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UNITED STATES

EXPLORING EXPEDITION.

BY AUTHORITY OF CONGRESS.

Cs eer aA TiS

EXPLORING EXPEDITION.

1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842.
Ca Asian Se Wally Kowa Wocs., N:
VOL IX.

AND THEIR

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

CHARLES PICKERING, M.D.

EMBER OF THE SCIENTIFIC CORPS ATTACHED TO THE EXPEDITION

Rebel Ar DE eR Eee Ae:
PR Na Hebe By CO. OS eho R MAN.
1848.

CORN TE Ns:

CHAPTER I.

Enumeration of the Races - G 2 : 3 - -

CHAPTER IL.
Explanation of the Map - - : 5 : 5 A

CHAPTER III.

The Mongolian Race.—Brazil.—Patagonia.—The Antarctic or Magellanic water-
men.—Chili.—Peru.—The Northwestern or Aleutian watermen.—Interior
Oregon.—Southwestern Oregon.—Mexico.—Yucatan.—Northeast America.—
The Chinese.—Other Mongolians — - - - - - -

CHAPTER IV.

The Malayan Race.—Polynesians, of the coral islands.—Of Taheitii—Of Samoa.
—Of New Zealand.—Of Tongataboo.—Of the Hawaiian Islands.—Other Poly-
nesians.—Californians.—Mexico and the West Indies.—Micronesians.—Japa-
nese.—The East Indies.—The Indo-Chinese countries.—Madagascar.—Other
Malayans - - - - - 2 é “ Bs

CHAPTER V.
The Australian Race - : 2 = : 2 2 :
CHAPTER VI.

The Papuan Race.—The Feejeeans.—Other Papuans_ - - - -

CHAPTER VIL,

The Negrillo Race.-—The New Hebrides.—The Nitendi Group.—The Solomon
Islands.—New Guinea,—Luzon.—Sooloo,—Other Negrilloes -

CHAPTER VIII.

The Telingan or Indian Race,—Eastern Hindoostan.—Western Hindoostan.—
Madagascar - - - 4 4 5 F

2

13

15

51

144

170

175

af CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IX.
The Negro Race.—Colonial Negroes.—Eastern A frica.—South A frica.—Western
Africa,—Central Africa - - - - = - :
CHAPTER X.,

The Ethiopian Race.—Barabra, or Nubians. —Somali.— Denkali.—Galla.—
M’Kuafi.—Mussai.—Other Ethiopians - - 5 -

CHAPTER XI.

The Hottentot Race - = c a i : 3 s

CHAPTER XII.
The Abyssinian Race - - - - - 2 0 =

CHAPTER XIII.

The White or Arabian Race.—European Colonists.—Hebrews.—Armenians,—
Assyrians, — Moguls.— Afghans. —Sikhs. — Parsees.—The Arab countries.—

Europe : : 2 5 2 2 é é 3

CHAPTER XIV.

Association of the races. —Their numerical proportions - - - -

CHAPTER XV.

Relations between the races - 2 2 : :

CHAPTER XVI.

The geographical progress of knowledge - - . - -

CHAPTER XVII.

Migrations by sea - - - - - z :

CHAPTER XVIII.

Migrations by land - - - . a

CHAPTER XIX.

The origin of agriculture - - : 3

CHAPTER XX.

Zoological deductions - - - 2 : ‘4 c

182

203

219

221

225

272

277

281

286

293

299

302

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XXI.

The introduced animals and plants of America - : - - -

CHAPTER XXII.

The introduced animals and plants of the islands of the Pacific - -

CHAPTER XXIII.

The introduced animals and plants of Equatorial Africa - - -

CHAPTER XXIV.

The introduced animals and plants of Southern Arabia - - -

CHAPTER XXV.

The antiquities, and the introduced animals and plants of Hindoostan.—The
Budhist caves.—The Braminical caves.—Domestic animals and plants of
Ancient India.—Introduced plants of modern India - - - -

CHAPTER XXVI.

The introduced animals and plants of Egypt, enumerated in chronological order -

vil

307

313

340

346

349

366

LIST OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS.

Map, coloured to represent the Geographical Distribution of the Races of Man.

Prare I.—A Man of the Kalapuya Tribe. From a drawing, taken in Oregon, by A. T.
Agate.

Prare I].—A Kalapuya lad. From a drawing, taken in Oregon, by A. T. Agate,

Prate IIl.—David Malo. From a drawing, taken at the Hawaiian Islands, by A. T.
Agate. ’

Pirate [V.—Maleka. From a drawing, taken at the Hawaiian Islands, by A. T. Agate.

Pirate V.—Willilnga, a native of the Interior of Australia. From a drawing, taken by
A. T. Agate.

Pratre VI.—Ko Mbeti. From a drawing, taken at the Feejee Islands, by A. T. Agate.

Prate VII.—A Feejee girl. From a drawing, by A. T. Agate.

Prats VII[.—An Aramanga lad. From a drawing, taken at Tongataboo, by J. Drayton.

Pirate [X.—Tlolo-ki, a native of Western Africa; who was brought from Mina to Rio
Janeiro. From a drawing, by A. T. Agate.

Prats X.—A Bisharee woman. From a drawing, taken at the Third Cataract of the
Nile, by E. Prisse.

Pirate XI.—A Bosjesman Hottentot lad. From a daguerreotype.

Prate XII.—An Abyssinian, From a drawing, taken in Egypt, by E. Prisse.

WOOD-CUTS.

Pacer 42,—Of a sculptured rock, in Oregon.

Pace 105.—Of the pattern of Californian tattooing.

PacE 291.—Of an Arab dow.

Pace 352.—Of an ancient umbrella, figured in the Caves of India.

Pace 353.—Of three ancient inscriptions, in the Caves of India.

ae srCAM HPSTORY OF MAN:

CHeAyP TE Reel.

ENUMERATION OF THE RACES.

TuREE races of men are familiarly known in the United States, and
are admitted by general consent. The same three physical races
have been considered by eminent naturalists, (who, however, have not
travelled), to comprise all the varieties of the human family. Blumen-
bach has indicated a fourth race, the Malay; and even a fifth has
been shadowed forth in the accounts of the Australian Seas. It was
impossible, however, from the materials furnished by books, to define
the geographical boundaries of these races; a point which seemed of
importance, as forming in a good degree the basis of our reasoning
on the whole subject.

This then was one of the objects of investigation I proposed to
myself on joining the Exploring Expedition; and my previous ex-
perience as a naturalist, a pursuit calling for the constant exercise of
the powers of discrimination, gave me some advantages in conducting
the inquiry.

At one time during the voyage, I thought my task nearly accom-
plished; and after visiting Australia and New Zealand, I actually

3

10 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

penned an opinion, that the races of men were five in number. Soon,
however, I was compelled to admit three more: neither was this the
limit of the productiveness of nature, in new and undreamt of com-
binations of feature.

More careful observation than at the outset had seemed necessary,
was now called into requisition ; and often, for a time, I experienced
perplexity. One difficulty arose, in fixing in the mind, while passing
from place to place, the relative shades of complexion. Fortunately
for my purpose, tattooing was practised in many of the countries
visited, and these markings afforded a convenient test of the depth of
hue. Individuals also, of three or more races being present among
the crews of our vessels, afforded the means of making some direct
comparisons. In the end all difficulties vanished, and I was enabled
to arrive at satisfactory conclusions.

It should be observed, that in the countries visited by the Expedi-
tion, the inhabitants present among themselves great uniformity of
feature and complexion. While in the Arab countries and in Western
Hindostan, there is an astonishing diversity of aspect in the popula-
tion ; independently, to all appearance, of the great mixture of races.
The mountain region of Abyssinia, is said likewise to present a
seemingly heterogeneous population; but in all the countries which I
have myself visited, the varieties of feature have appeared susceptible
of reduction to the arrangement adopted in the present work.

I have seen in all eleven races of men; and though I am hardly
prepared to fix a positive limit to their number, I confess after having
visited so many different parts of the globe, that Iam at a loss where
to look for others. They may be enumerated conveniently enough
in the order of complexion; and beginning with the lightest, I will
add, some of the more obvious distinctive characters.

a. White.

1. Arapian. ‘The nose prominent, the lips thin, the beard abun-
dant, and the hair straight or flowing.

2. Abyssinian. ‘The complexion hardly becoming florid; the nose
prominent, and the hair crisped.

Dsl

ENUMERATION OF THE RACES. ll

b. Brown.

3. Moncouian. Beardless, with the hair perfectly straight and
very long.

4. Horrentot. Negro features, and close woolly hair; and the
stature diminutive.

5. Matay. Features not prominent in the profile; the complexion
darker than in the preceding races, and the hair straight or flowing.

c. Blackish-brown.

6. Papuan. Features not prominent in the profile; the beard
abundant, the skin harsh to the touch, and the hair crisped or
frizzled.

7. NEGrRILLo. Apparently beardless; the stature diminutive, the
features approaching those of the Negro, and the hair woolly.

8. Inp1an or TeELIncAN. The features approaching those of the
Arabian ; and the hair in like manner, straight or flowing.

9. Erutoptan. The complexion and features intermediate between
those of the Telingan and Negro; and the hair crisped.

d. Black.

10. AusrraLian. Negro features, but combined with straight or
flowing hair.

11. Necro. Close-woolly hair; the nose much flattened, and the
lips very thick.

In an absolute sense, the terms ‘ white and black,’ are both inappli-
cable to any shade of the human complexion; but they are sanctioned
by general usage, and there may be some convenience in retaining
the above four general divisions. Two of the races may therefore be
designated as white, three as brown, four as blackish-brown, and two
as black.

12 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Five of the races have the hair straight or flowing; while in the
others it is more or less crisped, and in two of them it may with pro-
priety be termed wool.

Other modes of associating the races may be also mentioned. Mari-
time habits, and the part they appear to have taken in colonizing the
globe, would lead us to separate the Malay, Negrillo, and Papuan ; or
the three island, from the eight continental races.

Again, looking to their distribution over the surface of the globe:
six of the races may be regarded as Asiatic or Kast Indian, and four
as African; the eleventh (the White race) being in common, or hold-
ing geographically an intermediate position.

‘The existence of races, it should be observed, is a phenomenon in-
dependent of climate. All the physical races that occur in cold re-
gions can be traced by continuity to the ‘Tropics; where, moreover,
we find other races in addition.

By the same evidence of geographical continuity, the population of
one hemisphere can be satisfactorily derived from the other; but a
difficulty arises in narrowing the circle. On the one hand, it seems
quite impossible to trace the four African races to any part of Asia;
and on the other, it will be equally difficult to connect the Mon-
golian race with the African continent.

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CASE eR ee

EXPLANATION OF THE MAP.

Tue geographical distribution of these eleven races of men, Is re-
presented on the accompanying map, by different colours. I have
preferred, for this purpose, an unusual projection; on account of its
exhibiting at one view, the true area of the surface of the globe, or in
other words, the relative size of the different countries.

I have inscribed on the map, my own route of travel, in order that
it may readily be perceived, when I speak from my own knowledge ;
in which case only can I be held responsible for my opinion. Wher-
ever I have seen for myself, all difficulties have disappeared ; not so
in various instances, where I have been obliged to decide on conflict-
ing statements. In general I have found oral testimony more satis-
factory, in the present inquiry, than books. But I would here state,
that I yet feel much uncertainty, about the tribes inhabiting the im-
portant range of islands between Timor and the Solomon Group,
both inclusive.

The dotted lines are intended to illustrate the subject of the diffu-
sion of mankind over the globe; marking such as are presumed to
have been the main routes of migration, by land and sea.

All coasts may be referred to three principal divisions; which are
likewise represented, but without pretension to minute accuracy.
These are the alluvial, the rocky (exclusively or alternating), and the
coral-bound. ‘The coasts of the latter description, | am enabled to give
chiefly through the assistance of Mr. Dana; and they deserve atten-
tion as having an important bearing, to be hereafter noticed, on
human migrations.

The phases of climate, varying especially in the proportions of
moisture, partition out the soil and its vegetable growth, into three
well-marked divisions. 1. There are countries, which are almost en-

4

14 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tirely devoid of vegetation. 2. Other extensive regions are more or
less covered with herbage, or produce scattered bushes and stunted
woody plants, but are destitute of proper forests. 3. A third descrip-
tion of territory is in its natural state, clothed with continuous woods.
This state of things is likewise represented on the map, not merely
from its connexion with geographical botany, but as a point emi-
nently illustrative of the history and present condition of the human
family.

Art indeed cuts down the forest, and encroaches slightly on the
barren territory; but yet the above three natural divisions will
very nearly correspond with desert, pastoral, and agricultural coun-
tries. It is a mistake to suppose, with many, that pastoral or nomadic
life is a stage in the progressive improvement of society. The condi-
tion is inscribed upon the face of nature; and widely-extended re-
gions minister to the wants of man, where nevertheless cultivation is
impossible.

‘Take, for instance, the vast interior of the Hastern continent. We
have in the first place, a great desert tract extending through
Northern Africa, Arabia, and Western India; the domain of the
Barabra, Tuarick, and Arab. ‘The presence of man in this terrestrial
void, is often solely dependent on the milk of the camel. Next fol-
lows on the north and east, a pastoral region of still greater extent ;
where the face of nature is somewhat softened, so that the horse and
bullock can obtain sustenance; and hence the development of the
Tartar or Scythian tribes. Continue the survey on the map towards
the borders of the continent, and there will not, I apprehend, be any
difficulty in distinguishing the principal seats of population and na-
tional power.

In proceeding to the consideration of separate races, I shall adopt
an arrangement partly geographical, and shall refer to these several
heads, such miscellaneous observations as have appeared worthy of .
preservation.

LS Beploring Lapedition. The MONGOLIAN Race. PIL, 1.

A. Kalapuya man.

A nahve of Oregon.

WHDougal Sc.

US Eaploring Lapediiow, The MONGOLIAN Race. Pi, I.

A KWalapuva lad.

A native of Vregor.

WHDougal Sc

Cl AP Te LL:

THE MONGOLIAN RACE.

I nave thought to distinguish in the Mongolian race physical traits
and a style of feature, at variance in some respects with those of the
remaining series of races.

One of these peculiarities consists in the occurrence of a feminine
aspect in both sexes. In the absence of any striking difference in
stature or dress, I have often seen the stranger at a loss to distinguish
men from women; a difficulty not depending altogether on the absence
of a beard, and which, so far as my observation extends, does not take
place in the other races.

The well-characterized Mongolian head is less compressed at the
sides than is the head in the other races, so that when viewed in front,
it presents a more rounded contour, ‘The forehead recedes; but in
continuation of a general curve from the chin upwards; and it fre-
quently happens, that the nose is likewise arched. ‘The latter withal
is less prominent than in the White race, and the lips are somewhat
thicker.

The complexion is always sufficiently light to show a flush, and
in the far North, it sometimes becomes decidedly florid. ‘This is said
to be the case with the coast-tribes of Northwest America; and indeed,
I have seen among them two females, in all probability of unmixed
race, who from their fair complexion might very well have passed for
Europeans.

The Mongolian is pre-eminently a beardless race, the chin often
remaining perfectly smooth, even to extreme age. In the instances
where a thin beard does make its appearance, | have never seen it
attaining a greater length than two or three inches, and it was always
perfectly straight. The hair also has appeared to me more uniformly

16 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

straight, and to have a tendency to grow longer than in the other
races; when left to itself, I think it will, not unfrequently, reach the
ground.

As to the ‘oblique eye,’ so generally spoken of as charact-ristic of
the Chinese, I have found it among them in some instances, and also
among the Chinooks of Northwest America; but I have not been able
to make much use of it as a distinctive character. I have moreover
seen individuals of the Malay race, having their eyes small and as if
half-closed, and I am induced to think some confusion may have
arisen from this source. I was not more successful with the alleged
“absence of a projecting inner angle to the lids,” which has likewise
been spoken of as a Chinese peculiarity. ‘Some writers have found a
want of clearness in the sclerotica, or ‘ white of the eye,’ of the abo-
riginal American: a point I have not examined, but which seems to
deserve attention.

For characteristic figures of Mongolians, I would particularly refer
to West’s paintings of aboriginal Americans; so far, at least, as I can
judge from copies.

The Arctic Regions seem exclusively possessed by the Mongolian
race; which besides, is diffused through a greater variety of climates
than any other, and over a far larger area. ‘This comprises about one
half of Asia, and with a slight exception all aboriginal America, or more
than two-fifths of the land-surface of the globe. Notwithstanding the
recent encroachments, the greater portion of the American continent
is still inhabited by Mongolian tribes; and while some of them
wander towards the North, farther than civilized man has hitherto
been able to follow, others are still the nearest dwellers to the Southern

Pole.

BRAZIL.

In conforming, wherever it is practicable, to the order of the Voy-
age, Brazil is the first place that claims attention. During a stay of
six weeks at Rio Janeiro, including journeys to and beyond the Organ
Mountains, I did not meet with the least traces of aboriginals; neither
on inquiry, could I hear of the presence of an individual in the city.
Some, it was said, were living at the distance of two or three days’
journey, who might have been visited, had other objects been aban-
doned.

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 147,

PATAGONIA,

I was again unsuccessful in meeting with aboriginals during our
short and interrupted visit to the Rio Necro, in North Patagonia;
but I learned that some civilized natives were residing at the Spanish
village, about twenty miles from the mouth of the river.

Incursions are sometimes made by distant tribes, for the purpose of
stealing horses; and one of the pilots had been in a conflict with a
party of these marauders. He represented them as being “all horse-
men, armed only with a long pike. They use the war-cry of ‘cha
cha,’ and they charge in a body at a chosen point, too impetuously to
be resisted ; but having broken through the opposing line, they con-
tinue their course without giving further trouble.”

Mr. Coan, of the Hawaiian mission, once spent some months in
SouTHerN Pataconia, with the tribe bordering on the Straits of
Magellan, (the same repeatedly mentioned in the Voyage of the
Beagle), and I am indebted to him for the following particulars.
“The Patagonian tribes do not appear to have bloody wars; but he
once witnessed a severe fight between two individuals, unarmed.
The stature of these people is nothing unusual, but it is exaggerated
by their peculiar mode of dress. ‘They are all horsemen, but having
no canoes, they cannot pass the Straits: the Fuegians do this some-
times, when they are seized and reduced to slavery. ‘The Araucanians
never cross the Andes into this country, neither do the Patagonians
visit theirs. A native, who was acquainted with the whole of Pata-
gonia, and who had acquired some Spanish words at the settlements
on Rio Negro, informed Mr. Coan that he once made the attempt; and
that he ‘reached a place beyond which his horse could not proceed
from the want of feed, and further on there was only snow.”

THE ANTARCTIC OR MAGELLANIC WATERMEN.

The great chain of the Andes, considered as continuous throughout
all America, terminates with singular symmetry, North and South,
in a high broken border-archipelago; presenting a labyrinth of sounds
and channels that affords room for the development of a maritime

population.

umn

18 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The Southern Watermen, or the Fuegians, are far less advanced
in the art of navigation than their Northern brethren. Their canoes
are smaller, and inferior in construction. They are not known to
venture forth into the open sea; and even the Falkland Islands, al-
though so near the coast, appear to have remained unvisited by them.
Something, indeed, should be allowed, for the more tempestuous cha-
racter of the surrounding Southern Ocean.

In February, 1839, the Vincennes came to anchor in Orange Har-
bour; and on the day of our arrival, a small canoe made its appear-
ance, coming from the direction of the islet of Cape Horn, which was
nearly in sight. I was on shore at the time; and before I could reach
the ship’s side, the canoe departed, without giving me a distinct view
of the occupants. During the nine following days, that elapsed be-
fore the sailing of the Relief, no other natives made their appearance ;
and notwithstanding I landed at different points almost every day,
and extended my walks as far as six miles inland, the whole country
appeared to be a solitude.

Sometimes, however, in following the coast, [ would come upon a
deserted hut; scarcely distinguishable in the midst of the rank growth
of herbaceous plants, and always situated immediately in the rear of
the beach. In shape it was hemispherical, having the apex unfinished
for the passage of smoke; and it seemed to be the work of but a few
hours with the unassisted hands. <A heap of mussels and hmpets
uniformly encumbered the entrance, and indicated the chief support
of the proprietors. A foot-path was in general traceable, not leading
inland, but only to the water’s edge; and in a single instance a weed
remained behind, a Nettle, that had been unintentionally transported
from its native soil. Such was the only change man had here wrought
upon the face of nature.

By what means the Fuegians procure fire, so precious in this chilly
and humid climate, [ am’ uninformed; but the process would seem to
be difficult, since they are careful always to take a supply in their
canoes. At first it appeared a surprising circumstance, that living
where snow is not unfrequent, and so near the Antarctic circle, these
people should be entirely destitute of clothing! And no fact so
plainly disclosed the absence of the severe winters of the North. In-
deed we afterwards found, that in the Southern hemisphere, vegetation
is nowhere checked by a season of cold; but that in many respects, a
tropical climate may be said to extend to the Antarctic snows.

After the sailing of the Rehef, the natives made their appearance

THE MONGOLIAN RACE, 19

more frequently ; and from oral descriptions, and the drawings of the
artists, I was enabled to satisfy myself of the physical identity with
our Northern aboriginals. I was, however, particularly struck with
the following testimony, obtained after spending two years among
the tribes of the Pacific and Southern Oceans; when having again
directed our course to America, we arrived in the Straits of De Fuca.
On here viewing the Chinooks, a highly intelligent and observing
officer remarked in my hearing, “that he could not discover much
difference between them and the Fuegians; they appeared to him
essentially the same sort of people.”

Among the few articles manufactured by the Fuegians of Orange
Harbour, we observed that the strzmgs are exclusively of animal fibre.
And that the weapons consist only of sings and spears ; the latter
used apparently not for the purposes of war, but for procuring fish,
and perhaps seals. The spear-heads are formed of the solid bone of
some marine animal; and in shape and mode of attachment, they pre-
sent an obvious analogy to the bone-pointed arrows and salmon-spears
of Northwest America. <A further unexpected analogy is perceived
in the shape of the paddles ; the Fuegians making the blade even nar-
rower than do the Northwestern tribes.

The Relief, previous to my going on board, had touched at Goop-
succEss Bay, at the eastern extremity of Terra del Fuego. And the
“superior stature and condition” of the natives seen at that place,
induced eye-witnesses to suppose, that they belonged to a different
class from the people frequenting Orange Harbour. Indeed the pos-
session of bows and arrows, and the wearing of the skins of land
quadrupeds, indicate a hunting tribe; or at least, one not altogether
depending on the products of the sea. ‘They were perhaps a speci-
men of the tribes which frequent the unknown Interior of the main
island of ‘Terra del Fuego. |

The dows obtained at Good-success Bay are simply of wood; with-
out the addition of sinew. The arrows are pointed with flint-stoue,
and are of the usual American pattern; but they are feathered only
on two sides, and the shaft is more highly finished and more beautiful
than I have seen it in the North. A hank of yarn, made apparently
of the wool of the guanaco, was worn by the natives on the head.
But the manufacture of /eather does not appear to have reached these
Southern tribes.

20 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The presence of the dog among the tribes inhabiting this extreme
point of America, is another fact that deserves attention.

CHILI

The White race is evidently far in the ascendency in Northern
Chili; and I looked for some time among the population of Valparaiso
and Santiago, before I could distinguish traces of the aboriginal stock.
It was novel and interesting to perceive one physical race thus quietly
giving place to another, without outrage or oppression.

Mixed blood cannot, however, be called rare in Northern Chili;
and at the foot of the Andes, I found whole families that appeared
to be purely aboriginal; though in their houses, customs, and mode
of living, they did not differ from the other inhabitants of the country.
It afterwards became evident, that the semi-civilization of ancient
Peru, had aboriginally extended its influence over Northern Chili.

PERU.

In Peru, on the other hand, I found a preponderance of aboriginal
blood ; especially at a distance from Lima, and on approaching the
Andes. Yet neither singly nor collectively, did the original stock
appear to have much political weight, or to have taken any very pro-
minent part in the recent history of the country. Certain peculiar
customs have indeed universally prevailed; but otherwise no obvious
trace remains of the institutions of the Incas, even in the districts
where their language continues to be spoken.

By an exception to the usual tendency of European civilization,
there are grounds for questioning, whether Peru has altogether gained
by the change. Personal security certainly does not appear to have
been promoted; and notwithstanding the introduction of new useful
animals and plants, agriculture seems to have been fully as flourishing
under the rule of the Incas.

In company with others I made an excursion to the crest of the
Andes, where we experienced heavy frosts and frequent snows; which

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 91

moreover perpetually invested the projecting peaks. The moist and
chilly climate reminded us of Terra del Fuego ; and as in that region,
wild geese were feeding on the close-set herbage. During the three
nights we passed at Casa Cancha, most of our party suffered from
the ‘puna;’ an affection accompanied with headache, fever, and vomit-
ing, in some respects analogous to sea-sickness, as it is apt to accom-
pany a first introduction to these heights.

While ascending on foot to the mine of Alpamarca, we remarked
the frequent necessity of resting, for the sake of taking breath. The
cause did not seem difficult of explanation. Tor, at the elevation of
fifteen thousand feet, the atmosphere had lost one half of its density,
so that we were obliged to double the number of our inspirations, to
procure our accustomed supply of air. The English superintendent
stated, that ‘a residence of years does not relieve this shortness of
breath, and inability of long-continued muscular exertion, and that the
aboriginals born on the spot suffer equally with strangers.” I have,
however, been assured by Mr. Quimby, who has travelled much
arnong the Andes, that a “perceptible tendency to enlargement of
the chest, has been remarked among the people of the mining dis-
tricts.”

Coca, (which consists of the leaves of the Erythroxylon mixed with
lime,) formed the resource and consolation of the miners of Alpamarca ;
and its use, in preference to tobacco, had extended to European resi-
dents. I was here first struck with the superior powers of endurance
of the aboriginal American ; an important item, as it has appeared to
me, in the profitable working of the South American mines. I did
not learn the precise footing on which the aboriginals are employed
in Peru, but I was assured that “they are very rarely slaves.”

I visited also several abandoned Inca villages in the vicinity of
Lima; together with Pacnicamac, which appears to have been the
aboriginal capital of the district. The cemetery at this place deserves
attention, as the climate is favourable to the preservation of relics;
and as it does not seem probable that bodies have been placed here
subsequently to the Spanish conquest, or the conversion. I remarked
among the articles exhumed, a small roundish gourd-shell having a
square opening, precisely as it is now seen in the Lima market. Also
a short-eared black variety of mazze, which is still common; and
another variety having the grains slightly pointed. The Pachya bean ;
and a free-seeded variety of the cotton-plant. Fragments of woven

6

22 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

cloth, all of cotton, but of various degrees of fineness, and even of dif-
ferent colours; among which d/we was distinguishable. Iish-nets also
of cotton, and made after the usual method, which is common alike
to Europeans, Polynesians, and Feejeeans. And a neatly made sing,
which was the only semblance of an implement of war, though pro-
bably not so intended: slings, it has already been observed, are used
by the Fuegians, but not, that I am aware of, by our North American
tribes.

Stone hatchets, very similar to those found in the United States,
occur among the antiquities of Peru; a circumstance unexpected in
a people acquainted with the use of metals; though we may note
the possibility of their belonging to the anterior period of Peruvian
history.

A head-dress, stated to have belonged to “ Atahualpa, the last of the
Incas,” has recently been sent to Washington; and it is here men-
tioned, on account of the analogy in the style of ornament, to the
bands of Dentalium shells of Northwest America.

The knowledge of metals in aboriginal America, appears to have been
almost exclusively confined to Peru and Mexico, with the interven-
ing countries. ‘The value especially attached to the ‘ precious metals’
by the natives of these countries, is a suspicious circumstance ; which
even tends to invalidate the supposition of any independent develop-
ment of civilization. It should be observed, that the knowledge of

metals has certainly not been derived through the islands of the

Pacific ; for they scarcely afford traces of ores, and even metallic im-
plements do not appear to have been aboriginally conveyed beyond
the western extreme of New Guinea. Extending now these limits
so as to include Australia, and I think we have nearly defined the
portion of the globe whose inhabitants were found by Europeans to
be destitute of metals.

I do not know whether precious stones were anywhere prized in
aboriginal America; but they are among the articles which travelled
furthest during the early period of commercial intercourse: and by
tracing them to their several localities, additional light may here-
after be thrown on certain portions of history.

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 23

THE NORTHWESTERN OR ALEUTIAN WATERMEN.

In 1841, as the Vincennes approached the entrance of the Straits of
De Fuca, a good deal of interest was excited by the appearance of a
canoe. As it drew near, a report spread “that there were White men
on board ;” and indeed, after having been for two years accustomed to
the personal appearance of the Polynesians, we all noticed the su-
perior lightness of complexion, together with the greater length of
hair. The novelty of hats, next engaged attention; and perhaps it
was their conical shape, combined with the short stout person, and
the general style of dress, that brought to mind representations of
Siberian tribes. The fashion, however, of the conical hat, extends
further than the opposite coast of Asia; and we subsequently had
occasion to notice it in various parts of the Hast Indies.

After the soft languages and rapid enunciation of the islanders, the
Chinooks presented a singular contrast in the slow, deliberate manner
in which they seemed to choke out their words; giving utterance to
sounds, some of which could scarcely be represented by combinations
of known letters. Their deportment was hardly less unlike ; espe-
cially in the absence of a salutation, and of all signs of approbation at
anything they saw. As we proceeded up the Straits, canoes fre-
quently came around, bringing, as subsequently, an abundant supply
of fish. Sometimes the occupants seemed to be attracted by curiosity ;
but they were always eager to traffic away the various articles in their
possession, although to our eyes the result seemed increased impover-
ishment.

The Vincennes anchored in Discovery Harbour; and shortly after-
wards I went on shore. Unlike the state of things in Terra del
Fuego, paths were seen leading in various directions; and I shall not
soon forget the rush of sensations, on my first interview in the forest,
with the aboriginal proprietor. On returning to the strand, I observed
that a party bringing rails and mats in their canoes, had established
a temporary encampment. Indeed the whole details of aboriginal
life, contributed to render this day memorable. Scarcely two cen-
turies ago, our New England shores presented only scenes like that
before me ; and what was to be the result of the lapse of the third?

Q4 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

As the Vincennes proceeded to the head of navigation, I landed at
various points, and had other interviews with these maritime people.
One thing about them was very striking; the air of quietness that
attached to their residences, and all their movements. They appeared
to live as it were, on a good understanding with the birds and beasts,
or as if forming part and parcel of the surrounding animal creation:
a point in correspondence with an idea previously entertained, that
the Mongolian has peculiar qualifications for reclaiming, or reducing
animals to the domestic state.

