
matter,’ and by various anatomists of the most modern German school to
their masses of nucleated protoplasm. The allocation to these definite
‘centres,’ not only of the forces engaged in the nutrition of the textures,
but in tbe reproduction of new forms both in normal and pathological
processes — a doctrine which has been in its special relations to pathology
so systematically pursued by Virchow and his disciples — was unmistak-
ably present in t he mind of Goodsir, and also articulately expressed in the
pathological papers in the series now referred to. This, it must be remem-
bered, was at a period when the origin of new cell-forms by a process of
precipitation, or molecular aggregation in a fluid blastema or exudation,
was the doctrine prevalent in the schools.

“ Of the part which the nucleated cell plays in the processes of nutri-
tion, secretion, and reproduction, normal and otherwise, it may perhaps
suffice to refer the reader to the paper on ‘ Centres of Nutrition,’ to that

165

on * Absorption and Ulceration, and the structures engaged in these
Processes,’ and On the Process of Ulceration in Articular Cartilages ;’
to the memoir on 1 Secreting Structures,’ and the short essays on the
‘ Structure and Economy of Bone,’ and on the * Mode of Reproduction
after the Death of the Shaft of a Long Bone.’ Corroborative evidence
may also be met with in his memoir ‘ On Diseased Conditions of the
Intestinal Glands,’ and the paper on the ‘ Structure and Pathology of the
Kidney and Liver.’ In these various essays the presence of the products
of secretion within cells ; the increase which takes place in the size of the
cells, and the multiplication of their nuclei when influenced by morbid
changes ; the rupture of these enlarged proliferating cel!s, and the dis-
charge of their nucleated contents ; the destruction, scooping out, and
solution of textures by the action of the forces residing in these new
formed structures ; the presence of soft nucleated masses in the lacuna;
and Haversian canals of bone, and the part which- they play in the absorp-
tion of bone ; and the changes which take place in nucleated cells in con-
nection with cyst-formation — all testify to the largeness of his observation
of cell-life, both physiologically and pathologically.

“ In the first of these memoirs not only does he advocate the importance
of the cell as a centre of nutrition, but argues that the organism is subdi-
vided into a number of departments, ‘each containing a certain number
of simple or developed cells, all of which hold certain relations to one
central or capital cell around which they are grouped.’ This idea has
since been freely made use of by Professor Virchow, though, it must be
admitted, without a due acknowledgment of the quarter in.- which it
was originally stated, and it has obviously influenced many of his physio-
logical and pathological speculations. This reticence is the more strange,
as Virchow dedicated his work on Cellular Pathologie to the Edinburgh
professor in the following complimentary terms : — ‘ To John Goodsir,
F.R.S., &c., as one of the earliest and most acute observers of cell-life,
both physiological and pathological, this work on Cellular Pathology is
dedicated, as a slight testimony of his deep respect and sincere admira-
tion, by the author.’ As Professor Virchow has travelled over much of
the ground that had been previously cultivated by Goodsir, it is no less
remarkable than disappointing to find in Virchow’s volume of 433 pages
but one reference to Goodsir, and that in connection with an observation
the merit of which might be more fairly ascribed to Dr. Martin Barry.
This is scanty civility to a scientific confrere whom he has called ‘one of
the most acute observers of cell-life ’ — one whose labours he has availed
himself of, and whose opinions and words he has occasionally adopted.

“ In his paper on the ‘ Morbid Changes affecting the Glandulae Aggre-
gate of the Ileum in Fever,’ Goodsir (vol. ii, p. 377) describes these changes
to be of the following nature — viz., ‘the development of cells within the
constituent vesicles of the patches to such an extent as at last to burst
them, or cause their solution; the continued increase in the number of
the cells proceeding from as many centres as there are vesicles in the
path ; the conglomeration of the whole into one mass above the sub-
mucous and under the mucous membrane, the distension of the latter,
and the necessary ulceration and sloughing of the mass arising from this
circumstance.’ This is clearly Virchow’s ‘ proliferation of cells.’ Then,
in p. 390 of the same volume, Goodsir, speaking of simple or developed
cells holding certain relations to one central or capital cell, says — ‘ It
would appear that from this central cell all the other cells of its depart-
ment derive their origin. It is the mother of all within its own territory.'
If the reader will be at the pains to compare the whole paragraph from
which this passage has been quoted with a paragraph at p. 14 of Mr.

166

Chance's translation of Virchow, that terminates with the ’word ‘ cell-
territory’ (zellen-territorien), he cannot fail to see the close following or
copying of Goodsir. Virchow, however, makes no reference to the source
from which he has obtained his cell-territory.1

“ Various opinions on the nature of the cell have passed current during
the last thirty years, and almost each quinquenniad has had a theory of
its own. Thus Schwann looked upon the vitelline membrane as the outer
cell-wall, the yelk substance the contents, the germinal vesicle the nucleus,
and the macula or macula the nucleolus or nucleoli. Wagner and Henle
regarded the germinal vesicle as the true cell, and the other parts of the
ovum as of the nature of superadded structures. Goodsir and Virchow
held the cell to be the ultimate morphological element in which there is
any manifestation of life, and that the seat of real action must not be
transferred to any point beyond the cell. Still finer distinctions have
been drawn of late years, and much said on 4 plasms ’ and 4 protoplasms ’
or 4 plasmodiums ’ as rivals of the cell. The observations of the eminent
phytologist Hugo Von Mohl on the 4 Primordial Utricle,’ Cienkowsky’s
views on the monads, espoused by Professor Huxley in his lectures on the
Invertebrata, and Professor Haeckel’s 4 Protogenes,’ may be cited in proof
of the opinions afloat and pertaining to the ultimate atoms of organized
bodies. The protogenes of the Jena professor is described as 4 simply a
minute drop of living jelly, simpler even than a white blood-corpuscle,
having no nucleus, no nucleolus, no contracting vesicle — 44 no nothing ”
in fact, except the property of flowing in various directions, and of pro-
truding innumerable fine processes or pseudopodia.’ Here is a living
substance devoid of all but molecular structure, yet showing by its pseu-
dopodia the actions attributed to the lower forms of animal life — ex. gr.
the Amoeba. The question will now arise, If Haeckel’s views be admitted, is
plasm endowed with a formative and selective power in the building up
and the disintegration and decay of organisms ? Has science revealed a
potential or pantheistic force— the universal Archeus — pervading every
form of organized matter ? Is it to be inferred that life is originally
stamped on the amorphous and elementary molecule, that the molecule
is advanced to a distinct and tangible organization in the cell as in the
amorphozoa — the perfection of tissue being a further process of the cell
in its entirety — anatomical and physiological? However this may be —
and all that pertains to molecular morphology2 is likely to undergo a
thorough inquiry — Dr. Macvicar and others have space and verge enough
in determining the intricate philosophy of matter. In all speculations
resting on molecular and cellular growth it may be well to remember
that the dogma of to-day may come to rank with the disbelief of tomorrow,
or even be classified with an antediluvian past ; and it is not less neces-
sary to keep in view what history has oft recorded and repeated, but in
vain, that the eccentricities of one age may become the wisdom of the
next.”

With the memoirs which are the production of John

1 “This question was fully discussed in the ‘British Medical Journal’
(Jan. 12, 1861), in a leading article — ‘Cellular Pathology, its Present
Position’- — being a review of Virchow’s work as translated by Chance
The passages referred to in the text above are placed in parallel columns.

2 44 A Sketch of a Philosophy — Part II. — Matter and Molecular Morpho-
logy,” published by Williams and Norgate, 1868, will furnish abundant
materials to those interested in these inquiries. The chemical or elementary
synthesis, rather than the anatomical and physiological relations of molecules,
are discussed iy this remarkable brochure.

167

Goodsir, a few are included which were written by his
brother Harry. Those who knew the latter knew how
great promise he made of becoming an able coadjutor of his
elder brother, if not a successful competitor with him for the
highest scientific honours. He perished with Franklin in
the ill-fated Arctic expedition. Four papers in this col-
lection attest his power of observation, his appreciation of
the microscope as an instrument of research, and the bent
of his genius towards the study of comparative anatomy.
His early death was a great loss to science.

John Goodsir was born in 1814 at Anstruther, in Fife-
shire, not far from Edinburgh. He was a son and grand-
son of distinguished medical men, and was early destined for
the medical profession. He studied medicine at Edinburgh,
and was an anatomical pupil of the late Dr. Knox. He
early distinguished himself by his assiduity in the study
of anatomy, and became as a student distinguished for the
skill with which he made models of his dissections. In the
early part of his career he became the friend of the late
Edward Forbes, and for many years they lodged together
in Edinburgh, each helping the other in the walk they had
chosen. There is scarcely an Edinburgh graduate since
1838 up to the death of Forbes in 1854 that had not
frequent opportunity of seeing them together. Large num-
bers remember the flat at 21, Mid-Lothian Street, so well
described by Dr. Lonsdale :

“The domicle of the Goodsirs in No. 21, Lothian Street, adjacent to
the University of Edinburgh, was approached by a public flight of stairs,
to which six different families had access, and consisted of the half of a
top flat or storey, with attics — rented at £17 a year! In character it
ranked with the dwelling of petty tradesmen, and though the rooms were
small they accommodated two or three brothers Goodsir, Edward Forbes,
George E. Day — all very tall men, also their visitors, and a housekeeper
or cook, and two lads who acted as anatomical assistants in the museum
and as grooms-in-waiting at home. Man was not the sole occupant ;
other living things — biped, quadruped, manuped, and nulliped — had their
share in the fortunes of the household. ‘ Jacko ’ the monkey,1 ‘ Coco ’

' “Jacko” was a droll customer, with a keen eye to his physical com-
forts. Looking upwards in the scale of being, or “aping his betters,” he
would have a vapour-bath, and in a mode that indicated neither propriety
nor decorum- Watching his opportunity when the pot of boiling potatoes
was removed from the fire, he used to warm his hips over the steaming
vapours. Mr. Day, having caught him in the act, vowed he would eat no
more potatoes unless presented in their dry jackets. After Goodsir observed
the parasite on the gill of the haddock, Mr. Day came to have doubts as to
the validity of fish in general ; and as haddocks and potatoes were staple
dishes in the establishment, his gastronomic squeamishness could only be
allayed by Goodsir’s assurance of the parasitic freedom of every fish, and

168

the tortoise, 1 Caesar ’ the dog, ‘ Doodle ’ the cat, and occasionally guinea-
pigs and urchins, had their freedom of run in the establishment ; the
birds were caged, and the great eagle stood Prometheus-like on his
Caucasus ; whilst shut up in the attics, or claiming part of the cook’s pre-
cincts, and in improvised aquaria of vivaria, were frogs, fishes, molluscs,
echinoderms, and various odds and ends of Invertebrata. These animals
were nearly all meant for physiological observation, and occasionally
furnished the anatomists with a blood-globule, a muscular fibre, and
ciliated epithelium. As the ranks of this living motley fell away — for
amidst such a marine, aerial, and land population life flowed and ebbed,
and oft departed — the organisms, on ceasing their physiological functions,
obtained the obsequies of the scalpel, the injecting-syringe, the spirit-jar,
or macerating-tub ; and, as mementoes of once familiar faces, skins and
crania for conservation might be seen hanging like banners on the outward
wall or attic’s roof. This semi-menagerie and its mortuary relics, con-
veying to more senses than one decided anatomical impressions, bore a
faint resemblance to a portion of the monastery of the Capuchins in the
Piazza Barberini at Rome, where, however, the genus homo, and not the
genera animalium, constituted a more degrading demonstration. Along
with household furniture, boxes, big tomes, portfolios, fossils, geological
and archaeological specimens, were strewed about the rooms ; the finer
sorts of things occupied shelves; and t£ese again variously set off by
dried starfishes, shells, trophies of the chase, meerschaums, and the artistic
or grotesque fancies of Forbes. As indiscriminate as the Paris chiffon-
niers, the Goodsirs fraternity hoarded up organic forms and their special
idols, till they realised what appeared to bystanders a chaos of natural
history and domesticity only to be surpassed by the oddest curiosity-shop
in the Cowgate of the ancient city. With the owners, however, there was
method in the midst of strange confusion, besides much pleasantry in the
conceit, and a kind of a;sthetic halo that crowned all the dust and cobwebs
of their domicile.”

There is one thing the biographer has forgotten here ;
and that is a microscope. It was not one by Ross or
Powell or Smith, but a second-hand one picked up by
Forbes in a shop in Edinburgh. Be sure it was not a very
good one, but, as Forbes used to say, “ It is not the object-
glass at one end, but the head at the other, that constitutes
the value of the microscope.” In this naturalists’ den
might be met from time to time George Wilson, John
Reid, Samuel Brown, J. Hughes Bennett, James Simpson,
Martin Barry, John Balfour, James Wilson, David Page,

the cook’s declaration that “Jacko” was chained up during the preparation
of the “ gentlemen’s dinner.”

“ Jacko,” in a roving humour, descended by the spout on the outside
wall to a lower storey, and finding the kitchen window open walked in, to
the great dismay of the female inmate. Knowing nothing of the curious
household above, and being much engrossed, as nearly all Scotch folk were

at the lime, with the threatened disruption in the Kirk, Mrs. looked

upon the intruder, whose presence was as mysterious as his person was
horrid in her eyes, as “spiritually uncanny;” nay, as “the chains were
broken,” had not “ the thousand years” ended, and here was “Beelzebub
Jiimsel’ !”

169

John Percy, Lyon Playfair, Allan Thomson, and a number
of others now living amongst us or passed away with
honoured names.

Of discoveries made by the microscope at this period of
Goodsir’s life, we may mention that of the stomachic fun-
gus, Sarcina ventriculi. This discovery is thus related by
Dr. Lonsdale :

“ His contributions to the different societies in Edinburgh (1 841 — 1844)
show how earnestly he laboured for a front place in the ranks, hoping by
all laudable methods to put himself in a favorable position for any more
lucrative or substantial appointment which might cast up. One of these
contributions relating to the Sarcina ventriculi in cases of pyrosis or
‘ waterbrash’ — a pretty discovery of itself for any man to make — helped
to disclose much that had been obscure and enigmatical in digestion.
The perversity of the stomachic functions, caused by the presence of
organisms which no gastric juice could control, was viewed as strangely
curious. The Sarcina attracted most attention in England, where stomach
complaints disturb the gastronomical ‘John Bull,’ as the ‘sair head’
does the plodding Scot, and ‘ smotherings about the heart ’ affect the
Irish Celt. The discovery attracted many by its novelty, though parasi-
tical growth had for some time been a matter of discussion. In this
country Professor O wen ( 1 832) detected the presence of a greenish vegetable
mould in the lungs of the Phcenicopterus, and was led to infer that internal
parasites embrace entophyta as well as entozoa. Italian, French, and
German observers, and notably Meynier, Schonlein, and Langenbeck, had
written on parasitic growths; and Gruby of Vienna (Valentin’s ‘Reper-
torium,’ 1841) had given a complete history of them, bestowing special
attention on the crusts of the Tinea favosa made up of Mycodermata.
Hughes Bennett in Edinburgh, Rayer and Cazenave in Paris, confirmed
Gruby’s views. Mr. George Busk gave an excellent review in the ‘ Micro-
scopic Journal’ (December, 1841) of all that had been done, and embodied
his own researches with it, so that parasitic formation was one of the ques-
tions of the day when Goodsir discovered the stomachic enemy.’ As
Sarcina affects all phases of life, from Lazarus at the gate to Dives in the
palace, Goodsir became involved in a large amount of correspondence
with doctors and patients soliciting information and curative means. The
history of the case gave him position and authority as a minute and accu-
rate observer in little explored fields, and where natural history pursuits
afforded light to strictly pathological questions.”

In 1846 Goodsir was appointed Professor of Anatomy in
the University of Edinburgh. From this time to the day
of his death he devoted himself to the duty of teaching
anatomy. He did not neglect the use of the microscope,
and he had the satisfaction of seeing his colleagues, more
especially Dr. Hughes Bennett, the Professor of the Insti-
tutes of Medicine, introduce this instrument into his practi-

1 “ If Edinburgh was first made acquainted with the Sarcina, so was its
* Philosophical Journal’ the first to convey to the world, in 1819, Sir J.
Herschel’s researches on the hypo-sulphites — salts of such significance in
counteracting the parasite.

170

cal teaching at the bedside in the Infirmary of Edinburgh.
At the same time he directed all his leisure to the improve-
ment of the museum under his charge. His lectures were
eminently successful, and he devoted a certain portion of his
time to giving demonstrations of anatomy in addition to his
professional labours as a lecturer. In these demonstrations
the microscope was constantly employed, and in the nume-
rous papers which he subsequently published we find him
making extensive use of this instrument. He based his
physiological and morphological teachings on an accurate
knowledge of the nature of the tissues which entered into
the composition of the organs of the animals, and these alone
could be understood by researches dependent on the aid of
the microscope. Had he lived, Goodsir would have undoubt-
edly put his large knowledge of the laws which govern the
functions and forms of animal life into a systematic treatise.
As it is, we have from his pen a series of papers unrivalled
in accurate observation and felicitous induction, and no one
who wishes to master the results of biological science can
dispense with the study of his writings. This work, em-
bracing his most important papers, has been carefully edited
by his successor in the Chair of Anatomy, Professor W.
Turner, and contains a large series of plates illustrating
the various structures to which reference is made in the
text. To his large class of pupils, to students of minute
structure, and the cultivators of physiological science, these
volumes will be found a precious record of the observations
and views of one of the profoundest physiologists this cen-
tury has produced.

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

Histology. Nerve. — On the miniate Anatomy of the Pa-
cinian Corpuscles of Man and other Mammifers. By Dr. G.
V. Ciaccio, Professor of Physiology at Parma. Turin, 1868.
4to, 5 plates. — Dr. Ciaccio was, five years ago, studying his-
tology in this country with Dr. Lionel Beale. At that time
he published a paper in this Journal; he has, since his return
to Italy, written some valuable memoirs, one of which, on
the Structure of the Skin of the Frog, he was good enough
to send us. The illustrations, both in that and the present
memoir, are very beautifully executed. This is a very
detailed account of the Pacinian body, the methods of pre-
paring the object for examination being first discussed in
detail. Dr. Ciaccio concludes that the structure of these
bodies is quite peculiar (he is not able to add much to what
was previously known on this score, but gives valuable con-
firmatory evidence), and their function also must be regarded
as a special one, which is at present unknown.

The Nerves of the Cornea. By H. Petermoller. 2 plates.
Zeit. f. Rat. Med., xxxiv, 1st part.

The Central Nervous System and the Auditory Organ of
the Cephalopods. By Ph. Owsjannikow and Dr. A. Kowa-
lewskv, Mem. de V Acad. Imper. des Sc. St. Petersbourg,
Tome xi, No. 3. — The authors give the microscopic structure
of the ganglia and the microscopic relations of the nerve-
fibres in several species of Cephalopoda. The structure of
the auditory sac itself is elaborately worked out and figured.
Several plates of double quarto size, and marvellously drawn,
illustrate this paper. Owsjannikow’s paper on the Lamprey's
(Petromyzon fluviatilis) ear, in the same series of memoirs,
furnishes an interesting comparison of the structure in the
highly organised mollusc and the low-grade fish.

On the Auditory Organs of Molluscs. By M. Lacaze
Duthiers. Comptes Rendas, November 2nd, 1868. — This
paper is one of considerable importance, and one which
should excite attention of all comparative anatomists. Since
Siebold, Kolliker, and others drew attention to the otolithic
sacs of Gasteropods, Levdig, Claparede, Huxley, and Lacazc

172

Duthiers himself, have stated that the sac derives its nerve
in the large majority of cases (the Heteropoda and Eolidae
being exceptions), from the pedal ganglion, and the supposed
innervation of the organ from the pedal ganglion led to
various deductions as to the inconstancy of the innervation
of homologous parts, and the connection between sensory and
motor nerve-centres. M. Lacaze Duthiers has recently care-
fully looked into this question, and believes that he and other
observers have been misled by the apposition of the otolithic
sacs to the pedal ganglion, and that the auditory nerve comes
to the sac really from the supra-oesophageal, also called cere-
broid ganglion, and thus this ganglion is the nerve-centre of
all the sensory organs. Dr. Lacaze Duthiers is an observer
of the very greatest distinction and of known accuracy; we
therefore must expect to see his observations confirmed, and
would point to this inquiry as a worthy task for any of our
readers. It is much to be regretted that these observations,
so important in connection with the homologies of the Mol-
lusca (for it was usual to determine the homologue of the
pedal ganglion by the connection of the otolithic sac in
doubtful cases) , have been totally misrepresented in the pages
of the ' Monthly Microscopical Journal/ and in the ' Popular
Science Review/ The error has arisen from imperfect
knowledge of the French language, and of the rudiments
of molluscan anatomy.

Throughout the translation of Dr. Duthier’s paper in the
February number of the 'Monthly Journal/ the term " sus-
cesophagien” is translated " sub-oesophageal/’ instead of
" supra-oesophageal,” and thus the very fact which Dr.
Duthiers denies is most emphatically asserted in the transla-
tion of the paper ; and the same mistake is made in the
Chronicle of the 'Popular Science Review’ for January. Is
it possible that Dr. Lawson’s contributor knows that in Mol-
luscs the cerebral ganglion is supra-oesophageal, and the
pedal ganglion is sub-oesophageal? The following passage
and the subjoined translation in the ' Monthly’ would lead
one to suppose that it is impossible: — "Toujours le nerf
acoustique prend son origine sur les ganglion sus-oesophogie
ou cerebral.” "The acoustic nerve invariably takes its
origin from the suboesophageal or cerebral ganglion.”
‘Monthly Mic. Journal/ February, p. 115, six lines from
top fand again two lines from the bottom).

We regret much that the space of a useful contemporary
should have been wasted in propagating such error as the
above. It is most necessary for us to correct it, as the obser-
vations of Professor Lacaze Duthiers on the subject are of so

173

much value ; and, moreover, it is well to be on guard against
similar errors in future in the new ‘ Journal of the Royal
Microscopical Society/ The repetition of the error and
complete perversion of the author's sense shows that the
excuse of carelessness cannot be applied in this case. That the
translator was puzzled by the contradictious which he himself
elaborated is apparent from this sentence, which we give as
printed : — “ In the Heteropoda especially, the otolites are
suspended from the brain (?) (cerveau), as if from a long
delicate thread." The inserted note of interrogation
and French word indicate an unenviable state of bewil-
derment.

Professor Lacaze Duthiers' researches have befcn made on
more than thirty species of Gasteropods, and he has never
failed to discover the relation of the auditory nerve to the
cerebral ganglion. Limax, Arion, Helix, Zonites, Clausilia,
Succinea, Physa, Lymneus, Ancvlus, Neratina, Paludina,
Testacella, Cyclostoma, Pileopsis, Calyptera, Natica, Nassa,
Trochus, Murex, Cassidaria, Purpura, Patella, Haliotis,
Bulloea, Aplysia, Lamellaria, are the genera in which this
relation has been established. In these investigations oxalic
acid was used as a re-agent to render the lime crystals in the
auditory sacs apparent, and thus facilitate their dissection.
Staining with carmine was also found useful. It will be ob-
served that Professor Lacaze Duthiers’ researches extend
only to the Cephalophorous Mollusca. It will be of the
greatest importance to ascertain how far his results are true
for the Lamellibranchs. In Anodon the pedal ganglion is a
very long way removed from the so-called supra-cesophageal
ganglion, and on that pedal ganglion, supported by a pedun-
cle, the otolithic sac is to be seen. The hope to establish
minute homologies between Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs
is, we are convinced, a vain one, but it is necessary to know
how far they agree in structure.

Muscular Tissue. — On the Structure of Striped Muscular
Tissue. Second article. By. W. Krause. Zeitsch. fur Rat.
Med., xxxiv. 1st. Part.

Blood. — Cohnheim’s Views on the Passage of White Blood-
Cells.

Dr. Koloraan Balogh opposes the view lately advanced by
Cohnheim. He observes that the first writer on this subject
was Aug. Waller, of London, who had already seen, in 1846,
in examining the mesentery of the toad and the tongue of
the frog, that the white and red globules of the blood can pass
outside the walls of the capillary vessels. The different
details of these observations had led Waller to conclude :

174

1st. That the white globules can open for themselves a
passage through the uninjured walls of the vessels. 2nd.
That the blood possesses a power of nutrition which permits
it to rapidly close the orifice by which these globules passed
out. In a second memoir Waller endeavoured to establish
the identity of the corpuscles of mucus and of pus with the
white globules of the blood. He did not regard the passage
of the globules as necessarily a vital process, since he was
able to observe it after death ; and he considered that the
phenomenon might be due to a solvent action exercised by
the blood globules on the vascular walls. These researches
of Waller appeared in the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ and fell
into profound oblivion, even in England, until the moment
when Cohnheim published his work on the same subject in
c Virchow’s Archiv.’ Dr. Balogh, wishing to check the ex-
periments of Cohnheim, instituted, with the aid of Dr.
Andreas Csabatamy, a great number of experiments on the
mesentery of frogs, some poisoned by curare, others left
intact. He noticed very readily the tendency of the white
corpuscles to form agglomerations in the vessels at certain
points ; but, although he made repeated observations, some-
times for twenty-four hours, he quite failed to see even one
white globule pass through the walls of the capillaries, or
one that had so passed. Dr. Balogh, in the face of these
negative results, asks what can have led Waller and Cohn-
heim to admit that the white globules of the blood can pass
through vascular walls; also, if pus-cells cannot be formed
in the connective tissue without the participation of the white
globules of the blood ; and, finally, if the white globules of
the blood can be a source of the formation of pus. He con-
siders the idea put forth by Waller and reproduced by Cohn-
heim as the result of optical errors. He does not deny
absolutely the existence of some apertures in the walls of
the vessels, but he is convinced that they would be too small
to allow the passage of the globules. He could not see them
with a new immersion objective of Hartnack, giving a magni-
fying power of 2,600 diameters ; and he doubts if such aper-
tures existed whether penetrating injections could succeed iu
the way they do. Besides, Keber, who described these pores,
was unable to demonstrate them in a reunion of German
naturalists and physicians, and the method of Recklinghausen
(impregnation with silver) produces the appearance of orifices
where nothing of the sort really exists. He considers the
pus-cells seen outside the vessels to arise from the connective
tissue ; and the cells of the vessel walls may equally give
rise to such. The white globules of the blood accidentally

175

escaping by rupture cannot, he believes, give rise to veritable
pus at all.

Teeth. — How to Study the Structure of the Teeth. By
Professor S. P. Cutler. The Dental Register, Nov., 1868.
In giving my processes for the investigation of the teeth, I
would like very much for all who have instruments to follow
me and give their individual results. This course, I main-
tain, will at least reward any one, amateur or otherwise. In
the first place, a good and reliable microscope will be pre-
req\iisite. Secondly, a thorough practicable knowledge of
the use of the instrument will be indispensable.

To commence with the gum or soft pulp of a tooth.

Formula No. 1. Procure a fresh pulp, sound and normal,
and put this into alcohol (ordinary), and let it remain several
days, when it becomes firm and tough. Then remove from
the alcohol, and with a sharp razor slice into thin longitudinal
sections, as thin as possible, observing the order in which
they are cut. They are now ready for mounting, and should
be mounted in the order in which they are cut. Mount in
balsam, label and number. This specimen will show sections
of blood-vessels, cellular tissue, and portions of nerve-fila-
ments, commencing with the first slice, and follow the order
of their mountings.

Formula No. 2. Procure a fresh pulp as before, and treat
same way in alcohol. Now remove, and commence at one
end, and cut across at right angles to the pulp, and cut into
thin slices, laying them aside in the order in which they
were cut. Then mount, label, and number in the same order
in which they were cut, as in the first process.

Formula No. 3. This time cut a pulp, prepared as above
directed, obliquely from end to end, observing the same
angle through the entire pulp ; lay aside and mount as in
the other cases.

In the above specimens the filamental septum may be im-
perfectly seen and studied, though not satisfactorily, as the
cell contents will obscure the nerve fibrils, though not entirely
so. For the above processes pulps of single teeth are prefer-
able to begin with ; then the molars may be studied in the
same way. When the pulp is removed from the alcohol it is
white and tough, and should be cut and mounted as soon as
possible, before it hardens too much.

Formula No. 4. Procure a fresh pulp, and at once split it
open from end to end ; then lay it on a slip of glass slightly
coated with balsam pitch, and spread it out, after slightly
rounding the glass (something like a hunter stretches his
coon skin on a barrel to dry) ; then remove as much of the

176

cell contents as convenient, by washing with a piece of
sponge and acetic acid or ether, rubbing lengthwise with
pulp. This will show more clearly the septum of filaments,
and also show the countless openings through the pulp mem-
brane, where the fibrils pass out into the dentine. These
specimens will not keep well for permanent use, unless
mounted in pitch on both sides; even then changes take
place.

Formula No. 5. Fresh pulps may be dissected into small
patches, or torn to pieces and mounted as above directed,
which will show more or less of the structure of the interior
of the pulp ; patches of nerve fibres or filaments may be
seen intact.

Formula No. 6. Remove fresh pulps and let them dry a
day or so ; then with a short pointed bistoury or scissors split
open the pulp from end to end, and spread out on coated
glass as before directed, mount and label. In these speci-
mens the openings through the membrane may be distinctly
seen, also the system of nerves as heretofore described in
former articles, though not entirely intact, but more or less
distributed. The above are the leading features of preparing
pulps for the microscope, though many other methods may
be employed, none of which will be entirely satisfactory to
the beginner.

In the case of dried pulps, they may be put into water and
swelled, then split open, dissected, and examined.

A new set of formulas will now be given, which will show
the filamental system to perfection and in situ, and, cell
structures and blood vessels generally being obliterated by
differentiation, only in some instances the vessels may be seen
with their contents. As we lack terms to fully describe this
process, I will suggest something new, as ossification and
calcification neither are expressive. Dentification, which is
in use, and the most satisfactory, does not fully give the pro-
cess ; instead, I would suggest the terms dentificatio pulpce
or dentum secundum, meaning secondary dentine. Another
form of hardened pulp, depending on another cause, might
be termed with propriety nodosa pulpa, or granulated pulp,
and may consist of one or more granules, round or irregular
in shape.

The former depending on wearing down of the tooth by
mastication, and the latter depending on irritation from decay
and other causes, is always confined to the limits of the pulp,
and never adherent to the inner walls of the dentine. The
former process may be considered as physiological, and the
latter as pathological. One anticipated by nature, or the vis

177

medicatrix naturce, and ample provision made when the pro-
cess is normal. In the latter case no such result is antici-
pated, and no constant saving provision instituted ; on the
contrary is infrequent and accidental, happening, probably,
in certain temperaments only.

In both cases the result is the same, so far as these pro-
cesses are viewed under the microscope — that is, the fila-
mental arrangements of the nerves are in both cases intact,
and show beautifully the plexuses of nerves occupying the
interior of the pulp already described.

The processes may be compared to petrifying processes in
inorganic chemistry, soluble lime salts filling up the cells and
around the nerve fibrils, leaving these structures perfect and
intact. Cell walls also remain, only their contents being re-
placed by lime, the blood vessels generally being filled with
lime, or are absorbed and disappear.

The precise nature of these changes is not well understood,
though the result may be readily comprehended. Without
the aid of these secondary formations the true system of
pulp structures never could be satisfactorily studied.

Specimens may be sawed with main-spring saws through
crowns and roots when the pulp is ossified, including the
pulp, showing the filamental system through the primary and
secondary dentine in a perfect state of preservation. Section
after section may be cut through the tooth and pulp in thin
slices, and dressed down on a fine hone, first sawing through
the centre ; then saw off thin slabs on each side, dress down
and saw as before ; dress down again and saw until all the
pulp is sawn up. These sections may be cemented to slips
of glass with Canada balsam : pitch the dressed side to the
glass, then dress down on a hone until light readily passes
through it, then introduce underthe instrument, and if not thin
enough to show the nerves distinctly, dress down until they
can be seen ; if too thick, same as in preparing ordinary
tooth specimens. This secondary nodes, or nodular dentine,
is not true secondary dentine, though very similar, and might
be included, perhaps, under the head of calcification, which
may take place in any tissue, especially in advanced life,
depending on similar causes, that is stasis in the part, and
deposit of lime, and is an accidental circumstance, and mav
serve as a protection to the pulp against further ravages of
decay. In both forms of secondary dentine the remaining
soft portions of the pulp retain their vitality to a certain
extent, varying in different cases.

It will be found that in case of wearing of teeth of old
persons there is evidence of tubular disturbance, especially

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. M

178

near the former boundaries of pulp cavity, sometimes through-
out the dentine. The connection and continuation of tubuli
will be distinctly seen, and traced from primary to secondary
dentine, the regularity of the primary disappearing in the
secondary dentine. Slips of glass, Canada balsam, spring
wooden clamps, or clothes-pins, a spirit lamp, saw, and hone,
are all that is necessary to prepare specimens. The pitch is
formed by gently evaporating the balsam over a spirit lamp
until when cold it becomes hard, and of a brown colour.

The Homologies of the Dental Plates and Teeth of the
Proboscidiferous Molluscs. By G. Denis Macdonald, M.D.,
F.R.S. Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., Feb., 1869.

Connective Tissue. — Development of Connective Tissue
in the Placenta. By Prof. Rudolph Maier. Virchow’s
Archiv, 1st part, 1869.

On the so-called “ Bindesubstanz ” of the Central Organs
of the Nervous System. By J. Henle and F. Merkel.
3 plates. Zeitschrift fur Rat. Med., vol. xxxiv, 1st part.

Gland. — On the Development and the Structure of the
Spermatic Particles of Fishes. By Ph. Owsjanikow. Melanges
Biologiques de V Acad. Imp. St. Petersbourg, September, 1868.
— The author has sent to us a German abstract of his paper,
and the original in Russian, with a plate. He discusses the
views of Kolliker, Schweiger-Seidel, and La Yalette St.
George.

General. — Studies on the Nervous, Muscular, and Glan-
dular System of the Crayfish ( Astacus fluviatilis). By Dr.
Victor Lemoine. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1868. —
This is an exceedingly careful study of a very common animal,
and is therefore likely to interest many of our readers. There
is always something of value to be ascertained by detailed
study of even these commonest forms. The glandular system
has received especial attention from M. Lemoine ; and the
structure of those bodies thought to be the homologue of the
cement-glands of Cirrhipedes is minutely described.

The Luminous Organs of Lampyris noctiluca. By Ph.
Owsjannikow. Mem. de V Acad. Imper. St. Petersbourg,
tome xi, No. 17. — This is a memoir in German. The re-
searches of Max Schultze are referred to, but not those of
Prof. Targione Tozzetti, whose paper we mentioned last
year.

The Animal “ Cell ” not essentially different in Function
from the Vegetable. — In a paper read before the Association
of German Naturalists, at its last session in Frankfort, on the
“ Physics of the Cell, ” Herr Wundt stated as follows: — It
used to be thought that the vegetable cell had to form organic

1 T9

matter, and that the animal cell had to destroy it in order
that, by its alternation of creation and destruction, the general
end of life might be attained. At present we are compelled
to admit that, if the vegetable cell is the seat of a pheno-
menon of reduction by which carbonic acid is decomposed
into its elements, a similar phenomenon is produced iu the
animal cell. Non-azotised combinations, it is now known,
can be formed in the interior of the animal cell. Alexander
Schmidt was the first to observe that, after the addition of
carbonic acid to blood, the total contents of carbonic acid
diminished in certain circumstances. This observation fur-
nishes direct support to the idea of a phenomenon of reduc-
tion. The blood globule plays, therefore, a part analogous to
that played by chlorophyll in the vegetable cell in contact
with the carbonic acid of the atmosphere. The only diffe-
rence which exists is, that in the blood-cell there is, besides,
a process of oxidation going on which surpasses the process of
reduction. Just as the chlorophyll of the vegetable cell
absorbs carbonic acid, so does its colourless protoplasm
absorb oxygen, and this corresponds completely to the absorp-
tion of oxygen by the blood-cell in the lungs.

Structure of Akazga Stems. By Dr. Fraser. Proc.
Botan. Society of Edinburgh. — The author endeavoured to
ascertain the differences between akazga and nux vomica by
examining the microscopic anatomy of their stems. The
following descriptions indicate the principal characters of
these : —

Akazga. — The pith consists of complete parenchyma. Its
cells have, in transverse section, a more or less regularly
hexagonal form, and, in longitudinal section, they present
the appearance of four-sided parallelograms. Their trans-
verse diameter varies from -5-g-oth to T-sVoth of an inch, being
usually, however, about -g-5-oth ; while their longitudinal
diameter is from ^th to ^- th of an inch. The majority of
the cells are indurated and marked by radiating canals. A
few non-indurated cells occur irregularly throughout the
pith, and these contain starch granules.

The wood-cells have pretty constantly a diameter of —J0 0th
of an inch, and are greatly indurated, the cavity being so
much reduced in size as to appear, in cross-section, like a
point. Such a section also shows that the wood-cells are
divided into irregular four-sided groups ; firstly, by nume-
rous medullary rays, which vary greatly in thickness — some
consisting of only one layer of cells, and others of three or
four; and, secondly, by portions of concentric rings, which
consist of plates of parenchyma placed at right angles to the

180

medullary rays. The dotted duds are almost invariably
placed within these parenchymatous plates. They are nearly
circular in form, though sometimes compressed radially, and,
at others, concentrically ; and they vary in diameter from
-j-Jpoth to x-oVoth of an inch, usually, however, being -5-g-g-th.
Longitudinal cylindrical tracts of delicate parenchyma sur-
round the pith, and occur also in various portions of the wood.
In the latter situations, these tracts vary from -r^-oth to
y-Lyth, and, in the former, from -^th to -—th of an inch in
diameter.1

The cells of the medullary rays and of the concentric plates
of parenchyma are filled with starch granules of moderate
size (about 4 0'0 0th of an inch in greatest diameter) and of
irregular oval forms, which seem identical in appearance with
the starch granules in the non-indurated pith cells.

The corky layer and cellular envelope of the bark are mode-
rately developed. In the endophloeum the development of
bast cells is very slight, only a few isolated bast cells being
seen in cross-section. Immediately internal to these, how-
ever, there is a distinct layer, about ygyyth of an inch thick,
and three or four cells deep, of indurated parenchyma, the
cells of which are small and of various shapes, and exhibit
radiating canals.

Strychnos Nux vomica. — The pith is only slightly indu-
rated ; and, in the sections examined, its cells almost invari-
ably contain starch granules — a very few nearly perfectly
indurated cells are, however, present. These cells vary con-
siderably in diameter, some being met with of f 0V0th of an
inch, and others of -g-t^th. The majority of the smaller cells
occur at the circumference of the pith.

The wood-cells are of the same character as those of akazga.
The cylindrical tracts of delicate parenchyma are, however,
larger, and much more numerous than those in akazga.

The dotted ducts are also more numerous, and, in place of
being arranged singly or in groups of two or three, they
frequently occur in groups formed of radial lines of five or
six. In consequence, apparently, of this great development
in the number of the dotted ducts, the wood of nux vomica, is
divided into much smaller masses than that of akazga.2

The general botanical characters of the akazga plant, the
minute anatomy of its stem, the nature of its poisonous action,

1 Similar tracts of parenchyma have been observed by Professor Oliver
in Strychnos loxifera (Oliver “ On the Stem of Dicotyledons,” ‘ Nat. Hist.
Review,’ vol. ii, 1862, p. 317).

2 This structural character of nux vomica is apparent on simple inspec-
tion of a cross section.

181

and the chemical and physiological properties of the alkaloid
that it contains are, therefore, sufficient to show that it is
nearly allied to Strychnos Nux vomica ; but they are also
sufficient to distinguish it from that plant. 'It will be inte-
resting to see how far this opinion is confirmed when an
opportunity is obtained for examining its floral structure, and
thus ascertaining its affinity with certainty.

In the parcels of akazga received there were a few leafless
stems, which were found to contain an immense number of
sparkling crystals beneath the bark. These stems also differ
from the others in the exterior of the bark having a smooth
appearance. A microscopic examination of the stem revealed
the following characters :

The wood has the same general structure as that already
described as belonging to akazga, the wood-cells being greatly
indurated, and the medullary rays being arranged in the same
manner. The cross-plates of parenchyma in connection with
the dotted ducts are, however, shorter in cross-section, hardly
extending beyond the immediate neighbourhood of the dotted
ducts.

The pith contains very few indurated cells.

In the inner oortion of the bark, and also in the longitu-
dinal cylindrica. tracts of delicate parenchyma traversing the
wood, a number of prismatic crystals, terminated in domes,
occur. These are arranged longitudinally to the stem.

There is no layer of indurated parenchyma in the bark.

Guided by these characters, Professor Dickson — who had
kindly interested himself in the subject — pronounced that
these were not stems of akazga. Dr. Fraser was at first
unwilling to adopt this opinion, but a physiological and
chemical examination has now convinced him of its correct-
ness ; for the bark of these stems is perfectly inert, and the
alcoholic extract that is obtained from it does not possess the
well-marked chemical reactions of that obtained from
akazga.

On the Staining of Microscopical Preparations. By Dr.
W. R. M‘Nab. The author enumerated a large series of
experiments he had made by staining certain microscopical
structures with acetate of mauvine and Beale's carmine solu-
tion. He showed that by means of staining, the high powers
of the microscope can be used to bring out points of structure
not easily demonstrated without being so treated. The pro-
cess of staining does not seem to be attended with any great
difficulty, and the author believes that very important results
may be obtained by careful study of its action on germinating
plants.

182

Mineral. — The Different Colours of Labradorite. A
microscopical examination of a number of specimens of this
mineral in the collection of the Ecole Polytechnique des
Pays-Bas, all -from the Labrador coast, has enabled M.
Vogelsang to give an explanation of the splendid play of
colours often exhibited by it. In the coloration of labra-
dorite its more or less crystalline structure plays an essential
part, for the coloured specimens show usually a better cleav-
age than the colourless ones. The bright blue reflected by
some specimens depends upon a certain crystalline state of
the mineral, and is a phenomenon of polarisation produced
by the passage of rays refracted by one lamina into another
lamina, the planes of vibration of which do not coincide with
those of the first, the result being a difference of phase and
an interference of the luminous rays on reflection, just as
with the ordinary colours of polarisation. The golden-
yellow colours proceed from a total reflection from interposed
microlites, which consist of magnetic oxide of iron, or else of
diallage; the red colour results from the reddish colouring
of small lamellae of diallage ; the association of these colours
with the bluish reflection accounts for the green and violet
play of colours ; lastly, the coloured metallic reflection from
laminae of diallage gives rise to the effects of coloured aven-
turiue. — Archives neerlandaises des Sciences exactes et
naturelles.

The Application of the Microscope to Mineralogy. — Mr.
H. C. Sorby exhibited specimens illustrating this subject at
the soiree of the lloyal Society.

The following substances can be recognised in transparent
minerals or blow-pipe beads by means of the characteristic
absorption bands seen in the spectra, even when they are
much coloured by the oxides of iron, manganese, or nickel,
viz., Didymium, Erbium,1 U ranium, Cobal, Chromium, Copper,
Manganese (when it occurs as permanganic acid), a new
earth, for which the name Jargonia is proposed, and another
substance, perhaps also new, but not yet sufficiently studied.

Jargonia is an earth closely allied to zirconia, existing in
small quantity in zircons from various localities, but consti-
tuting the chief ingredient of some of the jargons from
Ceylon. It is, however, distinguished from zirconia and all
other known elementary substances by the following very
remarkable properties. The natural silicate is almost, if not
quite colourless, and yet it gives a spectrum which shows
above a dozen narrow black lines, much more distinct than
even those characteristic of salts of didymium. When melted
1 Erbium ofBunseu— Delafoutaine's Terbium.

183

•with borax it gives a glassy bead, clear and colourless, both
hot and cold, and no trace of absorption bands can be seen
in the spectrum ; but, if the borax bead be saturated at a
high temperature, and flamed, so that it may be filled with
crystals of borate of jargonia, the spectrum shows four
distinct absorption bands, unlike those due to any other
known substance.

New Applications of the Microscope to Blow-pipe Che-
mistry.— Of these there are two chief divisions. In one
method the substance is fused with borax or microcosmic salt,
so as to give a clear bead, and the spectrum is examined by
means of the spectrum eye-piece. In the other method the
saturated borax bead is kept hot over the lamp, so that crys-
tals may be deposited in it. By using a microscope many
elements may then be easily distinguished by the form of the
crystals, which are often of extreme beauty. When, however,
much mixed, or combined with silica or other acids, as in
natural minerals, it is often requisite to add various re-agents,
as phosphate of soda, microcosmic salt, boric, tungstic,
molybdic, and titanic acids. These give rise to characteristic
crystalline deposits; and we may thus distinguish lime, mag-
nesia, baryta, and strontia, even when combined with silica;
and can detect magnesia when mixed with several times its
weight of lime in impure limestone, &c.

Examples of this method. — 1. Sphene melted with borax
does not deposit crystals; but the addition of boric acid sets
free the titanic acid, easily recognised by the form of the
crystals. Diluting the bead with more borax, so as to retain
the titanic acid in solution, phosphate of soda causes the
deposit of crystals of phosphate of lime.

2. Fergusonite, from Greenland, shows the spectrum of
didymium, and from Ytterbv that of erbium. When fused
with borax it deposits crystals of columbic acid ; and after
diluting with borax to prevent this, the addition of phosphate
of soda produces crystals of phosphate of yttria.

3. Gadolinite from Ytterby melted with borax gives a
spectrum indicating the presence of didymium and erbium ;
and when kept hot it deposits the characteristic crystals of
borate of yttria.

Embryology. — Germination of the Spores of Varicellaria.
By Dr. W. Nylander. Annals of Natural History (Decem-
ber), translated by the Rev. W. A. Leighton. — The spores of
Varicellaria, which are the largest spores of all lichens, were
placed by Nylander in a humid atmosphere, and — as seen by
De Bary and others — were soon covered with slender circum-
radiant filaments. In the course of a month or so these

184

filaments acquired a mucedinous character, and produced
moniliform hyaline penicillate acrospores, and thus consti-
tuted a slender penicillium. This subsequently disappears
under culture. But before it disappears, he has observed in
the endospore a hyaline protoplasm, turbid in the middle,
composed of very minute white granulations, which, as it
were, by coagulation formed a solid white corpuscle in the
cavity of each cell of the spore, and that this afterwards gra-
dually increased after the fashion of an embryo, and at length,
in the third month, filled the entire cavities of both cells of
the endospore. At the same time, the wall of the two cells
showed the concentric strata to have become sensibly looser,
and was fissured by several fine transverse rimulse preparing
for its future dissolution, which a parasitic mucedinous vege-
tation would also promote. Dr. Nylander has noticed these
phenomena from March till June. Then the spores, denuded
of penicillium, show a white corpuscle in each cell, which dis-
tends the spiral wall, and ultimately expels an oblong cor-
puscle, which, when free, enlarges, and is most probably the
commencement of the thallus of the lichen.

On the Change of the Gonidia of Lichens into Zoospores.
By MM. A. Famnitzin and J. Boranetsky. Ann. des Sci.
Nat., Ser. 5, vol. viii, translated in the Annals and Mag.
Nat. Hist., February, 1869. — The authors of this valuable
account of the reproduction in lichens observe —

“ The most delicate and at the same time most important
point of these researches was to establish incontestably that
the zoosporal cellules were really the gonimic cellules, and
not some other organism which had been accidentally de-
veloped in our apparatus. We believe that the following
facts demonstrate this fully :

“1. We obtained the zoospores by means of gonidia sown
on the surface of bits of bark previously boiled in water, and
consequently cleansed from living organisms. Direct ob-
servation has demonstrated, moreover, that our seed-beds did
not contain any other green organism besides the gonidia
which we had deposited in them, and that they were only
polluted by some filaments of a Hyphomycetes which had
probably been transported on the bark or existed in the
water in which the lichen had been macerated.

“2. The changes which we have described were observed
not only in a very great number of free gonimic cellules, but
also in gonidia still attached to the medullary filaments.
From these latter we have repeatedly observed the zoospores
to escape ; and under the action of iodine the membrane of

185

these cells was coloured violet, whilst the extremity of the
filament to which they were attached was of a pale yellow.

“ 3. W e have equally obtained zoospores from gonidia
united into a considerable mass. Some, indeed, of these
cellules were already empty, the zoospores having escaped,
whilst, on the other hand, others had undergone no change.

“ 4. Lastly, we have found, on the bark of a birch tree in
the garden of the University (of St. Petersburg), green
patches exclusively formed of free gonidia, completely
destitute of thallus. These cellules also produced zoospores
perfectly identical with those of the gonidia which we had
sown.

“ The formation of zoospores by sowings requires always
many weeks, as the following experiments demonstrate :

“ First experiment. — Vertical sections of a thallus of
Physcia were placed, March 13, on fir-bark. The issue of
zoospores was first observed April 19.

“ Second experiment. — On March 21 a bit of lime-bark with
a lichen growing on it was fixed on the exterior of a large
glass vessel filled with water, which was made to fall on it
drop by drop by means of a cotton wick curved siphon-like.
On April 1 the filaments of the lichens were disintegrated.
On April 3 we transferred the gonidia, as well as the mucous
mass of decomposed filaments, to two bits of bark. On April
20 the zoospores appealed.

“ Third experiment. — The lichen was immersed until the
complete disintegration of the filaments, and on April 3 the
gonidia were placed on gravel, on the earth, and on bits of
rotten wood. Those on the two former became decomposed
by too much moisture; but those on the latter succeeded
well, and on May 15 the zoospores were observed.

“ The gonidia which did not produce zoospores separated
into a great number of motionless spherical cellules, amongst
which we distinguished two forms — one presenting a protu-
berance at the commencement of the division, the others
preserving to the end their regular spherical form.

“ We also submitted these twTo lichens to similar experi-
ments, except that, instead of vertical sections of the thallus
or of gonidia already isolated, we used the soredia from the
surface of the thallus, and sowed them either on bark or bits
of decayed wood. Their gonidia presented precisely similar
results to those of the Physcia, both in their form and their
ulterior development.

“ These observations authorize us to propound the following
propositions :

186

“ 1. Not only Algae and Fungi, but Lichens also, are pro-
vided with zoospores.

“ 2. Zoospores have been discovered in three very different
genera of Lichens, viz. Physcia, Cladonia, and Evernia; and
as these genera were selected undesignedly, it is probable
that zoospores exist in all other lichens furnished with
chlorophyll.

“3. We have demonstrated the identity of free gonidia
with the unicellular Alga Cystococcus of Nageli ; consequently
this is not a distinct genus, but only a phase of development
of a lichen.

“ 4. The culture of the freed gonidia of Physcia, Cladonia,
and Evernia led us to expect that other lichens would afford
forms corresponding with rudimentary Algae. Our researches
prove this to be well founded. Vertical sections of the thalli
of Peltigera and of Collema, cultivated on moist earth, showed
the filaments in disintegration, the augmentation in size of
the gonidia, and their transformation into glomerules com-
posed of spherical cellules. The gonimic cellules of Peltigera
and Collema continued to live when separated from the
thallus : those of Peltigera were identical with an Alga called
Polycoccus ; those of Collema produced organisms similar to
Nostoc. Consequently these three genera of Algae, hitherto
regarded as different and distinct, are in reality only the
gonidia of lichens in a state of development when separated
from the thalli which produced them,”

Mierozoology. L’Origine de la Vie (preface par F. A.
Pouchet.) By Georges Pennetier.

This work, published by Rothschild, of Paris, gives a fair
exposition of the views of the experimental heterogenists,
amongst whom M. Pouchet is most prominent. All the old
experiments, the precautions taken to prevent error, the con-
ditions necessary for success, and the various ‘ forms’ ‘ spon-
taneously’ generated, are here given in a well-w-ritten, popular
neat little book. The figures, which are in the objectionable
style of white on a black ground, are certainly inadequate,
and can give but the vaguest notions. No new argument is
added to the case stated by the heterogenists ; in fact, none
can be. They say ‘ our experiments are perfect ; we exclude
all possible error by admixture of atmospheric or other dif-
fused germs, and yet in certain solutions we obtain life.’
There is no possibility of discussion with these philosophers ;
all we should ever think of doing in the matter is to deny
the accuracy of the experiment. Experiments prove next
to nothing in this matter ; for an honest man must admit
the vast possibility of error. The question of heterogeny is

187

one for the philosophic biologist, rather than the experimen-
talist with his flasks, and decoctions, and air from the
Pyrenees, and we do not know of one such who has been
led to believe that Bacteria and Vibriones are produced
casually from unorganized matter, though many believe in
the possibility of the evolution of organic from inorganic
matter.

Appendix to the Principles of Biology. By Herbert
Spencer. This is a reply to a criticism of Mr. Spencer’s
philosophy which appeared in the North American Review.
The reviewer charged Mr. Spencer with tacitly repudiating
the belief in spontaneous generation, although endeavouring
to prove the origin of all organic life by gradual development.
To this Mr. Spencer replies that he does not believe in the
“ spontaneous generation” commonly alleged, and referred
to by the American reviewer. And he continues : — “ So
little have I associated in thought this alleged ‘ spontaneous
generation’ which I disbelieve, with the generation by evolu-
tion which I do believe, that the repudiation of the one
never occurred to me as liable to be taken for repudiation of
the other. That creatures having quite specific structures
are evolved in the course of a few hours, without antecedents
calculated to determine their specific forms, is to me incre-
dible. Not only the established truths of Biology, but the
established truths of whence in general, negative the suppo-
sition that organisms having structures definite enough to
identify them as belonging to known genera and species,
can be produced in the absence of germs derived from ante-
cedent organisms of the same genera and species. If there
can suddenly be imposed on simple protoplasm the organiza-
tion which constitutes it a Paramcecium, 1 see no reason why
animals of greater complexity, or indeed of any complexity,
may not be constituted after the same manner.

“ If, accepting these alleged cases of * spontaneous gene-
ration,’ I had assumed, as your reviewer seems to do, that
the evolution of organic life commenced in an analogous way ;
then, indeed, I should have left myself open to a fatal criti-
cism. This supposed ‘spontaneous generation’ habitually
occurs in menstrua that contain either organic matter, or
matter originally derived from organisms ; and such organic
matter, proceeding in all known cases from organisms of a
higher kind, implies the pre-existence of such higher or-
ganisms. By what kind of logic, then, is it inferrible that
organic life was initiated after a manner like that which In-
fusoria are said to be now spontaneously generated ? Where,
before life commenced, were the superior organisms from

188

which these lowest organisms obtained their organic matter ?
Without doubting that there are those who, as the reviewer
says, ‘ can penetrate deeper than Mr. Spencer has done into
the idea of universal evolution,’ and who, as he contends,
prove this by accepting the doctrine of ‘ spontaneous genera-
tion I nevertheless think that I can penetrate deep enougli
to see that a tenable hypothesis respecting the origin of
organic life must be reached by some other clue than that
furnished by experiments on decoction of hay and extract of
beef.

“ From what I do not believe, let me now pass to what I
do believe. Granting that the formation of organic matter,
and the evolution of life in its lowest forms, may go on under
existing cosmical conditions ; but believing it more likely
that the formation of such matter and such forms took place
at a time when the heat of the earth’s surface was falling
through those ranges of temperature at which the higher
organic compounds are unstable ; I conceive that the mould-
ing of such organic matter into the simplest types, must have
commenced with portions of protoplasm more minute, more
indefinite, and more inconstant in their characters, than the
lowest Rhizopods — less distinguishable from a mere fragment
of albumen than even the Protogenes of Professor Haeckel.
The evolution of specific shapes must, like all other organic
-evolution, have resulted from the actions and reactions be-
tween such incipient types and their environments, and the
continued survival of those which happened to have speci-
alities best fitted to the specialities of their environments.
To reach by this process the comparatively well-specialised
forms of ordinary Infusoria, must, I conceive, have taken an
enormous period of time.

To prevent, as far as may be, future misapprehension, let
me elaborate this conception so as to meet the particular ob-
jections raised. The reviewer takes for granted that a c first
organism’ must be assumed by me, as it is by himself. But
the conception of a ‘ first organism,’ in anything like the
current sense of the words, is wholly at variance with con-
ception of evolution ; and scarcely less at variance with the
facts revealed by the microscope. The lowest living things
are not, properly speaking, organisms at all ; for they have
no distinctions of parts — no traces of organization. It is
almost a misuse of language to call them c forms’ of life :
not only are their outlines, when distinguishable, too unspe-
cific for description, but they change from moment to mo-
ment and are never twice alike, either in two individuals or
in the same individual. Even the word ‘ type' is applicable

189

in blit a loose way ; for there is little constancy in their
generic characters : according as the surrounding conditions
determine, they undergo transformations now of one kind
and now of another. And the vagueness, the inconstancy,
the ivant of appreciable structure, displayed by the simplest
of living things as we now' see them, are characters (or
absences of characters) which, on the hypothesis of Evolution,
must have been still more decided when, as at first, no
* forms/ no ‘ types/ no ‘ specific shapes,’ had been moulded.
That ‘ absolute commencement of organic life on the globe/
which the review er says I c cannot evade the admission of/ I
distinctly deny. The affirmation of universal evolution is
in itself the negation of an c absolute commencement’ of
anything. Construed in terms of evolution, every kind of
being is conceived as a product of modifications wrought by
insensible gradations on a pre-existing kind of being ; and
this holds as fhlly of the supposed ‘ commencement of or-
ganic life’ as of all subsequent developments of organic life.
It is no more needful to suppose an ‘ absolute commencement
of organic life’ or a ‘ first organism/ than it is needful to
suppose an absolute commencement of social life and a first
social organism.”

The Spontaneous Formation of Leucocytes. By M.
Onimus. Robin’s Journ. de VAnatomie, November and
December, 1868. This is the most convenient place to draw
attention to these researches, connected as they are in interest
with the subject of spontaneous generation.

M. Onimus believes he has proved that a perfectly amor-
phous liquid, like that formed under the ampulla of the epi-
dermis, raised by a blister, is capable of developing corpus-
cles identical with those of the chyle and blood. In his first
experiments the liquid from a blister, previously filtered, was
injected under the skin of a warm-blooded animal. In a
short time the liquid was found full of leucocytes. In the
present paper M. Onimus gives full details of more elaborate
experiments, and combats the arguments urged against him.
He states that many of the inquiries have been conducted
under the eyes of MM. Legros and Robin, who have verified
them ; and he quotes some observations of M. Bernard which
endorse his Hews. In his latest experiments he separated
the liquid to be experimented on from the blood by means
of parchment or membrane, and he thinks that the white
globules could not have made their way through this. There
is, however, reason to believe from other observations that
this passage is at least within the range of possibility.

On the Molecular Origin of Infusoria. By Dr, Hughes.

190

Bennett. Popular Science Review, January, 1869. This is
a statement of the views of experimental heterogenists.

On the Thalassicollidse. By G. C. Wallich, M.D. Ann.
and Mag. Nat. Hist., February, 1869. 6 pages. — Dr.

Wallich gives a sketch of Huxley’s observations published
in 1851, and mentions some facts with regard to small
specimens of Sphserozoum and Acanthrometra, which lead
him to consider the former identical with Collosphaera. Dr.
Wallich is not more inclined than any one else to regard the
Thalassicollidae as intermediate forms between Sponges and
Foraminifers. He compares the branching fibrils to those
within the cyst of Noctiluca, but then observes that those of
Noctiluca probably differ very much in their nature. There
is no example of phosphorescence, says Dr. Wallich, amongst
living animals so low in the scale as Rhizopods. Crustaceans,
Entomostraca, Ascidians, furnish a luminous secretion, which
Dr. Wallich could detach with a brush; and the writer has
observed a similar secretion in the Annelid Chaelopterus.
No Rhizopod is sufficiently organised to elaborate such a
secretion is Dr. Wallich’s conclusion.

Deep-Sea Protozoa. By Dr. G. C. Wallich. — In the new
journal of the Microscopical Society, Dr. Wallich makes
some remarks on Professor Huxley’s paper on Coccoliths
and Bathybius (f Quart. Journal Microscopical Science,’ Oc-
tober, 1868). He says — “I may state that, after a careful
and long-continued study of these organisms, whether occur-
ring as free floating inhabitants of the surface waters of the
Indian Ocean and tropical portion of the Atlantic, as consti-
tuent particles in the deposits being formed at the bottom of
existing seas, or amongst the fossil earths of the Post-tertiary
period, I see no reason to alter my opinion by regarding the
free Coccoliths as having been derived from any other source
than their parent Coccospheres. In some deep-sea deposits,
as stated by Prof. Huxley, free Coccoliths do certainly occur
in overwhelming number as compared with Coccospheres.
But, on the other hand, it is equally true that, at times,
Coccospheres are present in great abundance, whereas free
Coccoliths are, comparatively speaking, scarce. Coupling
these facts, therefore, with another very important one,
namely, that perfect Coccospheres are to be met with of every
intermediate size between the y0’0 0th and °f an inch

in diameter or length, I am induced to believe that the free
Coccoliths are formed in every instance on, or pari passu
with, the spheroidal cells on which they rest ; the state of
attachment to these cells being the normal as well as pristine
condition. That they revert at any future stage of their life

191

history, after once becoming free, to their original composite
state, there is no recorded evidence forthcoming to prove.

“ The question here arises, have these bodies any intimate
connection with the origin or development of the Forami-
mfera of the deep-sea deposits? Now, although the evidence
on this head is very far from being conclusive, it is, I venture
to say, sufficiently definite to countenance such a view. In
some of the deposits in which both Foraminifera and Cocco-
spheres abound, Coccoliths are to be met with arranged in
an order so like that in which they occur on the Coccospliere
cells, both on individuals of the Nodosarian textularian, Ro-
talian, and Globigerine types, that no reasonable doubt can
exist of their having more than a mere accidental relation to
the surfaces they rest upon. Thus I have found, side by
side, the perfect Coccosphere with its full complement of
Coccoliths still adherent, and cells on which the number of
persistent Coccoliths gradually dwindled down till only one
or two remained, and it became impossible to determiue
whether I was looking at a Coccosphere cell or a ‘ primordial
segment ’ of a Foraminifer. In both cases (as formerly
pointed out by me in ‘ The Annals ') the characteristic cross
evoked by the polariscope is observable, whilst the density
and specific texture of the cell or shell varies apparently with
its age ; until, in some specimens, we have actually presented
to us the complete Foraminifer studded externally, through-
out its surface, with the Coccoliths in regular series. The
subjoined extract is taken from a volume of MS. figures and
descriptions which I had the honour of presenting to the
Royal Microscopical Society of London last year, and relates
to a mature eight-chambered Textularian shell, each segment
of which is studded with Coccoliths. The specimen referred
to was obtained along with numerous others, from a depth of
1913 fathoms (upwards of two miles) between the coasts of
Greenland and Labrador.

“ ‘ The eight cells constituting the Textularia are quite
perfect, and increase in size in the usual manner, from the
earliest-formed to the last-formed chamber. The Coccoliths
on each chamber are placed in so regular an order as to leave
no doubt whatever regarding their being component portions
of each calcareous cell. Their structure, moreover, from the
clear character of the entire shell, is distinctly visible even
under a i-inch lens. Textulariae thus constituted are by no
means so rare as I imagined when I wrote the notice of the
discovery in ‘ The Annals ’ (already referred to above). In
every slide of certain soundings one or more generally occur.
The material of this slide has been boiled in Liq. Potasses

192

without any apparent effect on the Coccoliths or Coccospheres.
Close by, but detached from the Textularia here figured, are
several perfect Coccospheres, by means of which a ready
comparison and proof of the identity of the cells of the
Foraminifer with them can be obtained.’ ”

“ These are the facts, so far as they have as yet fallen
under my observation. It remains for future more extended
inquiry to determine with certainty their true significance.”

The following notes also refer to the Coccoliths :

“ I may repeat here, what I announced cursorily in a paper
on the Polycystina, read by me on the 10th May, 1865,
before the Microscopical Society, and published in the
‘ Transactions ’ for that year ; that I had also discovered
Coccoliths in the Barbadoes and other fossil eai’ths ; and
Coccospheres as free-floating organisms in tropical seas.
Towards the close of the same year, I again found them in
abundance in the British Channel.

“ In my previously published observation on the nature of
the c oozy ’ deposits of the Atlantic, I have dwelt on the
striking difference in character that exists between the im-
mediate surface-layer of the sea-bed, and the stratum be-
neath ; and have pointed out why all living animal structures
must necessarily be confined to this surface-layer. Although
it is now too late to put the matter to the test — and a de-
cisive opinion on the subject can only be formed by an
analysis of the deposits the moment they are obtained — it
would seem probable that the preponderance of perfect
structures, as compared with their exuviae or debris, is to be
accounted for on the supposition that, inasmuch as the
former occur on the surface, whilst the latter become the
sub-stratum, this preponderance when observable under the
microscope, presents itself as a portion of the surface-layer
or the sub-stratum happens to be examined. It is quite
certain, morever, that even in the case of the preserved
specimens of deep-sea deposits, portions picked out from
different levels present different relative quantities of these
and other structures also.

“ As will be shown on a future occasion, some of the free-
floating Coccospheres are oblong. It may be mentioned
also that although 1 have here noted rth of an inch as the
largest observed size, very much larger specimens must in all
probability exist, inasmuch as I possess mounted specimens
of Coccoliths which themselves measure g-g-gTh of an inch
across their longest diameter.”

Dr. Wallich objects to the establishment of a new grade of

193

life with the title Bathybius, as not being as yet warranted
by the evidence.

On Noctiluca Miliaris. Reply to Dr. Cams. Archiv fur
Anat. u. Phys., 6th part, 1868.

The Crustacean Fauna of the Salt Marshes of Northumber-
land and Durham. By G. S. Brady. Nat. History Trans,
of Northumberland and Durham. — This paper contains de-
scriptions of new species, and is a valuable account of a mixed
fresh-water and marine fauna.

Contributions to the Study of the Eutomostraca. By G.
S. Brady. No. IV. Annuls and Mag. of Nat. Hist., Jan. —
This is one of a valuable series on which Mr. Brady is at
work.

Discovery of Embletonia in Victoria Docks. By W.
Kent. — Mr. Kent has described and exhibited at the Zoolo-
gical Society a new species of Embletonia, E. Grazii, from
Victoria Docks, where it occurs with Mysis vulgaris, Cordy-
lophora, and other interesting forms. Mr. Kent has also
obtained a new Polyzoon from this locality.

VOL. IX. — NEW SER.

N

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dublin Micboscopical Club.

1 5th October, 1868.

Rev. E. O’Meaba exhibited a specimen of Toxonidea gregoriana,
found in a gathering made at “ Ireland’s Eye.” He also showed
Fragillaria mesolepta, Heiberg, found at Malahide, and Fragillaria
cegualis, Heiberg, from the oyster-beds at Malahide.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a new and remarkable form
of Penium. This was rather large, elongated, somewhat
attenuated at the centre, and tapering slightly towards the
rotundato-truncate ends ; it was, moreover, particularly charac-
terised by the cell-wall possessing a number of superficial con-
spicuous, rather coarse striae, running in a spiral direction ; these
somewhat interrupted at a number of annular rib-like projections,
varying in number; these projections most numerous towards the
upper third of each segment. This very marked and noteworthy
form had been taken in a gathering made on a recent excursion
to Connemara ; but the precise locality Dr. Barker was unfortu-
nately unable to determine. He would propose the name Penium
spirostriolatum for this species, as conveying the remarkable cha-
racter which distinguishes the present form from every other
Desmid. — Dr. Barker likewise exhibited two forms of Docidium,
from the same gathering, new to this country ; hut which, how-
ever, pending an opportunity to examine authentic examples of
certain Continental forms, it would be premature to consider as
undescribed. One of these was slender, sides undulate, con-
tracted just under the ends, which were somewhat dilated. The
other was still more slender, sides straight, tapering gradually
towards the ends, which presented each two or three minute
apiculi at the extreme angles.

Mr. Archer said that he had had au opportunity to examine the
three very interesting forms shown by Dr. Barker, all of which
were new to his eyes, and, so far as he could make out, the first
at least was undoubtedly a new and undescribed species. The
spiral striae, which were coarse aud somewhat irregular, as com-
pared with those of a Closterium, for instance, were unique ; but,
perhaps, he might be justified in calling to mind a possibly com-
parable character as described for a form called by Kiitzing Clos-
terium decussatum. May it not reopen the supposition that a
species of Closterium may exist with spiral or, at least, oblique
striae, without being obliged to imagine, with Ralfs, that the decus-

195

sate appearance is due merely to the condition of mounted speci-
mens distorted by pressure or other causes ? If so, the decussate
appearance would be due to both surfaces of a normally spirally
striated form being simultaneously seen, thus offering diamond-
shaped reticulations, as Ralfs suggests (‘Brit. Desrn.,’ p. 220).
When Dr. Barker first showed this form to Mr. Archer, they
were both momentarily under the impression that the form
presented a spiral fibre wound interiorly ; but a more accurate
examination showed that the striae were really external. These,
with the annular projections at intervals, gave the form a very
marked appearance. Still, when viewed under a low power, there
is just a possibility that this species might be mistaken for Penium
margaritaceum , though no two species can be more distinct. — As
regards the second (undulate) form shown by Dr. Barker, Mr.
Archer ventured to think it must remain undecided whether this
might be Pleurotcenium noibile (Richter) or Pleurotcenium dila-
tatum (Cleve). Pending seeing actual specimens he would think it
premature to decide. — The third form shown by Dr. Barker was
equally certainly new to this country, but also equally hard to
decide upon. It seems possibly the same as Docidium sceptrum
(Kiitz.).

In connexion with these forms Mr. Archer, whilst admitting the
arrangement of the endochrome was seemingly a beautifully con-
stant, and doubtless also an important character, would here desire
to remark that Professor de Bary seemed to have somewhat mis-
understood his (Mr. Archer’s) views on the subject, most likely
from his not having clearly expressed them. All Mr. Archer would
venture to propound was that he thought that matters were not
as yet quite ripe for the adoption of the genus Pleurotsenium, and
the last form drawn attention to by Dr. Barker seemed to bear
out this view for the present. This was doubtless a species of
Docidium (Breb.), but would just as doubtless be d priori placed
in the genus Pleurotcenium (Nag.) by those who adopt that genus.
But in the first specimens he had ever seen, when the gathering
was fresher than now, there was just as little evidence as on the
present occasion that the endochrome occurred in longitudinal
parietal bands ; nay, it rather appeared to form an axile irregu-
larly arranged mass. But on this point, touching this form, he
would rather trust to its re-discovery and examination in a still
fresher state. But further, as bearing on this genus (Pleurotse-
nium, Nag.), that fine species, Staurastrum tumidum (Menegh.,
Breb., Ralfs, Kiitz. et auct.) is on all hands, even by those who
adopt the genus Pleurotsenium, placed in Staurastrum ; yet it
appears to be as truly a Pleurotsenium (in that its endochrome
forms parietal bands, often, however, with numerous other granules
obscuring this structure), as is de Bary’s Pleurotcenium turgidum
( Cosmarium turgidum, Auct.), or even as the common Docidium
Elirenbergii. This being the case, it is not impossible that certain
other of the rarer forms, now referred from external figure to other
genera, may be strictly referable to Pleurotsenium. Mr. Archer

196

would not, however, wish it to be thought that in these remarks
he was contending against the genus Pleurotaenium, which pro-
bably would hereafter be found to be a good and natural one, but
only that our experience seems not yet sufficiently advanced for
its reception. There can he no doubt but that the configuration
of the endochrome is very constant and generically, if not specifi-
cally, characteristic in these and many others of the simple Algae
— such, for example, as the genera Mesotaenium, Cylindrocystis
and Spirotaenia, Zygnema, Spirogyra, Drapernaldia, Mesocarpeae,
CEdogonieae, &c.

Mr. Tichborne exhibited a slide of Platinocyanide of Thallium,
as a polariscopic effect. One peculiarity of this salt is that it
shows, when viewed by polarized light, appearances similar to
starch-granules viewed under the like circumstances. This was
well shown by the specimens now brought forward.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens of a fine new Staurastrum from
Connemara, remarkable for being probably the very largest of
rayed or armed forms yet found in Europe, the largest of the
Ralfsian forms being probably some 3-^/' in expanse, while this
reached from tip to tip of the radiating arms, ten of which,
beautifully toothed or serrated and notched at the end, extending in
the end view like a wheel, presented a very handsome and striking
appearance. Mr. Archer trusted to give, on a future occasion, a
detailed description of this species, which he would name Staur-
astrum verticillatum.

Mr. Woodworth showed some excellent transparent photographs
of microscopic objects, prepared by himself, for the magic lantern,
and which were justly much admired.

19 th November, 1868.

Mr. Archer desired to record the occurrence of Micrasterias
crux-melitensis (Ehr.), Half's, in the gatherings made in Conne-
mara, and for the first time discovered in Ireland ; it had been
found by him in the material exceedingly sparingly. He had
made a previous acquaintance with it from specimens obtained
from Scotland and from Wales. It seems to be a tolerably widely
distributed form in Europe, and it was met with by Dr. Wallich
in Bengal ; but yet it appears to be always very sparing.

Rev. E. O’Meara exhibited specimens of Surirella turgida, found
in considerable abundance in a gathering from Lough Neagh, not
far from Lurgan. He was not aware that this form had been
found anywhere but in Lough Neagh. He showed also forms of
Stauroneis acuta , found sparingly in Lough Neagh, and also in a
pond near Armagh. He further directed attention to Tryblionella
Victorice (Grunow), found in gatherings from Lough Neagh, and
from the Ulster canal near Poyntzpass. Concerning this species
Grunow remarks — “ I have observed this species in abundance
amongst algae of the Victoria regia tank in Kew Gardens, at
London, and conjecture that it has come in with the latter from

197

tropical America, for I find it described neither by Smith nor by
any other English author.” The conjecture of Grunow, perhaps
not unreasonable under the circumstances, becomes untenable from
the fact of the form having been discovered in two localities
altogether removed from the suspicion of foreign influences.

Professor E. Perceval Wright exhibited preparations illustrative
of the minute structure of a new genus and species of Gorgoniadae,
which he designated Keratoisis Grayii. This species had been
dredged in deep water off the coast near Lisbon, and had been
given to him for description by his friend Professor Bocage. The
so-called “barky layer” (coenenchyma) is well developed, and
contains a large number of calcareous spicules, which form a
roughened tissue over the whole surface of both stem and polyps.
The spicules forming the calyx around the polypes are large and
fusiform, and some nine or ten very long ones form a sheath
around the polyp, projecting considerably beyond it when the polyp
is contracted. Those in the barky layer are much smaller, being
longer than broad, and slightly irregular. None like them are
figured in Kolliker’s ‘ leones.’ A third form of spicule, of the
same general type as that met with in Isis hippuris, is met with in
the body-layer of the polyp.

Dr. John Barker drew attention to a copious supply of an alga,
which appeared to be the Caetospficerium Kutzingianum (Nag.),
the remarkable circumstance in connection with these specimens
being that the clusters or groups of cells forming the families,
besides being more or less lobate or constricted, or otherwise
presenting irregular departure from the orbicular form, likewise
showed a distinct but very gentle independent motion of an oscil-
latory or indeterminate side-to-side character, and not seemingly
attributable to outward causes, and in some measure giving the
idea of the existence of cilia ; but, as might be anticipated, no
such was evident on the closest inspection. It would be hard to
say to what this agitated, slow, and indeterminate movement could
be attributed. Dr. Barker was himself inclined to see in the
lobate or more or less constricted outline of the families or groups
a certain amount of spiral arrangement of, as it were, secondary
accessions to a primary family, obscurely resembling that of a
Botalina, and hence pointing to some distinction from Coelo-
sphaerium.

Mr. Archer was disposed to think the plant now shown by Dr.
Barker could be none other than Coelospha-rium Kutzingianum
(Nag.), notwithstanding that Nageli seemed to think it necessary,
in depicting his plant, to begin by drawing an absolute circle, as
if with a pair of compasses. For some time after Mr. Archer had
seen Prof. Nageli’s figure he had been wondering why we did not
encounter it in our waters ; but it by and by occurred to him that
the plant with which he had been tolerably familiar, though it
does not appear to be frequent, could be none other than the
Coelosphaerium of Nageli. He was not himself able to recognise
any spirality m Dr. Barker’s specimens, and in this opinion Mr.

198

Crowe coincided, but rather looked upon the lobate outgrowths
as simply departures from the globular typal form due to the ex-
cessive activity of the self-division of the constituent cells taking
place at certain points of the group. The individual cells were,
indeed, mutually in closer proximity than Nageli depicts — a cir-
cumstance probably assisting to bring about the departure from
the simple globular figure of the family or group. The slow
vibratory movement was a curious circumstance, seldom seen in
objects so large as these specimens, and one upon which he
could not venture to offer au opinion.

Mr. Crowe exhibited specimens of Labrodagnite.

Mr. Archer exhibited specimens taken in Co. Tipperary of
Sphcerozosma Jiliforme (Ehr.), Auct. This minute and well-
marked little form appears to be very rare ; and, except very
sparingly by Eabenhorst, has not seemingly been met with since
its original record by Ehrenberg. It is at first glance well dis-
tinguished from Sphcerozosma excavatum by the elliptic form of
the segments, separated by an acute constriction and its larger
size, and from Sphcerozosma vertebratim by the double processes
(not single as in that species) connecting the joints. It is dis-
tinguished, too, by a different colour, not being of the same bright
green, and by its smaller size. Examples of both the common
forms, along with Sphcerozosma Jiliforme, Mr. Archer exhibited
side-by-side.

Mr. Archer likewise drew attention to a form of Gonatozygon
Ralfsii (de Bary), from the same gathering, presenting the pecu-
liarity that the little roughnesses characteristic of this species
(and of G. Brebissonii), which ordinarily give little more than a
granular appearance to the surface, were here extended into short
vertical, acute, almost spine-like prolongations, giving the joints
a somewhat remarkable appearance. These little processes were
of somewhat different lengths, and seemed to give this form a
claim to be regarded as a near approach to a spinous filament. It
would be in the recollection of the Club that Mr. Archer had once
the opportunity of showing at a former meeting some specimens of
this species from Yorkshire, which he owed to the kindness of the
Rev. Prof. Gagliardi, in which the roughnesses were reduced to a
minimum, giving a simple dotted appearance, thus showing the
amount of variation this species seems subject to in this regard.
Those specimens were, however, in a barren condition ; but the
present now exhibited showed a number of conjugated examples,
and in that condition it quite accorded with the usual form in all
respects.

Dr. Barker showed Desmidium aptogonum, new to Ireland, taken
on the recent occasion of his and Mr. Archer’s visit to Conne-
mara. This is a form which has never yet turned up near Dublin.
The present was the triangular variety; both seem to be rare and
partially distributed, but the triangular form appears to be (like
the triangular form of D. Swartzii) more common than the quad-
rangular. The triangular form of D. Swartzii is, however, per-

199

haps the very commonest and most abundant of filamentous
desmids ; whilst D. aptogonum, as mentioned, is. a rare form in
either of its varieties.

Ylth December , 18G8.

Dr. John Barker exhibited a Chytridium, or some allied orga-
nism, attacking a specimen of Closterium lunula, endogenous in
habit, but perfecting its growth externally to the Closterium.
Pending want of information as to the mode of exit of the zoo-
spores, whether by one or several pores, and whether these are fur-
nished or not with a lid, no very satisfactory opinion could be
arrived at as to its exact location or identity. The present speci-
mens, however, presented the character that the internal lower
portion, from whence seemed to emanate root or mycelioid pro-
cesses, was connected to the external and upper portion by a
slender isthmus-like tubular junction, and through this, in the
progress of development, passed up the granular contents from
the lower cavity, leaving it seemingly empty, preparatory, evi-
dently, to becoming changed into zoospores. It seemed, there-
fore, that this might be identical with Chytridium laqenaria
(Schenk).

Mr. Archer brought forward a new Rhizopod, taken near
Carrig mountain, which formed a second species in Carter’s genus,
Acanthocystis. At a first glance this form might possibly be mis-
taken for an ovum of some rotatorian, and he had for a little been
in some doubt as to its true nature. However, even before the
pseudopodia made themselves apparent, he had fully made up his
mind that it was no doubt a congener of Carter’s fine and very
marked species. Even without seeing the pseudopodia extended,
the slender acute spine, which stood out from the periphery, being
often pointed in various directions, and frequently deciduous, as
well as the outer covering, presenting a number of those short
• slender spicules, lying in the direction of a tangent, similar to
those of A. tuifacea, at once decided that this was no rotatorian
ovum. The body contained numerous minute, though variously
sized, colourless granules ; the pseudopodia, which the creature
is somewhat diffident in extending, are slender, but present a few
minute granules moving up and down. This is a much smaller form
than A. turfacea. It will be seen, then, that it is distinguished
from that species by its smaller size and its short acute spines of
equal length (not elongate, and in two sets of different lengths,
and cleft at the apices), and by the seeming constant absence of
chlorophyll-granules (whereas in A. turfacea these are nearly con-
stantly present). There is by no means a want of resemblance to
Perty’s form, called by him Actinophrys brevicirrhis (“ Zur Kennt-
niss kleinster Lebensformen,” p. 159, t. viii, fig. 7) ; and there is,
perhaps, just a possibility that it might really be that form, suppos-
ing Perty to have overlooked the spines, taking them (in examples
in which the pseudopodia themselves were not extended) for the

200

actual pseudopodia. But as Claj3arede and Lachmann record the
occurreuce of a form which they identify as Actinophrys brevicirrhis,
Perty, as frequent near Berlin (‘ Etudes sur les Infusoires et les
Bhizopodes,’ p. 450), this supposition appears not at all tenable,
as it is most unlikely that the whole three observers could have
fallen into the error of taking the present form for a member of
the genus Actinophrys at all. Nothing, indeed, could be more
sure than that this new form, now exhibited by Mr. Archer, ap-
pertained to Acanthocystis, and there seemed as little doubt that
it was an undescribed species. Mr. Archer would postpone giving
a description of this pretty little Bhizopod, as he hoped to be able
shortly to do so, accompanied by a figure, and would meantime
content himself by naming it after Perty, Acanthocystis Pertyana,
as commemorative of his labours ; although, for the reasons men-
tioned, it can hardly be identical with his form, notwithstanding
a certain amount of resemblance.

Dr. Moore exhibited a Sirosiphon, so intimately intergrown
with Jungermannia concinna as almost to lead to the idea that
they might be genetically related — a state of things rendered,
indeed, out of the question by reason of the essentially distinct
nature of the cell-contents in each, not to speak of the decided
licheuous nature of the former.

Mr. Crowe exhibited sections of “ Lough Neagh petrified
wood ” and of Carrara marble.

Mr. Archer exhibited a new Staurastrum, from Galway, cha-
racterised by the possession of a number of crenatures, seen in
front view bordering the outline, which considerably resembled
that of Staurastrum orbiculare, both in contour and size. These
crenatures were due to a number of short truncate, compressed,
somewhat emarginate processes, the upper six of which in figure
were comparable to that of an open book made to stand verti-
cally. He showed the end view, as seen in an empty half-cell,
which presented a very pretty appearance, and which rendered
apparent the form of the crenatures adverted to. He would, how-
ever, defer a proper detailed description till another opportunity,
and give this species the name of Staurastrum maamense, now
merely drawing attention to this curious kind of ornamenta-
tion, due not to spines, nor to “ pearly ” granules, but to thin
erect processes, bent vertically at an obtuse angle, thus not
throughout in the same plane, and these somewhat emarginate at
the upper edges.

Bev. E. O’Meara submitted to inspection a slide, containing
many interesting diatomaceous forms, dredged from a depth of
2000 fathoms in the Gulf Stream, lat. 47° 3' N., long. 23° 21' W.
This slide had been given to him by Professor E. P. Wright, and
was portion of some deep-sea soundings taken by Commodore
Chimmo, of the Gannet, which had been submitted to Dr. Wright
by Professor Haughton, for a report thereon. He invited special
attention to a form belonging to the genus Euodia, which in out-
line and sculpture presented such divergence from the two forms

201

of this genus described by Ralfs in ‘ Pritchard,’ as seemed provi-
sionally, at least, to justify a distinct designation. This form
could not be confounded with E. Brightwellii, in which, according
to Ralfs’ description, the lower margin is concave; whereas in the
present case the outline of the lower margin is convex, in which
particular it resembles E. gibba. Compared with this latter the
form in question is relatively broader, the outer margin being
regularly semicircular. In E. gibba the ends are somewhat pro-
duced. In this case it will be observed that towards the extre-
mities the dorsal margin bends inwards towards the ventral. In
the course of the examination several examples were met with, and
they ever presented the same outline. The sculpture of the valve,
as in the other two forms of the genus, is punctate, but instead
of being arranged in concentric lines, as is the case with E.
Brightwellii and E. gibba, the puncta are dense, and towards
either extremity arranged in parallel lines across the valve;
towards the middle it was impossible to observe satisfactorily
the arrangement of the puncta. This form Mr. O’Meara pro-
posed to name Euodia Chimmoana. In connection with the form
he also took occasion to refer to a remark of Ralfs, who doubts
“ whether Hemidiscus be distinct from Euodia, since the only dis-
tinction seems to be the marginal nodule of the former — a cha-
racter perhaps overlooked by Professor Bailey.” In the numerous
specimens which came under notice there was no appearance of
a nodule in the ventral margin — a fact which confirms the accu-
racy of Bailey’s description of E. gibba.

Professor E. Perceval AVright exhibited mounted specimens of
the Polyps of Tubipora musica. The animal of the Organ Pipe
Coral has been up to the present moment almost unknown. The
figures of its structure, as given by Quoy and Gaimard, have
been copied from book to book, and the details of that structure,
as given by these same authors, are, to say the least, meagre and
unsatisfactory. Dr. ANTright looked for a long time in vain for
living specimens of this Alcyonarian in the Seychelles, dredging
for it in deep and shallow water ; and while feeling sure it was
not far off (from the fresh-looking specimens that very frequently
came ashore), searching for it without success, until an accidtnt
revealed its peculiar habitat, and then it was found in great quan-
tities. One day, during the prevalence of a “Grande Maree,”
while wading up to his waist on the edge of the coral reef off the
north-west side of He Curieuse, his foot sunk into a substance
which conveyed to him quite a different sensation from either the
slippery Alcyonaria or the sharp-edged brittle Zoantharian Corals,
and gathering up some of it with a landing-net, he fountl he had
put his foot upon a mass of Tubipora musica. Prom that time
he had no difficulty in finding any quantity, nor in coming to the
conclusion that the Tubipora lived as a parasite on the Zoantha-
rian Corals, just at the borders of low water. The observations
made then he hoped to give in detail elsewhere, even though
on his return home he found that Professor Kolliker had been

202

engaged in the examination of spirit specimens from the Fiji
Islands, at present it is only necessary to state that the Tubipora
musica is an Alcyonarian ; that it belongs to the section of the
Alcyonidae ; that it is very well entitled to form a sub-family,
Tubiporidinse, distinguished by the peculiar mode of growth by
which the external tabulae are formed, and by the peculiar spicules
(calcareous) found in the ectodermic layer of both tentacles and
body ; that the tube is formed of consolidated spicules, which
are of two sorts, and are not consolidated in the upper part of the
tube ; that there is no communication between the Polpys ; that
the tabulae take their orgin as flat buds from the disk of the Polyp,
and that in all probability this same bud is also the starting-point
of each new zooid form of polyp.

Royal Miceoscopical Society.

January 13 th, 1869. 1

The Peesident in the chair.

Gr. A. Amos, Esq., and the Rev. T. R. Jones, were elected
Fellows.

A paper was read by Dr. Charlton Bastian “ On the Mounting
and Tinting of Animal Tissues.” In speaking of the mounting of
sections of liver and kidney, the author stated that, ou the
whole, he preferred a solution of Canada balsam in benzole, for the
preparation of which he gave the following directions :

Some Canada balsam must be carefully heated in a shallow pot
for a certain time, so as to drive off as much as possible of the
turpentine which it may contain ; then it should be poured into a
small bottle, and sufficient benzole added for the solution of the
balsam. After all the balsam has been dissolved, the solution
should be filtered through very thin filtering-paper into a stop-
pered bottle, and so kept in store, what is required for immediate
use being poured into one of Highley’s drop-bottles. The prepa-
rations may then be mounted in this solution in either of two
ways : — 1st. The section cut from a hardened organ is allowed to
remain in a watch-glass with some spirits of wine for two or three
minutes, then a drop of carbolic acid having been placed upon
the glass slip on which the specimen is to be mounted, the section
is taken from the watch-glass on the tip of a small scalpel, its de-
pendent edge brought into contact for a moment with a piece of
clean blotting-paper, and then gently laid on the surface of the car-
bolic acid. This renders a thin section perfectly transparent in
about half a minute. The superfluous carbolic acid should then
be got rid of by tilting the slide and applying a small piece of

1 In the ‘ Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society’ this meeting is
erroneously reported as having occurred Dec. 13th. We may also correct
another error in the same journal, p. 62, in which a meeting is stated to
have taken place as far ahead as 1968.

203

blotting-paper to the edge of the specimen ; this done, two or
three drops of chloroform should be poured over the section, and
allowed to remain in contact with it about one minute ; and during
this time the specimen may be properly arranged in the centre of
the slide. A slight tilting of the slide then suffices to get rid of
the chloroform, when, before the specimen becomes dry, two or
three drops of the solution of Canada balsam in benzole should be
poured over it from the drop-bottle, and the covering-glass then
applied. The mounting is thus finished, and the specimen only
requires a certain amount of protection for a time till the balsam
in which it is mounted has become hardened. 2nd. The section
having been placed in the watch-glass with ordinary spirits of wine
for about a minute (merely to wash it), is then removed to another
watch-glass or small covered capsule, containing absolute alcohol,
and allowed to remain in this for five minutes. It is then to be
removed, and placed on the slide on which it is to be mounted.
The superfluous alcohol having been got rid of, it is covered with
one or two drops of benzole for about a minute (which renders
the section as transparent as if it had been placed in carbolic acid),
and then, this having been tilted off, the additional steps are as
before, viz. Canada balsam in benzole from the drop-bottle, followed
by the application of the covering glass.

The latter method the author preferred for mounting sections
of the liver.

Another method for mounting very delicate tissues consists in
mounting the specimen in a very weak aqueous solution of bichro-
mate of potash — about one of the bichromate to 1000 parts of
water. In using an aqueous medium such as this, however, we
are placed, as it were, at the mercy of the cement we employ. If
this be not good, we may, at the time when we most regret it, find
a valuable specimen ruined, owing to some crack or imperfection
in the border of cement having permitted the water to evaporate.
Incomparably the best cement is one which is much used in Ger-
many, consisting of a solution of gum-mastic in chloroform, thick-
ened with nitrate of bismuth. This may be easily kept at the
proper degree of consistence by the addition of a few drops of
chloroform from time to time. It may be used also for the
specimens mounted in glycerine and carbolic acid. It does not
run in, it hardens quickly, and when thoroughly dry has a stone-
like consistence, and is not liable to crack.

With regard to mounting sections of brain and spinal cord,
after speaking of the various substances employed as damaging
the specimens by atmospheric changes, he stated that the most
favorable results, independent of atmospheric conditions, might
be brought about by immersing the section for about ten minutes
in absolute alsohol diluted with 8 per cent, of water, then placing
it upon the glass slide, aud before it became dry pouring over it
two or three drops of pyro-acetic spirit, in which it was allowed to
remain from — 1'', then tilting this off, and replacing by chloro-
form. The effects were then watched, as before, under the mi-

204

croscope, and, at the suitable time, the solution of Canada balsam
was added, and the covering-glass applied. There were two great
disadvantages in connection with specimens prepared in both
these ways : one was that the section itself was more or less ob-
scured by minute granules of balsam, which had been precipitated
out of its solution in a molecular condition by contact with the
specimen; and the other, that sections so prepared did not
retain their characteristic appearances more than about six weeks
or two months ; after that time they began to grow uniformly
transparent, and were no longer of any use. The first disadvan-
tage was obviated by using the solution of Canada balsam in ben-
zole, instead of the balsam in chloroform, w7hich gives a prepara-
tion similar in all other respects, but free from the defacing
granules of molecularly precipitated balsam. The last disadvan-
tage, however, in spite of all attempts, still remains ; the specimens
so prepared have ouly a temporary value, and will fade after from
six weeks to two months. But the operator must acquire a cer-
tain amount of experience for himself before he will be able to use
this method with success ; and unless his reagents be all perfectly
pure and fresh, he will almost surely fail to secure satisfactory
results.

He also recommended for rapid tinting bichloride of palladium.
Another method of double tinting was to place the section, but
without chromic acid, in a solution of nitrate of silver (1 : 600) for
five or ten minutes ; taken from this, washed in pure water for a
minute, and thence transferred to the acidulated gold solution as
before. After the reduction of the gold by formic acid, the speci-
men may be mounted in the solution of Canada balsam in benzole,
and then exposed to light, in order to bring about the complete
reduction of the silver. When this has been done it will be found,
on microscopical examination, that the epithelial elements are for
the most part stained of a brownish-black colour by the reduced
silver, whilst the intervening fibrous tissue elements and the walls
of the vessel are stained purple by the reduced gold. The two
kinds of tissue elements seem to exercise a sort of elective affinity
for the different metals.

At the conclusion of a short discussion on this paper Dr. Lan-
kester requested information from the President as to the most
convenient method of bringing before the Society the question of
the publication of the transactions of the Society in connection with
the new journal. He said he thought the subject was one that
affected the dignity and usefulness of the Society, and he con-
sidered that the change which had been lately made ought to have
been done by a vote of the Society, and not in an unauthorised
way by the Council.

The President stated that the Council had power to act as they
had done, and that the present was not the time to discuss the
question alluded to by Dr. Laukester.

After consultation with the Secretaries, Dr. Lankester gave
notice that at the next Annual Meeting he should move that the

205

words in Bye-law 56, “ and of such other matter as the Council
may determine,” be omitted. He wished to confine the Council
to the publication of the transactions of the Society alone.

February 10th, 1869.

This being the Annual Meeting of the Society, the Treasurer’s
report was read ; also the reports of the Cabinet and Library
Committee. The President then delivered his address. He first
gave a short biography of three of the members of the Society
who had died during the preceding year. They were Nathaniel
Bagster Ward, Esq., F.R.S., formerly Treasurer of the Micro-
scopical Society of London ; William Bird Herapath, M.D.,
F.R.S., of Bristol; and Henry Gr. Wright, M.D., of London.
The other deceased Fellows, who were only named, were Henry
Lidden, Esq., of Rochester; John W. Griesbacb, Esq., of London ;
William Ralph Milner, Esq., surgeon, of Wakefield ; and Henry
Smith, Esq., of Clapton. The following remarks with regard to
the new journal were made :

“ The Society was informed in my anniversary address, delivered
last year, that the Council had decided upon terminating the
agreement for the publication of its proceedings and transac-
tions in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’ In
conformity with this intention the connection of the Society with
that journal ceased with the publication of the last October
number.

“ In devising fresh plans the following points had to be con-
sidered :

“ 1st. Whether the proceedings and transactions of the Society
should be issued by themselves, or in connection with similar
matter derived from other sources.

“ 2nd. Whether the publication should be monthly instead of
quarterly, as heretofore.

“ 3rd. If the Society should hand over its papers and proceed-
ings for publication in a journal that was not entirely its own
property, in what way its legitimate influence and control might
be preserved.

“ 4th. The best means of obtaining for the Society some advan-
tage proportionate to the value of the matter it might place at
the disposal of a publisher, and for its action and influence in
securing and promoting the sale of any publication with which it
might be connected.

“After much deliberation it-iras considered that the interest of
the Society would be best promoted by connecting the publica-
tion of its own transactions and proceedings with a record of the
principal microscopical researches laid before other societies, or
embodied in works not generally accessible. It was also thought
desirable that the publication should be monthly, as ensuring the
speedy communication to the scientific world of new facts and
discoveries contained in papers read before the Society.

206

“ Tour President and some members of the Council would have
preferred that the Society should issue its own proceedings and
transactions in a handsome form, and without the addition of any
other matter ; hut they did not see their way to dissociate them-
selves entirely from all arrangements that had been made by their
predecessors, and which had been many years in force.

“ For a long time the Fellows had been accustomed to receive, in
connection with their own proceedings, microscopical information
drawn from various sources, and inquiries led your Council to
believe that any changes involving a diminution of information
would be repugnant to the wishes of the majority of the Fellows.
They therefore endeavoured to make arrangements by which the
Society would be a clear gainer, in the quantity as well as in the
quality of the matter supplied.

“ There was another reason which influenced them in this deci-
sion, and that was a desire to establish useful and friendly rela-
tions with other excellent Microscopical Societies, both in the
metropolis and scattered throughout the country. The mass of
matter brought before all these bodies would preclude the possi-
bility of combining it all in one publication of reasonable dimen-
sions, but some record might be given of the most interesting
facts contained in their papers, and a journal sanctioned by the
Society, and thus bringing to a focus information that had hitherto
been so scattered as to be practically beyond the reach of most
students, would render important service to the scientific world.

“ In reference to the third point of inquiry, it was deemed essen-
tial that the Society should have a copyright in an important
portion of the title of any publication in which its transactions
&c., might appear, and that the proprietors of the journal in which
they were published should only be at liberty to use such portion
of the title so long as an agreement to that effect between him
and the Society might subsist, and that the Society should have
a voice in the appointment of an editor, whose duty it would be
to place himself in intimate communication with it and to pro-
mote its interests.

“ It was thought proper that the proprietors of the ‘ Quarterly
Journal of Microscopical Science’ should have ample opportunity
for making any offer to the Society complying with the preceding
requisitions ; but as they positively declined, attention was turned
in other directions, and an arrangement was made with Mr.
Robert Hardwicke, in conformity with all the Society’s stipula-
itons, for the issue of the Monthly Journal, to commence on the
1st of January, 18G9, to be editM by Professor Lawson, M.D.,
and to contain, in addition to the matter furnished by the Society,
an ample digest of British and Foreign Histological Research and
Microscopical Intelligence. Two monthly parts of the new pub-
lication have now been issued.

“ The cost to the Society for 450 copies of the new Journal will
be £20 per month, and additional copies will be charged Is. each.
By this arrangement the Fellows will receive about twice as much

207

matter in the course of each year as was supplied under the late
arrangements, and they will have a monthly publication without
materially adding to the expense heretofore incurred by the
Society.”1

The address then proceeded to give an abstract of the papers
read during the past year at the Society’s meetings. The fol-
lowing paragraph with regard to the Quekett is a graceful ad-
mission on the part of the President that the original apprehensions
with regard to the Quekett Club were entirely unfounded :

“ In the first year of my presidency a Microscopical Society
was founded, under the presidency of Dr. Lankester, with the
title of the ‘ Quekett Club.’ This society has progressed most
satisfactorily, and is progressing to increasing usefulness, under
the presidency of Mr. Durham.”

For the first time in its history the Society has come to a
standstill. The President says —

“At the last year’s anniversary our numerical strength was
452. During the year the number of elections have been 21.
"We have lost 7 by death, 7 by resignation, and 7 expelled. Our
present numbers are therefore 452 ; of these 93 are compounders.
Thus the Society is flourishing; but its annual income is too
near to the necessary annual expenditure, and all disbursements
will require a careful consideration of the Council, so that our
prosperity may continue.”

The thanks of the meeting having been given to the President
for his address, Dr. Lankester rose to propose the alteration of
Bye-law 56, of which he had given notice at the previous meeting.
He said, “ Mr. President, I should have been glad that any other
member of the Society should have proposed this resolution
rather than myself, as I am afraid my motive for doing so will be
liable to misunderstanding. My reason for proposing the alte-
ration of Bye-law 56 has arisen out of my anxiety that the
Society at large should have an opportunity of expressing its
opinion on a subject alluded to by the President in his address —
the establishment of a new ‘ Journal of Microscopical Science ’ in
connection with this Society. I should have been glad could
your opinion have been obtained directly on this subject, but as
the bye-law in question gives the Council the power of not
only publishing the ‘ Transactions ’ of your Society, but of “ such

1 Since the above address was delivered, the following notice has been
issued to the Fellows of the Society : — “ By the new arrangements made for
the publication of the Society’s Proceedings and Transactions in the
‘Monthly Microscopical Journal,’ you will receive in the course of the year
about twice the quantity of matter supplied upon the old system, but the
expense of postage is necessarily increased. I am therefore directed to
inform you that ou its issue at the commencement of each month, a copy of
the ‘Monthly Microscopical Journal’ will be ready for delivery, at the Society’s
rooms, to any one whom you may authorise to receive it, or it will be sent to
you for twelve months, by post, if you will have the kindness to give me
directions to that effect, accompanied by two shillings’ worth of postage
stamps.”

208

other matter” as they “ may determine,” I was informed that the
only way of bringing the subject before you was to submit to you
a resolution, involving the omission of those words in the bye-law
giving them the power of publishing your ‘Transactions ’ with any
other matter they might wish. Without immediate reference,
then, to the object I have in view, I would call your attention to
the extraordinary power given to your Council by this bye-law.
There is nothing here to prevent them from publishing your
‘Transactions’ in a daily paper, and committing you to any religious
or political opinions they might hold, on the ground that it was
“ other matter,” which they had the power to determine. I do not
say that any Council you would choose would thus act, but
it is nevertheless an extraordinary power to give to a Council ;
and it is on the ground of this bye-law that your Council have
ventured to mix up your ‘Transactions’ with a journal called the
‘ Monthly Journal of Microscopical Science.’ The danger of this
clause in the bye-law is, I think, fully demonstrated by the fact
that I have several times requested the Council to bring before
the Society the subject of the separation of your ‘ Transactions ’
from the journal which I have had the honour to edit now for
sixteen years. In answer to my request that the subject should
be brought before you as a body, Mr. Slack, your Secretary, told
me that no Council would submit to the dictation of a Society.
(Mr. Slack — “I deny that statement altogether.”) I am glad to
find that I misunderstood Mr. Slack, and that he evidently thinks
the subject ought to have been brought before the Society. My
only object in making this resolution to-night is to have an
expression of your opinion. As one of the earliest members of
your Society, as one of your former Presidents, and as a member
of your Council for eighteen years — in fact, till your recent
bye-laws excluded the former Presidents from being members of
the Council — and writh my distinguished friend, Professor Busk,
one of the editors of your ‘ Transactions ’ for sixteen years, I trust
you will allow me to make to you some observations on the
recent change you have made in the publication of your ‘ Trans-
actions.’ When the question was mooted, more especially by
your late President, Mr. Glaisher, as had been previously done
by Mr. Farrants when he was President, of publishing the
‘ Transactions ’ separate from the journal which I and Mr. Busk
edited, I was anxious that an arrangement which had worked so
well for the Society should continue. When we first offered to
publish the * Transactions ’ of the Society with our new journal,
now sixteen years ago, the Society then numbered only 150
members, and from that time to the cessation of your connection
with our journal every year presented an increase of members,
till at the close of our arrangement the number of members
amounted to 470. I am sorry to observe, from your President’s
address to-night, that that success has ceased. He has had the
painful task of announcing to you that for the first time in the
Society’s history there has been no increase of members during

209

the last year. It was on this ground, and this ground only, that
I urged the propriety of the old arrangement. I knew that a
large number of members who lived in the country were induced
to continue their subscriptions for the sake of the journal. When,
however, the Council determined to break their connection with
the journal, both the editors and publishers felt that the journal
would not suffer. The editors felt that the necessity of pub-
lishing papers over which they had no control burdened the
journal with matter that was not consistent with a popular
circulation, whilst the publishers felt that they were supplying
the journal to the members at a price that was not at all com-
mensurate with the value of the Society’s contributions. Under
these circumstances neither I nor Mr. Busk thought it necessary
to come down to your meetings and force on a discussion to
which your Council evidently objected. Now, however, that your
Council has chosen, not only to select an editor of your ‘ Transac-
tions ’ outside your Society, to publish them in another journal,
and to subsidize another publisher in opposition to the one who
has published them for so many years, I thought that it was due
to myself and due to you that you should have an opportunity of
speaking and voting on the subject. I have not sought counsel
with any one on this subject, and I shall leave the matter in your
hands. You have heard to-night what your President has had to
say on the subject, and I have no doubt your Council has been
actuated by honorable motives, but it is for you to say whether
you think what they have done is right in your sight, and likely
to conduce to the interests of your Society and the advancement
of microscopical science. I for one object to the arrangement of
your new journal, in which your ‘ Transactions ’ are mixed up
and paged with any inferior matter which your new editor
chooses to place them in juxtaposition. This I believe is quite
unique in the publication of scientific transactions in any part of
Europe, and I believe likely to damage the prestige and influence
of the Society’s ‘ Transactions,’ especially on the Continent of
Europe, where imperfect accounts of the proceedings of their own
societies in another language cannot be regarded as of any literary
or scientific value. I must confess that when the Council deter-
mined to cut us adrift I had hoped to see them spending their
funds in the publication of ‘ Transactions ’ that would become
their new title of ‘ Royal,’ that in size and illustration might stand
on the same shelves with the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Society of
London.’ I know that I am not alone in feeling disappointment
in the course your Council have taken. In conclusion, I would
say I have no personal feeling in this matter. I have long knqwn
your new editor as a laborious worker in the field of scientific
literature ; with your new publisher I have long been connected,
and know him as an honorable and upright man ; and if your
decision should be to continue your new journal, I am sure it
will interfere with no interests of mine, and I heartily wish it all
the success it deserves.”

VOL. IX. NEW SER.

o

210

After this address, as no one seconded the resolution, Dr.
Lankester left the room.

Mr. Glaisher then explained that the Council had given the
subject of the publication of the ‘ Transactions ’ the most careful
and anxious consideration, that Dr. Lankester had never assisted
them in their deliberations, and that eventually they had entered
into arrangements with Mr. Hardwicke for the issue of the
‘Monthly Microscopical Journal.1 Mr. Henry Slack, F.G.S.,
Secretary, said he regretted that Dr. Lankester had left the room
so hastily, ere there was time to reply to his assertions. He
stated that, so far from Dr. Lankester having an interest in the
Society, he had been present at but three meetings during the last
four years,2 and that he never recognised the principle of separate
publication of the ‘ Transactions ’ during the sixteen years in
which the ‘Transactions’ were issued in the ‘ Quarterly Journal
of Microscopical Science,’ of which he is the editor. Finally,
Mr. Slack read passages from a letter received last year from
Dr. Lankester, in which it is urged that the separate issue of
the Society’s ‘ Transactions ’ would bring about the resignation
of many of the Fellows, and was therefore not to he thought of.

The following gentlemen were then elected office bearers for the
ensuing year.

President— Rev. J. B. Beade, M.A., F.B.S.

Vice-Presidents. — Jas. Glaisher, F.B.S. ; L. S. Beale, M.D.,
F.B.S. ; W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.B.S. ; G. C. Wallich, M.D.,
F.L.S.

Treasurer. — B. Mestayer, Esq.

Secretaries . — H. J. Slack, F.G.S. ; Jabez Hogg, F.L.S.

Council. — Arthur Farre, M.D., F.B.S.; Arthur E. Durham,
F.B.C.S.; H. Lawson, M.D.; James Murie, M.D., F.L.S.; Charles
Tyler, F.L.S. ; Charles Brooke, M.A., F.B.S. ; W. H. luce, F.L.S.;
Henry Lee, F.L.S.; Ellis G. Lobb, Esq.; John Miller, M.D., F.L.S.;
Major Owen, F.L.S. ; F. H. Wenhain, C.E.

Wednesday , March 10th, 1869.

Bev. J. B. Beade, President, in the Chair.

Among the presents to the Society, a special vote of thanks
was passed to Mrs. Clarke, Whitby, for twelve beautifully
mounted slides of the fructification of seaweeds, and to Mr.
Collins for a -J-inch object-glass of small angular aperture, con-
structed, as suggested by Dr. Carpenter, for special use of the
binocular.

1 Neither Dr. Lankester norMr.Busk were ever invited to any deliberation
of the Society on the subject. — Eds.

2 Although this statement is not correct, the absence of both Mr. Busk and
Dr. Lankester can be easily accounted for, especially when the new bye-laws
excluded them, as being Presidents, from a seat in the Council. — Eds.

211

Mr. Suffolk exhibited and described Muller’s new growing
slide.

Mr. Slack described a new rotating stage as fitted to cheap
microscopes by Messrs. Beck.

Mr. luce read a short paper by George Gulliver, Esq., F.R.S.,
“ On the Fibres of the Crystalline Lens.”

Alfred Saunders, Esq., read a paper “ On Zoospores of Crusta-
cea.”

Quekett Microscopical Club.

December 1868. Mr. Arthur E. Durham, President, in
the chair. — Mr. John Hopkinson read a paper “ On British
Graptolites,” a group of fossil zoophytes exclusively confined to
Silurian rocks. After a brief introduction on their geological and
geographical range, he entered fully into the structure of the
different forms, and gave a concise history of the establishment of
the British genera, noticing the various opinions that have been
entertained as to their zoological position. The genera were
described and grouped into four families. The Graptolitidce were
then showed to be Uydrozoa, nearly allied in structure, develop-
ment, and probably in their mode of reproduction, to the Sertu-
lariadcc.

In conclusion, it was argued that the existence of hydroid
zoophytes in the Silurian seas, and their complete disappearance
until a very recent period, could not be explained by the Dar-
winian theory of the origin of species.

Specimens of thirty species, and diagrams showing the distinc-
tive characters of each genus, were exhibited.

Mr. Samuel Roberts described a new form of micrometer, con-
sisting of a tube mounted on a separate stand, which, when placed
at the side of the ordiuary monocular microscope, enabled the
observer to look down it with one eye, while the other was occu-
pied with the object.

A discussion ensued, and the thanks of the meeting were given
to Messrs. Hopkinson and Roberts.

Mr. J. Eldridge presented the club with a quantity of unmounted
specimens for distribution amongst the members.

Sixteen gentlemen were elected as members.

January 22nd, 1869. The President in the chair. — The Presi-
dent announced that a society, upon the basis of the Quekett
Microscopical Club, had been formed at Liverpool with the
greatest success; and Mr. M. C. Cooke, Secretary for Foreign
Correspondence, informed the meeting that a similar society had
been established at Chicago (Illinois), U.S. He also announced
that his class for the study of microscopical fungi would be held
in a room which Mr. Wheldon had kindly placed at his disposal.

Mr. George read a paper by Mr. Holmes “ On a New Form of

212

Binocular Microscope,” in which the author explained the plan by
which he proposed to obtain an equal amount of light and an
equal angle of vision in each tube. This he illustrated by means
of a diagram and instrument.

A discussion followed the reading of the paper.

Mr. W. T. Suffolk read a paper “ On some of the Means of
Delineating Microscopical Objects,” containing a number of
useful and valuable hints to the worker with the microscope.

The respective authors of the papers received the thanks of the
meeting for their interesting contributions.

The President, in announcing that the Annual Soiree would be
held on March 12th, expressed his acknowledgments of the
liberality of the Council of University College in placing the
building at the disposal of the Committee for that occasion.

The proceedings terminated with a conversazione.

Ten new members were elected.

February 26 th, 1869. The President in the chair. — Numerous
donations to the cabinet and library were announced.

Mr. James Jordan read a paper “ On the Preparation of Bock
Sections for Microscopical Examination.” By means of an en-
larged diagram he successfully explained his method of manipula-
tion, and further illustrated his paper by exhibiting sections of
rock in the various stages of the process. The finished specimens
were greatly admired.

Mr. M. C. Cooke read a paper on “ Burst Spores,” and ex-
hibited coloured drawings showing the fungus in its many stages
of development.

Mr. Hailes exhibited an earthenware lamp-shade and reflector,
of cheap construction, on the principle of the Fiddian lamp
chimney.

Mr. Curties exhibited a large collection of coloured drawings
executed by Messrs. Draper, Tatem, and Clayton.

The thanks of the meeting were given to Messrs. Jordan,
Cooke, Hailes, and Curties, and the proceedings terminated.

Ten new members were elected.

The extra conversational meetings (for the exhibition of
objects only), which have been so very numerously attended
during the winter months, terminated on the 12th February.

Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester.

Ordinary Meeting, January 26th, 1S69.

R. Angus Smith. Ph.D., F.B.S., Vice-President, in the chair.

“ On Microscopical Examination of Dust,” by J. B. Dancer,
F.R.A.S.

The author stated that he had made some microscopical exami-
nations of dust collected in June, July, and August last, and also

213

of the particles contained in the rain water after the long drought.
He had intended to bring these observations before the Society
in a complete form, but has not hitherto found time to do so.
He proposed to carry on observations during every month in the
year, for the purpose of recording the average amount of solid
matter deposited on a given area, and also as far as possible to
ascertain the character of the deposits. The observations so far
have shown, as might have been expected, that the dust in various
localities, at different altitudes, and under other varying condi-
tions, contained particles differing in magnitude, appearance, and
quantity for the same superficial area. In every instance mole-
cular activity was abundaut, but the animal life was very variable
in amount, the largest number of moving organisms being in the
dust collected at the lowest points — this was about five feet above
the surface of the earth. This dust also contained the largest
proportion in magnitude and quantity of vegetable matter.
These observations also show that in thoroughfares where there
are many animals engaged in the traffic, the majority of the light
dust, which when disturbed reaches the average height of five
feet, or about the level of a foot-passenger’s mouth, consists of a
large proportion of vegetable matter which has passed through
the stomachs of animals, or which has suffered partial decompo-
sition in some way or other. This is not an agreeable piece of
information, but it is a fact. It shows the necessity, in a sanitary
point of view, of the streets being well watered before the scaven-
gers are allowed to commence operations ; otherwise the light
dust is only made to change its locality, and is not properly
removed. It is not pleasant to contemplate the possibility of
germs of disease being wafted along with this decaying matter
and inhaled by those whose condition might be favorable for its
development. The author hopes to bring the details of these
observations before the Society at some future time.

H. A. Hurst, Esq., read a paper on the “ Elora of Gibraltar,”
in which he remarked on its great richness, comprising, as it does,
in an area of about If square miles, 500 plants, being one half of
those contained in the ‘Cybele Hibernica,’ and one third of the
whole number enumerated as growing in the British Islands in
the last London Catalogue.

Microscopic Section op the Lower Moslet Street
Natural History Society.

January 11th, 1869. — Mr. Chaffers presiding.

The minutes of last meeting were read and confirmed.

The following members brought their microscopes : — Messrs.
Armstrong, Hope, Chaffers, Hyde, Nash, Wrigley, Jackson, and
Wilmot.

The following objects, amongst others, were exhibited :

Mr. Hope — Spiracle of Dytiscus, soldier beetle, scale of eel, &c.

214

Mr. Nash — Foraminifera, scale of flying fish, <fcc.

Mr. Armstrong — Whisker of walrus, eggs of house fly, tendon
from human hand, deep-sea soundings, &c.

Mr. Jackson — Pith of briar, hard fern spore, &c.

Mr. Chaffers — Parasite of pike, tongue of limpet, tongue of
moth, ear of white mouse, <fcc.

Mr. Wilmott — Tonge of Limneus pereger, parasite of pike, lung
of fresh-water mussel, spores of Osmunda regalis.

The following contributions were added to the Society’s
cabinet :

Mr. Armstrong — Hook and spiracle of caterpillar and tracheae
of silkworm.

Mr. Jackson — Spores of Blechnum boreale, pith of wild briar.

Mr. Hyde — Pith of elder, section of pine seed.

Air. Chaffers — Spiracle of moth, forelegs of wasp, and head of
sheep tick.

February 8i tli, 1869. — Mr. Chaffers presiding.

Minutes of preceding meeting were read and confirmed.

Moved, seconded, and carried, “ That the Section take in the
Quarterly ‘Journal of Microscopical Science’ for this year.”

It was agreed that each member should, at the next meeting,
bring a slide or slides of the cockroach or cricket, with observa-
tions thereon.

Mr. Armstrong to read a paper at the meeting on 8th March ;
subject left to himself.

Remainder of evening spent by Mr. Aylward and Mr. Chaffers
each dissecting tongue of Helix aspersa ; Mr. Jackson dissecting
Dyliscus beetle ; Mr. Armstrong exhibiting a series of slides, the
garden spider and its dissections; Mr. Willmot exhibiting para-
sites from Argulus foliaceus.

Several presentations were made to the Society’s cabinet by
Messrs. Armstrong, Hope, Aylward, and Hyde.

February 22nd, 1869. — Mr. Chaffers, President, in the chair.

In accordance with the resolution passed at the last meeting,
each member brought slides of the cricket or cockroach.

Mr. Aylward — Gizzard of cockroach, head of ditto dissected;
head, gizzard, section of gizzard, anipasiter, spiracles, tracheae,
tongue, and eggs of cricket.

Mr. Jackson — Legs and wing-case of cricket; antennae of
Dyliscus.

Mr. Chaffers — Gizzard of cricket ; two slides of legs and abdo-
men of cockroach.

Mr. Nash — Elytron and antennae of cricket.

Mr. Armstrong — Two cockroaches mounted entire, head and
legs of ditto ; and gizzard of cricket.

Mr. H. Hyde — Leg of cricket.

Mr. Wilmot — Gizzard of cockroach.

The evening was spent in examining the various specimens,
most of which were very well mounted.

March 8th, 1869. — Mr. Chaffers, President, in the chair.

A variety of unmounted objects were distributed amongst the
members, Mr. Armstrong showing four mouuted slides of a very
brilliant beetle (name unknown), viz. the head, elytron, skin, and
wing.

The following contributions were made to the Society’s cabinet :

Mr. Armstrong — Elytron of beetle.

Mr. Jackson — Spores of Lastrea Filix mas.

Mr. Hope — Wing of white plume moth.

Mr. Armstrong presented two large photographs to the Society,
Pleurosigma formosum, parasite of field mouse.

It was agreed that at the next meeting, 2'2nd inst., each mem-
ber should bring a mounted slide or slides of the spider or house
fly, with observations upon them.

Mr. Armstrong read a very comprehensive and instructive
paper upon the microscope and the various objects open to the
study of microscopists, which he illustrated with a large number
of photographs of microscopic objects.

He stated there are three essential conditions of efficiency in a
microscope — 1st, sufficient visual magnitude; 2nd, sufficient dis-
tinctness of delineation; 3rd, sufficient illumination; and gave a
lucid description of the three essentials, and quoted various ap-
propriate passages from different authors descriptive of micro-
scopic pursuits ; also describing the beauties of nature, and how
teeming with life every part of our earth is, and how innumera-
ble are the objects suitable for the microscopist ; showing forcibly
the amount of true knowledge the microscopist may attain by
being observant of the objects of nature, since every flower, in-
sect, fruit, and, indeed, every particle of matter, may afford him
both knowledge and entertainment, and that the microscopist
will discover in what bv less observant men are simply considered
as domestic pests there are beautiful forms and perfect appli-
ances for performing the various functions of life, as studies for
the microscope. He quoted and instanced the Volvox glohator,
animalculae of various kinds, water-insects and beetles, parasites
from animals, birds, and insects, acari, spiders, dissections of in-
sects and plants, instancing the various transformations of
insect life, showing how interesting is the life-history of many of
our common insects, naming also for the more advanced micro-
scopist the various anatomical preparations, and, lastly, showing
how beautiful as objects of study are the Diatomacese and Des-
midese, and how truly wonderful is it that in objects so minute
there should be so much real beauty and geometrical precision of
lines and outline. In conclusion, drawing attention to the
various modern appliances and apparatus connected with the
microscope.

216

Manchester Circulating Microscopic Cabinet Society".

Annual Meeting.

Held 12th January, 1869, at the house of Mr. J. Armstrong,
88, Deansgate, Manchester.

Present — -Messrs. Harne, J. Armstrong. Aylward, H. C. Arm-
strong, Nash, and Hope; also Messrs. J. Hyde, J. H. Hope, and
G. B. Armstrong, as friends.

Mr. J. Armstrong in the chair.

Minutes of previous meeting read and confirmed.

The cash account for the past year was read by the Treasurer,
examined and passed.

Tender for ‘■Microscopical Journal.' — Mr. Armstrong explained
that only two tenders had been sent in, and those were in the
hands of Mr. Aylward, who had omitted to bring them to the
meeting. Agreed that the tenderers (Mr. J. Armstrong and Mr.
Hope) settle this matter between them.

Election of officers. — For the office of President, Mr. Horne
and Mr. J. Armstrong were proposed, and the former was elected
by a majority of 1.

Treasurer. — Mr. J. Armstrong and Mr. Nash were proposed
for this office, and the former was elected by a majority of 2.

Secretary. — Mr. Nash and Mr. Hope were proposed, and the
latter was elected by a majority of 2.

Subject for next meeting.- — Proposed by Mr. Hope, and seconded
by Mr. J. Armstrong, “ That the subject for the next quarterly
meeting be ‘ Crystals.’ ” — Carried unanimously.

The next meeting to take place on 13th April, 1869 ; place of
meeting to be named afterwards.

Proposed by Mr. J. Armstrong, and seconded by Mr. Ayl-
ward, “That the quarterly meeting in future commence at 7
o’clock instead of 8 o’clock.” — Carried unanimously.

The rest of the evening was spent very pleasantly in viewing
the various parts of the “ spider,” of which all members present
contributed slides with descriptions, and in discussing the various
and best manner of mounting the same, those of Mr. Horne and
Mr. J. Armstrong being exceedingly good.

This meeting terminated at 10.5 p.m.

Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society.

January 1 Atli.

The President, Mr. Glaisyer, in the chair. A paper was read
by Mr. Wonfor, Hon. Sec., “ On Flint,” in which the various
theories respecting its origin, its place in the geologic formation,
and its nature, were discussed; after which the utility of the

21-

microscope in geological research was pointed out, and how a new
field of geological inquiry had been opened out by the examina-
tion of thin sections of rocks, by Porbes, Sorby, and others.
While there was no doubt that flint had been formed by the in-
filtration or deposits of soluble silicates or organisms — such as
sponges, corals, &c. — thin sections or chippings of flint revealed
under the microscope the presence of sponge, spicules, Porarni-
niferse, Xanthidia, &c. That infiltration and deposition of silex
held in solution was still going on was seen by the waters of the
Danube, which had converted the pillars of Trajan’s Bridge into
agate, &c. ; by the geysers of Iceland and other volcanic springs.
Animals and plants also possessed the power of taking up silex
and converting it into various organs, as seen in the sponge
spicules, the Hyalonema and Euplectella, the Diatomaceae, and
the siliceous cuticles of many plants.

February 11 th.

The President, Mr. Glaisyer, in the chair. The discussion on
“ Plint ” was resumed ; after which examples of the various ways
in which silex in flint exhibits itself in nature were shown under
the microscope by the following gentlemen :

Mr. Hennah exhibited sections of flint containing seed-vessels
and sponge (Siphonia pisciformis) , “artificial diatoms,” a gaseous
deposit of silex, obtained by the process described by Professor
Max Schultze, on which markings similar to those on some dia-
toms were seen, and sections of quartz through the optic axis
by which the coloured rings were shown. These objects were ex-
hibited under one of R. and J. Beck’s new large microscopes,
with concentric rotating stage and iris diaphragm, specially lent
by Mr. J. Beck for the occasion. Considerable interest was felt
in the iris diaphragm, as it was the invention of Mr. J. Brown,
a member of the society. This instrument, with the stage, de-
signed to meet a want suggested by Dr. Carpenter, has been pro-
nounced the most complete microscope as yet published.

Mr. R. Smith exhibited thin sections of flint and chert, con-
taining Xanthidia pixidularia, corals, sponge spicules, and den-
dritic oxides, commonly called “moss agates.” Mr. R. Glaisyer
showed stellate hairs from Deutzia scabra and I). gracilis, sec-
tions of silicified coniferous wood, disintegrated glass exhibiting
markings similar to those on some diatoms, and Polycistina from
Barbadoes deposit. Mr. J. Dennant exhibited silex found among
the ashes of a wheat-stack destroyed by fire, and siliceous cuticles
of wheat, Equisetum, Indian corn. Mr. T. Cooper exhibited recent
and fossil sponge spicules and gemmules, and diatoms. Mr.
Wonfor showed Poraminiferse, sponge spicules and corals in flint,
Poraminiferse and other organisms obtained from a cavity in a
flint nodule, and Moller’s diatom type slide, which had been
very kindly lent for the occasion by Mr. T. Curteis, of Holborn.
This slide was, in the estimation of all who examined it, the most

marvellous example of skilful arrangement and clean mounting
they had ever seen.

March 11 th.

The President, Mr. Glaisher, in the chair. A paper on
“ Microscopical Pungi ” was read by Dr. ITallifax. Among other
points it was shown that since the microscope had become a more
perfect instrument the number of known species had been in-
creased from 400 to between 4000 and 5000. This number would
doubtless be increased, as many regions were at present unex-
plored. The ravages they committed among the crops on which
men and animals depended was a great inducement for their
study, for, as was well known, the cereals, potatoes, vines, hops,
silkworms, &c., had been destroyed by their agency. To the
scientific botanist and microscopist they offered many grounds of
interest : they afforded a striking illustration of the unity which
pervaded organized life, for though so diverse in form and cha-
racters, they were all resolvable into the same elemental thread-
like substance, called mycetia, sometimes filamentous in their
appearance, at others fitted and consolidated into a leathery con-
sistency. Many interesting problems in connection with their
form, propagation, and supposed influence in disease, remained
involved. Some of these points had been cleared up ; thus, some
species, aud even genera, had been proved to be only different
stages of development of the same fungus, or diflerences of form
resulting from the nidus on which growing. Especial attention
was called to those attacking the potato and the wheat, while allu-
sion was made to the so-called cholera fungus. The paper was
illustrated by a number of microscopical preparations, among
which the most noticeable were —

Peronospora infestans, on potato leaf ;

Cladosporum herbarum, on stone-crop ;

Stilbyum aurantiacum, on stem of sage ;

Aspergillus glaucus, on thyme leaf ;

Melotium ceruginosuvi, in oak-wood, exhibiting the germination
of the spores, and section of mushroom.

MEMOIRS.

Monograph of Monera. By Ernst Hackel.

{Continued from p. 134.)

Probably this observation furnishes an indication of the
reproduction of the Myxodictyum. It is conceivable that
these M oner-colonies reproduce themselves simply by single
individuals detaching themselves from time to time from the
periphery of the Moner-colony. These may then form a new
colony, either from the simple individual dividing into several
which remain united by the anastomoses of their pseudopods,
or by a stronger flow and accumulation of sarcode taking
place at certain points (knots) of the sarcode net ; and by
these peripheral plasma-lumps gradually centralising them-
selves, and acquiring the individual shape of the central
mother-body. Thus, the reproduction of these Myxodictya
may take place in the simplest manner without needing to
pass into the resting condition, and then this Moner-form
would be intimately allied to Protogenes.

But it is also sufficiently probable, on the other hand, that
the detachment of the two individuals from the net under
observation happened accidentally, and had not the signi-
ficance of a reproductive act. Unfortunately, I could not
further observe this remarkable Moner. For in the attempt
to remove it from the shallow watch-glass, in which it was
very inconvenient to examine it with a high-power magnifier,
to a more suitable stage, unfortunately a considerable portion
of the water containing the Myxodictyum ran over the edge,
and so the unique specimen was lost.

It must, therefore, be left to future observers to explore
more completely the natural history of this wonderful
organism.

II. — 4. Protumosba primitiva.

With Plate X, figs. 25 — 30.

Those Amceba-like organisms wffiich have neither nucleus

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. p

220

nor contractile vesicle, and which consist throughout their
whole bodies of a perfectly homogeneous and structureless
mass, are well to be distinguished from the true Amoebae (Aut-
amcebae), which alwrays possess a nucleus, and generally also
a vacuole, or even a constant contractile vesicle. Such abso-
lutely simple Amoebae, the simplest which can easily be con-
ceived, occur, for example, as transitional young stages in
the development of the Gregarinae, from whose Navicula-like
granular germs they, the so-called pseudo-Navicellae, are deve-
loped. But such entirely simple Amoebae also occur as inde-
pendent organisms, persistent in this very simple form, and
reproducing themselves — if you please, as “ good species,” —
and I have proposed in my ‘ General Morphology’ to separate
them as “ Protamoeba,” entirely from the true and manifestly
much higher organized Amoebae (Vol. I, p. 183). As I have
only casually mentioned the Protamoeba in the passage re-
ferred to, and besides have published nothing about it, I
shall give a short description of this group here, in addition
to the Monera which I have just described.

Protamoeba primitiva, represented at figs. 25 — 30, I ob-
served for the first time at Jena, in the summer of 1863, in
water which I had brought from a small pond in the Tauten-
burg forest (opposite Dornburg, on the right bank of the
Saal). The bottom of this shallow little pond is thickly
covered with fallen decayed beech-leaves, and in the fine
brown mud, among the decayed leaves, I found the little
Protamoeba, the first Moner which I had happened to meet
with.

If the Protamoeba primitiva is immediately transferred to
the microscope from the fine mud in Avhich it creeps, and a
strong light is brought to bear upon it, it commonly appears
as a homogeneous Plasma-ball of 0-03 — 004 mm. diameter.
After some time this ball begins slowdy to flatten ; its
diameter increases to 0‘06 mm., and, at the same time, its
circular outline becomes irregular. Then a blunt cone-
shaped or wart-shaped projection soon begins to appear, first
at one point, and then simultaneously at several. While this
lengthens, stretches, and draws a portion of the remaining
mass of the body after it, the irregular roundish outline
becomes pear-shaped, or if several pseudopods appear to-
gether, star-shaped. There Avere seldom more than five or
six wart-shaped projections visible on the circumference of
the disc-shaped flattened body. The projections or pseudo-
pods always remain short and simple. At most their length
about equals the diameter of the rest of the body. They
never ramify, and twro adjacent pseudopods never coalesce

221

with each other (figs. 25, 26). The motions of Protamoeba
primitiva, the protrusion and retraction of the processes
which vary frequently in number, form, and size, though
always simple, take place very slowly. In this particular,
it differs essentially from the Amoeba Umax described by
Auerbach,1 which is otherwise the most like it of all known
Amoeba-forms, leaving out of view, of course, the want of a
nucleus and of the contractile vesicle.

The whole body of Protamoeba primitiva is absolutely
structureless and homogeneous. There is no apparent
difference between a more tenacious outer and a softer
inner sarcode mass. Such a difference is perceptible in most,
perhaps in all, true Amoebae. One can usually easily dis-
tinguish between the firmer outer layer, which is homogeneous
and not granular (Ectosarc), from the thinner fluid inner
parenchyma (Endosarc), which is filled with granules.
Sometimes these two layers pass insensibly into one another,
in which case the Ectosarc becomes always softer and more
fluid as it approaches the interior ; sometimes both appear
pretty sharply defined, so that one can even designate the
outer layer as a membrane (Auerbach). In the Protamoeba
nothing whatever can be observed of this division of the
Plasma into Ectosarc and Endosarc, not even on the appli-
cation of chemical re-agents. Rather is the whole body
formed of one and the same similar substance, which is
tolerably tough and consistent, and displays the ordinary
micro-chemical reactions of albumen (Plasma).

In some Protamoebae the sarcode mass of the body is
entirely clear and hyaline ; in others, again, it is obscured by
a larger or smaller quantity of colourless dark oleaginously
shining granules, insoluble in acetic acid. Most of these
granules are very fine, but a few are larger, and of measure-
able size. The variable number and size of the granules,
their complete absence in some, and their abundance in other
individuals, is probably dependent, as in the previously de-
scribed Monera and in the Rhizopoda, on the change of sub-
stance, on the larger or smaller quantity of nourishment
taken, and the assimilated ingredients.

I did not succeed in directly observing the taking of nourish-
ment by means of the pseudopods in Protamoeba. But I could
experimentally prove the absorption of small solid particles
into their homogeneous sarcode body, by placing a small quan-
tity of very finely divided indigo in the surrounding water. A
few hours later, many Protamoebae had absorbed one or more

1 Auerbach, “UeberdieEinzelligkeit der Amceben,” ‘Zeitschr. furWiss.
Zool.,’ 1856, vol. vii, p. 412, Taf. xxii, figs. 11 — 16.

222

indigo grains into their interior. Probably the above-mentioned
fine grains were at least in part also drawn into the interior
of the body from the surrounding fine mud. In any case, the
taking of these small solid bodies proceeds as in the true
Amoebae, and as in the Amoeba- like blood-cells of animals, by
means of the peculiar motion of the pseudopods, without a
permanent opening or hollow receptacle ever being present
in the solid slime-mass of the body.

Already, when, in 1863, for the first time, I observed the
Protamoeba, I concluded that it multiplied itself simply by
division, for the individuals contained in a small glass in-
creased remarkably in a few days, without any changes or
transition to a passive condition ever having been observable
in these very simple organisms. When I again found the
Protamoeba two years afterwards in the same pond near
Jena, I tried by continued observation of single individuals
to establish the nature and manner of its reproduction, and
this actually succeeded. Several Protamoebae showed in the
middle of their body a more or less deep constriction, thus
becoming more or less biscuit-shaped (fig. 27). The constric-
tion continued, without affecting the changes of form which
took place in each of the two halves of the body ; and it
became perceptibly deeper (figs. 28, 29). At last I succeeded
in directly establishing the actual division of the contracted
portion, and the complete separation of the two divided
halves, in two individuals which I had constantly observed
for a considerable time (fig. 30 a b). Each half immediately
rounded itself, and then uninterruptedly continued the former
slow movements. Thus was established in Protamoeba the
simplest form of non-sexual reproduction, i. e., by division,
and without being preceded by a passive state. Manifestly
Monera such as Protamoeba primitiva may be considered to
occupy the first place in the hypothesis of archigony or spon-
taneous generation.

III. — Remarks on the Protoplasm Theory.

The Monera which I have just described, Protomyxa,
Myxastrum, Myxodictyum, and Protamoeba, as well as Proto-
genes, which I formerly described (1. c.), and Protomonas and
Vampyrella, observed by Cienkowski, all perfectly agree in their
whole bodies consisting when completely developed, and in
their freely moving condition, of a structureless and thoroughly
homogeneous substance. In all chemical and physical respects
this substance shows the qualities of a consistent carbonaceous
compound of the group of albuminous substances (Proteine).

223

It is identical with the substance which as Plasma or Proto-
plasm forms the contractile living substance of all organic
Plastides ; of all cells and Cytodes of animals, Protista, and
plants. To distinguish it from the encapsuled Protoplasm
enclosed in cell- or cytode-membranes, the name of sar-
code, used by Dujardin, can be applied to the free Plasma
without a covering to protect it from contact with the outer
world. Onlyr it must not be forgotten that the naked sarcode
possesses essentially the same properties as the encysted Pro-
toplasm, and that in the above-described Protomyxa and
Myxastrum, for example, and also in the Protomonads
and Vampyrellte the sarcode must be called protoplasm as
soon as these Moners encyst themselves, and enclose them-
selves within an outer membrane ; in other Avoids, as soon
as the Gymnoplastides pass into Lepoplastides. In the
indisputable fact that in the aboA'e-mentioned organisms
the Avhole body (in its perfectly developed state !) actually
consists singly and only of a jelly-like structureless Proto-
plasm, and that this simple homogeneous material, as the
active substratum of all life-movement, ivithout the co-opera-
tion of different parts, fulfils all essential vital functions
(nutrition and reproduction, motion and irritability), I see
sufficient reason to take the step of placing these organisms to-
gether as Monera in contradistinction to all others, as I have
done in my ‘ General Morphology.’ For these organisms
manifestly stand in the loAvest grade below all other organic
beings, and not only occupy actually the simplest, but also the
simplest conceiA-able, position of independent living matter.
But as these remarkable Monera are from one point of vieAV
of the greatest interest, so from another they deseiwe general
attention from the inestimable importance Avhich they possess
of affording a mechanical explanation of vital phenomena, and
especially for a Monistic explanation of entire organic nature.

The Protoplasm or Sarcode theory, that is, that the albu-
minous contents of animal and vegetable cells (or more cor-
rectly, their “cell-matter”), as Avell as the freely moving
sarcode of Rhizopoda, Myxomycetae, Protoplasticlae, &c., are
identical, and that in both cases this albuminous material is
the original active substratum of all vital phenomena may
perhaps be considered one of the greatest achievements of
modern biology, and one of the richest in results. After this
theory Avas brought foiuvard in its elementary form by Cohn1
in 1800, and by Unger2 in 1853, it Avas further deA'eloped in

* F. Cohn, “ Nachtrage zur Naturgeschichle des Prolor.occus plnvialis;”
‘Nova Acta Ac. Leop. Carol.,’ vol. xxii, pars 2, p. C05, 1850.

* Unger, ‘Anatomie und Physiologic der Pflanzen,’ 1855, pp. 280, 282.

224

1858, and finally completely established in 1860, by Max
Schultze.1 I myself have laboured for a number of years
to maintain and extend this theory.2 By no phenomena
is the correctness of this theory so thoroughly proved, and,
at the same time, in so simple and unassailable a manner,
as by the vital phenomena of the Monera, by the processes of
their nourishment and reproduction, sensitiveness and motion,
which entirely proceed from one and the same very simple
substance, a true “ primitive slime.”

The protoplasm theory might now be considered as almost
universally recognised if there had not arisen from one quarter
for the last six years a continued energetic protest against
this “ heresy.” As there are no very strong proofs against
it to justify this opposition, we 'would not have alluded to it
here if the influence of its opposer had not lent it an apparent
importance, and if at the moment I write this a detailed
treatise for the complete refutation of the “ sarcode heresy ”
had not been published. Since 1862 Reichert, the professor
of human anatomy at Berlin, who was elected in 1858 as the
successor of the immortal Johannes Muller, has not only
attempted, in a series of papers, to overthrow the protoplasm
theory, but to prove all the previous observations on the sar-
code-movements of the Rhizopoda to be so many gross errors.
Tbe currents of the protoplasm-threads are made out to be
but waves of contraction of solid threads, and the granules
carried along by the currents but “ moving loops ” of these
threads. Ramifications and anastomoses of the pseudopods
are never present, but have only, as “ wonderful microscopic
illusions, pleased the fantasy of observers,” &c.

These extraordinary assertions were brought forward by
Reichert with the greatest assurance after he had examined,
during only a few weeks’ residence at Trieste, “ a not accu-
rately identified species of Miliola and Rotalia.” And as the
result of these investigations he declared that all previous
observers of the Rhizopoda had fallen into the grossest errors
concerning their organization ! Among these observers are
Dujardin, Max Schultze, Huxley, Claparede, Krohn, Johan-

1 Max Schultze, “ Ueber innere Bewegungs-Erscheinungen bei Diato-
meen ‘ Muller’s Arcliiv,’ 1858, p. 330. Max Schultze, “Ueber Cornu-
pira ‘Arcliiv fur Naturgesch, 1860, p. 287. Max Schultze, “Ueber
Muskelkorperchen und das was man eine Zelle zu nennen babe ‘ Reichert
und Du Bois-Rpymond’s Arcliiv,’ 1861, p. 1. Max Schultze, ‘Das Proto-
plasma der Rhizopoden und der Pflanzenzellen,’ Leipsig, 1863.

2 ‘ Monographie der Radiolarien,’ 1862, pp. 89, 116; also “Ueber den
Sarcodekorper der Rhizopoden in * Zeitschr. fiir wissenschaftl. Zool.,’
Bd. xv, 1865, p. 342, Taf. xxvi; and in ‘ Generelle Morpkologie,’ vol. i,
pp. 269, 289.

90S

JV.VU

nes Muller, naturalists of recognised position who had busied
themselves for months, and some of them for years, with the
investigation of the Rhizopoda. And all these must have been
most grossly deceived “ by a remarkable sport of nature !”

In my article, “ Ueber den Sareodekorper der Rhizopoden,”
I have clearly demonstrated the utter worthlessness of
Reichert’s assertions, and the perversity of his misrepresenta-
tions, and at the same time set forth the history of this strange
controversy.1 Nevertheless, Reichert has not been deterred
from continuing his publications on this subject, and from
metamorphosing it in a peculiar fashion in an article, “ Uber
die contractile Substanz.” 2 By what mistakes and forced
constructions this pretended vindication (but really altera-
tion) of his former views is distinguished, has been already
shown by Max Schultze in his article ‘ Reichert und die
Gromien.” 3

A comprehensive treatise of Reichert’s has just appeared,
cUber die contractile Substanz (Sarcode, Protoplasma) und
ihre Bewegungs-Erscheinungen,’ which, while further deve-
loping the argument of the last-mentioned publication, is one
of the most astonishing productions of modern zoological
literature.4 On reading it, we seem to have retrograded
about half a century. Among other things, the existence of
the epithelial cells of the Coelenterata is contradicted ; and the
two epithelial forms of integument (ectoderm and entoderm)
from which, according to the unanimous observations of all
modern naturalists, the Coelenterata are developed, are
absolutely denied. The existence of naked membraneless
cells is still persistently denied with the greatest obstinacy,
although such numerous observations for so many years past
have established their existence beyond dispute, so that the
naked (nucleated) plasma-mass may be looked upon as the
original state of nearly all cells, and the membrane always
appears only as a secondary formation. Further on, the dis-
course is incidentally of “ flint-formed creatures ” (perhaps
Diatomaceee ?) , and so on. All these assertions do not con-
cern us here, but only the method and manner in which
Reichert treats his principal subject, and distorts the sarcode
theory ; this necessarily requires a decisive settlement. I
will cut it as short as possible, and set forth, in the first
place, the principal points in dispute.

In his above-mentioned paper, which was to “ make clear

1 ‘ Zeitschrift fur wissensch. Zool.,’ Bd. xv, 1865, p. 342.

‘ ‘ Monatsberichte der Berlin Akad.,’ 1865, p. 491.

8 ‘ Archiv fur Mikrosk. Anat.,’ vol. ii, 1866, p. 140.

4 ‘ Abkandl. der Berlin Akad.,’ 1867, pp. 151, 293.

226

as the light of day the errors about the sarcode,” Reichert
concentrated his annihilating attack, after many devious
windings, in the following assertions: — (1) The pseudopods
are solid contractile threads which never ramify; (2) these
threads never blend together by true anastomosis, (3) there-
fore the threads can never be bound together by mem-
branous dilatations ; (4) the granules in the pseudopods are
“ loops which oscillate along the surface of the threads under
the appearance of granules.” Let us now compare these
separate assertions with his latest exhaustive treatise, which
was to establish them in every point.

(1) The ramification of the pseudopods. — According to
Reichert’s former assertions this never occurs ; and the appa-
rent ramification arises “from the dissolution and loosening
of a bundle of pseudopods.” Now he asserts the contrary
i.e., that ramification of the pseudopods really occurs, which
is caused by a contractile motion !

(2) The anastomosis of the pseudopods. — According to
Reichert’s former assertions this never occurs, and the appa-
rent union is caused by the superposition of free threads or
apparent branches. Now he asserts the contrary, i.e., that
true anastomosis occurs in the pseudopods, since the pseudo-
pods “ themselves grow together with similar portions in a
short time under the appearance of uniting !”

(3) The flattened dilatation of the pseudopods. — According
to Reichert’s former assertions this never occurs, and the ap-
parent formation of web-like sarcode dilatations of the anasto-
mosing pseudopods arises from “ the pseudopods crossing at
an acute angle and nearing each other, or, more properly,
bundles of pseudopods separated into their different threads
being moved from their place and squeezed together at the
angle under the appearance of a layer.” Now he asserts the
contrary, i.e., that true dilatations occur in the pseudopods,
and that “the web-like expansions of the contractile substance
in the sarcode-net become interposed from a portion of the
contractile substance from which pseudopods are developed,
maintaining its connection with the remaining portion of
the contractile outer layer only by a fine pseudopod-like
thread !”

(4) The granular movements of the pseudopods. — According
to Reichert’s former assertions no granules whatever exist in
the sarcode, and the apparent granules are “ oscillating loops
of the threads !” Now he asserts the contrary, that actual
granules are present besides the apparent ones, and that these
last are “ very small, wart-like elevations of the contractile
substance.”

227

What Max Schultze prophesied in 1866 has now actually
been verified by Reichert’s having made the discovery of the
true granules, which have been known to all observers of the
Rhizopoda for more than thirty years !

As we have seen, Reichert’s latest representations are, in
all essential points, the direct opposite of his former asser-
tions. But this does not prevent him from naively asserting,
at the commencement of his treatise, that he now brings for-
ward the complete proofs for his purpose, and that he has
thereby “ thoroughly annihilated the sarcode theory which
has weighed on many distinguished naturalists like a moun-
tain for years.” Indeed, one does not know at what to be
most amazed in this treatise ; whether at the inconceivable
ignorance of a mass of the oldest discovered and most univer-
sally known facts, or at the misrepresentation and perversion
of the plainest circumstances, or at the astonishing sophistry
with which the case in dispute is set aside, and with which
the author assumes to have finally discovered the facts Avhich
he formerly denied with the greatest obstinacy, in opposition
to all other observers. Nothing is, perhaps, more remark-
able in the inductive logical conclusion of Reichert than that
his new observations, with which he pretends to annihilate
the sarcode theory (but actually adopts it !),are founded on a
single monothalamium ( Gromia oviformis ), and that he wishes
to consider proved by that alone the similar structure of all the
Polythalamia ! It would be just as logical if Reichert asserted
that all the Polythalamia possess a one-chambered (not many-
chambered) shell, for Gromia (a monothalamium) manifestly
possesses a one-chambered shell ! We might as well, and
Avith equal justice, assert that the placenta is absent in all
placental mammals; for the marsupials have no placenta, and
yet are mammals too !

It Avould not be Avorth while to devote so many lines here
to Reichert’s latest production if tAvo circumstances did not
demand this energetic protest.

After Reichert perceived Avhat a mess he had got into by
his first publications on the sarcode movement, &c., he tried
to get out of it by giving a report of Avhat others had long
since brought forAvard, under neAv and most obscure distor-
tions, and in expressions difficult to understand, and then
vaunted it as his neAv discovery. He Avas not afraid, for in-
stance, to quote Johannes Muller, even in one of the first
sentences, as a Avitness for his representations (p. 151),
although the observations and views of Johannes Muller on
the sarcode-bodies of the Polythalamia and Radiolaria noto-

228

riously agree perfectly with those of all other authors since
Dujardin.

The second point against which decided protest must, in
limine, be made is Reichert’s representation of the “sarcode-
bodies ” of the Hydromedusse, especially of the hy droid
polypes. After Reichert had suffered such lamentable
shipwreck with his investigations in the direction of the Rhi-
zopoda, he fled to the Hydromedusoe, and tried to cause
similar confusion here. It sounds almost incredible that
Reichert is not even in the position to understand the sim-
plest and longest known and most easily demonstrated struc-
tures, such, for example, as the two epithelial forms of in-
tegument (ectoderm and entoderm), or the development of the
urticating capsules in the epithelial cells. But this does not
hinder him from declaring, even on the second page of his in-
vestigations on “Campanularise, Sertulariae, and Hydroidae,”
that all previous knowledge of the hydroid organism was
very erroneous, and from pronouncing the following sentence
hy reason of his incredibly superficial examination of some
hydroid polypes : “ Neither the correspondence in the simple
structure of the hollow body of the organism, and perhaps
still less the similar external habit, and a similar formation of
the individual stems, allow the classes of animals placed by
Leuckart among the Coelenterata to be retained in their
present condition under such circumstances.” Reichert very
wisely appends the following sentence : “ I must postpone
tho attempt to define the boundaries between which the
separation of these groups of animals is apparently to be
effected.”

The further course of Reichert’s Coelenterata studies can
be predicated from this pretty beginning, and from the
analogy of his Polythalamia studies. The ‘ Monatsbe-
richte ’ and ‘ Abhandlungen’ of the Academy of Berlin
will contain a series of papers, in which all previous obser-
vers of the Coelenterata will be described as incompetent
observers who have fallen into the grossest errors, “ whose
fancy has been misled by wonderful microscopic illusions.”
Then Reichert will show how everything is quite different to
what was previously supposed, but, gradually approaching the
representations just disputed by him by dark and hidden
twistings and turnings, he will then finally reproduce
them in the new form of his happy individual modes of ex-
pression.

As Reichert required six years for this course of com-
prehension in the Polythalamia, he will probably need at
least twelve years in the Coelenterata (whose true structure

229

is much more universally known), in order finally to bring the
" errors ” of other naturalists to market as his discoveries. If
Reichert should live to the year 18S0, for the good of science,
he would then probably arrive at the present already univer-
sally known facts of the structure of the Coelenterata. I have
continually busied myself, as it happens, for the last few
years, with the examination of the finer structure of the
Hydromedusae, and am therefore justified in asserting that
nearly all Reichert’s new statements as to the structure of the
Hydroidae are just as confused, erroneous, and worthless as his
former statements as regards the structure of the Polythalamia.

One will forgive the acrimony of this controversy and excuse
it, owing to the just anger which I must experience as the
grateful pupil and ardent admirer of the great Johannes
Muller, when I think of these extravagances of his imme-
diate successor. The anatomical chair of the University of
Berlin was raised during a quarter of a century above all
others by Johannes Muller, and as Muller terminated the
long series of his illustrious works with the Rhizopoda,
Reichert probably thought he must begin where his great pre-
decessor had left off, and was apparently actuated by the
hope at once to surpass him ! How far he has succeeded
in this is manifest to all who know the literature which
contains it, and have examined the objects themselves in
nature.

The Protoplasm-theory, which I consider as one of the
first and most important foundations of a truly monistic, i. e.,
mechano-causal knowledge of organic nature, may be consi-
dered as newly confirmed and strengthened by this last turn
in its history. The attacks of its opponent, threatening annihi-
lation, are gradually converted by the same man into mis-
representations, and finally into confirmations. But for the
true nature of the Sarcode as a truly simple and structure-
less “ life-material,” the natural history of the previously
described Monera may furnish further direct proofs.

IV. The Limits of the Protista.

Since Charles Darwin revived the theory of descent
originated by Jean Lamarck and Wolfgang Goethe from
the oblivion of half a century to fresh life, and placed it
by his theory of natural selection on an unassailable causal-
mechanic foundation, the problem of systematic arrange-
ment has become a very different and immeasurably higher
one. Hitherto, this was a scientific game in the hands

230

of most zoologists and botanists, which amused itself with
the affinities in form of similar natural bodies, without
suspecting their real blood-relationship thus indicated. The
chief employment of most systematising naturalists consisted
of endless and utterly useless controversies on the question
as to whether this or that animal or vegetable form was a
“good” or a “bad species,” a subspecies or variety, a sub-
genus or genus, without its occurring to these over-precise
savans to explain to themselves previously the limits and
object of these ideas. But now, on the other hand, when the
untenability of these as absolute ideas, and their proper im-
portance as relative ideas, are recognised, when the “ acting
cause” of variation of form is discovered in “blood-relation-
ship,” the by far higher, more difficult and more interesting
problem encounters us, that of fixing by the discovery of the
“natural system” the pedigree and the relations of descent
of allied groups hypothetically the nearest related.

This task nowhere encounters more difficulty than in the
lowest and meanest organisms. It is comparatively easy to
fix the pedigree of vertebrate animals with apuroximate cer-
tainty, when compared with the extraordinary difficulties
which encounter us in the pedigree of the so-called Protozoa.
While everywhere there definite highly and many-sided
differentiated systems of organs present firm hold-points,
here there are no such systems of organs present. While a
number of classes and orders have long been there recognised
as truly natural groups, here this can be maintained of but
few groups. There is a consistent and rich material collected
by the experience of centuries ; here loose collections of
isolated facts have become known for barely two decades.
No wonder therefore if the most horrible confusion prevails
in the arrangement of these very low organisms, and every-
body makes a system for himself.

I have made the attempt in my ‘ General Morphology’ to
throw some light upon this systematic chaos, by placing, as a
special division between true animals and true plants, all
those doubtful organisms of the lowest rank which display
no decided affinities nearer to one side than to the other, or
which possess animal and vegetable characters united and
mixed in such a manner that, since their discovery, an inter-
minable controversy about their position in the animal or in
the vegetable kingdom has continued. Manifestly this con-
troversy becomes reduced to the smallest compass if the dis-
putable and doubtful intermediate forms are separated for the
present (although only provisionally) both from the true
animals and from the true plants, and united in a special

231

organic “ kingdom.” Thereby we obtain the advantage of
being able to distinguish both true animals and true plants
by a clear and sharp definition, and, on the other hand, a
special proportion of attention is attracted to the very low
organisms hitherto so much neglected, and yet so extremely
important. I have called this boundary kingdom interme-
diate between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and
connecting both, the Protista (‘ Gen. Morphol./ vol. I, p.
203 ; vol II, p. xx, p. 403).

I have, of course, by this separation of the Protista from
plants on the one side, and from animals on the" other, by
no means wished to establish an absolute and lasting wall
of separation between these three organic kingdoms. Rather,
I consider it very probable that animals as well as plants
have derived their origin from the Protista, and in fact from
the simplest Protista, the Monera (1. c. vol. II, p. xx, p.
403, pi. 1). But provisionally I consider it convenient on
practical grounds to separate the Protista in the system of
nature entirely from animals as well as from plants.

In the systematic introduction to my ‘ Universal Develop-
ment-history,’ I have distinguished the following eight natural
groups or “stocks” (Phyla) of the Protista.

I. Monera.

1. Gymnomonera (Protogenes, Protamceba, &c.).

2. Lepomonera (Protomonas, Vampyrella, &c.).

II. Protoplasta.

1. Gymnamoebse (Autamoeba, Petalopus, Nuclearia, &c.).

2. Lepamcebae (Arcella, Difflugia, Euglypha, &c.)

3. Gregarinae (Monocystidea and Polycystidea).

III. Diatomaceje.

IV. Flagellata.

1. Nudiflagelata (Euglena, Spondylomorum, &c.).

2. Cilioflagellata (Peridinium, Ceratium, &c.).

V. Myxoaiycetes.

VI. Noctiluc.®.

232

VII. Rhizopoda.

1. Acyttaria (Monothalamia and Polythalamia) .

2. Heliozoa ( Actinospheerium Eichhornii).

3. Radiolaria (Monocyttaria and Polycyttaria).

"V III. Spongije.