The want of personal cleanliness, usual with the North American
tribes, was sufliciently obvious. It is true, the lighter complexion
shows dirt more conspicuously than does that of the Polynesian ; and in
a chilly climate, it is not strange that sea-bathing should be avoided.
Veindovi, our Feejee captive, after getting over his astonishment at
the sight of so much land, imbibed a profound contempt for the Chi-
nooks: though on one occasion, he condescended to initiate some of
them into the art of using vermilion.

On our return to the vicinity of Discovery Harbour, I was fortu-
nate enough to fall in with one of the permanent stockaded villages.
It was built in a concealed situation, on the bank of a small stream of
fresh water, that afforded access by canoe; and it was not far from
the anchorage at Dungeness. It appeared to be the proper home of
all the natives we had seen within many miles; amounting, perhaps,
to as many as three hundred persons.

In one of the houses I witnessed the remarkable treatment to which
the Chinook infants are subjected; being confined to a wooden re-
ceptacle, with a pad tightly bandaged over the forehead and eyes,
so that it is alike impossible for them to see or to move: and I further
remarked, that when the child is suspended according to usage, its
head is actually in a lower position than the feet.

Some of the men had their faces blackened, and I thought at first
they were not pleased with my visit. However, I was conducted
freely about the village; and afterwards to an enclosure, of about a
quarter of an acre planted with potatoes, in which they seemed to
take a deal of pride. The art of cultivation was recent in this quarter ;
it having been communicated, not without some pains on the part of
the Hudson Bay Company, through Catholic missionaries.

On returning towards the ship, I observed a skull lying on the beach;
a circumstance that surprised me, as I was aware that these tribes
take much pains in the disposal of their dead. On pointing it out

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. Q5

to my attendant native, he looked sorrowful, and made some gestures
which I thought referred to the common lot of mortality. He also
showed me the marks of a wound, received by him, as well as I could
make out, in an engagement with a Northern tribe.

The Vincennes touched at CLasset, just within the entrance of the
Straits, and where the capture of whales is chiefly carried on. The
natives here were more numerous, more insolent, and had acquired a
greater number of English words than those living further up the
Straits. Several had a ring through the septum of the nose; others
had trinkets in the ears; and others again, had the face fancifully
marked with lines of soot, somewhat after the pattern of New Zea-
land tattooing. Arrows were kept in flat wooden boxes, with the hd
set in; and I observed also, the double-pointed arrow, for shooting
fish. Mantles were procured here, made of vegetable fibre, perhaps
bark; similar, but of inferior workmanship to those of New Zealand.
A jealousy was found to exist at Classet, between the two principal
men of the tribe, and one spoke of the other as a ‘small Indian.’

All the natives inhabiting the southern shore of the Straits, and
the deeply indented territory as far and including the tide-waters of
the Columbia, may be comprehended under the general term of Chi-
nooks: though various minor subdivisions are recognised. They were
found to hold some aboriginal commerce with the inland tribes; and
they appear to have enemies only in the North, in the ‘Yookulty’
or Nootka people. I did not myself see the Chinooks of the Lower
Columbia; but the only particular difference I have found in the ac-
counts of them, consists in the substitution of the water-proof basket,
(derived apparently with other arts and customs, from California,) for
the square wooden bucket of the Straits.

The Chinook canoes were distinguishable, in the distance, from
the Polynesian, by the oblique position in which the paddle is held ;
the end moreover, in making a sweep, being elevated above the plane
of the horizon. On two occasions we were surprised by the approach
of a canoe larger than usual, some of the men standing and flourish-
ing their paddles, and all singing in chorus, in a loud clear voice:
these canoes were found to contain principal men, or chiefs. Sails
were very rarely seen; and one of matting, which we procured, has
been pronounced to be of the ‘ Russian pattern :’ so that there is room
for doubt, whether the use of sails is aboriginal in this part of

7

296 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

America. ‘The Chinook canoes are of wood and from a single trunk,
and their construction has been much admired. By what means they
are excavated, or the split boards for the houses procured, we did not
ascertain. We saw no stone hatchets in Oregon.

The Chinook household mats, like the Californian, are made of
rushes (Scirpus lacustris), placed side by side, and strung at inter-
vals; somewhat after the pattern of Canton matting. ‘The Chinooks
have ‘wampum’ of the usual description; but strings and bands of
Dentalium shells, of somewhat similar model, seem principally to sub-
serve the purposes of money. ‘They have the same art of preparing
soft leather as our Eastern tribes, but being much exposed to wet,
they use it for clothing more sparingly. ‘They likewise weave blankets
and belts, principally from the wool of the Mountain Goat (Capra
Americana, an animal said to be abundant to the northward); and I
thought I could perceive in the tissue, some correspondence with the
Peruvian cloth. ‘These blankets are diversified with angular figures
of aboriginal pattern; and on examination, it appeared, that the red,
sreen, yellow, and blue yarn, had been procured from traders ; while
the black yarn seemed to be the hair of their shaggy dogs, a material
otherwise reported to be used for this purpose. The latter circum-
stance, together with the use of the dog as a beast of burden in the
far North, is possibly connected with the aboriginal introduction of
the animal into the American continent.

The Chinooks appear to be unacquainted with the art of dyeing, but
they have some aboriginal paints ; such as the black and the dull-red
colours, used in ornamenting their hats, canoes, masks, and other im-
plements. ‘The other colours we observed, may have been obtained
from traders.

Sufficient has already been stated of the Chinooks, to show their
ereater advancement in, the arts, over the hunting tribes of North
America; but some of their ingenious devices for procuring fish and
game, may be here noticed. We observed tall masts set up in par-
ticular situations, “‘to intercept, by means of connecting nets, the
flight of waterfowl at night.” A sort of fish-rake was successfully
employed; but we saw nothing of fish-nets or seines, and indeed the
sudden deepening of the water is unfavourable to their use. A pecu-
liar mode of ‘spearing,’ or rather of noosing sturgeon, at surprising
depths, was repeatedly spoken of: together with a method of captur-
ing the whale, an exploit never dreamed of by the islanders of the

Pacific, who are otherwise by no means deficient 1n enterprise.
*

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. Q7

Specimens of ornamental carving in clay-stone, executed by the
Chinooks, have become common in museums. ‘Those now obtained,
represent little else than the novel objects introduced through EKu-
ropean intercourse; and the original patterns appear to have been
abandoned. Specimens of anterior date are therefore more inte-
resting, and they usually consist of figures of grotesque imaginary
quadrupeds, strangely grouped together; to which, it has been sup-
posed “that some meaning now lost, was formerly attached.” Some
stone saucers, obtained by the Expedition, although not free from the
suspicion of borrowed ideas, serve to remind us that genius is not the
exclusive offspring of civilization.

Chinook skulls are well known in museums, from the remarkable
peculiarity of being artificially flattened. ‘This is accomplished du-
ring infancy, by the strange treatment already noticed. Children, in
consequence, sometimes presented a very remarkable appearance ;*
but as they grow up, the cranium tends to resume its natural shape,
so that the majority of grown persons hardly manifest the existence of
the practice. One effect, however, seemed to be permanently distin-
cuishable, in the unusual breadth of face.

The personal appearance of the Chinooks differs so much from that
of the aboriginal tribes of the United States, that it was difficult at
first to recognise the affinity. Taking them collectively, they are even
inferior in stature to the tribes of Interior Oregon; the general form is
shorter and more squat, and the face is rounder and broader when
viewed in front. Instances occurred of a fairness of complexion,
which I have not seen in other parts of aboriginal America; and
in young children, the colour was often not strikingly deeper than
among EKuropeans. ‘The oblique eye I have scarcely noticed in other
parts of America; nor such frequent difficulty in distinguishing men
from women, whether in youth or age. The arched nose was, how-
ever, very prevalent among the Chinooks. The beard was not always
absolutely wanting, but it occasionally attained the leneth of an inch
or more. One man had both beard and whiskers, quite thin, but full
two inches long ; and in other respects he much resembled some repre-
sentations I have seen of the Esquimaux. The portraits in the fourth
and fifth volumes of the Narrative (the Tatouche chief, Ramsey, and
George), give a very good idea of the usual appearance of the Chi-
nooks.

* See the portrait in the Narrative of the Expedition, vol. iv. p, 888.

Q8 PHYSICAL H&S TOR YOR iMeAN:

Slavery exists among the Chinooks, though from all accounts, in
a somewhat milder form than among their Northern neighbours. It
was reported, whether on sufficient authority I was unable to ascer-
tain, “that the descendants of slaves obtain freedom at the expira-
tion of three centuries, and that they have the means of keeping the
reckoning: and further, that slaves may in general be distinguished by
the head not being flattened, though they are careful to perform this
process on their children.” ‘The practice of slavery is possibly con-
nected with the first peopling of the American continent; and we are
at the precise geographical position which may be regarded in many
respects as the natural point of influx: but on this subject Mr. Hale’s
ethnographical map, considered in reference to the existence of a pass
over the Snowy range of mountains, affords further elucidation.

A surveying party having been despatched across the Straits, some
canoes of the Yookutty made their appearance, a circumstance said
to have produced a lively sensation among the accompanying Chi-
nooks ; but the operations of the survey were interrupted,. without the
opportunity of an interview. Some Nootka masks were procured
through a different source; and they are ornamented with pieces of
the Halyotis shell, which is likewise a favourite article with the coast
tribes of California.

Such is the superior mildness of the winter in this region, that the
H. B. Company’s steamboat runs through the inland channels as far
as latitude 58° N., throughout the year. Some marvellous accounts
were related to us of the more NorRTHERN TRIBES; of “their unwil-
lingness to admit any superiority in the White man; and of their
attempts to discover the motive power in the steamboat, after con-
structing various devices in imitation.” Eye-witnesses agreed in their
superior lightness of complexion over the Chinooks: and a tribe was
spoken of, who apply “pressure to the cranium in such a manner that
the top is elevated.” ‘That mechanical skill and refinement increase
on advancing North, is evident from the manufacture of another de-
scription of leather, from the richly embroidered cloaks, from the
paintings, and from the canoes, which will be spoken of hereafter.

With respect to the future prospects of these maritime tribes, the
greater deusity of a spirited population, and the scanty proportion of

A

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 29

agricultural territory, seem to promise a different fate from that which
has hitherto befallen their Continental brethren. They can only give
place to a maritime people, like themselves. It is certain that the
Chinooks are not altogether unaware of the threatening storm, and on
one occasion they gave us to understand that ‘we had no business
there; the land belonged to them.” In docility the tribes of North-
west America are not to be compared with the Polynesians; and they
are regarded by traders, as the “‘ most dangerous people in the Pacific,
after the Feejeeans.”

INTERIOR OREGON.

Preparations for a journey into the Interior having been completed,
our party, under the charge of Lieutenant Johnson, left the head of
Puget Sound, on the 20th of May, 1841. The natives selected to
accompany us, chiefly belonged to the Nisqua.iy tribe, a portion of
which was encamped in the neighbourhood of the fort; and we ob-
tained the assistance of two Canadian interpreters.

Even among the Chinooks, I had observed individuals who were
not readily distinguishable from the aboriginals of the United States ;
but now such instances occurred more frequently, and I remarked
taller forms, and independent of the absence of artificial pressure, a
more ‘ hard-featured,’ countenance. Indeed, I-could not make out any
physical difference from our Hastern tribes, except in the inferiority
of stature, everywhere observable in Oregon.

The country near the coast was interspersed with flowery prairies,
and afforded some game, chiefly deer; but as we approached the
mountains, the woods became continuous. In all this distance we
saw no villages, and but three or four habitations; and these, with
one exception, appeared to be deserted. Three or four individuals
were fallen in with on the way, and they were persuaded to join our
party. After some days, our natives became as jovial among them-
selves as so many Polynesians, and I once heard one of them hum-
ming a low plaintive tune. They combed their hair with a pronged
stick somewhat resembling a clothes-pin. ‘The Canadians on all oc-
casions, termed them ‘savages;’ and they had adopted the epithet,
unsuspicious of the implied opprobrium.

The path we followed had been but once previously traversed by
civilized man. It leads over the crest of the Snowy Range, which

8 ‘

30 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

at a point about twenty miles north of Mount Rainier, seems prac-
ticable for horses during four or five months of the year: and indeed,
the chief obstacle arises from young spruces, that prevent the snow
from settling around them in a solid mass. The passage was accom-
plished by transferring the luggage from the horses to the natives, an
extra number having been engaged for this purpose. It did not ap-
pear to have been remarked at the time, that there were slaves in the
party; and I afterwards had some reason to suspect, that one man
had been overloaded. However, they got through wonderfully well,
and were admitted by general consent, to have surpassed the Poly-
nesians. ‘The mode of carrying burdens was the same so general in
America, by means of a strap around the forehead.

Most of the horses eventually got through in safety. But in the
mean time, Lachemere, a native, was sent forwards to find a chief,
who resided at some distance below; and from whom we proposed to
purchase additional horses. Lachemere, although according to his
own account, in part Wallawalla, considered himself as belonging to
the Nisqually tribe. He bore a high character among the residents ;
and he accompanied us through the whole of our journey; and proved,
with Pierre Charles, the Canadian, the main reliance of our party.

We now proceeded along the bank of the Sprpen, and after two
days fell in with the chief we were in search of, who awaited our
approach. He was seated under a tree, in a pleasant spot of open
ground, where some horses were grazing ; and he received us with all
the state and dignity attributed to the former ‘sachems’ of New Eng-
land. His features were of the aboriginal type strongly pronounced,
and in fact were not unlike the portraits of Red-jacket, the Iroquois
chief. He inquired, “who was the greatest man,” our leader or the
principal of the Hudson Bay Company. And he said, that “his heart
was good, and that his people did not kill anybody.” On mentioning
a theft committed by one of our natives then present, he at first as-
sumed a severe look, but afterwards said, “that as he belonged to
another tribe, he could do nothing with him.” He traced on the sand
a map of the country through which we were to pass; and he gave
us news from Wallawalla, of the death of the superintendent of the
Fort. The interpreter added, that the chief’s “people lived alto-
gether in one town; and that he was formerly a very wicked man,
though now a great friend to the Whites, having been converted by
the missionaries.”

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 81

Having procured two or three additional horses, we left the Spipen ;
and turning northward, proceeded over a high rolling country, arid
and barren, and for the most part destitute of trees. On the first
elevated ground we fell in with an encampment of about fifty natives,
chiefly women and children, engaged in procuring and drying biscuit-
root; which was found to be a tolerable substitute for bread.

On the following day, we looked down into a broad valley, which
proved to be that of the Upper Yakima. In descending, we were
met by some men on horseback, and we here experienced the incon-
venience of a multiplicity of languages. A native had joined us on
the Spipen, but although living so near, he was able to communicate
with these persons only through a third language, known to one of
the opposite party. ‘This was then translated to Lachemere, and by
him through the traders’ jargon to the Canadians; and as the latter
spoke only Canadian French, the substance finally reached the Eng-
lish through the medium of five interpreters! Our new friends con-
ducted us to a considerable encampment on the river-bank, where we
procured an acceptable supply of salmon. ‘The pride of the village
was an aboriginal belle, and we were permitted a sight of herself and
finery : her dress was of buckskin, and entirely resembled the Oregon
female dress figured in the fourth volume of the Narrative. There
were no canoes, and as the stream was much swollen, recourse was
had to our portable balsas: and in the midst of our operations, an in-
genious attempt at theft failed of success. At this place we first met
with water-tight baskets.

We had been led to anticipate “oppressive heat in the interior
plains,’ but on the following morning, June 3d, we were surprised
with a fall of pellets of snow. Leaving the low grounds, the latter
half of this day was taken up in the gradual ascent of the broad oppos-
ing ridge, on the summit of which we encamped: the barometer,
unexpectedly, indicating a greater elevation than we had hitherto
reached.

On the morning of the 4th, we soon reached the eastern declivity,
and obtained a distant view of the Columbia River; or rather of its
position, for we could only see an enormous trench, winding through
the lower country. Indeed, the Columbia and its main branches are
everywhere sunk from one to two thousand feet below the general
level of the country, so that Interior Oregon is in reality a table-land.

832 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Continuing the descent, we arrived in the afternoon at the margin
of the river, a little below the mouth of the Piscous. The junction of
this large stream had given rise to an unusual circumstance, a spot of
ground that admitted of cultivation. A portion of it was planted with
potatoes; but we hunted grouse for some time around the place, be-
fore remarking the cabins of the proprietors.

For two days we proceeded along the western bank of the Colum-
bia; having been delayed in the first place by the Piscous, waiting for
a canoe; and some twenty miles above, another stream required the
same convenience. A little beyond, some natives were established,
then engaged in taking salmon: and Mr. Brackenridge observed the
mode of burial, which “differed essentially from the Chinook, the
graves being marked by a heap of stones surrounding an upright
post.” It was necessary at last to cross the main Columbia; and these
natives, having become dissatisfied, from some unknown cause, the
chief saying “his heart was bad,” were unwilling to lend us a canoe;
until they unexpectedly found us independent of them, in some mea-
sure, by the possession of balsas. One of our Canadians lost his gun ;
but it appeared literally to have been borrowed without leave, as sub-
sequently at the Company’s Post, it was considered recoverable. —

On the 7th, we left the river, and ascended to the plain above;
where we passed a night without water, except a little we had brought
with us, and almost without fuel. The country was more level than
that west of the Columbia, and somewhat green and grassy ; and but
for the scarcity of water, seemed well enough adapted for pasturage.

On the 8th, we arrived at OkonaGAN; where we found two White
men, Canadians, and the usual accompaniments of a trading-post, nu-
merous half-breeds, and a small encampment of natives outside the
stockade. Three or four ‘bateaus,’ of similar construction to our
river-boats of burden, were laid up on the bank. Canadians, it ap-
pears, are exclusively employed in navigating the Columbia; for the
knowledge the natives have of the river is local, extending only to
particular sections.

On the bank of the Okonagan River, a large tributary which enters
the Columbia at this place, I observed a ‘sweating-house.’ It was
low, rounded, and covered with clay, affording scarcely room for more
than a single person; and it might readily have been mistaken for the
work of a beaver, or some similar animal. ‘The steam was said to be
produced by means of heated stones.

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 33

We remained a day or two at the fort, and then reascended to
the grassy plain. Saline efflorescences were occasionally mixed
with the soil, yet were not found to affect sensibly the water of the
district. This was especially remarkable in the bottom of the “ Grande
Coulée,”’ where were ponds or small lakes, without outlets.

We sometimes got a view of distant hills in the North, on the bor-
ders of the country, which is here called New Cateponta. We were
told that these saline efflorescences extend into New Caledonia; and
reference was also made to sudden variations in the weather in that
country, “the ground being one day covered with a foot of snow,
while on the following, the green grass would be visible.” It is an
elevated region, shut out from the coast, by the Snowy range of moun-
tains: and from a box of minerals which was shown me at Okonagan,
its geological structure appears to be Primitive or Granitic.*

We saw no natives until we reached the mouth of the Spokane;
and indeed, throughout our whole journey, natives were only met with
where I have specified; a circumstance that will convey an idea of
the scarcity of inhabitants in Interior Oregon.

Scattered pines make their appearance along the Columbia as low
down as the point where we first left the river; but after crossing the
Spokane, I found them more abundant, and not confined to the im-
mediate banks ; presenting, with the absence of undergrowth, natural
parks, and some unexpected analogy to the Australian woods. A
single lodge was seen on the margin of the Columbia; and as' we ap-
proached CoLviLLE, two natives called to us from the opposite bank.
Colville is almost a village ; containing an outside row of buildings for
the accommodation of the Whites and half-breeds in the service of the
Company ; while the peculiar local circumstances at the head of the
‘Kettle Falls,’ permit the establishment of a farm. Our horses having
been brought up among the aboriginals, were quite unused to these
signs of civilization.

We remained three days at the fort, and then proceeded south about
sixty miles, to Chimikaine, the recent establishment of Messrs. [els
and Walker, of the American Mission. At a point about half way, we

* The Tanxaus, inhabiting the northern part of New Caledonia, are distinguished
among American tribes, by the remarkable peculiarity of burning their dead, This is
certainly an unexpected locality for a Hindoo custom; and it may be worth inquiry,
whether any connexion can be established through the Siberian tribes,

ae)

34 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

found an encampment of natives; where a woman, in place of the
Chinook plan of suspension, was swinging her child from side to
side ; and where we saw wampum, made of bird bones, and some tons
of ‘kamas root,’ stored in sacks neatly made of matting. In this dis-
trict, the natives “cut down the pines for the sake of the black lichen
(Alectoria?) which grows upon them, and which is made into bread,
or mixed with kamas in a sort of pudding.”

The Missionaries stated, that the ‘“ winter here began about the Ist
of November, and lasted till the middle of March ; and that there was
frost on the preceding 4th of June. But flowers, notwithstanding,
were to be found in the middle of February.”

A fine-looking old chief, well known from his respectable character,
and from his having been a great friend to the Whites, joined our
party at this place. He belonged to the tribe called PonpEREY by
the Canadians, which inhabit a district to the eastward.

On the 21st of June, we again set out, and after proceeding about
ten miles, we recrossed the SpokANE by means of a canoe left for the
convenience of travellers. ‘This river, throughout the greater part of
its course, very nearly coincides with the boundary of the open coun-
try. ‘To the eastward of the Spokane, the surface is more broken and
hilly, with rocks and scattered trees; a portion of territory sometimes
called the “ Blue Mountains.” On the other hand, the plain inter-
vening between the Spokane and the junction of the two branches of
the Columbia, is so monotonous, that ‘a native guide has hitherto been
found always necessary in crossing it.”

Our course was now parallel with the river; and on the second day,
we came upon a large encampment, containing about twenty lodges,
and perhaps three hundred natives. They were engaged in procuring
kamas, while numbers of horses were feeding around. Some of the
lodges were, as usual, of mats; and to my surprise, I saw also, buffalo
robes, and conical skin-lodges like those used on the Missouri. ‘This
place, however, is not within the range of the buffalo, although appa-
rently well adapted for them; and but “a single instance was on
record of a stray animal having been seen in the vicinity of Col-
ville.” Ever since leaving the Snowy Mountains, we had heard of
natives being absent “in the buffalo country,” but we now for the
first time saw evidence of these visits.

From some unexplained cause, game is almost wanting in Interior
Oregon; and in the course of a journey of eight hundred miles, the

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 35

only large quadruped we saw, was a solitary wolf. Antelopes, how-
ever, are occasionally procured by the natives. Notwithstanding
therefore, the ‘moccasin,’ and original ‘buckskin pantaloon,’ the
Oregon natives hardly merit the name of hunting tribes: neither,
indeed, can they strictly be termed wanderers. Salmon forms their
principal resource, eked out with kamas and other roots, so that a
certain round becomes necessary in procuring subsistence ; but a tribe
always occupies the same station at the same season of the year.*
Since the introduction of horses (derived from the Spaniards of New
Mexico), pasturage has in some degree influenced the selection.

A half-breed was living as a ‘free trapper’ with the band in ques-
tion; the first instance of the kind we had met with. He stated, that
“the party had come from the upper part of the Spokane River. Also,
that beaver were formerly common in all these streams, and were
caught by the natives by setting baskets; but owing to the introduc-
tion of beaver-traps, they had become almost extinct.”

We here had some difficulty with a native about the ownership
of one of our horses. The introduction of new and valuable pro-
perty, might be expected in the absence of law, to give rise to nu-
merous disputes; but whatever may be the case in dealings with
strangers, no difficulty, [ am assured, ‘has ever been known to arise
among the natives themselves.”

On the following day we passed a similar though smaller encamp-
ment, but being desirous of avoiding unnecessary trouble, we did not
visit it. Further on, we met a party in motion, with all their horses
and other property. Infants, on the board, were suspended to the
flanks of the horses, a practice said to be “derived from the eastern
side of the mountains ;” and the lodge-poles were disposed in such a
manner that one end was left trailing on the ground. Several of the
horses were spotted, black and white, such being favourites with the
Oregon natives.

On the 25th, we arrived at Lapwat, the mission establishment of
Mr. Spalding, situated on the Kooskoosky River. This was the first
stream flowing into the Western Ocean, reached by Lewis and Clarke;
and “the tradition of that expedition still remains among the natives;
of surprise at the personal appearance of the new-comers, and at the
sight of strong beards.” Nevertheless, it was said, that “no idea of
difference of race, such as is recognised by Europeans, ever enters

* See the Ethnography of the Expedition,

36 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

into the heads of the natives.”” Several ladies of the American mission
had travelled by land from the United States; and they were, I think,
the first White females seen in Oregon.

In the mission-house, we had a meeting of natives, to whom some
of the principal events of our Voyage were narrated; and with the
aid of a map, they seemed entirely to comprehend the course. As
some shadow of governmental protection might be useful to residents
in this remote quarter, the occasion of our visit was stated, in these
words: “our great father had sent out his ships to look after his chil-
dren in all parts of the world.” In return, they gave us some speci-
mens of native eloquence, which, however, did not come up to our
anticipations; the burden of their story seemed to be, that “they
were themselves a poor miserable people.” No one can be regarded
as altogether safe in the ‘Indian country ;’ and, from some supersti-
tious idea, a member of the Hudson Bay Company had been re-
cently assassinated.

Mr. Spalding had neat cattle and sheep, which thrive remarkably
well; also a mill, and a plot of ground cultivated by irrigation, a
novel idea to the farmer from the United States. A field of wheat
looked remarkably well, as also various garden vegetables; and maize
succeeds here, and even, it 1s said, at Colville, although it had hitherto
failed on the coast. Many of the natives had followed Mr. Spalding’s
example; and he gave them the character generally of being ‘an eg-
ceedingly industrious people.” Here was abundant evidence, were
any needed, that the North American tribes are in nowise averse to
the arts of civilization, or devoid in any respect of the common attri-
butes of humanity.

The plantations of the natives, situated in a small lateral valley,
were visited on the following morning. One man had adopted en-
tirely the customs of the Whites, having built himself a comfortable
log house, while his wife, an interesting-looking woman, was neatly
attired, in the Kuropean fashion. ‘The little valley seemed in fact
an earthly paradise, which I could not quit without misgivings as to
the future. .

After proceeding about fifteen miles, we arrived at the forks, having
passed on the way not less than a thousand horses, distributed over
the country in scattered bands; while others were here undergoing
the process of furnishing hairs for halters. ‘The natives, to the num-
ber of some forty families, were congregated in a single circular
building, formed of rails: and after some delay, they furnished us

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 37

with canoes, by the aid of which we crossed the Shoshonee, or great
southern branch of the Columbia. A similar building to the last was
seen a few miles below on the opposite bank; but our path soon
diverged from the vicinity of the river.

On the third day, we reached the waters of the WaLLawaLta River,
at a place where we found, I think, one or more native habitations :
and in the evening we arrived at the Fort, which is situated a few
miles below the junction of the two branches of the Columbia. Various
games, Were, as usual, going on outside; some requiring skill and
agility, but all apparently having gambling for their foundation; and
this seems to be the ‘ business of life’ with the natives, when they are
encamped around the forts.

We saw here a wagon, the first that had been driven all the way
from Missouri; and during our three days’ stay, a White man, in the
service of the Company, arrived from the ‘Snake Country.’ We
also received a visit from Mr. Gray and Dr. Whitman, from the Am.
Mission Station, which was several miles distant.

The multiplicity of languages in Oregon, is even greater than in
the Eastern part of North America, and is clearly independent of
peaceful relations. In this respect.a striking contrast is presented
with Polynesia; where, in spite of the geographical isolation, a simi-
larity of language prevails over a wider space than in any other part
of the globe.

The diversity of languages in America is a serious obstacle to
missionary operations; and I have sometimes thought, it may have
had a very important bearing on the destiny of our aboriginal tribes.
When, too, it is considered that the professed interpreters seldom
acquire a correct knowledge of these languages, it may be questioned,
whether the people themselves have hitherto been fairly reached ?

On the 4th of July, we proceeded on our journey, and crossing the
main Columbia, we again entered the valley of the Yakima. On the
following day, we crossed this river, with the aid of a canoe, at the
residence of a single family. A small canopy, hardly sufficient to
shelter a sheep, was found to contain four generations of human
beings, seated in the posture which takes up the least possible roome
They had just returned from procuring their day’s subsistence, which
consisted of the berries of the Cornus; and the insight into aboriginal
life, was by no means prepossessing. Nevertheless, the attentions be-
stowed on the eldest of the party, showed an interesting trait in the

10

38 PHYSDTCA’ LE HIS LORY OF MAN.

native character, in strong contrast with the conduct of the Polyne-
sians. I remarked also, that the eldest alone had the cartilage of the
nose pierced.

The country, as throughout a great part of the Interior, did not
appear to become green at any season of the year, but presented a
hoary aspect, chiefly from the prevalence of Artemisias. The river
was observed to pass the minor transverse ridges, very much as the
Potomac and Susquehanna do the different ranges of the Allechanies ;
and it pretty uniformly receives a tributary just prior to entering the
gaps. On the 7th, we arrived at the forks, where the Yakima seemed
to be fordable at this season; but we did not make the attempt, as we
were able to avail ourselves of a canoe belonging to a native family.

We now proceeded up the banks of its tributary, the SprPEen, the
valley gradually narrowing, and the hills beginning to assume a tint
of green; while trees once more made their appearance. On the
8th, we fell in with our acquaintance, the chief who formerly sold us
horses, and he joined our party for the remainder of the journey. His
‘town’ consisted of only five or six cabins, so that his influence did
not appear to be widely extended. One of his sons came on horse-
back to meet us, and exhibited the same exuberance of spirits, we
often remark at home in young men who regard themselves a little
elevated by fortune. A few miles above we regained our former path.

We had no difficulty in recrossing the mountain ridge, for the snow
was mostly gone from the summit, exposing unexpectedly an under-
growth of bushes. We were again interested in the virtues of the
native character, on the occasion of meeting a party carrying along a
dying man.

The streams to the westward of the ridge having now subsided,
we got on more rapidly than before. About twenty miles from the
coast a portion of the NisquaLLy tribe, had established themselves for
some temporary purpose. At our last encampment, before parting
with our natives, the idea of initiating them in gymnastic exercises
was somehow taken up, and they entered into the sport very willingly,
and with some spirit.

On the 15th, we reached the Fort, and rejoined the Vincennes ;
previously, however, being somewhat surprised at our horses going
into the salt water to drink; at a place, too, where small sharks, floun-
ders, and other marine fishes, are abundantly taken. The circum-
stance, however, was not regarded as unusual by the people on shore.

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 39

SOUTHWESTERN OREGON.

I am indebted to the notes of Mr. Agate and Mr. Brackenridge, for
the following particulars, respecting the natives seen on the journey
from the Columbia to San Francisco in California.

“The party left the Willamette settlement on the 9th of September ;
and on the same day, met with some Kuicxatats from the neigh-
bourhood of Vancouver, who had come on a hunting excursion.
This tribe is distinguished by having the lower part of the septum
of the nose cut away. 10th. Crossed a creek, near a large native
burial-place, where wooden utensils and other articles were deposited.
On the 13th, footsteps of natives were seen, and also a fish-weir.