1. Autospongiae.

2. Petrospongiae.

Since the separation of these eight groups of Protista, a
new group of organisms of the lowest class has become
known, which cannot be placed in any of these eight divisions
without violence, and which, like the latter, exhibits such a
combination of animal and vegetable characters, that they
can just as little be recognised as true plants as true animals.
These are the remarkable Labyrinthulea ( Labyrinthula vitel-
lina, L. macrocystis ) which were discovered in the harbour
of Odessa1 by Cienkowski, to •whom the natural history of
the Protista is so much indebted. At all events, these
must be provisionally considered as an entirely separate
group of Protista.

(To be continued.)

On Raphides, Sph^eraphides, and Crystal Prisms ; espe-
cially as to how and where they may be easiest found and
discriminated. By George Gulliver, F.R.S.

What are the distinctive characters of raphides, sphae-
raphides, and crystal prisms ? How may they be surest and
easiest found, and in what common plants ? Is not the
occurrence of raphides very inconstant, seeing that either
their presence or absence in one and the same plant is alter-
nately affirmed and denied, and that they are not always
found in those very species or classes, such as the “ tulip-
bulb ” and “ monocyteledons generally,” in which we are
directed to look for them ?

Such questions as these so often arise that the answers now
proposed thereto, with a few incidental observations on the
significance or use of plant-crystals, may prove convenient
and useful to the readers of the 4 Quarterly Journal of Micro-

1 ‘ Arcliiv fur Mikrosk. Anat.,’ vol. iii, ] 867, p. 2 74, Taf. xv — xvii.

ERRATA IN MR. GULLIVER’S MEMOIR.

Page 233, line 8, for our plant-cells, read plant-cells.

233, „ 41, for nearly chemical, read merely chemical.

234, „ 6 ,for these transverse slices, read thin transverse slices.

234, „ 12, for our own fields, read our fields.

235, „ 36, for ‘ Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1866, read ‘ Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1863.
235, „ 36, for deep fragments, read dead fragments.

Passim, for Briony, read Bryony.

Page 237, line 5, for Our Endogens are more affluent than our EVidogens in
raphides, read Our Endogens are more affluent than our
Exogens in raphides.

„ 237, „ 7, for Grape, Hyacinth, &c., read Grape-hyacinth.

„ 239, „ 16, for tabular crystals, read tabular crystals.

Passim, /or Allies;, read Allieae.

Page 240, line 4 ,for Sponges, read Spurges.

To Binder. — Insert between pages 232 and 233.

233

scopical Science.’ And this the more so, as it is quite true
that vague statements and perplexing errors concerning
raphides are too prevalent even in our best and latest books
on the microscope ; while the importance of these crystals
as truly constant and natural characters in systematic
botany has neither been realised nor recognised in our
floras.

Indeed, the whole question of the value of our plant-cells
as diagnostic characters of nearly allied orders and species
has been so strangely neglected that attention has been again
very judiciously directed to it by the editors of this Journal.
At present we have only detached and fragmentary materials
to the purpose ; and even these are regularly ignored by the
most excellent systematists, native and foreign; although many
separate observations, such as those by Hoffmann and Weddell
on Lemna and Wolffia, and my o^vn on raphides and on the
remarkable differences between either the tissue-cells or the
pollen-grains of distinct species of one and the same genus,
have clearly proved the importance of such characters. A
more general conviction to the same effect can hardly fail to
follow further and exact inquiries in this direction ; and it
has been truly remarked by Dr. Lankester1 that “ the bio-
graphy of plants has yet to be written, microscope in hand,
for, until we have recorded the minute details of the cell-life
of each species, we shall not be in a position to arrive at the
laws which govern the life of the vegetable kingdom.” And
how, it may be added, without such observation can we ever
expect to comprehend and realise all those mysterious plans
and specialties by which nature has marked, for our in-
struction, her own affinities and contrasts in aHied groups
of that kingdom ?

Thus raphides are far from being mere microscopic
curiosities. Neither are they “ products of disease like stony
concretions in animals,” nor simply “ inorganic crystals in
organized nature.” On the contrary, raphides are a constant
and intrinsic result of the healthy cell-life of certain plants,
occurring within and as part and parcel of a living cell,
having its definite boundary, the protoplasm or cell-sap,
immediately enclosing the crystals, and withal forming a
beautiful organism as distinct as a pollen-grain or blood-cell
from any product nearly chemical.

The different crystals named at the head of this paper are
as remarkable for their beauty as for the facility and certainly
with which they may be found and distinguished, displayed,
and preserved. To find them nothing more is required than to
1 ‘ Quart. Journ. Micros. Science,’ Oct. 1863, and Jan., 1866.

234

examine, under an achromatic object-glass of half an inch
focal length, fine longitudinal sections of the plant-tissue, or
fragments of it mashed by the point of a penknife in a drop
of water, on the object-plate. Deeper magnifying powers,
of course, will be needful for further research. Sphaerapliides
are often best seen in these transverse slices of the stem and
leaves ; and the sphseraphid tissue in delicate films either
cut or torn off lengthwise.

And now we may proceed to explanations in due order of
the remaining questions, and for this purpose suitable ex-
amples will he selected from the most familiar plants of our
own fields and gardens, and from common officinal things.
More extensive and particular details may he found, espe-
cially as regards measurements, composition, etymologies,
and the distribution of raphides in the Flora of Britain and
of the world, in my papers published elsewhere.1

1. Raphides. — These are slender needle-like crystals,
with rounded, smooth shafts, vanishing at each end to a
point, from about ten to fifty or more lying parallel together so
as to form a bundle which partially fills a cell or intercellular
space. When undisturbed, this bundle lies along its cell,
but the raphides are often so easily displaced by slight
pressure on the object-plate, that either all or part of them
cross the cell in various directions, sometimes gravitating to
one of its ends, and occasionally escaping quickly from one
or both of them. In this last case they have been described
as “ biforines ” by the continental writers. Thus, though
the raphides lie close together in each bundle, their connection
with each other is really as loose as that between a packet
of sewing-needles, and, accordingly, when these crystals are
first shown to a novice, their likeness to a lot of needles is
sure to be noticed. The raphis-cell is commonly very
distinct, often oval and tumid ; it contains a lot of viscid or

1 “On Raphides,” &c., various numbers of ‘Annals of Natural History,’
1861-1865 ; ‘ Seemann’s Journal of Botany,’ March, 1S64 ; ‘Quart.

Journal Micros. Science,’ January, 1864; “Raphides as Natural Cha-
racters,” in the ‘ British Flora,’ ibid., January, 1866; and in the “Flora of
the World, with Epitome of my former Observations,” ‘Popular Science
Review,’ October, 1865 ; “Cells and Raphides of Duckweeds and Exra-
phidian Character of Wolffia,” with figures, ‘Seemann’s Journ. Bot.,’ Dec.,
1866, and January, 1869 ; “Pith-Cells of Rushes,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’
plate vii, figs. 13 and 14, December, 1863 ; “ Vegetable Fibrin and Latex,”
ibid., Marcli, 1862 ; “ Tissue-Cells and Spores of Hymenophylleae,” with
figures,?'^., August and October, 1863, and ‘Seemann’s Journ. Bot,’
October, 1863; “Pollen-Grains,” ‘Annals Nat. Hist.,’ July, 1865; “See-
mann’s Journ. Bot.,’ with figures, September, 1866; ‘Popular Science Re-
view,’ July, 1868.

235

semifluid and pale protoplasm, in the midst of which lies the
bundle of raphides ; the cell is frequently much elongated,
and occasionally pointed at both ends, and regularly, but
not always, differs in its shape and larger size from the
neighbouring tissue-cells. Sometimes, especially in old parts
of the plant, though the bundle of raphides is plainly seen
in a space thus distinct, it is difficult or impossible to de-
monstrate the existence of a proper cell-wall or other
boundary than that which is formed by the outsides of a
a number of the contiguous tissue-cells, and occasionally,1
as may be seen, in the pulp of ripe fruits and other such
parts, the crystals occurred without any apparent cell or
boundary- whatever.

Thus, restricting the term raphides, there will be no like-
lihood of applying it incorrectly. The greatest confusion
has long since prevailed, and still prevails, from the loose
application of this term to several different forms of plant-
crystals. And with this understanding, let us proceed to
notices of such raphis-bearing plants as are everywhere
common.

Raphides among our native Exogens are confined, as far
as is at present known, to the three orders — Galiaceae,
Balsaminacea?, and Onagracese. The raphides are small in
Galiacea), larger and well seen in Onagracese, both British
and foreign ; and as the Willow Herbs are plentiful in every
ditch or road-side, and numbers of exotic species of this order
are grown in the humblest gardens, while Balsams are fami-
liar pets both in the cottage and greenhouse, some part or
other of plants of these two orders are ever at hand for
examination. The Evening Primrose answers the purpose
very well ; so do Clarkia, Eucharidium, Godetia, and that
pretty native species, the Enchanter’s Nightshade. The
Fuchsias are great raphis-bearers, and good subjects for the
examination of the raphides in the berry-pulp and in the
ovule-coat and placenta, as figured by me on page 366 of the
‘Annals of Natural History ’ for November, 1866. Of the
Onagraceae, even, the seed-leaves during the genial season,
and deep fragments of the stems and leaves, as well as parts
still alive underground, in winter, may be easily known by
their raphides from plants of other and closely allied
orders.

So, too, may the Marvel of Peru and the Mesembry--
anthemums, in which raphides are very plentiful, and by
which character simply Mesembryanthemums may be also
clearly distinguished from other thick-leaved plants. Indeed,

I have long been in the habit of thus distinguishing Cras-

VOL. IX. NEW SER. Q

23G

suleae from Mesembryaceae — and here, too, this diagnosis
holds good, from the very cradle to the grave of the species.
Experiments to this end may be easily repeated on old or
dead plants and on seedlings of the many Mesembryan-
themums and Sedums grown in pots ; and when together in
the same pot, the evidence will be quite conclusive that the
raphides are produced in one of the two plants, and not in
the other, though both are under the very same conditions of
soil and climate ; in fact, all my experiments and observa-
tions are to the effect that no raphis-bearing species can
grow and flourish without producing raphides, while the
raphidian organism cannot be formed under any circumstances
in other plants.

Of our Exogenous trees and shrubs, I know not a single
raphis-bearer, though other crystals are common in their
plants generally, and raphides are found in many exotic
trees and shrubs of this class ; facts thus far noteworthy and
deserving of further inquiry. Boih raphides and sphaera-
phides are plentiful in Vitaceae, of which either the Grape
Vine or American Creeper may be had at any time for
examination, though the leaves, young shoots, ovaries, and
ripe fruit are in some respects best for the purpose.

Our Dictyogens abound in raphides, as may be well seen
in the Black Briony and Herb Paris ; and so does the Trillium
of the gardens. Of Tamus the raphides appear loose and
destitute of a cell in the ripe berry-pulp, and in the root-
stock; this root is like a little Yam, and the officinal Yams,
so commonly used as food in the \Yest Indies, and the New
Chinese Yam ( Dioscorca Batatas), of late years vainly ad-
vertised and cultivated as a substitute for the potato in
England, are both also Dictyogens affording raphides. At
Covent Garden different things are exposed for sale, as Yams,
one of which belongs to the exraphidian order Convolvulacese.
In Paris quadrifolia the raphis-cells are elongated, pointed
at the ends, and much larger than the contained raphides, as
may be well seen through the tissues of the perianth-seg-
ments. Both this and Tamus are good plants for these
examinations ; and in some districts, as the clayey parts of
Kent, the scarlet berries of the Black Briony adorn the
hedges during the autumnal and winter months. A botani-
cal friend was so much disappointed at not finding raphides
in “ some scarlet berries of Briony” that he produced the
fruit for my correction ; but it soon appeared that he had
only got the Red Briony, a plant of the Exogenous order
Cucurbitaceae, and which I have always described as ex-
raphidian. He might as well have searched for raphides in

237

hips and haws. The Sarsaparilla of the shops affords ra-
phides ; but not so the North American or false Sarsaparilla,
which is one of the Araliaceae abounding in spheeraphides,
but devoid of raphides.

Our Endogens are far more affluent than our Endogens in
raphides. They are plentiful throughout the Blue Bell,
Grape, Hyacinth, and Star of Bethlehem, and may be well
seen in the ovule-coat of this last plant. Beautiful, too, they
are, with their large, pale, soft cells, in the Cookoo-pint and
other Araceae, and especially in the berries of these plants, as
shown by Fig. 3, p. 366, of the £ Annals of Natural History’
for November, 1863. Under slight pressure the bundle of
raphides breaks up, so that they lie in different dhections
within the cell, often gravitating towards one end, sometimes
escaping thence, and occasionally in a very remarkable
manner from both ends. These “ biforines” are well seen in
Colocasia ; Richardia and Caladium are also common green-
house plants of the order full of raphides. Of the Duck-
weeds, Lemna minor and L. trisulca abound in raphides,
while they are comparatively scanty in L. polyrrhiza and L.
gibba, and are totally wanting in AVolffia, as shown in my
figures of the cells of Lemna and Wolffia, in ‘ Seemann’s
Journal of Botany’ for December, 1866, and January, 1869,
where, too, the bundle of raphides of a mature leaf of L.
trisulca appears destitute of a proper cell-wall, the boundary
of the space being formed merely by the outer wall of the
contiguous tissue-cells. In Pistia Stratiotes, or tropical
Duckweed, both raphides and sphaeraphides occur ; and this
plant may be had of Mr. Kennedy, at Covent Garden. The
English Orchidaceae abound in raphides, and it is remark-
able that the illustrious Robert Brown, who only noticed
them in this order, gave such a true description of the shape
of these crystals as distinguished them clearly from crystal
prisms. Of the Lady’s Tresses the raphides are easily seen
through the semi-transparent bract-like stem-leaves ; and the
cells containing the much smaller bundles of raphides are
pretty objects both in this plant and in the Marsh Hellobo-
rine. Raphides occur in the Lily of the Valley; in Aspa-
ragus they are abundant from its root to its berry and ovule ;
and in the bulb-scales, leaves, and scape of the Daffodil.
Other Amaryllids, as the Narcissus, abound in raphides; and
in the officinal Squill they are very large and plentiful.

II. Sphjeraphides are more or less rounded forms, made
up of a congeries of crystals, many of which are prisms, often
acicular. The sphferaphides are more or less rough on the

238

surface, or even stellate, from projections there of the crys-
talline angles or tips of the prisms ; and frequently occur,
very regularly disposed, in a perfect network of cells, which
I call Sphseraphid Tissue, and a pretty one it is, engraved
in the ‘Annals of Natural History’ for September, 1863,
plate iv, fig. 13. Sometimes each of the sphaeraphides seems
to be connected by a slender pedicle to the inside of the cell-
wall, and then noticed by Continental writers as a ‘ cysto-
lith.’ Meyen, I think, originally described this organism in
Ficus ; the presence in many other allied plants of such
crystals was observed by Payen ; Weddell called them ‘ cys-
toliths,’ and insisted on their value as a diagnostic character.
Great are the merits of the brothers Quekett, who distin-
guished sphaeraphides under the name of ‘ conglomerate’
raphides, and added greatly to our knowledge of this branch
of Phytotomy. They are generally by other writers con-
founded with and simply designated as ‘ raphides/

Sphaeraphides are very common and widely diffused in
Phanerogamia, as may be easily witnessed among our Caryo-
phyllaceae, Geraniaceae, Lythraceae, Haloragaceae, Chenopo-
diaceae, Urticaceae, and a host of other British plants. The
leaves or stem of the Hop, Nettle, Pellitory of the Wall, and
manyT Goosefoot-weeds, are good plants for sphaeraphides ;
and the cystoliths may be successfully examined with the aid
of an objective of an eighth of an inch focal length in these
first three species. The leaves of the Mulberry will also
answer this purpose ; and the sphaeraphides are pretty in the
fruit-capsule of the Elm, as well as in many parts of the
Sandworts, Spurrey, and Saxifrages. The sepals of the
Loosestrife and Geraniums, and many other common and
native plants, afford good examples of the sphaeraphid tissue ;
but it is far more remarkable in the inner layers of the bark
of Aralia spinosa, a North American shrub, long and Avell
known on our lawns.

And indeed sphaeraphides are much larger, forming even a
weighty grit, in many exotic species, as is notorious in Cac-
taceae. Magnificent sphaeraphides are those of the ‘ Prickly
Pear/ often for sale at the fruiterers ; and they are well seen,
though smaller, in the petioles of the Passion Flowers,
throughout the potherb called New Zealand Spinach, and in
the North American or false Sarsaparilla ( Aralia nudicau/is)
of the shops.

III. Crystal Prisms are acicular forms with well-marked
faces and angles both on the shafts and tips. These prisms
neither occur in bundles, nor loosely in a cell or other space.

239

but are closely imbedded in the plant-tissue, either singly or
two or three together ; in the last case often united side by
side, as if by partial fusion of their shafts, and seldom easily
separable from each other. They are commonly much larger,
and occasionally smaller, than raphides ; but, however small
the crystal prisms may be, they are easily distinguishable by
the characters above specified from raphides, and yet these
two different kinds of crystals, as well as sphaeraphides, are
still commonly confounded together under this lastname, and
perpetual mistakes and perplexities occur accordingly.

Among our Exogens good examples of crystal prisms must
be rare. They are small, but distinct when highly mag-
nified, in the ovary-coat of many Composite, as the Thistles,
Saw-wort, and Knapweed, and somewhat larger in the
Milk-Thistle. These little prisms must not be confounded
with the still smaller, but square, cuboid, tubular, lozenge-
like, and other forms, common in these plants, and, indeed,
throughout some of the tissues of the whole Phanerogamia.
Certain closely allied plants may be easily and surely distin-
guished by one or other of them and the crystal prisms.
Thus, while the shape of the prisms in the ovary-coat of
Centaurea nigra is very distinct, and their length ToVoth of
•an inch, with a thickness of ■5-4‘o6th, in the same part of C.
ragusina and C. Scabiosa they are not thus elongated, but
appear more or less square, cubical, or lozenge-shaped, and
about g-jig-th of an inch in diameter. But magnificent
crystal prisms are afforded by many exotic Exogens, of which
excellent examples occur in the common officinal barks of
Quillaja and Guaiacum.

Such, too, are frequent in Endogens, as the old garden
favourite Iris Germanica, and many other Iridacese, including
the Orris Root of the shops. In Fourcroya, an Amaryllid,
the crystal prisms are still more remarkable. They some-
times appear with raphides in one and the same plant, as
may be witnessed in other Amaryllids, as well as in certain
Orchids and more orders. All the large crystal prisms are
admirably adapted for experiments with polarized light. The
bulb-scales of the Onion, Shallot, Garlick, and Leek, abound
in smaller prisms, many crossing each other, and also affording
pretty objects for the polariscope ; but I have never seen true
raphides in the Allicae.

IV. Conflicting Statements. — Remarkable is the po-
tency of error. Here it has arisen and prevailed partly from
insufficient observations, but chiefly, as before noticed, from
the general practice of confounding several distinct kinds of

240

plant-crystals under the single term of raphides. Very likely
those so early mentioned by Rafn in Euphorbiaceae were
only the starch-rods which I have described in the latex of
the British Sponges (‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ March, 1862).
Other observers, truly finding either crystal prisms or ra-
phides in many bulb-scales, by some mistake mentioned the
Tulip ; whereas, though either crystal prisms or raphides
occur in the bulbs or their scales of numerous common En-
dogens, these crystals are not regularly present in any part
of the Tulip, nor are the Allies: raphis-bearing plants, though
we have seen how plentiful in the bulb-scales of this family
are crystal prisms. And as to such statements, in books on
the microscope, that “ Monocotyledons generally” abound in
raphides, and that “ there are few of the higher plants in
which they are not found,” it is obvious that many different
kinds of crystals must have been, as they too often still are,
confounded under the one term, and that the observations are
otherwise vague or loosely recorded. Though, as we have
seen, raphides are abundant in our Monocotyledons, there
are immense sections of this class nearly or quite devoid of
them, and by no means rich in other crystals. Had the ob-
servers duly distinguished the different forms of crystals, and
instead of examining the very common raphis-bearing Mono-
cotyledons, confined their attention to the Grasses, Sedges,
Rushes, Pondweeds, Water Plantains, Hydrocharids, and
Water Starworts, the regular deficiency of raphides in such
a great proportion of the class would have been duly dis-
covered and recorded. I have for years vainly searched
these abundant and familiar plants for raphides, which are
always present in other equally common species, growing in
the very same places ; in short, always proving such facts as
raphis-bearing Duckweed and exraphidian Water Starwort
close together in the pool, raphis-bearing Orchids and ex-
raphidian Grasses with their roots intermingled in the
field.

V. Use of Plant-Crystals. — Although the precise use
of these crystals in the vegetable economy may be obscure,
.it is plain that whatever is constant in the plant must be
important, and by no means necessarily of little importance
because of such obscurity. Poor Charlotte Smith, who loved
plants so well and truly, sung of them —

“ All are for use, for health, for pleasure given,

All speak in various ways the bounteous hand of heaven.”

And when wc consider how commonly plant-crystals are

2A1

composed of phosphate or oxalate of lime, or some other
compound of this earth, its value in the growth or nutrition
of animals and vegetables, and that nature has established in
certain plants a laboratory or storehouse of such calcareous
salts, we get a glimpse of the utility of these crystals. They
are plentiful in many parts which form the food of birds and
mammalia, and medicine or food for man, and of which exact
examples might be given in Thistle-seed and Duckweed, and
numerous other plants. The well-known efficacy of Sarsa-
parilla in certain cachexies is probably in great part due to
the phosphate of lime composing the raphides so plentiful
in this medicine, by which the quality of the officinal sam-
ples of it may be tested, and its value as a remedy in the
.Rickets of children suggested (‘Ann. Nat Hist.,’ June,
1864, p. 510). In like manner the crystal prisms of Guaia-
cum and Quillai and the raphides of Squill are noteworthy
tests of the genuineness of those drugs, while we have
already proved the use of raphides as diagnostics in sys-
tematic botany. Nor will any one who may pursue the in-
quiiy fail to admire and take pleasure in the objects. And
when, by the periodic shedding of the leaves, the surplus
crystals are restored, it is to fertilise the bounteous earth ;
and withal, good reason appears why the gardener husbands
decayed leaves for his composts, and why such plants as
abound most in raphides, as do the 'Willow Herbs, Fuchsias,
and Duckweeds, should be especially valuable in this
respect.

And now it is hoped that a sufficiently clear account has
been given of Haphides, Sphseraphides, and Crystal Prisms,
to enable even the merest novice easily and surely to find
and discriminate these different plant-crystals, and at any
season, either in town or country, while there can he no
doubt that such observations -would afford an elegant and
instructive addition to rural amusements. Thus, too, without
application to dealers, the number of interesting and beautiful
microscopic objects might be largely and very readily in-
creased ; and the inquiry, if carefully and diligently' pursued
to its legitimate conclusion, could hardly fail to extend the
bounds of botanical science.

242

Immersion Objectives and Test-objects. By John
Mayall, Jun., F.R.M.S., &c.

(Read before the Royal Microscopical Society, October 14, 1S68.)

The presentation of Dr. Woodward’s photographs1 of
Nobert’s Nineteen-band Test-plate, brought to the notice of
the Society by the Hon. Secretary, Mr. Jabez Hogg, affords
an opportunity of making a few remarks on their value as a
record of what has been done in America in resolving these
marvellously fine lines ; and as in my experiments 1 found
some difference in the results obtained on Nobert’s plate by
the immersion and the dry objectives, I think it will interest
the Society to be informed of these results, because the rela-
tive separating and defining power of the two systems has
not received that attention which I and many others think it
deserves.

The only way we have of verifying the accuracy of the
divisions of Nobert’s Test-lines is by counting them in a
measured space. For example: if 46 equidistant lines are
ruled in the space of To'u 0th of an inch, the interspace must
be at the rate of 90,000 to the inch, and so on. An error of
one line more or less in counting the whole of the lines on
such a band would decide the rate of the interspaces to be
either 92,000 or 88,000, instead of 90,000 to the inch.

Dr. Woodward’s photographs support an opinion given by
Mr. Wenham many years ago, that the time would come
when photography would reveal minute detail much more
palpably than it can be seen in the microscope. The reason
of this is obvious. In photography the object may be illu-
minated by highly condensed sun-light — a light producing
the intensest black shadows, and quite unendurable to
the eye — and it was with such illumination that these
photographs were obtained. They may be accepted as
showing true lines on all the bands to the fifteenth in-
clusive ; but beyond this, they serve little purpose of veri-
fication. Repeated trials on the higher bands, as shown
in the photographs, have convinced me that Dr. Wood-
ward’s counting includes or rejects such doubtful lines, that
it cannot be accepted as exact evidence of the number
of lines ruled on the plate. I think, too, that he underrates
the difficulty of counting the lines. In all the bands beyond

1 See Dr. Woodward’s paper in the ‘Journal,’ October, 1868. — Ed.

243

the twelfth, as I have seen them in the microscope, there is
great difficulty to decide on the first and last lines. Dr.
Woodward seems not to have been sure of the accuracy of
the count he made on his photograph ; for although in one
part of his paper in the current (October) number of the
Journal of this Society, he says the photograph shows the
twelfth band as resolved into thirty-seven lines, farther on he
says that forty is the real number in that band.

It cannot be supposed that all the corresponding bands on
different plates agree precisely in difficulty to resolve ; it
follows that a comparison of results obtained by two objec-
tives, each tried on a different plate, may be very deceptive ;
though when tried on the same plate their relative separating
power is at once decided.

It was only after frequent trials that I could be assured of
distinguishing readily between the appearance of the true
consecutive lines and those woolly or wavy-looking lines,
which are shown either by defective illumination or by the
want of power in the objective, but which are sometimes
believed to be imperfectly ruled lines.

With the -^th and the -pb-th by Ross, and the -g^th by Smith,
in the possession of this Society, and with a ^th, a -f^th,
a T^th, and a ^thby Powell and Lealand, all dry objectives
(not to mention others which gave similar or inferior results),
on a new nineteen-band plate, all the bands beyond the
twelfth seemed imperfect — the lines were not separated.

But with a Toth and a -p^th by Hartnack, of Paris, a -p^tli
by Merz, of Munich, and a Toth of Nobert, all immersion
objectives, straight and well-defined lines were separated as
far as the fifteenth band inclusive. In the last four bands
true consecutive lines were seen ; but they are so extremely
slightly x-uled, that the eye fails to appreciate their increased
fineness. I should expect that, if the lines in the twelfth
band were as slightly ruled as those on the last four bands,
there would be nearly the same difficulty in seeing them,
notwithstanding their wider separation. If the lines were
exposed to the incident light, without the interposition of
any reflecting surface or refracting medium, they would,
doubtless, be seen with much greater ease.

These results were the best I obtained by the dry and im-
mersion objectives with the same method of artificial illumi-
nation. Several trials with sunlight proved that the lines
were thus rendered more visible ; but the immersion objec-
tives maintained their superiority by all methods.

I can find no evidence whatever for the statement that
the resolving of Test-diatoms and Nobert’s Test-lines is

241

merely a question of angular aperture. Ross's -jVth, Smith’s
-^th, Powell and Lealand’s -jVth, and -^th dry objectives
were all of larger aperture than Merz’s T‘ffth Immersion ,
yet neither gave as good results on Surirella gemma, Frus-
tulia Saxonica, Grammataphora Subtilissima, P. Angulatum,
P. Attenuatum, P. Macrum, &c., nor on Nobert’s plate, as
Merz’s objective. Hartnack asks the question, “ Are large
apertures an advantage to the microscopist or to the optician ?”
and he frankly says that “ the disadvantages are for the
latter only.”

The advantages mainly claimed for the Immersion ob-
jectives are : — greater working distance between the object
aud objective, increase of light and superior definition and
clearness in the optical image, which image is obtained by
much simpler illuminating apparatus and with less manipu-
lative skill than that considered indispensable in using high-
power dry objectives.

It is not difficult to see that Amici’s system, of connect-
ing the objective with the cover-glass by a film of water,
very much diminishes the reflexion which necessarily takes
place on the incidence of oblique light when the dry objec-
tive is employed. The limiting angle of refraction in water
being about forty-eight degrees, it follows that, whatever is
the degree of obliquity in the incident light on the object,
the Immersion objective never has to do with rays of greater
obliquity than forty-eight degrees. To this, in great measure,
is due the greater clearness and precision of image obtained.

Continental opticians and men of science have been aware
of the merits of the Immersion system during several years
past ; and to such purpose, that knowing how little atten-
tion it has received here, they do not scruple to say that the
English no longer take the lead either as opticians or as
microscopists.

There are amateurs who make a speciality of declaring
that all Test-objects can be resolved by some wonderful pth
objective. I am told, for instance, that coarse transverse
and very fine straight longitudinal lines can easily be seen
with a |th on Surirella gemma. It is well known that a
low power will show transverse lines ; but no objective or
method that I knoAV of shows straight longitudinal lines on
this diatom. The finest images that I have seen of Suri-
rella gemma (with Hartnack’s -j^th and Nobert’s -<Ath),
do not confirm Hartnack’s opinion that the surface is a
series of elongated hexagons, similar to the drawing in his
pamphlet on “ Test-objects” (published in 1865, and copied
by Dr. Carpenter in the last edition of his work on “ The

245

Microscope”), but show it to be analogous to that of the
Grammatophora subtilissima. Surirella gemma may truly be
called a touchstone for a high-power objective. I do not think
that it has been clearly defined as yet.

Those who profess that so much can be done with ^th
objectives in resolving Test-objects must not expect higher
powers to verify the results they obtain. The whole art of
testing objectives, I imagine, is in being sufficiently critical
as to what is a fine image. The image shown of Test-objects
by a high power of fine definition is so much more elabo-
rated as at once to prove that the lower powers do not give
true definition beyond a moderate magnification. For ex-
ample, a good dth by Dallmeyer shows transverse lines on
the Grammatophora subtilissima ; whereas, with equal magni-
fication, but with power in the objective (as in Hartnack’s
-jVth) rather than in the eye-piece, these transverse lines are
seen to be the result of imperfect definition, and the surface
appears similar to the Grammatophora marina, or P. angu-
latum ; it is, however, much more difficult to resolve.

It has been said that objectives which give the best results
on Nobert’s Test-lines and on Test-diatoms necessarily give
inferior images of Podura scale. It is quite certain that the
more powerful objectives — those giving greater magnification
and definition — do not give so flattering an image of Podura
scale as is given by a good -|4h. But the fault, if anywhere,
is in the object, not in the objective. Podura scale is as fine
a test as any for a ^th, but not for the higher powers.

In conclusion, I would suggest that the Society should
improve the collection of Test-objects in its possession, and
specially that we should have one of Nobert’s new Test-
plates, so that the Fellows may try their objectives on a
standard test of this kind.

On the Identity of the White Corpuscles of the Blood
with the Salivary, Pcs, and Mucous Corpuscles. By
Joseph G. Richardson, M.D., Formerly Resident Phy-
sician at the Pennsylvania Hospital.

The nature of the nucleated corpuscles so abundant in the
saliva has long been a subject of some uncertainty, and
although they have probably, as favorite test objects for the
higher powers, been more frequently examined by microsco-
pists than almost any other constituent of the glandular
secretions, observers seem to have been generally contented

216

to accept them simply as useful measures for the capacity of
the higher objectives, and passed on without any attempts to
solve the mystery of their origin ; Kolliker, indeed, advanced
the theory that they were essentially a form of exudation-
corpuscles, but hitherto his hypothesis does not appear to
have been generally accepted by microscopists as a fixed
fact.

The following experiments, undertaken to elucidate their
constitution, were performed with the large Powell and
Lealand’s instrument, so long a denizen of the “ Microscope
Room ” in the Pennsylvania Hospital, and no doubt endeared
by constant association to many generations of “ Residents,”
as well as to myself. When it was discarded by the institu-
tion I became the purchaser, and after undergoing some re-
pairs, and having adapted to it a -^til-inch objective (made
by Mr. William Wales, of Fort Lee, N. J.), it has accom-
plished the work below described.

The salivary corpuscles examined under a power of eleven
hundred diameters present the appearance of perfect sjrheres,
varying from the —4*0-0 th. to the -ft-T-o ^-th of an inch in diameter,
each having a very transparent but beautifully defined cell-
wall of exceeding tenuity, which incloses from one to four
almost equally transparent nuclei of a circular or oval form,
whose diameters range from j-oVcrtb to ■roVoth of an inch.
These nuclei are situated sometimes centrally, but more com-
monly near one side of the corpuscle, and the cavity between
the margin and the cell-wall is generally filled with from 25 to
50 molecules, not more than -^0 0 u~oth of an inch in diameter,
whose characteristic is that of constant and rapid motion.
Some of these molecules seem to be elongated into an oval or
hour-glass form, hut the activity of their movements renders
it difficult to ascertain this with precision. In my observa-
tions these corpuscles have appeared to enlarge and become
flattened, from the pressure of the glass cover, as the stratum
of liquid beneath became thinner from marginal desiccation,
so that usually in the course of an hour or so they burst, and
discharge about one fourth of their contents, when two, three,
or more of the molecules swim away, continuing their revolv-
ing movements until they pass out of view ; the other granules
outside and those remaining within the cell become within a
very few seconds entirely stationary. If a solution of aniline
red, of the strength of one grain to the ounce of distilled
water, be allowed to penetrate at the margin of the cover, the
nuclei of the salivary corpuscle are readily stained of a bright
crimson, and are thus exhibited with beautiful distinctness ;
the dye appears, however, to exert an immediate influence

24 7

upon the movement of the molecules, as I have rarely been
able to find cells in which they continued to move after the
nuclei became at all coloured.

In examining some urine, obtained on the 8th of August,
1868, near my late residence, in Western New York, from
a patient who complained of severe pain in the kidneys and
bladder, I was surprised to find that a deposit, which
appeared to the naked eye purulent, was chiefly composed of
cells, exactly resembling in form, size, definite cell-wall, con-
tained nuclei, and actively revolving molecules, the salivary
corpuscles with which I had become so familiar ; and should
have imagined that these proceeded from an accidental adul-
teration with sputum, had I not been fortunate enough to
have ocular demonstration to the contrary when procuring
the specimen. I examined these corpuscles repeatedly in the
course of the two following days, during which the movements
of the molecules continued, but could make nothing else of
them except drawings, which I carefully preserved.

On consulting the text-books to which I had access, I found
that neither Beale, Roberts, Bird, nor Naubauer and Vogel,
in their works on the urine, mentioned cells such as those
above described, although the editors of the ‘ Micrographic
Dictionary,’ in their description of the salivary corpuscles,
state that they have seen them by myriads in the renal
secretion ; nevertheless, numerous specimens examined
during the following few months, seldom without special
scrutiny for similar bodies, afforded none, until in a deposit
occurring from urine brought me by a medical friend about
December 1st, the corpuscles I had so long been in search of
were at last recognised, and on this occasion I was able to
exhibit them to several microscopists, among others to my
friend, Dr. II. C. Wood, Jr., Prof, of Botany, in the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania.

On the 5th of December I procured a sample of urine
from a case of cystitis, which had only been passed a few
hours, and on placing it under the field of the -J-th, I found
many of the pus-globules exhibiting the amoebaform move-
ments described by Dr. Beale in his late elaborate work on
the “ Microscope in Practical Medicine no corpuscles con-
taining moving molecules were visible, but observing that
some of the pus-cells having a spherical outline were almost
opaque and only about j-oVoth °f an inch in diameter, it
occurred to me that they were perhaps only contracted by
the exosmose of their fluid contents into the surrounding
denser medium, and the idea suggested itself to try the
effect of diminishing the specific gravity of the urine by the

248

addition of water. Under this treatment I found that the
cells which had been exhibiting amcebaform movements,
soon assumed a spherical shape, rapidly enlarged until they
reached the diameter of about — Vo-th of an inch, when the
contained molecules began to revolve, and ere long took upon
themselves the extremely rapid and confused movements
which I had twice before seen in cells occurring in urine, and
hundreds of times in the salivary corpuscles ; the action of
aniline solution rendered beautifully distinct, definite nuclei
similar to those found in the salivary bodies.

The opportunity of corroborating the interesting and re-
markable researches of Dr. Cohnheim, of Berlin, on the
identity of the pus- and white blood-corpuscles thus obviously
presenting itself, I proceeded with the following experiments.
Drawing a drop of blood from the tip of my finger upon a
“ growing slide,” I covered it with thin glass and placed it
upon the stage of the microscope. After finding a white
blood-corpuscle showing well-marked granules, I raised the
objective, and arranged a fine filament of thread from the
reservoir filled with fresh water to the upper edge of the
cover, and a fragment of wet paper to the lower, according
to the usual method for securing a constant current beneath
the thin glass. On depressing the body of the instrument,
and bringing the corpuscle again into view, I found it still
adhering to the surface of the cover, notwithstanding the
torrent of red globules hurrying over the field, and as these
became paler and less distinct by reason of the diminished
density of the serum, the white cell first gradually expanded
and displayed its delicate Avail with tAvo rounded nuclei, then,
after acquiring the magnitude of about T7'6-5th of an inch, it
exhibited the rapid and incessant movement of its contained
molecules, and finally, when its diameter reached about
-prVoth of an inch, it burst suddenly, discharging a portion
of its contents, AA’hose outbreak resembled that of a swarm of
bees from a hive, and some particles of which, actively revolv-
ing as they Avent, SAvam off to the confines of the field. On
repeating the observation and alloAving some of the aniline
solution to floAV in Avith the water after the first feAv minutes,
the nuclei were strongly stained and rendered beautifully
distinct, although the movement of the molecules promptly
ceased, in this respect as in all the others showing a precise
identity with the reactions afforded by the pus- and the sali-
vary corpuscles, as above described. It should be noted that
a certain variable proportion of the Avhite cells of the blood
thus treated exhibited no moving molecules, and apparently
consisted solely of nucleus and cell-wall.

249

It is worthy of remark that this experiment amply demon-
strates the inestimable advantages of high objectives (which
some even yet pretend to doubt), for the remarkable move-
ment of the contained molecules seems to have escaped the
attention of Prof. Virchow, the great author of f The Cellular
Pathology,’ himself (vide p. 181, Chance’s translation, 1863).
Although the observation was first made with the aid of a
-jL-th, yet afterwards, knowing exactly what to look for, I had
little difficulty in demonstrating to various gentlemen the
revolving molecules thus brought into view with powers as
low as the -ith inch.

A portion of fetid pus from an abscess, and a specimen of
mucus from the nasal fossa, under a like treatment, gave
similar results, which did not materially vary in numerous
trials.

Tracing now the white blood-corpuscle from its condition
of irregular outline and amcebaform movement, as observed
in serum and in heavy urine, when the circumambient fluid
approaches the density of 1028, through its rounded form
M'ith slightly more distinct nuclei, in the liquor puris, and in
urine of lower specific gravity, we find that immersed in a
rarer liquid, approximating to the mean density of the saliva
(1005), it has an accurately spherical outline, is more than
twice the magnitude, and contains a number of minute
actively moving molecules, thus exactly resembling in all
sensible characters the true salivary corpuscle ; and it there-
fore seems reasonably certain that the blood, under the
appointed nervous influence, congesting the buccal mucous
membrane and associated glands, moves slowly enough
through their capillaries to allow some of its white globules
to penetrate the walls of the vessels, as they are said to do
those of the frog’s mesentery in Cohnheim’s experiment
(Virchow, ‘Archiv,’ Band 40, S. 38, u. s. w.), which, under
the influence of the rarer saliva, expanding them and setting
free to move their contained molecules, constitute the bodies
so long known to histologists as the corpuscles of the salivary
fluid.

Dr. Lionel Beale, in his work on the ‘ Microscope in Prac-
tical Medicine,’ remarks in reference to the examination of
the saliva — “ In the somewhat viscid matter of which the
salivary corpuscle is composed, are multitudes of highly
refracting particles in incessant motion. The nature of these
particles is extremely doubtful. They look very like the
germs of bacteria, and it is possible they may be of this
nature.” If the hypothesis thus guardedly indorsed by the
celebrated English microscopist be correct, it seems not im-

250

probable that the white corpuscles, either in the capillaries
or lymphatic glands, collect during their amcebaform move-
ments, those germs of bacteria, which my own experiments
(‘American Journal of the Medical Sciences,’ July, 1868) in-
dicate always exist in the blood to a greater or less amount.
And further, it appears not impossible that, when thus loaded,
their elimination through the saliva, under the mercurial in-
fluence, and their evacuation by a discharge of pus from a
seton or a tartar-emetic ulcer, really constitute that thera-
peutic value of these remedial measures in certain cases which
has so long rested unexplained.

On Some Freshwater Rhizopoda, New or Liitle-known.

By William Archer.

With Plates1 XVI and XVII.

The microscopist, in the course of his examination of his
gatherings made from pools and ditches, be the objects of his
research what they may, cannot fail to encounter certain
ordinary representatives of the group, to some new or little-
known forms of which, I am, in the following communication,
very cursorily about to draw attention ; and this, indeed,
rather by hardly more than simply pointing to the figures,
than by assuming to throw upon them an additional light
by any special observations.

Although the Rhizopoda are a group of which the sea
harbours the greatest variety, as well as the most beautiful
forms, yet are those which find a habitation in the fresh
waters far from being without their interest — nay, few other
animal groups have of late awakened more lively attention.
Therefore such a communication as the present — even though
it but humbly essays to bring to notice some types which
seem rarely or not before to have met observation in the fresh
water, without being able to add to our knowledge in a
physiological point of view as regards these lowly beings —
may not, perhaps, be wholly destitute of value or interest.

Such, indeed, is the frequency with which certain fresh-
water forms are met with, that no observer with the micro-
scope can fail to be more or less familiar with the commoner
species ; again and again they present themslves, and, to my
eyes at least, they seem again and again ever recognisable ;

1 The two folding coloured plates (XVI, XVII) illustrating this paper,
will appear in October with the rest of the paper and drawings.

251

and this strikes me, indeed, so forcibly that I, for my part,
cannot at all coincide with those who hold the view that
there is no fixity or definiteness amongst these beings, and
that all the varied forms — some more, some less abundant —
which present themselves are but simply phases of one and
the same protean rhizopod.

Such being the views which an at first casual, and after-
wards more special, examination of these beings had impressed
upon me, I naturally began to think it probable that the
types of rhizopods of the fresh waters might not be altogether
confined to the ordinary ones already recorded in books,
represented by the genera Difflugia and Arcella, Euglypha,
Cyphoderia and Trinema, Gromia, &c. ; and though evi-
dently the fresh waters are by no means so rich in types or in
individual forms as the sea, still my look-out for novelties
was uot altogether unrewarded.

The state of knowledge of the structural and develop-
mental affinities of the known types is as yet so imperfect
that existent arrangements of this group to be found in books
are still unsatisfactory. This circumstance renders it a
matter of difficulty in bringing forward the following new or
little-known forms, to determine exactly with which to
begin, although these, indeed, may hardly exceed a dozen.
Still they demand several new genera for their reception.
The comparative fewness of generic types in the fresh waters
renders the intervals between them seemingly wider than
if the species were as numerous as those of certain marine
groups. The sequence in which I shall put them before
those who take an interest in such forms is, therefore, a
matter of the less importance. I shall then commence with
two forms which come the closest to the marine ‘ Radiolaria’
of Haeckel, by reason of possessing solid parts or skeleton1
(for none of them actually belong to that extensive group, so
lavishly rich in marvellously beautiful forms, by reason of
the absence of the seemingly all-important part of the organi-
zation— the ‘ central capsule’), and then I shall pass on to
other * shell-less ’ forms more approximating to the ordinary
Actinophrys, leaving for the latter part of this communication
the consideration of another series showing affinities rather
in the direction of the Gromidse and of the Difflugise. I
shall first venture to offer some remarks on the forms as they
thus present themselves, and defer special generic and
specific descriptions to the end of my communication.

1 Haeckel, ‘Die Radiolarien (Rhizopoda radiaria)’, pp. 25, 69, 243.

VOL. IX. — NEW SER.

R

252

Acanthocystis Pertyana, sp. nov. (PI. XVI, fig. 1.)

Acting on tlie plan alluded to, the first that presents itself
is a little rhizopod lately detected by me, one amongst the
most minute, but one, at the same time, seemingly very 'well
marked. It does not, however, demand a new genus for its
reception, as it falls, as will be seen — in my opinion, at least,
as a new species — under the genus Acanthocystis (Carter).1
But whilst this is the base, there is just a possibility, indeed,
that our form may be really identical with one of Perty’s,
and referred by him to Actinophrys under the name of
Actinophrys brevicirrhis hut the data given by that observer
being scanty, and the figure not sufficiently explanatory, this
must remain somewhat a matter of doubt. But that the
present form can be identical with Perty’s is, after all, not
at all likely, though possible, inasmuch as Claparede and
Lachmann quote a form, which they refer to Actinophrys
brevicirrhis (Perty), as common about Berlin;3 and it is
hardly likely that the whole three observers would have
fallen into the error of taking the present form as belonging
to Actinophrys at all.

Before, however, drawing more special attention to Perty’s
form, or that forming the subject of this communication, it
will be advisable to allude to Carter’s genus Acanthocystis,
thereupon to describe my animal, and afterwards to compare
it with that of Perty.

The type of Carter’s genus is Acanthocystis turfacea, a
form not uncommon in our moor pools, though never abun-
dant. At a first glance, and under a moderate power, it
might be taken for a green Actinophrys, as the long spines,
standing out from the circumference of the globose body,
look like pseudopodia, but a closer examination reveals that
these are rigid, deciduous, discoid at the base, and bifid at.
the apex, and I am disposed to agree with Carter that
they seem tubular. They ordinarily occur of two distinct
lengths, one set of these being long and averaging in length
more than the diameter of the body, the other set short and
hardly averaging a third of the length of the longer ones.
The periphery of the body seems to be covered by a stratum
of short, somewhat curved spicula, held together in some not
readily perceived manner into what Carter called a ‘ lorica,’
and enclosing the sarcode body. The pseudopodia stand
forth in all directions, of necessity issuing from amongst the

1 * Annals of Natural History,’ 3rd Ser., vol. xiii, p. 36.

3 ‘ Zur Kenntniss kleinst.er Lebensforinen,’ p. 159, t. viii, fig. 7.

3 ‘ £t,udes sur les lnfusoires et les Rhizopodes,’ p. 450.

253

spicules ; they are very slender, filiform, hyaline, occasionally
showing minute granules, and are in length rather more
than twice that of the longer set of spines. It is, however,
so far as my experience of this form goes, rare to find this
creature with the pseudopodia extended ; possibly, however,
the specimens may require to be some time at rest upon the
slide to induce them to project their pseudopodia, or it may
require some happy combination of circumstances, as regards
the illumination, to bring to view objects of so great tenuity
and often of considerable transparency. The sarcode body
is almost always more or less densely loaded with chloro-
phyll-corpuscles, sometimes amylaceous-looking granules,
besides those colourless granules always noticeable in the
Rhizopoda. I cannot say that I have been able to perceive a
nucleus, the existence of which is queried by Carter, neither
have I seen contractile vesicles, and I imagine the temporary,
somewhat conical projections of the ‘ lorica,’ adverted to
by Carter, may be due rather to mechanical disturbances of the
globular form than to the action from within of any such
pulsating movement.

In connection with the Acanthocystis turfacea, I have
noticed a somewhat remarkable circumstance, which is, per-
haps, sufficiently curious to warrant description. What I
allude to is its becoming, in some unexplained way, the nidus
for the development of the ova of a minute unascertained
rotatorian, and I have noticed this circumstance sufficiently
often to show that it can hardly be considered as exceptional
or unusual. One sees an Acanthocystis with a portion of the
green body-matter still normal and healthy, and the rest of the
space occupied by one or two colourless ova, or considerably
more frequently one sees three such ova, and then the whole
or nearly the wffiole of the body-matter of the Acanthocystis
vanished. At first glance this might be thought to look
like a developmental state of the rhizopod itself. But on
watching one showing this condition, before many hours one
may see the beginning of life in one of the ova before the
rest ; with amazement one watches, and presently there
shapes itself out, not a young rhizopod, but a little rotato-
rian (not unlike a Monolabis). By degrees tbe young animal
assumes more and more of a definite figure, and, like all
young rotatoria just ready to leave the egg, seemingly very
impatient of confinement. By repeated knocking and shoving
headforemost against the wrall of the ovum, it ultimately
succeeds in bursting the shell, and so it reaches to the cavity
of the Acanthocystis. But it is still in prison there. Its
narrow bounds, although soon, perhaps, likely to have the

254

companionship of a couple more of its own species about to
be born, would by no means satisfy its roving propensities.
Now, the circumferential spicules of the Acanthocystis cohere
in some way into a tough strong stratum, making a kind of
integument, which only gives way upon force by an irregular
rent. One meets such remains of defunct examples of
Acanthocystis now and again. Our young rotatorian now
repeatedly dashes headlong against this remaining barrier
between him and freedom. Well done! little fellow! he
has burst his prison-walls and swims away rejoicing, and
already begins to pick up his ‘ crumbs’ in the ocean (to him)
upon the slide. I presume we must regard the rotatorian as
wholly a usurper here — in a great measure, a parasite. Can
the germ of the rotatorian grow at the expense of the material
of the body-mass of the rhizopod, which evidently vanishes
to have its space occupied by the former ? Only when there
are three, however, does it ordinarily all disappear. How do
the ova originally come there ? How can the mother-rota-
torian deposit her ova, ichneumon-like, within the ill-fated
Acanthocystis, for the ‘ lorica’ of Carter seems intact?

This genus differs from Actinophrys in the possession of a
skeleton, from Clathrulina1 in the possession of two distinct
kinds of loose portions of the skeleton, and not a hollow
perforate globe ; nor can such a type be referred to any of the
marine genera of Haeckel, owing to the absence of the all-
important character — the possession of a ‘ central capsule.’
In fact, Carter had no other alternative than to make a
distinct genus for his Acanthocystis turfacea, which species
has hitherto been the only one known, and hence the type of
the genus.

It may not, therefore, be without interest to draw atten-
tion to a second form in a genus which, while it is shut out
from the marine forms, has no very immediate relative in the
fresh waters, at least so far as the characters to be drawn
from the skeleton are concerned.

The form, of which 1 now venture to refer to a rough
sketch, tig. 1, has occurred to me in one or two places only,
near Carrig Mountain, Wicklow, and at first glance I took it for
apossible rotatorian ovum; for, until I made a second gathering
from the same source, presenting a greater number of ex-
amples, I had not the good fortune to find a specimen with
the pseudopodia extended. But a brief inspection even of
specimens not exhibiting the pseudopodia satisfied myself
that it was no ovum I had before me, but a true rhizopod.

1 Cieukowski, in ‘ Schultze’s Arcliiv fur MikroskopischeAnatoniie,’ Bd. iii,
Heft iii, p. 311, 1867.

255

In the first place, I noticed that the short, slender, tapering
and pointed rays were not always vertical, hut lying in
various directions. I saw too, shortly, in some specimens,
that they were readily shed, and then that they were capitate
at the louver end. A little more pressure, and the little,
short, slender, peripheral bodies became evident and readily
removable. All this could not happen were this body a
rotatorian egg. In fact, without any hesitation, I felt satis-
fied I had before me a new form referable to Carter’s genus
Acanthocystis, which diagnosis was fully confirmed on finding
examples fully displaying pseudopodia. I could never see
any trace of either * nucleus’ or vacuole. It, of course, struck
me that this form might have been previously encountered,
and that there was a possibility of the spines being taken for
pseudopodia, which they, no doubt, at first resemble, and on
reference to Perty ’s work a form presents itself, as has been men-
tioned (1. c.), with which this may possibly be really identical,
though I fear the data afforded are by no means sufficient to
decide this point. But if my form is, in fact, Perty’s
Actinophrys brevicirrhis, nothing can be more certain than
that he has misapprehended the characters presented, and
that for a time, like myself, having seen only specimens with
the pseudopodia not extended, he has mistaken the spines for
pseudopodia. A further ground, too, is given to this assump-
tion by his figure showing some of the rays (not to call them
either spines or pseudopodia) as variously directed, not truly
vertical. My form has, moreover, greenish contents, though
I have not seen any of so great depth of colour as in A. tur-
facea. But he gives no good indication of the peripheral
spicules in his drawing. Be this as it may, I feel satisfied
that my animal finds its true place in the genus Acantho-
cystis, and as commemorative of Perty’s labours, I have plea-
sure in naming this little form Acanthocystis Pertyana.

Rajdiidiophrys viridis, gen. et sp. nov. (PI. XVI, fig. S.j

On the occasion of my first chronicling in the “ Minutes of
the Dublin Microscopical Club ” the discovery of this fine
rhizopod, one of the most noble, probably, to be found in fresh
water, I designated it as of a type roughly definable as an
Actinophrys p>las spicula. But it is actually of a structure
more differentiated in some respects than that expression
would convey, for if we would imagine an Actinophrys
densely studded at its periphery by some unknown agency
with a multitude of such acicular spicula as occur in this
species, we should have something like it, it is true, but

256

we should still have to imagine a further amount of diffe-
rentiation effected in the body-structure before a type would
be produced similar to that now under consideration. Nay,
if we could even conceive some fairy power able to effect both
such imaginary alterations, there is no known Actinophrys,
even so quasi-generically transformed, that would deceive
any one who had seen our form as to its being exactly the.
same species — that is, there is no Actinophrys that offers a
basis for the fanciful manufacture which I have supposed of
one and the same thing; for, even imagining it carried out,
we should have but a pretence of a new and distinct
Raphidiophrys — not anything to be mistaken for our
Raphidioph rys viridis. But away with fancy.

I have taken up this form next after the foregoing Acan-
tliocystis, because by the possession of spicula, though hut
of one kind, it seems, like it, very closely to approximate to
the marine Radiolaria; like Acanthocystis, however, it wants
any trace of a ‘ central capsule.’ If, indeed, it possessed
that organ, I do not see any character which would exclude
it from the marine genus Sphaerozoum (Meyen), Haeckel.

In endeavouring to convey a general idea of our form
(PI. XVI, fig. 2), for its exact generic and specific descrip-
tion I shall, as before, defer to the end of my communication,
it may, perhaps, be better that I proceed, as it were, from
within outwards.

In the first, place, then, we have a variable number, say
from one to a dozen or more, of balls of pellucid sarcode
matter, about -j-i-g- of an inch in diameter, of definite outline,
not containing any nucleus (that I can detect), but each
bearing just under the periphery a dense stratum of somewhat
large chlorophyll-granules, leaving the centre of the globes
free. These globular, definitely bounded masses of sarcode,
each so enclosing its stratum of chlorophyll-granules, are (in
the next place) surrounded by a common investment of a more
cloudy, very pale, or slightly buff-coloured sarcode matter,
and of a more changeable character. Occasionally one meets,
but rarely, however, examples with but a single central globe,
and, indeed, those with two or three only are uncommon ;
some six or eight are more frequent, and such examples are
quite large enough to be visible to the naked eye. One meets
some sometimes of very considerable size with comparatively
numerous globes. Proceeding outwards, we find that, im-
mersed in this general sarcode envelope, are contained an
immense number of very slender, hyaline, acicular, siliceous
spicula, acute at each end. These are numerous beyond
all computation, and so densely crowded that they do not

individually occupy any definite direction, but are found
tossed about, as it were, reminding one of a loosely tumbled-
up heap of pins (without heads, howTever, and pointed at
each end). These never encroach into the substance of
the inner globes. Emanating from amongst these spicula,
lastly, proceed in every direction very numerous, closely-set
pseudopodia, which are exceedingly long and quite straight,
of immeasurable tenuity, quite hyaline, and not seemingly
carrying granules. The opacity of the outer stratum, with
its abundantly crowded spicula, along with the great fine-
ness of the pseudopodia, together prevent our making out
whether the latter take their origin from the inner globes or
from the outer stratum. I imagine, however, so far as I can
see, as well as from analogy of a form hereafter to be drawn
attention to, that they proceed from the contained inner
globes directly through the outer stratum.

I have said that the spicula do not assume any definite
position, but this is hardly always correct, for shortly after a
specimen of this form is placed upon a slide for examination,
and after it begins, as it were, to recover the shock of the
transference, certain of the external spicula do begin to
assume a more vertical or radial position, especially subjacent
to certain of the pseudopodia. Along these they become
crowrded and lie up against them, forming around each of
such a somewhat conical aggregation. They thus form a
kind of involucrum (so to speak) to the pseudopodium which
they invest, of an elongate-triangular outline, from the apex
of which projects the pseudopodium afar into the water.
Not all the pseudopodia become so notably surrounded by
these clusters of spicula, but only a number, distributed at
somewhat even distances, present this appearance, whilst the
majority start off from the outer periphery of the rhizopod,
from amongst the general crowd of spicula, without becoming
specially surrounded by a cluster of them. Such a descrip-
tion would seem to attribute to the spicula an independent
power of change of location and of mode of arrangement ;
but although, in watching an example of this rhizopod as it
expands and gradually assumes its characteristic appearance
under the microscope, it would almost seem as if some out of
the dense mass of spicula spontaneously underwent a certain
amount of arrangement as described, this, however, must be
of course attributed to the mobility of the sarcode matrix
itself forming the outer stratum in which they are imbedded
causing them passively to yield to its outward changes of
figure. It must be this outer stratum of soft sarcode
winch, by sending out long conical projections around certain

258

pseudopodia, causes the spicula to assume a position with
their length lying in the direction of the very gentle force
produced by their gradual elongation.

I should mention that this is a very fragile and, during
manipulation, easily distorted organism ; under even a slight
pressure the outline of the inner halls gets lost or even
broken, and the chlorophyll-granules, outer stratum, spicula
and all, become confused into one indistinguishable mass;
it therefore requires some care to place one of these under
the microscope for due examination, and it should be guarded
from too great pressure, and allowed to remain on the slide
for a little to enable it to recover the shock sustained by its
removal from the water ; and often one finds, with all care,
that a number of the spicula will be shed, without, how-
ever, otherwise injuring the specimen.

The spicula of this rhizopod are not exactly either fusi-
form or cylindrical, but rather seem to present one side more
curved than the other. They are not, however, at all falcate,
but straight and pointed at each end; yet in conveying an
idea of their shape it may possibly assist some to say they
present an outline somewhat like the straight cells of the
minute alga, Ankistrodesmus falcatus. They do not seem
at all to be hollow, thus unlike the “ spines” of Acaniho-
cystis turfacea, and they resist the action of strong acid.

The pseudopodia, on the most careful scrutiny, do not, at
least to my eyes, show any trace of a current ; they are
colourless and rigid, never coalescing one with another.
The chlorophyll-granules in some specimens I have examined
have shown very much of a starchy appearance ; I regret
that I have not yet made the experiment of adding sulphuric
acid and iodine.

From finding examples with one hollow-globular, central
mass only, though uncommonly, and others with various, up
to considerable numbers, it is readily conceivable that these
must increase in number, and the group thus enlarge in size,
by the repeated division of the central balls. And, in fact,
I have taken specimens in which some of these balls were
still held together by broad sarcode processes or by a single
narrow isthmus-like connection, some of the chlorophyll-
granules occupying the space intervening ; sometimes these
families themselves cohere into compound clusters, seemingly
associated by a union of the pseudopodia, thus forming com-
paratively large groups ; perhaps, rather, this may be the
result of a separation of the larger groups into smaller, each
retaining a share of the large balls and of the outer investing
stratum, with its spicula. Except when so injured by pres-

2:>9

sure or such accident, the chlorophyll-granules do not extend
beyond the boundary of the inner halls.

I regret to say I have not found any other indication of a
reproductive process, nor have I ever seen any trace of incepted
food, though I have taken specimens at all seasons of the
year.

This must he accounted a rare form ; the distinct situations
in Co. Wicklow, in which I have found it, are, perhaps, not as
many as six, and the individual pools not quite twice that
number, yet in some of these I almost think I should hardly
fail to get examples, with perseverance, at any season. But
although thus seemingly restricted to spots, and never
abundant, I fancy this fine form may he more widely dis-
tributed than we imagine, for only the other day I saw at
least two examples from near Glengariff, hut they were poor
ones. A large example, with a little experience, can be seen
by the unassisted eye, like a greyish-green dot, almost as large
as some specimens of Actmosphcerium Eichhornii.

I shall again advert to this organism and its position in a
future part of this communication.

Cystophrys Haeckeliana (PI. XVII, figs. 1 and 2). and
C. oculea, gen. et sp. nov. (fig. 3.)

The next type, which presents itself under two forms, is
destitute of the hard parts characterising the two preceding,
and thus recedes further in that regard from the true Radiolaria
of Haeckel ; but, though wanting in anything which might be
called skeleton, there is a part of the organization presented
which calls to mind the ‘ yellow cells’ pervading the majority
of that great group, so rich in multitudinous forms. But
whilst there is seemingly a community of characters in the
twTo rhizopods now to be drawn attention to, I am not, indeed,
myself yet quite satisfied that they ought truly to be regarded
as congeneric, owing to the seemingly diverse character of their
pseudopodia, but still, for the present at least, it is desirable
to leave them together. As in the previous instance, I
defer to the latter part of this communication the special
generic and specific descriptions of the forms drawn attention
to, giving for the present merely a few cursory remarks upon
them.

1 shall first advert to the form which I first met with,
though, as experience has shown, it is greatly the more rare.

The rhizopod which I have named Cystophrys Haeckeliana
(PI. XVII, fig. 1), is of an irregular, though normally of a
roundish figure, possessing, immersed in the body-mass, a

260

number (often very great) of spherical cells, with dense granular
contents enclosed in a special wall, and each with a nucleus and
nucleolus, these cells forming a subglobose internal cluster ;
they, however, sometimes are more or less scattered, and even
separated into minor groups. These central cells are pi'etty
much of equal size, though occasionally a few somewhat smaller
or larger than the average — about 1-1700 of an inch — present
themselves. The nucleus appears to be usually, if not always,
excentric, with an excentric nucleolus; but the nucleus is
sometimes not evident, most probably owing either to the
cell-contents being too thick and dense to admit of its being
seen through, or to its being turned away from that side which
is towards the observer. The nucleus appears of a light
colour, and with a very delicate boundary, and the nucleolus
shows itself as a somewhat darker dot therein posed some-
what to one side. The general cell-contents are of a granular
appearance, and of a greyish-blue tint, very like that of the
so-called ‘nucleus’ in Amoeba, Difflugia, &c. &c. The
cell-wall is thin and sharply defined, and presenting a
somewhat yellowish tint ; the contents not unfrequently are
seen considerably receded from the wall, and possess a
smooth boundary or outline. Self-division of the contents
takes place by a complete fission into two within the outer
wall, and often in such a stage a nucleus is to be seen in
both parts of the so-divided mother-cell ; but I cannot say
what becomes of the parent cell-wall upon the young cells
attaining full form, nor whether they acquire a special cell-
wall ere they should in any way become denuded of the
mother-cell-wall. The sarcode mass enveloping the cells is of
a very great tenuity and very delicate, hence the covering-
glass, in order to preserve so fragile an organism for due
examination, requires to be kept from bearing too heavily
upon it, by being let down upon a piece of thin glass, or
some such mode of defence adopted, or by placing the dip in
an animalcule-cage, when the amount of pressure is thus
under control. Emanating from this delicate sarcode mass
the pseudopodia project to a greater or less extent into the
surrounding water ; these sometimes attain a considerable
length, probably twice the diameter of the body or more,
and are then fewer in number than when they are more
shortly projected, and sometimes do not radiate in all direc-
tions ; they are sometimes rather short, and then more
numerous, and then usually radiate more or less copiously
all round. They are slender and pellucid, and mostly branch
in a more or less irregular and subarboreseent manner,
becoming also not unfrequently mutually incorporated here

and there in a reticnlose manner. The branching takes place
mostly near the base, but sometimes one presents a somewhat
tufted appearance near the upper extremity. Although very
slender and colourless, the pseudopodia sometimes show dis-
tinctly the passage of very minute granules, and occasionally
show slight protuberances or expansions at various points
along their length. All these characters 1 have tried to
portray in the figure (PI. XVII, fig. 2). Their motion or
change of form is ordinarily slow and somewhat languid, hut
is constant, for, although persistent looking at them in an
endeavour to trace their changes step by step is a draft on
one’s patience, still, upon a few moments’ suspension of obser-
vation of them, and on again viewing them, very perceptible
changes will have been seen to have taken place, not only in
the branching and extension of the pseudopodia, but also in
the mutual disposition of the group of central cells. But it
certainly takes some amount of protracted observation to
perceive all this — that is, the modifications of form character-
istic of the rhizopodous nature. However, the presence of
foreign bodies entangled in the substance is not uncommon, in
this respect unlike Kaphidiophrys, in whose substance never
yet any foreign bodies presented themselves.

But if the slowness of the motion or change of figure of
the pseudopodia should at all raise a doubt that we had a true
rhizopod before us, and not actually some vegetable produc-
tion which the cells might call to mind, the encompassing of
so unusual and so comparatively unmanageable a subject of
attack as a portion of a fibre of wool by a fine specimen of
this noteworthy form, which I witnessed, would settle the
poiut. A fibre of wool happened to be in the dip made from
the gathering and presented itself upon the slide*, and in close
contiguity to it a large specimen of this new form, copiously
filled with the central cells, and abundantly spreading forth
its pseudopodia, not quite so much so, however, as in other
specimens I had seen. By degrees, I think more by acci-
dent due to some external force, probably exerted by myself
in slightly modifying the position of the covering-glass, the
rhizopod and the wool came into contact. I waited with
curiosity to see what it might do. The rhizopod first spiead
itself down along the wool, and the central cells, in place of
forming a rounded cluster as at first, became distributed in a
crowded drawn-out series. Meantime the pseudopodia by
degrees began to disappear along the sides, but to present
themselves in increased force upwards and downwards along
the wool, as it were seemingly mooring the rhizopod to the
wool. Presently these reached quite up to one end of the

262

wool, and the sarcode mass seemed to follow, until finally the
wool was wholly covered by it at one end, the mooring
pseudopodia disappearing at each end, whilst the general
sarcode seemed to become stretched so as to envelope the
wool. As the animal became thus extended along the fibre
of wool which it had thus to a great extent incepted, it,
of course, became somewhat more tense, and hence the wool
took a curved or bowed figure, and the sarcode mass became
stretched straight across the concave side, but thinly disposed
along the convex, which is the state I have tried to represent in
the accompanying drawing (fig. 2). During this elongation
of the sarcode mass the central cells, now disposed in a
nearly single stratum at the upper and lower ends, or even
isolated, seemed in other places to have become extruded
beyond the outline of the sarcode body. But, though seem-
ingly thus expelled, they did not separate; and I conclude
that they must have been removed beyond a certain region
only of the sarcode body, that which presented the outline
Avhose tenacity caused the bending of the wool, and that there
must have been an outer stratum of a very hyaline character
and great tenuity which was able to retain the so partially
extruded central cells from becoming wholly cast off. How-
ever inert, then, this organism when first detected under the
microscope, and however great resemblance to some vegetable
form which it might present under a low power which might
not reveal the existence of the pseudopodia — nay, hardly even
render it very discernible, without some practice, from some
of the Protococcaeeous forms which presented themselves in
most of the gatherings in which this form was found — yet
such an observation as that detailed demonstrates that this is
really a rhizopod, and the amount of energy displayed after
coming into contact with the foreign body, as compared with
its ordinary comparatively inert state, was very curious to see.
I had, however, on the very first occasion I detected this
form, quite satisfied myself of its true nature by a prolonged
observation.

A consideration of the characters of this lowly creature,
simple and few as they may be, yet suggests affinities with
its allies not a few, and those various ; and, in attempting to
draw attention to them, it is a difficulty to what side we
should first turn. Of course, it is only amongst the naked
rliizopods, or those destitute of a test, that, according to re-
ceived views of classification, we have to look for its imme-
diate allies. To Gromia our form offers some resemblance
in the somewhat branched and not unfrequently inosculating
pseudopodia, but they are far finer and more slender : there

263

is nothing at all like the vigorous flow of the granules along
the pseudopodia seen in that genus, nor do they reach any-
thing like a proportional length and size ; in fact, in our
form they are very slender, and sometimes somewhat silvery
in appearance ; but, moreover, it differs from Gromia, as I need
hardly observe, and to speak of nothing else, in the absence
of a test. With the genus Lieberkiihnia (Clapar4de et
Lachmann), it agrees in the absence of a test ; but it differs
equally widely in the character of the pseudopodia, Lieber-
kiihnia being, so to speak, a Gromia minus a test. In our
animal the pseudopodia emanate from all parts of the body,
from amongst the central cluster of cells, whereas in Lieber-
kiihnia, notwithstanding that the creature’s body is devoid of
a test, the pseudopodia emanate from a given part only. It
is also very greatly larger than our form. I have never been
so fortunate as to encounter Lieberkiihnia, nor am I aware
that it has been met with by any other than its original dis-
coverers.

I have, however, very rarely met with a form in the fresh
water, which I would now have little, if any, doubt in regarding
to be the same as the so-called Amoeba porrecta (Schultze).'
To the description given by Schultze I have nothing to add,
save that, if my identification be correct, this form presents
ir the granular mass of the body an olive colour. With
Haeckel I may venture, however, to say that I quite concur
in believing that such a form as this cannot possibly be re-
garded as falling under Amoeba ; without, however, knowing,
as I need not say, anything whatever practically of his genus
Protogenes, it is quite possible that it may be far better
called Protogenes porrecta, but still I fancy there is a con-
siderable affinity to Lieberkiihnia, notwithstanding that in
the porrecta the pseudopodia emanate from everywhere or
anywhere, and not from a single part only of the surface of
the body. Neither have yet shown a nucleus or contractile
vacuole. I mention this form here, however, whilst likewise
drawing attention to its resemblance to some extent to our
new form, to say that I by no means would regard the latter
as the same thing plus the cells — that is, as any state of
porrecta loaded with what might possibly be regarded as
reproductive cells. Whilst there is, no doubt, a resemblance,
the mode of branching form assumed by the pseudopodia in
each is sufficiently characteristically different, at least to my
eyes, and as, I think, an inspection of both Schultze’s
figure and that which I have made of my Cgstophrgs Haeck-

1 Schultze, ‘ TJeber den Organismus der Polythalamien,’ p. 8, t. vii, fig.
18 ; Pritchard, ‘ Infusoria,’ p. 550, pi. xxi, fig. 3.

264

eliana will sufficiently indicate. Hardly anything can be
prettier than the gradual expansion, under one’s eye, of an
example of the form referable to Schultze’s A. porrecta, pre-
senting itself first as a little shapeless sarcode-lump, and then
extending into a wide-spreading, reticulose, densely ramifying
combination of several little trees, under a higher power quite
filling the field of view.

From the naked forms represented by the more familiar
Actinophrys, the subarborescent character of the pseudopodia
would alone readily distinguish our rhizopod, even though it
did not possess the central cells. In our new form there does
not appear any body or structure equivalent to the so-called
‘ nucleus,’ as that term is applied to the peculiar body in
Amoeba, Difflugia, and some other forms to be described
hereafter in a future part of this paper. The absence of a
test shuts out this form from a few whose pseudopodia may
otherwise resemble it. There is, moreover, in our form no
‘ contractile vesicle.’ As regards, then, other rhizopods des-
titute of a test, it is distinguished from Actinophrys by the
subarborescent character (so to call it) of the pseudopodia
and by the central cells. From Raphidioplirys, whose pseu-
dopodia are still more delicately slender than those of Acti-
nophrys, and do not fuse at all, it is distinguished by the
absence of the spicula and the presence of the central cells —
in fact, the possession of the central cells shuts our form out
from every other fresh-water genus, not to speak of the other
wide distinctions drawn attention to.

It might suggest itself, then, as I have alluded to, that
these very central cells might point to an affinity of the
marine forms comprised under Haeckel’s ‘ Radiolaria,’ that
is, if the cells in our form were thought to be at all the re-
presentatives of the so-called ‘ yellow cells’ which pervade
that great group, with the exception of Haeckel’s family
therein — the ‘ Acanthometrida.’ As we have seen, these
central cells are, like the ‘ yellow cells’ of the great majority
of the Radiolaria, true c cells,’1 in the strictest sense or appli-
cation of the word ; that is to say, they possess a nucleus,
nucleolus, contents, and a wall, and so do the ‘ yellow cells,’
as described by Haeckel ; and, what is equally important,
both agree in the mode of self-division of the contents. In
short, the central cells in the rhizopod now brought to notice
are, if the expression be allowable, to all intents and pur-
poses. homologous with Haeckel’s ‘ yellow cells,’ except that
they are not of a yellow colour; at least, not yellow, contents
and all, as depicted by Haeckel, yet still the cell-wall has a
1 Haeckel, op. cit., p. 84.

265

slight greenish-yellow hue, whilst, however, the contents
have that greyish-blue tint very like that of the so-called
‘nucleus’ in Amoeba, &c. But, even admitting that the
central cells of our rhizopod be so far comparable with the
yellow cells of the marine Radiolaria, it could not possibly be
admitted into that great group at all, owing to the total want
of a ‘ central capsule’ — this latter being a part of the or-
ganization of the Radiolaria of Haeckel which is common to
every member of the whole of that marvellously beautiful
class.

If, indeed, our animal had a central capsule, it would seem
easy to show a relation to such marine forms without skeleton
of anv kind, as Thalassicolla and Thalassolampe, or Collo-
zoum ; but being destitute of that organ it must remain by
the side of Actinophrys, Raphidiophrys, Clathrulina, Acan-
thocystis, and other less allied fresh-water Rhizopoda, until,
perhaps, a greater number of types become known, or until
more is made out of the development of these humble ex-
istences, and a light shed upon their real affinities. It will
be seen, however, that upon a comparison and contrast with
its seemingly nearest allies, it offers characters showing affi-
nities in various directions, but at the same time forbidding its
finding s place, so far as I am aware, in any known genus.

As regards the ‘ yellow cells,’ Haeckel suggests that they
may have something to say to the function of digestion. I
am at least strongly inclined to suppose that in the present
form the central cells must subserve rather to reproduction.
But on this point I am without any but too cursory observa-
tions to be worthy of record. Let us, however, hope that
this animal may turn up on some other occasion — perhaps at
the same season next year — although, as will appear, it is
readily overlooked ; but I should not be without hope of
refinding it, as I met with it in several gatherings in Callery,
and in one from near Carrig Mountain, though, on the other
hand, a more recent gathering from one of these localities
did not reveal it.

I now refer to the second form, Cystophnjs oculea (n. s.),
which, provisionally at least, I would associate with the
foregoing; I have tried to reproduce it in fig. 3. It
will he seen that, whilst it agrees in having a number of
central cells, it differs in the character of the pseudopodia,
which here are fine, linear, directed in various ways, and do
not branch or inosculate ; and this is the principal reason why
I imagine that it is possible they should not fall under one
and the same genus, for I think the nature of the pseudopodia
is, generally speaking, very characteristic in these forms.

2G6

Again, I have not satisfied myself that the cell-like structures
occupying the mass of the body are really cells — that is, I
have not seen that they possess a special wall, though the
bright spot in each, with its central black dot, may, most
probably, be regarded as nucleus and nucleolus, and homolo-
gous with the white space and darkish dot in centre of the
cells of last form. These bodies in the present are of that
bluish hue and granular appearance prevalent in such forms.
The central nucleus, so to call it, is of a circular or broadly
elliptic outline, and is bounded by a distinct, sharp, black
line; its colour seems to vary, and this, with the kind of
illumination and of the state of the focus of the microscope,
from a bright yellow to amber and red. When focussed low
down it appears red, a shade higher of an orange or amber
hue, and focussed high it assumes the colour of a bri ght
speck of flame. Viewed under a moderate power the colour
evinced is reddish, the quantity of these bright specks
giving a red character to the whole creature. There is gene-
rally but one of these bright dots in each, but occasionally
two in certain of them which present a more elongate outline,
perhaps indicating self-division, as in the last form. With a
certain position of the focus the black dot is evideiit in the
centre of nearly all these bright eye-like specks. The gene-
ral sarcode mass of the body often closely envelopes the
central cells, and at times the figure of the creature ap-
proaches the globular, though elevations and various distor-
tions frequently occur. Sometimes, however, specimens are
met with comparatively poor in the central cells, and the rather
hyaline sarcode body-mass can then be seen ; and such can
undergo a multiplicity of shapes, and the creature presents
an activity and locomotive power quite surprising, if one’s
acquaintance with this form should be made with the globular
inert condition. I have several times, in watching the move-
ments of a freshly- taken lively specimen, seen it actually tear
itself into two, and each portion become rounded off, and
survive as a distinct but smaller individual ; and this for no
evident reason, that is, quite spontaneously and even rapidly.
A triangular cleft makes its appearance at one margin, which
becomes deeper and deeper ; but this cleft is not a complete
severance of the sarcode at each side, for it remains connected
by numerous fine linear threads, just like the marginal
pseudopodia, except that for the present they remain con-
nected at both ends with the body-mass. Presently the tear
extends downwards, and the slender sarcode threads give
way at the upper part of the cleft, some remaining to belong
to one of the separated margins, some to the other. This

'>67

cleft proceeds until the two portions of the original body-mass
remain connected by but a very narrow isthmus, which
finally tears across. The adjacent parts of the margin of each of
the now two distinct rhizopods do not as yet seem to possess
the pseudopodia quite so abundantly or so long as the older
external margins, but in a few moments no difference is
observable, and we have two smaller rhizopods out of one,
and shortly at a considerable distance from one another.