“Qn the 14th, the party fell in with an old Katapoya, whose por-
trait was sketched by Mr. Agate. He wore moccasins, an elk-skin
dress, a cap of fox-skin with the ears remaining, and his quiver was
of seal-skin. Mr. Agate remarked, further, that the costume of the Ka-
lapuya women is not unlike the Polynesian. For the last four days the
prairies were found to be stripped of herbage by fires, some still burn-
ing; that had been kindled, it was said, to facilitate the gathering of
sunflower seed.”” No marks of fire, had been observed in Interior
Oregon.

“On the 15th, the party crossed the Kalapuya or Elk Ridge; which
is upwards of a thousand feet in elevation, and separates the waters
of the Willamette and Umpqua Rivers;” and likewise, to all ap-
pearance, the Kalapuya from the Umpqua tribe. “16th. Mr. Agate
was of the party that visited the Fort. The Canadian in charge, was
in daily expectation of an attack from the natives, partly in conse-
quence of a refusal to supply them with ammunition: he attributed
the hostile disposition of the natives south of this place, to the circum-
stance of the smallpox having been accidentally introduced among
them; and he discouraged any attempt to proceed further. 17th. In
the mean time, the camp was visited, both on this and on the preced-
ing day, by different natives, who appeared friendly and inoffensive,
and soon went away.

“On the 18th, the journey was resumed, and the party crossed a

40 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

prairie that was still burning. 19th. Two unarmed natives were
seen, who wished to come into the camp, but this was not permitted.
The bark of the Arbutus procera, appeared to be made use of in this
quarter, for some purpose not ascertained. 20th. Fell in with four or
five natives, who said that the people on the Umpqua were waiting for
Michel’s party (trappers of the H. B. Company), intending to attack
them. 2Ist. Encamped at the foot of the Umpqua Ridge; which
divides the waters of the Umpqua and Rocues Rivers. The pass is
very steep and difficult, and is also considered dangerous on account
of the bad character of the natives; who, according to report, some-
times shoot arrows at travellers or their horses, from places of conceal-
ment.

‘On the 22d, the party crossed the ridge without accident, and with-
out seeing natives, and encamped at its southern base. 23d. Rested
for the day. Three men of the Kiamer tribe would have passed us
without speaking, had not our guide addressed them. All the natives
seen since leaving the Willamette, have been a squalid miserable
set of beings, shy 1n approaching White men. 24th. Resumed the
journey; and in the course of the day, several natives were seen
hiding among the trees and bushes, but they did not appear disposed
to molest us. 25th. Encamped on the banks of Rogues River. One
of the hunters reported, that after having killed a deer, he had been
shot at with arrows, and forced to abandon it. 26th. Some natives*
were seen, and also canoes; which were excavated from logs, and ap-
peared to be used principally for spearing fish in the shallow waters.
Reached Turner’s Camp, where a party of traders had formerly been
defeated, and compelled to return. Human bones were strewed around.
27th. Continuing along the river, natives were heard shouting on the
opposite bank. Ata place where a former party had been annoyed,
several of the company dismounted and scoured the bush. Some
natives at a great distance took shelter behind a tree, and it was evi-

* A native was reported to have been seen, wearing a species of cuirass ; in all proba-
bility, similar to the one obtained from the same tribe through the Hudson Bay Company.
This cuirass is composed of flattened parallel sticks, woven together by means of twine ;
most of which is of vegetable fibre, and the residue, of human hair. The shoulder-straps
are of the usual soft leather, but with the hair remaining on. Apart from the pecu-
liarities in the manufacture ; this, and the slight leather shield of the Missouri, form the
only examples I am acquainted with, of the use of defensive armour by the American
tribes,

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. Al

dent that the rifle was much dreaded in this vicinity. After leaving
the river, three mounted natives were seen, making off at a rapid
rate.” The horses had doubtless been derived from some trading
party, and were the only ones seen on the route. ‘The mistletoe
was abundant, and in many instances, formed the only foliage on the
trees. 28th. Some natives again were heard shouting. Encamped
at the base of the Shasty or Boundary Ridge, which very nearly
coincides with the forty-second parallel of latitude, or the political
boundary between Oregon and California. Another trading party
had been defeated at this place, and compelled to return. On the
following day, however, the ridge was crossed without seeing natives.”’
The further continuation of this journey will be found noticed in the
account of the Californians.

It is known that the Mexican annals derive the origin of the Az-
tecas (the intrusive Mexicans) from the North, in the direction of
Oregon. The connexion may not be easily traced; but a coinci-
dence has been spoken of, in the occurrence of the terminal ‘tl,’ so
characteristic of the Mexican language, among the Nootka people. I
remarked that the same termination was common with the Chinooks ;
and I heard it even in the Nisqually tribe. ‘The lateral fringe to the
trousers, universal in Oregon, is known to occur among the abori-
ginal Mexicans; with whom, moreover, it is said to subserve the pur-
pose of an inventory.* The fashion, aboriginal with the Oregon
females, of wearing the hair in two lateral braids, is also widely dif-
fused in Spanish America; and we observed it even in Chili. The
use of masks, which is also common to Mexico and the Northwest
maritime tribes, will be adverted to hereafter. And further, a distinct
correspondence in style of art, is traceable, between the ancient paint-
ings and sculptures of Mexico and Yucatan, and the carved stone
pipes of Northwest America. Another fact not irrelevant to the point
in question, is the observation made by the missionaries; that the
tribes of Interior Oregon, are at this day “all pressing gradually to-
wards the South.” +

It was only after leaving the country, that I learned the existence
of sculptured rocks, on the banks of the Columbia. Mr. Drayton
was unable to remain many moments at the spot, and among a con-

* See Basil Hall’s Travels, t See Ethnography of the Expedition, p, 224,
11

42 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

siderable variety of figures, he obtained only a rapid sketch of three
of them. The importance of the subject, however, has appeared to
me to warrant the insertion of a copy in this place. And it will be
observed, that the figures are simple, and present some analogy to the
sculptures found on the Orinoco, as given by Humboldt.

/ (salq a
ay Sn ah a8
Oe aren 47

MEXICO.

It is said that the aboriginal stock so preponderates in Mexico, that
the people do not “regard themselves nationally as belonging to the
White race.” I have myself seen but very few Mexicans, and these
have been chiefly of pure Spanish descent. In two or three individuals
of mixed race, met with in the United States, the Mongolian traits
were sufficiently obvious. On the other hand, a Mexican of some
note from the province of Sonora, whom I saw in California, was
scarcely distinguishable in his personal appearance, from the pure
Malay. I have, therefore, positive evidence of the aboriginal presence
of two races in Mexico; though in what proportions, I am altogether
uncertain. *

Some travellers in Mexico have spoken of a “large admixture of
the Negro race;” but as true Negroes are at the same time admitted
to be rare, the opinion may have reference to the Malay stock. A
distinction in personal appearance 1s also said to exist “between the
inhabitants of the table-land and those of the low country.” The
‘Mexican of Mechoacan,’ figured by Humboldt, is evidently Mon-
golian. I confess, therefore, that the distribution given on the accom-
panying map, of the two races in Mexico, is not entirely satisfactory.

* In the Letters of Cortes, mention is made of ‘albinoes having apartments in the
palace of Montezuma.” This point may have some bearing on the question at issue;
for I have heard of the occurrence of albinoes in the Malay race, but not among Mon-
golians.

THE MONGOLIAN RACE, A3

YUCATAN.

Some bass-reliefs from Palenque in Yucatan, now deposited in
Washington, contain a human profile: and it is eminently charac-
teristic of the Mongolian, and seems decisive as to the physical race
of the people who reared the remarkable ancient structures discovered
in that part of America.

NORTHEAST AMERICA.

The aboriginals of the United States have appeared to me in every
respect physically identical with their brethren west of the Rocky
Mountains. They have, however, a marked superiority of stature ;
and they do not in point of size, fall below Europeans.

I have seen examples of the tribes of the Missouri and Upper Mis-
sissippi, in the delegations which from time to time, have visited
Washington: as, Menomenies, Winnebagoes, Sauks and Foxes, Sioux,
Pawnees, Otoes, Miamies and Iowas. I have been interested in hear-
ing the Missouri drum and flute; and have felt regret, that no one
should have turned his attention to the preservation of the music of
this fading people. I saw neither musical instruments, nor dancing,
among the Oregon tribes; nor anything like pottery; such as is used
by the aboriginals of our Southern States.

I have also seen Crees, from the centre of the Continent, north of
the waters of the Missouri; where the same superiority of stature ap-
pears likewise to prevail. The Upsaroxa, or Crows of the head-
waters of the Missouri and Yellowstone, are also to be ranked among
the Eastern tribes; and judging from a portrait at Washington, they
belong to the Mongolian race.

Iroquois formed part of the crew of the Hudson Bay Company’s
steamboat at Nisqually; and I saw one of them employed in building
operations near the Fort. 1 once also met with a man of this tribe,
in western New York. The only Detaware I have ever seen, had
been brought up among Whites. To a resident of Philadelphia, it
was almost startling, to hear of this tribe in Oregon; joining the
Blackfeet in hostile incursions into that country.

44 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

I once visited the Natick tribe, residing within a few miles of
Boston; and found them few in number, and much intermixed with
Negroes. I recently fell in with a party of PENnosscots, on their
return from a visit to Boston. They had tents; and the women
were neatly dressed, and all industriously occupied ; chiefly in weav-
ing baskets of various pattern, which they disposed of by the way.
Several could speak English; and on asking one of them about her
journey, she replied in a low voice and with an anxious look, “The
country is too full!” I saw no marks of Negro admixture; but those
of European, were sufficiently obvious. They were all fairer than the
usual aboriginal standard ; and one of the men was in no respect dis-
tincuishable from a European.

The Seminotes, I have been informed, ‘ mix with Negroes, but
are careful to keep the children out of sight.” I have never seen
Seminoles, but from portraits and descriptions, I am satisfied that they
belong to the Mongolian race. I may say the same of the CREEKS;
in regard to whom, however, I have fewer materials for forming an
opinion.

The aboriginals of our Eastern States, have been suffered to pass
away, with little care taken to preserve a record of their attainments
and the arts in their possession. Another century, and of their imple-
ments, stone hatchets and arrow-heads will almost alone be left, to
tell that such a people has existed.

Figures of human heads have been obtained by Mr. Squier from
the ANCIENT MounDs of the Ohio; and the features are unequivocally
those of the Mongolian race. The various accompanying articles,
(such as pipes, representations of the toad, deer, puma, &c.,) afford
another instance of the universal rule in monumental history: that the
most ancient works are not only the most gigantic and enduring, but
they manifest great refinement of workmanship, and purity of taste.
In this instance, however, refinement was unexpected from tribes,
who were evidently in the ‘hunter state.’

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. 45

CHINESE.

A few scattered Chinese are settled in the principal cities of the
United States; but the number is so small that their existence is not
generally known. Some of these families I had seen; and indeed, I
had satisfied myself of the physical identity with the aboriginal Ame-
rican, before joining the Exploring Expedition.

At the Hawaman Islands, I had more ample opportunities for veri-
fying this result, the Chinese being now among Polynesians. It is
true there was no juxtaposition of Chinese with aboriginal Americans ;
but we sailed from these islands to the American coast; and returning
at the close of summer, proceeded, while the impression was new,
to the EXast Indies; where we again saw Chinese surrounded by a
Malay population.

The lighter complexion of the Chinese was very striking when
they were standing among Hawaiians; and the nose was decidedly
more prominent; so that a commonly urged objection to identity with
the aboriginal Americans, disappeared. ‘They had been brought in
American vessels, and they seemed permanently established; being
engaged in various employments, such as those of servants, shop-
keepers, and sugar manufacturers. ‘The number seen, did not exceed
twenty; including one female, who was partly Portuguese, from
Macao. They had a burial-place about three miles from Honolulu,
where the tombs were constructed after the national fashion, which
has often been figured and described.

Manita was crowded with Chinese; and I was surprised at the
scanty clothing of the majority of them; reduced often to the simple
belt or sash, as with the Feejeeans and some Hawaiians. They had
small retail shops, and were evidently the principal artisans. One of
the most remarkable spectacles to a stranger, was the confined space in
which they carried on, without interfering with one another, all me-
chanical employments. A competent judge of these matters remarked,
‘“‘that he had never seen mechanics require so little room, and at the
same time do their work so neatly and faithfully.” In passing through
the streets occupied by them, I repeatedly selected individuals, who,
if transported in a different dress into the American forest, might, 1
thought, have deceived the most experienced eye. In stature they
were by no means so much degenerated as the Malays, but were re-
ported to be less cleanly in their habits.

12

46 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The upper classes of Chinese presented a very different picture ;
and I was much impressed with the respectability of their standing,
with their general intelligence, and their ease, politeness, and refine-
ment of manners: in all which, there was evidently nothing derived
from their Spanish rulers. They had shops furnished with costly
articles of Chinese manufacture ; and individuals were pointed out to
me, who would undertake commercial transactions of tens of thou-
sands of dollars. One man was desirous of procuring an engraving
of a steamboat, ‘to send to his friends in China; who,” he said, “ had
been much alarmed at the accounts they had heard of these vessels.”

The main object with the Chinese of all classes was alleged to be,
“to make a fortune and return home.”” They intermarry freely with
the Malays; but whether in such cases the children are admitted into
China, I did not learn. Persons of mixed descent were numerous in
the city ; but in the Interior, I could not discover the least trace of the
Chinese: it was said, that whenever they leave the city, “they are
subject to imposition and bad treatment, as the Malays have an aver-
sion to them.” ‘They in consequence confine themselves to the com-
mercial ports, as throughout the Kast India Islands; where they every-
where bear the character of being the most flourishing class of the
population.

Chinese umbrellas were observed to be in general use among the
Malay population, and the importation of them must form an impor-
tant branch of commerce, not only at the Philippines, but in the other
Malay countries.

A few Chinese were settled at the capital of the island of Sootoo,
where they had the best shops, and conducted machinery for hulling
rice. ‘Their presence sufficiently disproved the assertion, that in the
Hast Indies “the Chinese require European protection :” although, it
is true, they are ready to avail themselves of its advantages. It is
known, too, that the Chinese have independent establishments on
Borneo; but the acquisition of political power, does not enter into
their plan of operations in foreign countries.

At Sincapore, some unlooked-for testimony came to the support
of views already expressed; and on a point of this kind I would lay
great stress on the observation of uncivilized man. Our Feejeean,
Veindovi, was now, for the first time, brought in contact with a body
of Chinese; and he at once identified them with his old acquain-
tances, the tribes of Northwest America.

Singapore differs essentially from all the other cities I have visited ;
bearing the character rather of a commercial camp. ‘The female por-

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. A7

tion of the population numbers about ‘one-tenth ;’ but a woman was
very rarely seen, partly in consequence of the practice of seclusion,
which pertains to the principal classes of visiters.

The Chinese were present in many thousands, and composed one-
half of the entire population. Among them all, I was assured, there
were only “two real Chinese women; though there were persons who
could go back seven generations before reaching the Malay mother.”
The prevalence of the depressed nose, was perhaps in some measure
attributable to this partial Malay descent. There was, however,
great uniformity in the complexion; as I repeatedly remarked, when
crowds were standing with their shaven heads exposed to the full
power of the mid-day sun. ‘They were all of the lowest class. Me-
chanical employments were comparatively rare; and there were no
Chinese residents of equal standing with those established at Manila,
or those, according to report, at Batavia.

Here, however, the Chinese were under less restraint than at Manila;
perfect freedom of opinion being tolerated at Singapore, and each
nation allowed to follow its own customs, so far as these did not con-
flict with civil order. Our arrival, too, was at an auspicious moment,
at the commencement of the Chinese holidays; and we enjoyed per-
haps as fair an opportunity of viewing the people, as we should have
had at Canton, during the then existing war with the English; for it
should be observed, that the Chinese commerce with Singapore re-
mained uninterrupted.

In the evening, the streets in the Chinese quarter, presented a novel
and astonishing spectacle. ‘The shops were all thrown open, and the
whole population seemed assembled for one purpose, that of gambling.
The stakes in general were trifling; but the variety of games was
inexhaustible; and while looking on, some of reputed European in-
vention, appeared to be traceable to a Chinese source. Again, the
occurrence of numerous games of chance in aboriginal America,
seemed to intimate in that quarter something more than an accidental
coincidence.

Stages were erected by the side of the street, and theatrical repre-
sentations were going on at all times; the rich tinsel of the evening,
suffering however materially by the daylight. A numerous and atten-
tive audience were always listening, and at times appeared a good
deal affected, maintaining their ground notwithstanding the intermi-
nable length of the pieces. ‘The movements of the actors were some-
times graceful ; but there was everywhere a mixture of the grotesque,

48 PHYSICAL HISTORY.OF MAN.

not agreeable to Kuropean taste. Female characters were personated
by men singing in ‘falsetto. The male characters wore masks;
these were always much broader than the face of the wearer, and
often resembled the Chinese as conventionally depicted by themselves,
not such as I have found the people in nature. There was always a
full orchestra, and I confess being pleased with the music ; notwith-
standing the predominance of gongs, which has procured for the
Chinese the reputation of being a ‘noisy people.’ The feats of
‘tumbling, exceeded everything of the kind I have elsewhere wit-
nessed. :

Among other fantastic exhibitions, a masked demon, seeming ready
to devour the bystanders, was led through the streets; and although
it was mid-day, made a really formidable appearance. At first, this
appeared the very original of Humboldt’s “‘ Mexican priest, in the act
of swallowing a human victim ;” and my companion, who also recol-
lected the figure, observed that “he was thinking of the same circum-
stance.” On referring, however, to the book, a few days afterwards,
we found only a general resemblance, more apparent in the profile.
On the front view, the Chinese mask more resembled the head of the
lion, (an animal foreign to China, and an emblem of Buddhism) ; while
tails of various quadrupeds were hanging over the shoulders of the
wearer. Some further connexion, may possibly be established be-
tween China and Mexico, through the use of grotesque masks by the
maritime tribes of Northwest America.

The temple was to me a very interesting object; for it is impossible
in a picture, to do justice to Chinese architecture. Amid the endless
details of fanciful carved work, there was nothing uncouth; and on
receding, the more delicate sculptures disappeared gradually, leaving
a finished and pleasing general effect at all distances. In the outline,
and especially in the form of the roof, I thought I could, equally as
in the Malay architecture, distinguish the Feejeean style. I remarked
in the interior of the building, a difference from other Oriental forms
of worship, in the apparent absence of a sanctuary.

I visited likewise one of the ‘junks’ at anchor in the harbour; and
found occasion to dissent from the common opinion, condemning the
construction of these vessels. Pipes were offered by different persons
on board, as we passed along; and in one instance cigars, by a man
who invited us into his apartment, and spoke some Spanish words,
which of course he had acquired at Manila. The cables were of
rattan; and such must be extremely strong, besides possessing some

THE MONGOLIAN RACE. A9

advantages on a coral bottom. The figure of an eye in front, about
which much has been said in ridicule, occurs likewise on Indian and
Arab vessels, and even in some instances, on those of the Meduiter-
ranean. ‘The small Chinese boats, short and triangular, impelled by
a man standing and pushing the two oars, were again a novelty in the
way of navigation.

In the Chinese quarter of the city were several opium shops, or
rather cells, for they contained merely lounging space for the votaries
of this enervating and destructive species of intoxication. In addition
to this vice, the Chinese make use of ardent spirits, tobacco, and betel.

At the Care oF Goop Hope, I observed a few scattered Chinese ;
who however did not give rise to any particular remark, other than
that they had lost their nationality, and had arrived in European ves-
sels. A Chinese was also seen at St. Helena.

On my second Voyage, however, I found Chinese around the bor-
ders of the ARABIAN SEAS, who had not been assisted in their wander-
ings by Europeans. Most of these were established at Bombay ; where
I met with a dozen or more. A Chinese was residing at Zanzibar ;
and I remarked that he had adopted the Arab costume, but I did not
learn his history.

Many years since, “a Chinese came to Mocha, turned Muslim, and
married an Arab woman.’”’ His son, ‘Ali Cheena,’ retained strong
marks of his paternal origin, and seemed hardly at home amid the
surrounding population. He was observed to be fond of frequenting
the bazaar; but was annoyed by the Arabs sometimes suggesting,
that “‘he had better return to his father’s country and put on a hat.”
He served us during our stay in the capacity of cook, and he was the
third native of the place, who could speak some words of English ;
the only European language known at Mocha. During the few days
spent at Muscat, I did not fall in with any Chinese.

I have already referred to the superior powers of endurance of the
aboriginal American; while in perseverance, patient industry and
frugality, the Chinese will, I think, be admitted to excel other nations.
These are qualifications that promise to have an important bearing
on the future prospects of the Mongolian race.

In regard to anTiquirigs, there are probably few nations so rich in
monumental history as the Chinese: especially in their paintings,
preserved for many centuries by such an indestructible material as

porcelain.
13

50 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN

OTHER MONGOLIANS.

Travellers have spoken of a resemblance between some of the In-
terior people of Borneo, and the Chinese. I have not sufficient
materials for a decisive opinion; though all oral testimony has been
unfavourable to the presence of Mongolian aboriginals on that island.
I have not however met with persons who have seen the ‘Idan’ of
the northern mountains; tribes, that under this point of view may
deserve further inquiry. The same class of people, sometimes bear-
ing the name of ‘Igorote,’ are known to occur both on Palawan and
Luzon.

I have followed Blumenbach, in referring the LapLanpeErs to the
Mongolian race. Dr. R. E. Griffith has seen some of these people,
and he considers them as “differing physically from their neighbours
on the south, and as approaching, so far as an opinion may be formed
from descriptions, the Esquimaux.” They appear to be connected
with the Siberian Mongols, through the Samoiedes.

TS. Euploring Expedition. The MALAYAN Race. PIL II,

David Malo.
: A native of the Hawaiian Tslands.

WiDougal Sc.

Drawn by A.TAgate

U.S. Leploring Expédition. The MALAYAN Race. P Ls1V.

Maleka.

A native of the Hawatian Islands.

Drawn by AL Agate WADougal Sc.

Cee Ri = TVs,
THE MALAY RACE.

Ir the Mongolian occupies a larger portion of the surface of the
globe, the Malay is yet the most widely scattered race; and in some
respects, it is also the most remarkable. In institutions and social
condition, it exhibits perhaps greater variety than all the other races
combined ; and from a universal, instinctive, attachment to the water,
it almost merits the appellation of ‘amphibious.’ Endowed too with
a wandering disposition, less regardful of a home than the rest of
mankind, its march has been truly ‘upon the waves;’ and beyond the
Atlantic, it has reached almost every islet in the ocean, that affords
the least means of subsistence.

The Malay complexion is very uniform, and is always decidedly
darker than the Mongolian. I have never seen it light enough to
show the least trace of a flush; nor, on the other hand, so dark but
that the marks of tattooing were conspicuously visible. The colour
may be termed reddish-brown, more nearly than in the Mongolian
race, approaching the hue of tarnished copper.

The hair seems in greater quantity than in the other races, the
Papuan, perhaps, excepted; and it is straight, or at most wavy, and
usually raven-black. When cropped within about two inches, I have
observed that it will generally stand erect; owing, apparently, to a
coarser texture than in the Telingan and White races. The beard
grows long, but is almost always thin; though some variety prevails
in different countries. ‘The Iast Indian tribes are nearly beardless ;
while among the Polynesians a beard is not unusual, though it does
not seem to get strong till late in life. I have occasionally seen Poly-
nesians, in whom the beard was nearly thick enough to conceal the
skin. The practice, however, of eradicating it, prevails very generally
in the countries inhabited by the Malay race.

52 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

In style of feature, there is often no striking dissimilarity from Bu-
ropeans, especially in middle-aged and elderly men, many of whom
have the nose aquiline; while in females and young men, it is
almost always flattened. Nevertheless, I think it will be found, that
there is less prominence of profile in the Malay than in any other
race. ‘This appears to be owing, in part, to the absence of rigidity in
the cartilage of the nose; as with the Negro. ‘The lips are likewise
thicker than among Europeans.

The profile has appeared to me, usually more vertical than in the
White race; but this may be owing in part to the mode of carriage,
for the skull does not show a superior facial angle. A more marked
peculiarity, and one very generally observable, is the elevated occiput,
and its slight projection beyond the line of the neck. The face, in
consequence, when seen in front, appears broader than among Eu-
ropeans, as is the case with the Mongolian, though for a different
reason. In the Mongolian, the front is depressed, or the cranium
inclines backwards; while in the Malay, it is elevated or brought for-
wards. ‘The Mongolian traits are heightened artificially by the Chi-
nooks; but it is less generally known, that a slight pressure is often
applied to the occiput by the Polynesians, in conformity with the
Malay standard.

A peculiarity in the Malay skull has been pointed out to me by Dr.
Morton ; in the tendency to unusual prolongation and projection of the
upper maxilla. This character, though not universal, is strikingly
exemplified in several Kast Indian skulls; and I have found traces of
the same, in the Hawaiian skulls obtained by the Expedition. It
accords with a remark of Mr. Hale, ‘“ that the upper-lip is very often,
among Polynesians, slightly turned up.”

For characteristic representations of the Malay race, I would refer
to the following portraits, taken during our Voyage, a part of which
only, have been published : among Taheitians, to those of Otore, Paofai,
and the ‘girl;’ among Samoans, to those of Malietoa, Mary Olo, Emma
Malietoa, Matetau, and ‘children ;’ among New Zealanders, to those
of John Sac, and the ‘girl;’ among Hawaiians, to those of the King
and Queen, David Malo, Liholiho, and Haiha; and to that of ‘the
native of Luzon.’ A very good idea of the Malay standard of female
beauty, may be obtained from the portrait of the Hawaiian girl, in
Byron’s voyage.

Yellow is the favourite colour throughout the countries inhabited
by the Malay race, and it appears to be really the one most becoming
to the deep brown complexion. Wreaths, too, are very generally worn

THE MALAY RACE. 53

for ornament, and they have appeared to me peculiarly adapted to
the Malay style of feature.

A remarkable variation in stature occurs in the Malay race. ‘The
Polynesians (particularly the Taheitians, Samoans, and Tonga island-
ers), appear to exceed in size the rest of mankind; while the East
Indian tribes, and the inhabitants of the Indo-Chinese Countries, fall
decidedly below the general average. I will not undertake to offer
an explanation ; but there are facts connected with the nature of the
food, that have appeared worthy of notice.

Both divisions of the race live principally on vegetable food ; but
there is this striking difference. ‘The food of the Hast Indian con-
sists almost exclusively of rice; while the Polynesian (to whom grain
of every kind is unknown), draws his subsistence mainly from farina-
ceous roots, and from certain fruits of similar consistence. ‘The
further superiority in the stature of the Polynesian chiefs, seems
a remarkable circumstance, when we consider that they are here-
ditary. At the Hawaiian Islands, residents declared, that it de-
pended very much on “the greater quantity of food they obtained
while young;” and I have reason to believe that the remark is not
without foundation.. We are reminded here of the process of forming
a queen among bees. At the same time, certain kinds of food are un-
doubtedly more favourable than others, for fully developing the human
frame.

Notwithstanding I had formerly seen in the United States, some
individual Malays, I had not then learned to distinguish the race
from the Mongolian; and my proper acquaintance with it dates from
my visit to the islands of the Pacific. I there spent in all about two
years arnong the PoLynestans; who, though so widely separated, may
be regarded as forming one people, and in many respects as a single
nation, although composed of distinct branches or tribes.

CORAL ISLANDS.
a. Eastern Paumotuans.

On leaving the coast of Peru, in July, 1839, we directed our course
westward; and after thirty-one days’ sailing before the wind, we
arrived at length on the borders of the extensive coral archipelago in-
terposed between the Marquesas, Society, and Gambier groups. The
first land we made, differed remarkably in its appearance, from any

14

5A PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

previously seen. At first, trees rose into view and again sunk out of
sight, alternating with the swell of the ocean. Soon, however, they
seemed to acquire stability ; the dull white coral strand became visible,
and afterwards the surf; while from aloft, the whole interior was
found to be a lagoon. The term of “ waterland,” seemed fairly appli-
cable to this offset of the new world we were entering; where, how-
ever, similar scenes soon became sufficiently familiar.

The island was called, on the charts, Clermont Tonnerre ; and after
nearing it, we for some time could discover no signs of inhabitants. At
length two natives loomed up among the scattered low plants and
shrubs, and became the subjects of a good deal of scrutiny with the
glass. They made no motions, and did not appear to be noticing us.
Whether owing in some measure, to the clear tints around them, the
deep blue of the ocean, the paler sky, the snowy whiteness of the
surf, and the fresh green of the foliage, their almost naked forms, ex-
hibited a very decided tinge of red.

I was of a party that eagerly sought the shore, regardless of the
double danger, from the surf and natives. As our boats advanced, the
brilliant hues of the submarine creation came into view, a far different
spectacle from the universal dulness in turbid continental waters.
Notwithstanding the variety of objects, it was exclusively a display of
‘animal life;’ for even hydrophytes, or marine vegetables, were very
nearly wanting. We landed, crossed the narrow rim, some twenty
feet in elevation, to the margin of the lagoon; and after remaining
about two hours, we returned to the boats. ‘The ‘mineral kingdom’
was found to be likewise absent; and the whole immense mass of
animal debris, surrounded by unfathomable waters, clearly justified
placing the coral isles among the marvels of nature.

The natives had kept out of sight while we were on shore; but on
the following day, on our attempting to land at a different point, they
collected in a small body, men and boys, to oppose us, as is related
in the Narrative of the Expedition. They were armed only with the
long javelin, the favourite weapon of the Polynesians. I was not
near enough to get a very distinct view of their features; but I could
see that they had lank hair, and that beards were absent. They were
naked, except a small covering, which yet conveyed an air of decency.
Mr. Couthouy, who obtained the nearest view of these people, stated
that “some individuals were painted, but there were no marks of
tattooing.”

Serle Island, distant some thirty miles to the westward and north-

THE MALAY RACE, AS

ward, was next visited. In general appearance it entirely resembled
the island we had left; and indeed, one description, with very slight
modifications, will answer for all the coral rings. Lieut. Alden, while
engaged in the survey, approached near enough to induce some of the
natives to swim off. “They first sent away their javelins, and a new-
comer bearing one was turned back. They seemed friendly enough,
though disposed to help themselves without much ceremony, but
they could not be persuaded to get into the boat. One man seized
his note-book, and was making off; bat he returned it on seeing the
anxiety of the owner, backed, however, by the offer of a piece of iron.
This material they were very desirous of procuring, having evidently
obtained a knowledge of it from trading vessels.”’ In return for articles
distributed, Lieut. Alden procured plumes or bunches of the feathers
of the frigate-bird ; a long strip of matting, of rather fine quality, about
eight inches in breadth, and evidently intended for clothing; two
cocoa-nuts; a bundle of the twining Cassytha stems, that was worn
by one of the party; a large fish-hook (perhaps of turtle bone), in
form aud tie similar to those we afterwards saw at the Disappointment
Islands; also ‘sinnet,’ or braided cord of cocoa-nut fibre, which is in
use throughout the islands of the Pacific ; and twisted cords, or twine,
of different degrees of fineness, some composed of fibrous bark, (ap-
parently of some Urticaceous plant,) and others of human hair.

The absence of canoes at the above two islands is possibly con-
nected with the like circumstance among the inhabitants of the neigh-
bouring Mangareva or Gambier Group.

Two days’ sail now to the northward, in the direction of the Marque-
sas, brought us in sight of Honden Island. The myriads of sea-birds,
and the absence of cocoa palms, announced that there were no human
inhabitants. So, on landing, did the absence of the house-fly, and of
the Morinda; although the soil was found to be chiefly overgrown
with the Pandanus. A third danger, however, presented itself; in the
sharks, which were more numerous than at any other place visited.
Our boats were regularly followed by long processions of them; and
as the swell sometimes elevated the foremost above us, it required
some familiarity with the sea to dispel apprehensions of an attack.
Indisputable evidence of their prowess, was found in the mutilated
condition of the turtle that had sought refuge on the strand.

In passing round the island, some ‘oar-like implements’ were seen
from one of the boats. A stone hatchet also was picked up on shore ;

56 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

that presents some correspondence with the Hawaiian workmanship.
At all events, the article had been derived from some of the high
rocky islands; and it may probably mark the fate of a maritime
enterprise.

b. Otuans.

After sailing thence for two days to the westward, we came in sight
of the two Disappointment Islands. While yet several miles from the
land, we were surprised by the appearance of canoes; which indeed,
had approached quite near us before they were discovered. ‘They
were very small, scarcely capable of containing more than two per-
sons, and had a projecting beak at the stem and stern to take hold of,
in getting into them from the water: the paddle also was remarkable
on account of its curved blade. ‘The natives sometimes came near
enough to touch the ship’s side, and picked up the different articles
that were thrown to them; but nothing could induce them to come
on board. From their wildness and their neglected persons, I thought
at first, we had really got among “savages,” such as are depicted in
the imaginations of writers; and indeed their miserable appearance was
almost sufficient to inspire doubts whether they could be human.
One of them was addressing us, saying as it appeared, “you have
got a fine canoe:” and indeed, the contrast was amazing; but it ap-
peared less wonderful after we had seen their implements of con-
struction.

A boat was sent to the island, to ascertain further the disposition
of the inhabitants; a cluster of them was seen to collect near, on the
beach, who at one time set up a dance. ‘The report on the return
of the boat was rather unfavourable; though no actual violence had
been offered, and various articles of native manufacture had been
procured.

On afterwards coasting along the shore in boats, we passed two
or three canoes, which kept pace with us for a while, but would sheer
off on any attempt to get near them. Some natives, however, were
swimming, and we soon perceived that all were swarming with
vermin. Here and there upon the shore, were men bearing branches,
or dancing, with a long club held by both hands above the head;
and among them I observed one woman. As we approached the
station of the chief, he arose from under a Pandanus, and was ren-

*

THE MALAY RACE. 57

dered conspicuous in the distance, by having oedematous or dropsical
legs.* He was gray, and looked the grandfather of a good part of
the population; and as the boats stopped, he came down to the
water’s edge, making various motions and grimaces. On being given
to understand that there was a present for him, there was a manifest
change in his countenance, and he seemed rather anxious to avail him-
self of his prerogative. He swam off to the boat and received the prof-
fered article, presenting in return the cape or mantle of matting on his
shoulders. He came off with others two or three times, and com-
menced a long harangue while still in the water, the purport of which
was however lost upon us. More than one of our party mentioned
afterwards, being struck with the personification of the Grecian Nep-
tune; as he lay floundering, his long white beard streaming in the
water. He was unwilling to have us land; but some boats of the
squadron effected a landing at a different point, and had communica-
tion with the natives.

On the following day, a visit was made to the smaller island, dis-
tant about eight miles from the first. The natives, who were all men,
and in number did not much exceed a dozen, were assembled at the
water’s edge; but they made no hostile demonstrations, other than
pushing back the boat. The surf being but slight, we had the advan-
tage in the last resort; had intercourse of that kind been desirable.
Several of us, therefore, landed by swimming, and we then obtained
a nearer view than was altogether agreeable ; for there was no escap-
ing the Polynesian sign of friendship, that of touching noses. Our
explorations, however, were circumscribed, for the natives during a
prolonged interview were unwilling to have us leave the beach; and
on parting, they gave us some evidently heartfelt adieus. A landing
was subsequently effected at the further end of the island, and the
principal vegetable productions were ascertained; but our new friends
were soon on the spot, and the morning scene was re-enacted.

I had now obtained a satisfactory view of the natives, and I was
struck with the deeper hue and more European style of feature, than
in the aboriginal American ; while a connexion was already manifest,
with the far-distant Hast Indians.

* As the sare circumstance was observed, in the cruise of the Peacock, both at the
Union and Ellice Groups, the coincidence could hardly have been accidental. The
Polynesians, like the ancient Greeks, are fond of “tracing their genealogy to a god;”
and it may be worth inquiry, whether something practical is not intended ¢

15

»

58 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The array of thoughtful and venerable countenances bore some
whimsical analogy to the leading members of a civilized village-com-
munity ; and I could not avoid mentally selecting the corresponding
dignitaries, with their sphere of action, however, ridiculously limited.

We did not learn the precise relations between the people of the
two islands. They did not appear to be altogether on a friendly foot-
ing; though from the number of old men, we supposed that wars
were not common. The beard was universal; but I observed no
marks of tattooing.

Among the articles procured at the larger island, were oar-shaped
clubs, six or eight feet long (their javelins they would not part with);
pearl shells; adzes, the handles made of kneed roots, and the cutting
portion, of shell, either the ‘Pridacna or Cassis. ‘There being no produc-
tion of the coral islands harder than shell or coral, a pointed instru-
ment of bone was regarded by the crew with some curiosity; and was
thought to be connected with the manufacture of pearl-shell fish-
hooks. ‘The bone was evidently that of some large land animal, and
there being but one kind on the island, it seemed to throw new light
on the enticements in similar situations, sometimes held out to visiters.

The wood-work was rasped; probably with the skin of the Sha-
green-ray, which is used at other coral islands. ‘The jaw of the toothed
bonito (Sarda?), was sometimes fastened to a stick, for some purpose
not ascertained. Mats principally, were used for clothing ; but ‘ tapa’
or bark cloth (probably from the wild Procris), was not altogether
wanting. Heaps of coral-blocks, like monuments, long baskets set up
in various places, and a stick of timber resting on two posts, were
seen from the boat. Mr. Agate was of the party that landed on the
larger island; and he remarked “that the huts were very low, afford-
ing only room to creep under, and that water was kept in cocoa-nut
shells,” as afterwards observed at Raraka and the Union Group.

In all my subsequent experience, I have not found elsewhere any-
thing that looked like a relapse from a more improved condition of
society; and in this case, from the surrounding circumstances, it
seems unavoidable. If we examine the handiwork, we shall perceive
an apparent aiming at former arts, as though the knowledge were
present, and the materials only wanting.

From various points of difference observed (as in respect to wearing
the beard), I have thought these people should have a separate place
from the islanders first visited. Perhaps some connexion, notwith-

THE MALAY RACE. 59

standing the geographical distance, may be established with the
Penrhyn Islanders; especially as there exists strong analogy in the
manufactures.

Penruyn Island, situated nearly half way between the Marquesas
and Union Groups, was subsequently visited by the Porpoise. “It
was covered with cocoa palms, and was densely inhabited by the
wildest set of natives that had been met with during the Voyage.
These natives had no hesitation about coming on board, but it re-
quired some vigilance to prevent them from pilfering everything they
could lay hands on.” They agreed with the Disappointment Island-
ers, in “ wearing the beard, and in the absence of tattooing; and their
canoes, though much larger, were equally destitute of sails.” The ar-
ticles obtained from them, show further resemblance; as the mats
used for clothing, the fish-hooks of pearl-shell, the oar-shaped clubs,
and the rasped woodwork. But we observe, in addition, large wooden
shark-hooks; an article known likewise at the Vaitupan or Ellice
Group: while the fine cords made of human hair, and the “ bunch of
feathers seen,” remind us of the Serle Islanders.

Even where insignificant in point of numbers, the inhabitants of the
more secluded coral islands are formidable in cases of shipwreck ;
holding as they do, shores lashed by a heavy surf. The tide of civi-
lization may finally reach them, but they hardly seem in danger of
being robbed of these lonely reefs, by the substitution of any different
race of men.

In order, however, to a better appreciation of the circumstances
attending a home on the Coral Islands, some account of their vegeta-
ble productions may be here inserted. A remarkable uniformity was
found everywhere to prevail; the same set of plants recurring, what-
ever the geographical distance. The species did not amount to more
than thirty in all; none of them, perhaps, altogether peculiar. ‘These
facts are of importance in Geographical Botany, for it will be per-
ceived, that the coral islands do not connect the vegetation of the
rocky groups.*

Often, a small proportion only of the soil, is sufficiently elevated for
a vegetable growth; which is, besides, more or less scattered, and
consists of trees, shrubs, and some detached herbaceous plants. The
species unequivocally endzgenous, contribute in a very slight degree to

* Wlevated coral islands, like Metia, and those consisting of an extensive plain, as
Tongataboo, form an exception to the above remark. Another exception takes place,

when a coral island is in close proximity to a high and rocky group.

60 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

supplying human wants. They afford, indeed, timber; and an Urti-
caceous tree and shrub, furnish sparingly ‘tapa,’ (or native cloth,)
and cordage. Purslane (of two species), is pretty common, and
forms a grateful esculent to visiters; though I have not seen it used
by the natives themselves.

With the above exceptions, the useful plants appear to be of foreign
origin. The Cocoa palm is the principal one; and so invariably is its
presence attributable to human operations, that it has become a guide
to the traders, in seeking for natives. ‘The uses of this princely gift
of nature, are by no means confined to its esculent properties, but far
exceed in variety those of any other known plant. Without going into
details, I will only quote the old remark, that it is possible to “ build
vessels, fit them for sea, and freight them, exclusively from the mate-
rials afforded by the Cocoa palm.”

The Pandanus prevails more generally ; and unlike the Cocoa palm,
it has evidently diffused itself in a good measure, without human aid.
The only important exception to its universal presence, was found at
Wake’s Island; which is uninhabited and remote from other lands.
The shght pulp around the base of the seeds, is said to form an im-
portant resource for food, at the Caroline, Radack, and some neigh-
bouring groups: but so far as my own observation extends, the chief
use has been of the leaves for matting. I should mention, that the
leaves of the various species of Pandanus I subsequently met with in
the East Indies and in East Africa, were unsuitable for this purpose.

Some few stocks of the Morinda citrifola, usually occurred on the
coral islands; presenting likewise every appearance of spontaneous
growth. On the rocky groups, however, the tree, besides being com-
mon, was observed to be sometimes planted ; although the fruit was
for the most part neglected. At the Coral Islands, it may be more
valued. According to Mr. Rich, the root is used in dyeing, both in
Polynesia and in the East Indies.

Of the great variety of cultivated plants known to the Polynesians,
the above three only, appeared sufficiently hardy to bear the exposure
of coral islands; of those at least, which were visited by myself. It
should also be observed, that at these islands, marks of cultivation
were only seen in the occasional planting of the cocoa palm; and
there were no accompanying weeds.

Atsome coral groups, situated far to the westward of the Paumotus,
and visited by the Peacock, a few additions to the above list were
remarked. ‘The two Arums (C. esculenta and C. macrorhiza), were
unexpectedly found under cultivation at the Ellice and Kingsmill

THE MALAY RACE, 61

Groups; and at the Union Group, a flabellate Palm and the Gar-
denia. It appeared, too, that foreign seeds, accidentally drifted to
the shore, were carefully planted by the natives; as was witnessed by
Mr. Rich, in the instance of the Hernandia.

I would note, also, that the Tacca was seen growing on coral, in
the Balabac Passage, and again at Zanzibar; but in the Pacific, I have
only found it on the high islands, where it is commonly naturalized.

c. Anaans, or Western Paumotuans.

After leaving the Disappointment Islands, we directed our course
to the southward and westward, and the next island seen, was Taara.
We had now learned caution; and in our rambles on shore, we looked
with some anxiety for the appearance of natives. ‘Their traces were
abundantly evident, in a deserted hut, swarms of flies, the remains of
a raft in the lagoon, and bundles of cocoa-nuts ready for transporta-
tion; but they were probably at that time absent from the island.
An excavation was found containing fresh water, the existence of
which, on the Coral Islands, seems a remarkable circumstance. The
cocoa-nut does not, as some have supposed, afford an adequate substi-
tute. The Morinda was first seen at this island.

On the following morning we reached Raraka, and saw the Tahei-
tian flag; a subject of general congratulation ; and for myself, 1 may
say, that never on any occasion, was an emblem of civilization more
welcome. It brought visions of a watery kingdom in this much-
avoided region of the globe, that should insure future safety to the
mariner.

It is hardly necessary to add, that we met with a friendly recep-
tion from the several families established here, including a native
Taheitian missionary. All were now cleanly in their persons, and
free from vermin; and we were here first struck with the orderly
and respectful behaviour of the Polynesian children. ‘The men had
their beards shaven, and were uniformly large and stout, giving evi-
dence already of superiority of stature in the Polynesians. Their huts
were very clean, and were neatly made; and there were some regular
plantations of young cocoa palms. Numbers of young tern (a blackish
species with pale spots) were running about the huts in a half-domes-
ticated state ; a circumstance that was not observed elsewhere.

16

62 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

An important change had taken place in the social condition of the
human family; and the people we were now among, were not perma-
nent inhabitants of the islands on which we found them; or at least,
they were accustomed to hold intercourse with other and distant
islands.

Two large sea-going canoes, which had apparently conveyed the
whole party, were drawn up on the beach. Similar vessels are in
use throughout the Western Paumotus, making occasional voyages
to Taheiti; but their proper rendezvous appears to be at Anaa or
Chain Island; which is the centre of navigation in Eastern, as Tonga-
taboo is, in Western Polynesia. ‘The Western Paumotuans, have in
consequence, experienced the influence of the general Polynesian
civilization. Their nationality was abundantly recognised at Taheiti.

Kanwaki was visible from Raraka, and on inquiry, the natives said,
there were people upon it. The party from the Vincennes, “did not
find them, and saw but two or three cocoa palms.”

The next island visited was Aratika, where a white flag was flying.
Among some twenty inhabitants, one man could speak a few words
of English ; and various articles were also seen, that had been derived
from Europeans. We were surprised at finding here a considerable
fresh-water pool. And for the first time, we met with the war-conch
(formed of the Triton variegatum), which is in general use among the
Pacific Islands. ‘The portraits taken by Mr. Drayton, show the che-
quered pattern of tattooing, which seems distinctive of the Western
Paumotuans.

Manhui was next visited ; and some of our party walked over to the
entrance of the lagoon, where some natives had established themselves.
They reported on their return, that the chief “declared himself a re-
lative of the one-armed chief of Raraka; and spoke also of going over
to Ahit, (an island in sight,) to procure a certain kind of fish from
the lagoon.”” We subsequently landed on Ahii, and found a grove
of cocoa palms; but no appearance of inhabitants.

Rairoa, or Dean’s Island, next offered its extensive outline of some
sixty miles in the longest diameter; and being only in part visible
as we coasted along, it presented a novel appearance. We did not
land; but at one point two small canoes came off to us. Trkehau, an
island in sight from the last, was passed chiefly during the night.

On the following morning we were awakened at an early hour, to
see, aS 1t was termed, a “real island.” It presented a remarkable ap-

THE MALAY RACE. 63

pearance ; for it was flat-topped, some two hundred and fifty feet in
height, and seemingly inaccessible; the mural cliff being in many
places, actually undermined by the surf. The island, notwithstand-
ing, proved to be exclusively composed of coral. It is called Meta,
and is situated within a day’s sail of Taheiti.

On coasting around in boats, it was perceived that the cliff did not
everywhere rise directly out of the sea; but on one side, a narrow
intervening beach afforded a landing-place. ‘The natives assisted in
drawing up the boats. They were upwards of three hundred in num-
ber, living in the midst of abundance; and we experienced from them
all the kindness and hospitality attributed to the Taheitians of the
olden time. At first indeed, we were disposed to class them with the —
Taheitians; but there were some large double canoes on the strand,
insufficient, however, to receive the whole population. Several of the
men could speak some words of English; and more than one of them
wished to be taken on board. ‘Their houses were at the base of the
cliff; but a paved path was constructed to the summit; where we
found a fertile soil, and first met with the usual objects of Polynesian
cultivation.

Other islands in the Paumotu Archipelago, were subsequently
visited by the Porpoise; but for the account of them, I must refer to
the fourth volume of the Narrative.

d. Other Coral Groups.

The coral islands, subsequently visited by the Vincennes, were
uninhabited; but as all these Oceanic resting-places and their re-
sources, claim attention, I will insert some notices of them.

I landed on Belhinghausen Island; which is quite small, only some
three or four miles in diameter, and is situated to the westward of the
Taheitian Group. No traces of natives were discovered ; but the sea-
birds breeding in numbers, the large fishes in the pools of the coral-
shelf, and the fearlessness of the sharks in the lagoon, all betokened
the absence of a general disturbing cause. On my first landing on
a coral island, | was about seizing a spotted eel (Murena), coiled
in a small cavity ; when Sac, our New Zealand sailor, held my hand,
with a friendly warning. Here, however, some of large size did not
always wait for the attack; and a bite, like the cut of a hatchet, was

64 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

received by one of our men. The Cocoa palm and the Morinda were
both absent; but the Pandanus was abundant.

I landed also on Rose Island; which is situated far westward of the
preceding, and within a day’s sail of the Samoa or Navigator Group.
It is still smaller than Bellinghausen, although possessing an open-
ing into the lagoon; and at high water it is chiefly submerged. The
whole flora of the island was found to consist of but two species of
plants ; the Pisonia? forming a grove of some three or four acres ; and
a Portulaca, scattered about the outskirts. The grove was tenanted
by myriads of sea-birds: and the tern, as they rose from beneath the
low branches, might almost be taken in armfuls. Among species of
different genera, each bird was observed to have but a single egg; as
though the reported compact of some of the Islanders, had extended
to the feathered tribes. Blocks of lava, from five to thirty pounds in
weight, were met with on different parts of the reef; and it seemed
difficult to account for their presence ; drift-wood affording a barely
possible means of conveyance. We never met with a second instance
of the kind.

On the passage from the Feejee to the Hawaiian Islands, the Vin-
cennes passed through the Poa@nix Group. The first island visited,
was small, and was named on the charts, Gardner’s Island. On land-
ing, I observed that the house-fly was absent, as well as the cocoa
palm ; and the only evidence of the visits of natives, consisted in the
presence of great numbers of rats.

On the following day, a small patch of coral was discovered, and
not being down on the charts, it received the name of M’ Kean’s
Island. Its very insignificance rendered it formidable to the navigator.
I obtained a seat in one of the boats sent to examine it, and on our
way, experienced the novelty of being within three miles of land,
without the possibility of discerning it: for it rose very slightly above
the water, and produced neither trees nor bushes, but only low scat-
tered herbage and tufts of grass. It was a mere roosting-place for sea-
birds, and was literally crowned with them ; while, as it was near sun-
set, others were arriving from all directions to take their stations in
the throng. While we remained in the vicinity, a large shoal of
porpoises came dashing along, and after frolicking about the boat, at
length arranged themselves in a novel manner; with the eyes above
water, gazing at the unusual spectacle. At another island of the
group, a number of ‘black-fish’ were equally inquisitive; and some

THE MALAY RACE. 65

apprehension was entertained, lest in their gambols, one might chance
to fall upon the boat.

Some days afterwards, I landed on Huil’s Island; where the pre-
sence of cocoa palms attested the former visits of Polynesians; but
in this instance, the Pandanus appeared to be wanting. A French-
man, with a party of Taheitians, had been left here “for the purpose
of procuring turtle; and during the four months of their residence,
but one ship had visited the island.”

A party from the Vincennes landed on Enderby’s Island, which is
small, and destitute of a proper lagoon. ‘The Pandanus was again
observed to be absent, and there were no large living trees: but drift-
wood was found; which had possibly furnished the means of trans-
port to the rats and lizards (Scincus). The latter animals, it should
be observed, have doubtless, in many instances, accompanied the
voyages of the Polynesians.

About a year afterwards, the Vincennes visited Waxe’s Island ;
which is situated nearly midway between the Hawaiian and the La-
drone or Marian Islands. It is larger than the islands seen in the
Phoenix Group, being apparently about six miles in diameter. On
landing, I could find neither the cocoa palm, Pandanus, nor the
house-fly ; but rats and lizards were the only, and uncertain signs of
aboriginal visiters. Fishes were abundant, and in greater variety
than before observed around the Coral Islands. There were no large
trees, except a single dead trunk, lying prostrate.

A friend of mine once passed several months on Fannine’s Island,
in company with a party of Hawaiians. Cocoa palms were abundant ;*
an important fact, taken in connexion with the central position of this
island, in regard to the Hawaiian, Union, Kingsmill and Marquesas
Groups. Indeed, after the above examples, it would seem that few,
if any of the Tropical isles of the Pacific, have escaped aboriginal
discovery.

Jervis’ Island, situated to the southward of Fanning’s Island, and
nearly under the Equator, was visited by the Peacock. No attempt

* In a medical point of view it may be of interest to state, that an exclusive cocoa-nut
diet was complained of, as producing a species of urethritis.

ky)

66 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

was made to land; but the island was ascertained to be “ destitute of
both trees and shrubs.”

For an account of the inhabitants of the Union, Ellice, Tarawan
or Kingsmill, and Radack Groups, which were successively visited
by the Peacock, I must principally refer to the Narrative and Eth-
nography of the Expedition. It will be perceived that I have enume-
rated tribes differing materially in their customs and languages, and
in some instances, not strictly belonging to the Polynesian family ;
but they all dwell on coral islands, and their union here, has reference
to their being subjected to the same external circumstances.

At the Union or Orarvan Grovp, a landing was effected on the
island of Otafu. ‘The cocoa palm, Pandanus, and Morinda were all
present; together with the Gardenia, the flowers of which are worn
for ornament at Taheiti.”” Mr. Agate observed, that the inhabitants
‘derived their supplies of water from the rains, by means of a cavity
cut in the base of the cocoa stems;” a process familiarly known also
on the high islands.

At Fakaafo, the island on which the chief resided, Mr. Rich again
observed “the four plants above-mentioned ; and in addition, the fla-
bellate palm, which is cultivated at the Samoa and Tonga Islands.
A sort of Spirit-house was found here, and a purple-crowned yellow
pigeon, which had been tamed.” The apparent absence, at this
group, of the use of fire, merits further inquiry: indeed, I do not
remember to have seen any signs of fire at the Disappointment
Islands.

Swain's Island, which is detached from the rest of the group, and
is not far from the Samoa Islands, “appeared to be uninhabited ; but
it was covered with cocoa palms, mixed with the Pandanus.”’

At the Ellice or Varrupan Group, the pains taken in dressing the
hair in a variety of modes, recalls the customs of the Feejeeans. An
Albino also was found here, who, according to Mr. Agate, “had blue
eyes, and was at first mistaken for a European :” and the circum-
stance deserves further notice, as albinoes seem to be of rare occur-
rence in the Malay race. Chequered mats, of different colours, were
obtained at the Vaitupan Group; and they seem to show affinity with
the manufactures of the East Indies. Wooden shark-hooks were also
obtained, which may be compared with those of Penrhyn Island.

At the extensive Kingsmill or Tarawan Grovp, according to

THE MALAY RACE. 67

Mr. Rich, “no large trees, except cocoa palms, were visible. The
Calophyllum, however, and a branch of the mangrove, indicated a
greater variety of productions than is usual at the Coral Islands :”
doubtless owing to a greater continuity of surface. Mr. Rich ascer-
tained here, “that rice-paper is manufactured from the root of Scce-
vola lobelia;’’ a fact confirmed by subsequent inquiry in the East
Indies (where this common indigenous plant of the Coral Islands is
likewise found). Besides the two kinds of taro, plantations of ‘ bread-
fruit’ were spoken of; the bamboo was known; and likewise, ‘ mullet-
ponds,’ as at the Hawaiian Islands. Dogs were seen, and also fowls;
the latter were “not eaten, but were kept in cages for fighting.” It
appears, moreover, from Mr. Hale’s Vocabulary, that all the intro-
duced animals and plants, have Polynesian names.

In other respects, a marked change had taken place, from the cus-
toms of the Polynesians. ‘There was a word for lying, and even
for sarcasm; divination or sorcery was also known; and the natives
paid worship to the manes or spirits of their departed ancestors.
The conical hat was found here, and had given its name to one of
the islands of the group. A novel use was made of the cocoa palm,
to produce a kind of molasses; and in conformity with a common
belief, these were the only islanders seen in the Pacific, “ who had
decayed teeth.” Shortsightedness was well known; and again un-
like the Polynesians, the majority of the population were of inferior
stature. ‘The limit in respect to children was here extended to three.
Although there was little communication even between the different
islands of the group, Mr. Hale found a traditional knowledge both of
Banabe (or Ascension) in the Caroline Group, and of Samoa.

The branching shark’s teeth saws, a weapon so unique and formi-
dable in appearance, together with the defensive armour of cocoa
fibre, were found at Drummond Island. The form of the cuirass is
nearly the same with that of Ombay, as figured in the French Voy-
ages. Moreover, the T’arawan paddle resembles the oar of the Persian
Gulf: and we note also, that children were betrothed at an early age ;
and that the Pharaonic custom was observed, of naming a child after
the grandfather.

No direct communication was had with the inhabitants of the ex-
tensive Rapack Group; but the information obtained by Mr. Hale, re-
specting Mille (one of the southernmost islands), will be found of much
interest. Kotzebue appears hitherto to have enjoyed the best oppor-

68 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tunity of becoming acquainted with the Radack islanders; and I must
refer to his work, and especially to the plates of Choris, who accom-
panied him.

PEASANT Island is situated near the Equator, some four hundred
miles west of the Tarawan Group, and a little beyond Ocean Island.
The following particulars respecting its inhabitants, are extracted
from a notice by T’. Beckford Simpson, originally published in an
Australian gazette.

“They appeared to be a very mild and well-disposed set of people,
and had the appearance of being of the same stock with the natives of
Ascension, which island he had formerly visited. Unlike them, how-
ever, these islanders have no tradition of their origin, or the manner
their forefathers first came to the island: they have no religion of any
kind, neither do they believe in a future state; but they appear to
have some slight idea of an evil spirit. The population was estimated
at not less than fourteen hundred; divided into seven or eight clans,
each governed by a chief; and there is a queen, who presides over
the whole. It is her duty to decide all disputes among the chiefs ;
and in her also is vested the sovereign prerogative of making peace or
war among the different clans. ‘They have canoes. 'Their food con-
sists chiefly of cocoa-nuts, the fruit of another description of palm, and
fish, which are not very numerous. ‘They have also a few very small
fowls. The dress of the women consisted of a piece of native cloth
round the waist; and the men wore the maro, made of dried grass.
Several Kuropeans of doubtful character were residing on the island,
and one who was now gone, had deliberately murdered eleven of his
associates.”

TAHEITL

Leaving the Coral Islands, I shall next speak of the Polynesians
of the high and rocky groups. ‘The transition is truly remarka-
ble; independently of the release from the straitened circumstances,
heretofore surrounding the human family. We had enjoyed at Metia
a slight introduction to the new order of things; and on the following
day (in September, 1839,) the Vincennes reached Taheiti, where we
remained fourteen days.

Among the first subjects to attract notice, was the ready and cheer-
ful salutation which everywhere met us on our rambles; the attention

THE MALAY RACE. 69

to cleanliness in the details of domestic economy; the large, airy,
elliptical houses, so admirably adapted to the climate; and yet in all,
the wide difference from the customs of Europeans.

A journey across the island having been projected, we asked our
guides about the ascent of Oroena, the central mountain or most
elevated point of the island. ‘They replied with great simplicity, but
as 1t appeared subsequently, with a good deal of truth: “no Taheiti
man had ever been able to get there, and therefore a White man
could not go.” They appeared to have no measurements for short
distances or short periods of time, corresponding to a mile or an hour;
but always pointed to the place in the heavens, where the sun would
be when we should arrive at the proposed station. ‘The ‘Queen’ had
groves of cocoa palms at intervals along the road; or, in other words,
these were reserved for the use of travellers. Other cocoa palms
were ‘taboo,’ and bore a mark of private reservation; for this regu-
lation has the advantage over the ‘law’ of civilized nations, of being
universally respected.

The Taheitians have been found to excel in the culinary art; and
their mode of cooking has been often described. Our repast was
served up on leaves; a number being handed to each person, in lieu
of a plate. There was refinement, we found, in eating with the fin-
gers; and for the want of practice, our party acquitted themselves
but awkwardly. A cocoa-nut shell containing water, afterwards
formed a substitute for finger-bowls. In another particular, we
equally found ourselves at fault; for having always worn clothes,
and been accustomed to the use of chairs, it was impossible to assume
postures (sometimes, it is true, not according with our ideas of grace),
in which we saw the natives resting easily. This greater suppleness
of limb gave them many advantages over us; and the most active
of our guides, after lashing his heels together, would ascend a cocoa
palm almost as rapidly as we would have walked over the same
horizontal distance.

After leaving the coast, our way lay up the valley of a mountain
torrent, which we were obliged to ford frequently, and sometimes to
travel in its bed. We were exposed for some days to frequent and
heavy rains, and soon began to envy the naked condition of the
natives, who became dry in a few moments, whereas our clothing
once wet, remained so for hours. ‘This circumstance led to some
views on the subject of clothing, particularly in tropical climates,
which had not before occurred to me. Man not being created an

18

70 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

aquatic animal, his skin may not with impunity be exposed to perpe-
tual moisture; whether directly applied, or arising from perspiration
retained by dress. Indeed, we subsequently heard complaints among
Polynesians, that “they never had colds until they began wearing
clothes.” At the same time, we ourselves, could not with impunity
have laid clothing aside: the skin with us was in an unnatural con-
dition, over-sensitive, from the exclusion as well of light as of air; or
according to a term used by naturalists, ‘etiolated.’ The importance
to health, therefore, of keeping the skin dry, does not appear to have
hitherto received due attention.