I would parenthetically remark here that I could not at all
look upon such a process as this as in any way to be regarded as
a reproductive one, and yet this is all that Haeckel attributes
to his “ Protamoeba primitica ,” and calls by that name,
notwithstanding that, in his most interesting paper he is not
satisfied to regard a process quite so simple as a reproductive
one in any other form.1 What he describes for his form seems
to be nothing more than an accidental fission into two, and
cannot be regarded in either his or the present form as a
reproductive act. Examples of what I assume to be doubtless
the Protamoeba primitica are met with in many puddles, and
I would have imagined them to have been but undeveloped
conditions of Amoeba itself. In Cystophnjs oculea, as well as
C Haeckel iana, it is possible that the central cells may sub-
serve to reproduction.

Heterophrys Fockii (PI. XVI, fig. 3), and Heterophrys
myriopoda, gen. et sp. nov. (PI. XVII, fig. 4.)

Had it not been for the ‘ yellow-cell’-like structures
appertaining to the two preceding rhizopods, allocated by me
to the new genus Cystophrys — thus, perhaps, bringing them
in that regard somewhat close to the marine Radiolaria — I
should have preferred taking up the two forms here placed
under a new genus, Heterophrys, immediately after Raphi-
diophrys. For although these latter have neither spicules
nor any organization that might be assumed as comparable
to ‘ yellow-cells,’ they yet seem to me, apart from the
spicules, to come pretty close in other respects to Raphi-
diophrys. Still, the important character of the presence of
the spicules in that genus, and their absence here, would
forbid their being ever united in one genus. The two forms
now under consideration, each, however, in a diverse manner,
present characters in their structure which reduce them both
to a single type, at the same time offering an amount of

1 Ernst Haeckel, “Monographic der Moueren,” in the ‘ Jeuaische Zeit-
schrift fiir Medicin und Naturwissenchaft/ Band iv, Heft i, p. 107. (Trans-
lated ante in this Journal.)

VOL. IX. — NEW SER.

S

268

speciality separating them from any other heliozoan genus.
The absence of a c central capsule,’ of course, excludes them
from Haeckel’s marine Radiolaria.

As it seems to me, however, that the subsequent of these
forms met with by me approximates the more closely to
Raphidioplirys, whilst that first found (or Focke’s form)
comes nearer Actinophrys, I shall advert to the former in
the first place, although the second in point of time of
heins: encountered.

O

As previously, it will be more convenient in the present
running commentary to take up the examination of the
structure of each from within outwards, as Focke, indeed,
has done iu regard to that which I conceive to be identical
with his form.

We find, then, in the form which I name Heteroplirys myrio-
poda (PI. XVII, fig. 4), a ball of sarcode of about the same
average dimensions as in Raphidioplirys, hyaline, sharply
bounded, and cliargedjwith a similar dense stratum of somewhat
large-sized chlorophyll-granules, arranged in a hollow-globular
manner beneath the periphery of the orbicular sarcode body,
with a few colourless minute granules besides, sometimes
showing a dancing movement. From this body are given off
not very numerous, comparatively stout, slightly tapering,
filiform pseudopodia, some of which are sometimes somewhat
dilated at the base or origin. Surrounding this globular
central body an outer stratum presents itself, of a somewhat
butf- coloured hue and cloudy granular appearance. One can to
some extent recognise three different regions in this investing
stratum, not at all separated, however, by any decided line of
demarcation ; at the lowest part, or that nearest to the central
body-portion, it is more cloudy and somewhat more granular
in appearance than a little higher up, where it gradually
assumes a more homogeneous condition until towards the
upper third of its depth, where this sarcode investment
becomes more characterised by a sort of linear arrangement
of the substance, the apparent lines assuming a nearly radial
direction, until towards the periphery the substance becomes,
as it were, slit up into a very great number of fine linear
acute prolongations, giving the margin a fimbriated or fringed
appearance. These very slender sarcode processes do not all
project in a strictly radial manner, for they often lie more or
less obliquely, and sometimes appear as if they originated
more or less in a kind of tufted manner, thus giving the
fringe-like margin a somewhat irregular appearance. The
pseudopodia emanating from the inner sarcode body pass
directly through this outer stratum and project, some of

269

them, a distance more than twice the diameter of the body
into the water.

The pseudopodia never seem either to branch or coalesce,
nor ever fuse in any way with the substance of the invest-
ment surrounding the central sharply defined ball from
which they originate. The chlorophyll-granules do not
obtrude beyond the bounds of the latter, except very rarely
and very few, and this possibly as the result of accident,
perhaps a kind of mechanical displacement during an act of
either inception or of ejection of food, although I have not
seen any crude food in any of the specimens I met with. Of
course, an undue pressure on the whole will squeeze it into
ail indistinguishable mass, the chlorophyll-granules become
scattered about, and the contour of the inner body quite obli-
terated ; and yet if the pressure be but comparatively slight
the creature has the power gradually to recover its form
and symmetry and project its pseudopodia and expand its
border almost as before. Those who inspect the figure of this
form (or, indeed, of the others also) will, of course, understand
that the drawing is made from a specimen focussed down
to its equator, as it were, and that the continuation of the
investing portion intervenes between the inner globe and the
observer, as well as at the margin (and, of course, behind) ;
for, when focussed as the figures are drawn, the substance
of the outer stratum is sufficiently transparent to offer no
obstacle to the passage of the light, and we are enabled to
see the body and its radiating pseudopodia as if it were
absent ; when focussed up more and more the cloudy outer
substance comes into view, and we see by degrees the fim-
briated periphery and the pseudopodia revealing themselves.

The inner globe never shows any ‘nucleus’ nor an enclosed
or marginal pulsating vacuole, nor have I ever seen more than
one inner globe in each specimen. This is a comparatively
dead and inert form.

This form thus agrees with Raphidiophrys in the inner
globe possessing a hollow globular stratum of chlorophyll-
granules, and in the outer stratum, of a different kind of
sarcode, being endowed with a certain mobility. But this
latter part of the organization possesses no spicules, a circum-
stance which, in the opinion of some, might be sufficient to
place two such forms widely apart ; but there are marine
Radiolaria without spicules, or indeed any solid parts. The
fimbriated margin, composed of the linear prolongations of the
investing sarcode, is absent in Haphidioplinjs virulis, and in
that form this part of the structure seems capable only of
sending out longish triangular prolongations, rendering them-

270

selves evident by piling up the spicules into long peaks
around certain pseudopodia. These latter, in the present
form, are much coarser, microscopically speaking, than they
are in Raphidiophrys.

The second form (PL XVI, fig. 3) here to be drawn attention
to is one, examples of which I exhibited in September, 1867,
at a meeting of our Club, but I did notthen venture to describe
it or to give it a name. My attention was recalled to it on
the appearance of a paper lately published by Dr. Focke, of
Bremen,1 in which a rhizopod (his “No. 1”) which I cannot
but consider as identical with the present is expatiated on and
figured, but neither specially described nor named. As I feel,
however, pretty satisfied that it should no longer remain so, and
as the fine form just mentioned (named by me Heterophnjs
myriopoda ) seems so truly congeneric with it, I have thought
myself quite justified in uniting them under one genus;
and -whether I am absolutely correct in believing the form
now under review as identical with Focke’s, I trust he may
(should these lines ever meet his eye) pardon the liberty
in my associating his name with it, and calling my form
Heterophrys Fockii. As before, I shall defer a detail of the
generic and specific characters to the end of this paper.

Compared with Ileteroplirys myriopoda, this form (II.
Fockii) is minute, though it occurs of varying sizes. The
inner sharply bounded sarcode body, in which I am unable
to detect a ‘ nucleus,’ sends forth through the outer stratum
long and slender filiform pseudopodia, and, though it contains
a subperipheral stratum of greenish granules, they do not
appear to be of the nature of chlorophyll, and the body is
sometimes colourless, or of the bluish hue not uncommon
in rhizopodous forms. The outer stratum is of a somewhat
buff-coloured hue, and often of an indefinite outline, and of
that somewhat granular, irregularly contorted appearance, as
if bearing in its substance bands and little spots of varying
nature and density, which gives it that aspect which, in
the Club Minutes, I somewhat indefinitely denominated
‘ streaky.’ Believing, as I do, that Focke and I have had
the same form under examination, I could not avail myself
of what would appear to me a better description, so far as it
goes, of the appearance of this outer region : — “ Es erschei-
nen in der Sarcode selbst liclitere und triibere Stellen, zarte
geschlangelte Fadchen, sehr kleine Koruchen, bin und
wieder ein grosseres Blaschen, zeigen eine Begrenzung

1 Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift fur wissenscbaftliche Zoologie/
Bd. xviii, Heft 3, 18G8. “Ueber Schalenlose ftadiolarien. des siisseu
Wassers,” by Dr. Gustav Woldemar Focke.

271

durch schwache Shattenlinien, welclie stets in dem Augen-
blicke, wo man sie scharfer ins Auge fassen will, wieder
verschwinden.” This outer region often possesses no very
definite outline or contour; it frequently presents, however,
a number of marginal triangular, irregular, changeable pro-
jections, the ‘tongue-shaped’ processes of Focke, and
which I have endeavoured to depict ; and at other times
these disappear, when the contour becomes altogether in-
definite and its substance (indefinable. These tongue-shaped
processes seem quite comparable to the long triangular eleva-
tions in the outer region of Rapliidiophrys, which bear up the
spicules in somewhat longitudinally arranged clusters ; but
in this form, as in the previous, this portion of the structure
encloses no spicules.

This species occasionally presents itself cohering into more
or less definite groups of a few individuals by union of the
pseudopodia ; or a few of the inner globes, as is the rule in
Rapliidiophrys, are surrounded by the common outer invest-
ing stratum. It possesses a considerable power of change of
place.

In one of his figures Focke points to the appearance or
indication of a contractile vacuole,1 but he does not seem to
be satisfied as to its actual occurrence. In several specimens
which I have met with, one or two, or even three, marginal
pulsating vacuoles were present, and I watched their dilata-
tion and contraction, which process is like those of an
Actinophrys (PI. XVI, fig. 3). This circumstance, which
has never shown itself in IT. mijriopoda, is one which, so far
as it goes, brings this form closest to Actinophrys.

In the following part of this paper I hope to speak of the
relationships of these forms, as well as of the new genus
Pompholyxophrys (PI. XVI, figs. 4, 5), which I am obliged
to postpone for the present ; and I hope likewise to add
some account, with figures, of some other new or little
known Rhizopoda of Gromian affinities.

(To be continued .)

1 L. c., t. xsv, 1 g.

272

The Sexual Form of Ch^togaster Limnjei. By E. Ray

Lankester, B.A. Oxon. With Plates XIV and XY.

In vol. xxvi of the e Transactions of the Linnean Society ’
is published a paper by me, read in December, 1867, de-
scribing, amongst other matters, the general structure of the .
rapidly-reproducing fissiparous worms found abundantly on
Limnseus and Planorbis. At the time when that paper was
read I had not succeeded in obtaining these worms in a
sexually mature condition, though, as mentioned in a note, I
was fortunate enough to do so while the paper was passing
through the press. For more than three years I have taken
every opportunity of examining the little worms on the water-
snails ; and it was only last October, during the first week of
that month, that I was gratified with the sight of individuals
possessing sexual reproductive organs. They were only to
be obtained for the space of one short fortnight, and then
disappeared. The sexual individuals were larger than the
fissiparous forms, which continued to abound, the former
being comparatively rare — about in the proportion of one
sexual individual to twenty of the chains of fissiparous zooids.
The mature worms, which thus so transiently and sparsely
make their appearance, present certain very interesting modi-
fications of structure as compared with the immature zooids,
which I shall endeavour to point out, though I may here
remark that I look forward to a further examination next
October, to clear up some matters of doubt ; the arrangement
of the reproductive organs themselves is also a subject of
much importance in these worms, and has not hitherto been
satisfactorily stated.

The only accounts of the reproductive organs of Chseto-
gaster with which I am acquainted are to be found in two
papers published by M. Jules d’Udekem, a naturalist by
whose early death this branch of zoology has lost a per-
severing and able investigator. In his valuable memoir on
the reproductive organs and development of the Earthworm,
published in the ‘ Mem. des Savants Etrang.’ of the Academy
of Belgium, 1856, vol. xxvii, INI. d’Udekem gives a diagram-
matic sketch of the genitalia of Chcetogaster diaphanus. In
the c Bulletins’ of the same Academy, vol. xii, 1861, p. 243, he
gives another sketch, “ very schematic,” as Professor Leydig
observes, of the genitalia of Chcetogaster Mulleri, accom-
panied with a brief explanation, and also a description of

273

the genitalia of jEolosoma. These are the only notices of
the sexual state in the genus Chaetogaster that I know of.
It is important to state that d’Udekem, in a previous paper
in vol. xxxi of the ‘ Memoirs of the Belg. Academy,’ 1858-
59, recognised three species of Chaetogaster, viz. Ch. dia-
phanus of Gruithiusen ; Ch. Midleri, supposed by d’Udekem
to have been confused by Muller with Ch. diaphanus ; and
Ch. Limncei of Von Bar. In my paper in the Linnean
Society’s * Transactions’ above referred to, I have given an
account of the synonymy of the species of Chaetogaster as far
as my knowledge would permit. Having overlooked the
reference to Chaetogaster in this well-known essay by
d’Udekem on the classification of Oligochaeta, I had inde-
pendently come to the conclusion that three species1 of
Chaetogaster must be recognised ; and I feel the more con-
fidence in this conclusion, on finding that the species are
identical with those recognised by the lamented Belgian
naturalist. The Chaetogaster Mulleri of M. d’Udekem, which
I have found in the river at Oxford, appears to be the Ch.
niveus of Ehrenberg, under which name I have mentioned it
in my former paper. M. d’Udekem expressly states that the
sexual condition of Ch. Limncei was unknown to him. What
he states with regard to the other two species, Ch. diaphanus
and Ch. niveus {Mulleri), will be gathered from the figure
(fig. 1) ; s. r. he calls seminal receptacles ; e. V., “ entonnoirs
vibratiles,” i. e. ciliated efferent ducts ; h, two “ hard pieces”
at the opening of the ducts ; ov., the ovary. The drawings,
both in the case of Ch. diaphanus and Ch. Mulleri, are very
sketchy, and do not give the relations of the organs men-
tioned to other parts at all. The “ hard pieces” were not
detected in Ch. diaphanus, but only in Ch. Mulleri, whilst in
the former a clitellus is figured, and the ova are stated to
have an orange-coloured vitellus, which distinguishes them
readily from those of Ch. Mulleri. The ova are said to be
formed at various points on the body-wall, and not from a
specialised ovary. My observations on Chaetogaster Limncei
do not agree with these, some differences being doubtless due
to the difference of species. I find testes in the position, and
somewhat of the form indicated in d’Udekem’s drawings as
“ seminal receptacles.” I have completely failed to detect an
“ entonnoir vibratile,” and cannot fix its position clearly
from d’Udekem’s indications. I do not find the mesial mass
of ova which d’Udekem calls ovary ; but on either side of

1 There is also Schmarda’s South American C.filiformis.

274

the ventral nerve-cord, in the region of the stomach, rounded
masses of ova develop in pairs.1

Appearance of the Sexual Forms. — The asexual zooids of
Chcetogaster limnaei, which are so abundant on the water-
snails through the greater part of the year, are rarely more
than one sixth of an inch long, and then usually consist of
two well-grown individuals, with portions of some four others
developing between and behind them ; for details of their
structure I must refer to my paper in the ‘ Linnsean Trans-
actions.’ In October I observed some of the worms, which
appeared to be unusually large, and I accordingly examined
them with the microscope. They left the body of the snail
when placed in a vessel of water, in a bolder and more ven-
turesome manner than I had ever noticed with the usual
small forms, which stick very close to their snail, especially
when they are sought in order to he submitted to an examina-
tion. One of these large worms gave the following order of
bristle-bundles (which I shall henceforth call fasciculi), in-
dicating segments, individuals, and new regions of growth,
viz., head with cephalic bristles, followed by five well-grown
abdominal fasciculi (instead of three with a growing fourth,
as is the case in the asexual zooids generally), then a space,
and homogeneous matter indicating a region of growth ; then
three very incomplete fasciculi ; then another space and con-
striction ; then ten abdominal fasciculi, the anterior of which
were well grown, the posterior just sprouting ; behind this, ho-
mogeneous matter and a constriction; and then a head with
cephalic fasciculi, followed by five abdominal pairs ; after these
a constriction and seven abdominal fasciculi, the anterior well
grown, the posterior rudimentary. The succession may be
written thus :

ceph. and 5 abd. | 3 abd. | 10 abdominal | cepli. and 5 abd. | 7 abdominal,
and compared with a parallel case of an asexual zooid —
cepb. and 3 abd. | 3 abd. | 6 abdominal | ceph. and 3 abd. | 9 abdominal.

The important thing to observe is the succession of five
well-developed pairs of abdominal fasciculi in immediate
connection with the head in the case of these larger speci-
mens, which I soon found were developing sexual organs ; for

1 M. Claparede, in his most valuable ‘ Recherches sur les Oligochetes,’
accepts d’Udekem’s statements as to the presence and position of an efferent
duct in Chaetogaster. In any case, it cannot be allowed that the hypothetical
duct is developed in the second segment, as M. Claparede tabulates it, for
the pharyngeal region of Chcetogaster probably represents the second and
third somites (perhaps more) of other Oligochmta.

in front of the first pair of abdominal fasciculi] in each of the
zooids represented by a head (the first and fourth "roup as given
above), I saw a pair of rounded masses placed one on each
side of the nerve-cord, which were obviously developing ova,
and anterior to these were undeniable testes. I afterwards
found specimens in which there were still more fasciculi, fol-
lowing in unbroken order a head and cephalic bristles, and at
last obtained the worm drawn in fig. 2, which must be
regarded as the sexual form of Choetoyaster Limncei. No
longer remarkable for the small number of its segments, but
having, in addition to its anterior region, sixteen or seven-
teen segments, indicated by as many pairs of fasciculi, this
form exhibits, somewhat strangely and instructively, the
antagonism between Individuation and Genesis. Whilst the
rapid process of fissiparous reproduction is going on, the
individual zooid can only be said to consist of a head and
four segments, of which the fourth is continually budding in
both anterior and posterior direction, separating from its
parent by the growth of a new head ; but as the sexual com-
pletion of the individual commences, the rapidity of the
process of fissiparous reproduction is stopped ; and the new
segments, as they grow, instead of becoming separated from
the parent-stock by the intermediate, development of heads,
remain attached as parts of the whole until the Chsetogaster,
once remarkable for its paucity of segments, becomes a
lengthy worm (about the one third of an inch long) of a head
and sixteen or more somites. It may seem, at first sight, wrong
to regard the development of sexual organs as belonging to
individuation rather than genesis ; but it is when contrasted
with the period of rapid asexual reproduction that we recognise
the development of the sexual condition as-implying increased
individuation. The nutrition of the growing segments neces-
sary for them to develop heads and separate from their parent
is diverted to the commencing genitalia, and, consequently,
genesis is stopped, whilst individuation gains, but only tem-
porarily ; for by the further development of those genitalia
the worm will be so far taxed as to be destroyed, and death
will put an end to the individuation altogether.

The change in the number of segments which remain
attached to form an individual is not the only change which
occurs in the Chsetogaster during the development of the
reproductive organs. The number of the bristles in each
bundle is nearly doubled. Whereas, in the asexual zooids
seen at other times of the year the cephalic fasciculi contain
twelve, and the abdominal eight bristles apiece, I have
counted in the sexual form between twenty and thirty bristles

276

in each, cephalic bundle, and sixteen in each abdominal
bundle. This is a very striking and curious change, and is
in harmony with the numerous facts which establish a direct
nutritional relation between the genitalia and tegumentaxy
structures, e.g. puberty, the stag’s horn and testicle, the plumage
of birds, colours offish, &c. The sexual form also possesses a
well-marked cuticle (PI. XIV, fig. 6), which is l'epresented by
the merest pellicle in the asexual condition. I have observed
certain appearances, which make me think it possible that
the Chcetogaster Limncei sheds parts of its skin and bristles
during the development of the genitalia; for amongst the
specimens I examined in October were very many with a less 1
number of bristles than is normal to the asexual forms. In
these individuals the genitalia were not yet traceable ; but
some had only six cephalic bristles in one bundle and seven in
the other, in the place of twelve, which is the almost invariable
number at other seasons of the year ; the abdominal bristles
were equally diminished, giving the idea that they had
fallen out, or been lost in some way. The most curious
thing, however, is that in all these cases and in the sexually
mature individuals, too, numbers of bristles could be seen
occupying the stomach and intestine, undoubtedly swallowed
by the Chsetogaster. It appeared to me probable that the
worm had swallowed its own shed bristles and cuticle ; but
it is possible that the presence of bristles in the stomach may
have been due to other worms having been swallowed — the
smaller by the larger individuals.2 This seems unlikely, because
at no other time of the year have I seen these bristles in the ali-
mentary canal of Ch. Limncei, though I have observed them
for a long time. I am inclined to believe that there is a
shedding of old, as there is certainly a production of new,
bristles. Another change with regard to the bristles is in
the equality of length of the cephalic and abdominal bristles ;
whilst in the asexual form the cephalic bristles are about
-g4o-th of an inch, and the abdominal about th of an inch,
in the sexual form both abdominal and cephalic bristles are
much larger, in accordance with the greater size of the worm,
and are more nearly of an equal length, the cephalic bristles
measuring more than —i— th of an inch in length. I am also

1 There is frequently considerable variation in the number of bristles in a
fasciculus in the same species among Oligochseta. Thus, in Enchytraeus, as
remarked by Henle, and in Lumbriculus, Clitellio, &c., as I have observed,
to the extent of four in place of seven, or vice versa.

2 Possibly the sexual zooid on becoming detached from its parent zooid
swallows it, since the latter is much the smaller. The growth of the sexual
zooid has yet to be observed.

277

inclined to think that the curvature of the bifid hooklet in
the sexual form is somewhat less acute than in the larvae, for
so the immature forms may be called. The presence of the
thick cuticle, which has been already mentioned, prevents
the formation of the rugae which I noticed in my former
paper, and which have so much the appearance of superficial
vessels. The increased number of setae in each bundle is
accompanied by an increased differentiation of the muscles
moving them. A longitudinal and a horizontal muscular
band is distinctly seen in the sexual form attached to each
bundle (PI. XIV, fig. 4) . The bristles are frequently thrown
into a fan-like curve, so that half have their apices directed an-
teriorly and half posteriorly (PL XV, fig. 3). This appearance,
no doubt, would tend to suggest the existence of a double series
of fasciculi on each side of the mesial line, which has been
stated to exist by Leydig in the genus Cheetogaster ; but it is
quite clear that the bristles are really collected into but one
bundle on each side. I have stated this in my former paper ;
and M. Leon Vaillant, in a recent memoir on Perichaeta
(‘ Ann. des Sciences Nat.,’ 1868), also emphatically states
that he cannot endorse Leydig’s description. It is the more
necessary to correct this error, since it is propagated in Victor
Carus’s excellent e Handbuch der Zoologie.’

Turning our attention now to the viscera of the sexually
mature Chsetogaster we find but little change to notice (other
than the presence of the genitalia) . The nervous structures
maintain the form observable in the larvae ; the remarkable
pharyngeal or stomato-gastric ganglion and commissure, which
is so conspicuous in Ch. diaphanus (see below) not being
represented at all, as far as could be ascertained, even in this
more highly developed condition. The muscular fibres pass-
ing to the viscera from the body-wall exhibit a very definite
nucleated structure. The stomach, or first enlargement of
the intestine, showed very frequent undulatory or peristaltic
contractions, which are not observed in the larvae, whilst the
cilia of the inner wall are more obvious than in the asexual
stage. The intestine expands again after the stomach into a
cavity of nearly equal size, which extends as far as the sixth
pair of abdominal fasciculi, and then contracts to a much
smaller calibre, in which form it persists throughout the tail-
like continuation of the body formed by the terminal somites.
This disposition of the alimentary canal is, of course, quite
peculiar to the sexual form, since in the larvte it is broken
up by constrictions and new growths by the separation of
the zooids. The perivisceral cavity contains not any, or but
few, corpuscles other than those belonging to the genitalia.

278

The dorsal vessel is markedly developed ; its contractility
becomes specialised and confined in great measure to that
part which overlies the so-called stomach. Its walls are
thick in this part, and contain clear nodular masses, which
may be nervous elements, or may act, as they appear to do,
as valvular thickenings. They are not dissimilar in appear-
ance to the masses seen in the dorsal vessel of some insects,
e.g. the Corethra larvae, and may be compared also with
the multicellular valvules mentioned by Leydig in his
‘ Lehrbuch ’ as occurring in Clepsine, Piscicola, and
Fontobdella.

It will be observed, in the outline figure of the sexual Chceto-
gaster Limnaii (PI. XIV, fig. 2), that the first pair of abdominal
fasciculi is represented as overlying the stomach in its ante-
rior half, whereas in the larvae (PI. XIV, fig. 3) the first pair
always appear at the extreme posterior end of the stomach, or
even altogether posterior to it. The range of movement of
which the alimentary canal is capable, of course, affects the re-
lations of these parts somewhat, but will hardly account for the
exceedingly forward position of the first pair in this case. It
Avould, no doubt, be interesting to ascertain how far the adult
Chcetogaster is jn'oduced in the course of posterior growth, and
how far its special characters are due to subsequent modifica-
tion. Not having watched the mode of development of the
additional bristles which are present in the sexual form, I am
doubtful as to whether this first pair of fasciculi is really the
representative of the first pair in the larval condition. It is
probably a new development — the second pair of the sexual
corresponding to the first pair of the larval form. The rela-
tion to the opening of the first pair of segment organs should
determine this point ; but my notes are not absolutely de-
cisive on this relation.

In the larval Chcetogaster Limned there is, as I have repeat-
edly observed, although the specimens measure barely one tenth
of an inch in length, a pair of segment organs situated in front
of the first pair of fasciculi, and opening in front of them,
there is also a similar pair in front of each succeeding pair of
well-developed fasciculi, connected always more or less with a
muscular diaphragm forming the anterior boundary of the
segment to which the organ belongs. In Chcetogaster dia-
phanus, whilst still in an asexual condition, there is no such
large gap between the cephalic and first abdominal fasciculi
as exists in the larval Ch. Limneei, nor is there, according to
his figure, in the Ch. filiiformis1 (with three bristles in a fas-

1 Roughly figured — observed in the Andes ‘ Neue Wirbellose Thiere.’
The gap between the cephalic and succeeding fasciculus in Ch. Limneei is

279

cieulus) of Schraarcla. There is also this important fact —
that there is no segment organ in front of the first pair of
abdominal fasciculi in Ch. diaphanus, the first segment organ
lying between the first and second abdominal fasciculi. So
also in the sexually mature Ch. Limncei there is no trace of
a segment organ in front of the first pair of abdominal fasci-
culi— that is, so far as my notes go : it is, of course, difficult
to establish the absence of such delicate structures. Hence,
then, I am led to infer, not only from the forward position
that the first pair of abdominal fasciculi in the sexual Chceto-
gaster Limncei, and in Chcetogoster diaphanus, are not the
homologues of the first pair in the larval Ch. Limncei ; but
the same conclusion is also supported by the disposition of
the segment-organs. A further piece of evidence in favour
of this view is found in the existence of structures identical
with the “ hard pieces” of d’Udekem (PI. XIV, fig. 1), in close
proximity to the first pair of abdominal fasciculi in the
sexually mature Ch. Limncei. They are drawn in fig. 8, PI. XIV,
and were observed in two different specimens. They are evi-
dently setae or bristles modified for some generative function.
When it is remembered that d’Udekem indicated the “hard
pieces” in Chcetogaster Mulleri as placed at the orifices of the
ciliated efferent ducts which he figured in that species, it
becomes clear that if any segment organ exists in this posi-
tion in the adult Ch. Limncei, it should be one modified so as
to form an excretory generative duct. I am certain that such
a duct did not exist in the specimens I studied, nor I believe
any representative of a segment-organ. It appears to me to
be possible that at a later stage of development than I had
the luck to see efferent ducts may develop in connection with
the modified set® observed by the side of the first pair of ab-
dominal fasciculi in the sexual Ch. Limncei d In this case it
would seem not unlikely that the first pairof fasciculi, the modi-
fied set® and efferent ducts, may one and all be new develop-
ments of the generative region, which in the larv® are as com-
pletely unrepresented as are the generative glands themselves.

This question, as well as the later stages of reproduction,
I must hope to clear up next October.

clearly due to a suppression of intermediate fasciculi. The apparent
cepkalisation is thus caused; the cephalic bristles are not more truly
cephalic than the first pair in Nais, but their separation from the next pair
gives them a false significance. Their differentiation as to number and length
is, however, a true claim to distinction, and is an important zoological
character.

1 The scattered condition of the star-like masses of spermatozoa in the
body-cavity (see fig. 7, PI. I) is very much against the probability of an
efferent duct developing itself.

280

The great difference in size between the sexual Ch. Limncei
and the fissiparous larvae which abound through the year
must not be overlooked. I believe that the larvae are smaller
in the earlier months of the year, not when measured by the
length of the chains of zooids, which are very long when
found within the Limnaeus in February, but estimated by the
breadth and the size of their setae. In September they appear
to be getting bigger ; and at last, in October, the sexual
forms are developed, measuring a maximum of one third of
an inch for a head and sixteen fasciculi, as against one tenth
of an inch in the larvae for two attached zooids, consisting
each of a head and seven fasciculi, the posterior of which
belong to new growing zooids. I may here also observe that
the rate of production of new zooids probably varies with the
abundance of nutriment, and that in some cases you may see
as many as four or five segments (indicated by fasciculi)
remaining attached behind a head without sign of separation ;
but, as a rule, you will observe separation taking place after
the third abdominal pair of fasciculi.

Generative Organs. — Having above described the changes
occurring in Ch. Limncei on assuming the sexual state, other
than those relating to the genitalia themselves, I shall now
describe these. In a specimen which consisted of two indi-
viduals developing sexual organs and intermediate and ter-
minal zooids in a state of growth, I endeavoured to fix the
position of the generative organs in relation to the muscular
septa which pass from the body-wall to the alimentary canal,
and which in most Annelids agree with somites or segments
in number, though I doubt if they do in the anterior region
of Chaetogaster. I noted — 1, septum below the pharynx,
followed by the commissural vessels (see former paper) ; then,
2, a thinner septum, between which and 3, a similar septum,
was a doubly pyriform mass of considerable size, cellular
structure, and transparent. This double mass, or these two
masses, were the testes, as was most clearly proved afterwards.
They appear to have been mistaken by d’Udekem for “seminal
receptacles” (PI. XIV, fig. 1), since he figures no testes,
but organs to which he gives the above name in the position
of what, there can be no doubt, are testes in Ch. Limncei.
After septum 3 came two round masses of ova, one on either
side the nervous cord ; below these the first pair of abdominal
fasciculi ; the modified setae (hard pieces) had not yet appeared
in this specimen. Then followed septum 4, between which
and septum 5, which was a large, well-marked septum, was
a pair of segment organs opening in front of a pair of fasci-
culi,— the second abdominal fasciculi of this sexual form, the

281

first, as I believe, of the larva. At septum No. 5 the stomach
ended ; that is to say the dilatation of the alimentary canal
ceases, a great contraction occurs, and a second expansion
follows, forming what may be termed intestine, for the sake
of distinction. Between septums 5 and 6, 6 and 7, and 7 and

8, there was a pair of segment organs and a pair of fasciculi,
in each case. These were followed by homogeneous blastema,
and the commencement of another zooid, to which succeeded
a third zooid, developing sexual organs like the first. In the
course of time, no doubt, each of these zooids would complete
itself by developing the full number of sixteen or seventeen
segments, perhaps even a larger number than I saw in the
specimen, PI. XIV, fig. 2.

The Testis. — The testis is seen in PI. XIV, figs. 5, 7. In the
first case it is immature, in the second figure it is in a worm ap-
parently quite adult ; fissiparity had entirely ceased ; the worm
had the appearance given in fig. 2 ; and the generative pro-
d uc ts, both ova and spermatozoa, werefloating freely in the body
cavity. The large spheres of which the testis is at this time
composed appear to be thrown off, as they become complete,
into the perivisceral cavity, where they assume the form
(fig. 7), the well-known actinophrys-like masses of sperma-
tozoa. These pass down the body to some distance, making
their way so far as the third or fourth pair of abdominal fas-
ciculi. There certainly appeared to be no efferent duct in
connection with the testes at this period of maturity. Whether
a pair are developed, or how the spermatozoa escape, is
unknown to me.

The Clitellusand Genital Setce. — The clitellus extends from in
front of the first pair of abdominal fasciculi to behind the second
pair. It consists of cells having the appearance of PI. XIV, fig.

9. The presence of a clitellus implies copulation ; but the
only other copulatory organs are possibly the stunted bristles
which develop near the first fasciculi. To these remarkable
organs I propose to give the name of genital setae.1 A clitellus
implies copulation, if the usual explanation of its function is
correct ; but it seems to me to be quite as well suited to the
purpose of forming an egg-capsule as to aiding copulation —
in fact, rather better. In the Earthworm it probably is
useful in sexual congress ; but it by no means follows that
because such is its function, or a part of its function in the
Earthworm, that such is its function elsewhere. An existing

1 I have recently observed similarly modified setae in Nais, which develope
as a new pair of fasciculi, indicating a segment unrepresented in the asexual
form. Thus the existence of distinct larval and mature forms is established
for gemmiparous Oligocheeta.

282

structure may have its function largely changed to meet a
want in the organism ; and it has yet to be proved that the
Limicolae use their clitelli in copulation, whilst a “ capsulo-
genous gland,” as d’Udekem termed certain internal glands,
is wanting in many cases. Hence, I think, we cannot infer
any very intimate or elaborate copulation from the presence
of a clitellus.

The Ova. — The ova appear in round masses, paired on oppo-
site sides of the neural cord. Their appearance may be learned
from the figures. At first only the anterior masses appear.
Subsequently in two cases I noticed a second small pair — that
is, a younger pair, developing posteriorly to the first pair of
abdominal fasciculi. There was no oviduct perceptible. The
ova floated in masses in the most mature individual I ob-
served, in the perivisceral cavity ; one ovum had grown much
larger than the others in the same mass, as is very usual
among Oligochseta. The ova drawn in PI. XV, fig. 4, were
each about -T-u10-,-,th of an inch in diameter. The ova arise in
the protoplasmic matter surrounding the nerve-cord, by
extension of which same matter the homogeneous blastema is
formed from which the head and somites are produced in
zooid- growth. The masses of ova commence as detached
protoplasmic masses, in which arise feebly defined nuclei,
apparently few in number at first, but increasing in distinct-
ness till there are seven or more visible on one surface, each
with surrounding differentiated matter. The ova so developed
simply hang together, not supported by any framework, and
are easily detached from their position when their growth
has proceeded some time. The simplicity of these ovaries is
equaled by that of the testes, in which the sac-like figure
disappears with development, and simple masses of sperma-
tozoa are detached in numbers from an aggregated mass, as
they become ripe and float freely in the body cavity. The
masses of ova and the masses of spermatozoa thus floating are
strictly comparable. The enormously greater relative abun-
dance of spermatozoa, as compared to ova, is very striking.
Their mass is even far greater. What special purpose
does this serve in the worm’s adjustment to its conditions ?

As to how the ova escape from the body, how they are
impregnated, how they develop, what may he the first
appearance of a young Chaetogaster, as also the time and
place of his debut, I have as yet not the slightest indication.
The interesting change from larva to adult, which is paral-
leled amongst Polychaet, but not recorded amongst Oligo-
chaet Chaetopoda, makes one anxious to know the whole
history of this minutest of the class. I cordially recommend

283

the upper reservoir on lower Hampstead Heath to those
readers who wish to get abundance of both Cheetogaster
Limned and Cheetogaster diaphanus.

Classification. — In vol. xxvi of the ‘ Linntean Transactions,’
p. 744, speaking of the zoological position of Chaetogaster, I
remarked, in reference to the genera Chaetogaster, Parthe-
nope,1 Thysanoplea, and JEolosoma, “ they are now put
with the Naids, from which certainly Chaetogaster differs as
much as Nais does from Lumbricus.”2 The classification
here indicated has been since advocated by M. Leon Vaillant
in his interesting paper already alluded to (‘Ann. des Sciences
Naturelles,’ 1868). M. Vaillant proposes, as primary groups
of Oligochaeta, these, viz. Lumbricina, Naidina, and Chaeto-
gastrina. The limitation of Lumbricina given by M. Vaillant
is, perhaps, not quite what could be wished, his Naidina and
Lumbricina forming more naturally four, or at least three, fami-
lies; but I believe the family Chaetogastrina to be well justified.
M. Vaillant places in it Chaetogaster and Ctenodrilus (Parthe-
nope) . It is this Parthenope which made me hesitate to propose
a family for Chaetogaster ; for it has not the specialised cephalic
fasciculi of Chaetogaster (Schmarda’s Chaetogaster from South
America seems also to be in this case, and further agrees with
Parthenope in its having only three bristles in a fascicle),
and thus seems to bridge over the chasm to Naidina, its
ciliated prostomium and spotted integument also helping on
the way through CEolosoma. Nevertheless, its uncinate bris-
tles in single series and neural position, and its general form,
agree with Chaetogaster. We cannot hope or reasonably
expect that throughout the organic wrorld Nature should
destroy some forms and keep others going, precisely in such
a way that those at present existing may form genera, fami-
lies, orders, or classes at all comparable to one another in
size or significance. A finer scale for indicating the gaps
between various groups is now needed than any suited to the
philosophy which regarded species and classes as divine
institutions, but allowed men to speculate as to the less sacred
“ families” and “ orders.” In the assemblage of forms known
as Vermes this fact is strikingly exemplified ; and in the con-
struction of the genetic tree of that group Chaetogaster will

1 This is Schmidt's genus ; it is identical with Claparede’s Ctenodrilus,
a fact which M. Vaillant appears to have overlooked. In PI. XV, fig. 9, I
have eiven a sketch of the worm.

2 “The pap between Nais and Chaetogaster is not so great as I thought
when writing as above. The great difference is in the suppression of fas-
ciculi in the pharyngeal region of Chaetogaster. In other matters they are
closely allied, e.g. genitalia, form of satae, vascular system, &c.”

VOL. IX. NEW SER.

T

284

have to occupy a distinct position among the earlier Chaeto-
pods, tracing its ancestry first to a progenitor of Parthenope,
and through this to the stirps of iEolosoma and the Naids.

Summary. — The following facts, with regard to the sexual
form of Chcetogaster Litnncei, may be regarded as certainly
ascertained.

1st. The sexual form makes its appearance in October,
and is theft but rare. It exhibits greater activity than the
larvae.

2nd. It is from twice to three times as large as the small
larval chains of zooids, which measure from one tenth to one
sixth of an inch in length.

3rd. Sixteen or more segments bearing fasciculi of setae
succeed in unbroken order to the head and cephalic fasciculi,
forming a tapering individual worm, instead of three (tempo-
rarily five sometimes) such segments in the larvae.

4th. The alimentary canals of the adults and adolescent
contain setae which have been swallowed.

5th. The adolescent have often but half the number of setae
prevalent in the larvae (twelve in cephalic and eight in
abdominal fasciculi); the adult have invariably twice the
larval number of setae in each fasciculus.

6th. The first pair of abdominal fasciculi are situated more
anteriorly than in the larvae, with whose first the second pair
agree, not only in position, but probably homologically.

7th. A thick cuticle exists, which is absent in the larva.

8th. A general advance in the histological structure and
specialisation of the viscera is apparent in the adult ; but
the pharyngeal portion of the nervous system retains its
simplicity.

9th. There is a bilobed testis situate near the oesophagus,
the spermatozoa from which float in masses in the perivisceral
cavity when complete.

10th. Ova develop posteriorly to the testes in paired,
masses on the sides of the nerve-cord ; they also are detached
and float in the perivisceral cavity.

11th. Close to the first pair of abdominal fasciculi, at the
inner margin of each, ai'e developed four stunted and thick
bristles of generative function.

12th. A clitellus surrounds the region of the worm about
and between the two first pairs of abdominal fasciculi.

13th. Some of these changes arise by modification in a
worm already grown. How far any arise in the course of
growth is not ascertained.

Chcetogaster diaphanus. — In PI. XV, figs. 5, 6, I have
sketched roughly the nervous system of this species. Leydig

285

has figured the parts given in fig. 5 in his work on the nervous
system of Annulosa. The presence of the second commissure
or nerve-collar (stg) is very remarkable. It is not present
in Ch. Limncei, or, if represented, not sufficiently differentiated
from the surrounding tissue to be apparent. In the larvae of
Ch. Limruei the nerve-tissue is homogeneous. The chain of
ganglia drawn from the first suboesophageal is important in
connection with the question as to the number of somites in-
tervening between the cephalic bristles and the first abdominal
fasciculi. It is not till we get as far down the cord as that
lettered 1 br. (in connection with the first pair of abdominal
fasciculi) that the normal form of ganglion, which persists
throughout the rest of the body, commences. Two normal
ganglia are probably represented by ce and st respectively on
the oesophagus and stomach, and hence, it may be inferred
— two somites, which have become fixed and modified into
this intra-fascicular region ; but it seems that this is not a
necessary conclusion. We may suppose that this region
never has been or would be segmented, and that its ganglia
are due, not to an arrested or fused condition of tertiary aggre-
gation, but to development of ganglionic nerve-tissue at various
points in the nerve-strand of a secondary aggregate — that is
to say the secondary aggregate to which each segment of
Chaetogaster partially corresponds in an arrested condition
(i. e. minus a head). The separation into gangliform masses
in the nerve-cord from sphg. to 1 br. may indicate superin-
duced and not constitutional segmentation. The separation
of these two forms of segmentation is a matter of great
difficulty, and, at the same time, most important for the
morphology of the Annulosa, and equally for that of the
Vertebra ta.

Notf.s on the Thysanura. By Sir John* Lubbock, Bart.,
F.R.S., V.P. Linn. Soc., &c. &c. (Abstract of Paper,
No. 4, read to the Linneau Society.)

Sir John began by adding four more species to the list of
British Thysanura, which now comprises about fifty species,
of which only fourteen were recorded as British when he
began to study the group. Three out of the four now added
are Continental species ; the fourth does not agree with any

286

as yet described. He then made some remarks on the
reproduction of lost parts, especially on the reparation of
■wounded antennae. He showed that if an antenna is cut
off, for example, in the middle, it never again recovers the
normal number of segments, and he mentions the curious
fact that among the species with longest antennae it is
extremely rare to find a full-grown specimen in which these
organs are perfect. It is also remarkable that the reproduced
segments acquire an abnormal length. Thus, for instance, if
a Tomocerus has the terminal and part of the third segment
removed, the terminal segment is never reproduced, though
the penultimate one acquires a greater length than in un-
mutilated specimens.

Sir John then described the internal anatomy of the
Thysanura, alluding successively to the digestive, respira-
tory, nervous, reproductive, and muscular systems. In
opposition to Nicolet, he denied the existence of Malpighian
vessels or of tracheae. The latter point is one of much
interest, and the more so, perhaps, because, as Sir John
pointed out, while the majority of the group has no well-
developed system of tracheae, in Smynthurus, on the con-
trary, they are easily visible. Sir John dwelt at considerable
length on the arrangement of the muscles, especially de-
scribing the mechanism of the spring and of the ventral
tube.

He then made some remarks on the classification of the
Thysanura. He pointed out that the Lepismidse and
Poduridae wrere much less nearly allied than had hitherto
been supposed ; and he considered that the Poduridae,
Smynthuridae, and Lipuridse formed . a well-marked and
distinct group, characterised specially by the presence of
the gastric tube, to which he attributed greater classificatory
importance than to the saltatory appendage.

Finally, he expressed the opinion that this group, though
nearly allied to the true Insects, differed more from the
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, and other typical orders of insects,
than these groups do from one another.

287

On Several New and Rare Species of Fresh-water
Diatom ao® discovered in Northumberland. By Arthur
Scott Donkin, M.D., Lecturer on Forensic Medicine to
the University of Durham, and Physician to the Sunder-
land Infirmary and Dispensary.

With Plate XVI II.

In pursuing my investigations with the view of publishing,
at no distant period, an entirely new work on the British
Diatomacese, I have recently met with several highly in-
teresting fresh-water species; some of them entirely new to
science, the others scarcely known to observers in this country.
To a description of these I now beg to direct attention.

In my previous contributions on the Diatomaceae to the
Royal Microscopical Society of London,1 and to the pages of
this Journal,2 I have fully indicated the localities where
immense congeries of marine species may be found luxuriating
in their natural habitat on the sandy shore, during the warm
months of summer. I now venture to offer a few observa-
tions on the localities most favorable to the production of
fresh-water species, and the best method of collecting them ;
but in our search for these we must take our leave of the
delights and refreshing breezes of the sea-beach, where —

“ Percussa juvant fluctu tam lit.ora,”

and direct our steps to meandering rivers and the babbling
waters of mountain streams —

“ Quae

Saxosas inter decurrunt flumina valies,”

with all their fascinations for the student of Natural History.

It is a mistaken assertion, and only applicable to the com-
moner species, that the Dialomacem are almost ubiquitous.
On the contrary, many species are extremely fastidious as to
localities, while others are only propagated in abundance at
certain seasons of the year. Thus the humble Gomphonema
olivaceum only occurs in the spring, in small clear streams
and ditches in exposed situations, covering the stones at the
bottom with olive-coloured mammillated cushions, and only
in those places where the water is running with some degree
of swiftness. Remove a mass of this species from its habitat,
and place it in a bottleful of the water in which it was for-

1 ‘ Trans. Micr. Soc.,’ vol. vi, New Series, p. 12.

2 Vol. i, New Series, p. 1.

288

merly growing and expose it to the sun, and it will die in a
few hours and become quite bleached — a fact clearly showing
that a constant supply of pure cold water is essential for its
existence.

Surirella biseriata, Navicula nobilis, and, indeed, many
other species, prefer the pure spring water of boggy pools on
exposed hill-sides. All, indeed, require for their abundant
propagation pure water and sunshine, with a certain degree
of warmth. Consequently, stagnant pools, overshadowed by
bushes and the boughs of trees, are never productive of
diatoms, the only species I have ever found alive in water
after it had actually become quite putrid being Cymato-
pleura solea and C. elliptica ; but how long even they could
have continued to exist under such conditions I have not
ascertained.

Shallow, rapid rivers and mountain streams, and the rills
and springs of pure water supplying them, are the favorite
haunts of a very large number of species. During a con-
tinuance of dry, warm weather in spring, summer, and
autumn, they are propagated in surprising abundance on
the sandy or gravelly bottoms of gently running pools, or in
the quiet eddies by the margins even of rapid streams, or of
shallow pools distant from the main stream, and subject to
the inundation of floods, at other times supplied with water
percolating through the sand or gravel. In all these locali-
ties a plentiful supply may be obtained by scooping up the
coloured stratum at the bottom with a spoon, and separating
the sand from the diatoms by subsidence, and, if a sandy
instead of a muddy portion of the bottom is selected, a
gathering will be secured unmixed with impurities, and
exceedingly rich. In the daytime, especially in sunny
weather, the stratum of diatoms at the bottom is floated, by
the air bubbles generated and entangled, to the surface in
broken masses or flakes, which may be collected from the
surface by a spoon, and placed in bottles. These flakes
floating on the surface being quite buoyant, are wafted by
the breezes into the main current, and are carried downwards
by the stream : so that there is no better method of securing
a supply of a great variety of species than walking by the
side of a river and collecting the brown, jelly-looking flakes
as they float onwards on its surface, to be finally deposited in
the mud of its estuary, from which some of the species of
which it is composed may afterwards chance to be collected,
and described as brackish water forms.

The species forming the subject of the present memoir
were discovered in localities such as I have indicated, and in

289

the manner I have described, the splendid form Navicula
Coquedensis having been obtained in the flakes floating on the
surface of a pool.

The gatherings made in the rivers Coquet and Breamish,
both mountain streams flowing from the Cheviot range, bore
a striking resemblance to those from several localities in the
North of Scotland, containing in abundance several of the
species found in them, as described and figured by the late
Professor Gregory in this Journal.1 Amongst these I may
mention Navicula cocconeiformis , Greg., N. bacillum Ehr., N.
nodosa, Ehr ., N.mtegra, Smith; Stauroneis ovalis, Greg., and
Surirella tenera, Greg., besides two beautiful forms hitherto
only found as British species in Ireland, namely —
“ Surirella Caledonica, Ehr. ( S . turgida , Sra.) and Cymato-
pleura plicata, Ehr. (C. Hybernica, Sm.), the former in con-
siderable abundance.

The invention of the binocular microscope by Mr. Wenham,
has introduced a most important aid to the study of the
Diatomaceae, inasmuch as it enables us to obtain a correct
knowledge of the form and construction of the silicious
frustule and its valves, previously impossible with the
monocular instrument. What a striking impression is pro-
duced in viewing for the first time under the binocular a
valve of Heliopelta. How very different the configuration of
this truly beautiful species really is, from the illustration of
it, as seen by the monocular, given in the plate forming the
frontispiece to Dr. Carpenter’s valuable treatise on the
microscope. The same may be said of many other species, and
indeed of whole genera. I shall merely instance another.
Hyalodiscus subtilis is described amongst test objects in the
work just cited, p. 183, as being of a discoid form, and
having markings which radiate in all directions very much
like those of an engine-turned watch. Mr. Ralfs, too, whose
accuracy as an observer is sufficiently well known, says of
the genus Hyalodiscus : — “ Its flat disc will distinguish it
from Podosira” 2 Now the fact is that the valve of Hyalo-
discus subtilis is hemispherical, approaching indeed to conical,
not a flat disc as it appears to be under the monocular ; while
the markings, seen radiating in all directions, are optical
illusions produced by the impossibility of getting into focus
at a time, under a high power more than a narrow zone of
the hemispherical valve. Numerous other examples might
be adduced to show that the monocular microscope with its
flat field is so unadapted to the study of the diatomaceae, and

1 Vol. iv, p. 1 ; pi. i, 1856.

3 ‘Prit. Inf.,’ p. 814.

290

displays so little of their real contour, that it will be found
necessary to reconstruct and redescribe several of the existing
genera, and amongst them the genus to which I am about to
direct attention.

Surirella, Turpin , 1827.

Frustules, free, solitary, with equal extremities or cuneate.
Valve with a median longitudinal clear line or space : pro-
duced laterally into carinated alee, and folded transversely
or obliquely into plicee alternately elevated and depressed :
most strongly developed near the margins, and growing
fainter towards the median line or space ; sides of the valve
flexed inwards from the carinse towards the margin.

Such I conceive to be the generic characters of Surirella,
which have hitherto escaped recognition, owing, doubtless,
to the imperfect observation afforded by the monocular
microscope.

This genus was first established by Turpin in 1827.
Dujardin 1 says of his definition, which I have not seen, “ M.
Turpin voluit faire un genre particulier de celles dont la forme
est ovale, presque l’onde, et qui sont fortement ciselees; il
les nomma Surirella.” In 1841 it was restricted by the
formation of the genus Campylodiscus by Ehrenberg ; and
still further in 1853 by the late Professor Smith in the con-
struction of the genera Cymatopleura and Tryblionella. But
the characters of Surirella, as given by Professor Smith, are
by no means exact nor explanatory of the structure of the
valve in this genus ; he describes the margins of the valve as
“ produced into alse ;”1 2 3 and in defining the genus Tryblionella
he says “ it agrees with Surirella in the presence of alse,
but these arise from the disc and are not, as in Surirella,
prolongations of the margin .”s This description and the
figures of the marginal views (F. V.) given in Plate viii, vol.
i, show that Pi'ofessor Smith was not aware of the real
structure of the frustule and conformation of the valve. The
alee are not prolongations of the margin, nor placed at the
margin, but are produced by the abrupt inflection or folding
inwards of the sides of the valve, at a more or less acute
angle, some distance from the margin; the point of flexure
forming a carina on either side. Thus the valve has three

1 ‘ Hist. Nat,, des Infus.,’ p. 673. 1841.

3 * Synop. of Brit. Diatom./ vol. i, p. 30.

3 Op. cit., p. 35.

291

distinct surfaces externally, as shown by the accompanying
figure ; a, the dorsum, gene-
rally more or less concave,
and b, b, the two lateral sur-
faces. It will be seen, there-
fore, that the margins (c, c)
are contracted within the area
of the expanded alse (rf, d)
which are composed of two
folds of the valve, and that the
cariruE ( e , e) are the points of
flexure.

The transverse or oblique “ canaliculi ” of Smith, or
“ costce ” of Rabenhorst, and others, are the alternate
plicce produced by the corrugation laterally of the valve.
The plicae are alternately concave and convex on both
surfaces. In the typical species in which the plicae are semi-
cylindrical — as in S. biseriata and S. splendida — that which
is a costa on one surface of the valve is a canaliculus on the

Ideal transverse section of a
valve of Surirella.

opposite. The object of this structure appears to be to secure
sufficient strength and a certain degree of elasticity, with a
small amount of siliceous matter, so as to enable the frustule
to float in water.

When a valve is placed flat under the field of the micro-
scope the margins are overlapped by the carinse, and are thus
concealed from view.

1. Surirella Barrowcliffia, Donkin.

Frustule panduriform on M. V.1 and S. Y. (and when
placed obliquely), with four equidistant, expanded, carinated
alse ; carinse sinuously constricted in the middle and rounded
towards the truncated extremities. Valve on S. V. elongated,
narrow, slightly panduriform ; extremities rounded with a
central notch ; alse expanded backwards, panduriform,
strongly carinated ; plicse (canaliculi) transverse, wide, semi-
cylindrical; widening towards the carinse and reaching a
short distance within them.

Hub. Fresh water. River Coquet, Elyhaugh ; plentiful
April and Wav, 1869.

The panduriform outline of the species on every aspect

1 F. V., Smith. I prefer M. V., to denote marginal view, or that view of
the frustule in which the margins of the valves with the intervening connect-
ing zone are exposed to view. Great confusion in this respect prevails.
What is a primary surface with Kutzing, is a secondary with Rabenhorst,
and vice versa.

292

in ■which the frustule can be viewed, together with the
notched extremities of the valves, at once distinguish it from
every other member of the genus. The central notch at each
extremity is produced by the expansion of the carinse beyond
the margin of the valve, so that a groove runs across the
truncate extremities from the surface of one valve to that of
the other; or, in other words, the groove across each extre-
mity is continuous with the concave dorsum of the valves.
I have had repeated opportunities of observing this both in
living and mounted specimens.

This form appears to be allied to S. didyma, Ktz. (f Bac./
p. 60, t. iii, 67), and £. panduriformis, Raben. (‘ Siissw.
Diat./ p. 29, t. iii, 8 and 9) ; but it is difficult to say what is
meant by Kutzing’s and Rabenhorst’s figures. Kutzing de-
scribes S. didyma as follows : “ Oblonga, utrinque truncata,
medio sinuato-constricto, margine punctata/'’ and says it is a
brackish water species from the Isle of Wangerooge.
Rabenhorst more recently (‘ Diatom. Europ./ Leip., 1864,
p. 51) has referred his S. panduriformis to this species; but,
according to him, the M. V. is not panduriform, but oblong
lanceolate, with truncate extremities ; while the valve on S.Y.
is oblong panduriform, with truncated extremities ; the
“ costae ” being fine, arising from marginal nodules ; his
description is : E. minimis ; oblonga, utrinque truncata,
panduriformis, a latere oblongo-lanceolata, utroque polo
truncata. Costis parallelis gracilibus, e nodulis marginalibus
ortis. v. v. Hab. in aquis submarinis litoralibus Germanise,
Italiae, &c. Mr. Ralfs (f Prit. Inf.,’ p. 794) thinks S. didyma
is doubtfully a Surirella. It is, however, a submarine species,
according to Kutzing and Rabenhorst; while the present
species was discovered in the sandy bottom of a pool, and
floating on the surface of a clear mountain stream several
miles distant from the sea.

2. Surirella subalpina , Donkin.

Frustule on F. Y. broad, cuneate ; extremities truncated ;
alae conspicuous. Valve ovate, elongated ; plicae transverse,
slightly inclined near the extremities becoming incon-
spicuous a short distance within the carinae, alternately
costate on the inner surface of the valve.

This species differs from S. splendida and other allied
species in the alternate or iuner plicae being narrow and
strongly costate ; in this respect it bears a close resemblance
to S. limosa, Bailey. (‘ Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci./ Yol. VII,
p. 179, PI. IX, 5.)

Hab. Fresh water. Discovered in abundance in a clear

293

spring at Ingram, on the river Breamish, mixed with a
sprinkling of S. biseriata.

3. Surirella tenera, Gregory. Quart. Jour. Micr. Sci./
Yol. IV, p. 11, PI. I, 38.)

Frustule on F. V. elongated, narrow, cuneate. Valve on
S. V. elongated, narrow, ovate; plicfe transverse, slightly
inclined near the extremities, conspicuous, reaching to the
median line, semi-cvlindrical ; the inner narrow, about 8
in 001".

Allied to S. splendida, but a very much smaller and more
slender species, and.with much finer plicse.

This form was described by Professor Gregory as a doubt-
ful species, being under the impression that it might be the
perfectly developed S. linearis. After ample investigation,
however, I feel satisfied that it is a distinct and well-marked
species.

Hab. Fresh water. River Coquet, Elyhaugh, May, 1869,
frequent. Banffshire, Professor Gregory.

4. Navicula Coquedensis, Donkin.

Very large. Valve on S. V. broad, oblong, much inflated
in the middle ; extremities broad, rotund, slightly dilated ;
striae moniliform, connivent, sub-distant from the median
line, gradually shortened around the centre, and absent from
the extremities ; about 30 in •001" subdividing dichotomously
opposite the centre.

Hab. Fresh water. River Coquet, Elyhaugh, May, 1869.

5. Navicula vernalis, Donkin.

Syn. — A'. varians, Greg., ‘ Trans. Micr. Soc.,’ vol. iii, p. 12, pi.
ii, 14, 15, 25.

Valve short, broad, elliptical, or slightly lanceolate, with
broad, rotund extremities ; striae reaching to the median line,
distant, robust, obliquely inclined towards the centre ; oppo-
site the centre more distant, direct, much shorter, and of
unequal length, so as to leave an irregularly triangular blank
space on either side of the centre.

This well-marked species appears to have been first detected
by the late Professor Gregory in a gathering from Dudding-
stone Loch, in 1853, and placed by him in a numerous group
of forms, which he referred to an undescribed species or type
which he named N. varians.1 This group undoubtedly con-
1 * Trans. Micr. Soc.,’ vol. iii, p. 10, pi. ii.

294

tains several distinct species, some of them already described
as N. tumida, oblonga, peregrina, acuta , radiosa, and scutel-
loides ; and amongst them the present form, which remains
undescribed, although apparently delineated in figs. 14, 15,
and 25 in Professor Gregory’s plate.

Hab. Fresh water. River Coquet, Elyhaugh. Abundant,
April and May, 1869. The typical N. oblonga was abundant
in the same gatherings,

6. Navicula Cymbula, Donkin.

Syn. — Navicula varians, Greg., ‘Trans. Micr. Soc.,’ vol. iii, pi.
ii, 33.

Yalve elongated, elliptical-lanceolate, gradually attenuated
towards the elongated acute extremities ; striae robust,
obliquely inclined towards the centre, but becoming gradually
direct, much coarser, and much more distant opposite the
centre ; reaching the median line, and slightly shortened
around the centre.

Hab. Fresh water. River Coquet, Elyhaugh, plentiful,
April and May, 1869.

7. Navicula limosa, Ktz. ‘ Bac./ p. 101, T. iii. 50;

Grunow in ‘Wien. Verh./ 1860, p. 544, T. iii. 8;

Raben. Siissw/ D., p. 41 ; T. vi. 31 ; and ‘ Europ.

Diat.,’ p. 188. Ralfs in ‘ Prit. Inf./ p. 894.

Frustule small. Yalve very convex, narrow, linear elon-
gated, with two marginal sinuous constrictions, . and three
inflations ; one central, and two terminal ; the central gene-
rally the larger ; extremities sub-cuneate, obtuse ; striae
delicate, transverse, dry valve yellowish brown.

Rabenhorst (‘ Eur. Diat./ p. 189) refers the three
following forms to this species as varieties : — Navicula
Gibberula, Ktz. (‘ Bac./ p. 101, T. iii, 50*) ; N. inflata,
Grun. (‘Wien. Verh./ 1860, T. iii, 8. c.)=N. Gibberula,
Sm. (‘ Svn./ vol. i, p. 51, pi. xvii. 160) ; N. bicuneata,
Grun. (loc. cit., fig. 7).

The longitudinal striae described by Rabenhorst are
deceptive appearances produced by the convexity of the
valve.

Hab. Fresh water. River Breamish, Ingram. River
Coquet, Elyhaugh, plentiful; near Hull, very scarce. Mr.
Norman.

I have been induced to give a description and figure of
this species, as it is new to Britain.

295

8. Navicula firma, Ktz. (‘ Bac./ p. 92, T. xxi, 10;

Ralfs, in ‘ Prit. Inf./ p. 909).

Syn. — Navicula affinis, Ehr., var. Raben. Europ. Diatom., p.

19C.

Valve broad, elongated, linear-elliptical, gradually attenu-
ated into subacute cuneate extremities; striae close, fine,
transverse, reaching to the median line, considerably short-
ened. opposite the centre, moniliform ; monilae elongated,
irregular, imparting a wavy, silky appearance to the striae.

Hab. Fresh water. River Coquet, Elyhaugh, May, 1869.

Kiitzing first discovered this species in the fossil earth from
Santa Fiore in Italy; in this deposit it is quite common. I
have slides in my possession of a fossil deposit from Nova
Scotia also containing it. The fossil specimens agree per-
fectly with the recent ones found in the Coquet. Hitherto
it has only been found in the fossil state, according to
Rabenhorst (f Eur. Diat./ p. 226), and is now added to our
recent British species. Navicula firma, Smith ('Synop. Brit.
Diat./ vol. i, p. 48, pi. xvi, 138), is quite a distinct species,
and justlv referred by Mr. Ralfs to N. microstoma, Ktz.
(‘ Prit. Inf./ p. 909).

The present form was described by Kiitzing as “ apertura
media majori ; striis transversalibus nullis but this absence
of striae is only apparent, for though somewhat difficult of
resolution, they are very distinct when a good object-glass is
employed. It is readily distinguished from N. microstoma,
N. amphigomphus, and other allied forms, by the large
central blank area, and by its punctate wavy, silky-looking
striae.

9. Navicula stauroptera, Ehr.

Syn. — Stauroptera parva, Ehr. Amer., 1843, p. 135, t. iii, 1,
19. Slauroneis parva, Kutz. ‘Bac.,’ p. 100, t. xxix,
23. Stauroptera parva , Raben. Siissw. Diat. p. 49,
t. ix, 6, and Pinnularia stauroptera, Raben. * Eur.
Diat.’ p. 222. Pinnularia divergcns, var. Greg. Q.
M. J., ii, p. 99, pi. iv, 15. Navicula parva, Ralfs,
‘ Prit. Inf./ p. 897.

Frustule small ; valve linear, slightly constricted near the
broad rounded extremities ; striae oblique, 28 to 32 in
•001", not reaching to the median line, gradually shortened
towards the centre, and finally interrupted, leaving a central
cruciform blank area, with four incurved sides, and reaching
to the margin.

296

Hab. Fresh water. River Breamish, Ingram; river Coquet,
Elyhaugh, frequent. According to Rabenhorst this species
is generally distributed through Germany, Belgium, France,
Switzerland, and Italy.

Note on a New Means of examining Blood under the
Microscope, and on the Blood-Fluids o/Tnvertebratks,
and on a Natural Standard for registering Absorp-
tion Spectra. By E. Ray Lankester, B.A., Ch. Ch.
Oxon.

My friend, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, last year suggested to me
that I should try the new blood-matter, Chlorocruorin, which
I discovered in Siphonostoma and Sabella two years since
(see Humphry’s and Turner’s ‘Journal of Anatomy,’ Nov.,
1867) with Day’s guaiacum-and-peroxide-of hydrogen-test
(see ‘ Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ 1868, p. 282). This I accord-
ingly did, and obtained the most satisfactory results, the
guaiacum being rendered brilliantly blue in the usual way by
the Chlorocruorin and ozonic ether. I also proceeded to try
a great number of blood-fluids of Invertebrata. In all cases
where the presence of Haemoglobin (Cruorin) had been
proved by me with the spectroscope to be present I did not
fail to obtain the blueing of the guaiacum, e. g., in Planorbis,
in larva of Chironomus and allied larvae, and many Annelids.
The colourless fluids among these groups I also tested with
the guaiacum and “ ozonized ether,” having been led to sus-
pect that in the colourless blood of insects, molluscs, &c.,
there must be a body having properties similar to those of
Haemoglobin and Chlorocruorin. The perivisceral fluid of
Annelids gave the blue colour with guaiacum, the colourless
blood of some insects, Crustacea, and molluscs also. In many
there was simply an evolution of gas on the addition of the
ozonized ether, and no blueing of the guaiacum. I attribute
this to the fact that the action was less energetic in these
cases than in the case of the red Haemoglobin or cruorin,
which acts far more powerfully with the test than anything
else, excepting Chlorocruorin. The mere evolution of the
gas is, however, a good test, and can be applied beneath
the microscope. Thus, I have been able to bring ozonized
ether into contact with very small Entomostraca, and
even with some Infusoria, on the microscope-stage, and

297

observe from what part especially the development of gas
takes place. The blood-corpuscles may in this way be
demonstrated as being the part of vertebrate blood from
which oxygen is eliminated in the guaiacum experiment.

When guaiacum is used a porcelain plate is preferable to
blotting-paper for the reception of the solution, since it shows
any change in the colour more clearly than the paper does.

Reduced Cruorin — that is, deoxodized O, Hb — gives the
evolution of gas and the coloration of guaiacum as readily as
does scarlet Cruorin or O, Hb ; so does Haematin, and so does
Dr. Thudichum’s Cruentin. Hence we cannot conclude at
once that it is oxygen held as in O, Hb which is liberated by
the loose oxygen of the hydrogen peroxide. The action has
to be further inquired into and explained.

Distribution of Hcemoglobin among Invertebrata. — In addi-
tion to Planorbis, Chironomus, and Annelida, I have found
haemoglobin lately in insect-larvae, and, what is more inte-
resting, in a Crustacean, viz., the Phyllopod — Branchipus
stagnalis. In this latter form it exists in such small quan-
tity as to give but a faint yellow-pink tint to the creature ; its
presence could never be even suspected by examination with
the unaided eye. The spectroscope at once demonstrates,
beyond the possibility of doubt, the presence of the Haemo-
globin, identical with that found in man. The red colour of
many Entomostraca, and of the tail of the male Branchipus ,
is not due to Haemoglobin, though I believe it exists in other
Entomostraca, of a pinkish hue. My friend, Dr. Edouard
Van Beneden, has discovered a red vascular fluid in certain
Crustacea, which he is about to examine with the spectro-
scope, and, I have no doubt, will prove the presence of
Haemoglobin.

It might be supposed that Hb is present in very small
quantity in the colourless fluids of Invertebrata -which give
the guaiacum reaction, and this idea is rather favoured by the
small quantity present in Branchipus. The spectroscope
would, however, detect a much smaller per-centage than is
there present ; and there seems every reason to believe, from
the intensity of the action in some cases, as, e.g., in the peri-
visceral fluid of Sabella and of Lumbricus, that it is not in
these cases dependent on a small quantity of red Haemoglobin,
but on a colourless allied body, comparable to the green allied
body Chlorocruorin.

I may here mention that I have found a species of Enchy -
treeus — a genus of Lumbricoid worms supposed to have a
colourless vacular fluid (Carus gives ‘ Blut farbloss’ as a cha-
racter of the family) — in which the vascular fluid was quite

298

red. Henle, in his original memoir on this genus, says that
the fluid in mass has a rosy tint. Some Oligochaeta have a
very much, smaller per-centage of Haemoglobin in their vascu-
lar fluid than others.

It is noteworthy, as bearing on the function of Haemoglobin
as evidence from comparative physiology, that those Inverte-
brata in which this body is markedly present, occurring as
an exception or in unusual quantity, are forms living in the
foulest mud, in water sometimes almost destitute of dissolved
oxygen, and in which sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic
acid occur in excess. The Haemoglobin enables them to seize
what little oxygen there is. Plunorbis corneus (an air-
breather truly) lives in very foul pools; the larva of Chiro-
nomus lives in black foetid slime in ponds ; so do many of the
Limicolous Oligochaeta. Branchipus occurs in ponds which
are destitute of vegetation, and are more mud than water; it
has for companions in the pond on Blackheath Chironomus-
larvce and a few Oligochaeta, besides minute Entomostraea.

I take this opportunity of pointing out that Preyer’s pro-
posed estimation of the exact amount of Haemoglobin in a
solution by the spectroscope is not a practicable thing, since
the definition of a band of absorption, with given strength
and thickness of solution, must depend on the spectroscope
used, some having much better definition than others.
Besides this, the personal error must come in very largely in
such a method.

Standard for Spectroscopy. — There is a great want of
some common and natural standard to which to refer
absorption spectra in description. Many valuable observa-
tions are lost for want of such a standard, and others
are misunderstood. The solar lines are not suitable for
various reasons. Mr. Sorby has proposed a quartz plate
of given thickness and Nicol’s prisms, but it is very
difficult to get this apparatus exactly made. I venture
to propose the red fumes or gas known as nitrogen tetroxide
(N204). This gas, sealed in a small tube, furnishes an ex-
cellent standard by which I hope hereafter to describe absorp-
tion spectra. There is no difficulty whatever in obtaining or
keeping it, and I hope that it may become a general thing to
state what relations any bands observed in the spectrum of a
new or important body have to those given by nitrogen
tetroxide.

The details as to the action of “ ozonic ether” on the blood
of Invertebrata and on blood products, as also details as to
Haemoglobin, Chlorocruorin, and Chlorophyl in Invertebrata,

299

and other matters relating to the spectroscope, will be brought
forward soon elsewhere.

The dorsal vessel in Oligochceta. — The relation of the vas-
cular system in these worms is, very clearly, primarily to the
alimentary canal ; the cutaneous vascular system is an addi-
tional development. In many cases the contractions of the
dorsal vessel contract the intestine simultaneously, and the
same movement acts most obviously on the perivisceral fluid,
expansion of the vessel acting so as to contract the peri-
visceral cavity. A similar action is well seen in some Crus-
tacea (e. g., Branchipus) ; the fluid in the lacunae surrounding
the dorsal vessel moves in one direction rhythmically with the
movements of the vessel. The corpuscles of the perivisceral
cavity are, in jDligochaeta, mainly , but not entirely, derived
from the coarsely cellular membrane, which surrounds the
dorsal vessel and its branches, and which has been called the
hepatic tunic. The corpuscles of the perivisceral fluid
furnish good specific, and even generic, characters among
Oligochaet worms. "We have here a good case of the value
of “ cell-diagnosis.”

VOL. IX. —NEW SEK.

u

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Professor Huxley and Dr. Beale on Protoplasm. The eloquent
lecture “On the Physical Basis of Life,” which Professor
Huxley gave before a popular audience in Edinburgh last
January, has been made the subject of a somewhat severe attack
by Dr. Lionel Beale, in a communication read to the Micro-
scopical Society of London, and published in its Journal for
May, 1869. Dr. Beale seeks to show that Professor Huxley
has misrepresented the usual meaning of the term protoplasm,
or has given it a new and absurd signification in conformity
with a preconceived physical theory of life. Meanwhile,
there are persons who have been asking, what is protoplasm ?
Even some of those who should know well enough already.
Dr. Beale’s attack on Professor Huxley, therefore, complicates
matters, since it lends some show of reason to the doubts and
difficulties expressed by certain uninformed readers of the
* Fortnightly Review.’ I wish here, as an independent
student, to state, in opposition to the criticisms of Dr. Beale,
that it did not appear to me, in reading the printed lecture of
Professor Huxley, that he had used the term protoplasm in
any other than its usual, normal, and legitimate signification,
and I gather from that lecture that Professor Huxley’s defi-
nition of protoplasm would probably exclude and include
exactly the same things which Dr. Beale’s would. Dr. Beale
has criticised Professor Huxley’s broad and general state-
ments— admirably adapted to the comprehension of a general
audience — as though they contained a full confession of his
faith qud cell structure and histology generally. This, I
submit, with the greatest deference to Dr. Beale, is hardly
fair; and as his communication to the Microscopical Society
appears to misrepresent the views of the highest authority on
biological science in this country, I venture, not forgetting
the sincere regard which all microscopists must have for Dr.
Beale, to reply to the criticisms. Probably, as far as those
are concerned who have read the lecture and know' Professor
Huxley’s views and the exceeding improbability of his making
the announcements attributed to him, these notes wfill be
superfluous, but there are some to w'hom they may be useful.

301

The charges which Dr. Beale makes may he noticed conse-
cutively. He says(p. 279, ‘ Roy. Micros. See.,’ May, 1869) —
“Still more recently, Von Mold’s primordial utricle has been
called protoplasm by Professor Huxley, who, some years before,
restricted the term to the matter within the primordial
utricle.” Again — “ I think Professor Huxley is the first

observer who has spoken of the cell in its entirety as a mass
of protoplasm, and the only one who has ever asserted that
any tissue in nature is composed throughout of matter which
can be properly regarded as of one kind.” Further, Dr. Beale
attributes the following notions to Professor Huxley : — “ No
matter how many different things may be comprised in the
cell or elementary part, no matter in what essentially different
states these things may be, no matter how different parts may
differ in properties — they constitute protoplasm. A muscle
is protoplasm ; a nerve is protoplasm ; bone, hair, and shell
are protoplasm ; a limb is protoplasm ; the whole body is
protoplasm. No anatomical investigation is necessary to
enable us to detect this substance. Every beast, fowl, reptile,
worm, or polyp, that we see is protoplasm. Everything that
lives, or has lived, is protoplasm ” (p. 282). Leaving out of
question Professor Huxley’s numerous published writings, in
which other views are very fully and carefully expressed, as
Dr. Beale admits, I would ask, does the language used by
Professor Huxley fairly admit of the interpretation imposed
upon it by Dr. Beale ? It certainly does not in my opinion, and
conveyed no such meaning to my mind on reading the article
in the ‘ Fortnightly,’ as it apparently has done to Dr. Beale.
The passages from which j)arts are quoted by Dr. Beale, and
on which he bases his charges against Professor Huxley, are
these : — “ Thus, a nucleated mass of protoplasm turns out to
be what may be termed the structural unit of the human
body. As a matter of fact , the body in its earliest state is a
mere multiple of such units, and in its perfect condition it is

a multiple of such units variously modified Beast and

fowl, reptile and fish, mollusk, worm and polyp, are all com-
posed of structural units of the same character, namely, masses
of protoplasm with a nucleus.” “ Corpuscles of essentially
similar structure [to the white blood-corpuscle] are to be
found in the skin, in the lining of the mouth, and scattered
through the whole framework of the body.” The italicised
words and sentence are not given by Dr. Beale in his quota-
tions, and it seems to me that they imply all which Dr. Beale
declares to be ignored. Professor Huxley tells his audience
that in development the protoplasm of the structural units
becomes variously modified, and Dr. Beale ignores this,

302

though this modification amounts to the difference be-
tween Dr. Beale’s ‘ living ’ and ‘ formed ’ matter. Had
even no such statement been made, it is impossible to
see how Dr. Beale derives his conclusions from what he
quotes, when Ave remember the circumstances under which
the lecture Avas delivered. Again, it certainly does not appear
to folloAv logically that Professor Huxley declares protoplasm
and horn to be identical, from his statement that corpuscles
essentially (that is, in their most important characters, as
far as relates to the inquiry in hand) the same as Avhite
blood-corpuscles are to be found in the skin, &c., Avhich, of
course, Professor Huxley Avas Avell aAvare, is largely composed
of horny scales, the result of the modification (which he
recognises) of the protoplasm.

It may here he noted that Haeckel has not included the
simplest animated beings in the genus Moner, as stated by
Dr. Beale, on page 282, but that his Monera is a group em-
bracing many genera.

On p. 284 Dr. Beale imputes a view to Mr. Herbert
Spencer based on a single quotation from his grand work on
‘ Biology,’ Avhich the Avhole Avork does not warrant, and
Avhich even the sentence quoted does not seem really to
imply : — “ The microscope has traced doAvn organisms to
simpler and simpler forms, until, in the Protogenes of Pro-
fessor Haeckel, there has been reached a type distinguishable
from a fragment of albumen only by its finely granular cha-
racter.” Distinguishable by the microscope, of course, and
by chemical analysis, as Dr. Beale alloAvs, is Mr. Spencer’s
meaning. Mr. Spencer sIioavs himself ahvays fully alive to
the difference of other properties betAveen living and dead
matter, and I cannot see Avhat erroneous implication exists
in Mr. Spencer’s statement.

Professor Huxley compares the chemical analysis of what
was once living matter to the chemical analysis of a crystal
of calcite, and says, as Ave call the crystalline form and pro-
perty an attribute of carbonate of lime, so may Ave call living
form and property an attribute of certain proportions of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, combined in a
certain but undetermined manner. So in the case of Avater,
Ave do not suppose an entity, ‘ aquosity,’ to enter into oxy-
gen and hydrogen Avhen they become water : Avhy should
Ave suppose an entity, ‘vitality,’ for the combination of
the elements to form protoplasm ? Dr. Beale objects to
this (p. 285), that crystalline force is not identical Avith vital
force — an objection which he himself terms trivial, and
Avhich does not seem to invalidate the utility or significance

303

of the comparison made by Professor Huxley. With regard
to ‘ aquosity,’ he says, “ Of water there is but one kind, of
protoplasm there are kinds innumerable.” It maybe replied
that there is dirty water and clean water, pure water and
water holding matter in solution ; if these are not kinds of
water in the same sense as the ‘ kinds of protoplasm,’ per-
haps it is a distinction of living properties to which Dr.
Beale alludes as, e. g. between animal and plant protoplasm.
There is no reason to suppose that such a difference is nof
due to a difference of molecular structure, paralleled by
allotropy. “ The constituent elements of water may be
separated and recombined again and again as many times as
we please ; but the elements of protoplasm, once separated
from one another, can never be combined again to form any
kind of matter” (p. 286). Much less than one hundred years
ago water could not be formed from its elements, as to-day
protoplasm cannot in the laboratory ; but protoplasm is
continually being formed from mineral matters in plants.

Dr. Beale asks, “ Are the properties of the elements of
dog so different from those of the elements of man as to
account for the differences between dog and man?” He
seems to imply that Professor Huxley ought to answer
“Yes” to this, in accordance with his teaching, and that
such a response is very ludicrous. But it is difficult to see
what there is incongruous with the scientific knowledge of
the day in the supposition that a chemical compound should
exhibit a diversity of properties in diverse cases. Returning
to the person of his criticism. Dr. Beale says, “Mr. Huxley
seems to maintain that protoplasm may be killed and dried,
roasted and boiled, or otherwise altered, and yet remain
protoplasm.” Mr. Huxley did not seem to me to maintain
this at all, though, because special and technical words were
not used by Professor Huxley, there is an opening for
criticism. Professor Huxley is very careful to speak of
mutton, lobster, &c., when eaten, as ‘ dead protoplasm,’
and to ignore the fact that he makes this distinction is
hardly just. By overlooking important qualifying adjectives
— such as modified (see above) and dead — an author’s mean-
ing can very readily be misapprehended. What Professor
Huxley really says and means is seen in this passage : — “ Now,
this mutton was once the living protoplasm, more or less
modified, of another animal, a sheep. As I shall eat it, it is
the same matter altered, not only by death, but by exposure
to sundry artificial operations in the process of cooking.”
Again: — Convert the e?ea</protoplasm into living protoplasm.”
There is no deliberate assertion here of any community of

304

property or chemical constitution of the dead and living
matter ; but, obviously for the purpose of carrying on the
mind, and to enable the hearer or reader to follow the rapid
description of the process of nutrition, the word protoplasm
is used and qualified by adjectives, instead of a new and
distinct term being employed. Dr. Beale would have had
Professor Huxley substitute the expression “ converted into
various sorts of formed material ” for the simple ‘ modified,’
and for “ dead protoplasm ” he would require the insertion
of a list of the chemical compounds, albuminoids, &c.,
obtainable from roasted mutton dissolved in the alimentary
canal, and ready for absorption.

The method of drawing a conclusion exhibited in this para-
graph from Dr. Beale (p. 286) is hardly admissible : — “ Mr.
Huxley says, ‘ all protoplasm is proteinaceous ; or, as the
white or albumen of an egg is one of the commonest
examples of a nearly pure protein matter, we may say that
all living matter is more or less albuminoid.’ If the white
of an egg is living matter, why should not its shell be so
considered?” Now, surely no one will agree with Dr.
Beale in imputing to Professor Huxley the assertion that ‘ the
white of an egg is living matter.’ Dr. Beale’s logic runs
thus: — 1. All protoplasm is proteinaceous (Huxley); 2.
"White of egg is proteinaceous (Huxley) ; therefore, accord-
ing to Huxley, 3. White of egg is protoplasm. This cer-
tainly is not what Professor Huxley concludes himself, but
merely — therefore we may speak of protoplasm and white of
egg as albuminoid, substituting this term for proteinaceous.

P. 287 : — “ He (Professor Huxley) also went so far (in
1853) as to remark that ‘ vitality is a property inherent in cer-
tain kinds of matter.’ ” This he has consistently — and there
is no great virtue in consistency — continued to do in 1869,
though Dr. Beale does not seem to think so. Such seems
to me to be the very text of the Edinburgh lecture —
understanding by vitality what is more simply called life.

The foregoing observations are made with the utmost defer-
ence to Dr. Beale. I have thought it right to reply to an
interpretation of statements which, no doubt, is a genuine
impression derived from the study of Professor Huxley’s
lecture, but which I, in common with many others, have not
been led in any way to admit as a correct one. — E. Ray
Lankester, B.A., Ch. Ch., Oxon.

Microscopical Societies in America.— The Academy of Natu-
ral Sciences of Philadelphia has organized a section to he
called the Biological and Microscopical Department, which
has been meeting now for more than a year, and has proved

305

exceedingly interesting. When we mention that S. Weir
Mitchell and Joseph Leidy are active members of the Society,
it is superfluous to add that valuable observations and dis-
cussions are recorded in the proceedings forwarded to us.

The State of Illinois, with that great appreciation of the
value of true knowledge which characterises it, has inau-
gurated a Society to be called “ the State Microscopical
Society of Illinois.” Our friends are not afraid of making,
the State do for the individuals what they cannot so well do
for themselves. We have to await such a disposition in
Britain. We regret that we must refuse the invitation to a
conversazione given by the State Society.

REVIEWS,

Les Annelides Chetopodes du Golfe de Naples. Par Edouard
Claparede. Geneva.

Observations Relatives a un ouvrage de M. Claparede.

Par M. de Quatrefages.

Professor Claparede’s magnificent quarto volume, with
its thirty- two beautifully drawn and coloured plates, has been
expected anxiously by naturalists since the publication of
the preliminary notice of the work by the author himself,
which we gave in abstract some months since. That Annelids
are truly microscopic animals in the sense that they cannot
be at all studied without the microscope, no one can doubt
who looks at M. Claparede’s plates. The majority of the
figures are illustrations of microscopic detail only to be
observed with the highest powers, but necessary for the
proper classification and identification of the beautiful crea-
tures to which they belong, which are depicted beside them
in true colours, as accurate as they are creditable to M.
Claparede’s artistic feeling.

We will not here go again over the ground which we have
before traced, but allude to some of the matters of interest
special to this volume. In the first place the work, which is
the result of six months’ observation during 1866-67, is dedi-
cated to Armand de Quatrefages, Membre de l’lnstitut, in a
few elegant phrases which state that M. Claparede intends to
expose a great number of M. de Quatrefage’s errors, but has
a great feeling of regard for him and his labours.

M. de Quatrefages has felt not a little embarrassed by this
dedication, and has failed to exhibit in his reply to some of
the attacks that characteristic politeness and elegance, com-
bined with severe critical power, which we notice in M.
Claparede’s work.

M. Claparede is not a Frenchman, although he writes
some of his works in that language ; and he has no sympathy
with that curious and, indeed, altogether special, character-
istic of French biologists, of omitting to refer to the works
of previous writers on the subject they discuss — unless it be.

307

perhaps, a French name or two — and of thus advancing
their own personality, and really falsifying the history of
science. M. de Quatrefages has shown this tendency in his
‘ Histoire des Annelees/ and it is denounced by M. Clapa-
rede. We admit, with the critic, that the “ falsification ” is
probably done unconsciously, or, we should say, carelessly,
and is rather a national than an individual failing ; and we
must also observe that M. de Quatrefages has not been able
to evade the charge in his reply ; nor has he shown why he
ignored the works of Rathke, Delle Chiaje, Grube, Kolliker,
Leydig, &c. ; nor again has he given, nor can he give any ex-
planation of omission in the * Histoire,’ of any account of the
segmental organs of Polychaeta, many of which M. Claparede
figures in the present volume. The advisability of constitut-
ing species of Annelids on ill-preserved museum specimens
kept in spirits, is a subject which does not admit of much
discussion, and M. de Quatrefages has very little to say in its
defence. We objected to this and the absence of figures of
new species in a notice of the * Histoire * when it appeared.

The Gulf of Naples is a marvellously prolific source of
Annelids, for in this volume species of nearly every genus
occurring on our southern coasts, and a host of others, are
described and figured.

One cannot speak too highly of M. Claparede’s figures ; they
are drawn from life, and even the most highly magnified
parts of the foot or head are rendered with a softness and
grace which are to be found in few drawings but those of the
Swiss professor. The author does not adopt the extensive
generic subdivisions of Malmgren, nor does he appear to go
even as far as Kinberg, retaining the genus Polynoe for the
Lepidonoti, as well as the longer forms. His method of
studying a species is more like that of Ehlers in his Ilorsten-
wurme,’ than that of the Scandinavian systematists, accom-
plished though these latter observers are. Alciopina, a
minute immature form, parasitic within a Cydippe, is one of
the most novel forms described by the author. The magni-
ficent species of Phyllochetopterus and Telepsavus, linking,
as they obviously do, Chaetopterus to Leucodore, and thence
to Spio and Nerine, are exceedingly interesting types, and are
illustrated with great detail. We cannot all at once pick out
of such a book as this the new or important information it
contains (additional to that given in the abstract some months
since), for of nearly every species described something valuable
is said, and anatomical and histological details of the utmost
importance are given, witness the figures and accounts of the
nervous system (differing in much from previous accounts) of

308

the bacillar-corpuscles, of the segment organs, of the true
blood- corpuscles of the vascular fluid. It is rarely that one
man contributes so much to the knowledge of a group
(and so accurately, and trustworthily too) as Professor
Claparede has here done. His work is not only a necessary
guide to all engaged in the study of Annelids, but is a grand
model of that excellence after which all naturalists should,
however vainly, strive. Having a complete knowledge of
the works of his contemporaries, he does not fail to give them
their just due, whilst his great skill in observation and deli-
neation enable him to correct their mistakes and to add new
facts to the store of science. He does not permit his imagina-
tion to get the better of his reason, and his sound judgment
does not allow him to misinterpret facts ; lastly, he commu-
nicates the result of his researches in unaffected, pointed,
and interesting language, which is quite free from the taint of
egotism or pedantry.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL
SCIENCE.

Histology. Blood. — W. S. Savory, in Proc. Roy. Soc., April,
1869, gives reasons for believing that the nucleus in the Red
Corpuscles of Oviparous Veriebrata is produced by post-mortem
change, and is not present when the corpuscle is living. If
blood be rapidly conveyed from a frog or reptile, and placed
beneath the microscope, the corpuscles may be seen free from a
nucleus which gradually makes its appearance by a segrega-
tion, as it were, of the coloured matter. In living Amphibia
the corpuscles may be observed, according to Mr. Savory,
quite devoid of nuclei.

Alexander Golubew describes, in Schultze’s Archie,
vol. v, Part I, the structure of the Walls of the Capillaries
in the Frog. He observes spindle-shaped bodies which, when
stimulated, change their form, becoming thicker, so as to
diminish the calibre of the capillary, even completely
contracting it in some cases. His observations agree well
with those of Lister, who attributed a contractile power to
the capillaries, independent of nervous stimulus, in his
researches on the frog.

On the Action of Salts of Quinine on the Movements
of Protoplasm. C. Binz. Archie fur Mikroskopische
Anatomie, Bd. iv, heft 3, 1868. — Dr. Bing asserts that
weak solutions of sulphate of quinine have no influence on
the changes in form which take place in the red corpuscles of
the blood. On the other hand, this agent acts as a poison on
Amoeba and Actinophrys, and immediately arrests the amoeboid
movements of the white corpuscles of the blood.

Nerve. — On the Terminal Apparatus of Nerves of Taste.
By Ludwig Letzerich. Virchow's Archie, November,
1868. — This observer states that the nerves of taste in cats
and oxen terminate in flattened vesicles, from -which pro-
cesses are sent inwards, and also outwards towards the upper
surface of the mucous membrane of the tongue. These
vesicles exist in the gustatory papillae, and at the hinder part
of the tongue, w here the epithelial layer is thin, are placed

310

close to the surface. Their proper seat is the mucous layer,
hut they frequently project into the horny epithelial coat.
The processes directed inwards from each vesicle are direct
continuations of the nerves, the axis cylinders of which
pass into the interior of the vesicle and there ramify. Each
branch terminates in a prismatic body, which is placed on a
short pedicle. The vesicle itself is filled with a colourless
and slightly granular fluid, and its outer surface is marked
with fine sti'eaks, which, according to Letzerich, are sug-
gestive of epithelial cells, and indicate the history of the
development of the bodies. This probably consists in a fusion of
several epithelial cells, in which the nerves are continued,
and terminate in the manner described. The processes which
pass outwards from the surface of each vesicle are lost in the
horny epithelium.

On the Terminal Apparatus of Motor Nerves. "NV.
Krause. Archiv v. Ileichert and du Bois-JReymond, 1868.
— A description is here given of the terminal enlargements
of motor nerves. These bodies are elongated in the pike and
in frogs, of an oval shape in chelonian reptiles, and rounded
in other reptiles, and in birds and mammals. In the frog
each primitive muscular bundle is furnished with a single
terminal body, over which passes either one large nerve-
fibre, or two or three short branches of one fibre. These
nerve-fibres break up again into several small terminal
branches, which are lost in the granulated and nucleated
substance of the terminal body. Each of these minute
branches bears a rounded terminal swelling. According
to Krause, nearly the whole of the granular substance of the
terminal bodies appears under the microscope to be made up
of the finest terminal divisions of motor nerves.

On the Nerves of the Shin. P. Langerhaus. Virchow’s
Archiv, bd. xliv, 1868. — In this contribution a description
is given of the ultimate ramifications and terminations of
the nerve-fibres distributed to the superficial layers of the
integument, and to the hair follicles and sudoriferous ducts.
The following statements are given by Langerhaus as to the
results of investigations made on sections of human integu-
ment treated by solutions of chloride of gold. The deeper
parts of the dermis are traversed by ramifications formed by
numerous small nerve-fibres without tendons, and in regions
supplied with touch-bodies, as in the hands and feet, by
several true doubly-contoured nerves. At the superior surface
of the dermis these fibres pass into a very close rectilineal
network made up of nerve filaments, which are extremely
small, of a pale red colour, and freely nucleated. From this

311

network very minute fibres are given off, which pass through
the rete Malpighii, and then along three or four rows of
epithelial cells, and finally terminate in peculiar terminal
corpuscles. Each of these bodies is ovoid, round, or oval in
shape, of a light brown colour, and supplied with a nucleus.
From the upper part of each corpuscle is given off two or
more extremely minute filaments, which diverge and ramify
among the epidermic cells, and finally end in small rounded
swellings about half-way between the external surface of the
epidermis and the rete Malpighii.

In the newly born child these corpuscles are very numerous,
and are separated by intervals corresponding only to two, three,
or six epidermic cells.

On the Nerves of the Cornea. By H. Petermoller. Zcit-
schrift fur Rationelle Medicin. Henle u. Pfeufer, 1863. — In
this contribution are given the details of the microscopic
appearances of the nervous distribution in corneal tissue ;
the investigations were made on the corneee of man, domes-
ticated mammals, and birds, after the membrane had been
subjected to the action of acetic acid and chloride of gold.

In man and the calf the nerve trunks which pass from the
conjunctiva into the tissue of the cornea are soon broken up
by dichotomous and trichototnous division into their primitive
fibres. These fibres then lose their double contour, and by
intercrossing with one another at right angles form a very fine
network. There is no true anastomoses of the nerve-fibres,
but a simple contact at the points where they intercross.
Many of the larger fibres present distinct nuclei, the long
axes of which are parallel to the direction taken by the fibres.
In the cornea of the dog the nerve-fibres swell out at certain
points, and here there is a true anastomosis. From these swell-
ings, two, three, or more primitive fibres pass to other similar
enlargements, and a rich network is thus formed. This network
runs some distance below and parallel to the outer surface of
the cornea. Above this, and placed more superficially is
another nerve plexus, and the two are connected by fine
varicose tubes and some ordinary nerve-fibres. The terminal
branches of this superficial plexus pass to the very surface
of the cornea. In birds there is a very distinct deep-seated
plexus, which is formed in the following manner : — two or
more primitive nerve-fibres, after losing their double-contour,
run parallel for a certain distance, and then terminate in a
large oval granular body, from which one or more fibres are
given off to form a fine plexus.

Petermoller has never found any direct continuation of the
nerve-fibres into the substance of the corpuscles of the cornea

312

The presence of a network of nerve-fibres has been observed
in all domestic mammals, with the exception of the pig.

Professor Pfliiger, of Bonn, has two important papers in
Schultze’s Archiv, v, Part 2, on the Ending of Nerves in
the Salivary and Pancreatic Gland. He figures an abrupt
termination of the nerve tissue amongst a group of gland-
cells, with the substance of which he believes the nerve to be
continuous. Hyperosmic acid has been used to bring out
this relation. Pfliiger calls this method of termination “ Pro-
toplasmafiisse.” This matter, at which Pfliiger has w'orked
for some time, and published more than three years since,
should be examined into by some English microscopists.
Franz Boll, a student at Bonn, confirms Pfliiger’s views in a
paper translated in this Journal, vol. vii, p. 262. Professor
Pfliiger here adds some very interesting observations on the
development of the epithelium of the gland, tracing its rela-
tion in origin to the nerve.

Mcscle. — C. L. Heppner describes in SchultzeVArcAfc, v,
Part 1, a Peculiar Optical Appearance in Striped Muscular
Fibre , which is neither more nor less than the dark line
intervening in the light space between two dark spaces of the
fibre described long since by Sharpey, and figured in Quain
and Sharpey’s ‘Anatomy, 7th edit., 1867, vol. i, p. 118.

Dr. Schwalbe has in Schultze’s Archiv, v, Part 2, a very
interesting comparative study of the Finer Structure of the
Muscle Fibres of the Invertebrata, illustrated by two plates.
The comparative histology of muscular tissue is well rvorth
prosecuting still further. Some very careful drawings of
muscle fibres in Echinoderms, Ccelenterata, Annelida, Gepliy-
rea, and Mollusca are given.1

On the Structure of Smooth Muscular Fibre. — G.
Schwalbe, in Max Schultze’s Archiv, band iv, heft 4,
gives the results of investigations made into the structure of
unstriped muscle taken from the dog’s bladder. The fibres,
after a prolonged action of a weak solution of chromic acid,
could be readily isolated. The three chief elements of these
fibres were : one or two nuclei, each containing one or two
nucleoli ; a small quantity of protoplasm ; and contractile
substance. This article concludes with some remarks upon
the shape of unstriped muscular fibres. It may be readily
observed, on transverse section of involuntary muscle, that
the uninjured fibre-cells are generally round, or of an irregu-
lar spindle shape. After isolation, however, fibres are often

1 The cellular muscular fibres figured in my paper on “ Cheetogaster,”
herein, and similar fibres in low Crustacea observed by Dr. Van Beneden,
are wonhy of mention in connection with this subject. — E. It. L.

313

found which present themselves as flattened bands, pointed
at the ends, and with the nucleus either entirely absent, or
lying detached near the outer surface. Closer examination
will reveal transition forms between the round and the
flattened cells, as many may be observed which appear
round towards one extremity and ribbon-shaped towards
the other. A drawing is given of a fibre-cell the lower part
of which is pale and flattened, whilst the upper part of the
same is round, and marked with several colours. Between
these two parts is a sharply-defined linear slit, which at the
commencement of the round part of the fibre is bifurcated.
The lateral portions of the fibre on each side of this slit
become thinner as they pass into the lower or flattened
portion. The ribbon-like form of one part of the fibre no
doubt results from the change in position and shape of the
lateral portions divided by the slit, which extends to the
centre. The nucleus during these changes becomes detached
from the muscular fibre, and is either altogether removed, or
rests upon the surface. This superficial position of the
nucleus is not the normal condition in the smooth muscular
fibre of the bladder, as one may in transverse sections of
fresh and uninjured muscle always readily observe one or two
nuclei in the central part of each cell.

Shei.l. — Professor King, of Galway, who has much right
to speak with authority on the subject he discusses, treats of
the Histology of the Test of the Class Palliobranchiata, in
the Trans. Royal Irish Acad., vol. xxiv, 1869. He
figures the perforations in many genera, and has some
especially valuable remarks on Crania and Megerlia. He
maintains that Syringothrysis cuspidata is not represented in
an isomorphic genus, as maintained by Dr. Carpenter, on
account of the supposed absence of perforations in a speci-
men called .Spirifer cuspidatus, which was submitted to him
for examination by Mr. Davidson.

Professor Percival Wright, of Dublin, describes the
Structure of Tubipora musica (the Organ-pipe Coral) in
the Annals for May. He was successful in obtaining
this polyp alive in his recent visit to the Seychelles. He
describes the tube as formed by the agglomeration of fusiform
and nodular spicules, which increase as growth proceeds,
thus differing from Kolliker, who assigns a crystalline
structure to the tube of Tubipora.

Microzoology.— The Anatomy of Stentor and its Mode of
Reproduction is described by Dr. Moxon in the Journal of
Anatomy, May, 1869. He particularly opposes the view
that the “ contractile vesicle ” of Infusoria forms part of a

314

circulating system ; and maintains, 1st, that there is no need
of finely ramifying vessels in organisms so minute as Infu-
soria ; 2nd, that they have not been seen, their supposed
indication being due to pressure, &c. ; and 3rd, that the
vesicle clearly opens by an external orifice in Spirostomum
and Stentor. Dr. Moxon also shows that the “ lateral
crest ” of Stentor is part of a newly budding individual. He
does not appear to be acquainted with a valuable paper by
Dr. Zenker (Schultze’s ‘ Arcliiv,’ ii, p. 332, and ‘ Quart.
Jour. Microsc. Science,5 vol. Hi, p. 263), in which the
question of the function of the vesicle is discussed, and it is
very clearly shown to open outwardly. Dr. Zenker had
observed the vesicle of Spirostomum previously to Dr. Moxon.
He says : — “ After seeing this animal, it is incredible that
the existence of an external orifice should have been so long
a matter of doubt.”

Professor Wrzesniowski, of Warsaw, publishes a valuable
study on the Anatomy of the Infusoria in Max Schultze’s
Arcliiv, v, Part 1 (1869). He figures and describes the
vesicle, the anus, the nucleus, and the trichocysts of
several large species of Infusor. He regards the vesicle
as excretory.

Australian Polyzoa is the title of a paper by P. H.
MacGillivray, A.M., M.R.C.S., read before the Royal Society
of Victoria. Forty-eight new species are described, and two
new genera. Figures are not given in the present publica-
tion, but are promised in Professor M£Coy’s forthcoming
‘ Memoirs of the Museum.’ Specimens are deposited in the
National Museum of Victoria. The new genera are Dictyo-
pora, belonging to the Escharidse and Petralia of the same
family.

On the Developmental History and Systematic Position of
the Bryozoa and Gephyrea is an important paper by A.
Schneider, in Schultze’s Archiv, v, Part 2. Very new and
startling views as to the relations of the two groups above-
named are put forward, which demand the fullest considera-
tion, coming, as they do, from so eminent an observer as
Anton Schneider. We have not space now to reproduce
Schneider’s views, hut the paper must be read by all who
are interested in philosophical zoology.

On the Dimorphism of the Ovary in Tubifex. — Dr. Fritz
Ratzel, of Carlsrhue, in an article on the Anatomy and
Systematic Arrangement of the Oligochceta (Kolliker’s and
Siebold’s Zeitschrift, heft iv, b. 18), states that in Tubifex
rivulorum the ovary presents itself in one or other of two
different forms. The first and more frequent form is that

315

which, up to the present time, has generally been described
as always existing in the species. This consists in a pair of
pyriform organs, which are placed together in the eleventh
segment of the creature. Each is enclosed within a special
membrane. The ova are arranged from above downwards,
on one side of each ovary, in such a manner that the largest,
that is, the ripest, are placed at the lower part, whilst the less
mature ascend one above the other as far as the apex of each
organ. The regular gradation in the size of the ova gives to
the ovaries a characteristic appearance. The ripe ova are
discharged through a rupture in the enclosing membrane.
Besides this, stated by Ratzel to be the principal form,
another condition has been found in which the ovaries
resemble those existing in Enchytrseus. This state of things
has during a course of observations on 150 specimens of
Tubifex been found in one out of every twelve. The ovaries
are placed in the eleventh segment, on each side of the
intestine, like those in the Tubifex, but are here broken up
into a number of globular masses averaging in size from
0 6 to 0 8 min., which lie side by side in the general cavity
of the body, and are not contained within any special mem-
brane. These masses, which float about the general cavity,
are really groups of ova, and each generally contains one
large and ripe ovum. As this is the normal form of ovary
in Enchytrseus, Ratzel applies to a similar construction in
occasional specimens of Tubifex the name of the second, or
Enchytrseus form. In endeavouring to account for the remark-
able phenomenon of the occasional appearance in tubifex of a
form of ovary found constantly in another species, Ratzel can-
not accept the view that it is owing to some pathological change.
To this are opposed the facts of the perfectly normal condi-
tion of the rest of the organization in such cases, the perfect
resemblance of all the ovaries thus formed, and the number
of individuals found with these organs in this condition.
Ratzel did not find a single instance of the Enchytrseus
form of ovary in an examination of over a hundred speci-
mens of Limnodrilus, a w orm closely allied to Tubifex. He
is inclined to look upon this phenomenon as an instance of
atavism and reversion in structure, and believes that though
Tubifex and Enchytrseus stand far apart in the group of the
Oligochseta, the species are yet so closely allied as to render
reversion a possible occurrence.

Cysttcercus Lumbriculi. Dr. Fritz Ratzel, Arckiv fur
Naturgeschichte, heft 2, 1868. — According to Dr. Ratzel
many specimens of Lumbriculus variegatus have been found
infested at all seasons of the year by a parasitic creature,

VOL. IX. NEW SER. X

316

to which has been given the name of Cysticercus lumhriculi.
The seat of this parasite is the general cavity of the host’s
body, between the intestine and the integument, along all
the segments. There is generally but one of these parasites,
hut in exceptional instances several may exist in one host.
As many as eight have been found by Dr. Ratzel in one
Lumbriculus. The body of Cysticercus lumhriculi is round,
and of an average diameter of 0-42 mm. Its outer membrane
consists of a vesicle, the .tissue of which is made up of soft
cells, with no external membrane, and containing granular
nuclei. Among these cells are scattered a few fat- globules
and some muscular fibres. Within this is a second mem-
brane, which is a resisting chitinous capsule, perforated at
the upper and lower parts by two openings. Near these
openings the wall of the capsule is thickened, and at the
lower one there is a tending inwards of the external vesi-
cle, and a union of this with the margins of the internal
chitinous capsule. At this point the head of the parasite is
developed, and subsequently a short wide neck, in which are
disposed numerous calcareous bodies. The head carries a
rostellum, a circlet of ten hooks, and at an advanced stage
sucking discs. Between the external vesicle and the internal
chitinous one is an interspace which is filled with a transpa-
rent fluid.

Dr. Ratzel thinks it very probable that this Cysticercus
may become developed into a Taenia, infesting birds, and
particularly birds which frequent marshes, as it has been
found only in Lumhriculi which live in marshy places, and
never in those taken from flowing water and localities not of
a marshy character.

On the Reproductive State of Saprolegnia monoica is the
title of a paper by Johannes Reinke, in Schultze’s Archiv, v.
Part 2.

Microphytology. — Notes on Diatomacere from Danish Green-
land, collected by Mr. Robert Brown. By Professor Dickie,
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. No. I. — All the species
recorded were British, with the single exception of Hyalo-
discus subtilis, originally described by the late Professor
Bailey, from Halifax; found also on the shores of North-
West America, and now on the shores of Greenland.

On the Diatomaceous Frustule. By John Denis Mac-
donald, F.R.S. Annals and Mag. Nat. History, Jan., 1869. —
Dr. Macdonald observes that Dr. Wallich was the first to
put forward a part of the views which he expresses in this
paper, and to show that the “ membrane ” between the two
valves consists of a hoop enclosing a second hoop, so that one

317

valve with its hoop is partially embraced by, or let into, the
hoop of the other valve. One valve and hoop has of course
been produced by division from the other valve, and to this
latter the name of primary valve was given, whilst the other
was called secondary. Dr. Macdonald illustrates in the case
of Biddulphia the formation of the new valve and hoop, one
within each of the old pair, their growth and separation ; and
he points out that the new valves must be ever smaller and
smaller. How then is the size of the species maintained ?
An answer is found in Thwaites’ observation, the author
remarks, who noticed that the sporangial frustrule was so
much larger than the parent, and whose observation was
misinterpreted by Smith in the other direction, viz., that the
parents were very much larger than the sporangial product.

The Genus Lophiostoma. — A descriptive synopsis of the
twelve British species of Lophiostoma (Fungi) by M. C.
Cooke is published in the ‘ Transactions ’ of the Botanical
Society of Edinburgh for 1868, just issued to the fellows It
is accompanied by a coloured plate of the asci and spores of
the majority of species, magnified from 300 to 400 diameters.

Greenland Diatoms. — Dr. Dickie has examined the Algae
collected in Greenland by Mr. Robert Brown, and enume-
rates the following :

Epithemia ocellata, Kiitz.

Eunotia monodon, Ehr.

Svnedra ulna, Ehr.

Navicula dicepliala, Kutz.

Stauroneis anceps, Ehr.

Stauroneis gracilis, Ehr.

Cocconema lanceolatum, Ehr.

Meridion circulare, Ag.

Odontidium mesodon, Kutz.

Tabellaria flocculosa, Kiitz.

Himantidium majus, Sm.

Arachnoidiscus Ehrenbergii.

Actinocyclus undulatus.

Biddulphia Roperiana.

Cocconeis scutellum.

The few species noted here are to be considered as supple-
mentary to Dr. LyalFs Diatomacese recorded by Mr. Kitton
in the ninth volume of the ‘Journal of the Linnean Society.’ —
Trans. Bot. Soc. Edinb., 1868.

Cocconeis Grevillei.

„ undulata?
Podosphenia Ehrenbergii.

„ gracilis.

Podosira hormoides.
Rhabdonema arcuatum.

„ minutum.

Synedra affinis.

„ investiens.
Nitszchia „

Triceratium arcticum.
Coscinodiscus eccentricus.
Grammatophora marina.
Isthmia nervosa.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dublin Microscopical Club.

2\st January , 1869.

Dr. E. Percetal Weight exhibited a species of Corticate
Sponge, from the collection made by him in the Seychelles, from
the peculiar structure of which he was inclined to believe that it
should be referred to Bowerbank’s genus Pachymatisma, of which
only one species was known, Pachymatisma Jolinstonia— Amphi-
trema M‘Callii, Scouler, MSS. The oscula in the Seychelles species
were few in number and simple, pores inconspicuous. The oval
siliceous bodies in the corticate layer were as in Pachymatisma ;
but some few appeared to have a dark central nucleus ; the inter-
stitial spicules were cylindrical and also “ cylindro-patento-
ternate sarcode spicules stellate.

Mr. Archer drew attention to a Heliozoan Rhizopod, being the
same he exhibited at the Club meeting, 19th September, 1867,
and which he had little doubt was the same as the first of the
forms figured and expatiated on by Dr. Focke in Siebold and
Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,' Bd. xviii,
Heft iii, p. 345, t. xxv, which had just reached his hands, and
which he now exhibited. He would, however, defer any further
enlargement upon it for the present, until he had an opportunity
to bring forward another closely allied form, which two together,
he thought, excellently represented a new and distinct genus.
The essential character of this genus would be that the central
body, bearing long slender pseudopodia, is enclosed within a
stratum of a quite different looking sarcode, itself giving off pseu-
dopodial processes of its own, different in character from those
emanating from the central body. This genus, which he would
call Heterophrys, and the present form Heterophrys Fochcii, he
hoped to figure and describe on a future occasion.

Rev. E. O’Meara showed a peculiar Diatom taken from the
stomach of an Ascidian from Belfast Lough. It presented the
general appearance of Nitzschia bilobata, but the surface of the
valve between the striate border and the margin of the hoop
was covered with wart-like excrescences irregularly disposed.
Five or six examples were found in the gathering, all presenting
the same peculiar feature. He considered it a variety of Nitzschia
biblobata, and suggested for it the distinctive name of verrucosa.

Dr. Moore exhibited examples of the Prothallia of Ferns,
showing the archegonia ; he explained the morphological structure

319

of this remarkable type of reproduction, and enlarged on the
physiological questions involved.

Dr. Traquair showed a series of Eoraminiferous Shells from Dog
Bay, Connemara.

Dr. John Barker drew attention to a circumstance, seemingly
generally overlooked (now exemplified by the motions of Uro-
centrum turbo), connected with various animalcules, both rotatoria
and infusoria. What he alluded to was their having the appear-
ance during motion as if influenced or confined, or even moored,
by some invisible thread or tether to foreign bodies. The ani-
malcule spins and rotates, the while describing an arc of a circle,
backwards and forwards, at an even distance from an apparent
point of attachment ; nay, if the foreign body, seemingly forming
the centre round which the animalcule hovers, be but of moderate
volume or weight, it may be drawn along as if pulled by the sup-
posed thread — supposed, indeed, because it must be admitted that
it is never visible. After a little the motions of the creature may
become more vigorous, and seemingly the cord snaps, for suddenly
the animalcule darts off in an onward direction. This kind of
appearance would seem sufficiently common in different forms as
apparently to contradict the idea that it may be only a charac-
teristic fidgetvr motion of any particular form, and even to lead
to the idea that many minute forms actually have a power of
spinning or paying out an immeasurably delicate cord of attach-
ment, so delicate as to evade all means we possess of seeing it,
and one which it can itself sever at will.

18^7* February, 1869.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited preparations of an Alcyonoid
from Messina and Syracuse, which had been described some years
ago (1842) by Philippi as Bebryce mollis. Milne-Edwards, in his
* llistoire des Coralliaires,’ rejects both the genus and species,
stating on the authority of Valenciennes that it was described
from nothing more or less than the stalk of an ordinary Gorgo-
nian, on which a colony of Sympodium coralloides had established
itself. Kolliker, however, in his ‘ leones histiologies,’ mentions
that he had an opportunity of examining the very specimens de-
scribed by Philippi, and explains that the figure illustrating his
paper in the * Archiv fur Xaturgeschicte ’ represents the polyp
with “retracted” tentacles, whereas the description laid emphasis
on their being non-retractile, and that from this discrepancy arose
the want of belief in the genus. The specimens now exhibited
were dredged in the Gulf of Messina in June of last year, and
resembled in every respect the species figured by Philippi ; they
were recognised as this species by Dr. J. E. Gray the moment he
saw them. They agree, moreover, with Philippi’s description,
omitting the word “not” before retractile, when describing the
polyp, so that Dr. Wright thought that, without doubt, his species,
though not compared with the original type-specimens, now

320

in Prof. Leuckart’s Museum, was really Belryce mollis (Phil.).
Here it may be remarked that the Messina specimens were in
good condition and preserved in spirit. Kolliker, in his descrip-
tion of the coenenchyma of this species, says that the calcareous
spicules are all scale-shaped, and that these are more or less
toothed ; that they vary in outline, the extremes being — (1) large
scales, with small middle outgrowths ; and (2) small scales, with
large outgrowths or excrescences. Those seen in profile mostly
appear of a “nine-pin” shape, with clipped ends; all these
spicules are “ twins,” and in most the line of separation is clearly
discernible. These various forms of spicules were exhibited.
The “scale” spicules, large and small, of all manner of irregularity
of outline, were found, forming an outer crust to the ectoderm ;
but, in additiou, there was found another form of spicule found
by Kolliker occurring in Eunicea, which did not appear to be
a “ twin ” form of spicule, and which seemed to be very distinct
from any of the forms called scale-forms by Kolliker. These
spicules appeared to occupy the inner portion of the coenenchyma,
and especially that portion of the base of the polyps ; they have
been referred to by Kolliker as the “ Blattkeulen,” but this name
he applies also to spicules of a very different shape ; perhaps the
name “ shuttlecock ” spicule may be found to be more appro-
priate.

Mr. Archer exhibited another new form of Heliozoan Rhizopod,
of a type similar to that shown by him at last meeting, believed
to be identical with that spoken of, but not described, by Eocke
(Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zoologie,’ Bd. xviii,
Heft iii, page 345, t. xxv),that is, the present forming a second species
in the genus Heterophrys (Arch.). It was to be regretted that he
had not been able to meet with a specimen of the form shown on
the last occasion, for the sake of contrast with the new form now
drawn attention to ; and it was still further to be regretted that
the example of the latter now presenting itself had suffered much
(upon the slide) in the transit down to the meeting ; and as he
had spent hours in searching for the only one he had met with
for this occasion, he was afraid it womld be fruitless delay at the
meeting to try to search in the material for another specimen.
But crushed and somewhat crowded upon by other objects as the
example shown might be, lie was very glad to be so fortunate as
to have been able to get it, as the specimens were greatly dimi-
nishing in the material ; he trusted, however, the various points to
which he would wish to draw attention could be made apparent.
The present was a good deal larger form than Eocke’s, the central
sarcode mass hyaline, but densely loaded with chlorophyll-
granules, and possessing a few smaller, darkish granules ; pseudo-
podia emanating therefrom long, filiform, but comparatively not
very slender ; outer stratum cloudy and granular, and at the
periphery divided into an innumerable quantity of slender hair-
like processes. He would name this fine form Heterophrys my-

3.21

riopoda, and hoped to give a figure and description of it ere long
in the ‘ Microscopical Journal.’

Mr. Archer further presented examples of another, not less
remarkable, Freshwater Bhizopod. This large and fine form was
loosely coated with foreign heterogeneous particles, and differed
from every other form by presenting two characters of pseudo-
podia, emanating from different portions of one and the same
sarcode body. The general form is egg-shaped, covered loosely by
an aggregation of foreign arenaceous particles, diatom aceous
fragments and frustules, seemingly dead protococcoid structures,
and bits of fibrous-looking matter, earthy-looking particles, &c.
From the anterior end projects an almost hemispherical elevation,
whence emanates a dense cluster of variable, often inordinately
long, hyaline, branched pseudopodia ; and from the general surface
of the body elsewhere, and projecting through the outer loosely
aggregated covering, there proceeds a dense quantity (looking at the
margin like a fringe) of hyaline, short pseudopodia, nearly uniform
in appearance, thickness, and length. The frontal eminence
showed a marginal pulsating vacuole, like Actinophrys, and the
central mass a large “ nucleus.” This could not at all be con-
sidered, even apart from the border of nearly equal short processes,
as like a Gromia — that is, such as the typical Gromia jluviatilis,
though it may have some closer affinity to the form called Gromia
Dujardinii by Schultze ; that form, however, appears pretty
clearly cannot be correctly regarded as a Gromia at all. Mr.
Archer felt sure that those who had seen a living Gromia must
acknowledge the great difference in character of the pseudopodia,
apart from the test being membranous in that genus, and the
presence of the fringe-like border of processes in this form. In
character of pseudopodia there is more resemblance to certain
forms, possibly referable to Pleurophrys (Clap, et Lachm.), which
Mr. Archer showed, but which he had doubtfully ere now ima-
gined may have been (some one of them) the type of Schlum-
berger’s Pseudodifflugia. Mr. Archer intended ere long to
publish a figure of this fine form as the type of a distinct genus,
which he named Diaphoropodon.

Mr. Archer exhibited, on the part of Mr. Walter W. Beeves, of
London, some specimens, kindly forwarded by that gentleman, of
a form of Cothurnia from Victoria Docks, London, which appeared
to be new and strikingly characterised by the possession of a
closely fitting operculum attached to the neck portion of the
animal, and by which, upon withdrawal into its case, it could
securely close the mouth of the latter as with an accurately
adapted lid. It was likewise characterised by an exceedingly
long and slender stipes. This remarkably beautiful object, which
Mr. Beeves informed Mr. Archer would immediately be figured
and described by Mr. Kent, was accompanied by numerous other
elegant things — forms of Carchesium, Acineta, various rotatoria,
<£c., and amongst these a conspicuous Vaginicola, with a eam-
panulate case, in several examples of which could be readily seen

322

a valvular structure, raised and lowered by the motions of the
animal in and out of its case, just as in the cylindrical form called
Vaginicola valvata.

A vote of thanks was passed to Mr. Reeves for the opportunity
to see this new and beautiful specimen.

18^A March , 1869.

Mr. Archer showed a new and minute freshwater Rhizopod
referable to Dujardin’s genus Gromia. This rather inert-looking
form at first called to mind somewhat the appearance of a Chy-
tridium, but their occurrence not attached to any foreign body
and a further observation showed their true nature. The test is
very minute, orbicular, hyaline, smooth; body within the test
opaque, bluish, granular, with an eccentric whitish nucleus,
each with a central dark nucleolus ; pseudopodia often long,
slender, hyaline, bearing in a slow circulation several darkish
granules, often cohering by the pseudopodia one to the other in
small groups. Mr. Archer hoped to shortly give a figure of this
curious little form, with a description, and would meantime call
this form Gromia socialis.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited a section of a series of
spicules belonging to a Creeping Sponge, met with by him at
Make, which had been described by Dr. J. E. Gray as Placo-
spongia melohesioides. He thought that though this genus was
certainly closely allied to Geodia, yet that perhaps, until we knew
more of the generic peculiarities of the Corticata, the genus
may be retained. He brought it forward now chiefly in continua-
tion of a series of notes already before the club on the “ Sponges
of the Corticate Division” of Oscar Schmidt. Dr. Bowerbauk
thinks that this species is the same as bis Geodia carinata
(‘ British Sponges,’ vol. i, p. 239), but this does not appear to
be the case. Duchassaing and Michelotti have described a genus
called Acamas ; one species ( A . violacea) appeared to come very
closely indeed to Placospongia melohesioides.

Dr. John Barker showed a new Compressorium constructed by
Mr. Ross, having the advantage of readily exerting a direct
vertical pressure on the object, the extent of which is regulated
by turning a screw placed at the left hand of the platform, which
was made to receive an ordinary slide and cover, thus presenting
the very valuable facility of being able to submit any object
casually encountered without any difficulty to the action of the
compressor. Dr. Barker, however, was about to suggest to Mr.
Ross some modifications which would still further facilitate the
use of this little instrument, so as to retain the slide at the most
convenient place before the screw pressure became exerted.

Dr. Moore showed the Spores of ILypnum stramineum in various
stages of germination. In those farthest advanced the confervoid-
like threads, as they issued from the spore, spread themseves over
the surface of the leaf itself, which, being transparent, afforded a

323

good opportunity of seeing that those filamentous substances form
immediately on the contents of the spore dissolving, each spore
giving birth to a number of them. In some cases the contents
appeared to be composed of elongated particles while in situ,
before they issued from the spore. The question arose as to
whether each of the filamentous threads, under favorable circum-
stances, was capable of ultimately giving rise to a new plant, or
whether a number of them coalesced to form one — which was
left undecided until further observations are made.

Mr. Crowe exhibited a section of flint, having not only the
usual so-called Xanthidia imbedded in it, but likewise showing in
section a fragment of some coniferous wood, with its characteristic
pits. e

Eev. E. O’Meara showed his original drawings of sundry nne
Diatoms, and gave their characters and distinctions. These wt
named Pleurosigma giganteum, var. baccatum, Plagiogramma c<he
tatum, Melosira Wrightii, Pinnularia marginata, P. scutelluixa
Amphiprora costata, and were to appear in next number of the
‘Microscopical Journal.’

Dr. Moss, R.N., exhibited a series of sketches from nature of
Mediterranean and Atlantic forms of Appendicularia, and of the
enigmatical “ Haus of Merten’s,” in which they were often found
enclosed. He remarked that this curious structure seemed to be
associated exclusively with the oval-bodied or thoracic Appendi-
cularia, of which A. flagellum might, perhaps, be regarded as a
type. In two specimens of A.furcata captured near the Azores in
February, 1869, an organism resembling in form the oval-bodied
Appendicularia, and appearing from its motion, attachment, &c.,
to be embryonic, was found on the right neural portion of the
upper part of the branchial cavity, a short distance below the
base of the lowest of six oral tentacula, in very much the same
situation in which Gegenbaur described and figured an unsym-
metrical ciliated orifice. Observations calculated to throw light
upon a subject so obscure as the reproduction of these animals
must necessarily be advanced with caution, but there are grounds
for the hope that ere long we will be as well acquainted with the
Appendicularia as with their pelagic brethren, the Salpas and
Pyrosomas.

Mr. Woodworth exhibited a series of excellent photographs of
various microscopic objects, which he presented to the Club.

Mr. Tichborne exhibited a slide of Sulphate of Copper, crystal-
lized at 75° Fahr. This formed a beautiful polariscope object of
a peculiar form. This salt, which has a normal composition of
CuS04, 5H20, loses part of its water of hydration at elevated
temperatures, and crystallizes in a form quite distinct from the
ordinary one.

Mr. Archer drew attention to some examples of a very minute
organism which he had detected in several gatherings lately, and
which he must, he thought, have hitherto overlooked, for he now
found it not very uncommon ; it was, however, one which as yet

824

baffled attempts to refer to any particular type. It formed a very
minute globular body, semi-pellucid, and of a bluish hue, having
immersed therein an amber-coloured globule mostly of considerable
brilliancy, and occupying a large proportion of the mass of the
little sphere. The whole was surrounded by a thick covering,
loosely and irregularly clustered around it, of a heterogeneous
variety of fragments and shreds of other organic bodies, such as
splinters of diatoms, bits of protococcoids and confervoids, and
various fibrous-looking elements. There were occasionally two,
and Mr. Archer had once seen three, of these globular bodies so
surrounded by this outer cluster of foreign fragments, which
mostly assumed an elliptic but irregularly margined general
outline round the globular central body. There was an appre-
ciable interval between the latter and the outer cluster. Now,
op’s description of the central body, apart from its surroundings,
eamld call to mind (as undoubtedly the examples themselves did)
sluch of the appearance of Dr. Barker’s rbizopod, Diplophrys
Archeri (see “ Dublin Microscopical Club Minutes,” 19th Dec.,
1867). But Mr. Archer had looked in vain over many specimens
of the organism now exhibited for any indication of pseudopodia,
nor, indeed, did any kind of locomotive organ present itself.
Still, if one could imagine Diplophrys, not only with its pseudo-
podia fully retracted, in which condition it is sometimes met
with, but also loosely surrounded in some manner by an aggre-
gation of minute and heterogeneous fragments, it is quite true we
should have an object not distinguishable from that now drawn
attention to by Mr. Archer. There was nothing further, however,
to prove that this was a state of Diplophrys, which is rare, and
never met with in the numbers in which these were present. It
would seem clear, however, that this must, some time or other,
have a non-quiescent state, in which it must be able, in travelling,
to discover and select the various fragments, loosely assorted,
within which it ensconces, though does not hide, itself, for the
pellucid character of the debris employed enables one readily to
see the globular body inside, with its amber spot, often looking
under a peculiar illumination and focus like a bright flame
within. Thus, whilst unable to form any accurate idea as to the
true nature of this curious little production, Mr. Archer thought
that even its present total inexplicability would lend it a certain
amount of interest.

Boyal Microscopical Society.

April 14 th, 1869.

The President (the Rev. J. B. Reade) in the chair.

A paper on “ Protoplasm and Living Matter ” was read by Dr.
Lionel Beale. We have commented on this in another part of the
Journal. A discussion followed, in which the question of vitality

325

was largely talked of by the Fellows of the Society. Dr. Wallich
asserted that he had found deposits in gutters, and in the outlet
of the metropolitan main sewer at Crossness, having the charac-
teristics of Bathybius.1 The President said that Dr. Beale’s paper
reminded him of a remark made by Dr. Milner, when asked if he
could refute Bishop Berkeley’s theory of matter. He replied, “ I
cannot answer it. It contradicts common sense, and there must
be great nonsense somewhere He could not say where, how-
ever.

May 12 th, 1869.

The President in the chair.

Mr. George Busk sent in his resignation as a Fellow of the
Society, and was elected an Honorary Fellow on the motion of the
President.

Mr. B. T. Lowne read a paper on “ The Rectal Papillae of the
Blow-fly,” and Mr. Suffolk made observations on the proboscis
of the same insect, and exhibited drawings of it.

The President described an addition to his kettle-drum con-
denser, consisting of a third lens.

June 9 th, 1869.

The President (Rev. J. B. Reade) in the chair.

The President described a most valuable new form of illumi-
nation, which he declared had rendered the microscope a new
instrument to him. He had by its means been able definitely to
settle the structural cause of the markings of the diatom valve,
which he could now demonstrate most clearly, even with a f, as
spherical nodules arranged in lines. A young friend of his,
looking at a specimen with this new method of illumination, had
exclaimed, “ It is just like a dish of marbles.” The illumination
which was so successful was obtained by means of a prism whose
section is an equilateral triangle ; by its use parallel direct rays
are thrown, which avoids the unnatural and deceptive complica-
tions obtained by the use of converging rays.

Mr. Wenham remarked that he had shown, by observing the
form of splinters of fractured diatom valves, that the markings
on the surface were really due to hemispherical projections. A
paper by him on this subject was published some years since in
the ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.’

Mr. Eulenstein, the author of the ‘ Series of Diatoms,’ remarked
that he had, by the most careful study of very many species, come
to the conclusion that there were two forms of marking in
diatoms — first, by the framework, consisting of ridges and eleva-
tions characteristic of genera ; and secondly, by the universal

1 Has Dr. Wallich ever compared the two appearances, or on what
ground does he veuture this statement? — E. R. L.

326

spheroidal tubercles, which were more or less thickly disposed on
all diatom valves.

Dr. Eulenstein took the opportunity of mentioning that he had
purchased the late Dr. Arnott’s tubes of diatom material, and
was prepared to issue series of the species in this collection (the
most complete British collection) on application.

Mr. Beck called attention to the fact that his brother, the late
Eichard Beck, had urged the probability of the spherical character
of the diatom markings, and had shown by photographs of a
piece of glass marked with hemispherical protuberances how an
hexagonal or dotted appearance could be obtained by varying
the illumination.

Mr. Jabez Hogg read a paper entitled “ Eesults of Spectrum
Analysis,” in which he gave some of Mr. Sorby’s observations,
published more than a year since in the Eoyal Society’s pro-
ceedings, and also exhibited a drawing of chlorophyll spectra, by
the late Dr. Herapath.

Mr. Eay Lankester expressed his disappointment at the incom-
pleteness and inaccuracy of Mr. Hogg’s paper. He pointed out
several fallacies and mistakes in Mr. Hogg’s statements, such as
the asserted presence of haemoglobin in the blood of the house-fly,
in which animal its presence is really due to its having been
taken in as food, and is met with only in the alimentary tract ;
the asserted discovery of copper in turacin by the spectroscope,
which was a complete misrepresentation, since Professor Church
had discovered the copper before the absorption bands ; and the
supposed connection of thallium and chlorophyll, which Mr. Hogg
had ventured to suggest. Mr. Lankester pointed out that Mr.
Hogg had omitted all reference to the really valuable physiolo-
gical results obtained by examining the action of gases on the
blood with the spectroscope, and had also not mentioned its use
in detecting haemoglobin and chlorophyll in the lower animals,
which he (Mr. Lankester) had written upon. Mr. Hogg bad
pretended that sodium could be recognised in increased quantity
in a cataract-lens by means of the spectroscope. This Mr.
Lankester entirely denied.

MEMOIRS.

Monograph of Moneka. By Ernst Hackel.

{Concluded from page 232.)

While on the one hand the kingdom of the Protista is
increased by the Labyrinthulea with a separate class, on
the other hand it may now be satisfactorily proved that
another group of Protista should be removed from this king-
dom, and referred to the animal kingdom as decided animals.
These are the Sponges, of whose animal nature veiy decided
morphological indications have been very recently discovered.
As long ago as 1854, Leuckart, the illustrious founder of
the sub-kingdom Ccelenterata, in his yearly report upon the
progress of zoology (in the ‘ Archiv fur N aturgeschichte’) ,
united the sponges or Poriphera with the Coelenterata, by a
comparison of the canal system of the sponges with the
ccelenteric gastrovascular apparatus of the true Ccelenterata.

Last winter, my pupil and assistant, Herr Miklucho-
Maclay, of St. Petersburg, during our stay at the Canary
island Lanzarote, examined carefully the exceedingly rich
sponge-fauna of these coasts, and, as I have convinced myself
by ocular inspection, thereby discovered new forms of sponges
whose anatomy furnishes far stronger proofs of the near rela-
tionship of the sponges with the Ccelenterata than we hitherto
possessed. For instance, Herr Miklucho has discovered a
calcareous sponge (Gaancha blanca ) nearly allied to Sycon
and Ute, but whose entire interior system consists of a simple
cylindrical stomach, a digestive cavity, as in the simplest
Hydroida. The so-called oscula (Carnini) of the sponges
are not only excretory openings, as they have hitherto been
considered, but also serve for the reception of water and food.
These external openings are at once mouth and anus. In a
word, the oscula are the stomachic cavities of the Coelen-
terata, analogous to those of the polypi, and in all probability
homologous with them at the same time. The canals pro-
ceeding from the oscula correspond with the canals which
ramify in the parenchyma of many Autliozoa. But what

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. Y

328

seems to me of the greatest importance is that this stomachic
cavity is divided in several sponges ( Axinella and others) by
radial partition walls into compartments (of various or con-
stant number, especially eight!), and thus the entire body of
the individual sponge seems to be composed of a fixed
number of antimera. I had hitherto always considered the
absence of antimera-formation as one of the most important
morphological differences between Sponges and Coclenterata.
By their similar mode of propagation, &c., the near rela-
tionship of the sponges and Anthozoa becomes still more
probable. In short, I now consider it most correct to follow
Leuckart’s example in uniting the Sponges with the Coclen-
terata systematically, and therefore consider it very probable
that both groups have had a common origin. The phylum
of the Coclenterata would henceforth divide into two sub-
phyla. I. Spongise (Coclenterata without urticating organs) :
1. Petrospongise ; 2. Autospongise. II. Acalephse1 (Coelen-
terata with urticating organs): 1. Anthozoa; 2. Archydree ;
3. Hydromedusac ; 4. Ctenophora.

As Herr Miklucho is about to publish his beautiful ob-
servations on sponges, in which he will demonstrate the
community of descent of the Sponges and Acalephce, I confine
myself here to this short notice.2 I have mentioned them
here because it seems to me that a great gain has been
attained in classification by the removal of the Sponges from
the remaining Protista, and by their union with the true ani-
mals. In particular, it now becomes possible to define my Pro-
tista kingdom by a decided and important character, and to
separate it from the true animals and the true plants : this
character is the total absence of sexual reproduction. In
nearly all indubitable plants, as well as in all indubitable
animals, sexual reproduction (ampliigony) is present. On the
other hand all true Protista (all the above-mentioned groups
except the Sponges) multiply exclusively by a noil-sexual
reproduction (monogony). If we extend this definition to
the genealogical individuality of the first order, to the cycle of

1 Aristotle’s original definition Acalephse, or Cuidoe, may be the most
admissible definition for the true Coelenterata (with the exception of the
Sponges) because, on the one hand, it already expresses their most essential
character, the possession of urticating organs ; and on the other, because
Aristotle already included under this definition the two different types of
Coelenterata, the fixed Pctracalcphoe (Actinia) and the freely swimming
Nectacalephoe (Medusae), aia(ca\j)0ai, ai icvidai.

2 A special light becomes thrown, by this community of descent, upon
the recently so much talkcd-of Hyalonema. Perhaps in the end the sponge
and parasitic polyp may be connected, and Hyalonema be a direct de-
scendant of the common original group of Sponges and Acalephse?

329

generation ( Cijclus generationis ) of all the three organic
kingdoms, then the cycle of generation of animals and plants
is an amphigenesis, while, on the other hand, the cycle of
generation of the Protista is a monogenesis. (On this, com-
pare ‘Generelle Morphologic/ vol. ii, pp. TO, 83.)

If, on the ground of this criterion, we would strictly bring
to an issue the separation of the three kingdoms, we must
include in the Protista a few groups of the lowest organisms,
which hitherto rank among the true plants, but in which
sexual reproduction is absent. This can be done so much the
sooner, as, independently of this, in them the main decisive
vegetable characters are obliterated, and they present close
relations instead with several groups of Protista. Above all,
one would be justified in removing the large and multiform
class of Fungi from the vegetable kingdom, and placing them
near Myxomyeetes among the Protista. The whole method
of nourishment and assimilation of the fungi, in connection
with many other characters (especially the total absence of
chlorophyll) , remove them so far from the true plants that
the earlier botanists long siuce wished to establish for the fungi
a special organic kingdom.

On similar grounds one would also be enabled to rank the
Phycochromaceac (Chroococcaceae and Oscillarinece) as a
group of Protista, and, perhaps, also the Codiolaceae (Codio-
lum, &c.). On the other side, the Yolvocineee, distinguished
by their sexual reproduction, must be separated from the
Flagellata and placed with the true Algae. Many trans-
positions of this sort must ere long occur, according as
our knowledge of one group or another becomes apparently
more complete. But in no case shall we, as I think, ever
succeed in erecting an absolute wall of separation between
the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and be able to refer
a portion of the Protista with absolute certainty to the
plants, and another to the animals. Also, by my proposed
entire systematic separation of the three kingdoms, the
practical end of a differential diagnosis is made easier, and
an absolute separation of Animals, Protista, and Plants,
as three fundamentally different organic groups, is by no
means maintained. Rather do I abide by the conjecture
put forward in my ‘ Generelle Morphologie 3 that both the
animal and vegetable kingdoms have derived their first root
from one or several Protista groups, while other Protista
groups [e.g. Diatomacese, Myxomyceta, Rhizopoda) have
developed themselves independently and unconnected with
these. Finally, that all organic stems may have been con-
nected at their oldest root is likewise very conceivable. The

330

controversy how many original protistic phyla or radical forms
may have given origin to the races of animals, plants, and
the existing races of protista, loses much of its apparent
importance from the oldest original forms of all organisms,
having manifestly been Moners of the sinyplest and most
indifferent kind, structureless and homogeneous, shapeless
lumps of sarcode, originating from Archigony or equivocal
generation.

As is shown by the Moners described by myself and Cien-
kowski, it is quite impossible to unite them with any manner
of safety to any other established group of Protista, or to
consider them with certainty as either animals or plants. In
the passive state, and during reproduction, they have more
of a vegetable, and in the active state, and when taking
nourishment, more of an animal, character. Put on the
whole they are, by their very simple nature, such indifferent
organisms that they might be considered as the first begin-
nings of any given living organic race (phylum) . What a great
analogy these display, in this respect, with the various groups
of Protista will be best understood from the following mor-
phological comparison of the Monera with the various groups
of Protista.

Before we proceedto this, it seems advisable once more to enu-
merate the various organic stems which compose the kingdom
of the Protista in its just defined limits. I repeat again, that I
consider this “ system of Protista,” in every point of view, as
only an entirely provisional attempt, and as an inducement
to fresh investigation.

Kingdom of the Protista, or of Monogenetic Organisms
(< organisms which reproduce themselves exclusively in a
non-sexual manner, by monogony ).

Gh'oup I. Monera.

1. Gymnomonera (Protogenes, Protamceba, &c.).

2. Lepomonera (Protomonas, Vampyrella, Protomyxa,
&c.).

Group II. Flagellata.

1. Nudifiagellata (Euglena, Spondylomorum, &c.).

2. Cilioflagellata (Peridinium, Ceratium, &c.).

Group III. Labyrinthulea (Labyrinthulte).

Group IV. Diatomea (Bacillaria).

331

Group V. Phycochromacea (Myxophycea).

1. Chroococcacea (Gloeocapsa, Merismopcedia, &c.).

2. Oscillarinca (Nostochacea, llivulariacea, &c.).

Grotip VI. Fungi (Mycetcs).

1. Phycomycetes (Saprolcgniete, Mucorinae, &c.).

2. Hypodermise (IJredineae, Ustilagineae, &c.).

3. Basidiomycetes (Ilymcnomycetcs, Gastromycetes, &c.).

4. Aseomycetes (Protomycetes, Discomycetes, &c.).

Group VII. Myxomycetes (Mycetozoa).

Group VIII. Protofeast a (Amccboida).

1. Gymnamoeha} (Autamoeba, Nuclearia, &c.).

2. Lepamocbae (Arcella, Difflugia, &c.).

3. Gregarinse (Monocystida et Polycystida).

Group IX. Xoctiluc^: (Myxocystoda).

Group X. Rhizopoda.

1. Acyttaria (Monotlialamia et Polytbalamia).

2. Heliozoa ( Actinosphcerium Eichhornii) .

3. Iladiolaria (Monocyttaria et PolycyTttaria) .

V . Comparative Morphology of the Monera.

In order rightly to estimate the complicated relations of
the Monera to the rest of the Protista, and especially to the
organisms of the lowest rank, it next appears requisite to
enter into explanations concerning their morphological, or,
more correctly, their tectological importance, and to define
their individual position. I add to this the consideration of
the position which I have developed and established in my
general tectology, or doctrine of the individuality (structural
doctrine) of organisms.1

As the universal and single indispensable material element
of all organisms, we have indicated the plasma or proto-
plasm (sarcode), a semifluid, nitrogenous, carbonaceous com-
pound of the group of albuminous bodies.

In the Monera, the very lowest of all organisms, this
plasma forms (simply and solely by itself, without combining
with other bodies) the whole structureless body of the fully
developed organism.

1 ‘Geuerelle Morphologic,’ vol. i, Drittes Buch., ix cap., p. 269.

332

So far as the value of its form is concerned, it thus represents
the very simplest morphological individual of the first order,
a lump of plasma or a plastide. The variously interpreted
definition of the organic cell is, according to the ordinary
form of speech, no longer applicable to these very simple
individualised morsels of plasma. In order, therefore, to
make the cell theory, that indispensable foundation of our
common tectology, applicable also to the Monera and the
allied Protista, I have tried to define the relation of these
morsels of plasma to true cells as sharply as possible in my
tectology. According to my view, true cells, for the defi-
nition of which I imagine necessary the separation of inner
nucleus and outer plasma, have arisen from Monera by an
inner differentiation. On the other hand, cell-like, hut non-
nucleated, plastides — membranous cytodes — -have originated
from Monera by an outer differentiation of plasma and en-
closing membrane or shell.

By this systematic division we obtain the following four
essentially different elementary forms of Plastides, or of
morphological individuals of the first order :

Kinds of Plastides.

I. Cytodae (or Cellinte), Cytodes, plasma-masses without a

nucleus.

1. Gyinnocytodse (or Cytoclee nudes), naked Cytodes.

Naked plasma-masses without a nucleus, without a mem-
brane or shell ; for example, the freely moving Monera, the
non-nucleated plasmodia of the Myxomyceta, and of several
other Protista, the amoeboid germs of the Gregarinac pro-
ceeding from Pseudonavicclhe, &c.

2. Lepocytodae (or Cytodce membranosce) , covered Cytodes.

Encysted plasma-masses without nucleus, enclosed in an

entire or incomplete membrane or shell; for example, the
encapsuled resting condition of the Lepomonera, many
Siphonese, and numerous other of the lower plants, the
so-called “ non-nucleated cells” of many higher plants and
of many animal tissues.

II. Celluhn, (or Cyta) Cells, plasma-masses with nucleus.

I. Gymnocyta (or Cellules nudes), naked cells.

Naked plasma-masses with nucleus, without membrane or
shell ; for example, the true Amoebae (Autamoebse), the naked
zoospores of Algae, the eggs of Siphonophora and other ani-

333

mals, the colourless blood-cells, many ncrve-cclls, and very
many other cells of animals in general, &c.

2. Lepocyta (or Cclluhe membranosa;) , covered cells.

Encysted plasma-masses with nucleus, enclosed in an entire
or incomplete membrane or shell ; for example, the Diato-
maceac, most young plant-cells (as long as they still possess a
nucleus), the eggs of most animals, and many animal
cells in general, &c.

Manifestly the great interest of the Monera especially
consists in their being Gymnocytodes, i. e. Plastides of the
simplest of all kinds, and in the fact that all the above-men-
tioned kinds of Plastides, as they form the bodies of all
organisms, are based upon them. Phylogeny, the palaeonto-
logical development-history of the organic stems (Phyla), is
necessarily at last compelled to go back to the archigonic
(originating by spontaneous generation) Monera for the first
groundwork of all the various groups of organisms. Prom
the Gymnocytodes, as the original plastide-forms (the very
simplest, perfectly homogeneous, masses of plasma) , originate,
on the one side, by outer differentiation of plasma and
membrane, the Lepocytodes, on the other side, by inner
differentiation of plasma and nucleus, the cells ; and these
last then again divide into covered and naked cells, according
as they are surrounded by a membrane or not. To these
four primary forms of Plastides all other cells and cell-forms,
and, generally speaking, all histological elements, can be
reduced, as I have more fully developed in my General
Tectology (‘ Gen. Morph.,’ vol. i, pp. 269 — 303).

Let us now fix, by this scale, the morphological importance
of all hitherto discovered forms of Monera, as I have classed
them synoptically in the last section of this memoir, and we
shall arrive at the following results :

1. All Monera remain for their lives cytodes ; they never
develop into the higher condition of the cell, since nuclei arc
never differentiated in their protoplasm.

2. All Monera are, in their full-grown and freely moving
condition, Gymnocytodes ; in this condition they never
possess a membrane, or shell, or other envelope.

3. The Gymnomonera (Protogenes, Protamceba, and per-
haps, also, Myxcdictyum ?) remain throughout their lives
Gymnocytodes ; they do not pass into a resting condition,
and they do not surround themselves with a covering.

4. The Lepomonera (Protomonas, Protomyxa, Vampy-
rclla, Myxastrum), from being originally Gymnocytodes,
become afterwards Lepocytodes, during which they pass into

O O I
O'j 1'

a resting condition for the purpose of reproduction, and then
surround themselves with a covering or shell.

5. Some Monera (Protogenes, Protamoeba) remain, through-
out their lives, single isolated cytodes, permanent individuals
of the first order, in that the new individuals (Bionta),
originating by the reyiroductive process, forthwith separate
themselves from the older organism, or in that this latter
simply divides itself into two parts.

6. Other Monera (Myxodictyum and all Lepomonera) form
temporarily individuals of the second order, or organs (in
a purely morphological sense), in that, during the time of
reproduction the newly formed individuals (zoospores, Tetra-
plasta, and other forms of germs) remain for some time united
in one Cytode colony (organ).

In these six statements are comprised the complete mor-
phological characteristics of the Monera. To these must be
added the physiological criterion of an exclusively non-sexual
reproduction. If we now compare, with constant reference
to these characteristic peculiarities, the Monera with other
organisms, and especially with the nearest allied Protista,
we shall, on the one hand, recognise more easily the special
character of the group Monera, and, on the other, its multi-
form relationships to the remaining groups. I shall, then,
separately compare with them the series to which the Monera
are the nearest allies among the previously enumerated
Protista groups.

I. Monera and Rhizopoda.

The true Rhizopoda stand nearest of all organisms to the
Monera, with, perhaps, the exception of Protamoeba. I thus
limit the natural groups of the true Rhizopoda, as I have
done in my ‘ General Morphology 5 (after the removal of the
Protoplasta or Amceboida), to the three classes of the Acyt-
taria (Monothalamia and Polythalamia, or Imperforata and
Perforata), the Pleliozoa (at present formed only of the re-
markable Actinospluerium Eichhornii, Stein, Actinophrys
Eichhornii, Ehrenberg), and the Radiolaria (Monocyttaria
and Polycyttaria). The majority of these true Rhizopoda
are distinguished from the Monera by the possession of a
skeleton or a shell when in their freely moving and perfectly
developed condition. The few remaining Rhizopoda which do
not possess this skeleton or shell (ActinosphEerium, Tlialas-
sicolla, Physematium, Collozoum) are separated from the
Monera by the differentiation of nuclei in the interior of their
plasma-body. A very peculiar position must be assigned to
the very common Actinophrys sol (Ehrenb.), which is usually

335

classed with the Rhizopoda, and the only certainly known
representative of the true Actinophrys. I should prefer
to transfer this organism to the Monera, and to place it
between Yampyrella and Myxastrum. The peculiar very
large contractile vesicle of this Protiston would then have
to be considered as a mere vacuole. But, as in spite of the
Actinophrys sol being very common, we still continue to know
nothing certain of its reproduction and development, its posi-
tion among the Monera must at present still remain doubt-
ful. The resting condition of Actinophrys sol observed by
Cienkowski (1. c., p. 227), renders its position among the
Monera still more probable. It might probably be in future
advisable, also, to add to the Monera, besides the true Actino-
phrys sol (Elirenb.), a number of nearly allied Actinophrys-
like Protista, such as Trichodiscus and Plagioplirys.1 The
newly described Clathrulina of Cienkowski, which I have
also observed near Jena, I consider a true Rhizopod, and
place it with the Monothalainia, among the Acyttaria.2

II. Monera and Flagellata.

Among the various forms of Monera, the zoospores of Pro-
tomonas and Protomyxa show the greatest resemblance to the
simplest forms of Flagellata. The latter are distinguished by
the presence of nuclei and of envelopes. The developed and
freely moving Flagellatum is never a Gymnocytode, as all
Monera are in their freely moving condition.

III. Monera and Labyrinthulea.

Among the Monera, Myxastrum, in its reproductive state,
strongly reminds us of Labyrinthula. But the individual
Plastides of the latter are always nucleated, and thus are true
cells, while the Monera never possess nuclei.

IY. Monera and Diatomacece.

The spindle-shaped siliceous-shelled spores of Myxas-
trum remind us of the Diatomaceae also, as they do of the

1 Aclinospharium Eichhornii (Stein), which as Actinophrys Eichhornii,
Ehrenb., not Kolliker, is still generally confounded with the true Actino-
phrys sol (Ehrenberg; Actinophrys Eichhornii, Kolliker), is very widely
different from it. In Actinophrys sol the entire protoplasm body is, as in
the Monera, structureless, while in Actinosphcerium Eichhornii we have a true
Rhizopod, in which nucleus-containing cells have already differentiated
themselves in the outer substance of the body.

2 Cienkowski, “ Ueber die Clathrulina, eine neue Actinophrven-Gattung
‘ Archiv fur mikrosk. Anatomie,’ 1867, pp. 311, 316, Taf. xvili.

336

Labyriuthulca, especially of the simplest form of Navicula.
But as the Diatomacese are also always (?) nucleated, and as,
so far as they are known, they never appear as naked Plas-
tides, their differences from the Monera are very decisive.

V. Monera and Myxomycetes .

Among all Protista, next to the true Rhizopoda, the Myxo-
myceta stand nearest to the Monera. The colossal naked,
freely moving sarcode bodies of Protogenes, Protomyxa, and
also of Vampyrella, are not in themselves to be directly distin-
guished from the plasmodia of the Myxomycetes, especially
the semi-liquid forms. Only their further development allows
us to perceive the divergence of the two groups. There is,
in addition, the striking similarity of the reproduction by
zoosjmres in Protomonas and Protomyxa. Hence these might
be considered as the simplest Myxomycetes. But the spore of
the Myxomyceta always encloses a nucleus, and is, therefore,
a true cell, while in the Monera nuclei are never present. In
this I recognise the substantial difference between the Monera
and Myxomyceta, apart from the much higher differentiation
of the sporangium in the latter. But one might consider the
encapsuled resting condition of Protomyxa as the first and
simplest commencement of the sporangium of the Myxomy-
cetes. In both the zoospores pass over into the Amoeba con-
dition.

VI. Monera and Protoplasta.

The Protoplasta, also, show, like the Myxomyceta and
Rhizopoda, very close relations to the Monera. I have
classed together as Protoplasta, in my f General Morphology,’
the three following groups of Protista :

1. Gymnamocbae, the true, naked Amoeba?, with a nucleus,
and with or without a contractile vesicle or vacuole ; Auta-
mceba, Nuclearia, Pseudospora, Podostoma, Petalopus, &c.

2. Lepamcebae (Amoeba? furnished with a shell or test ;
Arcella, Difflugia, Euglyplia, &c.).

3. Gregarina? (Monocystidea and Polycystidea).

I regard the Gregarinae as Amoeba? which have degenerated
by parasitism. The Monera show the closest affinities to the
Protoplasta, especially to the Gymnamoeba?. Protamoeba is
only to be distinguished from the true Amoebae (Autamceba)
by the absence of a nucleus and of the contractile vesicles.
The pseudo-navicella? of the Gregarinae remind us extremely,
(still more than the “ spindles ” of the Labyrinthulea,) of the
spindle-shaped spores of Myxastrum. But there is, again, an

337

essential and decisive difference in true cell-nuclei beiug diffe-
rentiated in the substance of the sarcode in all Protoplasta,
while this is never the case in the Monera.

The three remaining groups of Protista, the Phyeochro-
maceae, Fungi, and Noctiluca?, show less decided relations
to the Monera than the six groups just considered, and a
special comparison of them is, therefore, superfluous. But
the lowest Fungi, as well as the simplest Phycochromacese,
are immediately allied to the Monera by the simplicity and
the lower grade of development of their structure and of
their life-phenomena. Their simplest ancestors may have
proceeded directly from Monera.

In any case, it becomes even now perfectly clear from the
sketch above given, and from a simple comparison of the his-
tory of the development of the different Protista that, without a
complete knowledge of their individual development-history,
these very low organisms cannot at once be referred with even
approximate certainty to this or that group of Protista. This
especially and peculiarly applies to all naked Amoeba-like
and Actynophrys-like bodies, as well as to the Myxomy-
ccta-like plasmodia, and to the Flagellata-like zoospores.
Here, as everywhere in morphology, as Baer says, “ the
history of development is the true Guide-light for investiga-
tions into organic bodies.” But none the less is the weighty
proposition also verified here, “ that the theory of descent is
the true Guide-light for the whole history of development.”

VI. — Systematic arrangement of the Monera.

Character of the groups of Monera . —

Organisms without organs, which in their perfectly developed
condition form a freely moving, naked, perfectly structureless
and homogeneous mass of sarcode (Protoplasm). Nuclei are
never differentiated in the homogeneous protoplasm. Move-
ment is effected by contraction of the homogeneous substance
of tbe body, and by the protrusion of processes (pseudopods)
varying in form, which either remain simple or ramify and
anastomose. Nutrition is effected in various ways, mostly
after the manner of the Rhizopoda. Reproduction is effected
solely in a non-sexual manner (by monogony). Often, but
not always, the freely moving condition alternates with a
state of rest, during which the body surrounds itself with an
excreted structureless covering. All Monera live in water.

338

First division of the Monera .

Gymnomonera.

Monera without a resting condition, and without formation
of a covering.

The freely moving condition of the Moner is interrupted
by no resting condition with formation of a covering.

Genus I. — Protamceba, Haeckel.1

Haeckel, ‘ Generelle Morphologic,’ 1866, vol. i, p. 133.

Generic character. — A simple shapeless protoplasm body
without the formation of vacuoles, which protrudes simple
processes, not ramifying or anastomosing, and which repro-
duces itself by fission.

Species. — Protamceba primitiva, Haeckel.

Plate X, fig. 25 — 30.

‘ Generelle Morphologie,’ 1866, vol. i, p. 133.

Protoplasm-body of 0'03 — 005 mm. diameter, continually
varying in form, with one or several (3 to 6) peripheral
pseudopods. Processes short, rounded, obtuse, finger-shaped,
at most as long as the diameter of the central body.

Locality. — A pond of fresh water in Tautenburg Forest,
opposite Hornburg, near Jena. 1863 and 1865.

Genus II. — Protogenes, Haeckel.5

‘ Zeitschr. fiir. wissenscli. Zool.,’ vol. xv, 1865, p. 360.

Generic character. — A simple shapeless protoplasm-body
without the formation of vacuoles, which protrudes ramifying
and anastomosing processes, and reproduces itself by fission.

Species. — Protogenes primordialis, Haeckel.

‘ Ueber den Sarcodekbrper der Rhizopoden,’ 1. c., p. 360,
pi. xxvi, figs. 1, 2.

Protoplasm-body sometimes contracted globularlyr, from
0T — 1 mm. diameter (1. c., fig. 1); sometimes extended and
flattened out, of an irregular outline, of 3 — 4 mm. diameter
(fig. 2) ; pseudopods exceedingly numerous (over a thousand),
very fine, with very numerous ramifications and anastomoses.

Locality. — Mediterranean, near Nice, 1864.