Near the head of the valley, we unexpectedly found a family re-
siding, and at a point below, we observed one or two abandoned houses;
but with these exceptions, the Interior appeared to be wholly uninha-
bited. We next traversed a ridge of about twenty-seven hundred feet
in elevation; were ferried over the Lake on a raft of wild banana
stems ; and on reaching the opposite coast, learned to our surprise, that
“we were the first White men who had ever crossed the island of
Taheiti.” The pass, indeed, is very seldom used by the natives;
who confine themselves to the coast, making limited excursions along
the mountain ridges, to procure the fruit of the ‘fehi,’ or wild banana.
According to an intelligent chief, “the wild people who formerly in-
habited Taheiti, were accustomed to go all over the mountains; but
there was no one now, who knew the way.” The gradual abandon-
ment of the Interior, was of so recent a date as to have been in part
witnessed by the missionaries: and it was stated by them, that even
“within a few years, some natives made their appearance, who were
quite unaware of the changes brought about by the residence of
Huropeans.”’

Continuing our journey, we completed the circuit of the larger sec-
tion of the island, by the well-known and indeed only route, that along
the coast. An innovation on ancient habits was observed, in the joint
ownership of a large sugar plantation, by an association of natives.
“Tjanded property, was said to be at the bottom of most of the quar-
rels and difficulties among the native population ;” and on the autho-
rity of the chief above mentioned, “it was always the principal cause
of war.” ‘The missionaries, however, spoke of ‘a spirit of emulation
between the different districts, that showed itself in various modes
after the cessation of the wars; and at one time cock-fighting* was

* We note here an apparent connexion with the occurrence of the same kind of amuse-
ment at the Tarawan Group, and with its unusual prevalence at the Philippine Islands,

MH Eo MeAMAY RAC BE 71

much practised.” The Guava plant has now overrun much of the
productive soil; and is commonly complained of, as “having ruined
the island.” Yet, according to the missionaries, “the population, for
the last thirty years, did not appear to have diminished.”

A second mountain excursion was undertaken; and we procured the
services of a native, named Veheori. This man provided himself
with a rope, and took with him his son, for the purpose as he said,
‘of teaching him the way to the mountains; as after a while he should
himself die, and then nobody would know.” It appeared, however,
in the sequel, that another reason had entered into his views, as he
‘‘owned a tract of land” at the limit of our excursion. We started at
an early hour; and in the afternoon, we had attained an elevation of
between four and five thousand feet, along the crest of a frightful
knife-shaped ridge, such as I have only seen in the island of Taheiti.
We here looked upon the wild and romantic scenery of the Interior,
from a new point of view.

Amidst the luxuriance of the forest, immense numbers of the
radiating crowns of the feht banana, were conspicuous in the dis-
tance. I had previously, from below, wondered at the presence of
these groves in situations that seemed inaccessible to human foot. For
the plant is multiplied only by suckers; and the natives (those at least
of the existing generation), take no part in disseminating it; although
the green fruit, which becomes farinaceous when cooked, contributes
largely to their sustenance. The fehi differs from the common banana
in having a simple raceme; and the substitution at Samoa of a second
variety, may be regarded as proof, that the species was originally
foreign to both places. Some mystery, therefore, seems connected with
this plant, and the period and mode of its introduction into Taheiti.

Our time being limited, perhaps fortunately, it was now necessary
to think about returning; and Veheori led us to a point, where much
to our surprise, the descent was practicable. On the following day,
we returned midway along the flank of the ridge, and deriving assist-
ance only once from the rope, made our final exit by the valley below.

In all my subsequent experience, I have never met with a people so
serviceable to the traveller as the 'Taheitians ; for they seemed, in fact,
to command at all times the principal conveniences of life. Half an
hour of daylight was sufficient for building a house, of the stems and
leaves of the fehi banana; and fire was produced by rubbing sticks.
In one place, the running water was deeply sunk among stones, but
by working in banana leaves, they brought it to the surface. ‘The

72 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

chase of eels (Anguilla), which in these dripping mountains become
almost amphibious, offered another instance of their ingenuity. They
also tore off with their teeth the fibrous bark of the ‘purau’ (Hibis-
cus tiliaceus), and a moment after, applied it to noosing small fish. If
one was sent for fruit, he would usually make a basket on the way, by
plaiting the segments of a cocoa-nut leaf. A mat was manufactured
with almost equal ease. Clothing was always at hand; and a banana
leaf served for an umbrella; or in fine weather they would weave gar-
lands of flowers. ‘Tumblers and bottles were supplied by single joints
of the bamboo; and casks or buckets, by the long stems; and whe-
ther we asked for a hatchet, knife, spoon, toothbrush, or wash-basin,
we never found our guides at fault.

The women, on meeting a near relation after a long absence, ex-
press their emotion by protracted weeping; and we witnessed the
commencement of such an exhibition, on the occasion of one of our
guides falling in with his mother. Among the Taheitians, conversa-

tion, it appears, is too open and ingenuous for European taste; but, in

the absence of guile and false refinement, it may well be supposed,
there is less to corrupt the heart, than in our self-styled ‘civilized’
society. ‘The Taheitians measure long periods of time by ‘moons,’ or
lunations; and they have a calendar, which will be hereafter noticed.
We often witnessed the universal familiarity with the plants and other
productions of the island; and also, their more minute subdivision of
the external parts of the human frame, than is known to our sculptors
and anatomists. It appears from Forster, that they aboriginally held
some commerce “ with Taha, Borabora, and the Low coral islands;
and they procured red feathers from Whennuarora, ten days’ sail to
the westward.”” This last-named place, is one of the Feejee Islands.

In their personal appearance, I could find no difference from that of
the Paumotuans. I saw little resemblance to the Mongolians; but
some individuals might, in the United States, have been mistaken for
mulattoes. The hair was not universally black; but, in some in-
stances, had a russet tinge, as was subsequently observed at Samoa
and Tonga. Albinoes were spoken of, but I did not see any. Spec-
tacles were occasionally worn by old people. Cdematous legs were
quite common, perhaps attributable in some measure, to constant wad-
ing on the reefs. ‘The skin was seldom entirely free from scars, like
the vestiges of imposthumes. Several instances were observed of the
loss of the nose by ulceration; and in one mixed family, the disease
in the European father was transmitted to the children.

THE MALAY RACE, 73

The Vincennes touched at Azmeo ; situated about twelve miles from
Taheiti, and forming a natural dependence of that island. It is ex-
cessively rugged, and some of its mountain ridges are even perforated.
On ascending one of them, I again met with fehi groves.

The Vincennes afterwards passed among the other high islands of
the group, and we saw Huaheine, Tahaa, and Borabora; but we had
no intercourse with the inhabitants, neither were we at any time very
near the land.

SAMOA.

Passing Bellinghausen and Rose, two coral islands already noticed,
we, on the 8th of October, reached Manua ; the summit of which was
at the time concealed by clouds. ‘Together with the neighbouring
double islet, it is somewhat detached from the remainder of the group ;
and although the distance is only about sixty miles, there appears to
be very little intercourse. The inhabitants have always been some-
what noted for their warlike character; but we found them in every
respect, nationally identical with the other Samoans.

The name of ‘ Navigator Islands’ was suggested to the French
discoverer, by the graceful shape and superior workmanship of the
canoes. ‘These are formed of irregular pieces, sewed together by
means of a raised interior margin; a construction which, at these
islands, is by no means a matter of necessity. The outrigger is
placed nearer than usual to the body of the canoe, so that they overset
rather easily ; an inconvenience which however is not much regarded
by the natives.

We landed on Manua, and met with a friendly reception; but the
majority of persons seen were observed to be women. ‘The usual Sa-
moan costume consists of a cincture of the leaves of the Ti plant (Dra-
ccena), divided into slips, so as to form fringe: the yellow-leaved va-
riety, makes a somewhat gaudy appearance; and indeed this style
of dress seems well adapted to set off a fine figure in either sex. Hos-
tilities had but recently ceased between the two districts of this small
island.

A New Zealander applied to us for a writing-pencil, and called
himself a ‘missionary.’ We did not meet with another instance of
this profession among his countrymen, nor among the Hawaiians,
although they are equally scattered over the Pacific. It is chiefly to
Taheitians, that the world is indebted for the great change recently
effected throughout Polynesia.

19

74 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

I here joined the Porpoise; and leaving Manua, we directed our
course to the three principal islands of the group, which are in closer
proximity to each other, and the inhabitants of which are accustomed
to constant intercourse. As we approached Upolu, a native was re-
ceived on board from a canoe. He was greatly delighted with a
musical-box; and when it happened to run down, as one of our
party commenced playing on a different instrument, he said, as it
appeared, ‘it had stopped to listen.”

We remained a day at Apia; where I was at once struck with the in-
feriority of the Samoan houses, as compared with those of Taheiti. In
the aspect of the population, I could find no particular difference. I
saw the same large men, and occasionally, individuals of truly Her-
culean proportions. The ‘age of heroes’ still exists in this quarter
of the globe; and I am inclined to think, the Homeric heroes would
probably have suffered by a comparison with some of the men of
Samoa and Tongataboo.

The first Polynesian with frizzled hair, was seen at Manua; and
other instances occurred, both in the Samoan Group and at Tongata-
boo. Except in the hair, these individuals did not differ from the
surrounding natives; and the peculiarity is perhaps attributable in
part to art, to an imitation of the Feejeeans.

Mr. Couthouy, during his visit to Upolu, obtained some information
respecting a crocodile, believed by the natives to exist in one of the
streams. A species of crocodile (C. biporcatus) is known to occur as
far east as New Ireland; and Mariner relates an instance of a strag-
gler having reached the Feejee Islands. It seems possible then, that
another straggler may have reached Samoa. Some apparent con-
nexion will be perceived, with the “image of a large lizard formerly
placed on one of the morais” at Taheiti; and also with the fact that
‘crocodiles are still held in veneration at Timor.”

Savai, the largest and loftiest island of the group, was next visited.
Besides the philological identity in name, it has local points of resem-
blance with the widely separated Hawaii; and is indeed the only
other island I have examined, that had been overspread with lava-
streams. The land rises everywhere with a very gradual and regular
slope, towards the broad central summit, which is almost constantly
concealed by clouds. Notwithstanding the profuse rains, I saw no
signs of streams; but the water sinking through the porous lava,
gushes out in copious springs at the margin of the sea. Owing ap-
parently to this absence of streams, there are no large openings

THE MALAY RACE, 75

through the coral reef: and vessels being thus excluded, very little
change had taken place in the primitive manners of the inhabitants.

Two boats landed at Sapapali; and on reaching the English mis-
sion house, a number of the natives collected around us, having
“never before seen so many White men.” We learned that remarks
were made complimentary to the good looks of our party; and that
some declared “they would like to go to England, since it contained
so many handsome people.” In company with Lieut. Maury, I re-
mained on shore for nine days; but as time at the outset was a matter
of uncertainty, my first excursion was directed into the Interior.

Six natives were procured as guides, but before proceeding further,
it was found necessary to obtain leave of the ‘keeper of the forest;’ a
functionary, whose existence was now for the first time brought to
light, and who, as will be seen presently, holds an important office in
times of scarcity. This man joined our party, and proved a somewhat
more efficient woodsman than the others; for I soon found a wide dif-
ference between them and the Taheitians.

I did not get more than eight miles from the coast, rather, however,
from the want of an interpreter, than from any natural obstacles.
The weather, indeed, was rainy; but the forest was not seriously in-
cumbered with undergrowth, and was composed of loftier trees than I
have seen in the other Pacific islands. The Interior appeared to be
not only uninhabited, but unvisited; an unexpected circumstance in
this quarter of the globe.

On the second day out, I was abandoned by most of my guides ;
but in the evening, they re-assembled at the camp. ‘The principal
motive which had induced them to offer their services, was now
apparent, as I perceived that each man had loaded himself with wild
yams: (a species not seen elsewhere, which yields a profusion of
roots, and forms a safeguard against famine.) One of my astute
companions proved to be the elder brother in a large family, and
the father being deceased, the duty devolved upon him “of bringing
in all the provisions; while as in similar instances, he was exposed
to jeers in return for his trouble.”

A Samoa pillow had been prepared for my supposed convenience.
The model was subsequently found to be Feejeean, somewhat varied
and mitigated by the substitution of bamboo for solid wood. ‘This
imitation deserves attention, for the physical reason which gave rise
to the custom, does not exist in Polynesians.

On returning to the coast, the sound produced by the beating of

76 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tapa, gave the first indication of the vicinity of habitations. This is
the constant occupation of the women; and it is a discouraging one,
for the article when finished is very frail, and is soon worn out, or de-
stroyed by wet. It more resembles paper than cloth, and does not
form very graceful drapery. The paints used for delineating figures
on it, are polished black and dull red; the latter, consisting of red
earth ‘from the mountains.’

Our place of residence was always surrounded by a body of natives,
and it was impossible to move about, without a train of both men and
boys; never indeed offering the slightest molestation, but from motives
of curiosity, watching the least of our movements. Small children
were usually terrified on seeing us; but the larger boys would keep
pace for miles. Nothing showed a greater difference from our own
customs, than to see well-grown young women joining with the
rest; with unconfined limbs, and frolicsome as any of their asso-
ciates.

A small house built on poles, proved to have been the work of the
boys of the village, numbers of whom slept there at night. This ap-
peared to have been only a freak; at least 1 heard nothing of any
exclusion of the bachelors, such as is stated to exist further west, in
the vicinity of the East Indies.

I was present at an interview with Malietoa, the greatest of the
Samoan chiefs; a highly intelligent and venerable old man, ex-
tremely courteous and dignified in his deportment. According to the
Rev. Mr. Hardie, many of the natives are not only “intelligent, but
really well-informed men. He had often heard them express surprise
at the ignorance of sailors; asking, how it was possible that men like
these, had been brought up in a civilized country.” At the time of
our visit, paper for writing, formed one of the best articles of traffic
with Samoa; a circumstance which seemed anomalous, in a people as
yet unacquainted with the use of money.

“Their former wars were sometimes brought on by murders; and
these were occasionally committed by designing men, for that special
purpose. Another cause, was the abduction of women. Sometimes
women, from some dissatisfaction, would with the help of two dry
cocoa-nuts, swim across the channel between Upolu and Savaii.” A
person was pointed out to me, who had “remained three days in the
water, until the abdomen softened.”’

The natives of the vicinity of Sapapali, had all been converted, and
I saw no traces of their former superstitions. A resident White spoke

THE MALAY RACE. 77

of a “collection of remarkably crooked sticks, having been formerly
kept near one of the Spirit-houses.”

The property at our place of residence was regarded as safe, so far
as the people of the island were concerned; but some apprehensions
were expressed by the natives, concerning a stranger, a Hawaiian, from
whom however we did not suffer loss. On the day of our departure,
we received a visit from several of the belles of the village, arrayed
in their best attire, and dripping with scented oil; but our attendants
soon drove them away, considering with some truth that the presents
they might receive, would be so much abstracted from their own just
dues. I had formed some acquaintances among this people, a com-
munity that dwell together and love one another, and on parting, I
felt regrets not experienced at any other place we visited.

The ten days spent at the island of Tutuzla, were not marked by
any particular incident; except the arrival of three canoes from Upolu,
with streamers flying, and the men singing or rather shouting in
chorus. ‘They had been expected, from the wind having recently
changed to the westward ; an occurrence it was said, that rarely takes
place without bringing visiters. This practice of visiting had been
discouraged by the missionaries: formerly it was much more frequent,
so that some individuals would quarter themselves altogether on the
hospitality of the different districts.

In one respect, the Western differ remarkably from the Eastern
Polynesians; they are by no means a licentious people. Possibly
something may be due to the indirect influence of the neighbouring
Feejeeans; but there was every appearance at Samoa, of this social
condition being spontaneous and directly conformable to nature.
What will be the result of European intercourse, after the secret
shall be made known, that it is possible to hoard up property, or to
change its form at will, remains to be developed.

Ophthalmia, resulting usually in the loss of but a single eye, was
extremely common, in both young and aged persons; and I have
never visited any other place where there were so many humpbacks.
The oedematous leg was again common; but | saw only a single
instance, and heard of but one more, of ulceration of the nose.

The implements and manufactures of the Samoa Islands, may
readily be distinguished by the style of workmanship. Rugs, which
are made of vegetable fibre, and sometimes stained yellow, seem
peculiar to this group. The javelins are very rudely made, though
the barbs give them a formidable appearance. Once only I saw the

20

78 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

bow in use; a native, in the evening, stealthily seeking to destroy
thereby a large bat (Pteropus), which was making free with his
bread-fruit. ‘Some arrows of a novel construction were procured;
intended, it was said, for “ bringing pigeons to the ground alive with-
out injuring them.”

NEW ZEALAND.

Before proceeding with the account of the Tropical Polynesians, I
have concluded to follow the order of the Voyage; which next con-
ducts us to the Austral division of the Polynesian family.

In company with others of my associates, I took passage at Sidney
in a merchant vessel, and we reached the Bay of Islands on the 24th
of February, 1840. We remained in New Zealand about six weeks,
until the return of the Vincennes from the Antarctic cruise.

Nothing so much surprises the European emigrant, as the physical
difference between the natives of Australia and New Zealand, two
neighbouring regions situated between the same parallels of latitude:
the change in habits, is likewise radical. The remark may be ex-
tended to the other territories of the Southern Hemisphere, which
are remotely detached, and are noted for their remarkable yet dissi-
milar natural productions: for it will be difficult to select from the
human family, four nations more unlike, than the Australians, Austral
Polynesians, Fuegians, and Hottentots. It will further be observed
that they severally pursue the precise four ultimate methods of pro-
curing sustenance; and may be classed respectively, as hunting,
agricultural, piscatorial, and pastoral tribes.

The ‘hunter state’ indeed is impossible in New Zealand, from the
absence of game. By an anomalous distribution of the vegetation,
the open grounds of this extensive country are almost exclusively
covered with fern. There is no pasturage for grazing animals; neither
on the other hand, have any woodland quadrupeds been allotted to
the forests.

Although fish enters largely into the diet of the New Zealanders,
they are not an exclusively maritime people, like the piscatorial tribes
of America, but they are diffused throughout the interior country.
Moreover, what is a little remarkable in the Malay race, they rather
avoid the open sea; holding nevertheless, occasional communication
along the coast.

THE MA A Ye RoC E 79

The geographical position and chilly climate, unsuited to Tropical
plants, deprived of course the first Polynesian emigrants, of their
accustomed agricultural resources. Forced, therefore, to live on the
spontaneous products of the new country, (and principally on fern-
root and fish), it might be supposed, that their descendants would
have relapsed into a ruder condition. We do not, however, find
them at all behind the other Polynesians, in arts, knowledge, or
acquirements.

But to go into some seeming exceptions: a few Polynesian plants
have actually proved hardy enough to withstand the New Zealand cli-
mate; and Cook found here “coccos or eddas, sweet-potatoes, and some
gourds.” Of the first named plant, or the ¢aro, I sometimes observed
a few stocks near the native houses ; but it is of no importance as an
esculent, since the root does not arrive at perfection. I observed also
the gourd (Lagenaria); but I do not remember to have anywhere
seen its fruit eaten by Polynesians. ‘The datatas, or sweet-potato, is
really of importance as an esculent, at least in the northern districts ;
although its cultivation appears to have been notwithstanding limited.
Its presence, however, was not coeval with the first settlement of
New Zealand, but the natives have preserved a distinct account of its
introduction. The traditionary “canoe formed of separate pieces,”’
describes precisely the model used at Samoa: and further confirma-
tion of a Samoan source, was offered by the small finger-like variety
of this root, which we met with only at the two places; while yet
another concurrent tradition, made this “the only kind formerly
known in New Zealand.”

A fourth esculent, the ‘Cape gooseberry’ (Physalis edulis), may
perhaps be added ; as it had every appearance of being of aboriginal
introduction. It is, however, only a weed, abundantly naturalized
in waste places; and so it is in the other Polynesian islands, where
I have never seen it regularly cultivated. On now comparing the
whole list of Polynesian useful plants, it will perhaps be found, that
these four alone are capable of enduring the New Zealand climate.

The aboriginal absence, of the domestic animals of the Tropical
Polynesians (the pig, the dog, and the domestic fowl), seems more
difficult of explanation. Jt is true, in regard to swine, there appears
to be a dearth of sustenance: even at the present day, they have
not run wild, as at Taheiti; but they continue the inseparable com-
panions of the New Zealand household, and are called to partake of
the family meals. I am not sure that the dog was altogether un-
known to the aboriginal New Zealanders.

80 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The absence of the outrigger was unexpected ; and may possibly be
connected with the greater roughness of the Southern ocean. In the
management of a canoe or boat, the natives by no means fall behind
their Tropical brethren, as we had many opportunities of witnessing :
even in the instance of the pilot at Sidney, who had selected New
Zealanders for the crew of his open boat. Unlike, the Tropical Poly-
nesians, they were not seen bathing, a circumstance attributed to the
coolness of the water; but they are otherwise less cleanly in all their
habits. . Their huts, too, are very small and close; built of bundles of
‘rapoo’ (Typha), and roofed usually with leaves of the wild palm.

We now met with stockaded or fortified villages; which are un-
known in the rest of Polynesia, excepting only at ‘Tongataboo, where
the usage had been derived directly from the Feejeeans. Their pre-
sence offers an index to the political condition of New Zealand, for
there is no approach to a centralizing of authority, as in other parts
of Polynesia. It was said to be impossible to hire natives for any
distant journey, as “they would not enter districts where their rela-
tives had been formerly killed ;” and by their method of computing
relationship, families are rather extensively ramified. Even the Bay
of Islands was districted; a circumstance, which had the effect of
preventing many articles from being brought to us for sale.

The New Zealanders have always borne a warlike character; and
I was, therefore, much surprised at the inefficiency of their weapons.
Besides the stone mace, their principal one is a straight sword-like
club, which is wielded with both hands. This is a remarkable change
from the weapons of the Tropical Polynesians; for the javelin ap-
pears to be unknown, likewise the bow, and according to Mr. Hale,
the sling. ‘Their wars indeed, do not appear to have ever been very
bloody ; and notwithstanding the eagerness manifested in seeking
possession of muskets, these had been used for the most part at ex-
travagant distances. The Bay of Islands, two years previously, had
been the seat of war. “Persons from distant clans were attracted
to the spot, and the parties on their arrival would divide to the right
and left, brothers and other members of the same family often taking
opposite sides. On the restoration of peace, Pomare’s tribe having
killed many of the Kororarika people, gave their opponents a tract of
land by way of compensation.”

The soil was said’ to be held by the chiefs, although the consent
of each member of the tribe was necessary to a sale.” It appears that
in the alleged sales to Europeans, the natives have not understood

THE MALAY RACE. 81

that they were alienating their lands absolutely ; nor, if I am rightly
informed, would the European view of such transactions, be admitted
among other Polynesians.

Tattooing is incised, and is a much more painful operation than
in the rest of Polynesia. The quantity of markings about the face,
seemed to be very much in proportion to the rank of the individual ;
each chief, however, having some variation in the pattern. It was
said, that “in signing a document, the chiefs trace this pattern on the
paper; such a signature being readily recognised by all the natives
who have ever seen the individual.” This was the nearest approach
to writing, that I found among the Polynesians; and the practice ap-
peared to be quite unknown elsewhere.

Instances of the various effect of the taboo, were noted. At one
village, an aged man had “ tabooed himself; and in consequence, he
could not quit the spot of ground he had selected.’ At another vil-
lage, we found a large hog tabooed; it having been given to an aged
female. On kindling a fire, it was taboo for one of our guides to light
his pipe by it; and he requested us to strike a fresh hght for him.
A deserted camp was tabooed; as it was a station to which inva-
lid natives sometimes resorted. And lastly, we were told, that on the
occasion of some difficulty with the Kkuropeans, Pomare, as an act of
vengeance, “ tabooed the fish in the Bay.”

The productions of New Zealand have all received native names,
and they appeared to be universally known, as in Tropical Poly-
nesia. According to Nicholas, the New Zealanders “have divided
the stars into constellations, and they make inquiries when certain
stars will make their appearance.” The custom of touching noses,
and never the lips, they have in common with the other Polynesians
and the Feejeeans.

The New Zealand manufactures show skill at least equalling that
of their Tropical brethren; although in most instances it has been ne-
cessary toemploy different materials. The manufacture of tapa is un-
known; and indeed, we saw no genuine Urticaceous plants. Woven
mantles of the New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), are substituted
by the men; while the women wear a broad cincture, somewhat like
arug. The handle of the sword-like clubs usually has a tuft of hair,
the use of which might not readily be divined: it serves in travelling,
to protect the hand against the roughness of the fern.

On the route to Hokianga, lived a chief of bad character, who was
in the practice of laying European travellers under contribution. I

21

82 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

enjoyed his hospitality on the way out, but the denouement was re-
served for my return, in the form of a sale. From other natives, I ex-
perienced some disinterested and delicately-tendered acts of kindness,
that, considering the general character of the New Zealanders, were
quite unexpected. .

‘“‘T was assured, that every part of the Northern island is intersected
with paths; and that the Interior had all been traversed by Euro-
peans.” Notwithstanding the introduction of new means of subsist-
ence (domestic animals, the common potato, maize, and peaches),
it was generally conceded, that the population around the Bay of
Islands had materially diminished. Children were unusually rare:
as is generally observed, wherever Polynesians have come much in
contact with Kuropeans.

The New Zealanders are ready enough to enter into the Huropean
system of civilization, and adopt the arts and fashions of the Whites ;
but under the new order of things, they have been found to possess
the failing of extreme covetousness. They are besides, apt to be
morose and discontented, and not very scrupulous in adhering to
their bargains. ‘They have not the amiable temperament of the Tro-
pical Polynesians; who are more general favourites with European
residents. Sac, our sailor-chief, did not conceal his disgust at the
treatment he received from his former neighbours, and made up his
mind to spend his earnings within the Tropics. It was stated, also,
that a “party of New Zealanders, tired of the disturbances at home,
once entertained the idea of forming a colony in New South Wales;
in order that they might enjoy the benefit of regular laws.”

It is usual to represent the New Zealanders with a peculiar cast
of countenance, and especially with the nose more prominent than in
other Polynesians. It is true, the cheeks seemed in general thinner,
and the frame not so well filled out, (owing perhaps in some measure
to the scarcity and inferior quality of the food;) and I once met with
an assemblage of very rugged-looking men. On the whole, it ap-
peared to me, that there was some optical illusion arising from the
peculiar style of tattooing; for in the countenances that were mostly
free from these marks, I saw only the same series of expressions as at
Taheiti and Samoa. In stature, however, the New Zealanders were
inferior to the inhabitants of those places; and they did not, on the
average, appear to exceed Kuropeans.

The set of diseases previously noticed as prevailing among the Tro-
pical Polynesians, appeared to be now for the most part wanting. I

THE MALAY RACE. 83

saw neither humpbacks, dropsical leg, nor any instance of ulceration
of the nose; neither, indeed, was ophthalmia frequent, though I
sometimes remarked defects in the eye.

The Vincennes left New Zealand on the 6th of April. And on the
14th, we obtained a distant view of Sunday Island, which is high and
rocky, but of limited extent; and which, according to report, is inha-
bited only by a small party of Kuropeans.

TONGATABOO.

On the 22d, having re-entered the Tropics, we were among the
scattered Tonga Group. Hoa was first seen, a continuous lump of
land ‘about six hundred feet in elevation ; and according to report,
the highest island of the group, except perhaps the active volcano of
Tofooa.” The light green appearance of its surface, was stated to be
owing to “clearings and yam-patches ;”” and with the glass, we could
distinguish scattered Casuarina trees (iron-wood or club-wood), but
no huts, and only a single native on the beach.

Politically, Hoa forms an appendage of the neighbouring larger
island of Tongataboo ; which is of very dissimilar aspect, and consists
of a low level surface of coral. The ‘Sacred Tonga,’ for that is the
meaning of the name, has long exercised, and may probably continue
to exercise important influence in Polynesian affairs.

The soil now poured forth its fruits in abundance, and the foliage
had resumed the freshness of eternal youth; but this transition was
not more striking than the moral change, from the morose and selfish
New Zealander to the free and open-hearted Polynesian of the tropics.
We looked with pleasure on the numerous children, the lively and
good-humoured countenances, the fulness of cheek, the well-turned
limbs, and the superior development of frame. In addition to the
usual costume, the men were observed to have their faces gaudily
painted with various colours; and some wore a band of yellow flowers
over the forehead, or fillets of dried leaves around the limbs and
shoulders. ‘The gay appearance, was the ‘pomp and circumstance’
of war.

The peculiar curved club, usually carried on the shoulder, was

84 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

evidently the national weapon. At the strand, reinforcements were
arriving in large double canoes, from the more remote islands of
the group. Several of the strangers at once recognised the Vin-
cennes, although disguised by an additional deck since they had
seen her at Vavao: and on getting further acquainted with the crowd
on shore, all the principal branches of the Polynesian family were
found to be represented.

The war had been precipitated through the indiscreet zeal of one
of the European missionaries, and had “lasted for nearly a year; but
the recent arrival of ‘King George,’ from the other division of the
group, with a body of several hundred warriors,” promised to bring it
toa conclusion. ‘This state of things was unfavourable to the pur-
suits of the naturalist; and as strategies of war were not unknown,
and an act of treachery had recently taken place, our walks were ne-
cessarily very much circumscribed.

My principal excursion was made in a canoe, to the heathen village
of Moo, situated near the centre of the island, and at the head of the
inlet or lagoon. It was fortified after a plan evidently borrowed from
the I’eejeeans ; being surrounded by a ditch, and having low gateways
strongly built of logs; but the greater part of the wall consisted only
of wicker-work of small sugar-cane. Secondary enclosures of wicker-
work, divided the interior of the town, and formed regular streets.

The chief, Faatu, received our party with great dignity and polite-
ness; in the only house that in size and neatness approached those
of 'Taheiti. In the traffic for provisions which ensued, he was ob-
served to take no other part than occasionally to give directions for the
bringing of additional supplies. It appeared, that “he and his people
were regarded rather as neutral in the present difficulties, and were
not much disturbed.’ In the course of conversation he stated, that
‘he was willing to have a missionary reside at the village, and for
such persons to follow his instructions, as might choose to do so; but
it could not be expected that all should change their customs at
once.” A resident White remarked, ‘that the heathen were less in-
clined to fight than the converted natives ;” and there were other cir-
cumstances that abundantly indicated the aggressing party.

I was surprised at the number of individuals who could speak a
little English, especially as it had not been acquired by serving on
board vessels. One man joined me while walking about the planta-
tions, and pointed out the kinds of soil that were favourable or other-
wise for the culture of bananas; though, for my own part, I was un-

THE MALAY RACE. 85

able to perceive the difference. While questioning him on the sub-
ject of tattooing, I accidentally touched his knee on the inner side:
his countenance at once changed, and he rejoined, “you are a very
saucy man.”