1 Ilpiirjj afio ifit), the first change of form.

* npwToyivye, the first-born.

33‘J

Genus III. — Myxodictyum, llaeckcl.1

(See p. 131, above.)

Generic character. — Several simple shapeless protoplasm-
bodies, (without the formation of vacuoles,) which protrude
ramifying and anastomosing pseudopods, and link themselves
by these anastomoses into a net. (Reproduction probably
proceeds by division, and by the detachment of the single
individuals, which then form new colonies ?)

Species. — Myxodictyum sociale, Haeckel.

Sec Plate X, figs. 31—33.

Protoplasm-body in the only observed specimen, forming
a flat broadened-out sarcode-nct of 0-35mm. diameter, com-
posed of seventeen individual Moners, actinophrys-like bodies
of 0 04 mm. diameter.

Locality. — Bay of Algesiras in the Straits of Gibraltar,
1867.

Second division of the Monera.

Lepomonera.

Monera with a resting condition, and with formation of a
covering.

The freely moving condition of the Moner is interrupted
by a resting condition, with the development of a covering.

Genus IV. — Protomoxas, Haeckel.4

‘ Generelle Morphologie,’ vol. ii, p. xxiii.

Generic character. — A simple shapeless protoplasm-body
(without the formation of vacuoles), which protrudes simple or
ramifying pseudopods. Reproduction by zoospores, which
combine into plasmodia.

Species. — Protornonus atnyli, Haeckel.

(Monas amyli, Cienkowski.)

‘ Archiv fur Mikrosk. Anat.,’ vol. i, p. 165, pi. xii, figs.

1—5.

Protoplasm-body, a plasmodium which arises from the

1 hvZocuctvov, slime-net.

5 npurofiovag, first beginning.

340

fusion of several zoospores, of about 002 — 005 mm. diame-
ter, with a few ramifying, very fine pseudopods.

Resting condition, a roundish Lepocytode, whose mem-
brane throws out wedge-shaped warts, which jiroject inwards.
Zoospores spindle-shaped, very contractile, furnished with
several (two ?) flagella, moving themselves in the manner of an
Anguillula.

Locality. — In decaying Nitella from fresh water in Ger-
many and Russia (Cienkowski).

Genus V. — Protomyxa, Haeckel.1

(Compare above, p. 34.)

Generic character. — A simple shapeless protoplasm-body
(with the formation of vacuoles) , which protrude ramifying
and anastomosing pseudopods. Reproduction by zoospores,
which combine together into plasmodia.

Species. — Protomyxa aurantiaca, Haeckel.

See Plate IX, figs. 1 — 12.

Protoplasm-body, a plasmodium of orange-red colour,
which (always ?) originates from the fusion of several
zoospores, of 0-5 — 1 mm. diameter ; with very numerous and
very thick ramifying and anastomosing pseudopods, which
form a network by many anastomoses. Resting condition,
a globular Lepocytode of 015 mm. diameter, with a thick
structureless covering (cyst) . Zoospores pear-shaped, at the
pointed end cone-shaped, produced into a very strong flagel-
lum, at first moving in the manner of the zoospores of the
Myxomyceta, and afterwards creeping along in the manner
of an Amoeba.

Locality. — On empty shells of Spirula Peronii floating
about on the open sea, and driven in on the coast of the
Canary Island Lanzarote, 1867.

Genus VI. — Vampyrella, Cienkowski.2

‘ Archiv fur. Mikrosk. Anat./ vol. i, p. 218.

Generic character. — A simple shapeless protoplasm-body
(without the formation of vacuoles), which protrudes simple
or ramifying pseudopods. Reproduction by the formation of
tetraplasta; the encapsuled resting body divides first into

1 HpwrofivKa, original slinic.

2 Diminutive of Vampyrus.

341

two, then into four germs, which, after their exit from the
cyst, are Actinophrys-like bodies.

Species 1. — Vampyrella Spirogyrce, Cienkowski.

‘Archiv fur Mikrosk. Anat.,’ vol. i, p. 218, pi. xii, figs.
44—50.

Protoplasm-body of brick-red colour, and of exceedingly
variable and irregular form. Pseudopods with granular cir-
culation, partly long, thin, and pointed, partly short, thick,
and obtuse. The pseudopods bore into the cells of Spiro-
gyra, and suck out their contents. Resting condition, a
globular or spheroidal, rarely an irregularly shaped Lepo-
cytode, of 00S mm. diameter, fixed to Spirogyrse. Cyst-wall
consisting of cellulose (turned blue by iodine and sulphuric
acid).

Locality. — On a fresh-water species of Spirogyra, Cien-
kowski.

Species 2. — Vampyrella pendula, Cienkowski.

‘Archiv fur Mikrosk. Anat.,’ vol. i, p. 221, pi. xii, figs.

0 1 — bo.

Protoplasm-body of brick-red colour, and of very variable
form. “ Pseudopods without granular-circulation,” which
bore into the cells of various Confervse, (Edogonia, Bul-
bocha)t<e, &c., and suck out their contents. Resting con-
dition, a pear-shaped Lepocytode, which is attached by the
pointed extremity. From the encysted globularly contracted
body, a thread-like process issues to the place of attachment
through the pointed end of the cellulose cyst-wall.

Locality. — On various fresh-water Confervsc.

Species 3. — Vampyrella vorax, Cienkowski.

£ Archiv fur Mikrosk. Anat.,’ vol. i, p. 223, pi. xii, figs.
04—73.

Protoplasm-body of brick-red colour, and of extremely
irregular and variable form. “ Pseudopods without granular
circulation.” It engulphs foreign bodies (Diatomacea), Des-
midiacea), and Flagellata) in the manner of the Rhizopoda,
and draws them into the interior of the body. Resting
condition an irregular, mostly longitudinally extended
Lepocytode.

Locality. — In fresh water.

342

Genus VIL — Myxastrum, Haeckel.1

(Sec above, p. 123.)

Generic character. — A simple shapeless protoplasm-body
(without the formation of vacuoles), which protrudes simple or
ramifying and anastomosing processes, Reproduction by radial
fission. The encapsuled resting body divides into a great
number of longish germs, whose longitudinal axis is radially
directed towards the centre of the globular cyst. Each sepa-
rate germ surrounds itself with a siliceous covering. The germs
issuing from these spore-coverings at once assume the form of
the full-grown organism.

Species. — Myxastrum radians , Haeckel.

Plate X, figs. 13—24.

Protoplasm-body in the freely moving condition, usually
of the shape of a radiating ball, of very tough consistence, of
0'3 — 05 mm. diameter. Pseudopods very tough and stiff,
ramifying sparingly, with few anastomoses. Foreign bodies,
Diatomacepe, Peridinia, &c., are engulphed by the pseudo-
pods, and drawn into the central body. Resting condition,
a globular cyst of 008 mm. diameter. The contents divide
into numerous siliceous-shelled spores of 003 mm. length,
0-015 mm. breadth, whose longitudinal axes are radially
directed towards the empty centre of the globular cyst.

Locality. — Beach of the harbour of Puerto del Arrecife,
the port of the Canary Island Lanzarote, 1867.

Enumeration of Micro-lichens parasitic on other
Lichens. By W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D., F.R.S.E.,
F.L.S.

{Continued from page 146.)

Genus XY. — Acolium, Ach. Mudd, 253.

Species 1. A. corallinum, Hepp.

Syn. Cyphclium, Hepp, 531.

Trachylia, Hepp.

Sclerococcum sp/uerate, Fr.

Celidium furfuraceum, Anzi.

1 pv%a utrTpov, slime-star.

On thallus of Lecanora glaucoma, var. corallina, L. (Hepp) ;
and Pertusaria ocellata, var. corallina, Korb. (Par., 465). 1

Spores spherical, simple, brown. A Fungus according to
Fries (Syst. Myc., iii, 257) ; and Xy lander (Trod., 91), who
refers it to the genus Spilomium ( Uredinece ), a genus which
includes other Micro-fungi parasitic on Lichens.

Genus XVI. — Cercidospora, Kijrb., Par., 465.

Species 1. C. U/othii, Korb., Par., 466.

On thallus of Srjuamaria saxicola (Korb.), and on apothecia
of Lecanora polytropa (Th. Fries, L. Spitsb., 22).

Spores 4, fusiform, 2 -locular, colourless.

Genus XVII. — Pharcidia, Korb., Par., 469.

Species 1. P. congesta, Korb., Par., 4~0.

Syn. L. subfusca, v. pharcidia, Ach.

On apothecia of Lecanora subfusca, and var. intumescens,

Fw.

Spores 8, 2 — 4-locular, colourless, linear or rod-shaped.

Genus XVIII. — Polycoccum, Saul. Korb., Par., 470.

Species 1. P. Sauteri, Korb., Par., 470.

Syn. P. condensatum, Saut.

Catopyrenium, Hampe.

On protothallus of Stereocaidon condensatum.

Spores 8, small, 2-locular, brown.

Genus XIX. — Sokothelia, Kijrb., Par., 471.

Species 1. S. confluens, Korb., Par., 472.

On thallus of Phlyctis argena.

Spores 8, soleaform (2-locular), brown.

Genus XX. — Rhagadostoma, Korb., Par., 472.

Species 1. R. corrugatum, Korb., Par., 472.

On thallus of Solorina crocea.

1 It appears to me that the host, on which the parasite usually occurs, is
the common Isidium corallinum, Ach., which is apparently a mere condition
of several very different Lichens, e. g. —

1. Pertusaria syncarpa, Mudd,

var. corallina, L. ; Mudd, 273.

2. P. ocellata, Wallr.,

var. corallina, Ach.; Korb., Par., 311.

3. Lecanora glaucoma, Ach.,

var. coralloidea , Fw. ; Korb., Par., 89; Fries, 378 ; Schaer., 71.
VOL. IX. — NEW SER. Z

344

Spores 2 — 4 (in lanceolate fugacious thecae), large, simple,
becoming 2-locular, colourless.

Genus XXI. — Spolverinia, Mass. Korb., Par., 473.

Species 1. S. punctum, Mass. Korb., Par., 474.

On the thallus and protothallus of various crustaceous
Lichens.

Spores 1 — 2, large, globose-ovoid, simple, colourless or
yellowish.

Genus XXII. — Placographa, Th. Fries. Korb., Par., 249.

Species 1. P. xenophona, Korb., Par., 464.

On thallus of Lecidea contigua and var. albo-ccerulescens.
Spores 8, small, ovoid-ellipsoid, simple, colourless.

Genus XXIII. — Lahmia, Korb., Par., 281.1

Species 1. L. Fuistingii, Korb., Par., 464.

On thallus of Bceomyces placophyllus.

Spores 4, large, acicular, 8 — 12-locular, colourless.

Genus XXIV. — Xenosphasria, Trevis. Korb., Par., 466.

Species 1. X. Engeliana, Saut. Korb., Par., 466.

Syn. Sphceria urceolata- Anzi ; Linds., N. Z. Lich.
and Fungi, 438; Hepp, 475, f. 2.
Endocarpon, Scheer.

E. psoromoides, Hook, and Leight. ; Borr., pr. p.
Verrucaria Sauteri, Hampe.

Dacampia, Korb., Syst., 326.

Sagedia, Saut.

On thallus of Solorina saccata.

Spores 6 — 8, oblong, 4 — 6-locular, brown : sometimes
large, irregular, and muriform. Korber (Syst., 326) de-
scribes it as possessed of a proper thallus.

Genus XXV. — Arthopyrexia, Mass. Korb., Par., 386.

Species 1. A. conspurcans, Th. Fr., Spitsb., 51.

On thalline scales of Lecidea globifera, v. rubiformis,

mAh.

1 Possesses spermogonia.

! Compare Phacopsis psoromoides.

345

Spores 8, cuneate, 2-locular, colourless.

2. A. dispersa, Lalim ; Korb., Par., 388.

On thallus of Lecanora calva, Dicks.

Spores 8, small, soleaform (2-locular), colourless.

3. A. Aspicilice, Lahm; Korb., Par., 388.

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea.

Spores 8, oblong, 2 — 4-locular, colourless. Lahm sug-
gests it may be identical with TheUdium aggregation, Mudd
(q. v.).

4. A. microspila, Korb., Par., 392.

On thallus of Graphis scripta.

Spores 6 — 8, minute, cuneate, 2- (rarely 4-) locular, colour-
less.

Genus XXVI. — Thelocarpon, Nyl., Pyren., 9.

Species 1. T. epithallinum, Leight., Ann. Nat. Plist., vol.
xviii, 1866, p. 24.

Syn. T. Laureri, Flot. ; Leight., “ New British
Lichens,” Ann. Nat. Hist., 1864.

On thallus of Bceomyces rufas.

Spores numerous, minute, ellipsoid, physcioid, colourless.

Genus XXVII. — Leciographa, Mass. Korb., Par., 463.

Species 1. L. Neesii, Fw. ; Korb., Par., 463.

Syn. L. Zwackhii, Mass.

Peziza Neesii, Fw.

On sterile thallus of Lecidea commutata, Ach. ; Lecanora
elatina, Ach. ; and Phlyctis argena, File.

Spores 8, fusiform, 4-locular, colourless, becoming brown.
2. L. parasitica, Mass. ; Korb., Par., 463.

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea.

Spores 8, ellipsoid, 4-locular, brown.

Genus XXVIII. — Karschia, Korb., Par., 459.

Species 1. K. talcophila, Ach.1

Syn. Buellia, Korb., Syst., 230.

Abrothullus, Mass.

Calicium complicatum, Fw.

Lecidea, Fw.

On thallus of Urceolaria scruposa.

1 Compare Tichothecium Aruoldi, which Hepp apparently refers to this
lichen.

346

Spores 8, minute, soleaform (2-locular), brown. Korber
describes it as sometimes possessing a proper thallus.

2. K. pulverulent a, Anzi; Korb., Par., 460.

Syn. Abrothallus, Anzi.

On thallus of Physcia pulverulenta.

Spores as in preceding.

3. K. protothallina, Anzi ; Korb., Par., 460.

Syn. Abrothalhis, Anzi.

On protothallus of Pannaria lepidiota, Th. Fr.

Spores 6 — 8, small, 2-locular, deep brown.

4. K. Strickeri, Korb., Par., 460.

On the gonimic thallus of Lecidea pineti.

Spores 8, small, soleaform (2-locular), brown. Plant has
the aspect of a Peziza.

Genus XXIX. — Nesolechia, Mass. Korb., Par., 461.

Species 1. N. punctum, Mass.; Korb., Par., 461.

On protothallus of various Cladonice.

Spores 6 — 8, small, linear-fusiform, simple, colourless.

2. N. ericetorum, Fw.; Korb., Par., 461.

Syn. Stigmatidium , Fw.

On thallus of Bceomyces roseus and B. rufus.

Spores 6 — 8, small, ellipsoid, simple, colourless. Korber
thinks it identical with Lecidea inquinans, Tul. (q. v.). He
did not find spermogonia associated with it.

3. N. thallicola, Mass. ; Korb., Par., 462.

Syn. Scutula, Anzi.

On thallus of Parmelia caperata.

Spores 8, small, ovoid-ellipsoid, simple, colourless.

4. N. Nitschkii, Korb., Par., 462.

On thallus of Thelotrema lepadinum.

Spores 4 — 8, small, oblong, simple, colourless.

Genus XXX. — Thelidium, Mass. Mudd, 294.

Species 1. T. aggregatum, Mudd, 298.1
On thallus of Lecanora calcarea.

Spores large, linear-oblong, 2-locular, colourless.

2. T. epipolytropum, Mudd, 298.

On thallus of Lecanora polytropa and Squamaria saxicol
Spores subfusiform, 2-locular, colourless.

1 Compare Arlliopyreniu Aspicilice.

347

Genus XXXI. — Tichothecium, Fw. Korb., Tar., 467.

Species 1. T. pygmaum, Kerb.

Syn. Microthelia, Korb., Syst., 374; Mudd, 307.

Endococcus,1 Th. Fries., Spitsb., 51 ; Arct., 275.

Verrucaria gemmifera, var., Leight.

Tichothecium Rehmii, Mass.

Sphceria lichenicola, Auctt., pr. p.

On tballus of many saxicolous (crustaceous and sub-
foliaceous) Lichens, e. g. :

Placodium elegans, DC. ; albescens, Hfftn. ; cirro -
chroum, Ach. ; fulgens, DC.

Lecanora calcarea and var. Hoffmanni, Ach. ; calva,
Dicks ; polytropa.

Lecidea contigua, and var. meiosperma, Nyl. (= L.
parasema, v. crustulata, Ach.) ; fusco-atra, Ach. ;
sabuletorum, Schser. ; polycarpa, File. ; lapicida ;
geographica.

Pyrenodesmia rubiginosa, Kremph.

Spores numerous (32 — 50), very minute, oblong-ellipsoid,
2-locular, brown. Mudd describes it as having occasionally
a proper thallus. Much more common than the following :
occurring both on apothecia and thallus (Th. Fries).

2. T. gemmiferum, Tayl. ; Korb., Par., 468.

Syn. Verrucaria, Tayl. ; Leight.

Endococcus, Nyl. ; Leight., Exs., 137 ; Th.
Fries, Spitsb., 51 ; Arct., 275.

Phceospora, Hepp, 700.

Microthelia propinqua, Korb., Syst., 374 ; Mudd,
307.

Spharia lichenicola, Auctt., pr. p.

On thallus of various saxicolous Lichens, e. g. Lecidea con-
tigua and var. meiospora ; L. fusco-atra ; L. confluens, Ach. ;
L. sabuletorum ; L. parasema, v. latypea, Ach. (= L. co-
niops, Ach., pr. p.) ; also on various Lecanora, e. g. L.
cinerea (fide Th. Fries), L. atra (fide Mudd).

Spores 8 — 12, ellipsoid, minute, 2-locular, brown. Mudd
describes the plant as sometimes having a proper thallus.

3. T. erraticum, Mass. ; Korb., Par., 468.

Syn. Endococcus, Mass.; Nyl.

On thallus of Lecanora chalybcea, Schser., and L. auran-

1 The disuse of this generic name among Lichens is desirable, inasmuch
as it is also applied to a genus of Protophyla [ Palmellacece ] according to
Naegeli. Moreover, there seems no proper ground for separating this and
allied pseudo-genera from Verrucaria.

348

tiaca, Lightf. (Korb.) ; on L. calcarea and Squamaria concolor,
Ram. (apothecia and thallus, fide Nyb, Pyren., 64).

Spores ellipsoid, numerous, very minute, 2-locular, brown.

4. T. stigma, Korb., Par., 468.

On thallus of Lecidea (Psora) lamprophora, Korb., and L.
geographica.

Spores 8, 2-locular, brown.

5. T. Arnoldi, Hepp ; Korb., Par., 469.

Syn. Abrothallus, Hepp.

Phceospora, Hepp, 701 and 702.

Microthelia, Hepp ; Mass.

Lecidea talcophila, Ach.

Buellia, Korb., Syst., 230.

Splueria, Hepp ; Moug.

Karschia, Korb., Par., 460.

On thallus of Urceolaria scruposa, vars. arenaria, Schaer.,
bryophila, Ach., and iridata, Mass.

Spores 8 — 12, very minute, soleaform (2-locular), brown.

6. T. grossum, Korb., Par., 469.

On thallus of Umbilicaria arctica.

Spores 6 — 8, small, soleaform (2-locular), brown. Th.
Fries suggests (L. Arct., 165) that this may be Dotbidea
Lichenum, Smrf., •which is parasitic on same thallus.

Genus XXXII. — Microthelia, Korb. Mudd, 306;

Linds., N. Z. Lieh. and Fungi, 436.

Species 1. M. rugulosa, Borr.

Syn. Verrucaria, Borr. ; Leight.

Endococcus, Nyl., Prod., 193.

Tichothecium erraticum, Mass, (fide Nyl.).

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea and Squamaria concolor
(Nyl., Prod., 71 and 193). Mudd describes it as having
proper thallus.

Spores 8, oblong, 2-locular, dark brown (Mudd) : some-
times numerous and ellipsoid (Nyl.).

It is doubtful whether Mudd and Nylander here refer to
the same plant. If they do, it is note-worthy that its thecae
are both polyspored and 8-spored, a circumstance that would
have great significance in relation to the specific separation
from each other of such parasites as Tichothecium erraticum
and T. gemmiferum.

2. M. calcaricola, Mudd, 306.

On thallus of Lecanora calcarea and L. gibbosa, Ach.

Spores 8, ellipsoid-oblong, 2-locular, brown.

349

3. M. rimosicola, Leight., Exs., 253; Mudd, 308.

Syn. Verrucaria, Leiglit., Exs., 253. 1

Xenosphaeria, Korb., Par.

Tichothecium, Arnold.

P/ueospora triseptata, Hepp.

On thallus of Lecidea albo-atra, v. epipolia, Ach. (Mudd) ;
L. petrcea, v. concentrica, Dav. ; and other crustaceous Lichens
(Korb.).

Spores 8, small, ovoid-oblong, 4-locnlar, brown.

4. M. peripherica, Tayl. ; Mudd, 308.

Though described by Mudd as having a proper thallus, is
probably parasitic on the sterile thallus of Lecanora glau-
coma or other crustaceous Lichens.

Spores 8, fusiform, 4-locular, brown. Mudd suggests that
it may be a Spfueria.

5. M. verrucosaria (Mudd, 165).

On thallus of Lecanora vemicosa.

Spores 8, ovoid-oblong, 2-locular, colourless. Mudd (who
suggests it may be really a Fungus ) describes it without
giving it a name ; it is, however, convenient, if not necessary,
for future reference, that it should bear some name, and 1
have therefore placed it provisionally here, regarding the
genus Microthelia 2 as both a provisional and heterogeneous
one.

6. M. perrugosaria, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 43T.

On apothecia of Lecanora perrugosa, Nyl.

Spores oval, 2-locular, brown.

7. M. Cargilliana, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 439.

On apothecia of Parmelia perforata.

Spores spherical, simple, brown.

8. M. Ramalinaria, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 440.

On thallus of Ramalina calicaris.

Spores unknown.

9. M. vermicularia, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 441.

On thallus of Thamnolia vermicularis.

Spores 8, soleaform (2-locular), brown.

10. M. alcicornaria, Linds., Spermog.,3 161.

On under surface of folioles of horizontal thallus of Cla-
donia alcicornis.'

Pycnidia only.

11. M. prunastria, Linds., Spermog., 137.

1 Compare Verrucaria advenula, Nyl.

3 Compare ‘N. Z. Lich. and Fungi,’ 434; Fmqo-lichenes, and genus
Microthelia.

3 “ Memoir on the Spermogonia and Pycnidia of the Higher Lichens
‘Trans, ltoyal Society of Edin.,’ vol. xxii (1859).

350

On thallus of Evernia prunastri. Korber (Syst., 42) re-
gards it, apparently, as a Fungus.

Spores unknown.

12. M. Solorinaria, Linds., Spermog., 17-5.

On thallus of Solorina crocea.

Pycnidia only.

13. M. Collemaria, Linds., Spermog., 272.

On thallus of Collema melee mm.

Spores unknown. Perhaps a Fungus.

Genus XXXIII. — Phymatopsis, Tul. Linds., N. 7. Lich.
and Fungi, 442.

Species 1. P. dubia, Linds., N. Z. Lich. and Fungi, 442,

a. On apothecia of Usnea barbata, v. florida.

Pycnidia only.

b. On apothecia and thallus of U. barbata, v. ceratina.
Spores undetermined.

Genus XXXIV. — Endococcus, Nyl., Nouv. Classif., 193.

Species 1. E. perpusillus, Nyl., Prod., 193; Pyren., 64.

On thallus of Lecanora cinerea and Lecidea tenebrosa.

Spores oblong, 2-locular, brown. Possesses spermogonia.

Nylander places Microthelia rugulosa , Tichothecium gem-
miferum, and T. erraticum, with E. perpusillus, in his genus
Endococcus (Pyren., 64). There seems to me no reason for
placing these parasites and their co-species in three different
genera !

Genus XXXV. — Verrucaria.

Species 1. V. innata, Nyl. (Flora, 1865).

On thallus of Lecidea Hookeri, Schser., but also on earth,
associated with V. nigrata, Nyl. ; both on Ben Lawers
(Jones).

2. V. superposita, Nyl. (Flora, 1865).

On thallus and hypothallus of V. theleodes, Smrf. ; occur-
ring also apparently with a proper thallus. Collected by
Jones and Carroll, probably in Scotland ; but locality not
given in Leighton’s “Not. Lich.,” ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.,’ 1866.

3. V. allogena, Nyl. (Flora, 1865).

On thallus of Lecidea excentrica, Ach., Carroll, 1864 ; but
also — apparently with a proper thallus — on rocks on summit
of Ben Lawers, Probably only a variety of V. epidermidis.

351

4. V. endococcoidea, Nyl. (Flora, 1865).

Syn. V. advincula, Nyl.

On thallus of L. excentrica, near top of Ben Lawers
(Jones); of Lecidea concentrica, Dav., near Cork, in my
herbarium from Carroll ; on L. petrosa and L. contigua, Ben
Lawers (Jones, in letter). Frequent in Ireland, always on
L. petrosa or some of its forms (Jones).

5. V. tartaricola, Linds. (‘ Observations on Greenland

Lichens’).

On thallus of Lecanora tartarea, Greenland.

Spores fusiform or oval, 3 — 5-locular, olive or brown.

6. V. capnodes, Nyl. Carroll, “ Contributions to British

Lichenology,” Seeman’s Journal of Botany, vol. v,
p. 259.

Syn. V. rliyponta, Borr. and Leight. (non Ach.).

On thallus of Graphis sophistica, Nyl.

Spores 1 -septate.

7. V. advenula, Nyl. Carroll, “ Contrib. Brit. Lich.,”

Journ. Bot., vol. v, p. 260.

Syn. V. rimosicola, Leight.1
On thallus of Lecidea excentrica.

Genus XXXVI. — Endocarpon, Hedw . (pr. p.).

Species 1. E. microsticticum, Leight., Exs., 317.

Parasitic on thallus of Lecanora cervina, v. smaragdula
(Leight., in letter to me, 1858). Mudd (159) refers it to the
Lecanora as a var. microsticta, and describes a proper thallus
with endocarpoid apotliecia, containing spores that are very
numerous and minute, ellipsoid, and colourless.

2. E. Crombii, Mudd (Brit. Cladoniae, p. 36).

Parasitic on Thamnolia vermicularis.

Sporidia2 “extremely minute, elliptical, 1-locular, or at
times faintly 2-locular, hyaline” (Mudd).

Genus XXXVII. — Pseudographis, Nyl.

Syn. Hysterium, Pers.

Scleromium Suecicnm, Nyl.

i Vide Microthelia rimosicola.

s The terms “ spores ” and “ sporidia ” are in this paper used synonym-
ously. Some lichenologists use exclusively the one term, some the other ;
while uniformity of practice is most desirable. If the nomenclature of the
Fungi is to be adopted for parallel organs among Lichens — as Berkeley de-
sires should be the case — the term “ sporidia ” is the more correct, and the
least likely to lead to confusion or error.

352

Species 1. P. elatina, Acli. (Nyl., Prod., p. 171).

On apothecia of Lecanora parella and Pertusaria communis
(= Variolaria amara, Ach.).

Spores colourless or becoming brown, 4 — 6-locular,
sometimes becoming sub-muriform, slightly blue with iodine
— an unusual reaction of the spore in Lichens.1

Genus XXXVIII. — Arctoaita, Th. Fries.

Species 1. A. delicatula, Th. Fr.

On decayed Lichens in Spitsbergen (L. Spitsb., p. 17). It
does not appear whether it is really athalline; or merely,
having a proper thallus, overspreads Lichens, as in Scandi-
navia it does mosses.

Very similar to many of the Micro-lichens recorded in the
foregoing enumeration are certain other very minute or
microscopic forms, which appear to be athalline or nearly
so, but which grow on Mosses or Hepaticce, e. g. —

1. Lecidea contristcins, Nyl. (Flora, 1865; Leight., “ Not.
Lich./’ Ann. N^t Hist., 1866).

Discovered by Carroll on decaying Andrece on the summit
of Ben Lowers (1864).

2. Verrucaria tristicula , Nyl. (Flora, 1865 ; Leight.,
‘■'Not. Lich.,” Ann. Nat. Hist., 1866).

Found by Admiral Jones on Weissia, in Aberdeenshire.

3. V. dubiella, Nyl. (Flora, 1865).

On mosses, mountains about Loch-na-Cat (Carroll, 1864).

4. Lecidea Scapanaria, Carrington, Irish Cryptogams,

p. 8.

Syn. Dactylospora, Mudd.

Spores 6 — 8, fusiform, 4-locular, brown.

5. L. persimilis, var. Scapanaria, Nyl. ; Carrington, Irish
Crypt., p. 9.

Parasitic on the stems and leaves of Scapania undidata, v.
major, and S. cequiloba. Nylander (Scand., 236) describes
the type as having a proper thallus.

Spores ellipsoid, 4-locular, brown.

The foregoing list represents — as I have already explained

1 Nylander (‘Prod.,’ p. 172) points out that, the epispore of Pyrenula
uberina. Pee, becomes wine-red with iodine, while the endospore remains
colourless. I have figured a blue reaction of the epispore in the spores of
Parmelia ntegaleia, Nyl., in my “ Observations on New Zealand Lichens”
(‘ Trans. Royal Society of Edin./ vol, xxv, pi. 61, fig. 2 «).

353

— a compilation from those works only to which I have at
present access. It could be greatly enlarged by contribu-
tions from foreign authors, for the labours of the microscopi-
cal school of lichenologists are daily adding to the number
of the parasites in question. And I trust in time the list will
be so enlarged. Meanwhile it is sufficiently full to illustrate
the following points in the Natural History of Lichens :

I. The difficulties and absurdities of modern Botanical
Classification and Nomenclature.

The majority at least of the genera hereinbefore enume-
rated may be reduced with propriety to the four following
type-genera : —

1. Verrucaria .

Vcrrucaria.

Arthopyrenia,

Thelocarpon.

Thelidium.

Mierothelia.

Endococcus.

Cercidospora.

Xenosphaeria,

Tichothecium.

Pharcidia.

Polycoccuin.

Sorothelia.

Rhagadostoma.

Spolverinia.

Endocarpon.

2. Lecidea.

Lecidea.

Biatorina.

Buellia.

Abrotliallus.

Scutula.

Karschia.

Nesolechia.

3. Calicium.

Calicium.

Sphinctrina.

Stenocybe.

4. Arthonia.

Arthonia.

Opegrapha.

Pseudographis.

Placographa.

Trachylia.

Acolium.

Lahmia.

Leciographa.1

Celidium.

Phacopsis.

Phymatopsis

1 Stizenberger apparently arranges it under Buellia (‘ Beit. z. Flccht.,’ 161).

354

There is a most unnecessary sectioning of genera, accord-
ing : usually, to the simplicity or complexity of the spore.
Were the structure of the spore constant it might be made
a very convenient basis for dividing genera into sections, but
certainly not for splitting genera like Lecidea into a host of
independent genera. The character of the spore is not, how-
ever, constant, even in the same species ; it is, e. g., fre-
quently, even in the same plant, simple, or 2- or more-locu-
lar : in which case a given Lichen, such as Lecidea vernalis
or anomala, is artificially referred to one genus, while it
belongs, in another sense, at least to two, and perhaps to
more !

The most anomalous genera in the preceding list are
Celidium, Phacopsis, and Phymatopsis, which are really in-
termediate in characters between the Lecidece and Graphidece.
But they may with propriety, I think, be referred provision-
ally to Arthonia, so long as that genus is the very hetero-
geneous one it is, and includes so many Lecidioid forms like
A. melaspermella.1 2

The most diverse views are frequently adopted by differ-
ent observers as to the character of the same Lichen and its
place in classification. Moreover, the opinions of the same
author are constantly undergoing variation. Hence it fol-
lows that the most extraordinary changes occur in the
nomenclature of the same plant, with a corresponding confu-
sion of synonymy. The changes and confusion in question,
relating both to genera and species, are represented especially
by the following species : and this confusion would be much
more apparent if I had access to all the published con-
tributions of continental authors on the group of parasites
now under review : —

Lecidea parasitica, micraspis, sagedioides.

Tichothecium gemmiferum, pygmceum, Arnoldi.

Microthelia rugulosa, rimosicolar

Abrothallns Smithii, oxysporus.

Arthonia varians.

Sphinctrina turbinata.

Acolium coralUnum.

Xenosphceria Engeliana.

Karschia talcophila.

Scutula Wallrothii.

1 Vide author’s paper on A. melaspermella, ‘ Journ. Linn. Soc.,’ “ Botany,”
vol. ix, p. 274 ; and ‘ N. Z. Licli. & Fung.,’ 449, 450. Stizenberger appa-
rently arranges Phacopsis under Lecidea (‘ Beitr. z. Syst.,’ 162).

2 i am utterly at a loss to understand on what grounds Nylander alters
the name of this well-known Lichen to Verrvcaria advemda! (q. v.)

Celidium Stictarum.

Conida clemens.

Phacopsis psoromoides.

This complexity of synonymy illustrates the rage of the
present continental school of lichenologists (the German,
Italian, and Scandinavian) for the multiplication of genera
and species, and of names. It indicates, I think, a serious
defect in classification and nomenclature — one that will pro-
bably not be corrected till the whole group of parasitic
Micro-lichens is studied by some experienced lichenologist,
who is more a biologist than a species-monger, imbued, as he
should be for such a task, with philosophical conceptions of
the constitution of genera and species.

II. The confusion between Lichens and Fungi d

This subject has already been partly illustrated in the
introduction to this paper,2 and it will be further dis-
cussed in a subsequent paper on the Micro-Fungi that are
parasitic on Lichens — a paper that will form a natural com-
plement to the present. Not a few of the Lichens enumerated
above have already been referred by various authors to the
Fungi, e. g. to the genus —

1. Sphjerta : — Celidium Stictarum; Conida clemens;

Sphinctrina turbinata ; Xenosplueria Engeliana ;
Tichothecium gemmiferum; T. Arnoldi.

2. Peziza : — Scutula Wallrotliii ; Leciographa Neesii.

3. Dothidea: — Celidium Stictarum.

4. Sclerococcum : — Acolium corallinum.

While several others will probably ultimately be regarded
as Fungi, e. g. —

Lecidea obscuroides, Alectoria, Cladoniaria, associata.
Abrothallus TJsnece.

Celidium fusco-purpureum, Stictarum, varium , dubium,
Pelvetii, Sec.

Phacopsis vulpina, psoromoides .

Microthelia perrugosaria, Cargilliana, verrucosaria,
Ramalinaria , vermicularia, alcicornaria, prunas-
tria, Solorinaria, Collemaria, See.

Phymatopsis dubia.

Karschia Strickeri.

1 Compare also what I have said on this subject in the following papers :

1. “Arthonia melaspermella ‘ Journal of Linnean Society,’ “ Botany,’

vol. ix, p. 269.

2. ‘N. Z. Lich. and Fungi,’ p. 434.

3. ‘ Polymorphism in Lichens.’

5 ‘ Quart. Journ. of Mic. Science,’ Jan., 1869.

356

III. The same host ( Lichen-thallus ) frequently bears more
than one Parasite.

This assertion will be further borne out when my list of
Micro-Fungi parasitic on Lichens is published. Meanwhile
the subjoined list will illustrate the frequency with which
Micro-Lichens occur on the thallus of higher species. On —

Sticta Sylvatica ) Abrothallus Smithii ; A. Wel-

S. fuliginosa j witzschii.

Parhelia sinuosa ) , „ ,,

T1 t A. Smithii ; A. oxysporus.

P. conspersa j > j r

Parhelia saxatilis : — Abrothallus Smithii ; A. oxy-
sporus ; Sphinctrina turbinata ; Lecidea Egedeana.

P. caperata : — A. Smithii; A. microspermus ; A.
oxysporus ; Nesolechia thallicola.

P. perforata: — Abrothallus Curreyi; Microthelia
Cargilliana.

Piiysica parietina : — Lecidea glaucomaria ; Celi-
dium varium ; Arthonia varians.

P. pulyerulenta : — Karschia pulverulenta ; Abro-
thallus Smithii.

P. obscura : — Lecidea obscuroides ; Buellia convexa.

Cetraria glauca : — Abrothallus Smithii; A. oxy-
sporus.

C. Islandica : — Abrothallus Smithii ; Lecidea Cetra-
ricola.

Peltidea can in a : — Celidium fusco-purpureum ; Scu-
tula Wallrothii.

Solorina crocea : — Biatorina tuberculosa ; Khaga-
dostoma corrugalum ; Microthelia Solorinaria.

S. saccata: — Scutula Krempelhuberi ; Xenosphceria
Engeliana.

Usnea barbata: — Abrothallus Usnece ; A. Smithii;
Phymatopsis dubia.

Evernia prunastri : — Abrothallus Smithii ; Micro-
thelia prunastria.

Stereocaulon tohentoslm: — Biatorina Stereocau-
lorum ; Scutula Stereocaulorum ; Ephebe pubes-
cens.

ILeomyces rufus : — Nesolechia ericetorum ; Thelo-
carpon epithallinum ; Lecidea parasitica, scabrosa,
inquinans, arenicola.

B. placopiiyllus : — Lecidea scabrosa ; Lahmia Fuis-
tingii.

357

Squamaria saxicola : — Lecidea micraspis ; Conida
clcmens ; Cercidospora Ulothii ; Thelidium epipo-
lytropum.

S. concolor : — Tichothecium erraticum ; Microthelia
ntgulosa.

Placodium albescens: — Conida clemens ; Tichothe-
cium pygmceum.

Thelotrema lepadinum : — Nesolechia Nitschkii;
Stenocybe eusporum.

Pertusaria communis : — Lecidea parasitica; Sphinc-
trina turbinata and v. microcephala ; Trachylia
stigonetla ; Pseudographis elatina ; Opegrapha
anomea.

P. W ulfexii : — Lecidea parasitica ; Sphinctrina tur-
binata and var. microcephala; Trachylia stigo-
nella.

P. ocellata — Lecidea micraspis ; Acolium corallinum.

Urceolaria scruposa : — Karschia talcophila; Ticho-
thecium Arnoldi.

Phlyctis argexa : — Sorothelia confluens ; Lecio-
grapha Neesii.

Lecanora calcarea : — Lecidea episema ; L. micras-
pis ; L. parasitica ; Opegrapha Monspeliensis ;
Arthonia Aspicilice ; Leciographa Neesii ; Thelidium
aggregatum ; Tichothecium pygmceum ; T. erra-
ticum ; Microthelia rugulosa ; M. calcaricola.

L. cinerea: — Endococcus perpusillus ; Tichothecium
gemmiferum ; Lecidea episema.1

L. tartarea : — Lecidea associata ; L. parasitica ;
Verrucaria tartaricola.

Lecanora parella: — Pseudographis elatina ; Lecidea
parasitica.

L. glaucoma: — Arthonia various; Celidium furfur a-
ceum ; Acolium corallinum.

L. polyxropa : — Cercidospora Ulothii ; Thelidium
epipolytropum ; Tichothecium pygmceum.

L. subfusc a : —Lecidea parasitica ; Arthonia v arians ;
Pharcidia congesta.

Lecidea contigua : — Tichothecium pyymceum ; T.
gemmiferum ; Verrucaria endococcoidea.

L. sabuletorum ) Tichothecium gemmiferum ; T. pyg-

L. fusco-atra j mceum.

L. parasema : — Tichothecium gemmiferum ; Arthonia
various.

1 Carroll, “ Contrib. Brit. Lich.,” ‘ Joura. Botany/ vol. v, p. 257.

358

L. geographic.*. : — Tichothecium stigma ; T. pyg-
mcRum.

L. albo-atra : — Microthelia rimosicola ; Arthonia
punctella.

L. excentrica : — Verrucaria allogena ; V. endococ-
coidea ; V. advenula.

L. petrjea : — Microthelia rimosicola ; Celidium fur-
furaceum ; Verrucaria endococcoidea.

Isidium corallinum, Ach. : — Arthonia various ; A.
punctella; Acolium corallinum.

On the other hand, it will be observed that —

IV. The same parasite frequently affects a considerable
number of Lichens of different genera.

And this is a fact likely to be more firmly established in
proportion as our knowledge of the Micro- parasites on Lichens
becomes extended and improved. The best illustrations of
frequent occurrence on the thallus of different genera are to
be found in the following parasites : —

Tichothecium pygmceum ; T. gemmiferum.

Abrothallus Smithii; A. oxysporus.

Sphinctrina turbinata.

Arthonia various.

Celidium Stictarum.

Buellia urceolata.

Lecidea parasitica.

On some Technical Applications of the Spectrum Micro-
scope. By H. C. Sorbv, F.R.S., &c.

Contents : — Introduction, p. 358 — On the Colouring Matters of Wines,
p. 360 — On t he Aire of Dark Wines, p. 363 — On White Wines, p. 367 —
Adulterations of Wine, p. 368 — On the Colouring Matters in Malt
Liquors, p. 370 — Adulterations of Malt Liquors, p. 373 — Adulterations
of Mustard, p. 377 — Adulterations of Rhubarb, p. 378 — Adulierations
of Cheese, p. 379 — Adulterations of Butter, p. 380 — Adulterations of
Saffron, 381 — Adulterations of Aloes, p. 382— Adulterations by means
of Cochineal and Magenta, p. 382.

My object in publishing the following paper is to show
that the spectrum microscope may be applied with advantage
in several departments of technical inquiry, and more espe-
cially to describe the methods useful in such investigations.
Since these will be much more readily understood by means
of practical illustrations, I shall not make many general

359

introductory remarks, but reserve an account of each par-
ticular process until I come to those practical questions
which require its adoption.

In the first place, I beg to refer to my papers “ On a
Definite Method of Qualitative Analysis of Animal and
Vegetable Colouring Matters,”1 and “ On the Colouring
Matters of Blue Decayed Wood,”2 since much that I shall
describe will be a continuation and application of what they
contain. I shall make use of the same scale for measuring
the position of the absorption bands, and the same notation
and symbols to express the varying power of absorption in
different parts. This scale is an interference spectrum with
dark bands, which divide the whole visible spectrum into
twelve portions of equal optical value ; and it is so adjusted
that the sodium line D is situated exactly at 3}. On this
scale the principal Fraunhofer lines occur as follows :

The only objection to this scale is that its accuracy is
dependent on the careful preparation of the plate of quartz.
I have myself made several perfectly alike and accurate, and
nothing but proper care is required. When once accurately
made, no scale could be more convenient, since the bands
occur at equal optical intervals over the whole spectrum, and
are quite distinct when the slit is opened rather wide, which
is sometimes a great advantage. In these two respects it is
far superior to any other scale hitherto proposed.

The intensity of absorption will be expressed by means of
dots, hyphens, and dashes ; thus :

When these symbols are printed between numbers they sig-
nify that there is a more or less strong absorption between
those points of the spectrum as measured by the above-
named scale ; whereas when they are printed under numbers
they signify that there is a distinct absorption band, of the
intensity expressed by the different symbols, the centre of
which is situated at that point of the scale indicated by the
figures. This latter method is extremely simple and conve-
nient, and often serves to express all that is requisite. It

1 ' Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ 1S67, vol. xv, p. 432.

3 ‘ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science,’ January, 1869.

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. A A

A

E

B ... 1L C ... 2f D. ... 3i

b ... 6* E ... n G ... lOf

Not at all shaded
Very slightly shaded
Slightly shaded
Moderately dark
Very dark

Double hyphens.
Single dash.

360

may, perhaps, appear imperfect to those accustomed to the
study of the spectra of substances in the state of incandescence,
but it is in all respects well adapted for the study of the
spectra of solutions, in which a slight difference in the cha-
racter of the solvent often makes far more difference in the
position of the bands than any that could result from errors
due to the employment of such a scale and notation. To
hold the liquids under examination, I in most cases employ
narrow, deep cells, usually one eighth of an inch diameter,
and half an inch deep, so mounted that they can be examined
either in the line of the length or at the side ; but occasion-
ally I use rather wider, as much as two and a half inches
long.

By using these narrow cells very much less material is
required for successful examination, which is not only most
important when very little is at command, but even in other
cases often effects a considerable saving of time in filtration
and evaporation.

1 shall divide my subject into three principal heads, viz. :
1. Various facts connected Avith Avine; 2. Those relating to
malt liquors ; and — 3. Such as illustrate the methods that
may be employed to detect adulteration in various substances
used as food or medicine.

1. On the Colouring Matters of T Vines.

The pure colour of fresh dark grapes is best prepared by
removing the skins, heating them in alcohol, evaporating
the solution to dryness, redissolving it in a little Avater,
filtering, and again evaporating to dryness in a small saucer,
in Avhich the colour may be kept as a stiff syrup for many
months Avithout material change. It belongs to the group
of colours which I called group B in my paper in the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society ’ — that is to say, sulphite of
soda produces no immediate effect when added to a solution
rendered alkaline by ammonia ; but when added to one
made acid with citric acid, it almost immediately removes
the detached absorption in the green, so that the solution
becomes very pale.

Since this colour of dark grapes is purple Avhen dry and
quite neutral, it may be called Vitis purple. I have not yet
met Avith it in any other fruit, unless it be in that of the
common croAvberry ( Empetrum nigrum). One of its pecu-
liarities is that it easily passes into insoluble modifications.
It belongs to my sub-group B al0am0, since it does not give
any decided narroAV absorption band in an alcoholic solution,
AArhen either neutral or with excess of ammonia. Such

3G1

colours are amongst the most difficult to distinguish from
one another, and I have not yet been able to discover any
more satisfactory method than the following : — A slight
excess of ammonia should be added to the alcoholic solution ;
made so dilute that the absorption in the orange part of the
spectrum is distinct, but yet very far from black, and the
position of the limit of the absorption towards the red end
carefully measured and recorded, thus — If ....

The same limit should also be ascertained after consider-
able excess of hydrochloric acid has been added to the
solution, both in water and in alcohol ; which solutions
sometimes give the same, but sometimes materially different,
spectra. These various limits of absorption vary with the
depth of colour, but by taking care to have solutions which give
equally strong absorptions, and comparing them side by side,
it is often very easy to distinguish from one another very
closely allied colours — for example, that of dark gooseberries
from that of grapes, or that of fresh grapes from that of new
dark wines. The difference between these latter is proved,
not only by the spectra, but also by other facts.

In my paper in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’
already cited (p. 443), I showed that when certain colouring
matters are dissolved in water or alcohol, they give deep-
coloured solutions, which rapidly fade to nearly colourless ;
but when these faded solutions are evaporated to dryness,
the colour is completely restored to its original state, and is
also made quite as dark as if it had never faded, by adding
some strong acid ; so that the fading is not due to decom-
position, but to a molecular change rapidly taking place in
dilute solutions. The colour of fresh grapes is an example
of this ; and by comparing with a standard which did not
fade, the solution immediately after the colour was dissolved,
and the same after less than an hour, when no further change
occurred by keeping it longer, I found that the faded re-
quired fully five times the thickness to give the same intensity
of absorption at the yellow end of the green. On the con-
trary, new dark wines evaporated to dryness do not fade at
all in such a manner when redissolved in water.

This colour of new wines appears to be produced at a very
early part of their formation. By dissolving the colour of the
fresh grapes in the juice, adding a little yeast, and keeping
the solution warm for a few days, the colour appeared to be
changed into that found in new wines, and did not fade at
all when redissolved in water. The colour kept as dry syrup
for three years showed a similar change. I think it must be,
therefore, due either to fermentation or to a slight oxidiza-

362

tion. I am much inclined to adopt the latter explanation,
for if citric acid be added to an aqueous solution of the fresh
colour, and then a small quantity of hypochlorite of soda, the
colour is changed from pink to pink-red, the absorption is
found to extend more towards the red end, and to be more
uniform over the green and blue ; in all which particulars it
corresponds with the spectrum of new wine. No such change
occurs when the wine is treated in the same manner, as
though this alteration had already taken place. Both these
colours belong to my group B ; but when either is still
further oxidized by means of rather more hypochlorite of
soda, a sort of orange colour is produced, which seems to
correspond with that of port-wine kept for twenty years or
more in the cask ; and Avhen still further changed, it
becomes quite pale, like very old wines. The following table
Avill sIioav these facts more clearly :

Colour of dark grapes in citric acid and water, 4 •• 4| -- 8| 11 --

Ditto, after adding a little hypochlorite of soda, 3^ •• 3-f

New natural port wine . . . . . 3^ •• 3f

Ditto, after adding a little hypochlorate of soda, 31 •• 3f

Colour of dark grapes with more hypochlorite

of soda . 5-6 — 10 —

New natural port wine with ditto . . .5-6 — 10 —

1831 port from the cask . . . . 5 •• G — 10 —

Since this change in the spectrum depending on the state
of oxidization is of considerable interest as illustrating a gene-
ral laAV, I here subjoin a Avoodcut, in order to render my mean-
ing more intelligible to those not accustomed to the use of
the symbols employed in the above table. Fig. 1 shows the
spectrum of the colour of dark grapes in its natural state, in
citric acid and Avater. Fig. 2 is the spectrum of the oxidized
modification met with in neAv Avines ; and fig. 3 that of the

FIC.I

FIG, 2

FIG.3

per-oxidized colour found in very old Avines, or formed by the
more complete artificial oxidization of the other tAvo.

363

This colour of very del wine belongs to my group C, and
is not changed by adding sulphite of soda to an acid solu-
tion ; whereas, as already mentioned, the characteristic colour
of very new wine belongs to my group B, and if it could be
obtained in a pure state, would probably become nearly
colourless on the addition of the sulphite. This difference
between the colour of new and old wine has enabled me to
contrive a method by means of which I can ascertain the
approximate age of port wine kept in the cask. In these
experiments I have been very much assisted by my friends,
Mr. Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., and Mr. Alexander Hay, of
Sheffield, who have most kindly supplied me with the
requisite samples.

On the Age of Dark Wines.

In order to obtain good results considerable care is required,
and after trying several methods I found the most satisfac-
tory was as follows : — I have two experiment cells one inch
long, made from stout tube, having an internal diameter of
about a quarter of an inch. Both ends are cut square, and
one is fastened to a piece of glass like a microscopical object
byr means of purified gutta perclia. This I find a most
valuable cement for such purposes, since it resists the action
of alcohol, acids, and alkalis. The glass must be heated until
the gutta percha is sufficiently soft. One of the tubes is care-
fully graduated into ten equal parts, and the other left plain.
Wine in its natural state is often much too dark coloured to
enable us to recognise the effect produced by adding sulphite
of soda, when we examine the spectrum of the thickness of
one inch. It is, therefore, requisite to dilute it with so much
of a mixture of one part of alcohol with three of water that
the spectrum of the light which has passed through the expe-
riment cells may show a strong, but by no means complete
absorption of the light in the yellow and in the yellow end of
the green. After diluting some of the wine to this extent,
and adding so much citric acid that it may have a very strong
acid reaction, it should be poured into two test tubes, powdered
sulphite of soda dissolved in one, and the other kept without.
Though the sulphite may produce a very considerable change
at once, the alteration is not complete for a while, and there-
fore it is best to keep the solutions for an hour or two in the
tubes, corked up to prevent evaporation. The point to be
then determined is, how much less thickness of the diluted
wine to which no sulphite has been added will give exactly
the same intensity of absorption in the yellow, and in the
yellow end of the green, as the thickness of one inch of the

361

same acted on by the sulphite of soda. The uu graduated tube
should, therefore, be filled with the latter, and a small piece
of thin glass placed on the top, so that the light may pass
through exactly one inch in thickness of the liquid, and none
run out when the tube is placed in an inclined position on
the side stage of the spectrum eye-piece. The diluted wine
should then be introduced into the graduated tube, which is
placed nearly vertically on the ordinary stage of the micro-
scope, and the depth of the liquid carefully regulated by means
of a pipette, so that the intensity of the absorption in the two
spectra may be exactly the same in the yellow and in the
yellow end of the green. The light must be of the same
intensity in both spectra, and therefore it is also particu-
larly necessary so to regulate the instrument that the trans-
mitted red rays may be of exactly the same brilliancy. The
accuracy of this experiment is limited by the difficulty of
recognising when the transmitted and the absorbed rays are
equal in both spectra, and by its being difficult to determine
the depth of the diluted wine to less than of an inch.
The actual value of the measurements varies to some extent,
according to the manner in which the experiments are made,
and therefore I strongly advise any one who may wish to
employ this method to prepare for himself a table of the com-
parative amount of change of wines of various ages.

When sulphite of soda is added to a faded solution of the
colouring matter of fresh dark grapes it is changed to a pale
orange yellow, which colour is, I believe, due in great measure
to the presence of the same yellow substance as is met with
in green grapes, so that the intensity of absorption is reduced
to about -po, or from l'OO to TO. In the case of the perfectly
new wine prepared by myself, the intensity of absorption was
reduced from l’OO to about ‘22. My experiments with the
wines of commerce were chiefly made in April, 1868. The
newest port wine that I was able to examine was of the vintage
of 1866, and therefore about one year and a half old, and
even this contained a good deal of the C colour. I examined
several specimens of the same vintages of various older dates,
which differed considerably in general colour and character,
but when all had been kept for the same time in the casks I
did not find any material difference in the general results.
From the manner in which the experiments were made,
the change produced by adding the sulphite of soda is referred
to the amount of the C colour taken as unity; and, assuming
that the extent to which the wine has been altered by
keeping is the difference between the amount still unchanged
and unity, the numbers given indicate the relative changes

305

produced by the slow action of the air, but they can only
be looked upon as expressing the rate of one particular kind
of change. The following table has been constructed from
the whole of my observations, so as to give a good general .
illustration of the subject.

Column 1 shows the age of the wine in years and the date
of the vintage.

Column 2 gives the thickness of the diluted wine without
sulphite, which produced the same intensity of absorp-
tion as TOO inch of that to which the sulphite had been
added.

Column 3 shows the difference between the values in
column 2, divided by the number of years between each two,
so as to exhibit the amount of change for each year, after the
wine had been kept for the various periods : —

I.

II.

III.

0

(Made by myself ) .

•22

•2700

H

(1S66)

■63 ’

•0700

n

(1865)

•70 '

•0300

(1864)

•73 '

•0200

44

(1863)

•75

•0150

54

(1862)

•764'

•0150

64

(1861)

•78 '

•0070

94

(1858)

•80 '

•0030

164

(1851)

•82 ’

•0020

204

(1847)

•83 ’

•0008

334

(1834)

•84

•0007

m

(1820)

•85 ’

Since the above table does not refer to wines of even years
of age, I subjoin below another derived from it by laying
down the results on paper as a curve, and interpolating by
careful measurements : —

36 6

I.

11.

III.

0 .

•22

/

•330

1 .

•55

•120

2 .

. -67 '

•050

3 .

. -72 '

•022

4 .

•742

•017

5 .

. -76 '

•012

6 .

•772

•010

7 .

•782

•007

8 .

•79 '

•005

9 .

•795

•005

10 .

•80 '

It will thus be seen that the rate at which the B colour
changes into C is far more rapid in the case of new wine,
when much of it is present, than after the wine has become
older ; being, in fact, about ten times as rapid in the first
year as in the third, and about 100 times as rapid as in the
twentieth. On this account the difference for each year is at
first so considerable that wines of different vintages could
easily be distinguished ; but after about six years the differ-
ence is so small that it would be difficult, or impossible, to
determine the age to within a single year. After twenty
years a difference of even ten years does not show any striking
contrast, and the age could not, therefore, be determined to
nearer than ten years by this process. However, up to six
years I think it quite possible to determine the age to within
a single year. I took specimens of various ports from the
casks, of different ages up to six or seven years, and labelled them
in such a manner that I did not know the age of any, but
could ascertain it afterwards by reference. I then made the
experiments with great care, and found that by proper atten-
tion to the details described above I could correctly deter-
mine the year of vintage of each particular specimen.

As already mentioned, the change of the B colour into the
C is most probably the effect of the oxygen of the air, which
appears to act slowly through the wood of the cask ; but the
relative amount of these two colours is also modified by the
deposit of crust. When kept in well-corked bottles the
change does not appear to be the same, and goes on far more

slowly. I therefore think it would be scarcely possible to
ascertain the length of time that the wine had been in bottles,
and am inclined to believe that the amount of change observed
on adding sulphite of soda corresponds more closely with the
time that the wine had been previously kept in the cask. I
have especially observed this in the case of Bordeaux and Bur-
gundy wines. Those of this type which I have hitherto
examined seem to contain a larger relative amount of the B
colour, when a few years old, than ordinary ports, and in this
respect agree with the so-called natural port ; but the rate of
change is greater when they are kept for some years, probably
owing to their containing a less amount of alcohol. There is
also a greater variation in different samples of the same age
than I have met with in port wine, which is probably
because the amount of alcohol in such wines varies more in
proportion to the total quantity.

It appears, therefore, that the natural colour of dark grapes
is changed by oxidization into the somewhat similar colour
found in new wines, and that by still further oxidization this
is converted into another entirely different colour, which
becomes much paler by further oxidization. The rate at
which these changes take place varies according to circum-
stances, but, other things being equal, it varies according to
the time of the action. Much also depends on the deposition
of colour in the form of crust, and after a long time the original
dark coloured substance is almost entirely lost, and only an
amber colour remains in solution, which behaves with reagents
precisely like that in sherry wines.

On White Wines.

The colouring matter of white wines appears to be derived
from one of those yellow substances, soluble in water, of
which there are several of materially different character in
the faded leaves of different kinds of plants, as more fully
described below when treating on hops. That met with in
the orange-coloured leaves of the beech is a good example.
The depth of the colour is made nearly ten times as great by
the addition of ammonia, and when dissolved in strong sul-
phuric acid diluted with an equal bulk of water, oxidizing
reagents first turn it much darker, and then much paler.
When, however, kept for some months dissolved in dilute
alcohol it turns to a much darker tint, and then the solution,
with excess of ammonia, is only twice as dark as when made
acid by citric acid. Oxidizing reagents added to the solution
in sulphuric acid do not make the tint any deeper, and thus
it appears as if it had been changed by oxidization into an

368

entirely different colour. The character of this change agrees
with what occurs when the colour of dark grapes is oxidized,
as already described ; and both are good examples of what
appears to be a general law. If not already oxidized, a
certain amount of oxidization causes the absorption to ad-
vance towards the red end of the spectrum to an extent
varying according to the position of the original absorption,
and then a still further oxidization causes the absorption to
recede from the red end to considerably beyond the original
position, sometimes so much so that all colour is lost. We
might thus say that such substances may occur in an unoxi-
dized, in an oxidized, and in a per-oxidized condition. These
and similar facts seem also to show that there is an intimate
relation between the chemical changes and the particular
rays of light absorbed by such substances ; but the discussion
of this very interesting question would lead me far away from
the more immediate subject of this paper.

On comparing the colour of sherry wine with that pro-
duced by the action of the air on a solution in dilute alcohol
of the substance in faded beech leaves soluble in water, I was
unable to discover any difference, and hence I think we may
conclude that it is formed by the oxidization of the yellow
colour of the grapes ; but in some wines it is imperfectly
oxidized, and they turn darker when exposed to the air.

Adulterations of Wine.

The only cases in which the spectrum method can be
easily applied to detect adulterations in wines are when some
colouring matter has been introduced to give a false appear-
ance of age, or to bring the colour up to some desired
standard. According to Payen’s interesting work,1 logwood
and Brazil wood were at all events employed a few years ago
for this purpose ; and rhatany root and the berries of the
so-called Virginian Poke ( Phytolacca decandra ) are some-
times used. I mention these because I purpose to briefly
describe how they may be detected, as 'an illustration of the
methods which may be employed in such investigations. I
must, however, confess that I have not detected these
substances in any wines of commerce that I have yet ex-
amined ; but then I have had very little opportunity for
studying those likely to contain them.

In order to detect logwood or Brazil wood, a small quantity
of the wine should be agitated in a test-tube with an equal
volume of ether, which rises to the surface in an almost
colourless state if the wine be pure, but is tinged with a more
1 ‘ Precis des Substances Alimentaires,’ note at p. 455.

369

or less strong yellow, when either of the above-named sub-
stances is present. The etherial solution should he trans-
ferred to a small evaporating dish by means of a pipette, and
a fresh quantity of ether agitated with the wine, and added
to the other. The most useful kind of pipette for this and
similar purposes is one with a small vulcanized india-rubber
top, so arranged that, after having been compressed, it may
by its own elastic force draw xip the liquid. After evaporat-
ing the solution to dryness, a small quantity of the colour
should be dissolved in water in an experiment-cell, and
treated with bicarbonate of ammonia. In both cases this
develops a single very distinct absorption-band in the green,
that characteristic of logwood being situated at of my
scale, whilst that of Brazil wood is farther from the red end,
at 54 ; and the solution is strongly fluorescent, of a peculiar
orange colour. These spectra are so characteristic, and can
be so easily compared with those of the substances them-
selves, that an extremely minute quantity of either could be
detected with certainty.

The colour of rhatany root does not give any well-marked
band in an aqueous solution, either acid or alkaline ; but
when dissolved in alcohol and slightly acid, it shows a
moderately distinct band between the yellow and green, at 3f
of my scale, and a fainter at 74. In order to detect this sub-
stance the Avine should, therefore, be evaporated to small
bulk, and redissolved in strong alcohol, and after this has
stood in a test-tube until the insoluble matter has been
deposited and the solution has become quite clear, the
absorption-band at 3f may be more or less distinctly recog-
nised, according to the amount of the rhatany root present ;
but the natural colour of the wine makes it impossible to
detect a very small quantity.

The dark crimson berries of the Virginian poke are remark-
able for containing a colour belonging to my group C ;
whereas those of nearly all fruits of that tint belong to
group B. It shoAvs two absorption-bands, Avhich are more
distinct in an alcoholic than in an aqueous solution, and are
4f, 7f. To detect this substance Ave ought, therefore, to
adopt the same process as in the case of rhatany root, and
endeavour to see those bands, Avhich might sometimes be
made more distinct by adding a little Avater and sulphite
of soda.

These substances may be changed by keeping long in
solution, and therefore might not be detected in old Avines.

370

On the application of the Spectrum-microscope to the
Chemistry of Beer.

In studying the colouring matters in beer it is, in the first
place, desirable to understand those met with in the various
substances used in brewing ; but it is unnecessary to take into
consideration colours insoluble in water.

When malt is digested in hot water an orange-yellow
colouring matter is extracted, but the solution contains so
much sugar and gum as to interfere with the necessary
experiments. It should, therefore, be evaporated to the con-
sistency of syrup, alcohol added by degrees, and the pre-
cipitated gum and sugar well stirred up, so that as much
colouring matter as possible maybe dissolved. After standing
till quite clear this solution on evaporation yields a pale orange-
yellow syrup, which when dissolved in water or alcohol gives
a spectrum without any decided characters. Ammonia makes
it a deeper and brighter yellow, and the same change occurs
when it is dissolved in sulphuric acid. In all these experi-
ments a mixture of equal volumes of the concentrated acid
and water should be used, for if much stronger it chars
vegetable substances, and if weaker it does not act well with
the reagents added to it. When dissolved in this the colour
of malt is made much darker by the addition of nitric acid or
chlorate of potash, but an excess of the latter makes it rapidly
fade to a pale yellow ; whilst hypochlorite of soda in small
quantity makes it somewhat more orange, and more makes it
a very pale yellow. The characteristic test is hypochlorite of
soda, added to an aqueous or alcoholic solution, in which a
little citric acid has been dissolved. The addition of a
suitable quantity of the hypochlorite turns the aqueous solu-
tion to a pink flesh-colour, becoming deeper ; but it is not
clear, and on standing a copious pink flocculent deposit sub-
sides. When seen to the greatest advantage, the spectrum
is 4 . - - 8 , . 10 - - 11 — , without any decided narrow absorp-
tion-bands. If, however, the colour was dissolved in alcohol,
the solution remains clear; there is a well-marked band at
the yellow end of the green, which at first is 4f, and, as the
colour becomes deeper, is more distinct, and rises to 5. The
flesh-coloured deposit from the solution in water is easily dis-
solved by alcohol, and gives the same spectrum ; and these
facts are so unique that this colouring matter could be easily
recognised in complicated mixtures. It certainly does not
occur in barley, and must, therefore, be formed in the pro-
cess of malting. Water extracts from barley a brown colour

371

insoluble in alcohol, which exactly corresponds with that of
liquorice; and also a yellow colour soluble in spirit, which
does not exactly correspond with that obtained from hops,
but yet differs from it in such a manner that, taking all the
facts into consideration, it seems probable that it is the same
colour in a less pure condition.

When hops are boiled in water, the solution evaporated,
and the gum, &c., removed by alcohol, as already described,
an orange-yellow colour is obtained, which in general appear-
ance and in its behaviour with most reagents is extremely
similar to that from malt. It may, however, be easily dis-
tinguished by the action of hypochlorite of soda, for when
this is added to an aqueous solution previously treated with
a little citric acid, it merely changes it to a very pale yellow,
without any shade of pink. This colour, or at least colours,
which I have not been able to distinguish from it, is met with
in several kinds of faded leaves, stems, and roots, and seems
to be very generally distributed.

When the partially charred malt used in brewing porter is
digested in water, a dark solution is obtained, and on evapo-
ration to small bulk and treatment with alcohol nearly the
whole of this dark colour is precipitated along with the gum.
To obtain it more pure it may be redissolved once or twTice in
a little water, and reprecipitated by alcohol. When dissolved
in water it gives an orange-brown solution, with a spectrum
... 4 .. 5 - - 6 — , made somewhat darker by ammonia; and
when dissolved in sulphuric acid the colour and spectrum
are nearly the same. Oxidizing reagents do not make it any
darker in either solvent, but merely cause it to fade to a pale
yellow.

Besides this dark colour, highly dried malt contains an
orange yellow, soluble in both strong alcohol and water.
This differs from that obtained from pale malt in not being
turned at all pink by the action of hypochlorite of soda, and
is distinguished from the colouring matter of hops or of beer,
with which it agrees in geueral colour, by not being made at
all darker by the addition of oxidizing reagents to the solu-
tion in sulphuric acid, as if it were already in an oxidized
condition.

Liquorice is chiefly coloured by a brown substance, which
closely resembles that present in dark malt. When alcohol
is added to the strong aqueous solution it is precipitated in
the same manner ; and when dissolved in water the general
colour is very similar, though rather more orange. They
may, however, be easily distinguished by the action of
oxidizing reagents. If to solutions in sulphuric acid of

372

equal depth of colour equal quantities of chlorate of potash
he gradually added, the malt first becomes a much paler
orange, and then pale yellow ; whereas the liquorice turns to
an orange, which does not become pale until very much more
chlorate has been added than suffices to make the malt very
pale. Though they can thus be easily distinguished, yet
when mixed together, as in porter, it is not easy to obtain
decided results. The change of colour is very similar in
kind, and differs only in degree ; so that the addition of too
much chlorate may make the liquorice as pale an orange as
the malt ; and when not much liquorice occurs mixed with
malt, it becomes very difficult to recognise it. Still, how-
ever, with care its presence may be detected in ordinary
porter.

That colouring matter of porter which is soluble in strong
alcohol behaves with reagents like a mixture of those from
beer and dark malt. Hypochlorite of soda turns the solution
in suljfiiuric acid to a red, but of a less deep tint than in the
case of beer.

The sweet wort obtained in brewing contains the colour of
malt, already described, and, after boiling with hops, the hop
colour; but after fermentation a change is found to have
occurred, which proceeds still further when the beer is kept
in the barrel. This change is best shown by the addition of
hypochlorite of soda to the solution of the colouring matter
in sulphuric acid. The gum, &c., should be removed by
means of alcohol, in the manner already named when de-
scribing malt. Taking two experiment- cells, and dissolving
in one the colour of the unfermented wort, and in the other
an equal quantity of the colour of beer that has been kept
some months in barrel, the general tint is seen to be very
similar. Since the solutions are otherwise apt to be turbid,
it is best to fill the tubes three fourths with the sulphuric
acid diluted with an equal bulk of water, and then to fill up
with alcohol, after which the coloured syrup can be added on
a platinum wire, and made to dissolve by stirring. On adding
little by little hypochlorite of soda to such a solution of the
unfermented wort, it first turns it a little more orange, and
then pale yellow ; whereas, in the case of the beer kept in
barrel, it is first gradually changed to a deep pink-red,
which, when strong, is 3 . - 4 — , and when seen to the greatest
advantage is 5 - - 74- ... 9-£ - - 10 — , having, therefore, a
broad absorption-band at 6}. On adding more hypochlorite
it becomes more orange, and finally an orange-yellow. The
fermented wort behaves in an intermediate manner; and
hence it should appear that the change begins during fer-

373

mentation, and is continued when the beer is kept in barrel.
Still, however, it does not seem to depend simply on fer-
mentation, since no such change occurs when fermented on a
small scale ; and, therefore, it may perhaps be due to deoxi-
dization, which would be more likely to take place in a large
quantity less exposed to air.

If in any case it were desirable to ascertain whether or no
any mixed liquid contained beer, the various reactions with
the reagents already mentioned might enable us to form a
very decided opinion when other tests failed ; but so much
would depend on the circumstances of the case that no general
rule could be given.

On Some Adulterations of Malt Liquors.

I have made very many experiments in order to ascertain
how far the spectrum method can be employed in detecting
adulterations in beer. Many of the substances used are added
in such small quantities, and impart so little colour, that there
seems to be no chance of discovering them by their spectra.
I have chiefly directed my attention to those employed as sub-
stitutes for hops, such as picric acid, gentian root, calumba
root, and the entire plant of Ophelia chireta, commonly known
by the more simple name of chiretta. So far I have not been
able to detect any difference between the colouring matter of
gentian, or chiretta, and hops. They all give the same re-
actions and spectra with the various reagents, or at least so
nearly the same that there appears to be no chance of detect-
ing them in the presence of the colouring matter of wort or
beer. Calumba root, however, contains two colours, one of
which is quite different from any that should occur in genuine
malt liquors. The exterior part of the root is yellow, and
water extracts from it a bright yellow' colour. The interior
part is browner, and does not contain this yellow, but a
browner colour, which also occurs to some extent in the outer
layer. On evaporating the aqueous solution to small bulk and
redissolving in alcohol this brown colour is left insoluble,
but the bright yellow colour remains in the alcohol, in a
curiously turbid condition. The brown colour appears to be
identical with that found in liquorice, and could not be
detected by any of the reagents ; but the yellow colour may
be recognised, if beer has been adulterated by a moderate
amount of calumba root. When dissolved in water or alcohol
it is a very clear, bright yellow, but gives no well defined
spectrum. Ammonia makes it slightly orange, and when dis-
solved in sulphuric acid it is the same bright yellow as in
water. Oxidizing reagents, such as hypochlorite of soda, pro-

374

(luce no change in weak acid solutions ; but when added to
the solution in sulphuric acid they alter it into a deep red
colour, changed into an orange-yellow by excess. Deoxidizing
reagents, such as hyposulphite of soda, restore the deep red to
the original yellow. The most useful test in connection with
the various other colours already described is hypochlorite of
soda gradually added to the solution in sulphuric acid. This

first makes it a deep red, giving the spectrum 3 . . 4 ,

and the addition of a little more produces scarcely any further
change ; but when large excess has been added it fades to an
orange, giving the spectrum 6.-7 — . The colouring matter of
fresh wort treated in the same manner is not turned at all
red, and though the colour of finished beer is changed to red
in a very similar manner, yet, after so much hypochlorite has
been added as to turn it deep pink-red, a very little more
makes it pale yellow. We may take advantage of this circum-
stance to detect calumba root.

In examining any suspected beer, it, and a similar quantity
of genuine, should be evaporated in separate dishes, so that
the results may be more accurately compared. The presence of
calumba root is first somewhat betrayed by the fact of the
resin which separates on evaporation being abnormally yellow,
and when the syrup is dissolved in alcohol, and the solution
evaporated to dryness, the purified colour is decidedly brighter
yellow than it ought to be. Taking then two experiment
cells, so much of the colour of the genuine beer should be
dissolved in one — in sulphuric acid — as to give a decided
orange yellow, with a spectrum 5 . . 6 - - 7 — ; and in the other
cell so much of the suspected material as to give a colour of
about the same tint. In both cases about one fourth of the
bulk of the liquid should be alcohol, so as to prevent the for-
mation of any precipitate. Hypochlorite of soda should then
be added very gradually, and in equal quantities to both,
when at first both will change to red, having a pinker tint in
the genuine. After so much has been added as to make both
as daik as they can become, a little more will turn the
genuine to a pale yellow, giving a spectrum 7 . . 8- -9 — ; whereas
that containing calumbia root will remain a fine red orange,
with a spectrum 3-J . . - - 5 — . If too large a quantity of the

hypochlorite be added the colour of the calumba root will
change into a much paler yellow, scarcely differing from that
in the case of genuine beer, and hence particular care must
be taken to add it gradually, and in small quantities. By this
means the adulteration of beer with two ounces of calumba
root to the gallon may be detected with confidence, but much
less than that would scarcely give reliable results, unless it

375

were possible to examine the unfermented wort. The addition
of the hypochlorite to genuine wort does not turn it at all red,
and merely alters it to a pale yellow ; whereas, if ealumba be
present, it turns it to a decided red.

Picric acid may be detected when present in no larger
quantity than one grain to a gallon. When dissolved in water
it is of a bright yellow colour, and cuts off the blue end of the
spectrum in a sufficiently well-defined manner, giving the
spectrum 84- . . . This is not changed by ammonia or citric
acid, nor does hypochlorite of soda cause it to fade when
added to an acid solution. The most striking change is that
produced by the addition of sulphuric acid, which makes it
so much paler that a couple of drops added to the aqueous
solution in one of the small cells leaves it nearly colourless.
In order to detect it in beer, about one ounce should be evapo-
rated to dryness, and then redissolved in no more water than
will make the solution sufficiently liquid to allow bubbles to
rise readily through it. This should be introduced into a
test tube and agitated with ether, which dissolves out the
greater part of the picric acid, but scarcely any colour from
genuine beer. Since it is very important to avoid contamina-
tion with any of the material not soluble in ether, it is well,
in the first case, to use somewhat more than the bulk of the
concentrated beer, and to transfer it to another perfectly dry
test tube, then agitate with a fresh quantity of ether and
add it to the first, arranging so that the total amount of
ether may fill a half-inch test tube to the depth of about two
inches. After corking it up it should be allowed to stand
till quite clear, and till any particles not soluble in ether have
adhered to the sides of the tube. The clear solution should
then be poured off into another tube, water added so as to
give a depth of about half an inch, and well agitated with the
ether. After it has collected at the bottom the ether should
be removed by a pipette, the aqueous solution washed with a
little fresh ether, and then evaporated to dryness. In the
case of genuine beer the ether extracts scarcely any colour,
and the greater part of this and the resinous matter after-
wards remain in the ether, so that on evaporating the aqueous
solution, which is scarcely coloured, a mere trace of a yellow
colour is obtained, so free from resin that, when dissolved in
water and a drop or two of alcohol added, we obtain a clear,
very pale yellow solution, so pale that if one ounce of beer
has been used the spectrum is about 10. . 11. — , changed to
about 9 . . 10 - -11 — by sulphuric acid. If, however, picric acid
be present the solution in ether is a decided clear bright
yellow ; the greater part of the colour is extracted from it by

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. B B

376

the water, and on evaporating to dryness more or less of a
clear bright yellow is obtained. If as little as a grain per
gallon were present, when dissolved in water with a drop of
alcohol a clear bright yellow solution would he obtained,
giving the spectrum 8 . . . made much paler by the addition
of sulphuric acid, which decolorizes the picric acid, and
merely shows the colour of the beer itself, which, if one ounce
had been used, and all the product introduced into the expe-
riment cell, would not be deeper than 9 . . 10 - - 11 — , or very
decidedly paler than what would be seen before the addition
of sulphuric acid, if even less picrid acic than one grain per
gallon had been present in the beer.

I have not been able to discover any essential difference
between the colouring matter of Cocculus Indicus and that
of liquorice ; and though it would be difficult to prove it in a
positive manner, yet I think it very probable that a small
quantity of this colouring matter is the cause of the brown
colour of chiretta, and of the slightly brown tinge in hops.
It would, therefore, be impossible to detect Cocculus Indicus
in porter by means of its colouring matter, even if present in
far larger amount than is ever likely to be the case.

Though the detection of turmeric in beer does not neces-
sarily depend upon the spectrum microscope, yet the method
employed is so closely related to our present subject that it
may be well to describe it. The best test for its presence is
the very strongly fluorescent character of the solution in
benzol. The alcoholic solution is much less fluorescent. In
order to be able to detect fluorescence and examine the spec-
trum of the dispersed light, I have found it very convenient
to make use of cells about three quarters of an inch deep,
made out of moderately thick barometer tube, having an
internal diameter of about one sixth of an inch, cut square
and polished at one end, and melted up at the other, which
is fixed into a small brass foot by means of black sealing-
wax. On introducing a clear solution, covering it with a
small piece of thin glass, illuminating the tube at the side by
strong daylight, and looking down the axis, the liquid appears
quite black, if it be not at all fluorescent, for no light is
reflected from either the apparatus or the liquid ; whereas, if
fluorescent, it looks more or less opaque and of a colour
depending on the nature of the substance. Such tubes can
easily be placed on the stage of the microscope, and the
spectrum observed, which in some instances is remarkable in
showing one or more narrow bright bands.

In the case of turmeric, a very minute quantity dissolved
in benzol gives a beautiful more or less blue-green fluores-

3 77

cence, with no special (lark or bright bands. Half an ounce
of the suspected beer should be evaporated to so small a bulk
that it may occupy only about half an inch in the depth of
a test tube half an inch in diameter, and an equal amount of
benzol added to it, with about an equal quantity of alcohol ;
since without this last the globules of benzol collect together
with extreme slowness. After well agitating the whole, the
tube should be set aside until the benzol has collected at the
top, as a clear solution, which must then be introduced into
one of the cells just described, by means of a pipette. In
the case of pure beer, this solution is of a faint yellow colour,
but is scarcely at all fluorescent. If no more than one grain
of turmeric has been added to a gallon of beer, the fluores-
cence is so strong that it could not be seen to greater
advantage, and even as little as one tenth of a grain per
gallon may be detected with confidence.

It will thus be seen that the spectrum method of study
serves to throw considerable light on some of the changes
that take place in the process of brewing, and rvould also
enable us to detect the presence of some adulterations ; but,
at the same time, it would always be requisite to bear in
mind that it is possible that some of th£ colouring matters I
have described may themselves become altered when kept in
solution for a considerable time.

Adulteration in Drugs, fyc. — Mustard.

I now proceed to describe the detection of adulteration in
a variety of substances. Having just explained the method
to be employed when the presence of turmeric is suspected, it
may perhaps be well to mention now all that need be said on
that substance. Its presence may easily be detected in nearly
all the ground mustard sold in the shops ; and, as far as I
am able to judge from the intensity of the fluorescence, the
amount varies from about one third to one half per cent.

The natural seeds contain a yellow colour soluble in water,
which is the same as that found in many yellow leaves ;
another yellow colour, insoluble in water, but soluble in
alcohol, which corresponds with the xanthophyll of yellow
leaves ; and there is also often present a small quantity of
chlorophyll, in the imperfectly ripe seeds. The powdered
mustard should be digested in alcohol, about an equal quantity
of water added, and the solution filtered. On agitating with
benzol this rises to the top, with the colour of the turmeric
in solution, which can be easily detected by its strong green
fluorescence. Chlorophyll, if present, would give a red fluor-
escence, and by transmitted light a spectrum with •well-
marked absorption bands.

378

Rhubarb.

The same process may be successfully employed in the
case of rhubarb, and as small a quantity of turmeric as one
tenth per cent, may be detected in no more than two and half
grains of rhubarb. There is not the least difficulty in dis-
tinguishing by this means inferior pale rhubarbs, coloured by
turmeric so as to resemble those of the best quality.

The detection of small quantities of gamboge, added to
increase the purgative action of these inferior kinds, is not
so easy, and requires some care, especially in the presence of
turmeric. The suspected powder should be placed on a small
filter, and so little alcohol added as will give a few drops of
clear solution, which would contain a comparatively large
amount of the very soluble gamboge, and but little of the less
soluble colour of the rhubarb itself. This alcoholic solution
should then be agitated with bisulphide of carbon, and the
supernatant alcoholic solution removed by means of a pipette
and blotting-paper, and the solution in the bisulphide eva-
porated to dryness. This would contain a colour peculiar to
the different kinds of rhubarb, and, perhaps, also turmeric
and gamboge. If a small quantity dissolved in benzol gives
the green fluorescent solution, turmeric is present ; and in
order to detect the gamboge it would then be requisite to re-
dissolve in alcohol, and add a little nitric acid, which so changes
the colour of the turmeric that it is no longer removed by
agitating with bisulphide of carbon ; whilst the gamboge
remains unchanged and is abstracted by it from the alcoholic
solution. After separating this, evaporating the bisulphide
to dryness, and redissolving in alcohol, a small quantity of
an alcoholic solution of iodine should be added, and then
excess of ammonia, a little sulphite of soda, and a drop of
Avater to make it dissolve. This ensures the complete removal
of any free iodine that may remain after the addition of
ammonia.

in the case of pure rhubarb this solution, when sufficiently
but not too strong, has a decided pink colour, giving no
well-marked absorption band in any part of the spectrum,
but transmitting the blue rays very considerably better than
the green ; whereas, when gamboge is present to the extent
of two per cent, or upwards, the yellow colour due to it cuts
off the blue light, and the solution is orange colour. The
spectra are as follows :

Pure rhubarb . . . . . 4 ... 8 9 10 — 11 —

Rhubarb, with 2 per cent, of gamboge . 4 ... 9 — 10 —

„ „ 4 „ „ 4... 8— 9-

Gambogc alone . . . . .7 •• 8 — 9 —

379

In very many other cases bisulphide of carbon is a most
valuable reagent to separate different colours. An excess
should be agitated with the alcoholic solution, when it sinks
to the bottom, carrying with it the whole of some colours,
and leaving the alcohol quite colourless. Other colours are
only partially removed, whilst others are not abstracted in
the least degree. These last are usually, but not always,
those soluble in water, whereas those easily removed are
usually, if not always, insoluble in the liquid.

The cells for the examination of the spectra of solutions
in bisulphide of carbon, ether, chloroform, or benzol, should
be fixed to the glass plate by means of a mixture of glue and
honey made so as to be quite stiff, but yet to melt when
warmed. Cells so cemented must be washed out with the
liquids named above, and never with water or hydrous alcohol.
The spectra of colours dissolved in the bisulphide are far
more characteristic than w'hen dissolved in any other liquid.
So far, I have met with between two and three dozen different
vegetable colours soluble in this reagent. The absorption
bands are much farther removed from the blue end, when
they occur in that part, so as to be far more distinct ; and
their position is not subject to variation from any change
produced by evaporation, as in the case of ordinary alcohol,
wrhich may thus become more weak and give the bands in a
very different situation.

On the whole, the spectra are so characteristic and uniform,
that different colours, soluble in bisulphide of carbon, may
usually he recognised in a very satisfactory manner by means
of the spectrum of that solution alone, and this is fortunate,
since such colours can seldom be distinguished by their
behaviour wfith reagents. The dried colour must be dissolved
in fresh bisulphide, since when it separates from the alcohol
it contains some of that liquid in solution, which alters
the position of the bands. As an illustration of what may be
done I give a few examples :

Cheese.

Cheese of orange colour was digested in bisulphide of
carbon, the solution washed by agitating with alcohol, and
evaporated to dryness. On redissolving in alcohol, diluted
with a little water, a considerable amount of oily matter was
separated ; and after evaporating the clear solution to dryness,
and redissolving in bisulphide of carbon, it gave the spectrum
5f 7-ib which corresponds exactly with that of red annatto.

In all such experiments it is requisite to use deep experi-
ment cells (I use one two and a half inches deep), so that the

380

amount of the bisulphide may he large in comparison with
that of the oils, since the presence of much oil causes the
bands to lie nearer the blue end, and thus interferes with the
production of the characteristic spectrum.

Butter.

Treating yellow butter in a sometvhat similar manner, I
obtained the spectrum 6 This differs entirely from that
in the case of cheese, and corresponds with the spectrum of
the colour of the exterior orange portion of carrots ; but I am
not quite certain whether this might not be derived from
carrots eaten by the cows, though I am more strongly inclined
to believe that it had been artificially introduced to increase
the colour of the butter.

The difference between the spectra of the above-named
colours and of various others closely allied to them will be
better understood from the following table. In all cases they
are those of the solutions in pure bisulphide of carbon :

Red annatto 5|

Exterior of carrot and the shins of several kinds of fruit 6 7 A

Xanthopkyll of many yellow leaves and flowers, and of

the interior of carrots ...... 6§ 8

Colour of the petals of Brassica, and of many other

yellow flowers ....... 8-|

Orange-yellow colour of turnip roots, and of the flowers

of Eryssimum Perofskianum . . . ’ . 5^ 8f

It will thus be seen that these spectra differ from one
another so much as clearly to show that they are due to
different substances, which are often further distinguished
by their different behaviour with bisulphide of carbon and
alcohol, some being almost entirely, and others only very
partially removed from the alcoholic solution by that reagent,
so that they may be separated when two occur mixed, as is
not uncommon in some leaves and flowers. By first agitating
the alcoholic solution with a little bisulphide, and washing
this with alcohol, one may be procured nearly pure ; and then,
after agitating with a second small quantity of bisulphide and
removing it, the other colour may be obtained nearly pure by
evaporating the alcoholic solution to dryness, and dissolving
the residue in bisulphide, which leaves indissoluble any of
those numerous colours soluble in water which so commonly
occur in leaves, flowers, and fruits. It is now nearly two
years since I determined the existence of a considerable
number of distinct substances, of which at least eight have

381

lately been described by Dr. Thudichum 1 under the general
name of leuteine. I think that this new name can only be
looked upon as something like the old term xanthophyll, as
hitherto inaccurately employed for a whole series of yellow
colours, some of which correspond with some of those in-
cluded under leuteine. If it were thought desirable to have
a generic name, the term leuteine might indeed be employed ;
but I must protest against the idea that the substances
described as such by Dr. Thudichum are one single colouring
matter. Some of their properties are indeed very similar, but
that is often the case with those substances which give closely
connected spectra, even when other facts show that they are
entirely distinct, for there seems to be a sort of correlation
between optical characters and chemical reactions ; but this
is no reason why we should confound together substances
giving absorption-bands in distinctly different positions in
similar solutions.

The adulteration of saffron with the sliced petals of the
yellow crocus could easily be detected, even in a solution, by
means of the remarkable spectrum of the latter, when the
product of the action of bromine is deoxidized by sulphite or
hyposulphite of soda. To the alcoholic solution of the colours
soluble in water an aqueous solution of bromine should be
added very gradually, until, after having become quite pale,
it is made slightly yellow by the addition of more. Excess
of ammonia and a little sulphite of soda should then be
added. In the case of pure saffron the liquid remains almost
or quite colourless, whereas ammonia first turns the colouring
matter of the crocus to a red, which soon becomes yellow, and
then sulphite of soda changes it to a remarkably fine red,
which is highly fluorescent of red-orange colour, the spectrum
showing a bright narrow band at about 3^-. That of the
transmitted light is very characteristic, and shows an excel-
lent absorption-band at . On adding citric acid the colour
becomes red-pink ; it is still highly fluorescent, but of more
yellow tint than before, the bright band being raised to about
4, and the absorption-band in the spectrum of the transmitted
light is raised to 5-A- ; but the addition of hydrochloric acid
destroys both the fluorescence and the absorption-band. The
only colour that I have met with analogous to this is one
which occurs in the yellow flowers of several plants allied to
the common wallflower ( Cherianthus Cheiri), but the bands

1 ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ vol. xvii, p. 253, January, 1869.

38.2

are in distinctly different positions. The production of the
fluorescent colour is apparently due in both cases to deoxidi-
zation, for even proto-sulphate of iron has the same effect as
sulphite or hyposulphite of soda. If too much bromine be
added, this change does not take place ; but by a little care
a small amount of the petals of the yellow crocus could be
detected in a considerable quantity of saffron. The presence
of safflower might be recognised by a similar process, but not
so decidedly. After adding bromine and ammonia it remains
distinctly yellow, but gives no absorption-band; whereas pure
saffron is thereby quite decolorised.

Aloes.

I have tried a number of experiments in order to ascertain
whether it would be possible to detect the adulteration of the
soccotrine aloes with the hsepatic, but have not yet succeeded
in discovering any satisfactory method. It appears as if both
contain the same general colouring matter, but the soccotrine
a second in addition. When ammonia is added to the alco-
holic solutions, the soccotrine gives a more orange colour than
the hsepatic, and the green part of the spectrum is more
absorbed, so that when compared side by side the spectra
are —

Soccotrine . . . 4 6§ —

Haepatic . . . . 6^ —

It would, therefore, be possible to distinguish them from one
another, or to detect the soccotrine in the haepatic, which is,
however, the reverse of what would be likely to occur, since
inferior things are not often adulterated with better.

Adulterations by means of Cochineal and Magenta.

Cochineal may be best detected in the tincture of roses by
adding to the aqueous solution bicarbonate of ammonia and
sulphite of soda. This changes the colour of the pure tinc-
ture to a very pale yellow, but that adulterated with cochineal
to a light red. The spectra are somewhat thus :

Pure tincture . . . 8 •• 9 — 10 —

Adulterated with cochineal 3J •• 7 — 9 —

The presence of magenta might be recognised by the spec-
trum of the solution in its natural state. The pure tincture
shows no narrow absorption band in the green, whereas
magenta gives a very distinct one, situated at 5 of my scale.
In the case of the syrup of damsons and similar fruits,
magenta may be detected, when in very small quantity, by

383

agitating: a dilute alcoholic solution with chloroform. If so
much alcohol be added as only to partially dissolve the chlo-
roform, scarcely a trace of the magenta is left in the alcoholic
solution, and the characteristic spectrum can be easily seen by
examining the chloroform, which scarcely abstracts any other
colour. Ammonia produces no change in a solution of
magenta in dilute alcohol, hut the absorption band is imme-
diately removed by a mere trace of sulphite of soda.

It would scarcely be a correct description of the facts to
say that cochineal may easily be detected in pink-coloured
confectionery, since in some cases its spectrum is seen to
almost as great advantage as in any condition without any
preparation ; and it could generally be recognised with very
little manipulation.

No doubt many other applications of methods similar to
those I have described would present themselves to any one
engaged in technical inquiries. I do not for one moment
pretend to have exhausted the subject. I have merely ex-
amined various questions in older to ascertain what methods
might be employed with advantage, and I trust that the cases
described above will, at all events, facilitate the application
of this kind of qualitative analysis to practical questions,
for I have met with many who wrere anxious to employ it,
but had not sufficient time at command to make the prelimi-
nary experiments, which are so very necessary in all such
inquiries.

On Draparnaldia cruciata, Hicks.

By J. Braxton Hicks, M.D., F.R.S.

With Plate XIX.

The Draparnaldia, of which a drawing for the first time
is now given, was described by me in the ‘Journal of the
Linnaean Society,5 November 18th, 1857. It was discovered
by me in the gentle streams issuing from the bogs of the
New Forest in several localities. Subsequently, among
some drawings sent to me by Mr. G. S. Brady, Secretary
of the Tyneside Naturalist Field Club, in order to be named,
I was pleased to find a very accurate representation of this
alga. It was found by him in the peat bogs near Crag
Lough, Northumberland, and is mentioned by him, along
with others found in the same locality, in the sixth volume of
the ‘ Trans. Tyneside Naturalist Field Club.’

The species is remarkably distinct from the others hitherto

384

described, and possesses characters which render it a con-
necting link between the genus Draparnaldia and Chseto-
phora.

Nothing is more remarkable than the direction taken by
the branches, which diverge strictly at right angles to the
stem. Even the lesser kinds, called tufts, and their branch -
lets, pass off in this way, and as four generally spring from
the same point, there is a cruciate arrangement in every part.
The colour of the endochrome is light greenish-yellow, and
as the quantity is but small relatively in the larger cells, the
appearance of a mass of it is very different from the rich
green of the other Draparnaldiae. Again, from the profusion
and the extreme length of the ciliae, a mucoid appearance is
given it when removed from water. But this mucoid ap-
pearance has a real basis different from all the other species.
A very perceptible sheath of “ mucus ” surrounds the prin-
cipal filaments.

Now this is not found in D. plumosa, glomerata, and
repetita ; for although their fronds are called “ gelatinous,”
this latter appearance depends on the number of ciliae, and
not on a sheath of “ mucus,” at least, I have never so found
it in the species of Draparnaldia I have seen. In this par-
ticular this species brings Draparnaldia into closer relation-
ship with Chaetophora than heretofore.

It may be useful to repeat the description of the species.

Frond 3 — 4 inches long. Light green colour, not so green
as Drap. glomerata and plumosa, possessing a flocculent
appearance when in water, and highly mucous when out of
water. To the naked eye and a low magnifying power it has
the appearance represented in fig. 1, which is magnified about
four times the natural size.

Every portion is surrounded by a distinct layer of trans-
parent mucus, extending on each side to the distance of 3
diameters of the included ramulus. This is most easily seen
after two days, when extraneous matter adheres to the mucus.

The inain filament is composed of cells very slightly in-
flated, 3 — 4 times longer than wide, about -o-oth an inch
wide ; delicately fasciated.

Primary ramuli proceeding at right angles chiefly in whorls
of four, from the main filament, with an interval of 50 — 60
cells. The sub-ramuli also proceed in the same way from the
primary ramuli, giving the plant a cruciate appearance, as
in fig. 1, &c.

The cells of the ramuli as wide as long ; the larger fas-
ciated, the smaller quite filled with green chlorophyl.

The interspace of 50 — 60 cells of main filament being

385

great, to the naked eye it appears nearly bare, but by higher
magnifying powers small tufts, like those terminating the
subramuli, appear at about every ten cells; some larger, and
approaching somewhat the subramuli, while the others are
very simple. The larger terminal and lateral tufts have
a pyramidal form, and from all their divisions proceeding at
right angles, it appears much like a fir tree.

All the ultimate tufts bear cilia, as in the other Drapai--
naldiae, but of extreme length and tenuity in this species.

From the 1 — 3 basal cells of the ramuli, often roots, spring,
coiling themselves round the main filament, and even
spreading away from it, and sometimes the free point becomes
converted into a tuft, like those on the main filament.
The smaller tufts at times possess them. When the plant is
mature the ramuli disengage themselves and can be seen
floating about with their roots probably ready to attach
themselves to any suitable object, and so become separate
plants.

This, as the other Draparnaldia?, produces zoospores which
are not so large as in D. glomerata, being oval and about -g-pro
inch long diam., and about 3 .^-o inch of short diam., with a
cilia. A whole tuft undergoes the process simultaneously.

This species is found in the small streams rising from the
bogs in the New Forest. It was found in June in 1853, and
in July in 1855, associated with a Batrachospermum, which it
much resembled at first glance. It attaches itself to sticks,
stones, &c.

It can ^easily be distinguished from D. plumosa, glomer.,
and rep., by the divisions diverging at right angles, and in
whorls of chiefly four (giving the cruciate appearance), the
perceptible mucous sheath (bringing it near to Chsetophora) ,
the exceeding delicacy of the cilia ; extreme tendency
to give out radicles ; the nearly equal of width of the
main cells, as also their greater length. The fir-tree-like
form of the tufts are so unlike the flexible shape of the
other species.

386

On Some Freshwater Rhizopoda, New or Little-Known.

By William Archer.

Pompholyxophrys punicea, gen. et sp. nov. (PI. XVI,
figs. 4 — 5.)

( Continued from p. 271.)

The next form which claims attention is one of which I
might, perhaps, cursorily convey an idea by saying it repre-
sents an Actinophrys invested by a stratum, more or less
deep, of minute hyaline colourless vesicles, these latter of
very slightly varying dimensions, and from amongst which
emanate the very slender and delicate pseudopodia into the
surrounding water. But it appears to me that this would
hardly give a correct impression of this form, for in Actino-
phrys there are one or more marginal pulsating vacuoles
present, whilst a repeated observation of this rhizopod, not at
all uncommon with us in our moor ponds, has not shown
that it possesses this characteristic.

We have here, as in the various forms previously adverted
to — “ Radiolarian ” except in the possession of the essential
“ central capsule ” — an orbicular sarcode body, with a sharply
defined outline (which has never displayed marginal pul-
sating vacuoles), and which gives off therefrom a number
of linear, very delicate, hyaline and colourless pseudopodia
(fig. 4). This central body is densely loaded with pigment-
granules, the majority of which are ordinarily of a deep
reddish or crimson, inclining to a purple colour, which, under
all magnifying powers by which so minute a form can be
detected, imparts to it a very distinctive character. There
are besides some colourless and some greenish granules to be
noticed, mingled with the characteristic reddish ones, when it
is examined under a high power ; nothing like a “ nucleus” has
hitherto been seen. The pseudopodia are often very hard to be
made out ; they can be sometimes seen to vary somewhat in
thickness, and sometimes appear to be thicker above than at
the origin, and they are straight and compai-atively rigid.
They do not ever seem to coalesce, nor do they seem much
to exceed in length, at most, the diameter of the body.
Covering the body in a more or less deep stratum are seen a
number of colourless, hyaline, spherical, sharply defined (soap-
bubble-like) vesicular structures. These vary a little in size,
but are always very minute. They do not seem to possess
any nuclear or granular contents under even a -i-th objective.
Between the periphery of the central body and this stratum

387

of vesicular structures there appears to be an exceedingly
minute interval ; that is, the lowest vesicles or those nearest
the central body do not seem to be in absolute contact with
it, but separated therefrom all round by an appreciable equi-
distant space, which, in a certain position of the focus and of
the light, appears like a clear white even line, between the
periphery of the inner body and the outer stratum of vesicles.
The vesicles themselves are in contact with each other, but
do not seem to have any mutual connection, though re-
sembling what vegetable histologists might call a meren-
chymatous tissue. In fact, they are somewhat easily detached
by pressure, and can be made to float away independently.

In fig. 5 I have depicted the appearance of an example of
this form after having been submitted to pressure, by force of
which a portion of the body-mass became extruded, and some
of the outer vesicles projected to a distance. A number of
the reddish granules are seen hard by, where they assumed a
molecular dancing movement ; and some of the vesicles are
also seen removed, and freely distributed in the surrounding
water. The outline of the central body presents a sinus at
the place whence a portion of its mass had become extruded,
and thereat the sarcode shows a hyaline appearance, due to
the loss of the colouring granules. The figure of the speci-
men has been made at this point. Such an example,
however, in a few moments — the sinus gradually becoming
obliterated — is able to reassume the globular form, the only
difference being that at the region whence the reddish
granules have been expelled the body remains for a time com-
paratively colourless, and the outer vesicles, now diminished
in number, become rearranged pretty equidistantly over the
periphery in a single file, or more or less interruptedly,
instead of presenting a layer two or three or more deep, as in
the usual examples.

This does not appear to be a very ravenous species, but
examples are to be met Avith containing a variety of crude
food, such as protoccoids and minute diatoms. Sometimes
specimens are seen containing, perhaps, some navicular diatom
of considerable comparative length, which causes the ordinary
orbicular form of this rhizopod to become distorted more or
less, and to assume an elongate, or elliptic, or broadly spindle-
shaped figure. When an unusually long diatom is taken in
it may cause the normal outline of the rhizopod to project to
a comparatively great extent beyond the ordinary limits at
its two ends, these being then invested by an exceedingly thin
and tense stratum of the sarcode body, and only a single
layer of the outer vesicles spread over the Avhole. In fact.

388

it sometimes may look as if the diatom projected right through
and through the body, and as if it pushed up and away along
with it, at opposite ends, a few of the outer vesicles, carrying
them scattered on its surface, thus giving such an example a
very singular appearance.

I have not been able to see the inception of food, but have
noticed the ejection of crude, presumably indigestible, matter,
such as, seemingly, the skin or wall of some protococcoid. This
is effected by a somewhat sudden effort, looking, at first
sight, like a breaking into two of the rhizopod itself, but it
is only the turning out or eversion of the undigested rejecta-
menta. However, during this act of what may be called
defecation some of the colouring granules are likewise simul-
taneously ejected, and a few of the outer vesicles thrown off ;
this, of course, accidentally and seemingly caused by the
mechanical action involved in the effort. The creature does
not seem to suffer by this loss of a portion of its substance,
it shortly reassumes its orbicular figure and shows no change
except the certain small amount of loss of colour, just as in the
example subjected to artificial pressure before described.

Of all actinophryan or “ radiolarian ” forms that I have
seen this appears to me to possess the greatest amount of
locomotive power — next to it in this respect, perhaps, comes
the form I have previously mentioned under the name of
Ilctcrophrys Fockii. The present form often makes very
decided changes of place as it is viewed under a quarter-
inch. It seems occasionally to be able to roll along with a
certain slow and undecided but perceptible amount of vigour,
as if its slender but hardly evident pseudopodia performed
the part of ambulatory organs ; but at other times no motion
or change of place at all is noticeable.

As in other rhizopods which present a distinct coloration,
it must be presumed that the intensity of the reddish or garnet
colour, inclining to purple, characteristic of this species, is
due to condition of nutrition. Examples presenting them-
selves in gatherings kept for some time in the house are paler
in colour than those met with in fresh and healthy gatherings
which abound with other forms of animal and vegetable life.
Still, though paler and fewer, the reddish granules seem
never to be wholly absent. Such examples, too, besides the
paler colour, likewise show the outer vesicles, not only fewer,
but seemingly more or less diminished in size or shrivelled
and collapsed ; but I have not seen specimens from which
they were absent, though they may have lost their spherical
bubble-like appearance.

I regret to say I have never met with examples showing

389

any reproductive or further developmental condition. As I
have mentioned, no “ nucleus ” discloses itself to my exami-
nation, either in the central body or the external vesicles. I
can throw no light on the growth of the latter, nor how they
self-divide or increase in number. It is clear they are not
vacuoles or cavities in the marginal region of the rhizopod,
but distinct, (so to speak) independent structures ; still, as is
seen, there must remain a doubt as to whether they could be
regarded as justly laying claim to the dignity of “cells.” But
they seem sufficiently curious and remarkable. Unlike the
true “ cells” of Cystophrys (described ante, p. 259), they are not
contained within the sarcode body, and thus retained in situ,
but are freely deposited externally, and yet remain theie
unless detached by accidental external or internal force. At
least I have been unable to see any bond of union or matrix,
that is, any external thinner sarcode layer by which they
could be retained. Indeed, there appears, as has been men-
tioned, to exist a very narrow, but appreciable, (as it ’were)
vacant, interval between these outer vesicles and the external
surface of the actinophryan body, that is, when an equatorial
plane is brought into focus, but the vesicles themselves mu-
tually touch. But, after all, without their being involved in
some exceedingly delicate sarcode matrix surrounding the
central body, it is difficult to see how they could rearrange
themselves upon the surface of the latter, when they are me-
chanically disturbed, or even be retained around it. But if
there be such a soft and delicate layer, it is not as yet evident
to the closest examination, so far as I can see.

This is the only freshwater rhizopod that I know of show-
ing the peculiar red colour of the pigment-granules which I
have tried to describe and portray ; there are, indeed, rhizo-
podal forms, or developmental states of such, of a buff or orange
colour, but none exactly like the present.

This form, whose short diagnostic character I defer to the
end of this paper, is by no means uncommon in our heath
pools in different parts, but it always occurs isolated, never
abundantly or in groups. I have seen it from the south and
north of Ireland, but in the county Wicklow (Gallery and
Carrig) it occurs more frequently than in other places. I have
for some time familiarly called it (for want of another appel-
lation) the “ red bubble-bearer,” in allusion to its soap-bubble-
like vesicles, and I have thought, in the choice of a name for
the genus which it must represent, that it might sufficiently
appropriately retain the title under the new shape of
Pompholyxophrys punicea.

390

Gromia socialis, sp. nov. (PI. XX, figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11).

Passing on from the freshwater rhizopods of the “ Radio-
larian ” type, which have been the subject of the preceding
pages, and in continuation of these casual notes of new or
little-known forms which I have from time to time had the
opportunity to meet with, I have now to draw attention to
one of a different group which is amongst the most minute,
hut one at the same time seemingly very well marked. Unlike
some of those which have formed the subject of previous
communications in the preceding pages, the present does not
demand a new genus for its reception, as it falls, as will be
seen, in my own opinion at least, as a new species under the
genus Gromia (Duj.).

Those, indeed, who are acquainted with the much larger
representatives of the genus, such as even the comparatively
small Gromia flumatilis, and conceiving that form magnified
400 diameters, that is, to the scale of the accompanying drawings
(PL XX, figs.7 — 1 1), being that to which all my previous figures
have been made, might hardly be disposed to regard these
two as strictly congeneric, or they might, on the other hand,
regard the present as, perhaps, simply a young state of Gromia
Jiuviatilis. But the present form has other and further re-
semblances, to which I shall draw attention after having first
given some account of it. Nay, this inert, at first glance
nearly lifeless-looking, organism might almost be taken for
some species belonging to the fungal genus Chytridium, and
not as appertaining to animal life at all, only that it occurs
free in the water, and not living parasitically (as wrould a
Chytridium) on some confervoid or other host.

But if I was for a little somewhat puzzled by the Chy-
tridium-like appearance of this form, rendered the more mis-
leading by its occurring in the gathering chiefly amongst the
branches of Microthamnion Kiitzingianwn (Nag.), a short
examination soon dispelled that idea, and made it certain
that I had indeed a true rhizopod before me. Amongst the
ramifications of almost every example of this little alga in
the gathering — never, indeed, in any way attached to them —
— occurred this little rhizopod, either singly or in groups of
two, three, four, five, six, or even more ; and it is sufficiently
remarkable that I but seldom met with them in any other
situation in the gathering at large ; so that whilst they lasted
I presently found that the quickest way to meet with speci-
mens was to look out for a plant of the Microthamnion, and
then search with a “ quarter-inch ” amongst its branches for
the little Gromia, which, however, owing to its minuteness,

391

ami being thus often above or below the plane of the focus,
readily eluded observation. 1 can in no way account for
the proclivity of this little rhizopod for poising itself
amongst the branches of the alga referred to, between which
it sent its own ramifying pseudopodia in various directions.

Those who will take alook at tliedrawing(Pl.XX,figs. 9, 1 1)
may, perhaps, forgive my momentary misconception that I had
a Chytridium before me, the pseudopodia being, perhaps, some-
what like the root-processes of the organisms appertaining to
that type, the test corresponding to, and resembling not a
little, the orbicular body of a Chytridium plant, which at
maturity becomes ultimately the sporangium. But a more
prolonged observation showed a slow, but not the less actual,
flow of the granules along the branching, and here and there
incorporating pseudopodia ; nay, the circumstance that two,
three or four, or even more individuals, might not un frequently
be found united by a mutual fusion of their pseudopodia in a
more or less reticulate manner, and seemingly carrying on a
common life, abundantly proved the true nature of this
organism.

This, then,, is an undoubted rhizopod. It possesses a
minute, nearly orbicular, or very broadly elliptic, quite
hyaline, colourless and smooth test, which encloses a sarcode
body-mass of a bluish kind of tint and densely granular ap-
pearance, resembling that seen in the so-called nucleus of
Amoeba and others. This in the greater number of cases,
when the examples arc fresh, does not come into contact with
the inner surface of the test, from which it mostly seems to
stand off some appreciable distance, partially or all round,
though occasionally closely invested by it. At one point of
the test, sometimes indicated by a gentle elevation in its
figure, is given forth an emanation of the sarcode, hyaline in
appearance as compared with the central body-mass, and
from this proceed, in variously extending ramifications, the
sometimes very long pseudopodia. These pseudopodia branch
considerably, and inosculate at different points, not only with
those of the same example, but frequently also, as has been
mentioned, with those of neighbouring individuals (fig. 7).

The pseudopodia sometimes assume even fantastically
drawn out, remotely extending, ramifications (figs. 7, 8) ; they
sometimes proceed, though this far less commonly, as a
vertical slender stem, and then branch off in a dendroid
manner at the top (fig. 9) ; they often, however, emanate
simply as a tuft or shrub-like cluster (fig. 11), and a few
often singly, or in minor groups, are directed backwards.
The pseudopodia themselves are hyaline, but carry a con-

VOL. IX. NEW SER. C C

392

siderable number of minute, but variously sized, opaque
granules. Along their length, or at the points of fusion or
where branches are given off, there often occur little variously
shaped expansions or dilatations, in which a few of the moving
granules seem to find a temporary repose. At first sight the
whole looks dead and motionless, but a short observation
shows the current of these granules along the course of the
pseudopodia very perceptibly. In very many of the speci-
mens comparatively large aggregations of granules, considera-
bly larger than the average, presented themselves, and the
movement of these clusters was more rapid than that of the
individual more minute granules. Thus, the cluster or
little aggregation of granules shown near the lowest specimen
in the figure of the group of three herewith (fig. 7) took
about a minute to travel from a position as near the upper
individual as that now shown occupied by it as regards the
lowest. Not only is there this slow and rather fitful
“ cyclosis ” of the granular contents of the pseudopodia,
but a more prolonged examination soon shows that there
is a constant but gradual change of position, of degree of
ramification, and of reticulated arrangement of the pseu-
dopodia themselves.

Sometimes a club-shaped or dilated expansion of a pseu-
dopod, not inosculated with any other, exists in certain ex-
amples, and, within such, a cluster of coarser granules, similar
to those seen in the intermediate dilatations of the mutually
incorporated pseudopodia of different individuals, is usually
presented (fig. 10).

These larger, shapeless, and irregular granules may possi-
bly represent food becoming digested, for it is not readily to
be seen how such kinds of crude food as ordinarily form the
nutriment or prey of Rhizopoda could find an entrance into
the test in their entirety.

It must, I think, follow, from what has been stated, that
this creature naturally falls under Dujardin’s genus Gromia.

But there are further characteristics to be mentioned and
resemblances to be adverted to which may, perhaps, hereafter,
in the opinion of some, be found to render its position in that
genus as possibly not quite tenable.

When I first endeavoured to make out the characteristics
of this little rhizopod, and, having regard to the appearance
presented by the densely granular, bluish, internal body-mass,
I was inclined to look upon this as equivalent to the
“ nucleus,” occupying, indeed, it would be true, by far the
greater proportion of the body. It looked as if this was sus-
pended in a sarcode mass of quite hyaline appearance, filling

393

the interval between it and the test, and giving off the
pseudopodia through the part of the test at which exists the
opening for their emission. But no one could look long at
examples of this creature without readily perceiving a small,
orbicular, whitish body, itself containing a central well-
marked, far more minute, darkish granule, immersed, often a
little to one side, within the bluish granular body-portion.
In fact, this little body, with its central dark granule, can, I
imagine, hardly be otherwise regarded than as a true nucleus
with a nucleolus. It could be found in nearly every speci-
men, if focussed accurately, with great readiness ; where not
seen, it can only be supposed that it was turned away from
observation. But, further, the bluish granular body of the
rhizopod was itself capable of becoming self-divided trans-
versely, and in every instance in which this was seen there
was a new- white body with its black central dot — that is, a
new “nucleus” w-ith its “nucleolus” (to assume them as
such) — in each half, and these generally near the recently-
divided surfaces of the rhizopod-body, so as to lie close to one
another. In such cases of self-fission the upper half gave
off its pseudopodia in the usual manner (fig. 11). I never
could, however, see any further progress or development of
these so divided examples.

There is much in the aspect of this rhizopod, both in its
test, kind of pseudopodia, whitish nucleus and its nucleolus,
and in the self-division of the contained body-mass, to call to
mind the form I brought forward in a previous part of this
paper (ante, p. 259) under a new generic and specific name, and
called Cystophrys Haeckeliana. If, indeed, we imagine a
very numerous group of individuals of the form now brought
forward to be in immediate juxtaposition, and all to poTir
forth a large quantity of colourless sarcode from the oral
aperture (if I may so use the word), and the cluster or group
to become enveloped in the common sarcode mass — the whole
group of individuals to become, in fact, mutually swallowed
up therein — and then the marginal region to give off some
comparatively short but pretty similar pseudopodia — if, indeed,
we imagine all this, we should have something very like my
Cystophrys Haeckeliana. But in the latter form the central
cells show no opening ; they seem to be true closed cells, con-
tained in the common sarcode body, just like the “yellow
cells ” of the marine Radiolaria. Nay, the creature seems to
shed these or extrude them during the exertion of incepting
foreign matter of an extraordinary character or size, and this
seemingly with complete nonchalance. See my second draw-
ing of an example of this creature (PI. XVII, fig. 2). Now,

394

under all circumstances these cells appear to be close all
round, and, therefore, could not give off sarcode processes.
In fact, so far as observation reaches, in Cystophrys Haechel-
iana they must be regarded as contained cells, possibly com-
parable, as I have said, to the “ yellow cells ” of the marine
types ; whereas in the animal now drawn attention to the
outer wall must be regarded as simply a test, and this not-
withstanding the general resemblance of the two. Further,
the test in the form now brought forward is larger than the
cells of Cystophrys Haecheliana, nor do the pseudopodia of
the latter ever seem to reach the inordinate length of those of
the present form. Again, the great difference in the relative
degree of activity or locomotive power of the two is suffi-
ciently striking. As has been mentioned, the movements of
the present form are exceedingly slow and torpid, whilst in
Cystophrys Haecheliana the change of place and power of
modifying the outward configuration of the general mass and
of encompassing foreign bodies was very considerable, as was
well evidenced by the example from which the second figure
was taken (PI. XVII, fig. 2).

On the whole, then, I think this form presents itself to us
as a new and distinct rhizopod, one which fulfils the condi-
tions which entitle it to admission into the genus Gromia
(Duj.), but one which, as has been seen, offers some puzzling
resemblances. I can, then, only hope that it may be met with
elsewhere if searched for, and that thus the desirable observa-
tions of others who may work in this field may shed that light
upon its development which the present imperfect remarks,
I regret to say, fail to do, and that I may thus, perhaps, hope
some day or other to have my views upon it confirmed, or, if
ill-founded, to have thetp corrected.

Diaphoropodon mobile , gen. et sp. nov. (PI. XX, fig. 6.)

I pass on to another novel form, and amongst those I have
had the opportunity to bring forward probably, if not the
prettiest, at least one of the most curious — one, indeed, which
I apprehend, in one respect at least, is unique amongst
Rhizopoda. It is not, of course, without affinities and resem-
blances in other respects, and to some of those I would briefly
refer after first endeavouring to convey an idea of the present
form.

An inspection of tire accompanying drawing (PL XX,
fig. 6) will assist in accomplishing that end. TV e have
here to do with a rather large form, one of the largest, indeed
of encased freshwater forms with which I am acquainted, its

rude test, if test it may be called, seemingly formed of hete-
rogeneous foreign materials very loosely aggregated around the
generally pretty regularly elliptic-shaped body. These foreign
particles seem to be of very varied kinds (as in many
l)ifflugue), such as diatomaceous frustules and fragments,
arenaceous particles, protococcaceous cells (often seemingly
living), brown peaty-looking particles, little indescribable
shreds, all indistinguishably aggregated. From one end of
this elliptic body the sarcode inner mass protrudes beyond this
rude covering in an almost hemispherical or subconical form
and from this comparatively bare prominence emanate the
frequently numerous and very variably long hyaline pseudo-
podia. I allude to this anterior prominence as only compa-
ratively bare, for it often carries forward a few of the various
external foreign bodies here and there disposed upon it,
allowing the surface of the sarcode prominence to be seen
between. The pseudopodia, as has been alluded to, are given
off mostly very copiously, and radiate in any and every direc-
tion, and are more or less ramified, but do not seem to inos-
culate. A striking peculiarity in habit of this rhizopod, as
presented by many of the specimens met with, is that when
first placed upon the slide for examination the pseudopodia
are often seen to be prolonged to a very great and inordinate
degree, and densely ramified at several points along their
length (see fig. 6). At first glance, indeed, the tufts of what
I might call secondary pseudopodia almost seem under a low
power as if they did not even belong to the animal at all, but
represented some other quite unconnected and independent
rhizopod. But upon a more close examination it is seen that
these tufts are really connected with the body of the creature
by a direct continuation of the lower portion of a pseudopod
emanating from the anterior region. Shortly after being placed
on tbe slide, however, these extravagantly long pseudopodia
are drawn in by a rather quick contraction, the tufts disappear,
and all that now can be seen is a radiant and rather dense
bundle of but slightly ramified pseudopodia, of the same
character as the accompanying minor ones springing from the
sides and elsewhere, as seen in the example figured. And in
this latter way the pseudopodia mostly presented themselves
in my specimens, because the very remarkably long drawn out
and densely tufted form so speedily disappeared under obser-
vation, and no amount of patience in waiting on them was
ever rewarded by seeing them again so extended.

At first glance it might be thought that we had here to do
with another Gromia, but several characters seem at once to
exclude our form from a place in that genus. First, the test

396

is not membranous, but built (if so loosely and irregularly
constructed a domicile can be said to be built) of foreign par-
ticles. Again, the pseudopodia, though they often copiously
branch, do not seem to inosculate, nor to carry a stream
bearing along granules, but the pseudopodia are clear and
silvery in appearance.

For so far, however, Avhilst our animal offers resemblances
to several other allied forms, as well as distinctions from these,
upon both of which I shall presently briefly touch, it presents
still another characteristic (as I previously mentioned) which
seems to be unique. I allude to the fact that from the whole
of the surface of the inner sarcode body, except the anterior
prominence, there are given off exceedingly numerous, very
short, linear, hyaline, unbranched pseudopodal processes, of
but slightly varying lengths, which protrude through the
loosely connected outer covering, and there, when seen mar-
ginally, looking like a dense fringe, bordering the body all
round. Here, then, we have a rhizopod presenting the seem-
ingly remarkable character of one and the same sarcode body
giving off its processes of two distinct forms or kinds — one
often long, copiously branched, and very transitory and fit-
fully changeable — the other short, unbranched, and so com-
paratively rigid as to give the appearance of a persistent
hyaline marginal fringe ; the first kind confined to one end,
which I have called the anterior end of the rhizopod — the
second kind evenly and densely distributed everywhere else.

I am not aware, then, that the circumstance just alluded
to has a parallel amongst Rhizopoda, and hence I cannot but
think such a form demands a distinct genus for its reception.
It is true that I myself have drawn attention in a previous part
of this paper {ante, p. 267) to two congeneric forms, themselves
forming the type of a new genus, Heterophrys, and otherwise,
indeed, considerably removed from our form, but which pre-
sent sarcode processes of two distinct kinds, but each of these
emanate from a differentiated part of the sarcode body, one
enclosed within the other, and are not, as here, given off from
one and the same body, seemingly without any differentia-
tion, if I might so express it, of its body structure.

But amongst Rhizopoda provided with a test, and not of
the radiate (heliozoan or radiolarian) type, our form presents
what appears to me to he still another speciality. That such
a form should present an internal contractile vacuole would
not be unusual, but that it (in some of the specimens, at least)
should offer a marginal pulsating vacuole, similar to that of
an Actinophrys, seems to me to he noteworthy. Such, at
least, so far as 1 am aware, has not been seen in Difflugia or

397

Gromia, for instance, from both of which, indeed, our form
upon other characters is sufficiently and distinctly removed.
Perhaps, however, I err in ascribing any particular import-
ance to such an organization in our form, but, at least, such
is one of its characters. In the drawing (PI. XX, fig. 6) I
have tiied to depict the pulsating vacuole at its extreme point
of distension just before its discharge and collapse in that
wrinkled and contracted manner with which every one who
has seen the same phenomenon in Actinophrys or in Actino-
sphserium must be familiar.

The body-mass of our form is rather densely granular, and
thereby rendered somewhat opaque. Immersed in the sub-
stance can be seen, without much trouble, however, a large
and globular body, the so-called nucleus. With a little pains
this can be pressed out intact, and is seen to be of that gra-
nular character and somewhat bluish hue of the similar body
in an Amoeba, the body substance bearing opaque, somewTiat
coarse, and crude-looking granules.

Having thus endeavoured to convey an idea of this new
form, I shall below contrast it with those few which seem to
come nearest it, or for which it might be mistaken, and
thereby, perhaps, overlooked, even though it should be
encountered elsewhere by other observers. I need hardly
say, however, that the fringe-like emanation of pseudopodal
processes in conjunction with the anterior, long, and branched
ones, would alone seem enough to distinguish the present form
from any other. I have thought that the generic name
Diaphoropodon calculated to express this speciality, and name
this curious form accordingly Diaphoropodon mobile, reserving
short generic characters for the present. The resemblances
wdiich this form presents are, of course, apart from the circum-
stance alluded to. Leaving, then, the body processes out of
viewr, the most immediate allies of our Diaphoropodon are
seemingly forms which appear to appertain to Pleurophrys
(Clap, et Lachm.), represented by the three drawings (PI. XX,
figs. 1, 2, 3), and Amphitrema (nov. gen., PI. XX, figs. 4, 5),
to Avhich I would briefly advert in the next following
section of the present communication.

Notes on Certain Fresh-water Species of Diatomace-e.
By A. S. Donkin, M.D.

The late Professor Smith, in referring to the genus Epi-
themia in his ‘Synopsis of the British Diatomaceae ’ (vol. i,
p. 11), observes that “ this genus, as its name implies, is

398

characterised by the adherence of its frustules to Algae of
larger growth. This character is true of most of the species,
and even where not strictly applicable, as in E. gibba and
others, we detect a disposition to rely on a foreign body for
support, their frustules being usually embedded in the mucus
of some member of the family Palmellaceee.” Recently I
have had an opportunity of ascertaining that Epitliemia gibba
is strictly an adherent species, and that its supposed excep-
tional character in this respect has been based on insufficient
observation.

In the month of August last, when on a visit to Sir Walter
Calverly Trevelyan, Bart., at his seat at Wallington, in the
heart of Northumberland, I observed in a large pond of clear
water near the mansion an abundance of the greater bladder-
wort ( Utricularia vulgaris) growing erect in the water. As
the leaves and stems of this plant presented a cloudy appear-
ance, characteristic of parasitic growths, I subjected them to
a careful microscopical examination, and found that the
appearance alluded to was produced by an abundance of
adherent Diatomaceae, the species being, Epitliemia gibba,
Ehrb. ; Epitliemia ventricosa, Kiitz. ; Epitliemia granulata,
Ehrb. ; Epitliemia Sorex, Kiitz. ; Sgnedra capitata, Ehrb. ;
Cocconema lanccolatum, Ehrb. All were exceedingly abun-
dant, and it was an interesting fact to observe that Epitliemia
gibba and E. ventricosa were attached, by one extremity,
not by the ventral surface of the frustule, as is the
case with the other members of the genus. E. gibba thus
shows an affinity for the genus Sgnedra, being in other
respects somewhat aberrant in its characters, and by no
means typical of its own genus.

Epitliemia ventricosa, Kiitz., I feel satisfied, is a small or
undeveloped form of E. gibba, with which it agrees in every
respect except in being very much shorter. In the Walling-
ton gathering frustules are plentiful of every size between
the two forms, and show the gradation between them.
Grunow has expressed his belief in the identity of the
two. With this view 1 fully concur; and, although Raben-
horst believes them to be widely different (‘ Europ. Diatom.,’
p. 65), I feel assured that E. ventricosa should no longer
rank as a species. The two forms are generally found asso-
ciated in the same localities.

It is a somewhat curious fact that immediately after self-
division in Epitliemia gibba the newly formed valve of each
frustule is quite linear, and without the gibbous middle it
afterwards assumes. Ivutzing has delineated this peculiarity
both in the larger and smaller frustules (‘ Bac.,’ pi. iv, 22,
and pi. xxx, 9, b). E. gibba is subject to considerable varia-

399

tion of outline. I have in my possession a slide of it, from
the collection of the late Professor Walker Arnott, with the
frustulcs almost linear, not at all inflated in the middle, nor
at the extremities, but tapering slightly from the middle to
the gently rounded extremities. This is the E. parallela of
Grunow ; it is a mere variety, however, and not a distinct
species.

Rabenhorst (loc. cit.) describes E. (jibba as a fresli-water
and marine (!) species, and E. ventricosa as fresh-water and
sub-marine. But actual observation has convinced me that
it is strictly a fresh-water form, and parasitic on aquatic
plants in clear still water. That its frustules should be
found in the mud of tidal estuaries, mixed with marine and
brackish water species, may reasonably be expected ; but it
is never found living, so far as my observation goes, in salt
water. Indeed, long and ample experience has satisfied me
that fresh-water diatomes are never propagated in water
impregnated with salt, as are the tidal estuaries of our rivers.
The converse holds good with brackish water and marine
species, which are never found in springs, lakes, ponds, or
streams completely removed from tidal impregnation.

The jelly-looking flakes floating on the surface of the
same pond at Wallington were also exceedingly rich in
Diatomacese, being composed of Pleurosigma attenucitum.
Sin. ; Cymbella Ehrenbergii, Kiitz. ; Amphora oralis, Ktz. ;
Pinnularia Dactylus, Ehr. ; Campylodiscus noricus, Ehr.
= C. costatus, Sm. ; Cymatopleura solea, Sm. ; C. elliptica,
Breb. ; and Surirella ( Cymatopleura ) plicata, Ehr. (‘ Mi-
crogeo.,’ T. xv. A., figs. 50, 51), very large and fine. A
figure is given in Dr. Carpenter’s work on the ‘ Microscope ’
of this last species (p. 313, 4th ed.), copied from Ehrenberg.
Specimens of this form occur in the gathering in every stage
of gradation between Ehrenberg’s figures and Professor
Smith’s figure of Cymatopleura Ilibernica, which seems to
have been delineated and described from small specimens
slightly contracted below the extremities. There can be no
doubt that the two forms are one and the same species, which
ought, therefore, to be designated Cymatopleura p>licata,
Ehr. The extremities of this species seem to be subject to
considerable variation, such as is witnessed in different speci-
mens of C. solea, Sm., and led him to constitute anew species
of the apiculate specimens, C. apiculata, Sm. — a distinction
which ought never to have been made. I cannot agree with Mr.
Ralfs (‘ Prit. Inf.,’ p. 793) and Rabenhorst (‘ Europ. Diatom.,’
p. 60) in referring C. plicata to C. elliptica. In none of my
own gatherings, except from Wallington and the River
Coquet at Elyhaugh, have I ever met with C. plicata. In

400

both these localities C. elliptica also occurred ; indeed, the
latter and C. solea are found in most fresh-water gatherings,
both being exceedingly common. If these observations,
th/»n, are correct, C. apiculata and C. Hibernica of Professor
Smith must be struck from the category of species.

I would here venture to suggest to those who are investi-
gating the diatomaceae, the importance of studying them in
their natural habits, and of obtaining them there for exami-
nation in the living condition. The mud of tidal estuaries
should, as much as possible, be avoided, it being the receptacle
for all kinds of species — fresh water washed down from the
mountains, as well as marine washed up from the sea. The
leaves of aquatic plants, especially if filiform, like the Blad-
derwort and Water Ranunculus in clear still water, should
always be subjected to a microscopical examination on the
spot, if possible ; if not, portions should be brought home in
bottles filled with water. The attachment of many of the
adherent species, such as Epithemia gibba, is exceedingly
brittle; great care, therefore, should be exercised in drawing
the plants to which they adhere from the water. The force
of a strong wind on water not too deep will detach and
scatter them floating about as free individuals — a circumstance
which has caused the real character of many species to be
overlooked.

From the pond at Wallington I obtained a large supply of
adherent species by getting into a boat and providing myself
with a large wide-mouthed pickle bottle, which I filled with
water and placed on one of the seats. I then carefully cut
off a stem of the bladderwort, drew it gently from the water,
and holding it by its lower extremity dropped it into the
bottle, in which it was roughly twisted about and gently
pressed between the fingers in withdrawing it from the
bottle again. By treating a succession of stems in the same
manner the water soon became quite thick and brown look-
ing from the immense quantity of Diatomes collected ; the
surplus water was easily got rid of by allowing the bottle
to stand for awhile ; the Diatomes soon settled down to the
bottom, and allowed the water to be poui’ed off. The collector
will find this a much more satisfactory method of gathering
than by poking amongst aquatic weeds with a small bottle
attached to the end of a stick.

401

NOTES AND CORRESPONDENCE.

Resolution of Nobert’s Lines. — We have to acknowledge the
receipt from the United States Army Medical Department of
a further series of most beautiful photographs of Nobert’s
lines, in which the nineteenth hand has been resolved
satisfactorily. We shall be glad to make these useful in
any way to our correspondents who are interested in the
subject.

New Test-object. — I beg to describe to microscopists a new-
test that I have discovered by accident. In the locality of
Dakar Bango, a little town near St. Louis, in Senega, may
be found two sorts of spiders ; one, the Epeira, forms a cocoon
which can be nearly as easily wound as that of the Bombix
of the mulberry. The silk, of a beautiful yellow colour, has
the aspect of ordinary silk, only it is much finer and less
rough. The other spider, known in its native country under
the name of “ the long spider,” also forms a cocoon, but, as in
the first, the silk cannot he wound, for the threads are not
only bound together one with the other, but they are fused
at regular distances by means of a viscous matter which
the spider secretes among its work. This gives the cocoon
great solidity and much elasticity. This cocoon resembles a
band of thick wool ; nevertheless, seen under the microscope,
its threads could never be confounded with those of wool,
although in the country they are given this name. Here,
then, are the peculiar characteristics of this last-mentioned
substance, which is nothing but veritable silk, whatever be
its apparent nature. It is striated in the direction of its
thickness, exactly as muscular fibres are. With a small
power some of the threads only appear striated, and the others
are plain ; but with a power of 600 diameters striae may be
seen on half those which appear in the field of the microscope.
A still higher power is required to define the striae of the
remaining threads. These are, in fact, the threads of the silk
of the “ long spider,” which I beg to propose as a new test
for microscopists, and I have a cocoon at the disposal of those
wishing for specimens. — Mouchet, Rochefort-sur-Mer.

Some Remarks on Dr. Donkin’s recent Paper on Diatomaceae.
— The binocular microscope resembles the stereoscope only
in one particular, namely, that it is an optical instrument
to which both eyes are applied. In the stereoscope the

402

observer looks through two lenses at two photographs of
some solid body, or of some landscape taken from slightly
different points of view, and thus the same impression is pro-
duced upon the brain as when the real object is viewed by
both eyes. The microscopist who uses a binocular instrument
sees one magnified image of an object, the rays proceeding
from which are so refracted by the intervening prism as to
enter both eyes as if direct from the image. It is evident,
then, that these two instruments are not similar, and that
any theory founded upon their similarity is false. The one
image formed by an objective cannot by being separated into
two acquire new relations to the figure of the object. It is
true that what is called a stereoscopic effect is to a certain
extent produced by the binocular instrument. But if two
common cartes de visite of the same person are placed in a
stereoscope, a stereoscopic effect will be produced, and yet the
conditions required for forming the pictures correctly, namely,
that they should be taken from two different points of view,
have not been satisfied, and it therefore follows that the im-
pression produced upon the brain is not accurately true. This
case is somewhat similar to that of an image of a microscopic
object viewed by both eyes at the same time with the aid of
a prism. It is quite possible that the effect of the binocular
would be to exaggerate the deviations in altitude on the sur-
face of an object. Dr. Donkin’s remarks in his late paper
go to establish the truth of these views. He says, ‘ Mic.
Journ.,’ New Series, No. xxxv, p. 289: — “Mr. Ralfs,
too, whose accuracy as an observer is sufficiently well
known, says of the genus Hyalodiscus, ‘ Its flat disc will
distinguish it from Podosira.’ Now, the fact is, that the
valve of Hyalodiscus subtilis is hemispherical approaching
indeed to conical, not a flat disc, as it appears to be under the
monocular.” Now, if this were the case, it must have been
detected by the changes of focus necessary to bring the
different lamina into distinct vision when using lenses of
high power and large angular aperture. Dr. Donkin does
not appear to have tried this, but merely to have taken for-
granted that the binocular must be right, and the monocular
wrong. As the effect of the former depends on a kind of
illusion, some proof is necessary that the illusion may not
occasionally lead to delusion. Dr. Donkin’s name is well
known in connection with Diatomacere, and he may very
possibly be adequate to the arduous task which he has under-
taken of issuing a new classification of these interesting
forms, but it is to be hoped that he will not be guided in his
work by observations taken with a binocular instrument. —
F. G. Stokes, M.A.

REVIEWS.

What is Microscopical Science .?1

Some of our friends have occasionally asked, not without
the faint shadow of a sneer, “What is microscopical science?”
Others have limited it for us to knowledge of things pretty
when placed beneath a magnifying power ; and many have
declared that, at any rate, it is not a sufficient basis on which
to rear a scientific journal. The history of our own periodi-
cal is sufficient to give a practical denial to the last opinion.
We would not pretend for one moment that microscopical
science should have a place in Comte’s ‘ Classification of
Sciences’ ; nor do we suppose that it can be regarded as a
philosophical division of knowledge at all. Such a con-
sideration is, indeed, of very little import in the actual
affairs of literature or science. The particular branches of
study to which we find individuals devoting their lives do
not, by any means, indicate divisions of science which would
be recognised as legitimate by any philosopher ; nor does
microscopical science claim to be more than such a branch,
furnishing us with a term of eminent practical utility. By
microscopical science we understand the knowledge gained
by intelligent use of the microscope in the investigation of
various forms and structures, whether animal, vegetal, or
mineral. It is undeniable that there is a certain range of
subjects in which all who know that glorious instrument feel
an interest. Those who have once enjoyed the gift of a new
sight do not readily lay it by, but advance in the use of their
new power, and apply it to the many and various things
within reach. The anatomist who has been tempted to seek
the aid of the microscope in his investigations of human
structure does not lay it down content with the study of
microscopic anatomy, but soon finds himself deeply engaged
in tracing the many forms of minute life which are to be
found so abundantly by aid of the instrument. We could
name many a distinguished man who has thus devoted him-

1 ‘ Molecular and Microscopical Science.5 By Mary Somerville. Two
vols. London: Murray.

404

self, not only to minute anatomy, but also to minute zoology
and botany — in fact, to microscopical science. It is the in-
strument which has directed the course of these men’s study,
Avhich has charmed them, and led them on from field to
field, which has made them pathologists, anatomists, zoolo-
gists, and botanists at the same time. Is not then this great
power — the microscope — a fair standard to have raised ? We
feel sure that now, as heretofore, microscopical science has its
ever increasing army of enthusiasts, and that to a large body
of educated men the chronicle of the daily conquests made
through the microscope, whether belonging strictly to this
or that domain of knowledge, must have a true and deep
interest.

Microscopical science assuredly includes many subjects
which require that some attempts at grouping them should
be made, and we offer the following as a useful division :

a. Subject-matters.

1. Histology — Animal, vegetal, and mineral.

2. Embryology — Animal and vegetal.

3. Microzoology, microphytology, micromineralogy.

4. Cell-diagnosis and minute characteristics of plants,

animals, and minerals.

b. Forensic and technical applications.

c. The instrument.

1. Essential apparatus.

2. Accessory apparatus.

Histology — as it is generally understood. — Human histo-
logy is undoubtedly the most important department of
Microscopical science, from a practical point of view. Great
results have been achieved already, and still greater are to be
looked for. Long and patient as have been the observations
of both foreign and British workers there is still much con-
fusion, much contradiction, much ignorance to be accounted
for and corrected, in the results announced from various
sources. Form has been studied to the neglect of substance,
and it is from the prosecution of chemical researches on the
tissues, aided by the microscope, that we may hope for the
most important additions to knowledge. The nature of the
cell, the existence of contractile vacuoles and canals, declared
by Balbiani to be present in some cells, the simpler structure
of others, the existence of structureless protoplasm in the
human body, the physical properties and origin of cells, re-
quire renewed investigation and the application of improved
methods of research. The action of cells in relation to the

405

formation of intercellular substance, the question of “ con-
version ” as against “ excretion,” is of the highest interest,
anil remains for further discussion. Our great observer iu
this country, Dr. Lionel Beale, has enunciated views on
these subjects which deserve the most careful study of his
fellow-countrymen. We are too apt in England to over-
estimate what comes from Germany, and some advanced
philosophers are unwilling to accept the teachings of a
believer in “ a vital principle.” Such matters as the latter
ought not to influence the judgment as to facts ; and as to
the former, a distinguished naturalist from Leipzig not long
since told the writer that Englishmen believed too much in
German work, and were ridiculed in Germany on that
account. We ought not to mistake quantity for quality.
Where so much is done some will necessarily be good ; but
one has only to read the contradictory statements of eminent
men, such as Kuhne, Kolliker, Brucke, and others, on such
matters as nerve-termination, to feel convinced that the work
done is not all sound. The system, too, which prevails in
Germany of students working out some detail for their pro-
fessor, and enunciating his views far and wide on the most
trivial matters, tends greatly to the glorification of German
histologists, and the appropriation of the observations of
other men by the process — “ A has suggested this, and I
confirm him “ A and I have shown this with finally, on
the third occasion of reference, or in a third edition of some
work, “ / have shown this ” — a process not unknown to one
distinguished German writer at least — is a method of gaining
a great reputation which is in use. The gradual but certain
triumph of true views, and the inevitable, though sometimes
tardy, justice which will be done to their originators, must con-
sole us sometimes for present misapprehension. We point with
satisfaction to the history of the discussion as to the termina-
tion of the nerve in muscle, exhibiting as it does the gradual
acceptance of facts carefully and quietly, and, without doubt,
originally worked out by Dr. Beale. In a recent publica-
tion Dr. Maddox has very fully confirmed some of Dr. Beale’s
observations ; but it is in the lectures1 and demonstrations
lately given by Dr. Beale in the University of Oxford that
the latest exposition of his views will be found.

It is worth noting here that the structure of the tactile
corpuscle, as lately described by Professor Rouget, of Mont-
pellier, was long since indicated by Dr. Beale in one of his
numerous papers

The histology of the lower animals, especially of the in-
1 See Report in the ‘ Med. Times and Gazette.’

406

vertebrate groups, has been very little studied at all by
observers in this country. Most earnestly do we commend
this study to those of our readers who wish to make their
microscopes useful in the cause of science. Franz Leydig, of
Tubingen, has devoted more attention than any other observer
to comparative histology ; and his valuable £ Lehrbuch,’
filled with excellent woodcuts, is the best guide a student can
have in this subject.1 Insects, molluscs, worms, all furnish
subjects of study most important in their bearing on the
histology of man and the vertebrata.

The histology of minerals may appear to some persons a
curious association of terms. But, assuredly, the complex
substance of a mineral may be spoken of as a “ web
and the far-known researches of Sorby on the glass-cavities
of crystals, and other matters relating to their origin and
structure, lay the foundations of a mineral histology.

The Embryology of plants and animals form a distinct and
perhaps the most important branch of microscopical science
in relation to all other knowledge, for without the microscope
our knowledge of embryology would be nil, and without
embryology we may fairly doubt if ever that grand doctrine
of evolution which Herbert Spencer has taught would have
been developed and laid its hold on men’s minds. In this
country there is great want of a knowledge of embryology
in general. In no manual or book of any kind in the
English tongue is the development of invertebrates and of
vertebrates treated in detail ; so that the student who ■would
desire to aid in the solution of the many problems of the
early development of Arthropods or Molluscs finds it difficult
to gain a starting-point. The memoirs of Dr. Edouard »
Van Beneden and of Dr. Emile Bessels — the former of
whom studies the formation of the blastoderm, the latter
its subsequent changes — will be found of great value. Dr.
Van Beneden has studied the early changes of the ovum in
all classes of animals, and is now about to publish his re-
sults. The memoirs of Mecznikow on the development of
Hemiptera and other insects are of the greatest value, but
are not so accessible to English readers as French publica-
tions. A volume on “ Development,” from the pen of Dr.
Michael Foster, of University College, has long been looked
for, and may be expected to contain a well-considered account
of the embryology of all animals as far as the latest researches
have gone.

By Microzooloyy , Microphytology , and Micromineralogy
in our list above we mean the study of minute organisms or
1 A French translation of the work is published by Bailliere.

107

minute crystals, rather than the study of organisms or
minerals minutely. It is difficult to draw the line round
“ microscopic organisms,” and exclude this, and include
another group ; but it is not necessary to do so. The Pro-
tozoa and the smaller Cryptogamia undoubtedly form the
nucleus, and we may add the Rotifera, many Worms, and
many Crustacea. The papers of Ernst Haeckel, of Jena,
one of which we publish herein, should give a new impulse
to the study of minute forms of life. The determination of
Bathybius1 by Professor Huxley must lead to further obser-
vations of a similar kind, and we may hope to find these
structureless protoplasmic masses in many and widely different
situations. One very important and pleasant i-esult to
which they tend is the shelving of the reiterated doctrines of
the old school of heterogenists. These persons have pur-
sued the course of science with great pertinacity, always
declaring that they could prove the spontaneous formation of
the lowest organisms known to science, whatever they might
be at the particular time. At one time it was maggots, then
the vinegar eel, then ciliated Infusoria, and, lastly, Bacteria,
which the successive generations of these headlong philo-
sophers adopted as “ spontaneous ” productions. A thought-
ful man, disposed to believe in the possibility of the produc-
tion of living from mineral matter without the intervention
of previously organized matter, is driven in to holding his
tongue in the presence of these enthusiastic experimenters,
lest he should be supposed to believe in their untenable
dogmas. Whilst we could not believe in the production of
such definitely-formed organisms as Bacteria and Vibriones
by a great bound from mineral to vegetable — a method of
progression which the oldest philosophers denied to nature —
we can conceive that by very gradual steps the mineral matter
may become like that which we call organic, and finally
become organized and of definite form. Bathybius helps us
a step or two downwards in the mineral direction — so far,
that the experimental heterogenists must now form slimy
sheets of protoplasm in their decoctions and hermetically-
closed reservoirs, or must explain how it is that “ sponta-
neous generation,” as they believe it, starts high up in the
scale of life.

The parasitic or fungus origin of many diseases belongs to
this branch of microscopical science, and we may here call
attention to Professor II allier’s views elsewhere noticed more
fully in this Journal. It appears, from the report of a com-
mission sent to visit the professor at Jena, that the power

1 See his paper in the October number, 1868.

VOL. IX. NEW SER.

D D

408

he used in studying his parasites characteristic each of its
disease magnified only 250 diameters, and that the methods
of isolation were incomplete. But he was a German, and
so the English believed in him at first. The Rev. M. J.
Berkeley, who is probably a sounder observer, but who has
not caused so much c sensation’ as Hallier, also studied the
subject of the fungoid origin of disease, and in his address at
Norwich1 he expressed the opinion, based on his great know-
ledge, that Hallier had gone farther than the facts warranted,
and was simply wrong. Most people are swinging back (like
the pendulum) to this opinion, although we hear occasionally
of remarkable confirmations of Hallier’ s views from America
and elsewhere.

Cell-diagnosis in plants has yet to be made of its full value.
Professor Gulliver has studied the Raphides in many, and
shown how far they furnish characters. He has lately written
on pollen-grains, hut more remains to be done, especially as
to hairs, pollen-grains, and starch-granules, which may fur-
nish important systematic characters. In animals, minute
points of structure have been used by the systematist with
advantage, and may be still more so. The setse of Annelids,
requiring a good quarter for their proper discrimination, so
delicate are their forms, characterise genera and species ; the
odontophore of cephalous Molluscs, the shell structure of
Brachiopods, the blood-corpuscles of the Yertebrata, are
examples of structures which furnish important diagnostic
characters when studied with the microscope. It is obvious
that this use of the microscope has a very different aspect to
that of histology. The systematist is not an anatomist, and
looks at the differentife of structure rather than the relations
and resemblances.

Of the Forensic and Technical aspects of microscopical
science we have not now space to speak.

With regard to the instrument, we would most strongly
urge the importance of British microscopists fully under-
standing and appreciating the powers and value of the instru-
ments used in other countries. We mean especially as to the
objectives. Colonel Woodward, of the United States Army
Medical Department, has done great service for us by com-
paring many powers in resolving Nobert’s lines ; but other
tests of efficacy besides resolution of lines should be applied
if possible. If Nachet’s immersion lenses are better, or as
good, as the best of our long-boasted English glasses, let us
know it and buy them, since they cost about half the price

1 See this Journal, October, 1868.

1.09

paid for the latter ; but vve should first be well assured of the
comparative utility of the glasses.

The invention of instruments for bringing physical agents,
such as heat, light, and electricity, to bear upon objects
whilst under observation in the microscope is a subject which
deserves the greatest attention. The polarisqope, the Sorby
spectroscope, Stricke’s gas-current, hot-plates, and such
apparatus, together with judicious and educated use of
chemical reagents, multiply the power of the microscope as
a means of gaining knowledge as to the form, composition,
and meaning of structure, a hundred or even a thousand
fold. It is in this direction that histology must advance, and
hence the importance of such apparatus as the above named,
which is rarely seen with English microscopes. The study
of the action of physical agents on living tissue, on proto-
plasm, &c., is almost unknown in this country. Would not
the Royal Microscopical Society do well to acquire all such
accessor)’ apparatus for examination and study by the Fel-
lows ? The surplus money of the charter fund would be
much better spent in acquiring foreign objectives and little-
known apparatus than in the purchase of second-rate, or
even first-rate books, which can be seen at any library.

We must now turn to Mrs. Somerville’s book, which it was
really difficult to do before, for though we hoped to gain some
notions on the subject of microscopical science from the peru-
sal of the volume and a half devoted to it, we have not done
so. In the first place, let us at once say that the book is a
very pretty one, with some nice plates of Radiolaria in blue
and white, and many woodcuts, which are good, but not new.
The first part, which relates to chemistry, heat, the spectrum ,
&c., is very readable, true, and appropriately named, corre-
sponding, as we suppose it does, to the part of the title
“ Molecular.” But where is the appropriateness in calling
what follows “ Microscopical Science”?

Mrs. Somerville gives a good but entirely second-hand
account of the lower plants, with a few introductory remarks
on cell-structure. The whole of the second volume is oc-
cupied with similar abstracted accounts of invertebrate ani;
mals — a large share of space being devoted to Radiolaria,
which are described after Haeckel — whence we suppose the
justification of the term ‘ Microscopical science.’

W e are sorry that Mrs. Somerville has written this book,
or rather that part of it relating to organic beings. She is
a lady who has attained a great name by her acquaintance
with physics ; but it is evident that she does not comprehend
biology as well as we believe she docs other departments of

410

science ; and though her book is pretty, it cannot he re-
garded as in any way authoritative. It is, however, vastly
superior to Mr. Jahez Hogg’s treatise on the microscope in
all that relates to zoology, and may, we hope, take the place
of that very inaccurate production. We can best illustrate the
curious naivete, exhibited by the venerable authoress in a
quotation. “Numerous instances,” she says, “of microsco-
pic structure may be found in the vertebrate series of marine
animals, but the field is too extensive for the author to
venture upon.” True, Mrs. Somerville, numerous, very
numerous, instances may he found, and certainly the field
is rather a large one. “ The life history of the lower classes,”
adds the authoress, a few lines farther on, “ of both kingdoms
has been a triumph of microscopical science.”

We commend these volumes to the reader in spite of the
defects mentioned ; not their least attraction being that they
are from the pen of the authoress of the “ Connection of the
Physical Sciences.”

QUARTERLY CHRONICLE OF MICROSCOPICAL

SCIENCE.

Histology. Glands. — The Structure of the Pancreas.
M. Gianuzzi, in a paper communicated to the French
Academy, states that the excretory ducts of the pancreas are
lined with a very delicate epithelium. Their finer ramifica-
tions form a network devoid of epithelium, which encloses
the pancreatic cells in its meshes, and may be compared to
the biliary network of Hering. The injections by which the
structure of the pancreas were determined by M. Gianuzzi
were made by the pressure apparatus of Ludwig.

The Connective Tissue of Glands. By Franz Boll. One
plate. Schultze’s Archie. Bd. Y, prt. 3.

On the Alteration of Tissues in the Inflamed Liver By
Dr. And v. Huttenbreuner. One plate. Ibid.

Nerve. — Studies on the Structure of the Cerebral Cortical
Substance. By Dr. Rudolf Arndt. Third part. One plate.
Schultze’s Archiv. Bd. V ; prt. 3.

The Axis-cylinder-prolongation of the Nerve-cells in the
Cerebellum of the Calf. By Dr. A. KoschennikofF, of
Moscow. Ibid.

The Axis-cylinder-prolongation of Nerve-cells in the
Cerebral Cortical Substance. By Dr. A. KoschennikofF.
Ibid.

Blood. — The Cause of the Formation of the Rouleaux of
Blood Corpuscles. By Dr. Norris, of Birmingham. Proc.
Royal Soc., June, 1869. By ingenious experiments Dr.
Norris shows the cause of the curious agglomeration to be
due to the fact that the substance of the corpuscle is not
miscible with water. Gelatine discs wetted and sunk in
paraffin completely imitated the action of the corpuscles.

Tegument. — On Cuticular Growths and the Cornification
of Epithelial Cells in the Vertebrata. By Franz E. Schulze.
Schultze’s Archiv. Bd. Y ; prt. 3. Two plates.

Muscle. — Histological Researches on the Lower Animals.
Koll. and Sieb. Zeitschrift. 1869, prt. 2. By Dr. Fritz
Ratzel, of Carlsrhue. Two plates. This first instalment of
a series of papers treats of the muscular tissue of the
Oligochceta.

412

Another Word on the Muscles of Nematodes. By Anton
Schneider. Koll. und Sieb. Zeitschrift, pit. 2. 1869.

General. — TheHistology o f the Ccccilice. By Franz Leydi g .
Koll. u. Sieb. Zeitschrift, xviii, p. 575, noticed in the Archives
Suisse, No. 139. — The little group of Coecilise offers so many
remarkable peculiarities in its zoological aspects that the
essentially histological treatise of Dr. Leydig deserves great
attention. His researches were conducted on two species,
the Ccecilia lumbricoidea, Dand., and the Cnecilia ( Siphonops )
annulata, Mikan. The structure of the integuments of the
Coecilia?, excepting the scales existing in some species, agrees
with that of Batrachians in general. The nature of the
epidermis was, it is true, long misapprehended. ' Led by
Mikan, many authors saw in it nothing but a mucosity
secreted by the cutaneous pores, or even by the anus.

This error recurs even in the beautiful work of Johannes
Muller on the anatomy of Amphibia. Rathke was the first
to recognise in the supposed mucosity a true epidermis. Dr.
Leydig now' finds the epidermis to he covered in by a distinct
homogeneous cuticle, and it is reflected into the numerous
excretory canals of the cutaneous glands. The scales first
discovered by Schneider have been much discussed by natu-
ralists, the more so because they are entirely absent in all
other living Batrachians. One species, C. annulata, is com-
pletely devoid of scales. The histological study of Ccecilia
lunibricoidalis (sic) has proved to Dr. Leydig that the deep layer
of the scale is formed by a solid, stratified connective tissue,
filled with stellate cells. Its superior surface is ornamented
with brilliant corpuscles, disposed in rather irregular con-
centric ranges. M. Mayer calls them globules, M. Mandl
cellules ; they are, in reality, calcareous concretions.

The skin of the Ccecilia; presents a laminated structure,
already mentioned by many authors. This structure is due
to numerous cutaneous folds, in the thickness of which are
lodged the glands. The scales are placed between these
lamina;. They are not by any means free, but are attached
to the corium by a delicate connective tissue.

The eyes of the Coecilise are deserving of special attention
on account of their rudimentary condition. The Ccecilia
annulata, although living at a depth of several feet in the
mud of marshes, has, nevertheless, very small ocular bulbs.
These bulbs correspond to a transparent place in the skin,
and present all the essential parts of a normal eye. The
crystalline lens, however, retains its embryonic character; in
fact, it is formed, not of fibres properly so called, but of cells,
some rounded, some elongated into tubes. The muscles of

413

the eye, to the number of four, are attached to the sclerotic.
The Harderian gland is relatively very large. Although
zoologists are right in attributing to Ccecilia annulata the
character oculi minuti ; they go too far when they say of
C. lutnbricodea “ oculi iiulli .” They ought to be content with
saying oculi minutissimi. The eyes are, in fact, always
present, although extremely reduced in size. No crystalline
is present in this case, and the gland of Harder is enormous.
It is the same in the blind serpents, Typhlops, where Du-
veruoy has described a lachrymal gland six times as big as the
ocular bulb.

Dr. Leydig has paid special attention to the singular organ
mentioned by authors sometimes as the “ false nostril,” some-
times as the “ lachrymal cavity.” By this is understood a
cutaneous pore conducting into a canal which is directed
obliquely towards the eye. Joh. Muller recognised in the
interior of this canal, in different species, a tentacle, or tongue-
shaped papilla.

Leydig confirms the existence of this organ ; he finds,
moreover, that from the wall of the cavity in C. annulata
two tubes take their origin, joined one to the other, and
which one might at first mistake for vessels. Their walls
have no muscular fibres, but are composed entirely of very
fine fibres of connective tissue. These two tubes reunite at
the opposite extremity, forming a loop. An analogous organ
exists in the Ccecilia lumbricoidea. The functions of this
apparatus are quite obscure. One might suggest that we have
here an organ of special sense, comparable to the “ mucous
canal ” of fishes ; but the essential character of an organ of
sense — viz. a peripheral nervous structure — appears to be
wanting.

The Ccecilise present points of affinity with fishes and
with scaly reptiles, though essentially amphibious. They
are the remains of a group of Amphibia, formerly richly de-
veloped, wffiich must have branched off from the fishes Avith
the Amphibia in the carboniferous epoch (Arcliegosaurus).
The affinity of the Coeciliae Avith fishes is seen in the structure
of the bodies of the vertebrae, in the nature of the scales, and
their disposition in cutaneous pouches. The kidneys, too,
of these animals have been compared to those of fishes. Dr.
Leydig does not agree to this assimilation. The kidneys, he
considers, have the same structure as in the other Amphibians
— they remind him of the kidneys of the Ophidia. The
affinity Avith Ophidia is carried out, not only in general form,
but in the dentition and in the atrophy of one lung.