An islet near the anchorage was regarded as neutral ground; and
notwithstanding Faatu’s alleged position, our canoe-men took refuge
there for the night, regarding the main shore as unsafe. I have
before spoken of a difference in social relations between the Eastern
and Western Polynesians: and many of the Tonga women, who
had attained full growth, were found on inquiry to be unmarried.
The same islet was frequented by the women of both contending
parties; and in reference to the above subject, a European resident
used these words: ‘no amount of property would here avail ; for the
reason, that there is no one present to exercise control over them.”

The natives of ‘Tongataboo, unlike the other Tropical Polynesians,
were observed to avoid the water; on account, it was said, of the
‘numbers and voracity of the sharks.” Many of the women had
lost the little finger of one hand, a custom apparently derived from
the Feejeeans, and which is discontinued in converted families. A
portion only of the men were tattooed; another circumstance attri-
butable perhaps to the example of their Feejee neighbours. ‘The
markings, when present, were chiefly confined to the thighs, as
with the Samoans. The houses, too, were much like the Samoan ;
except in the use of wicker-work of the small-stemmed sugar-cane.
An explanation of the plan of a European house, ‘“ with its separate
floors, and as high as a cocoa palm,’’ excited some merriment.

Individuals with frizzled hair were numerous; presenting other-
wise no difference in feature or complexion from the rest of the
population, and no appearance of mixed descent. I could not learn
with certainty that the peculiarity was the work of art; and indeed,
frizzled hair was said “to be not esteemed.” My informant further
stated, that the preparation of lime, here first seen applied to the hair
of Polynesians, “ was for the purpose of making it stand upright.”
These statements, however, are not irreconcilable with Feejee cus-
toms; and we subsequently met with some unequivocal imitations.
The confusion in the published accounts of the population of the
more western groups, is perhaps in part attributable to this artificial
mode of dressing the hair.

T had not much opportunity of observing the prevailing diseases.
Humpbacks were common, but the proportion was less than at

22

86 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Samoa; and I met with one instance of the loss of the nose. One of
the chiefs, Faatu, offered the first Polynesian example of corpulency.

With regard to manufactures, the gathering of people from diffe-
rent quarters, had brought together a great many articles of foreign
make. We obtained a variety of Feejee war-clubs; and indeed, the
favourite curved ‘Tonga club, appears to have been copied from a
Feejee model. We noticed two new canoes, built of separate pieces ;
but the presence of some Samoans, afforded a ready explanation of the
circumstance; and the other small canoes were excavated from a
single trunk. ‘The mode of propulsion, by vertical sculling, had also
been introduced from the Feejee Islands.

Excluding articles of foreign or mixed origin, it may not be an easy
task to point out the proper Tonga style of workmanship. ‘The
superior finish, over other Polynesian manufactures, is evidently
attributable to Feejee schooling. 1 would remark, however, that
wicker-work was employed more extensively than among the Fee-
jeeans; and that the large fans of a single palm-leaf, used by the
Tonga women, were not met with elsewhere: neither indeed, were
the canoe-houses ; which on a smaller scale resembled the ship-houses
at our Navy Yards.

The sea-going canoe, which is double, seems to be of genuine
Tonga model: though the circumstance, that these canoes are occa-
sionally met with at the Feejee Islands, has led to some confusion.
It appears, indeed, from the observation of traders, that they are
all built “at the Feejee Islands; but by Tonga people alone, who
make visits of several years’ duration, for this special purpose.”

This then seems the foundation of the intercourse which has long
existed between the two groups; and as the Feejeeans are furthest
advanced in the arts, the Tonga people undergo a species of educa-
tion, and have even improved their knowledge of maritime affairs.
The result in other respects, has been humorously compared to the
advantages accruing to our own young men from a visit to Europe.

From 'Tongataboo, the vessels of the Squadron proceeded to the
FEEJEE Istanps: but I did not myself go to any of the outer islets,
where the ‘Tonga people build their canoes. At the various points
visited on the two principal islands, | met with but one Polyne-
sian, (excepting those introduced by Europeans at Rewa and Mu-
thuata); this was a woman, seen at Mbua Bay, and the very fact of
her presence implied a tragedy.

THE MALAY RACE. 87

On the occasion of 'T'anoa’s visit to the Vincennes, I remarked that
the royal canoe exceeded in dimensions the accompanying sea-going
Tonga canoe: and that the latter contained among the crew, three or
four Feejeeans. It was observed also, with some surprise, that
although the Tonga men appear smooth-chinned at home, many had
here managed to foster considerable beards; in imitation of the fashion
of the new country. During the interview, Tubou-totai, the Tonga
chief, acted as ‘secretary,’ or mouth-piece to Tanoa. His advice on
various occasions, and general influence with Tanoa, were much dis-
trusted by the European residents. They, however, asserted: “ that
he was the rightful king of Tonga, though now excluded through the
management of King George ;” and indeed, the existing state of affairs
in the Tonga Group, was evidently favourable to a designing aspti-
rant. ‘Tubou-totai, although there were no external indications, was
known to be partly of Feejee descent; and when it is considered, that
‘royal blood’ is counted by the female line throughout the Pacific
islands, the fact will be found to have further interest.

In conclusion, I would refer to the work of Mariner; which, al-
though seeming like a romance, rather than a narrative of the realities
of life, was universally regarded by the missionaries as strictly and
remarkably accurate. Our own experience was in every respect con-
firmatory ; even to his account of the Feejee Islands, which, it should
be observed, was entirely derived from Polynesian testimony. In
personal character, the Polynesian appears to advantage over the
Feejeean; and the men of Tonga, may probably be regarded as the
most splendid set of ‘barbarians’ at present in existence.

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.

After leaving the Feejee Islands, the Vincennes sailed through the
Pheenix coral group; and in September, 1340, arrived at the Ha-
walian or Sandwich Islands. This group is situated far to the north-
ward of the other Polynesian islands, and is remote from other lands,
holding a singularly central position in the North Pacific. My stay
was a prolonged one, of seven months, (including the duration of the
second visit); but my remarks will be restricted, especially as so
much has already been published about these islands, by various in-
telligent observers.

After the fertility of the other Polynesian islands, I was unpre-

88 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

pared for the desert-like appearance of Oahu; a considerable por-
tion of the soil being absolutely devoid of vegetation. It is true, we
had approached one of the most arid districts; though throughout
the group, the proportion of soil capable of cultivation, is extremely
limited. ‘The recent introduction of the use of sun-dried brick on the
leeward side of the islands, affords sufficient proof of this aridity.

‘There exists, however, at the Hawaiian Group, a singular epitome
of climates, with a very local distribution of the rains. The windward
side of the islands, is in some places subject to excess of moisture ; and
even one portion of Honolulu, being more open to the valley, receives
showers that do not extend to the remainder of the town. ‘The dif-
ference in climate from Middle Polynesia, is further illustrated ; by
the orange succeeding only on ‘Tauai, and in a single district; by
the guava being local and cultivated; and by the bread-fruit being
scarcely found in perfection beyond the vicinity of Hilo.

Honolulu at a distance might be mistaken for a Kuropean village ;
but on nearing it, the preponderance of native houses imparts a deci-
ded Feejeean aspect. It is a new and flourishing commercial town,
and the principal seat of innovation on aboriginal customs. Natives
were continually attracted to it from all parts of the group; often
from mere curiosity; ‘““and many were afterwards compelled to re-
main, from the inability of paying their expenses home.” A remark-
able variety of mixed costume was to be seen in the streets, often gay
and tastefully arranged ; and there being no prevailing rule or fashion,
it afforded quite a study for artists.

It was a novelty in Polynesia to see persons along the roads, bring-
ing wood, charcoal, and provisions of various kinds, to supply a mar-
ket; in short, a subdivision of labour, and regular system of industry,
in accordance with the customs of Europeans. It appeared further,
that salt, manufactured principally from sea-water, had become an
important article of exportation to the countries on the Pacific, from
Chil to Kamtschatka: and that sugar, tutui oil, and arrow-root, also
entered into Hawaiian commerce.

Engraving, was an unexpected accomplishment to find among
Polynesians: and some drawings of ships were shown to me, which
exhibited a neatness and a correctness in minute detail, not often
met with. I witnessed at the mission schools, the remarkable uni-
versal talent and fondness for mathematical pursuits; about which
so much has been said. Printing, too, was conducted by natives,
under foreign superintendence. And the missionaries had furnished

THE MALAY RACH. 89

a liberal supply of mental nurture, in translations of a variety of
useful books: these amounted to quite a library, and yet difficulty was
experienced in keeping up with the demand.

It appeared, notwithstanding, that no native had hitherto been
found to possess all the qualifications requisite to take charge of a
shop, or to conduct any mercantile business. ‘The missionaries re-
garded as one main obstacle to improvement, the extremely limited
views of the natives in respect to style of living: “a little fish
and a little poi, and they were content.’ By adopting the use of
coin, they had placed themselves in many respects in the condition
of indigence; and in conformity with the new standard of value, a
native, I was assured, “could be supported for less than two cents a
day.”

Innovations were also going on in political institutions: and during
our stay, the first public execution took place; the prerogative of a
chief, being at the same time infringed. Much interest was indi-
rectly excited, by the discovery of the meaning of the word ‘con-
science, for which, there is no corresponding expression in the Ha-
walian language: and one of the natives explained the new idea, as
‘a magistrate within.’ For several years, the Hawaiians had been
in a state of virtual, though peaceful revolution; and one, it may
readily be supposed, having a depressing influence on the spirit of
the nation.

Among other consequences, the natives, supposing that the con-
version involved the abandonment of all ancient usages, voluntarily
left off many useful customs; and, on the other hand, adopted some
that seem unsuited to the climate and circumstances of the country.
It is true, the practical utility, in some instances was directly “ con-
nected or associated with former religious observances.” One fact
may be noted, in relation to the establishment of the new order of
things; the efficient agency of a Taheitian.

Even the canoes had not escaped the general change; and the
‘representations given by the first visiters, would now be recognised
only by old people. ‘The model had been altered,” and the trian-
gular Feejeean sail had been abandoned. ‘The canoes seen, were
excavated from single logs. In addition, vessels of European con-
struction had been purchased, both by the government and by indi-
viduals, and were employed between the different islands of the
group. And some of the native commanders had acquired the gene-

23

90 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

ral confidence of residents, in respect to their seamanship and correct
judgment in nautical matters. One distant commercial enterprise had
been undertaken; which however in its result, proved unfortunate.

In the midst of these advancements, the population is universally
conceded to be diminishing: and the scarcity of children, is a subject
of common remark; especially as a few sequestered situations offer
an exception. The immoral tendency of Kuropean contact has doubt-
less contributed to the diminution ; but perhaps, sufficient stress has
not been laid on the drain of provisions, occasioned by the great influx
of foreign shipping; for the group, it will be observed, yields only a
fixed quantity. ‘The disuse of some former modes of taking fish, has
likewise deducted from the means of subsistence. According to John
Ely, an Englishman, who had resided here for “nearly twenty years:
in former times, the natives were decidedly less oppressed by the chiefs
and their retainers than at present. All could then procure meat or
fish, but now many are forced to go without. There is more ground
at present under cultivation, but the quantity of taro is less: and the
latter article, it should be observed, forms peculiarly the support of the
native population. It had been ascertained, however, that of the large
number of married women belonging to one of the churches at Hono-
lulu, “one only out of three had had children.”

All that I have thus far stated of the Hawaiians, relates more or
less directly, to the results of foreign influence. I shall now speak of
the aboriginal customs.

From my first landing I was surprised at the scanty clothing of
many of the men and boys; their dress consisting often of a mere
sash, as with the Feejeeans; except only, that the colour was not
fixed by fashion. The large-fruited variety of gourd or calabash,
was only seen here; and the shells were in general use, as a substi-
tute for baskets, buckets, and chests. All burdens were carried by
means of the balance-beam ; and this Hindoo and Ancient Egyptian
method is common to all parts of Polynesia except New Zealand, but
is not practised at the Feejee Islands.

The green and pleasant aspect of many of the valleys, was found to
be owing to aboriginal irrigation; not, however, for the production of
upland crops, but to form artificial marshes and pools, for the culti-
vation of taro. ‘These pools subserve a double purpose, being like-
wise used for keeping mullet; the young fry of which are captured
along the coast, and by a course of management, are brought to live

THE MALAY RACE. 91

in fresh water, where they acquire superior size and flavour. In the
ponds nearest the coast, I have seen two other kinds of sea-fish, the
Butirinus and the Dules. Fish-ponds appear to be unknown at the
southern Polynesian groups.

The most approved delicacy of the Hawaiian Islands, consists of a
particular breed of dog, which is fed exclusively on ‘pow’ (fermented
taro-paste), and is not allowed to taste animal food. Salt had been
always used “to cure pork and fish;” in which business, in a small
way, the Hawaiians rather excel: and it was observed, that they did
not manifest aversion to our salted provisions, like the other Polyne-
sians and the Feejeeans. Another novelty occurred, in the profession
of the fowler; and numbers of small birds were offered for sale alive,
which had been captured with a species of birdlime.

The houses are of medium size, compared with others among the
Polynesians, and are closely built; having the walls and roof usually
thatched with dried grass. In this climate, a covering is necessary at
night; and layers of ‘ tapa’ serve for a blanket, and are even preferred
for this purpose, by many European residents. The bed consists of
a layer of mats: and we were shown some specimens of matting of fine
texture, that had required the labour of years. A string of tutui-nuts
forms a candle; in the same manner as castor beans (Ricinus) are
sometimes employed at the Feejee Islands.

Among the other Feejeean analovies, it appears that whale-teeth
were “highly prized in former times, and were cut into various orna-
ments:” I observed also the nose-flute, as throughout ‘Tropical Poly-
nesia. It is no longer easy to procure specimens of Hawaiian
weapons of war; and in general, the aboriginal arts and manufactures
are rapidly disappearing, with the prospect of there being little left of
them after a few years, except what may be contained in museums.

An estimable and highly intelligent Hawaiian lady, gave me the
following particulars respecting former customs. She had never seen
a mask, such as are represented in published works; but she had
heard “that they were formerly used in battle.” The ‘ape’ (or large
Arum) served as a safeguard against famine, as now at the Feejee
Islands. ‘ Money was certainly known; for with a string of cowries
(Cyprea monetas), it was possible to buy any article wanted. Speci-
mens of the same shell that were finer than usual, having a high
polish and deep yellow colour, were extravagantly valued, and could
only be worn by the highest chiefs: who also, exclusively possessed

92 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

wooden calabashes. ‘The natives are unable to form any conjectures
as to the origin or object of the practice of tattooing. Formerly, the
body was much more covered with these markings than at present,
one side often being completely blackened: and to a certain extent, it
would have been possible to designate individuals by the copy of the
pattern.” At present, letters are frequently inscribed, and I remarked
in some instances, the name of the individual.

As at Taheiti, there is a central government. The succession is
maternal; and moreover, the source of political power is vested in a
woman. ven at the present time, “the king does no act without
first obtaining the consent of this personage.” There does not appear
to have been a distinct ‘chief’s language,’ as at Samoa; but accord-
ing to the missionaries, “the chiefs and priests formerly used some
expressions that were not understood by the common people.”

It happened in former times, that “the brother of the king of
Hawaii made a friendly visit to Oahu, where he was received with
this greeting: ‘you have come, it is well; had it been your brother,
my calabash would have been full.’ ‘This was a sentence of death;
the allusion being to the practice of preserving relics of great chiefs.
The affair led to the extermination of the chiefs of Oahu; for although
the king of Hawaii died soon after, his declared design was carried
into effect by his ally and dependant, the king of Maui.”

The missionaries further stated, that the Hawaiian dances were of
“three kinds; the first, licentious; the second, a kind of dirge, or
memorial; and the third, a sort of panegyric addressed to their chiefs,
in which epithets were used improper to be applied to a mortal. On
the occasion of Cook’s arrival, it was commonly supposed that he was
a god, who had been absent on a visit to Taheiti; or that he and his
companions, were some of their own relations returning from that
island.” It appears that several of the conflicts with Europeans,
arose from the desire of ascertaining, whether the strangers really did
partake of the divine nature: all which may be compared with what
has already been stated respecting Polynesian demi-gods. ‘A super-
stitious reverence for lizards, existed in former times, at the Hawaiian
Islands.”

That a people unacquainted with the art of writing, should
possess a literature, was unexpected; much less, that this should
be regarded as deserving of, and, from its extent, as requiring
the study of years. In respect to the Hawaiian poetry, there was

THE MALAY RACE. 93

but one opinion, “that the thoughts are often really sublime.” In the
midst “of the fiction of their songs, their real history is embodied ;”
even, if I am rightly informed, as far back as the colonization of the
group. The preservation of this literature, constituted a distinct de-
partment of the government; and a class of persons were regularly
appointed as depositaries. David Malo, the well-known Hawaiian
author, had been one of these persons. Again, as the missionaries
have become better acquainted with the Hawaiian language, it has
been found to “possess a force and compass, that at the beginning,
would not have been credited.”

In respect to the Calendar, I must refer to the information col-
lected by Captain Wilkes and Mr. Hale. It appears, that the Poly-
nesians had a fixed measure for their year, by observing the rising of
the Pleiades; and it may be here remarked, that this cluster has been
very generally regarded by other nations, as ‘leading the heavenly
host,” or as situated in the first sign of the Zodiac. The Polynesian
reckoning is by lunations, with the use of an intercalary month; and
on all these points the practice of the Greeks* and other nations of
antiquity, may be compared. It appears further, that the profession
of ‘astrology and soothsaying,”’ had likewise reached the Hawaiian
Islands.

Licentiousness prevailed at this group, to a degree not witnessed
elsewhere ; and in the former state of society, when ‘“ men were living
with several wives, and women with several husbands,” there appears
to have been really an approach to promiscuous intercourse. In all
the other countries which I have visited, more regard has been paid,
in this respect, to the indications of nature. It appears, that since the
introduction of the laws of civilized nations, ‘‘a decided improvement
has been observed, and there are now very many individuals of exem-
plary conduct. A singular indifference however has been manifested,
on the subject of rearing a family.” I was myself struck with the
few instances met with, of any manifest conjugal attachment; and
among the younger portion of the community, I scarcely observed
more than one.

On the 27th of October, I landed on Tawaz, and walked to Waimea;
where an aboriginal American was seen, who had been residing with
the natives for several years. Mr. Brackenridge and myself, after-
wards crossed the remarkable table-land, which occupies so large a

* See Herodotus, Euterpe, 68; Thalia, 90, &c.
24

94 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

portion of this island. Although its general elevation is only about
four thousand feet, “all attempts at cultivating the soil, had hitherto
failed : but snow sometimes falls, and natives have perished here from
the inclemency of the weather ; or in other instances, have been killed
by bands of dogs,” that have run wild in this uninhabited region.

On the 3d of November, we again reached Oahu; landing near the
western extremity of the island. In some of the secluded dells of
Mauna Kaala, the ‘kava’ (Piper methysticum) was found to be still
cultivated. ‘The drying of fish was practised on the coast; an occu-
pation rarely seen in Polynesia. A green Conferva was collected in
the tide-pools, as an article of food; and on the reefs, sea-weed (Fuci) ;
but not indiscriminately, as one species was stated to be “actually
poisonous.” In considering the limited resources and future destiny
of these islands, it may be questioned, whether another race of men
would be willing to take advantage of such means of subsistence.
Even the national dish of poi, finds at present but little favour with
foreign residents.

The use of the diving-dress, for some repairs to the vessels, excited
the utmost curiosity among the native population; which indeed
might have been anticipated, from their peculiar habits of life. Some
of their former feats of diving in the natural way, are still recollected ;
such as “ pushing an anvil overboard, and afterwards rolling it on the
bottom of the sea to the shore.” The proposal to employ in the
squadron a number of natives, occasioned an overwhelming crowd of
applicants. Those selected for the Vincennes, did not give entire
satisfaction during their short trial; but one element in the failure
may be mentioned, an evident jealousy on the part of the remainder
of the crew.

On the 9th of December, the Vincennes arrived at Hilo, on Hamat.
The view from the anchorage is magnificent. ‘The eye is deceived by
the vastness of the prospect and the evenness of the gradual slopes;
and probably most persons would pass the island without suspecting
its extraordinary elevation. Often indeed, while travelling in the In-
terior, it was difficult to realize that the country was mountainous.

I visited the crater of Kilauea, where I first witnessed volcanic
action; and I now perceived the inadequacy of coal-beds, or indeed of
fuel, to produce the result. Some insight is here permitted into the
interior of our planet, Nature’s great laboratory ; and rock, the con-
stituent of the earth’s surface, familiar to all from infancy, is pro-
duced before the eyes, by the cooling of a fluid mass. Indeed, the

THE MALAY RACE, 95

whole phenomenon, with its accompaniments, resolved itself into a
simple spring or fountain of liquid rock.

A pit of such enormous dimensions was of itself a novel object: as
it afforded a view of part of an actual section of the globe, and rendered
strikingly manifest, the relative insignificance in point of size of the
living beings on its surface.

During the ascent of Mauna Roa, a mountain nearly thirteen thou-
sand five hundred feet in height, the natives abandoned us; acircum-
stance not to be wondered at, considering their scanty clothing and
the severity of the cold. The undertaking was completed through
the aid of part of the crew of the Vincennes; who however, proved
decidedly less efficient in carrying burdens. ‘The bleakness of the
exposure on this mountain, is illustrated by the presence of a species
of goose, which here finds a congenial climate, as other kinds do on
the Peruvian Andes and in Terra del Fuego.

After remaining about the summit for five days, I returned to Hilo;
and next, in company with Mr. Brackenridge, set out for Mauna Kea.
Two days’ journeying through a dense and humid forest, brought us
to the region of frosts, and to the open pastoral district where cattle
have run wild. Mauna Kea is about two hundred feet higher than
Mauna Roa; but its upper portion being steeper and more uneven,
affords shelter from the winds; and the traveller is further favoured
in respect to fuel and water. ‘The terminal hillocks only were brushed
with snow; but on reaching them, we found the wind violent, while
water froze in a few moments in the bright sunshine.

We returned through a different part of the before-mentioned
forest, and arrived at the coast about twenty miles from Hilo.
Owing, however, to the numerous and very deep ravines, and the
want of good landing-places, there is very little communication; and
we even experienced difficulty in purchasing provisions, as coin was
not valued. ‘Two rough blocks of stone near the path, were pointed
out; and we were told, that in former times, “the penalty of death
was attached to coming within their shadow.”

In the district of Hilo, poi is sometimes made from the bread-fruit,
but it is less esteemed than the usual kind: nevertheless, I was sur-
prised at the little attention given to gathering such an important
esculent as the bread-fruit. ‘Ihe cocoa-nut also, was found to be
much neglected throughout the group.

On the 20th of January, 1841, I set out on an excursion to the new
lava-stream, which had issued from Kilauea a few months previously.

96 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The route was throughout the southeastern portion of the island,
which has all been overspread with ancient lava streams: and I re-
marked at intervals, rounded spaces of an acre or more, which though
probably coeval with the rest of the surface, looked as if burst up-
wards by internal force. One of these, was pointed out as a former
‘worship-place ;’ and at another, according to the natives, “sacrifices
were offered in times past, in consequence of an assemblage of people
having been destroyed there.” My guides also pointed out a spot
where “a woman had suddenly perished,” but in this instance, there
was no change in the lava surface.

The new lava had reached and encroached upon the sea, at a place
called Nanavali; among other changes, forming a sand-beach, where
there was none before; while towards the Interior, the forest had
been swept away, and the surface of the lava-stream was strewed
with dead trees. ‘The scene was stupendous; and it was difficult to
realize that such a mass of matter had been contained within the cra-
ter of Kilauea. Figures might declare that the contents of a square
mile three hundred feet deep, were equivalent to thirty square miles
by ten feet; but to the senses it seemed nevertheless impossible.
Vegetation however, was extending, and Flora was rapidly regaining
her reign; and after a few years, the new lava may cease to attract
notice, and be traversed with the like indifference as any other por-
tion of the earth’s surface.

We traced the new lava-stream for several miles inland, and then
left it for the southeastern coast. At Kaimo, a town little visited by
strangers, the natives collected around us from motives of curiosity ;
and this was the only spot at the Hawaiian Islands, where I found
children numerous. My interpreter, John Ely, was struck with the
circumstance; and remarked, that ‘it was many years since he had
seen so many children.” He further stated, that “formerly, he
could not, as now, have left his house unoccupied for days in succes-
sion; and that robbery and murder used to be quite common.” On
passing a woman at work in a taro pond, he remarked, “that she
was probably without a husband: and that the natives are in ge-
neral very regardless of their relations, leaving all to look out for
themselves.”

We passed the ancient ‘worship-place’ of Wahaura; which is
quadrangular, and regularly built of stone, and is in a perfect state
of preservation. In the district of Panau, we turned from the coast;
ascending the black rivers of hardened lava, that seemed as if still pour-

THE MALAY RACE. 97

ing down from the heights above; but there is probably less real
danger here, than in many other situations. ‘This district consists
exclusively of a bare surface of rock; on which, in despite of a com-
monly received opinion, the natives have the art of raising crops. It
is true, a handful of soil is brought from a distance, to start the seeds ;
but the only addition subsequently made to the growing plants of the
sweet potato, consists of pebbles. ‘The inhabitants, moreover, are
obliged to resort to a variety of devices to procure water for their own
use; since the porous lava absorbs the rain as fast as it falls.

We stopped for the night at the chief’s house, half way up the
slope. A monument had been erected “to the memory of the sister
of the chief’s wife,’ with thick stone walls, and having the form of
an ordinary Hawaiian house. “Old times were back again in this
portion of the island; together with gambling, and drinking of the
sourish liquor, which is procured from sweet potatoes.” The chief
accompanied me for the two following days, and on parting, refused
any remuneration for his services.

In the plain above, I inspected most of the pit-craters, which extend
in a line from Kilauea to where the surface begins gradually to de-
cline towards the northern coast. [also fell in with a party of about
twenty natives, on their way to the woods beyond Kilauea, to drag a
canoe down to the coast.

On the 15th of February, I left Hilo in a Hawaiian schooner, during
a spell of fine weather at that place, an unusual and suspicious cir-
cumstance; accounted for, when we got clear of the island, by the
existence of a southwestern gale. We found a lee for four days
under the lofty mountain at the eastern end of Maw; and on the
fifth day, we landed on that island, at Lahaina, the present seat of
government. The king, it was said, had been influenced in the selec-
tion, by ‘a desire to avoid as far as possible, being appealed to by
the resident Whites, in disputes growing out of mercantile transac-
tions.” Lahaina may be recommended as a favourable station for
the study of marine Zoology; especially as the natives are accessi-
ble, and they, in common with the other islanders of the Pacific,
possess more practical knowledge than Europeans do, of marine ani-
mals and their habits.

I ascended the before-mentioned mountain, which is called Mauna
Haleakala, and which, though regarded as of secondary importance,
attains the height of more than ten thousand feet. It is an extinct
volcano, having in place of a crater a wide open crevice, down which

OF

we)

98 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

the lava has flowed in both directions to the coast. The native ac-
count is, that “Peli (the goddess of fire), once resided here; but
became alarmed at the nearness of the sea, and fled over to Hawaii.”
The approved Geological view of the case, does not much differ;
except in regard to the fear of water, for it is not in the power of the
ocean to quench the fires of Peli. A native made regular visits to
the summit of this mountain, to watch silk-worm eggs; which have
been found to “hatch irregularly” in the warm country below.

On the 19th of March, I landed for the third time on Oahu. The
feeling of good will towards the United States, is illustrated by the
inquiries of the younger portion of the community, on the approach
of a ship of war: “is it French, English, or one of our own?”

Residents have assured me, that after careful search, no clay suita-
ble for the manufacture of pottery has been discovered at the Ha-
walian Islands. ‘This may account for the aboriginal absence of the
art; and yet the mineral constituents of the soil, appear to be the
same as at the Feejee Islands.

In person, the Hawaiians, like the New Zealanders, did not appear
conspicuously larger than Europeans; and they evidently fell below
the stature of the Tongans, Samoans and Taheitians: indeed, resi-
dents have informed me, that “they sometimes recognised Taheitians
at Honolulu, by the size.’ ‘The Hawaiian chiefs, however, were
almost uniformly large men. ‘The chief women (and this had not
been observed at the other groups), were truly remarkable for their
large stature; and some of them far exceeded, in this respect, any
whom [I have seen elsewhere. In the barren portion of the group, I
sometimes remarked a complete coincidence between the Hawaiian
complexion and the colour of the soil.

The Hawaiians exhibited fewer external marks of disease, than
the other Tropical Polynesians. I saw scarcely an instance of the
loss of the nose. QUdematous legs were rare, notwithstanding that
the people habitually resort to the water; though less frequently than
at some of the southern groups. Ophthalmia and humpbacks, were
likewise rare. Hip-joint disease, was stated to occur only among
boys. Cases of mental alienation, were sometimes met with; and the
malady had caused one individual to build some monuments that
might have perplexed the antiquary. Another lunatic was a subject
of dread to our native guides, and indeed, was hardly in a fit state to
be left at large. Pulmonary complaints were observed in the humid
climate of Hilo. The natives uniformly attribute the introduction of

THE MALAY RACE, 99

syphilitic disease to Europeans ; a point of some medical importance ;
and my inquiries resulted in the conviction that the native testimony
was to be relied on. The habits of the people favouring a rapid ex-
tension, the disease is at present unusually diffused, though apparently
confined to the milder form. Parturition was reported to be extremely
easy.

OTHER POLYNESIANS.

I shall here insert some scattered notices of Polynesians inhabiting
for the most part islands and groups not visited by the Expedition.

In the early part of the Voyage, the Vincennes touched at UEa, or
Wallis’ Island; which is situated less than three days’ sail to the
westward of Samoa. It seemed not more than three hundred feet
in elevation, and consisted of one principal and several smaller islets,
all enclosed within a common reef. Cocoa palms were observed
to be abundant. A white flag was flying near an opening in the
reef; and “a canoe came off with a native, who spoke broken Eng-
lish, and offered to pilot usin.” I lost the opportunity of being present
at this interview.

On the succeeding day, we came in sight of Hoorn Island; which
is about “two thousand feet in elevation,’ and resembles Manua,
except that it is larger and a little more broken. Cocoa palms were
seen; but we did not approach near enough to hold any communica-
tion with the inhabitants. Specimens of their cloth, obtained subse-
quently from a trader, show analogy with the Feejeean article.