The affinities with Amphibia are established by the rich

414

ness of the skin in glands, the structure of the hyoid bone,
the double occipital condyle of the skull, the rudimentary
ribs, the branchiae in the young. Lachrymal glands are en-
tirely absent in fish, but present in Coeciliae. The “ false
nostril ” is either homologous with the cephalic fossa of
Ophidians or is a special organ.

Embryology. — Researches on the Development of the Chce-
topoda. By Edouard Claparede and Elias Meczniknow. Kol-
liker's und Si eb old's Zeitschrift, vol. xix, prt. 2. — During
a residence at Naples in the winter of 1866-67, the two dis-
tinguished observers whose valuable paper we have before
us, had an opportunity of studying the development of many
species of Annelids, and of filling up some of the many
lacunae by which this subject is as yet marked. The method
of their researches was various, although not new. By means
of the towing-net many larvae were obtained and watched for
various periods in their development. Masses of the ova, toge-
ther with the mother-worm, were also in some cases obtained
and hatched in vessels, whilst some species deposited their
ova which developed in the aquaria which the observers kept.
The authors do not consider all the larvae which they observed
as worthy of further notice ; they have confined their illus-
trations, comprised in six coloured folding plates, to those of
which they could determine the species, or at any rate the
genus, with certainty. As a general result it appears that
the division of Annelid-larvae into several groups — such as
has been essayed by Busch, Joh. Muller, and Claparede him-
self— has but a very subordinate importance. The names
Atrochae, Telotrochae, Polytrochae, Mesotrochae, Nototrochae,
Gastrotrochae, &c., indicate only transitory conditions, and if
adopted we should have often to group the larvae and the
adults in incongruous assemblages. Thus many Terebella-
larvse are true Nototrochae, others develop bands and circles
of cilia ; whilst many larvae of Eunicidae are really Polytrochae,
others, on the contrary, are Atrochae in Muller’s sense. This
dissimilarity in the larvae of very closely allied Annelids
should excite no surprise, since the development of bands of
cilia, or of continuous ciliated tracts for locomotive purposes
in these early stages must depend on the free or confined
nature of the life to which the larva is to submit during
development. Thus the Terebella-larvae of pelagic habit are
regular Nototrochae, whilst the larvae of other Terebellae
never go far from the egg mass, and the ciliated tracts are
proportionately deficient: according to hitherto received prin-
ciples these various Terebella-larvae would be classed in very

415

different groups, which is sufficient to illustrate the incor-
rectness of the system.

The first stage of development in all Chmtopods appears
to he very similar, the yelk division has as yet been followed
out in all its stages in but very few species. Sars in Polynoe,
Milne- Ed wards in Protula, and Quatrefages in Sabellaria,
have given great attention to this matter, and the results
obtained by MM. Claparede and Mecznikow accord very well
with theirs. In all Chsetopods the division of the yelk pro-
ceeds so as to produce two kinds of yelk elements, which
differ chiefly from one another in point of size and con-
sistency. From the commencement of the process of division
this distinction takes its rise, for the yelk is at the very first
divided into two unequal portions. The smaller of these por-
tions proceeds in its division much more rapidly than the
larger, so that at length you get a number of small balls or
cells (the result of yelk division) enclosing larger masses or
balls The larger enclosed yelk balls are destined for the
formation of the digestive tract ; the smaller peripheral cells
serve, on the other hand, for the development of the body
walls, the muscles, and the nerve system. Thus, in the
recognised language of embryology we may call the one
yelk mass the vegetative, the other the animal, layer. In
this respect we have a very welcome agreement between the
process of yelk division of Chaetopods and Leeches, the latter
having been well established by the concurrent observations
of Grube, Leuckart, and Uobin. With regard to the so-called
polar cells or Polkugeln, the authors have not much to say.
Their appearance seems to them to be quite irregular, and in
many cases they are entirely wanting. The fate of the ger-
minal vesicle is, the authors observe, a puzzle to them. In
many species it seemed to disappear entirely upon fertilization,
and by no method could they bring it again into view. In
some species, the eggs of which became very dark after ferti-
lization, there Avas indeed an appearance which is peculiar to
many Annelids, and which Avas noticed by Quatrefages in
Sabellaria. But by no contrivance or use of reagents could
the authors succeed in bringing to vieAv a vesicle among the
yelk granules. It is noteAvorthy that in thiscase the firstmasses
resulting from yelk cleavage Avere equally devoid of nuclei.

In the unmistakable approximation of the Chsetopods to
the Arthropod-tvpe the absence of a ventral cellular band
(Keimstreif) has been hitherto a very remarkable fact, since
this structure is so characteristic for Arthropods. The
strangeness Avas increased by this, that the presence of a
ventral band (Bauch-streif) has been Avell established in the

embryos of other worms ; for instance, the leeches. Cer-
tainly the development of the structure in question is so
different in the two cases, as Leydig has rightly remarked,
that one can only trace out the resemblance with the primi-
tive streak of Arthropods through the similarity of the
metamorphosis. The strange and unlooked-for thing con-
sists in this, that the primitive streak develops itself in the
leeches on an embryo, which all the while is leading an
individual life, whilst it is in the other case the still struc-
tureless yelk which gives rise to this appearance as the first
indication of embryonal structure. That the Chaetopods
should resemble the Bdellidae in this respect is no doubt
new, but it is scarcely surprising. This fact first became
known to the authors through the observation of the embryos
of Oligochaeta. These last present a much closer similarity
with the embryos of leeches than with the developing-stages
of Polycliaeta, a fact which, in view of the many points of
contact between Oligochaeta and Bdellidae, is not at all
extraordinary.

In all Polycliaet embryos the ventral baud makes its
appearance as a remarkable thickening of the so-called
“ animal layer ” quite unmistakably. But quite as little
as in the leeches does this occur in the very first process of
embryo-formation ; for this thickening often develops itself
first when the embryo has begun to lead a free life. At
first it is proportionately inconspicuous, but very rapidly it
acquires thickness. Much later the ganglia of the ventral
cord commence to be differentiated in it. The remarkable
thickness of the ventral side has been already described, and
figured in many embryos and larvae, but always without any
reference to the ventral band of the Arthropods and Bdellidae.
The difference, then, in the development of Annelids, accord-
ing as there is the presence or absence of a so-called Bauch-
streif (ventral band), ceases to have any importance.

After the introductory remarks, of which we have given
the substance above, MM. Claparede and Mecznikow pro-
ceed to describe the larvae of Spio fuliginosus, Clprd. ; Spio
Mecznikowianus , Clprd. ; Nerine Cirratulus, Della Chiaje ;
Poly dor a ( Leucodore , Johnst.) ; Tclepsavus Costarum, Clprd. ;
Pliyllochcetoptcrus socialis, Clprd. ; Lumbriconereis sj). ;
Ophryotrochapuerilis, Clprd. ; Staurocephalus Chiaji, Clprd. ;
Nephthys scolopendroides, Della Chiaje; Phyllodoce sp
Capitdla capitata, F abr. ; Cirratulus sp. ; Audouinia Jiligera,
Della Chiaje; Tercbella Meckellii, Del. Ch. ; Dasychone
lucullana , Del. Ch. ; Spirorbis Pagenstecheri, Qtrfg. ; Pilco-
laria militaris, Clprd.

417

On the early staycs in the Development of Phyllodoce
maculata. By W. C. McIntosh, M.D. Annals ancl May.
Nat. Hist., August, 1869. — Dr. McIntosh hatched the eggs
of this species, which he kept in an aquarium. His observa-
tions relate to the early stages before any segmentation has
begun to manifest itself, and agree very well with those re-
corded in the paper above on a species of Phyllodoce.

Microzoology — Remarks on Acanthocystis viridis, Ehbg.
By Dr. Grenadier, of Wurzburg. — This is one of the
actinophryoid Iladiolarians of which Mr. Archer has done
so much to extend our knowledge in the pages of this journal.
Dr. Grenadier gives a very excellent drawing of the species,
which he has studied with great care, and his description is
dear and detailed. He remarks very happily that, from a
Darwinian point of view, we may consider these freshwater
simpler forms of Radiolaria as hearing the same relation to the
more elaborate, and vastly more numerous, marine forms of
the group, which the little freshwater hydra? bear to the great
group of hydroid polyps inhabiting the sea.

The Anatomy of the Bed Bay. By Leonhard Landois,
of Greifswald. Koll. and Sieb. Zeitschrift . Pit. 2 (1869).

Plates.

Miscellaneous — British Association.' — Further Observa-
tions on Dendroidal Forms assumed by Minerals. By Dr.
Heaton, of Leeds. — The object of this communication was to
draw attention to the peculiarities of the dendroidal forms de-
veloped upon some purely mineral crystals when immersed in a
weak solution of silicate of soda, and to make some additions to
the observations upon this subject read at the meeting of the
Association at Dundee in 1867. As was then pointed out,
wdien crystals of sulphate of iron, sulphate of copper, or some
other salts, but preferably sulphate of iron, are immersed in
a dilute solution of silicate of soda, in the course of a fewr
hours branches, exactly like those of some vegetation, shoot
perpendicularly upwards, being straighter in a rather stronger
solution, more contorted, and sometimes distinctly spiral,
when the solution is somewhat more dilute ; though it is only
within certain limits of dilution that any satisfactory result
can be obtained. The trunks of these mineral vegetations
occasionally ramify and subdivide, and sometimes two parallel
branches, after growing side by side for a time, will again
unite or anastomose with a single trunk. At their base,
those developed on sulphate of iron may have a diameter of
v'o inch ; as they elongate they gradually become narrower,
ultimately terminating in fine needle-shaped extremities.
Dr. Heaton had stated at Dundee his opinion that the

418

terminations of branches still growing are, in pointed extremi-
ties, carried forwards as growth proceeds, necessarily imply-
ing (were this so) an interstitial mode of growth ; hut having
since made an arrangement by which branches may be
microscopically observed whilst in process of growth, he must
now correct that statement. A growing branch has already
its full diameter, but as it elongates, and the power of growth
becomes enfeebled, it gradually narrows, and when the
needle-like point is formed there is no more elongation. The
extremity of a growing branch, as seen under the microscope,
appears enveloped by a slight cloudiness in the liquid, which
is gradually lifted up so as to precede the growing point ;
and the continuous elongation of the branch presents a very
curious appearance. The branches are delicate tubes, having
thin, semi-transparent walls ; they collapse and fall in pieces
when taken out of their native fluid. Under a high power
of the microscope they present a finely granular structure,
but not any trace of crystalline form. Both the silica of the
solution, and the constituents of the crystal on which they
grow, enter into their formation. The nature of the force
which determines the assumption of a dendroidal form, and
a tubular structure by these confessedly mineral formations,
and their upright growth in opposition to the tendencies of
gravitation, is neither simple aggregation nor crystallization.
It presents certainly a remarkable resemblance to that by
which is effected the grow'th of living tissues, under the
influence of vitality, upon which it may serve to throw some
light. And, so far, these structures seem to form one slight
gap (amongst others) in that wall of demarcation by which
it has generally been held that the inorganic mineral world
is absolutely divided from the world of organization ; but
here, manifestly, there is no attribute of vitality. In connec-
tion with his subject, and as bearing on it, Dr. Heaton also
noticed a communication by Mr. W. C. Roberts to the journal
of the ‘ Chemical Society ’ of last year, upon the occurrence
of organic forms in colloid silica as obtained by Graham’s
process of dialysis. These specimens have all the appearance
of microscopic fungi, presenting radiating fibres composed of
elongated cells, and bearing fructification, having much
resemblance to some common forms of mildew.

Report on the Examination of Animal Substances with
the Spectroscope. By E. Ray Lankester. — The report first
dealt with the methods of using the spectroscope in ob-
serving absorption spectra. A spectrum map of N204 gas,
containing nearly forty numbered lines, had been printed and
used by the reporter for recording spectra. The report then

419

dealt with the following subjects : — 1st. Distribution of Haemo-
globin in the Animal Kingdom ; 2nd. Some derivatives of
Haemoglobin ; 3rd. The Action of Cyanogen Gas on Haemo-
globin ; 4th. Chlorocruorin(the green blood constituent of some
Annelids) ; 5th. Chondriochlor, or Sponge-chlorophyl ; the
Green Chlorophyl-like body found in the cortical substance
of Spongilla. It was shown that cyanogen gas-like carbonic
oxide and nitric oxide changes the colour and spectrum of a
solution of blood-clot, and renders the solution insensible to
the action of reducing agents. After keeping for some hours
the solution, which has been shaken with cyanogen gas,
becomes orange-brown, due to the formation of hydrocyanic
acid, and subsequently of the cyanhaematin of Hoppe Seyler.
Chlorocruorin, which has a spectrum very different from that
of Haemoglobin or Erythrocruorin, was shown to yield a
spectrum by treatment with cyanide of potassium and sul-
phide of ammonium, identical with that to be obtained in
the same way from Haemoglobin. Thus the relationship of
the two bodies is established.

Spectroscopy. — The Spectrum of Diatomin. By PI.
Smith. Silliman’s Journal, July, 1869. — Mr. Smith has
made use of one of the Sorby-Browning micro-spectroscopes,
and has examined the endochrome of the diatom therewith.
He says he can “ unhesitatingly assert that the spectrum of
diatomin is identical with that of chlorophyl.” By his own
account of the matter he is wrong in so doing, for he has
only obtained from diatomin a dark band in the extreme red,
which is identical with one presented by chlorophyl under
certain conditions. What is ordinarily called chlorophyl
gives, however, more than this one band, and it is not right
to speak of spectra as “ identical ” where only one band is
found to agree in the two. The fact is, so little is yet really
known of chlorophyl spectra, that the term chloi'ophyl can
only be used generieally at present. No doubt diatomin
belongs to this genus, but the species have yet to be fairly
discriminated.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dublin Microscopical Club.

15 th April, 1869.

Dr. John Barker showed a good example of the new Rhizopod
which Mr. Archer had lately named Heterophrys FocJcii, believing
it to be the same as that brought forward by Dr. Focke, of Bremen,
in ‘ Siebold and Kolliker’s Journal.’ The present example well
showed the marginal pulsating vacuoles of the interior sharply-
defined region of the body, a point not dwelt upon by Focke
(always supposing this to represent one and the same form), though
he had suspected but had not satisfied himself of the existence
of a contractile vacuole, not marginal, but immersed in the body-
substance.

Rev. T. Gr. Stokes exhibited specimens of Amphitetras ornata from
the Seychelles with five points, and of the same species from Guano
with four points, thus proving that this is a character of but trivial
importance.

Mr. Crowe exhibited an interesting example of the formation of
terminal buds on the leaves of an unascertained species of Hypnum,
looking, at a hasty glance, almost like some form of Coleochsete
living epiphytically thereon. A closer examination, however,
showed that those prothalloid structures were really prolongations
of the moss-leaves, and merely examples of the very curious simple
vegetative mode of repetition which takes place in these plants.

Rev. Eugene O’Meara showed Surirella elegans from Lough
Morne.

Dr. Macalister exhibited examples of a new louse obtained from
the Collared Peccary, Dicotyles torquatus. This belonged to the
genus Gyropus, and, for comparison’s sake, its relative from the Pig
(//. Suis) was likewise shown. The following characters distinguish
the new form called Gyropus Dicotylis : — Ferruginous brown in
colour; head obtuse, with prominent lateral angles directed for-
wards, broader than long ; last joint of antennae bilobed, neck l of
breadth of head ; prothorax hexagonal, flattened, separated from
mesothorax by a deep fissure, meso- and metatliorax not readily dis-
tinguished, but separated from abdomen by a slight sulcus ; abdo-
men serrated on margin ; hinder pair of limbs long, with curved
femur and transversely striated claw ; tibia with a projection about
its centre.

Mr. Archer, whilst exhibiting a specimen of the dichotomonsly

421

branched, brown, flattened, striated production drawn attention to
by him at the Club Meeting of December, 1865, would take the
opportunity to say that he had little doubt but that it was one and
the same thing with the organism named Aporea ambigua by Bailey,
in his ‘Microscopical Observations made in South Carolina, Georgia,
and Florida,’ p. 42, pi. iii, fig. 3. This, he confessed, should not
have escaped him on that occasion, as he had even then Bailey’s
paper in his possession. The present examples were, however,
brought forward for the purpose of exhibiting to those of the meet-
ing, who might take any interest in a thing so common (though not
often met in this lively condition), the motion of the somewhat long
fhigella emanating from the broadened summit of the branches, and
w aving about with some energy. Bailey, without having seen any-
thing like animal life or motion in connection with this not uncom-
mon production, very shrewdly, however, suggested that it might be
the stripes of some attached infusorian, though temporarily or pro-
visionally described as an alga. But it perhaps almost becomes a
query, though he makes no mention of flagella or cilia of any kind,
whether he means the little fine wavy or zigzag line at the summit
of one of the branches in his figure (I. c.) as the expression of any
fibrous prolongation or flagellum-like structure seen by him, or
whether it may be simply a slip of the engraver’s hand ? As
regards this production, which, for the present, as Mr. Archer
thought, ought to be called Aporea ambigua (Bail.), he had nothing
to add to what lie had mentioned in the minutes referred to, save
that the flagella seemed sometimes apparently to emanate from the
summits of the branches in tufts or pencils of a few together, and
sometimes, though by no means always, a somewhat definitely
but not sharply-bounded consolidation of the granular matter ter-
minating the branches, appeared to exist — that is to say, somewhat
monad-like, and to some extent resembling the “ monads ” of
Monas consociata (Fresenins), but these bodies not at all so clearly
marked as in that organism.

Mr. Archer showed a good example of a rhizopod forming, he
thought, a second species in the genus lie had proposed for the form
named Cystophrys Haeckeliana. In this the pseudopodia were very
fine and long, the central cells reddish, each furnished with a bright
dot (nucleus ?), very numerous, and sometimes slightly flattened by
mutual pressure. The motions of this form are, when freshly
taken, often lively and somewhat rapid for a rhizopod; and it is
further sometimes addicted to the pastime of tearing itself into two,
each half throwing out pseudopodia, and setting up in the world
on its own account. This form he had drawn attention to very
•briefly some time ago, but he thought it justifiable to exhibit so
good a specimen, and he hoped to be able to publish a figure he had
made. (This appears in the last number of this Journal (vol. ix,
N.S., p. 265), under the name of Cystophrys ocalea.)

Mr. Archer further showed some fine examples of a noble form
of Actinophrys, which he had lately met with in one or two places.
This comparatively large form usually, though not always, presents

422

a bright green colour, due to the presence of a dense stratum of
somewhat large Chlorophyll granules; the pseudopodia not .nume-
rous, but very long and comparatively stout. This could hardly be
Actinophrys viridis (Ehr.), which is described and figured as minute,
and possessing a dense fringe of very fine and slender and short
pseudopodia. As regards the present form, however, Mr. Archer
■would prefer to postpone any further remarks upon it until he had
an opportunity again to examine examples of it, suspecting it to
present a certain speciality which would deserve a much closer
investigation.

Dr. E. Perceval Wright exhibited spicules of a minute sponge,
brought up from a depth of 1913 fathoms in lat. 58° 23" N.,
long. 48° 50", by Dr. Wallich. This sponge evidently belonged to
the order Yitrea. It was attached by a stalk to a small piece of
rock, and the upper or body-portion was about the size of a small
pea. A beautiful network of spicules surrounded the whole mass,
and underneath this there was a series of the spicules called dicho-
tomo-patento-ternate by Bowerbank, as met with by him in Dacty-
localyx BowerbanJcii. Beyond the record of its occurrence, for
which he was indebted to his friend Dr. Wallich, he would not
further for the present allude to it.

Mr. Woodworth exhibited various photographs of his own pro-
duction of microscopic objects, including crystals, which were
exceedingly sharp and accurate.

Resolved — That this Club desires to place on record the deep loss
which they have sustained by the death of Dr. Maurice H. Collis.
Dr. Collis was elected as an ordinary member of our Club some years
ago, and his place now vacant will not be easily filled. Devoting
himself chiefly to the use of the microscope in connection with the
active exercise of his profession, he laboured in this department of
research with very considerable success ; while his pleasant social
qualities and extreme good nature endeared him to the members of
our little circle. In placing this record on the minutes, it will not
be forgotten that this is the first loss by death of an ordinary
member that this Club has experienced since its formation.

27 tli May, 1869.

Mr. Archer brought forward a number of Desmidiese, taken at
Glengariff on the occasion of a recent excursion thither with Dr.
Barker and Professor E. P. Wright, some of which deserved a closer
examination, and to a few of which he hoped again to revert.
Amongst those now shown was a large Staurastrum, which he had
very sparingly taken last year in Connemara, but of which he had
then tried to find specimens for exhibition at a meeting of the Club,
but without success upon that occasion. This was a large tri-
radiate form, in some measure resembling Staurastrum spinulosum
and St. vestitum, but much larger and stouter than either. A
special description he would defer. There was also a Cosmarium,

123

seemingly close to Cosmarium striolatum (Niig.) ; also Xanthidium
Smithii (Arch.), never before seen by him living, which latter is
quite distinct from the so-called sixteen-horned variety of X.
octocome.

Amongst the Desmids which turned up from Glengariff were Dr.
Barker’s Penium spirostriolatum aud the two Docidia shown by him
at the Club Meeting in October, 1868. These occurred in consider-
able numbers. But Mr. Archer referred to one now — the narrow,
straight-sided, tapering form — to say, in allusion to his remarks at the
meeting of 15th Oct., 186S (p. 195), that having seen absolutely fresh
specimens he would still feel uncertain as to the arrangement of the
endochrome justifying its assuming a place in the genus Pleuro-
taenium (Niig.) ; the endochrome seemed to form a longitudinal
mass in occasional contact with the walls, but not parietal bands. —
Mr. Archer likewise showed the zygospores of the 16-spined so-
called variety of Xanthidium octocome, which, like many of the
more or less nearly allied forms, is orbicular, and beset with not
very numerous but long acute subulate spines — in fact, they are
fewer and longer than in any of the zygospores most resembling it.
— He also showed Micrasterias Crux-Melitensis and M. fimbriata
both in one gathering side by side, from near Tiunehely, Co.
Wicklow. This is the first time the former had been found in the
east of Ireland ; they are both certainly rare in this country, and
neither had turned up in the lately made gatherings from Killarney
and Glengariff.

Mr. Archer further exhibited the conjugated state of a Penium,
possibly new, distinguished by the fact that two zygospores resulted
from the conjugation of each pair of parent cells. These zygospores
were quadrate (cubical in form), thick-walled, large, and densely
green. The Penium itself he was unable to identify with any he
could find described, but was greatly inclined to think it might be
perhaps identical with Penium rufescens (Cleve) ; but if not truly
that form, it would seem to be new. It is medium-sized, stout,
straight-sided, broadly-rounded at ends. It would, however, be
difficult to obtain authentic specimens of Cleve’s form, nor indeed
is its conjugated state described by him. But the formation of
double or twin zygospores is remarkable ; this takes place in no
other Penium yet observed, and has a parallel in that respect only
in Closterium lineatum, C. Ehrenbergii, and in Spirotcenia con-
densata. The almost cubical zygospores are likewise peculiar. As
in other cases of double or twin zygospores, they are each, of course,
formed from the union of one half the contents of one of the con-
jugating cells with the opposite half of the contents of the other
conjugating-cell. The empty, quite smooth, and hyaline cell-walls
of the parent-cells become posed, and remain attached for some
time, in a somewhat cruciform manner, each of the opposite halves
of the conjugating cells now, however, mutually falling more into a
line with one another than with the corresponding half of the
original parent-cell — that is to say, calling for the moment the
opposite ends of each parent-cell the north and south poles, the two

VOL. IX. — NEW SER. E E

424

north halves run in one line and the two south halves in another,
during the conjugative act.

Dr. Barker brought forward a new Staurastrum, which he had
discovered at Glengariff, Co. Cork, when in company with Mr.
Archer and Dr. Wright last May. At first sight it looked some-
what like Staurastrum gracile undergoing subdivision ; it is smaller
in arms, not so long or fine proportionately. Although a true Stau-
rastrum, it does not fulfil one of its definitions, each segment of
the frond being somewhat longer than broad. The segments are
T-shaped, longer than broad, ends crowned with a wreath of fine
spines or granules ; arms horizontal, each nearly half the length of
the segment, and terminated by three or four minute spines ; base
of each segment inflated spherically, and marked with three or
four rows of small spines. Frond deeply constricted in middle ;
end view triradiate, tapering into elongate, straight, horizontal pro-
cesses ; rough, especially at the most concave parts, between arms,
with minute spines. Length, about ^Lth; breadth, -^Jg-th of an
inch. He would name this species Staurastrum elongatum, in
allusion to the great proportional length of this form in comparison
to its expanse.

Dr. Macalister showed Acarus bicaudatus taken from the ostrich.

Rev. Eugene O’Meara showed Pleurostigma strigilis from a lake
in Co. Wexford. This appears to be an exceedingly rare form in
Ireland, being the second specimen he had as yet found.

Mr. Archer drew attention (though unable to throw any light
upon the specimen) to a state of a minute Coleochsete, long
regarded and referred to by him as Pringsheim’s “seventh species
that peculiarity, now drawn attention to, seemed to indicate a
developmental stage. Pringsheim, in his fine memoir on this genus
(‘ Jahrbiicher fiir wissensch. Botanik,’ Bd. ii, page 36 ; also de Bre-
bisson, ‘Ann. des Sciences naturelles,’ 3 ser., tome i, pi. ii, fig. 6),
describes six species, merely remarking at the end that he knows a
seventh, which he believes to be a form mistaken by de Brebisson
for an early condition of Coleochcete scutata. This “ seventh
species” appears to be unique in being unicellular, each somewhat
pear-shaped cell repeating itself by division, all the cells being
finally free, and seemingly equivalent, each bearing one, or some-
times more, of the curious bristles characteristic of the genus.
Empty cell-walls are frequently found, but Mr. Archer has never
before seen what (sometimes at least) becomes of the contents,
imagining that they become removed as zoospores, which indeed
may likely be often the case. In the present examples, however,
the contents of many of the cells, after emergence through a slit or
opening in the parent cell-wall, seemed to have become massed
into an elliptic, compressed, spore-like body, enveloped by a sharply-
bounded hyaline mucous covering. When the narrow view of this
elliptic, fruit-like body is towards the observer, at each end can be
seen a minute, somewhat wedge-shaped, or funnel-shaped opening
in the mucous covering reaching to the cell-wall. Might this pos-
sibly indicate the position of an aperture for the admission of

125

spermntozoids ? Thus the oogonium would be external to the plant,
and a structure independent therefrom. But there was no evident
place of origin for spermatozoids, unless, indeed, some of the
empty vegetative cells around might have given birth to them. It
is a pity that Pringslieim has not as yet completed the subject by
giving the history of this “seventh” species; we should then be in
a position to see the true bearing of the present very crude observa-
tion ; but incomplete as it is, Mr. Archer ventured to think it worth
while to call attention to the specimens now shown, never having
before seen this condition in this plant.

‘24th June, 1869.

Rev. E. O’Meara exhibited examples of Trinacria excavata from
Jutland, of Professor Heiberg’s own collection, kindly forwarded
by Mr. G. M. Browne. Mr. O’Meara desired, likewise, to record
Toxoniclea Gregoriana and Cocconeis excentrica in the same gather-
ing from the coast of Donegal ; he also showed Trinacria regina
and Soleum exculptum.

Professor E. Perceval Wright exhibited a new parasitic crustacean,
of which he will prepare a detailed account.

Mr. Archer exhibited an example of the zygospore, same as
shown by him last year of a Cosmarium, which he thought may often
be confounded with Cosmarium margaritiferum, but seemingly not
named, and very distinct therefrom — distinct, indeed, in its zygo-
spore from any other form whatever. This is large and covered,
not with any kind of spines or processes, but with a few large
hemispherical hyaline tubercles, not unlike the “bull’s eyes” in
glass.

Mr. Crowe showed Closterium linea (Perty) conjugated in con-
siderable numbers. Its zygospore, at first sub-cruciate, ultimately
becomes elliptic, lying longitudinally and freely within the space
formed by the union of the parent pair of conjugating cells.

Mr. Archer drew attention to some examples of an organism he
had now several times noticed, and which, though not at all at first
sight a striking-looking thing, was seemingly not a little puzzling.
This ordinarily presents the appearance of a spherical, sharply-
bounded, and thinly-walled cell, containing green contents, averaging
say in diameter. It might, perhaps, call to mind a small
specimen of Eremosphcera vindis — that is, when a cell of that or-
ganism exceptionally gives origin to four in place of two daughter-
cells. But somewhat like as this may be, there could be no doubt
at all that it was not a condition of that organism, yet, perhaps,
one might a priori regard it as another “species” of Eremosphsera.
It could, however, hardly be even so. These cells, as has been
mentioned, are ordinarily spherical, but they sometimes present them-
selves of an elongate figure, broadly elliptic, or fusiform. Some of
the green contents appear to be distributed in a scattered manner
within the cavity of the cell, whilst ordinarily a number of green
granules are disposed in a parietal stratum within the investing cell-

wall, so evenly sometimes that a reticulated effect is presented by
the interspaces. But the puzzling and remarkable point was that,
immersed in the centre of nearly every one of these so hermetically-
closed cells, there presented itself some kind of foreign body, gene-
rally resembling a young and small Pandorina, or some such mul-
berry-shaped cluster of cells, but other things were present in some
— sometimes a minute diatom, sometimes one or two joints of Didy-
moprium Borreri, sometimes what appeared to represent a fragment
of some nostochaceous filament. These in densely filled cells are,
of course, sometimes hard to be made out, requiring strong light
and careful focussing. If any of these bodies were more than
usually long, or exceeded materially the ordinary diameter of the
containing cell, this latter became more or less elongate aud dis-
torted, and in such usually the foreign body was more readily per-
ceived. It becomes a query what this organism can be? The
green colouring granules are, to all appearance, chlorophyll. It is,
perhaps, somewhat like a quiescent or rigid and thicker walled
state of Monas grandis (Ehr.), but it is more probable to be some
quiescent state of some rhizopodous creature, notwithstanding its
green and very protococcoid appearance. None of the cells ever
showed any appearance of self-division. Sometimes similar looking
cells are mingled with these, probably a further stage, in which an
inner wall appears to be formed, which latter is much thickened,
and presents an undulate outline, the extremities or apices of the
prominences being in contact with the much thinner spherical outer
wall, the contents acquiring a lightish brown or somewhat orange
colour, enclosing a large conspicuous, excentric, red (nuclear ?)
granule. Though Mr. Archer strongly suspected that this was an
advanced state of the former, he could not yet be certain. He had
several times lately met with this production in our moor pools in
various parts, no doubt one and the same thing, but the present
examples were probably the most striking he had encountered as
regards the foreign bodies enclosed within the thin-walled cells ;
and he ventured to think, enigmatical as it was, but yet by no means
attractive as a “popular” display, that this production deserved
the Club’s attention.

Dr. Battersby showed Beck’s new parabolic side-reflector for
opaque objects.

Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society.

August 12. — The President, Mr. Glaisyer, in the chair. — On
certain facts in the life History of Moths and Butterflies, by Mr.
T. W. Wonfor. In rearing Lepidoptera for the purpose of de-
termining the possession of a distinctive scale by the males, several
facts, some well known, others opposed to generally received opi-
nions, and others of a novel character, had forced themselves on

his notice. As was well known the Lepidoptera in passing from
the egg to the mature state underwent the several changes of
larva, pupa, and image. In two, and in some cases in only one, of
these did the insect partake of food. For, while all were voracious
in the larval state, and while many possessed a proboscis of great
length, other species did not possess any suctorial apparatus, and
therefore could not take food. The parent, as a rule, laid the eggs
on or near the food substance of the larvae, the gradual develop-
ment of which, in many transparent eggs, could be watched under
the microscope. While these changes were taking place the colour
of the egg also changed. As soon as the larva is ready to escape
it eats its way out, very seldom at the apex or macropgle, but
generally below and at one side. The eggs of many are very beau-
tiful objects for the microscope. The larvae of various, and some
of peculiar forms and habits, spend their time in eating and chang-
ing their skins. In fact, the chief aim of their existence at this
stage is storing up vitality to enable them to undergo their fur-
ther changes ; for, when supplied with insufficient food, or alter-
nately starved and fed, the imago stage is either not reached, or
a mutilated or deformed insects results. When the time arrives
for the change to the pupa state some construct elaborate coccoons,
others suspend themselves from twigs, and others burrow, all
casting the last larval coat when they become chrysalides. Just
before the final change the colour of the chrysalis alters, and
through the pupa case the several parts of the future insect can be
made out. At last the pupa case bursts, and th e fully fledged insect
emerges, with wings of minute size ; these expand as air and fluid
are forced through them. The scales at the time of emerging are
all of full size. This is an important fact, for some assert that
the scales expand together with the wing membrane itself, the air
breathed in entering between the laminae of each scale ; others
maintain that the scales are small and few in number in newly-
developed insects, but larger and more numerous as the insect
increases in age. Both these theories are contrary to fact, as may
be proved by examining a wing either before or immediately after
the insect has escaped from the pupa case, when it will be seen
they are all of full size, but packed closely together, laterally and
longitudinally. Experiments made with the Puss Moth and Oak
Egger Moth, the former to determiue in what way the insect dis-
solved its hard coccoon, in the latter to discover by what means
the males were attracted in such numbers and from such long dis-
tances, were next described. Several cases of parthenogenesis, in
which the larva did not reach the third moult, and examples of a
second copulation, were mentioned. The females possessed greater
vitality than the males, and made in articulo mortis efforts to lay
eggs, which in some cases were extended for days after death.
While such varied colours were seen in Lepidoptera, the scales
themselves when viewed by transmitted light were either colour-
less or of a dull yellowish tint. As regarded a distinctive scale
on the males, there was not a doubt that in many families the

428

males possessed scales of a peculiar type, known as the “ battle-
dore ” or “tasselled” scale. Further researches might reveal
other types. It could very safely be laid down that no female
possessed a battledore or tasselled scale, hence, wherever found,
they were indicative of sex. Several other points were advanced,
and the life history of different moths and butterflies described,
and the paper illustrated by a collection of insects in their several
stages, and by microscopic preparations.

It was resolved that a letter of invitation from the Society to
the British Association, requesting the honour of a visit to
Brighton, be forwarded through Mr. Mayall, who had consented
to represent the Society at Exeter.

September 9th. — The Annual Meeting, at which the Com-
mittee’s Beport for the last year was presented, and the officers
for the ensuing year elected: President — Mr. T. H. Hennah ;
Committee — Messrs. Sawyer, Noakes, Dennant, It. Glaisyer, and
the Bevs. J. H. Cross and J. Image ; Treasurer — Mr. T. B.
Horne ; Hon. Secs. — Messrs. T. W. Wonfor and J. Colbatch ;
Hon. Librarian — Mr. Gwatkin. After which the ordinary
meeting was held — a microscopical one — at which Mr. Hennah
exhibited a living beetle, showing structure of mouth, and
Marchantia polymorphia in fruit, and elatersof same.

Mr. Gwatkin exhibited skin of toad, fossil wood from Great
Desert, lung of boa constrictor, and large intestine of ostrich.
Dr. Hallifax, section of lady-bird, showing optic and ventral
ganglia ; ditto, of bee, showing tongue and suctorial apparatus ;
ditto, of common fly, showing proboscis, and eggs of parasites of
Bohemian pheasant and Mallee bird.

Mr. T. Cooper exhibited sections of yew, &c., embryo oysters,
and Polycistina.

Mr. B. Glaisyer exhibited sections of crab-shell, pinna, and
mitra shells, and Australian Foraminifera.

Mr. Davidson showed Foraminifera from Nice.

Mr. Wonfor exhibited, with a Beade’s prism, Pleurosigma
formosum and P. angulatum, injected preparations of Dr. Thu-
dichum’s Trichinous rabbit, and a series of the South American
pest Pulex penetrans, the chigoe or jigger, kindly lent by Mr.
Curties, of Holborn.

Mr. Smith exhibited fructification of Hepaticse.

Mr. Glaisyer exhibited Sphagnum squamosum with porous cells
and spiral fibres.

Thei'e was also exhibited by Mr. Baker, of London, Wright’s
and other collecting bottles, lamp chimneys to give white cloud
light, Beade’s prisms, an erecting eye-piece, and other apparatus.

INDEX TO JOURNAL.

VOL. IX, NEW SERIES.

Acanthocystis Pertyana, 252.

Adulterationpf tobacco with starch, 76.

Akazga, on the structure of the stems
of, by Dr. Eraser, 179.

Allman, Prof., E.R.S., on a new form
of Polyzoa, 57.

America, microscopical societies in,
304.

Annelids in the Gulf of Naples, by
E. Claparede, 306.

,, development of, 415.

Archer, Wm., on some fresh-waler
Rhizopoda, 250, 3S6.

Auditory organs of molluscs, on the,
by M. Lacaze Duthiers, 171.

Baronetsky, on the change of Gonidia
into Zoospores, 184.

Beale, Lionel S., M. D., F.R.S., on
the minute anatomy of the frog’s
tongue, 1.

„ „ on the nervous me-

chanism of the frog’s heart, 152.

Biology, principles of, by Herbert
Spencer, 187.

Blood, 83, 173, 309,411.

„ white corpuscles of, identity
with the salivary, pus, and mucous
corpuscles, by J. G. Richardson,
245.

„ on a new means of examining
under the microscope, &c., by E.
Ray Lankcster, B.A., 296.

Brady, G. Stewardson, C.M Z.S., &c.,
description of an entomostracau
inhabiting coal mines, 23.

Brighton and Sussex Microscopical So-
ciety, 216, 426.

Bristol Microscopical Society, 112.

| British Association, 415.

Butterfly scales, characteristic of sex,
by T. W.Wonfor, Brighton, 19, 426.

Caxthocamptus cryptorum, 23.

I Cfficilim, Dr. Leydig on, 412.

Camera lucida, 92.

Carus, J. V., on Noctilucamiliaris, 89

Cell diagnosis, 79.

Cell, the animal, by Herr Wundt, 179.

Cluetogaster diaphanus, 284.

„ limnsei, on the sexual
form of, by E. Ray Lankester, 272

Claparede, E., on Annelids, 306.

Cleland, J., M.D., on the epithelium
of the cornea of the ox, 44.

Coal mine, description of an entomos-
tracan inhabiting a, by E. Stew-
ardson Brady, C.M.Z.S., 23.

Cobbold, T. Spencer, on a trematode
from the Indian elephant, 48.

Coccoliths and coccospheres, by G. C.
Wallich, 77.

Collosphsera and Sphserozoum, 147.

Cohnheim’s views on the passage of
white blood corpuscles, 173.

Cooke, M. C., one thousand objects
for the microscope, 80.

Cornea, on the epithelium of the
cornea of the ox, by John Cleland,
M.D., 44.

Cornea, nerves of, by H. Petermoller,
311.

Corpuscles, white, of the blood, iden-
tity with the salivary pus and mu-
cous corpuscles, by J. G. Richard-
son, M.D., 245.

I Cutler, Prof. S. P., how to study the
structure of teeth, 175.

430

Cysticercus lumbriculi, by Dr. Fritz
llatzel, 315.

Cystophrys Ilacckeliana, 259.

Death, microscopic cause of, 161.

Desmidiaceae, notes on a point in the
habits of, by A. M. Edwards, 61.

Diagnosis, microscopic, 91.

Diapboropodon mobile, 391.

Diatomacese, notes on a point in the
habits of, by Arthur Mead Edwards,
61.

„ from dredgings, by Rev.

E. O’Meara, 150.

,. on several rare and new

species of fresh-water, discovered in
Northumberland, by Arthur Scott
Donkin, M.D., &c. 287.

Draparualdia cruciata, Dr. Kicks on,
383.

Dublin Microscopical Club, 91, 191,
320, 120.

Donkin, Arthur Scott, M.D., on se-
veral new and rare species of Fresh-
water Diatomacese, 287.

„ on certain new diatomacese,
397, 402.

Duthiers, M. Lacaze, od the auditory
organs of molluscs, 171.

Edwards, A. M., notes on a point in
the habits of Diatomacese and Des-
midiacese, 61.

Embletonia, discovery of, in Victoria
Docks, 193.

Embryology, 87, 183, 415.

Entomoslracan, description of an, in-
habiting a coal mine, by G. Stew-
ardson Brady, C.M.Z.S., 23.

Epithelium, on the, of the cornea of
the ox, by .T. Cleland, M.D., 11.

Frog’s tongue, minute anatomy of the
papillae of, by Lionel S. Beale, M.D.,
F.R.S. &c. &c., 1.

„ heart, nervous mechanism of,
by Lionel S. Beale, M.B., F.R.S.,
152.

Focke, G. W., on naked Fresh-water
liadiolaria, 67.

Famintzen, A., on the change of Go-
nidia into Zoosnorcs, 181.

Fraser, Dr., on the structure of Akazga
stems, 179.

Glands, 86, 178, 411.

Goodsir, John, F.R.S., Memoirs of,
163.

Gonidia in lichens, change of, into
Zoospores, 184.

Gordius, on the anatomy of, by Dr.
H. Grenadier, 88.

Grenadier, Dr. H., on the anatomy of
Gordius, 88.

Gromia socialis, 390.

Gulliver, George, on Raphides, Sphse-
raphides, and crystal prisms, 232.

Gulf stream, Fauna of, at great depths,
158.

Hackel, Ernst, monograph of Mo-
nera, 27, 113, 219,327.

Heterophrys Fockii, 267.

„ myriopoda, 267.

Histology, 82, 171, 309, 411.

Lamp shade, new, “ white cloud,” 156.

Lankester, E. Ray, on the sexual
form of Chsetogaster limnsi, 272.

„ on a new means of ex-
amining blood under the microscope,
and on a natural standard for regis-
tering absorption spectra, 296.

Leucocytes, on the spontaneous for-
mation of, by M. Onimus, 189.

Lenses, Nachet’s and other immersion,
79.

Lichens, micro-lichens parasitic on
other, by W. Lauder Lindsay, M.D.,
&c. 49, ‘135,342.

Lichen Zoospores, 162.

Lichens, on the change of Gonidea
into Zoospores in, by MM. A.
Famintzen and J. Baronetsky, ] SI.

Liudsay, Lauder, on micro-lichens pa-
rasitic on otherLichens, 19, 135, 312.

Lubbock, Sir John, Bart., notes on
the Thysanura, 285.

Lymph, 83.

Macdonald, J. D., on Thalassicolidse,
147.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society, 101, 212.

„ Circulating Microscopical
Cabinet, 216.

131

Mayall, John, jun., on immersion
objectives and test-objects, 242.

Melosira Wrigbtii, 151.

Micro- lichens parasitic on other
lichens, by Lauder Lindsay, M.D.,
&c., 49, 135.

Microscope, one thousand objects
for, by M. C. Cooke, 80.

Microscopy in Russia, 159.

Microscopical Society, Royal, 98, 155,
202, 324.

Microzoology and microphytology, 87.

„ 186, 313, 415.

Mineralogy, application of the mi-
croscope to, bv Mr. H. C. Sorby,
182.

Molecular and microscopical science,
review of, 403.

Monera, monograph of, by Ernst
Hiickel, 27, 113,219, 327.

Mosley Street Natural History So-
ciety, 213.

Muller, C. J., on Vaginicola valvata,
25.

Muscles, 83, 173, 312, 411.

Myxastrum radians, 123.

Myxodictyum sociale, 131.

Nachet’s and other immersion lenses,
79.

Navicula nobilis, 288.

„ Coquedensis, 293.

„ verualis, 293.

„ Cymbula, 294.

„ stauroptera, 295.

,, firma, 295.

Nerve, 82, 171, 309, 411.

Nobert’s lines, 401.

Noctiluca miliaris, by J. Victor Carus,
89.

Nylander, Dr. W., on the germi-
nation of the varicellaria germi-
nata, 183.

Objectives and test-objects, im-
mersion, by John Mayall, jun.,
F.R.M.S., 242.

O’Meara, Eugene, Rev., on diato-
maceae from dredgings off the Aran
Islands, 150.

Onimus, Mons., on the spontaneous
formation of leucocytes, 189.

Ovary, on the dimorphism of the,
in Tubifex, by Dr. Fritz Ratzel,
314.

Palu, 79.

Petermoller, H., on the nerves of the
cornea, 311.

Pinnularia marginata, 151.

„ scutellum, 151.

Plagiogramma costatum, 150.

Polyzoa, rhabdopleura, a new form of,
by Prof. Allman, 59.

Pompholyxophrys puniceae, 386.

Protamoeba primitiva, 219.

Protoplasm, Huxley and Beale on,
300.

Protomyxa aurantiaca, 34.

Protozoa, by G. C. Wallich, 190.

Quekett Microscopical Club, 102,
211.

Radiolaria, on naked freshwater, by
G. W. Focke, Bremen, 67.

Raphides, sphmraphides and crystal
prisms, by George Gulliver, F.R.S.,
232.

Raphidiophrys viridis. 255.

Ratzel, Fritz, Dr., on the dimor-
phism of the ovary in Tubifex, 314.

„ on Cysticercus

Lumbriculi, 315.

Reviews, 80, 163, 306, 403.

Rhabdopleura, a new form of Polyzoa,
by Prof. Allman, F.R.S., 57.

Rhizopoda on some freshwater, by
Wm. Archer, 250.

Richardson, J. G., M.D., on the iden-
tity of the white blood-corpuscles
with the salivary pus and mucous
corpuscles, 245.

Shell, 313.

Snow crystals, 158.

Sorby, H. C., F.R.S., on the colour-
ing matters of blue decayed wood,
43.

„ application of the mi-
croscope to mineralogy, 182.

„ technical applications of
the spectrum microscope, 358.

Sphaerozoum and collosphaera, 147.

Spencer, Herbert, on Heterogenesis,
187.

Spectra, on a natural standard for re-
gistering absorption, by E. Ray
Lankester, 296.

Stage, Beck’s, concentric rotating, 159.

432

Stokes on Dr. Donkin’s paper, 401.
Surirella Capronei, 102.

„ biserrata, 288.

„ Barrowcliffia, 291.

„ subalpina, 292.

„ tenera, 293.

Technical applications of the spec-
trum microscope, H. C. Sorby on,
358.

Teeth, how to study the structure of,
by Prof. S. P. Cutler, 175.

Test-objects and objectives, immer-
sion, by John Mayall, juri., F.R.M.S.,
242. _

Test-object, new, 401.

Thalassicolidse, structure and relation-
ship of simple and compound, by
J. D. MacDonald, M.D., F.R.S.,
&c., 147.

„ by G. C. Wallich, 190.

Tobacco, adulteration of with starch,
76.

Tongue, minute anatomy of the pa-
pilla; of the frog’s, by Lionel S.
Beale, M.D., F.P.S^ &c., 1.

Thysanura, notes on the, by Sir J.
Lubbock, F.R.S., 285.

Trematode, from the Indian elephant,
byT. Spencer Cobbold, M. D., F.R.S.,

48.

Vaginicola valvata, by C. J. Muller,

25.

Varicellaria, germination of the spores
of, by Dr. W. Nylander, 183.

Wallich, G. C., on coccoliths and
coccospheres, 77.

„ on Protozoa, 190.

„ on Thalassicollidae,

190.

Wonfor, T. W., Brighton, on certain
butterfly scales characteristic of
sex, 19, 426.

Wood, on the colouring matter of
blue decayed by H. C. Sorby,
F.R.S., 43.

Woodward’s, Dr., paper, 158.

Wundt, Herr, on the animal cell,
179.

Zoological literature, Van Voorst, 80.
Zoospores, lichen, 162.

„ on the change of gonidia
into, 184.

PRINTED BY J. E. AD LARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

S. B.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE I,

Illustrating Dr. Beale’s Paper on the Minute Anatomy of
the Papillae of the Frog’s Tongue.

Fig.

1. — Fungiform and simple papillae of tongue of the Hyla. a. Epithelium-

like mass at summit of papilla, b. Ciliated epithelium at the sides
of the papilla, c. Ciliated epithelium, covering simple papillae.
dd. Summits of two simple papillae, with nuclei connected with the
nerves projecting from them. e. Fine nerve-fibres with their nuclei
in the connective tissue, f Fine nerve-fibres, which may be traced
to the nerve-trunk, g. h. Muscular fibres, freely branching, the ten-
dinous prolongations of the finest subdivisions being inserted into
the connective tissue at the summit of the papilla, i. Capillary, with
its nerve-fibres. X 215.

2. — Small portion of the plexus of nerve-fibres at the summit of the papilla,

showing the connection of the nerve-fibres with the cells. X 2800.
a. Epithelium- like cells upon the summit, as in figs. 1, 3, and 4.
d. Triangular cells connected with delicate nerve-fibres, b. Germi-
nal matter of epithelium-like cells on summit. The plexus, c, cor-
responds to that marked b in fig. 3.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II,

Illustrating Dr. Beale’s Paper on the Minute Anatomy of
the Papillae of the Frog’s Tongue.

Fig.

3. — Portion of the central stem of nerve-fibres, breaking up to form the

nerve plexus at the top of papilla, 'a. Epithelium -like cells near the
summit of the papilla, b. Intricate interlacement of finest nerve-
fibres immediately below, highly magnified at c, fig. 2. c. Expan-
sion of nerve-fibres in the form of a network on the top of the
papilla, x 1700.

4. — Diagram to show the supposed arrangement of the nerves, and their

connection with the cells on the summit of the papilla.

5. — A portion of one of the triangular cells or nuclei connected with the

fine nerve-fibres, forming the plexus at the top of the papilla, as seen
after the removal of the epithelium-like mass from the summit. The
fine fibres upon the surface are those which pass to the epithelium-
like mass on the summit. X 6000.

6. — Three cells from the epithelium-like mass upon the summit of the

papilla, x 2000.

7. — Free surface of the cells of the epithelium-like mass at the summit of

the papilla. X 2000.

8. — Fine nerve-fibres coming off from a trunk, to be distributed to muscles,

vessels, and connective tissue, near the base of a papilla, as at f, fig.
1. X 1800.

9. — Muscular fibres at the summit of the papilla, showing the relation of

the germinal matter to the contractile tissue, and the mode of forma-
tion of the latter by the masses of germinal matter, a. Germinal
matter, or nucleus forming fibrillse. 6. Another nucleus, or mass of
germinal matter, connected with muscular tissue, c. Germinal mat-
ter, or nucleus of fine nerve-fibre, distributed to the muscle near the
summit of the papilla, d. Fine nerve-fibre. X 1800.

Fig. S.

JOURN.

Fig- 7.

Fig. 0.

MIC. 30C. VOL. l£, N. S. PLATE 11. |

Fig. 6.

Fig. i.

Fig. 9.

L. S. B.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III,

Illustrating Dr. Beale’s Paper on the Minute Anatomy of
the Papillse of the Frog’s Tongue.

Fig.

10. — Diagram of three papillae from the frog’s tongue, to show the arrange-

ment of the nerve-fibres.

11. — Muscular fibres from tongue, with nerve-fibres ramifying amongst

them.

12. — Fine muscular fibre to show a fault, x 1800.

13. — Drawing to show the mode in which the mass of germinal matter

‘ nucleus ’ takes part in the formation of the fibrillae of muscle. The
arrow shows the direction in which the nucleus moves. It once
occupied the interval between c and d, but has moved to the position
between b and c.

14. — Drawing to show the plexuses or networks of fine nerve-fibres. The

mode of subdivision of the dark-bordered fibres, and the manner in
which they enter into the formation of the plexuses, are also well seen.
The course of the numerous nerve-currents is indicated by the dotted
lines.

15. — From the mylohyoid muscle of the Hyla. Trunks of fine dark-bordered

nerve-fibres, with fine fibres coming from them, some of which may
be traced to the vessels, while others are distributed to the muscular
fibres, which are not represented in the drawing. The arrangement
of the nerves supplying the capillary vessel is well seen, x 110.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IV,

Illustrating Dr. Beale’s Paper on the Minute Anatomy of
the Papillae of the Frog’s Tongue.

Pig-

16. — Mode of formation of network or plexus of finest nerve-fibres.

17. — Mode in which a single nerve-fibre is supposed to terminate, according

to most authors.

18. — The author’s view of the arrangement of the nerve-fibres and formation

of the terminal plexus or network of fine nerve-fibres.

19. — Arrangement of terminal pale nucleated nerve-fibres in simple papillse.

20. — Division of dark-bordered nerve-fibres, with fine fibres ramifying in the

sheath. Breast muscle, frog. X 300.

21 & 22. — Diagrams to illustrate the course of the nerve-fibres iu a branch, a,
coming off from a larger trunk, b b.

23. — Fine compound nerve-trunk, with a branch coming off at right angles,

composed of fibres which pursue opposite courses in the trunk.
From the submucous tissue of the palate. Frog. X 700. 1862.

24. — A copy of Hartmann’s figure referred to in page 3, showing the

nerves in the centre of the papilla, which, according to him, termi-
nate abruptly. The nerves have been much altered by the method
of preparation pursued, and the finer branches are invisible.

JOURN. MIC. SOC. VOL. IX., N. S. PLATE IV.

,1"

Fig. 16.

Fig. 19.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

Fig. 20.

Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.

-

fhufMmiVtUINSMV.

WWest imp

<• '< la < i ( < i /
21

T W Yfonfor del T West sc

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE V,

Illustrating Mr. AVon for’s second paper on “ Certain Butter-
fly Scales characteristic of Sex.”

Fig.

1. — Aporia Cratagi. (Black-veined white.)

2. — Pieris Larima.

3. — „ Pigea.

4. — ,, Epicharis.

5. — „ Agalhina.

6. — Anthocharis Danai.

7. — „ Anlevippe.

8. — „ Evippe.

9. — Polyommatus Dorylas.

10. — „ Argus.

11. — „ (Egon.

12. — Argynnis Aglaia. (Dark green fritillary.)

13. —

14. —

15. —

16. —

17. —

18. —

19.—

Pophia.

(Silver-washed fritillary.)

(Hair-like and clubbed scale from fig. 13.)

(High brown fritillary.)

(A South American fritillary.)

(An African fritillary.)

(Hair-like scale from fig. 17.)

(An African fritillary.)

20. — Scales overlapping, as seen on unexpanded wing of newly-escaped

butterfly.

21. — Scales as seen on fully expanded wing.

22. — Full size of fore wing of large white when escaping from pupa case.

23. — Size of fore wing of same butterfly fully developed.

Adippe.

?

?

?

?

(Figs. 1 — 19 magnified 240 diameters.)

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VI,

Illustrating Mr. Brady’s paper on an Entomostracan
inhabiting a Coal Mine.

Tig.

1. — Canthocamptus cryptorum , female. X 120.

2. — Superior antenna of the same.

3. — „ „ male.

4. — Inferior antenna.

5. — Lower-foot-jaw.

6. — Foot of first pair.

7. — „ second pair.

8. — „ fourth pair.

9. — „ fifth pair.

10.— Last abdominal segments.

JUm'dou/rro. Wot. IX NS. Si. IT

G.S3rady del Tuffen'Westsc-

YrVfeet imp

I

V

■MxrJowm.miZNS. &LVII

TuffenWestsc WWest imp

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VII,

Illustrating Mr. Muller’s Paper on Vaginicola.

Fig.

1. — Vaginicola valvala.

2 — 8. — Various stages of division.

9. — The divided animalcules.

10—12. — Progress of change in a single animalcule.

13. — The free animalcule after escape from the case.

14 — 18. — Progress after attachment to a filament of Conferva, until develop-
ment into fig. 1.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE VIII,

Illustrating Professor Allman’s Paper on llhabdopleura.
Fig- . ...

1. — A portion of the coenoecium, with the contained polypides, of Rhab-

dopleura Normani, very much enlarged.

a , a, free annulated terminations of the tubes, b, b, polypides.
b', U, shield-like process of the lophophore. c, c, funiculus.
d, d, chitinous rod (blastophore). e, e, statoblasts. f, f bud-
ding polypides.

2. — Polypide withdrawn from the tube, and still further enlarged.

a , lophophore, with the tentacles, b, shield, c, stomach of polypide.
d, d, funiculus, with its enlargements, d', d\ great retractor
muscle of polypide, accompanying the funiculus, e , enlarged
termination of the blastophore, to which the funiculus and re-
tractor muscle are attached.

3. — Statoblast.

a , the statoblast. b, b, the blastophore.

4. — A piece of the adherent portion of the coenoecium tube, to show the

peculiar markings on its surface.

6. — Very early stage of polypide bud.

6. — A somewhat more advanced stage.

a, the left of the two fleshy plates between which the body of the
developing polypide is included, b, the two arms of the young
lophophore, protruded from between the two plates, and as yet
without any indications of tentacles.

7. — The polypide bud in a still more advanced stage.

a, the lateral plates, b, the arms of the lophophore protruded from
between them, and now showing the commencing tentacles in the
form of tubercles projecting from their sides, c, the fundus of
the stomach projecting from between the distal edges of the
plates, d, the funiculus.

8. — The polypide bud, still more advanced in its development.

a, the lateral plates, b, the arms of the lophophore, now carrying
short but distinct tentacles, c, fundus of stomach, d, funiculus.

9. — A piece of the chitinous rod or blastophore taken from a young branch,

to show its axile cavity.

10. — Rhabdopleura Normani , natural size. The blastophore, with its attached
polypides, is seen creeping over the surface of a fragment of mussel
shell ; the free terminations of the tubes are seen extending beyond
the broken edge of the shell. They are not represented on the
rest of the specimen.

JUcr. JovrnJ. tyiO.IZN.A W.

'• JlmMm ^oilX.NS 0'( ’Y

WWest imp

ii.Haeckcl clel T offers "West sc.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE IX,

Illustrating Ernst Haeckel’s Monograph of Monera.

Protomyxa aurantiaca.

?ig.

1. — Protomyxa aurantiaca encysted, in the stationary condition ; a homo-

geneous orange-red ball of protoplasm, surrounded by a soft, struc-
tureless, gelatinous covering. X 300.

2. — The same, at the commencement of its development. The homo-

geneous orange-red ball of protoplasm has retracted itself from the
inside of the wall of the cyst, has become thickened, and has begun
to divide into numerous small globular bodies ; between the plasma-
ball and the outer covering a little clear fluid has collected.
X 300.

3. — The same, further developed. The plasma-ball is entirely divided into

numerous small globular bodies of uniform size ; these, lying loosely
together, again (ill up the entire interior of the globular cyst.
X 300.

4. — The small globular masses of protoplasm which have resulted from the

breaking up of the encysted plasma-ball draw themselves out at one
end into a long tail, and issue as “swarm-spores” with a lively
motion from the cyst (“ sporangium ”). x 300.

5. — Ten separate pear-shaped spores, moving briskly about with the aid of

their tails, after their exit from the ruptured cyst ; the body as well
as the tail of the spore is a perfectly naked and homogeneous
sarcode mass. X 380.

0.— Seven separate sporules, which, becoming stationary, have retracted
their tails, and protruded instead a number of pointed, irregularly
formed processes (pseudopods) ; they creep about with the aid of
these with a constant but slow change of form in the manner of an
amoeba ; the homogeneous plasma-body is still without vacuoli.
X 380.

7. — Three amceba-like germs (creeping sporules) unite themselves by their
anastomosing pseudopods, and finally unite entirely into one single
plasma-body (plasmodium) ; single vacuoli (v) are already to be
noticed in the plasma. X 220.

PLATE IX ( continued ).

8. — Two amoeba-like germs (of those represented iu fig. G) seize a diatome

( Navicula ), eacli at a different end. X 220.

9. — The same two amoeba-germs as in fig. 8, seen somewhat later, in

drawing themselves over the Navicula , have encountered in the
middle, and have here united themselves into one. X 220.

10. — An older Protomyxa developed into a plasmodium, either from the

simple increase of a single amoeba-like germ, or by the union of a
larger number of amoebae. A devoured Isthmia and a Navicula are
visible in the homogeneous parenchyma of the sarcode, also numerous
vacuoli ( v ). X 220.

11. — A full-grown Protomyxa in the best-fed condition, after a very liberal

diet. In the interior of the central protoplasm-body are numerous
vacuoli ( v ) ; above are seen two Isthmice still entire, with three of
the latticed siliceous shells of pelagic Tintinnoidce (two Dictyocysla
elegans and one D. mitra ) ; one shell seems to be just ejected.
From the central sarcode-body the very strong, branching, tree-like
pseudopods radiate; their peripheral anastomoses show numerous
crescent-shaped meshes. Above, several strong pseudopods have
seized and surrounded a three-horned Peridinium. The formation of
vacuoli extends also to the larger pseudopods. X 220.

12. — A full-grown Protomyxa , fasting, without food. From the entirely

homogeneous sarcode-body radiate a very large quantity of tree-like
branching pseudopods, which form only a few anastomoses, and
are but scantily supplied with corpuscles. The number of vacuoli in
the central protoplasm-body is insignificant. X 110.

MumAximHolJX VS. flX

Haeckel del Tuf'fen West sc

W West

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE X,

Illustrating Ernst Haeckel’s Monograph of Monera.

Fig. 13 — 24. 1 lyxastrum radians.

Fig.

13. — My xast rum radians, encvsted, in the motionless condition ; a homo-

geneous colourless ball of protoplasm, surrounded by a tough,
structureless gelatinous covering, x 450.

14. — The same, at the commencement of its development. The homo-

geneous colourless ball of protoplasm begins to divide by radial
cleavage into numerous conical portions, whose points rest towards
the centre of the ball, while their rounded bases produce a mulberry-
shaped outline towards the surface of the plasma-ball, x 450.

15. — The same, further developed. The cone-shaped divisions of plasma,

which resulted from the radial cleavage of the encysted plasma-ball,
have assumed a spindle-shape, and each separate one has developed
a siliceous covering. The encysted Myxastrum now forms a globular
sporangium, which encloses numerous spindle-shaped, siliceous spores.
X 450.

16. — The same sporangium as in fig. 15. The focus of the microscope

is placed so that one can perceive the star-like arrangement of the
siliceous spindle-shaped spores. X 450.

17. — The empty siliceous shell of a spore ; the protoplasm -body has already

slipped out. x 450.

18. A spore whose contents have just begun to glide out. from the siliceous

shell. X 450.

19. — The same spore as fig. IS, but seen a short time later. There is now

only a little sarcode remaining in the siliceous shell. X 458.

20. — The homogeneous sarcode-body of a spore which has entirely left its

siliceous shell (fig. 17), and has assumed a globular form, x 450.

21. —The same sarcode-ball as fig. 20, seen some time afterwards. Fine

striae begin to appear everywhere on the surface, x 450.

22. — A somewhat older globular Myxastrum , whose radial pseudopods are

already longer. X 450.

PLATE X ( continued ).

23. — A full-grown Myxastrum during very rich nourishment ; indeed, as well

fed as possible. The radial pseudopods, which radiate from the cen-
tral plasma-ball, arrange themselves in tufts over the captured mor-
sels of prey, aud draw them into the sarcode-body. In the middle
are seen three Naviculce ; beneath, a chain of Bacillaria ; and above
and on the right a Peridinium. A great quantity of corpuscles are
scattered through the protoplasm, x 280.

24. — A full grown Myxastrum, fasting, without food. From the whole

homogeneous sarcode-body radiate a very large number of stiffened,
simple, radial pseudopods, of which only very few ramify or anasto-
mose. The number of corpuscles in the plasma is very inconsider-
able. X 280.

Fig. 25 — 30. Protamceba primitiva. X 400.

25. — Protamceba primitiva, with several short processes.

26. — The same, with a long process.

27. — The same, at the first commencement of fission.

28. — The same, with the division further advanced.

29. — The same, with the division nearly completed.

30. — The same, divided into two individuals (a and b).

Fig. 31 — 33. Myxodictyum sociale.

31. — Myxodictyum sociale, a colony of seventeen actinophrys-like Monera,

united by a sarcode-net. X 400.

32. - — A single portion of the sarcode-net. X 600.

33. — A single individual which has detached itself from the colony of seven-

teen Monera. x 400.

D. Macdonald. ad nat.del TufPen West, sc

W West . imp.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XI,

Illustrating Dr. Macdonald’s Paper on the Thalassicollida?.
Fig.

1. — Globular specimen of Spharozoum, natural size.

2. — Portion of the same, highly magnified, to show the structure of the

puncta as described in the text.

3. — Globular specimen of Collosphcera, natural size.

4. — Analysis of a single punctum of the same. a. Punctum in its entirety.

b. The fenestrated shell, c. The sarco-blasts and cell membrane.
d. Granular and crystalline contents, e. Fatty globule or nucleus.

5. — Example of Sphcerozoum, like fig. 1, natural size, for comparison with —

6. — An enlarged representation of the same, in which the test, vacuolated

matrix and the disposition of the puncta are distinctly seen.

7. — Thalassicolla nucleala, natural size.

8. — The same, considerably magnified, showing the test, vacuolated matrix,

radiating fibres, sarco-blasts, pigment, proper cell membrane, with
rounded granular contents and vesicular nucleus containing minute
fatty globules.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XII,

Illustrating Rev. E. O’Meara’s Paper on Diatomaceous Forms
from Arran Islands.

Kg.

1. — Pleurosigma gigcmieum, var. baccatum.

2. — Plagiogramma cost alum. a. Front view.

3. — Melosira Wrightii. a. Side view.

4. — Pinnularia marginata.

5. — Pinnularia scutellum.

G. — Jmphiprora costala

'MwrJwm. %LJX.NS. &LXII

MIC. JOURN., VOL. IX., N. S. PLATE XIII.

Fig. 1.

•lb<! thinnest portion of the a melt of the heart of the hyla, ™ jneu tree-uo.:. snowing uetwoiic o( musculai nbree
Servo flhr. :i oriCin : e -m- Tom a single $»ns’.iou cell and their peripheral ramifications amongst the muscu ar
fibres Tb«* connective tissue corpuscles are represented in the ln\rer part of the drawing to the right only. X

A f

i oi tn.* oauis spec u

.. magnified 700 diameters, shoeing the re '.avion of the nerve fibres and
their nuclei to the muscular tissue.

Fig. 2.

L. S. B.

136? .

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIV,

Illustrating E. Ray Lankester’s paper on the Sexual Form
of Chcetogaster Limncei.

Fig.

1. — Reduced copy of M. d’Udekem’s figure of the genitalia of Ch. dia-

phanus, from the ‘ Bulletins ’ of the Belgian Academy, vol. xii,
1861, p. 243 ; sr, so-called seminal receptacles ; ev, efferent ducts
(entonnoirs vibra tiles) ; hp, hard pieces ; ov, ova.

2. — Sexually mature Chcetogaster Limncei, an outline sketch; between 2

and 3 the clitellus is represented.

3. — Larval Chcetogaster Limncei, with complete and growing zooids. There

is but half the number of bristles in each fasciculus, which is
present in the sexual form.

4. — Part of the genitalia of Ch. Limncei : ov, the anterior masses of ova ; ov",

a second posterior pair; n, the nerve-cord ; s, s, the most anterior
pair of segmental organs ; hr, hr, the most anterior pair of fasci-
culi, with sixteen bristles in each ; mm, the muscles of the fasciculi.

5. — The testis of Ch. Limncei in an early state of development; p, its

pedicle (?)

6. — Portion of the integument of the sexual form of Ch. Limncei treated

with acetic acid ; c , the cuticle ; ma, the matrix ; m, the muscular
layer.

7. — From Ch. Limncei in a maturer state than in fig. 4 or fig. 5 ; t, testis ;

bw, body-wall ; at, alimentary canal ; ov, ova ; sp, spermatozoa.

8. — The first fasciculus and genital setce in a sexually mature Ch. Limncei.

9. — Cells of the clitellus of Ch. Limncei ; a, with acetic acid ; b, untouched.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XV,

Illustrating E. Ray Lankester’s paper on the Sexual Form
of Chcetogaster Limncei.

Fig.

1. — Muscle-cells from the septa of adult Ch. Limncei.

2. — Segment-organ of adult Ch. Limncei.

3. — Fasciculus of adult Ch. Limncei , with its bristles turned in two

directions.

4. — Ova of Ch. Limncei ; b, acted on by water.

5. — Cephalic region of Ch. diaphanus, to show the nervous system; eg,

cephalic ganglion ; stg, so-called stomato-gastric or second supra-
pharyngeal ganglion ; sphg, subpharyngeal ganglion ; ph,
pharynx.

6. — Nerve-cord of Ch. diaphanus ; sphg, subpharyngeal; ce, oesophageal ;

st, stomachic ; 1 hr, first fascicular ; 2 br, second fascicular,
ganglion.

7. — Dorsal vessel of Ch. Limncei (adult).

8. — Fascicle and segment-organ ( s ) of Ch. diaphanus ; mm, muscles.

9. — Parthenope serrata of Schmidt, Ctenodrilus pardalis of Claparede (after

Claparede.)

Jliuyr&u/nt tVU. JK N.S 9 l.XV^.

Z 3. Lancaster de. luffeTi’V/estsc

W7est imp.

JLosJou^MIINS mm

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVI,
Illustrating Mr. W. Archer’s paper on Rhizopoda.

Fig.

1. — Acanlhocystis Pertyana (sp. nov.). A few of the acute radiating

spines shown thrown off.

2. — Raphidiophrys viridis (gen. et sp. nov.)

It will be understood, in reference to this figure (as well as the
other figures on this and succeeding plate), that the object is drawn
as seen when focussed down to the equatorial margin, being brought
distinctly to view, and that, of course, the outer investing stratum,
here bearing spicules innumerable, is really interposed between the
globular central bodies and the observer; but being sufficiently
transparent, this intervening stratum allows the central bodies to
be seen through it. If it were possible, the pseudopodia should be
rendered by a delicate, pellucid, almost silvery line, not by a black
one ; but this cannot be avoided.

3. — Belerophrys Fockii (gen. et sp. nov.)

To this figure the same remark applies. The marginal pulsating
vacuoles are seen at the highest point of distension. The drawing
attempts to indicate the appearance often presented by the “ tongue-
shaped ” processes projected from the margin of the outer stratum ;
but not unfrequently there is no definite outline, when it becomes
difficult to discern where this region terminates.

4. — Pompholyxophrys punicea (gen. et sp. nov.)

The outer vesicles, of course, cover the whole of the external sur-
face of the reddish body, though seen only at the margin, being, as
before, focussed down. The body contains a minute captured Cym-
belia. The figure hardly represents the reddish granules sufficiently
individualised ; the contents are not so homogeneous-looking.

5. — The same, submitted to pressure, some of the pigment-granules crushed

out, and some of the outer vesicles scattered.

All the figures X 400.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVII,
Illustrating Mr. W. Archer’s paper on Rhizopoda.

Fig.

1. — Cystophrys Uaecheliana (gen. et sp. nov.), seen in its ordinary con-

dition, the pseudopodia fully and equally extended; the cells show-
ing their light-coloured nucleus aud nucleolus, and, occasionally, the
bluish granular contents showing a somewhat large, reddish one ;
one of the cells showing self-fission.

2. — The same, endeavouring (and finally succeeding) to encompass a fibre

of wool, some of the internal cells seemingly getting thrown off in
the effort, the delicate sarcode layer becoming stretched along and
round the extremity of the wool. One or two of the cells show
self-fission.

3. — Cystophrys oculea (sp. nov.).

The outline of the reddish nuclear bodies is hardly sufficiently
strongly indicated by a sharp dark line, nor is the inner nucleolar black
dot sufficiently pronounced. It is difficult to execute these details,
even on a scale of 400 diameters. Iu some of the inner cells will be
seen double nuclei, presumably indicating progressing self-fission. If
it were possible to render the very slender pseudopodia by colour-
less silvery lines, it would be more true to nature, but the figure
will, it is hoped, enable observers to identify this form.

4. — Heterophrys myriopoda (gen. et sp. nov.).

In this figure, by some accident, the marginal region or border lias
been drawn at the left-hand side of greater depth than at the remain-
ing three fourths of the circuit ; it ought to be pretty equidistant all
round. The remark made as to its being focussed down to the ex-
treme margin here holds especially good ; it will be of course un-
derstood the outer region interveues between the central chloro-
phyll-bearing otherwise rather hyaline body and the observer.

5. — Clathrulina elegans (Cienkowski).

It is hard to convey the transparent character of the perforate
skeleton of this pretty creature, combined with the light brownish
colour proper to fully developed specimens. The pseudopodia are
rendered somewhat too thick aud pronounced ; they are very deli-
cate and colourless.

All the figures X 400.

JKjuc/F'&u/m °IM IXNS 3PIJQ/

Tul&r. West, a/i nat del et sc.

W Wes*. :mp.

Jlior^ fownit %L ELMS. .fLXVj

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVIII,

Illustrating Dr. Donkin’s paper on certain Species of Fresh-
water Diatomacese.

Fig.

1. — Surirella Barrowcliffia, Donkin, a, S. V. b, M. Y. c, Frustule

dividing, d, Oblique view of frustule.

2. — „ subalpina, Donkin, a, S. Y. b, Oblique view of valve.

3. — „ tenera, Greg. S. V.

4. — Navicula Coquedensis, Donkin. S. V.

5. — „ vernalis, Donkin. S. V.

6. — „ Cymbula, Donkin. S. V.

7. — „ limosa, Ktz. S. V.

8. — „ firma, Ktz. S. V.

9. — „ stauroptera, Ehr. S. V.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XIX,

Illustrating Dr. J. Braxton Hicks’ paper on Draparnaldia
cruciata, Hicks.

Eig.

1. — Portion of plant magnified about 4 times.

2. — Main filament with lateral tufts.

3. — Secondary filament.

4. — End of secondary filament.

5. — Disposition of endochrome, from a cell h inch in diameter.

6. — Radicles.

7. — Formation of zoospores.

JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SCIENCE.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XX,

Illustrating Mr. W. Archer’s paper on Rhizopoda.

Fig.

1. — Pleurophrys ? spherica, Clap, et Lachm. ? In the centre of the body-mass,

which is not in contact with the curious test, which is formed of indistin-
guishable short bacillar and rounded particles agglutinated together, is
seen a large orbicular “ nucleus.5’ From the anterior extremity is given
off a considerable tuft of slender, linear, slightly branched pseudopodia.

2. — Pleurophrys ? amphitremoides (sp. nov.). The specimen figured is covered

with numerous adherent navicular and other Diatomaceous frustules and
arenaceous particles, and the body somewhat densely loaded with chloro-
phyll granules, the anterior extremity giving off a rather dense tuft of
slender branched pseudopodia.

3. — Pleurophrys ? fulva (sp. nov.). Shows the buff or tawny colour of this

minute form ; the test covered by angular, pellucid, quartzose particles ;
the anterior extremity giving off a short, rather dense, and branched tuft
or shrub-like cluster of pseudopodia.

4. — Amphitrema Wrightianum (gen. et sp. nov.), from a specimen taken from

“ Feather-bed Bog,” near Dublin ; shows the mass of the body coloured
green by chlorophyll-granules. The drawing has been made from a se-
lected example in which each of the very short necks of the test is more
than ordinarily evident, owing to the paucity of the external adherent
foreign particles at those points, which, when present, tend to obscure
it. These particles are to be seen most crowded along the lateral mar-
gins of the compressed elliptic test, leaving the central region more or
less free from them, and thus allowing the sarcode-body within the more
readily to be seen ; each extremity giving off a more or less dense tuft of
branched pseudopodia, that from one of the extremities being, however,
almost always more elongate and crowded than the other.

5. — The same species, from a “ Glen-ma-lur” specimen, likewise selected the

better to exhibit the two short necks appertaining to this form, owing to
their exceptional freedom there from foreign particles. These latter, as
in the preceding example, are here also seen more plentiful towards the
lateral margin, but they are in this specimen somewhat less coarse ; the
test itself, too, is slightly larger ; like the previous example, the tuft of
pseudopodia from one extremity is larger, longer, and more crowded than
from the other.

6. — Diaphoropodon mobile (gen. et sp. nov.), showing the anterior, much

branched, and tufted pseudopodia extended, but not as fully so as in
some of the examples witnessed. To the right is the anterior marginal
pulsating vacuole fully distended ; to the left, immersed in the body-sub-
stance, is seen the large spherical “ nucleus,” the outer margin bor-
dered by the fringe-like processes.

7. — Gromia socialis (sp. nov.). Showing a group of three mutually united by

anastomosis of their more or less reticulately branched pseudopodia,
which here and there present variously shaped expansions, bearing different
sized rather opaque granules, carried about in slow circulation. Immersed
in the body portion of each is seen the whitish nucleus with its darker
centra! nucleolus.

8. — The same ; a single individual, showing a very long and branched pseudo-

podium.

9. — The same ; a single stemlike sarcode prolongation projected, branching at

the top in a ramified dendroid manner; this being rather exceptional.

10. — The same; an example showing a pseudopodium expanded into a clavate

form, and enclosing some of the larger semi-opaque granules, like those in
the intervening spaces of the conjoined pseudopodia of the three associated
examples shown in Fig. 7.

11. — The same; showing an example in which the body has undergone a trans-

verse self-fission, and in each portion a nucleus with its nucleolus is
present, the upper segment giving oft’ branched pseudopodia in the usual
manner.

12. — Diffluyia carinata (sp. nov.), x 200.

All the figures X 400, except fig. 12, x 200.

• «