The king of Roruma was residing at the heathen village in Tonga-
taboo; an individual of large stature, having the nose slightly arched,
an unusual circumstance in the Malay race. His attendants, how-
ever, from the same island, were not distinguishable from the Tonga
men around. “He had been brought here by a whale-ship, together
with his numerous wives:” and when questioned on the subject of
his rank, he manifested some diffidence. He was among those who
recognised the Vincennes, having seen her during her former cruise.

Another body of six or eight Rotuma people, had been conveyed
in a trading vessel to Muthuata, in the Ieejee Islands. A woman
was of the party, whose husband was shortly afterwards put out of

100 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

the way, and she became one of the principal wives of the king.
She had a house of her own, but was not altogether satisfied with her
honours, and she evidently had no particular affection for her new
master. I once however observed some signs of dislike towards a
Feejeean rival. She wore her hair erect, and six or eight inches in
length, in imitation of the Feejeeans. ‘These Rotuma people, in com-
mon with other Polynesians, though detesting the Feejeeans and their
practices, were yet content to remain in the country.

Individuals from the Raratonea, or Hervey Group, were seen both
at Samoa and Tongataboo. They did not present any remarkable
difference from the other Polynesians. A peculiar style of ornamental
wood-work prevails at the Raratonga Group; and stone-adzes are
more highly wrought here than in the other islands of the Pacific.

Marquesas islanders were commonly seen at Taheiti and Oahu.
Many of them serve on board trading vessels; and I have seen indi-
viduals who bore an excellent character. ‘The bread-fruit of the Mar-
quesas Islands, is highly commended, and is said to constitute a prin-
cipal part of the sustenance of the inhabitants.

Recently, in the United States, I have met with a native of Lapa
or Oparo; a detached island, situated far to the southeast of Taheiti,
and outside the Tropic. He spoke English, which he had acquired
in a whale-ship; and stated, that Lapa had been “ much depopulated
since the arrival of missionaries ;” it is presumed, Taheitians.

The Polynesians employed as sailors, are almost exclusively from
New Zealand and from the Eastern groups; while Samoans and
Tonga men, at present, are rarely met with.

MALAY AMERICANS.
a. California.

On the 15th of April, 1841, the Vincennes sailed from the Hawaiian
Islands for the Straits of De Fuca; and after remaining there about
three months, proceeded south, to the Bay of San Francisco.

After leaving the Chinooks, the physical diversity of race was suffi-
ciently apparent; and the first glance of the Californians, satisfied me
of their Malay affinity. I was prepared for this result by the opinion

THE MALAY RACE. 101

of Mr. Nuttall, communicated to me before leaving home; and also
by the figures of Choris and Langsdorff; but on this point, I am
able to adduce further testimony. The intelligent Hawaiian lady be-
fore mentioned, who had seen individuals from all parts of the coast,
regarded “the Californians as differing from the northern tribes, and
as identical with her own people.” Mr. Agate, who entered California
by land, recorded in his note-book on reaching the Sacramento: that
“the complexion is darker than in the natives to the north of them, and
their general appearance reminded him of the South Sea islanders.”
In the course of our boat excursion up the Sacramento, Lieut. Alden,
after witnessing the superior stature of the people over the Chinooks,
their darker complexion and different style of countenance, their
crowding to the river bank, their ready salutation and cheerful open
behaviour, expressed himself satisfied of their Polynesian relationship.

Here then, seemed to be a clue to some points in Californian his-
tory, which are at variance with our experience on the eastern side of
the continent. Such for instance, as the capturing of the native
women for house-servants. The men would be treated with as little
ceremony, could they be induced to remain in the settlements;
though, as they can be hired for a trifle to come in and labour, there
is no object in enslaving them.

The difference in physical race seems to hold out some prospect,
that the destiny of the aboriginals of this part of America, may be
different from that of the eastern tribes: and in connexion, the cir-
cumstance may be noted, that the crews of trading-vessels on the
coast, belong equally, for the most part, to the Malay race. The
reason assigned for this, was, “that in a country actually without
government, White seamen had proved troublesome ;” and Polyne-
sians were selected, as being more tractable, and not disposed to
create difficulty. In Oregon also, the “islanders were preferred for
labourers to Whites from beyond the mountains; as being more
faithful to their engagements, and besides, always good-natured.”
And lastly, while the Whites are arrogating to themselves the islands
of the Pacific, Polynesians have actually found their way into the
United States, and in some of our seaports, appear to have established
themselves permanently.

There were many Polynesians at the Bay of San Francisco, and
for a while, I was unable to distinguish them from the half-civilized
Californians. After, however, a test had been once pointed out, there
was no further difficulty: for the hair of the Californian is invariably

26

102 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

straight, while that of the Polynesian is waved, or more or less in-
clining to curl; adifference, that may not be very easy of explanation.
In both nations, the quantity of hair was manifestly greater than in
the Oregon tribes.

There was novelty in hearing a half-breed Hawaiian maintain, that
“the Spaniards of California, fell below his countrymen in education,
intelligence, and everything pertaining to civilization.” He was, how-
ever, unwilling to admit the least affinity with the aboriginals, whom
he termed “a most insignificant set of beings.”

The ‘ Mission’ villages, in which the aboriginal population was col-
lected by the Catholic Fathers, have been much neglected since the
admittance into the country of colonists from Mexico. The natives,
however, appeared to be the only artisans; though I saw little room
for variety in trades. ‘The houses were low, and built of sun-dried
brick, and both Spaniards and natives lived miserably enough; but
much in the style prevailing in the interior of Peru. Whether owing
in any degree to their state of tutelage and abject condition, the Mis-
sion natives, certainly had not the good-humoured expression of the
Polynesians.

A class-mate and early friend of mine, Mr. John Marsh, after spend-
ing eighteen years on our western frontier, traversed New Mexico, and
became the first settler in the interior of North California. He esta-
blished himself beyond the Mission villages, among the unreclaimed
San FRANCISCO TRIBES, Where the Spaniards were unwilling to ven-
ture. A year afterwards, he was followed by Captain Sutter, a Swiss
gentleman, last from Missouri; who had fixed his residence on the
tide-water of the Sacramento, near the head of navigation for sea-
vessels. One of ‘his natives’ accompanied our boats, and although
he had not previously made the journey by water, was of some use in
guiding us to the spot.

I was here interested in observing some thirty natives engaged in
making sun-dried brick, standing up to their knees in mire, and work-
ing steadily the whole day; so unlike our eastern tribes. Other na-
tives had charge of the cattle; and as great attention was given to
adjusting the accounts for wages, all seemed cheerful and well satis-
fied. “The labourers had been sent in by the chiefs of different vil-
lages; and some had come from as far as the vicinity of the moun-
tains.” A profit was even derived, from reletting their labour to the
settlers on the coast.

I remarked that the mode of carrying burdens was the same as with

THE MALAY RACE. 103

the Oregon tribes, except only that the strap instead of crossing the
forehead, passes over the top of the head.

One evening, I witnessed a dance by the native boys, who had or-
namented the face and different parts of the body with streaks of white
clay, according to published representations. The strong contrast with
the complexion, produced at night a striking effect, which could not
have been successfully imitated by the lighter Mongolian. One of
the boys recently ‘captured’ from the wild tribes, had evidently never
learned to dance ; -but he entered into the sport with some spirit, and
was making progress in the new accomplishment. Four or five boys
standing apart, constituted the orchestra; and both then and on a sub-
sequent occasion, the California music appeared to me of a superior
order to that heard among other American tribes.

I also visited a neighbouring village, attended by one of the native
boys. The huts were hemispherical, consisting of a light framework
thatched with rushes, and were apparently intended only for shelter
during the rains of the mild winter. ‘The inhabitants had left them,
and were encamped in the open air, half a mile nearer the river, hav-
ing set up branches of trees for shade, and some enclosures of rush-
mats. The men, with their chief, were yet a little apart, occupied in
various methods of gambling away their earnings. ‘The women were
engaged in domestic avocations; and chiefly in the preparation of food.
Large stores of various minute seeds were lying in heaps; but the
principal resource, evidently consisted of acorns; and several women
were at work, removing the shells preparatory to drying. Other
women were pulverizing dried roots, perhaps of the Scirpus lacustris.
Some of the water-tight baskets, were full of porridge of different
kinds made of combinations of the above materials, and cooked by
being placed among hot stones. I tasted some of these messes; but
the only thing that Europeans would have considered edible, was a
string of fish from the river, that arrived as I was taking leave.

I was surprised at finding no canoes on these waters. It was said,
“that the natives had some formerly, which were composed of rushes,
and were used not only on the Bay, but (what requires confirmation)
to communicate with the islands along the coast to the southward.”
And further, that they “much admire wooden canoes, when they
get hold of them.” In the tide-water of the Sacramento, I sometimes
observed natives ferrying themselves over, standing upon a couple of
split logs. On the Upper Sacramento, these were dispensed with ;
and I began to think the people had lost the amphibious character of

their race; but it appeared, that in the absence of clothing, and the

104 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

climate being warm and the river narrow, they did not need artificial
navigation,

On the 25th of August, the boats left Captain Sutter’s residence; but
owing to various delays, did not reach the junction of Feather River
until noon of the following day. At this spot, there had been a burzal-
place, consisting of several circular pits, three or four feet in diameter
by as many in depth; and skulls were picked up by some of our
party. A similar burial-place was subsequently examined, a few
miles above, situated in like manner, at the mouth of a tributary
stream, where the bank was a little higher than usual: but the pits
were here filled nearly to the surface, and skulls were lying around,
together with a few articles of European manufacture.

Above tide-water to the end of our excursion, the valley of the Sa-
cramento presented a uniform appearance; that of a level plain, many
miles across, and devoid of brush or timber, except a strip of scattered
oaks along the river. Immediately beyond the trees, the surface was
usually a few feet lower, and there were extensive tracts covered with
rushes,—Scirpus lacustris.* It was an unexpected circumstance, to
find an aquatic plant thus growing in the dry plain; but the stems
at this season conformed to the general tint of the herbage, being
withered and brown; the revival taking place with the extensive
winter inundation.

The presence of a large proportion of saline matter in the soil, was
considered at the time, an objection to any kind of cultivation; but
this has appeared less valid after visiting the alluvial flats of the
Nile. Above Feather River, the Sacramento became winding and
contracted ; but it maintained constantly its breadth of about two

hundred feet, and although at this season some twenty feet below
the top of the banks, it was deep, and the current gentle.

A few miles above the junction, I landed on the eastern bank, with
Mr. Geiger from New York, who accompanied our party. The natives
had abandoned the vicinity, “‘in consequence of a conflict a few months
previously, in which they had assailed the boats of Captain Sutter :”
acting, as it appeared afterwards, under a misapprehension, there
being in the boats some natives of an inimical tribe. ‘The scarcity of
game in the immediate neighbourhood, was attributed to the Cana-
dians of the Hudson Bay Company; “who had been in the habit of
coming this way in large parties, for the last ten years.”

* This plant is called ‘tula’ by the colonists, from the Mexican name ‘ tulitl.’

THE MALAY RACH. 105

On the 27th, elk were frequent on the western bank; and a herd of
some thirty of them made a fine appearance, rallying at intervals and
facing us, but not allowing a near approach. A distant fire was seen
in the evening ; but the following day was passed without further signs
of natives, except the remnant of a platform of poles with cordage, at
the water’s edge, erected apparently for the purpose of taking salmon.

About noon on the 29th, we had our first interview with the Sa-
CRAMENTO TRIBES. Several men made their appearance on the bank,
armed with bows and arrows and some inferior javelins, and kept
pace with the boats in silence. For quivers, they used the skins of
quadrupeds, such as the fox, lynx, and cub-bear, suspended at the
side, or sometimes carried in the hand.

Shortly afterwards, we landed on the western bank, where three
natives were seated, awaiting our approach; but they appeared rather
shy, and we could communicate only by signs. Other natives gra-
dually joined them, and a young man, who appeared to be the chief,
presented Captain Ringgold with a plume of white feathers; which
we regarded as a sign of friendship. Several of the natives wore
feathers on the head, either in a tall upright plume, or large ones
single; and one man had a tuft of blackish feathers, stripped in
halves and twisted, so as to resemble the frigate-bird plumes of the
Western Paumotuans. They were in general, fine stout men, of
superior stature to the Oregon tribes, and fully equalling in this
respect the European standard. Polynesian expressions of counte-
nance were remarked ; and the hair was not worn long, as with the
northern tribes; but the scantiness of beard seemed a perplexing
circumstance, together with its deficiency in length. It is true, we
saw no aged persons; and the men almost universally had some show
of a beard, an inch or so in length, but very soft and fine. I subse-
quently found, that Mr. Marsh also regarded “the Californians as more
hairy than the tribes of the United States.”

Most of the men had some sheht marks of tattoozng Duh
on the breast; disposed like a necklace, uniformly -
according to the pattern represented in the accom- | \ \
panying figure. ‘The presence of the custom among \ |
the Malay Americans, should be noted, in consider-
ing the origin of the slight tattooing found occasionally among the
Chinooks and the more northern tribes; even, it is said, to the vici-
nity of Bhering Straits.

After a while, the natives invited us to the vellage ; which was visi-

27

106 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

ble in the distance, with some of the inhabitants perched upon the
roofs. ‘The houses were constructed somewhat differently from any
met with elsewhere. They were partly subterraneous, being built
over a large roundish pit, three or four feet in depth. The roof,
although firm and covered with earth, could hardly have been in-
tended for protection against wild beasts; and on the other hand,
the difference in climate from that of the Bay, did not seem to de-
mand this closer construction. We observed, however, in one of the
houses, a blanket or cloak, made of the feathers and down of water-
fowl; very similar to one seen in the Straits of De Fuca.

We saw but two or three women, and these took to flight on our
approach ; a circumstance readily explained by the fear of captivity.
The natives, moreover, were said to be “extremely jealous of their
women; and ready at any time to engage in a conflict on their
account.” No free trappers had hitherto taken up their residence
among the Sacramento tribes, nor indeed, in all the region south of
the Umpqua.

I had now an opportunity of hearing the language ; and found it
almost as soft and as rapidly uttered as the Polynesian dialects, which
it further resembled in the repetitions of syllables. I remarked, how-
ever, in some instances, the use of terminal consonants. According to
Mr. Marsh, the “languages vary from tribe to tribe, as in the United
States, but are always comparatively soft; the grammatical construc-
tion, however, is the same as in the other American languages.”

We encamped at the spot where we had landed; the natives with-
drawing at sunset, and most of them crossing the river. Nothing
occurred to interrupt the stillness of the night, except the usual con-
cert of coyotas (the small wolf, or American jackal), and the falling
of a large branch of an oak, at no great distance.

On the 30th, near noon, we again saw natives on the western bank,
including now, some women. ‘They were not so silent as the last,
and they made motions for us to come on shore; but we did not stop
to make their acquaintance.

‘Towards sunset, we found ourselves several miles above the ‘ Butes,’
and had an interview with another body of natives on the western
bank. ‘The chief welcomed us to the spot, evidently comprehending
our intention of passing the night there; and soon after, he withdrew
at our request, with all his people. “It had been usual with travel-
ling parties, to give orders to shoot down any one approaching the
camp at night; and the natives had a perfect understanding on this
subject.”

THE MALAY RACE. 107

On the morning of the 31st, we soon arrived at the village of our
new acquaintances ; where we found a fish-weir extending across the
river, a representation of which is given in the Narrative. The
natives were preparing to make an opening for the boats, but were
motioned to desist. On landing, the women were still suspicious,
and kept at a distance, or altogether out of sight.

A small party, myself included, was detached to proceed by land
to a second fish-weir, further up the river. Immediately outside the
village, a boy pointed out to me the recent track of a grizzly bear. It
appears that the natives sometimes furnish a meal for this animal,
although in general it is not of a very bloodthirsty disposition. After
such an occurrence, the bear is reported by the natives, ‘to lose its
hair;”’ and though I cannot find that bears have been seen in this con-
dition, the account reminds us of a Virginia tradition, recorded by
Jefferson. The Californian tribes, like the Laplanders, take pattern
from the bear in the economy of life; their ordinary food (with the
exception perhaps of river-mussels), “being almost identical, and
varying according to season in the same manner. ‘They further
have a prejudice against eating the flesh of the bear, the wolf, and
all the other animals that feed on man.”

A native walking by my side, had a strongly marked Polynesian
countenance; and I placed my hand upon his shoulder, for the pur-
pose of examining the texture of the skin: this coincided, in its
extreme softness; and I perceived moreover, as sometimes among Po-
lynesians, that by the act I had won his confidence. So far as physi-
ognomy may be regarded as a test, there appeared to be great diver-
sity of character among these people; and some individuals had a very
ordinary expression.

In about an hour, we reached the upper village, some of the men
coming forward to meet us; and beneath the scattered oaks, we wit-
nessed a scene of aboriginal life that might truly have been worth
perpetuating. We entered the village uninvited ; and our numbers
being few, the women did not avoid us as before; and indeed our
arrival did not appear to excite much curiosity. We remarked, how-
ever, that our two guides kept aloof, although from the ‘broad trail,’
the two villages must have been on friendly terms.

The upper village, like the others, consisted of about a dozen houses;
and no change was remarked in their construction. We saw in all, not
less than a hundred persons; but none of them offered to conduct us
to the fish-weir, which was a little beyond, and we proceeded thither
almost unattended. It was found to be entirely similar to the first ;

108 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

and the river above was a little broader, and barely fordable ; while
the strength of the current was somewhat increased.

On returning to the boats, we perceived that numbers of men and
boys had crossed the river, and were seated on the bank in the midst
of our party. Others were diving for river-mussels, which they put
in a small bag of netting attached to the breast; and they soon fur-
nished our cook with an opportunity of trying his hand at unio soup.

In the afternoon, we commenced our return down the river; and
although detained by the survey operations, we reached Captain
Sutter’s residence, in a little less than four days.

These wild tribes offered the third instance met with on our
Voyage, of people living in a state of nudity: but unlike the Fue-
gians and Australians, this occurred in only one sex. The women
on the Sacramento wear clothing; a state of things that brought to
mind Ledyard’s encomium; but I will not undertake to offer any con-
jecture as to the cause of this remarkable difference. The dress of the
women is a cincture, composed of narrow slips of fibrous bark, or of
strings of ‘Californian flax’ (Apocynum), or sometimes of rushes. It
varies, however, from the Polynesian cincture, in being longer, and
open at the sides.

In addition to their domestic avocations, and the bringing of water
from the river, the women appeared to take a principal part in procur-
ing the food; that portion of it at least, which is derived from the
vegetable kingdom. ‘They collected the grass-seed and other small
seeds; but with regard to procuring acorns, [ am uninformed. The
men seemed to lead a comparatively indolent life; and from the anxiety
manifested to get hold of two antelopes we had killed, it was inferred
that they were not expert in procuring game. As far as my own ob-
servation extended, the marriage tie appeared to be recognised; and I
was informed by others, that “the men in general have but one wife.”

The Californians differ from the other North American tribes, “in
the absence of the tomahawk, and of the practice of scalping.” In-
fants are not carried on the board, neither did we see dogs about the
villages. A further diversity takes place in their political condition.
According to Mr. Marsh, among our eastern tribes (and the same
appeared to hold true in Oregon), “a chief has no other authority
than the influence arising from personal character; but among the
Californians, there is something more:” a remark confirmed by our
own short experience.

In all these points, Polynesian analogies will be perceived; and
scme additional ones may be enumerated. Thus, we were reminded

THE MALAY RACE. 109

of the Hawaiians, by the fondness of the Californians for showy
feathers, with which they ornament basket-work. Wreaths even,
were sometimes met with, formed of leaves, which in one instance
were yellowish. ‘Their arrows had sometimes wooden barbs, which
I have not seen in other American arrows. And again (but not ex-
clusively among the tribes of this continent), they cook with hot
stones, and occasionally use the javelin. With regard to a Polyne-
sian derivation, especially if the different condition of New Zealand
be objected, it may be remarked, that the language and customs of
colonists would naturally be preserved in a country previously unin-
habited ; but this does not necessarily follow, if small numbers are
brought in contact with a different people.

On the whole, however, there is a strong American impress in the
Californian manufactures. The bow especially, is scarcely distin-
guishable from that used by the northern tribes, and it is in like
manner coated externally with sinew; but a portion of the string is
covered with downy fur, for the purpose of deadening the sound. The
arrows, too, are similar to those in use throughout the continent ; and
are neatly finished, and invariably pointed with flint-stone. Jave-
lins are pointed in the same manner, except that the stone is larger,
or in some instances bone is substituted: the shaft is small and light,
and not very straight, from the obvious difficulty of procuring better ;
and sometimes the end is simply sharpened. Wampum occurs among
the articles procured at the Bay ; together with a dress of quill-feathers,
of frightful appearance, said to be worn on stated occasions. Unex-
pected analogy to the ancient Britons is offered, in the use of acorns
as a principal article of food, and in the bows being made of yew.

A native on the Upper Sacramento was observed to be pitted with
the small-pox. The tribes having intercourse with the settlements,
were suffering much from syphilitic diseases; which had been de-
rived through converted natives, from Europeans.

The land party from Oregon, after travelling for several days with-
out seeing natives, fell in with a body of them when they reached the
main Sacramento. Some sensation, as I am informed, was produced
by their personal appearance, giving rise to such exclamations as:
Kanakas! how like the South Sea islanders! The following particu-
lars are from the journal of Mr. Brackenridge. ‘In the evening we
were visited by about thirty natives, who sold us bows and arrows,
and white-fleshed salmon. ‘They appeared to be a very good-natured,
sociable set of beings, and behaved themselves very orderly. ‘They

28

110 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

were mostly in a state of nudity. They brought us a kind of black
bread, probably composed of pounded acorns, mixed with seeds of
various kinds, and sweetened apparently with the fruit of Arbutus
tomentosa: also cones of a species of pine (P. Coulteri), which we
had met with yesterday, the seeds of which these people eat. They
sheltered themselves behind a sort of barricade of branches and stems
of trees.” Mr. Agate remarked the use of a blackish pigment on por-
tions of their bodies, as in the Californians figured by Choris; but
which I did not myself meet with. Notwithstanding then, the dis-
tance of a hundred miles from the limit of our boat excursion, the
only essential variation noted in the habits of the natives, consists
in the use of pine-cones, which they are enabled to procure by reason
of the vicinity of the mountains. After leaving this spot, the party
kept to the eastward of the Sacramento, in general at a sufficient dis-
tance to avoid the bends of the river, and did not meet with natives
until arriving at Captain Sutter’s residence.

To go back a little in the narration: we left the same party on the
29th of September, at the ridge which divides Oregon from California.
The political boundary proved to be also a natural one: for “a change
took place in the general appearance of the country, which was now
mostly bare, the vegetation having been dried up by the heat of sum-
mer; while the northern slope was well wooded as far as the eye
could reach.” <A difference also was soon apparent in the habits and
disposition of the natives; who belonged to the Suasry tribe.

After crossing the ridge, the party remained during the 30th, at
their encampment, by the side of a small stream. At this place “an
old feather dress was found hanging near the remains of two huts;
the only ones seen on the whole route ;” and which, according to Mr.
Agate’s drawing, were similar to those of the San Francisco tribes.
On the Ist of October, the party soon “reached the main river; and
continuing over a level plain, again struck it towards evening, and en-
camped on its banks. An interview was had with some natives, who
sold us a species of white-fleshed salmon, which abounds in this river.”
One of these natives (whose portrait was taken by Mr. Agate), wore a
hemispherical cap, of the same kind of manufacture as the water-bas-
kets: and his quiver, in the drawing, resembles those of the Sacra-
mento tribes, and is carried in the same manner. ‘ Another native
had a dress of leather, devoid of hair,” and of the usual aboriginal
manufacture.

“On the 2d, the party proceeded over a gently undulating prairie

THE MALAY RACE. ete

abounding in saline efflorescences, and encamped on a small stream.”
The encampment was “visited by several natives, who sold bows and
arrows;” and Mr. Agate likewise obtained a sketch of one of these
individuals.

Both Mr. Agate and Mr. Brackenridge, think the Shasty should be
associated with the Oregon tribes; and they were first struck with
the physical change, on arriving at the Sacramento. I would observe,
however, that the complexion in the drawings, is too dark for the Mon-
golian race: and among other variations in habits, that “the bundles
of rushes for canoes, in the form of a lashed-up hammock” (mentioned
in the Narrative), entirely correspond with Choris’s representation of
the Californian canoe.

On the 3d, the party crossed the commencing ridge of a moun-
tainous tract of country, “and encamped on a small stream, which
was said to be one of the tributaries of the Sacramento. On the 4th,
the forest was at first rather open, the undergrowth having been re-
cently burned by the natives; and the trunks of some of the large pines
were still on fire. Fires were also remaining at some native camps, but
the people kept out of sight; and in one instance the retreat had been
so precipitate, that a woman’s basket and bag had been left behind.
According to one of the Canadians, ‘these natives subsist principally
on seeds and small fruits; have no huts, but take shelter behind rocks
and trees; and clothe themselves in undressed deer-skins.’ ‘The
route for the two following days, continued through a rugged moun-
tainous country, full of deep ravines, and covered with boulders and
angular fragments of rock; the natives still avoiding the party, al-
though from the frequent occurrence of trails, they must be nume-
rous. The horses having suffered from the want of food, the party
encamped early at a patch of grass; and remained there during the
7th. The journey was resumed on the 8th, and during this and the
succeeding day, the country continued much of the same character.
On the 10th, however, the ridges were observed to be less steep, with
the general surface declining gradually towards the south and west ;”
and on the same day, as already mentioned, the party reached the
main Sacramento.

On reviewing now this account, it would seem that the natives
who avoided the party, may have been women collecting food. ‘The
description, however, of the Canadian, seems to indicate the existence
of a separate tribe.

112 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

A lad “purchased in the SHosHoneE or Snake country, had been
brought by the way of Oregon,” to Captain Sutter’s residence. I did
not distinguish him among his new companions; but I am unpre-
pared to speak decisively of the physical race, from this single in-
stance. Mr. Geiger, who had visited the Shoshonee country, was of
opinion “that the people should be associated with the Californians.”
A tribe inhabiting the same quarter, has been described as “ orna-
menting their persons with white streaks ;”’ which is another point in
favour of the reference.

In regard, however, to the SourHERN CaLiFrorNIANS, there is no am-
biguity, if we may depend on the concurrent testimony of all visiters.
The figures of them, by Venegas, also confirm the identity in physi-
cal race with their northern brethren.

b. Mezico and the West Indies.

I have already spoken of a Mexican, from the province of Sonora,
who was seen at San Francisco. In personal appearance, he was so
similar to the Polynesians, that I should not have suspected any claims
to European descent.

In coming from the United States, Mr. Marsh passed through New
Mexico. The route led from Santa Fe to Chihuahua; thence to
Casas Grandes (a place celebrated in the aboriginal history of Mex-
ico), and along the River Gila to the Colorado, and afterwards by
the coast. He spoke of extensive ruins. ‘The population through-
out, was chiefly of the aboriginal stock; in some districts wild and
hostile, in others civilized and very numerous. He crossed nothing
like a ridge of mountains, although hills and mountains were fre-
quently in sight. He found the country in general, excessively arid ;
yet many places afforded sustenance for herds of cattle. Cacti
abounded; and a certain species, if cut in a particular manner,
affords drink for the suffering traveller. In one district, a sort of
armour was used in riding, for the protection of man and horse
against the rigid and thorny vegetation.”

The Rev. Mr. Chamberlain, of the Hawaiian mission, had visited
Acapulco ; where he “ was struck with the resemblance of the natives
to the Polynesians,” in contradistinction to the aboriginals of the
United States. Basil Hall too, speaks of a ‘Malay type’ among the

THE MALAY RACE. 113

people of the same part of Mexico. And traders at San Francisco,
assured me, that “the natives were alike, along the whole western
coast.”

The presence of two aboriginal races in Mexico, recalls some seem-
ing coincidences in the ancient history of that country. It is stated
of the Toltecas, the predecessors of the Aztecas: that they “ were ac-
quainted with agriculture, manufactures, the working of metals, and
various other arts of civilization; and even, that they introduced the
cultivation of maize and cotion.”’ Now the art of cultivation, could
not have been derived from Oregon, where the idea was aboriginally
absent; a state of things connected apparently with the high north-
ern source of the Mongolian population of America, the climate pre-
cluding agriculture in the parent countries. If then, this art was
introduced from abroad into America, it must have arrived by a
more southern route; and to all appearance, through the medium of
the Malay race. I would remark, further, that the route must have
been yet south of San Francisco; where I observed only one, and
that a doubtful instance, of Aboriginal Agriculture.

Another remarkable tradition, mentioned by Humboldt, as common
both to the Mexicans and to the widely separated Muyscas of Bogota,
attributes the “origin of their civilization to a man having a long
beard.” Now, a long beard, is precisely a circumstance that would
be apt to make a lasting impression among a beardless people; and
at the same time, is one which they would not be likely to invent:
further, it is not inconsistent with the physical character of the
Malay race. At Singapore, I was reminded of this tradition, by the
continual recurrence of long-bearded masks on the Chinese stage.

The influence of a second physical race, might be expected to
extend beyond its precise geographical limits: and I will here note
the occurrence in America of some additional Malay analogies. A
variety of Polynesian customs are mentioned in the accounts of the
native tribes of Panama and Central America; and even some coinci-
dences, in the names of places around the Mexican and Caribbean
seas. Two distinct styles of costume, may be recognised in paintings
of aboriginal Americans; and the cincture and wreath of upright
feathers, are not found among the northern tribes. ‘The American
languages are also susceptible of geographical division; being on the
one hand soft, with principally the vowel termination; and on the

29

114 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

other harsh, with terminal consonants :* a point that acquires interest
from the fact, that no portion of the Malay race has hitherto been
found using a harsh language. 4

In the United States, the Cherokees, and others of our southern
tribes, are known to speak comparatively soft languages. Malay
analogies will also be perceived in the following particulars respect-
ing the Creeks,t communicated by Dr. Boykin, of Georgia: and even
something similar to the East Indian practice of running a muck.
“Sometimes a Creek will become desperate, or one of them may be
teased to that point of exasperation, that he will declare an intention
to ‘kill the first man he meets;’ which he will be sure to do, whether
friend or foe: such persons are often put to death by their own peo-
ple. No incident however trifling, can take place in the nation,
without the knowledge of the chiefs; who have moreover a species
of chief’s language, in the use of figurative expressions, that are not
understood by the common people.” If, however, any actual rem-
nant of the Malay race exists in the eastern part of North America, it
is probably to be looked for among the Chippewas and the Cherokees.

With respect to the extinct Aboriginals of the West Inpizs, I have
seen an oil painting by Brunias, which was presented to Harvard
University in 1790; and which represents three “ Native aboriginal
Caribs of St. Vincents.” The complexion, features, and general as-
pect, agree very well with the Malay race; but the costume presents
analogy with that of our northern tribes; and it is also evident, that
red, and not yellow, was the favourite colour. This single example
has not enabled me to form a decided opinion on the question of race ;
but probably, additional materials may exist in paintings and tapestry
on the other side of the Atlantic.

It is possible that the Malay race may be more widely extended in
Mexico and South America, than is represented on the accompanying
map: and indeed, I am disposed to refer to that race whatever is au-
thentic in the accounts of “black aboriginals.”” Geographical consi-
derations render it improbable, that any third race had reached Ame-
rica prior to the European discovery.

* This distinction occurs in languages generally, although not always expressed in the
orthography ; and depends on two distinct methods. of utterance, which may be termed
conveniently enough, the masculine and feminine forms of language.

+ A tradition exists among the Creeks, as I am informed by Mr. Leconte, “ that they
came originally from the West, from beyond the Mississippi.”

THE MALAY RACE. 115
ge

MICRONESIANS.

After leaving California, the vessels of the Squadron proceeded
again to the Hawaiian Islands; and on the 27th of November, re-
sumed their course to the westward.

I have already in the account of the coral islands, spoken of tribes
which, from the affinities of language, should perhaps be referred to
the Micronesians. Most of the widely scattered CaroLine IsLanps
are equally composed of coral; Oualan and Ascension, forming the
principal exceptions.

The accordance of all published figures and descriptions, leaves no
room for doubt as to the physical race of the inhabitants: especially
as such a careful observer as Chamisso, unites the Radack and
Caroline Islanders with the Polynesians. Choris, who accompanied
Chamisso, has given a figure of a Caroline Islander; and it so mi-
nutely corresponds with one of those taken by Mr. Agate at De-
peyster Island (in the Vaitupan Group), as to lead to a suspicion that
the two natives were countrymen.

Belts of banana fibre, ‘‘from the islands of Egoy and Ascension,”
were obtained by the Expedition; and they indicate a more refined
state of the arts, than the Tarawan, Polynesian, or even the Feejeean
manufactures. ‘The reported use at the Caroline Islands, of “a sort
of compass,” is a point deserving further inquiry.

Lieut. Knox, in the schooner, visited M’ Kenzie’s Island ; a clustered
coral island, situated between the Pelew and Marian Groups. He
found the inhabitants “resembling the Caroline Islanders; but having
their teeth much discoloured, apparently from the use of betel.”

The western limit of the Micronesians, remains uncertain; and
from the descriptions of Morrell and Jacobs, there is even reason to
suspect their presence on the north coast of New Guinea.

I saw the two natives, from islands in the vicinity of the Apmr-
RALTY Group, who were brought to the United States several years
ago by Captain Morrell. One of them belonged evidently to the
Malay race; but in place of the openness and simplicity of the Poly-
nesians, he possessed rather the Hast Indian temperament. He was
younger than his companion, and less skilful in throwing the javelin ;
and I observed also, that he was unacquainted with the proper manner
of holding a pen-knife. Ido not remember any marks of tattooing.

116 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

a

Mr. James Read, of Philadelphia, ‘“‘once landed on Puto Ma-
RIERE, a small island northeast of Jilolo; and found the natives, a
very large and fine-looking set of people, and beautifully tattooed.”

On proceeding thence to the PeLew Istanps, Mr. Read perceived
‘‘a striking diminution of stature, together with an entire absence of
tattooing :” in these particulars, agreeing with the general population
of the Philippines and other East Indian islands.

After leaving the Hawaiian Islands, the Vincennes sailed through
the northern portion of the Ladrone or Martan Grovp; and we saw
in the distance Grigan and Assumption, two isolated mountains
rising abruptly out of the sea, with their summits concealed by
clouds. We had now entered a region where the development of
coral is less extensive; and what is of importance in regard to the
subject of migrations, we here reached the limit of the monsoons.

I had previously at San Francisco, seen a Ladrone Islander; and I
had no difficulty in referring him to the Malay race, not perceiving
any traces of even mixed descent. ‘The stature was a little below the
European standard; the complexion, full as dark as in the Califor-
nians and Hawaiians around; and his small eyes and half-open eye-
lids, were perhaps an individual peculiarity.

JAPANESE.

An American whale-ship arrived, as we were leaving the Ha-
waiian Islands, having on board four or five ‘natives,’ who had
been taken from an islet “ not represented on the charts, situated in
about N. lat. 30°. ‘They had been driven thither by bad weather, in
a small boat, which resembled the flat-bottomed skifls of New Eng-
land. ‘The islet though high, afforded scarcely any other vegetation
than low reeds; and they had been obliged to subsist principally on
sea-birds (gannets, &c.), uncooked. ‘They had remained there seve-
ral months, and were in a famishing condition. When they came
on board the vessel, they made a low bow, placing the hands together
in front; and being allowed to stay, they soon learned to assist the
crew ;” but the youngest only, a half-grown lad, had acquired some .
words of English. “'They kept sacred one day in every fortnight, com-
plaining ‘that our Sunday came round too often ;’ and they gave an
exact account of the number of days and moons they had passed on

THE MALAY RACE WN r4

the islet. They recognised rice, which they happened to see soon
after coming on board, and which had evidently formed their accus-
tomed food: they were also acquainted with maize, and it was
thought, with oranges.” On the other hand, cocoanuts and the com-
mon Hawaiian esculents were new to them; and it thus appeared, that
these men did not belong to the Loo Choos, nor indeed to a tropical
climate. To inquiries respecting their native country, they uni-
formly answered, ‘'Tosa;’ which is the name of a district in one of
the southern Japan islands.

Their personal appearance differed from my preconceived ideas of
the Japanese; and for a time, I was unwilling to admit their connexion
with the Malay race. In my note-book I find recorded, that “they
were all short, rather stout-built men, with the complexion nearly
as dark as in the Hawaiians; which, together with their slight pro-
file, the nose rather flat, and their thick black hair, left me for some
time in doubt.”” Mr. Drayton at once recognised the Polynesian fea-
tures in the eldest of the party, (who had a beard,) and in this indivi-
dual the resemblance was obvious; but his companions had the con-
tour of the face on the front view, more rounded than is usual with
the Polynesians: the lad, however, had the nose so remarkably broad
and flat, that all idea of the Mongolian race was out of the question.
The eyes were neither small nor obliquely placed, though there was
perhaps something of the ‘rounded inner angle.” ‘I'wo of these
persons were pitted with the small-pox.

After laying aside their national costume, they had suffered their
hair to grow; but they explained, that it was usual at home, to shave
the top and sides of the head, and bringing the remaining hair for-
wards, to fasten it in a short tuft over the crown. Their language
was rather soft, and was rapidly uttered, with usually the vowel ter-
mination ; but the final ‘ng’ was sometimes heard. ‘They bowed very
politely when we took our leave.

Dr. Judd, of the Hawaiian mission, found them to be “of the lowest
class, fishermen, and very ignorant; but their countenances bright-
ened at the mention of some places in the south of Japan, with which
they had been accustomed to trade.” Dr. Judd had formerly seen
some educated Japanese, from Matsmai in the north; who, he had
already informed me, “appeared to him, unlike the Chinese, identical
in physical race with the Hawaiians.”

30

118 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

EAST INDIANS.

a. Luzon.

On the 8th of January, 1842, the Vincennes reached the BasHEE .

IsLANDS, near the northern end of Luzon: and at the same time, an
English bark in the distance, proved a cheering spectacle, after the
lapse of twenty months without finding the ocean enlivened by a
sail. ‘The islands were high and broken, and one of them was suffi-
ciently elevated to be cloud-capped. We passed the nearest of the
group, at the distance of about four miles, and were surprised at its
barren appearance; for it had a general brownish tint, and seemed
altogether unwooded.

Even the western coast of Luzon, bore an unexpected resemblance
to California; and we saw only openings and scattered trees, nothing
like a continuous forest, until we had proceeded as far south as the
vicinity of Manila. ‘The armed government launch boarded us in
the bay ; and afforded the opportunity of recognising in the crew, the
identity in race with the Polynesians. ‘There was, however, an ex-
pression of countenance, that betokened education in the midst of
more refinement: and also, a striking diminution in stature; for in
common with the other East Indians, they fell decidedly below the
average size of Europeans. The predominance of blue in the dress,
reminded us that we were now in the region of indigo.

On landing, the soldiers were found to be all natives; the officers,
in general Spanish, though sometimes of mixed descent. The troops
were all in uniform; and the discipline was European, and highly
commended ; together with the music by native performers. “ As
there are sectional animosities, besides the four or five languages
spoken at the Philippines, advantage could be taken of all these cir-
cumstances in the detail of the service.”

It was interesting to observe the numbers of brown ladies riding in
carriages: while in intelligence and refinement of manners, so far as
one may judge without a knowledge of the language, many of them
did not suffer by comparison with Europeans. It appeared, how-
ever, “that these persons were mostly intermarried with Spaniards, or
were more or less of mixed Spanish parentage.” It was further said,

pic

THE MALAY RACE. 119

that “the descendants of Spaniards, mixed or otherwise, bear great
hatred to the new-comers from Kurope, to whom the government
offices are mostly given; and who regard the former as inferiors,
although often more wealthy, more intelligent, and better informed
than themselves.” The infusion of Spanish blood, is however tri-
fling beyond the precincts of the Capital; and it appears, that out of
‘‘a population of two and a quarter millions,* in the Marian Islands
and Spanish part of the Philippines, the Kuropeans number less than
three thousand.” In the inland villages, I was struck with the ap-
parent absence of all foreign admixture; and the traveller often expe-
riences difficulty in finding persons who understand the Spanish lan-
guage. Wealth does not, at the Philippines, bring about luxury in
diet; but I was assured, that “the native families whether rich or
poor, lived almost exclusively on rice.”

The native houses were all alike, small, built of bamboo, and set on
posts about six feet from the ground: and this mode of construction,
which in a rainy climate seems conducive to health, was found to be
general throughout the East Indies. In the shape, the Feejeean archi-
tecture was readily recognised ; but there was less regard to neatness,
and the workmanship was inferior, particularly about the roof and
thatching. The interior arrangements, however, were different; and
mats were not so generally in use, as with the Polynesians and
Ieejeeans.

The usual mode of carrying burdens, was the same as with the
Tropical Polynesians; but for the first time in the course of the
Voyage, we observed articles occasionally borne on the head. Chil-
dren were sometimes supported astride on the hip, as commonly seen
among the Polynesians; and the mode of caressing them was like-
wise by rubbing noses. It appeared further, that the practice of
shampooing was not unknown; but neither here, nor in any other
part of the East Indies, did I see the slightest marks of ¢attooing. I
was surprised to learn, that hardly any genuine instances of running
a muck, occurred in this part of the Philippines.

Among the strange sights to a visiter, may be enumerated the uni-
versal bloody appearance of the mouth and teeth, derived from the
use of betel; and the great numbers of persons who earn a livelihood
by the traffic in that article. Also, the singular prevalence of the
amusement of cock-fighling ; natives being seen everywhere in the

* See an “extract from a work printed at Manila, 1818-19;” quoted in Moore’s
Papers on the Indian Archipelago.

120 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

streets, bearing the bird under the arm; while the crowing, is inces-
sant at all hours of the day and night. The buffalo too, contributed
to the novelty of this phase of civilization; an animal which, in stout-
ness of frame, the naked skin of the colour of mire, and its semi-amphi-
bious habits, seems fairly an associate of the elephant and hippopota-
mus. Although dangerous to Kuropeans, it is regarded, in the hands
of the natives, as rather a docile animal. I saw, however, a native
bearing the marks of a frightful wound inflicted by a buffalo; one
cheek, including the eye and nose, having been torn away, and left
hanging like a large tumour, with the profile still distinguishable, on
the side of the head.

Passports having been obtained for an excursion into the Interior,
a party of us left Manila in two canoes, conveniently furnished with
sliding roofs and dry floorings of bamboo. The water was smooth,
and although the current was strong, our progress against it by
paddling, was rapid. The banks of the stream were lined with
houses; and the very numerous population was obviously uninflu-
enced by European fashions. Occasionally, a native might be se-
lected, as he stalked forth, who, in attitude, dress, and whole personal
appearance, seemed the miniature image of a Tonga man. Numbers
of women were fishing with the hook and line, standing in the water,
or in canoes, or sometimes in half-canoes; but the large square dip-
nets, provided with a lever aud weights, were always managed by a
man. We were all struck with the ease with which the necessaries
of life seemed procurable; and especially, with the great quantity of
food obtained from this narrow quiet watercourse.

The rearing of ducks, was practised on a scale not dreamed of in our
quarter of the globe, and in its details afforded a very curious spec-
tacle. While, to complete the aquatic scene, buffaloes were led by a
cord to their evening bath; and many of them might be observed
having only the mouth and eyes above the water. We landed at one
place; and rarely have I felt so entirely separated from home; since
in the midst of a civilized and intelligent population, it would have
been difficult to explain who we were, the objects of the Voyage, or
even where our country was situated.

Towards sunset, we changed our crew, and having obtained a
mast and mat sail, we entered the lake; proceeding among aquatic
fences of slips of bamboo, which had been carried out for miles
in the shallow water, for fishing purposes. After clearing these,

AMI BEAD, SAVE UID NAG Sty. U OD 12]

we parted from the other canoe, and having shut down our roof,
sought repose in our slight but commodious vessel. It was nearly
calm, and our crew paddled until three in the morning, when they
landed to cook some rice; they shortly afterwards resumed their
labours until eight, the time of our arrival at Santa Cruz.

Mr. Sturgis, Lieut. Eld, and myself, here procured horses; and
proceeded along a road constructed under European supervision,
and paved a good part of the distance, although hardly intended
for wheel-carriages. Cocoa-palms formed the principal article of
cultivation; and they were in immense numbers, having the tops
united by bamboo stems, to obviate the necessity of descending while
going through a plantation: indeed, wealth at Manila, was said to
be often estimated by the thousand of cocoa palms. ‘The chief
product appeared to be an ardent spirit; whether of aboriginal manu-
facture, I did not ascertain. Joints of bamboo were used for bottles,
as among the Pacific islands.

Four plants, the bamboo, cocoa palm, pandanus, and rattan, give a
direction to domestic economy in the East Indies and the neighbour-
ing parts of Asia; and it is surprising, how many of the conveniences
aud elegancies of life they render attainable. While it should also be
observed, that it is precisely in these same countries, that the art of
living in a tropical climate is best understood.

In about three hours, we arrived at the Mission of Mayjayjay ;
where we found extensive stone edifices, a church, school, well-
supplied market-houses, and various out-buildings. ‘These were not
the only innovations on the original customs of the country; and I
have nowhere witnessed a more pleasant sight, than that of the sur-
rounding population on their way to church, all neatly arrayed in
their best attire.

There had been continual rains on the mountain of Banajao; but
in the midst of discouraging accounts, it was decided to make the
ascent. ‘lhe horses brought for us, were very small and of most
unpromising appearance; and we were surprised at the good service
they rendered. The same small breed is found in the other East
India islands, and together with the buffalo, is of aboriginal intro-
duction. ‘These two were the only new domestic animals thus far
met with in voyaging westward; for the bullock, which was rare,
appeared to have been first made known in this part of the East
Indies by Europeans.

After passing through the inhabited region, we arrived at the woods,

31

22 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

where the acclivity was too steep for horses; and it was now a work
of five hours to reach the summit, which is the highest point of the
island, being about six thousand five hundred feet above the sea. It was
here very cold, and the rain still accompanying us, we did not remain
longer than was necessary to complete the observations; but so much
time had been lost through the mismanagement of our guides, that
we were obliged on our way down, to pass the night at the half-way
station. There was but little shelter here from the heavy rain; and
our large company of natives, unlike the Polynesians and aboriginal
Americans, proved utterly helpless in such an emergency. They
slept very little during the night; but though nearly naked, having
the skin inured to exposure, they were probably in less danger than
ourselves of an attack of acute disease.

We were glad to leave on the first appearance of daylight, and
finding our horses at the place where we had left them, we mounted,
and before noon, again arrived at the Mission. Among other atten-
tions, Father Romano y Aranda presented us with a rare edition of
the Tagala grammar; “printed at Manila in 1610,” and containing
specimens of the aboriginal alphabet, which has been superseded by
the Roman letters. ‘He had never been able to find manuscripts in
this character, and did not think any person now living could read
it.” He further mentioned, that some have supposed the Malay
population of Luzon to have been “derived from Borneo; and also,
that on the first arrival of the Spaniards, there were officers collect-
ing taxes or tribute for the Borneo rajas.”’

In the afternoon, we returned to Santa Cruz, and embarking in our
canoe, spent another night upon the lake. We landed early on the
morning of the 19th, at the hot spring of Bafios; and after remaining
a while, again set out with a fresh but not altogether favourable
breeze. Notwithstanding we had the assistance of paddles, one
of the large narrow canoes used on this lake, having a double out-
rigger, went to the windward of us with ease. Before dark, we
reached the village at the outlet, where a theatre was said to be “ kept
open during the holy-days;” and having now the current in our
favour, we proceeded at a rapid rate, and landed in the city at an
early hour in the evening.

The government of the Philippines is nominally military, but the
population appears to be ruled principally through the priests; whose
ascendency is such, that “no instance had occurred of the murder of
one of them in insurrections, and even acts of violence towards them

DEL EP MigAMIE AG Ye REAL Cy. 123

have been extremely rare.” In short, the internal action of govern-
ment appeared to be mild and primitive, and the people, contented
and happy; and the traveller is carried back to those times, when the
Catholic missionaries first reached this quarter of the globe. Of all
the immense region of the Hast Indies, the Spanish portion of the
Philippines has alone been converted; while the proceedings of the
other European powers appear to disadvantage, even after making
every allowance for the prior visits of the Muslims.

On the 21st of January, the Vincennes sailed from Manila to the
southward, proceeding among some small islands, and afterwards
along the western coast of Minporo. The aspect of the land was
much like that of Luzon; but we could distinguish few signs of in-
habitants, further than the smoke of fires. At the southern extreme
of the island, one of our boats visited “a small Malay village.”
Rocks and rocky islets were occasionally in sight to the southward
and westward ; and after leaving Mindoro, we obtained a distant view
in the opposite direction, of the high mountain of ‘ Setoal.’

The western shore of the important island of Panay presented the
same general aspect; but there were evident signs of inhabitants,
as houses, cocoa-nut plantations, and even some buildings of Spanish
construction. A party landed at a spot where the Spanish flag was
flying; and reported on their return, ‘that there was only one white
resident, then absent, and that the people appeared to be much
frightened at the visit.” Our native pilot persisted in asserting, that
the Spaniards kidnap the people in this quarter, for slaves.

b. Mindanao.

The next land seen, the western end of Mindanao, was clothed
in great magnificence with an unbroken forest: a circumstance that
seemed to account in part for the independence of the inhabitants.
The Spaniards, notwithstanding their convict establishment, do not
claim the sovereignty of this island; which, by their account, ‘“ be-
longs to the Moors.”

On turning the extreme point of Mindanao, we found ourselves
close to the small Spanish fort of Caldera; where the Vincennes an-
chored. It bore on the walls the date of 1784; and was occupied by
a few Malay soldiers, with a European officer. The latter stated,

124 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

that “it was intended merely for protection against the Moorish (or
Muslim-Malay) pirates; who in their boats, carry persons away for
slaves, or to obtain a ransom. ‘To prevent therefore a night surprise,
the natives have sleeping-huts in the trees, elevated many feet above
the ground.”

On the following day, in company with others, I took a ramble of a
few miles, along a path leading into the luxuriant forest. For the
first time, I saw monkeys in the wild state, and had an opportunity
of witnessing their wonderful agility. I saw also Hornbills, species
of Merops, ‘Trogon, Colaris, and other birds, as well as insects of bril-
liant hues: and I realized finding at last, the gigantic and showy
animal creation associated with our usual ideas of the Tropics. Such
was the seeming correspondence in the surrounding natural objects,
that there was difficulty in giving credence to the alleged absence of
the elephant, rhinoceros, and all the larger quadrupeds. We were not
however aware at the time, that the Pythons, (the anacondas of the
Iastern Continent,) “were extremely common ; although often escap-
ing notice, from their resemblance to large woody vines hanging
among the tree-tops.” From my subsequent inquiries, I am inclined
to think that Mindanao may be regarded as the headquarters of these
reptiles.

Towards evening, we again left the fort, to visit a village in the
vicinity, with the injunction, “to be very cautious, and not trust to the
Moors.” We found only a few scattered Malay houses, of the usual
construction; some of which we entered. ‘The people were civil;
and they even had in use some articles of European manufacture.
Our Malay soldier, however, pronounced them ‘Moors,’ and spoke
with a compassionate air of “their ignorance.”

I was a little perplexed with the personal appearance of these
Muslims ; as the complexion appeared to me (though not to others)
lighter than in the pure Malay race; and one individual had a diffe-
rent expression of countenance. ‘This was certainly not Mongolian ;
but from my present recollections, I am not sure of the entire absence
of an Arab tinge.

We passed through a field of mazze, which at a distance would
hardly have been recognised. Although planted ‘in hills,’ these were
so near together that we had difficulty in forcing our way between
the stems, which were about eight feet in height. It should here be
observed, the maize is regarded by Crawford as of aboriginal cultiva-
tion in the East Indies.

THE MALAY RACE. 125

A boat from the Vincennes visited the large town of Samboangan
in the vicinity, the Spanish convict establishment before mentioned :
and one of our officers was here struck with the “large proportion of
persons who seemed to be of Chinese lineage, and he saw some real
Chinese. ‘The resident Catholic Father, who was highly intelligent,
communicated some late news from Europe and America.” It ap-
peared, that the efforts for conversion were reserved for the ‘pagan
Indians;’ experience having shown the futility of all attempts with the
Muslims.

I have not met with any examples of the Hararora tribes; de-
scribed as inhabiting the interior of Mindanao, Booro, Ceram, and
Celebes, and as possessing the entire island of Jilolo. What is al-
leged of the superior stature and bodily perfection of these people, is
worthy of notice; together with the existence among them of the
practice of tattooing, or at least of staining the skin. ‘These particu-
lars, taken in connexion with what has already been stated of the in-
habitants of Pulo Mariere, seem to have a bearing on the question of
the origin of the Polynesians.

Dalton,* after enjoying unusual opportunities for forming a correct
opinion, has identified the Harafora of Celebes with the Dayaks of
Borneo. Dr. Dickenson, of the American Mission at Singapore, had
visited the interior of Borneo; ‘in most parts of which island it is not
difficult to travel, though some of the coast people are to be avoided.
The Dayaks are not, like the Chinese, lighter-complexioned than the
Malays: he had conversed with Dayaks; who stated among other
matters, that it was usual with them, to ‘eat their grandfathers when
they became very old.’ There are neither elephants nor tigers in
Borneo.”

Hunt,t in speaking of the [dan and Moruts, who appear to replace
the Dayaks at the northern extremity of Borneo, states, ‘that they are
fairer and better featured than Malays, stronger and more robust; the
Dayer much darker and more resembling the Malays. ‘The inhabi-
tants of Mount Kiney-Baulu, are nearly as fair as Europeans.”
Dalton likewise mentions Dayak “women from the mountains, hav-
ing colour on the cheeks.” As I have never seen the pure Malay
light-complexioned enough for this, | am inclined to suspect some
mixture of another race; and geographical considerations point, as

* In Moore’s Papers on the Indian Archipelago. { Ibid.
32

126 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN,

intimated in another place, to the Mongolian. The account by Zu-
niga, of the ‘ Ygorotes’ of Luzon, may also be compared.

b. Sooloo.

On the Ist of February, the Vincennes sailed from Caldera; passing
in the first place, the considerable island of Bastnan. Although in
plain sight from Caldera, it is beyond the reach of Spanish influence ;
and some individuals had recently been murdered there, on landing
from a European vessel.

On the following day, our course was among scattered rocks and
islets ; in some instances, low and exclusively of coral, resembling on
a smaller scale those of the Pacific. We had previously seen but
slight indications of coral in the East Indies.

We soon reached the island of Sootoo or Jolo, seemingly one of
the most pleasant we met with in the whole course of the Voyage.
Its surface appeared to be in great part under cultivation; and the
resemblance to some of the Feejee Islands was at once recognised by
Veindovi. As we proceeded along the coast, many small canoes came
around, having double outriggers, double-bladed paddles, and contain-
ing each from two to five persons, who had brought fruit, fish, and
other articles for sale. Even here, the value of coin did not appear
to be well understood ; but direct exchanges were generally preferred.
The complexion was now deep brown, and the features were in all
instances, unequivocally Malay; while from the seeming good hu-
mour of those who came on board, from everything except the inferior
stature and absence of tattooing, the scene scarcely varied from many
we had witnessed in the Pacific. <A different state of things, however,
was found to exist on shore.

The Vincennes anchored at Soung, the capital of the island, and
the centre of political power in the surrounding region. Shortly after-
wards, I landed with others, and walked through the principal part of
the town. The style of building was found to be essentially the same
as in Luzon, except that many of the houses were placed over the water,
with long platforms or bridges connecting them with the shore. The
men went habitually armed; but in place of the bow or club, they had
the spear, shield and straight sword, each singularly resembling the
ancient Greek pattern of these weapons. It should further be ob-

THE MALAY BRACE. 27.

served that the introduction of these three weapons into this part of
the East Indies, is attributed to the Muslims.

We had landed on Friday, the Muslim sabbath, and the ‘Sultan’
was at his devotions in the ‘ mosque:’ this was a building larger than
the others, but devoid of any traces of the proper Muslim style of
architecture. We visited the ‘Dattoo’ (or Vizier); who understood
Spanish, and seemed intelligent enough, although he evidently did not
appreciate scientific researches. In the midst, however, of seeming
politeness, he appeared disposed to take his ease, smoking and _ lolling
upon a sort of canopied bedstead. One of his children, an infant, was
carried about, attended by a train of females, and also by a man, who
had been appointed to the office of his sword-bearer.

After a while, the Sultan, with his suite, bearing one or two large
umbrellas, was seen to leave the mosque; and word was soon brought,
that he was ready for an interview. ‘The result, so far as I was im-
mediately interested, was unfavourable to an excursion into the Inte-
rior; it being alleged, that “the people were so bad, there was no
safety for us:” and indeed, after making allowance for motives of
policy, our subsequent experience led us to think, that his highness
had reason. Up to the time of the interview, no incivility had been
offered, or if anything particular had been remarked, it was some
signs of aversion on the part of the women; but on now returning
through the town, we found a marked change in the deportment of
the inhabitants. Streets through which we had previously passed,
were now prohibited; but we were allowed to extend our walk along
the water’s edge, where some twenty proas were drawn up. We
afterwards reassembled at the landing-place, forming a considerable
party, and although well armed, we were not sorry to get away jn our
boats before dark.

‘T'wo ‘ Lascars’ were found here; one of whom spoke English, and
having been in London, he drew a rather striking contrast between
the condition of the people in the two places. He further stated, that
“he had been captured with Captain Gregory; when, the pirates
making their accustomed distinction of colour, had saved him alive.
He had been here for a year, the Sultan telling him, that after he had
paid one hundred dollars, he might go.” We had been prepared, by
common report, for a visit among thieves; and it appeared by the
account of the Lascar, that here they do not even preserve honour
among themselves; while, in addition to other troubles, the practice
of running a muck was extremely common. ‘There were no Kuropean

128 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

residents at Soung; and vessels visiting this place, incur very little
risk of desertions.

In the words of our native pilot, “the padre was an Arab ;” and he
returned my Arabic salutation, his eye, I thought, moistening at the
sound of the language; but I was unable to hold further communica-
tion with him. In the expression of his countenance, I perceived
some difference from the surrounding population, but none in com-
plexion, stature, or features; and he appeared equally beardless at a
distance, but it was found, that pains had been taken to preserve a few
very long scattered hairs. JI am uninformed as to the precise origin
of the Malay-Muslim priests, who, together with the chiefs, are appa-
rently of mixed descent (perhaps even having a tinge of Abyssinian) ;
but among the mass of the Sooloo people, I could find no evidence of
the presence of a foreign race. Commencing at Caldera, these were
the first traces met with in our progress westward, of Muslim institu-
tions, and of the Muslim system of government.

On the morning of the 5th, a well-armed party, including four
marines, proceeded in two boats to the island outside the harbour. It
was found to be composed of coral, surrounding a knoll of trap rock
some three hundred feet in height. ‘The day was spent to advantage,
so far as concerned researches in natural history: the knoll had been
ascended, and we were about leaving, when it was proposed to touch
at the further end of the island. We accordingly landed again, and
on resuming our avocations, the voice of chanticleer announced, un-
expectedly, that the island was inhabited. Our marines, accustom-
ed to the manners of the islanders of the Pacific, were pleased with
the idea of procuring refreshments; others were desirous of an inter-
view; and for myself, I followed, although better aware from yes-
terday’s experience, of the kind of reception we might expect.

The village, which had been concealed by the mangroves, pre-
sented the novel appearance of a cluster of houses in the middle of a
lagoon, built on posts, and accessible only to canoes. We continued
our walk to the outlet of the lagoon; but no one came near for some
minutes, the sound of voices giving evidence of a consultation. At
last, a man approached in a canoe, but kept aloof until he was joined
by a second canoe containing three persons; when they all landed
without hesitation. I offered some trifles, but they seemed hardly to
know what to make of them, or whether to accept them. An old man
in the rear, prompted apparently by some remaining feelings of bene-
volence, made motions to us to goaway. Another of the party was
less equivocal, making grimaces as he held a drawn kris, and pointed

THE MALAY RACE. 129

to his spear; all which we took in good part; and even this individual
seemed mollified as I handed him a small present. It was evident,
however, that there would have been little difficulty in bringing these
people to the last resort; and as this did not enter into our plans,
and also as reinforcements were arriving, we commenced retracing
our steps. The natives seemed now in better humour, and invited us
to return; but having once parted company, there appeared no sufhi-
cient inducements for a renewal of the acquaintance. Something
indeed had been said about the Sultan; and it was true, we were
intruders, having landed without his permission.

These people did not appear to differ from the rest of the population
in the vicinity ; and I do not know to what particular class they are
to be referred. They may have been Biasv, or “‘ people of the sea ;”
but they were certainly not tattooed. Their profession was evidently
that of fishermen; and they were probably a fair specimen of the
population of the numerous small islands scattered over the Sooloo
Sea.

The inhabitants of the capital, according to Hunt, “came origi-
nally from Banjar-masin,” on the southern coast of Borneo. All ac-
counts, however, agree, in the piracies being carried on by the Lanun
of the great southern bay of Mindanao; who frequent this place for
the purpose of disposing of their wares. If there were any of the
Lanun present at the time of our visit, we did not distinguish them.

The ‘jobas’ or interpreter, according to his own account, belonged
“to the island of 'TERNaTI, and was called a Dutchman and a Chris-
tiano:”’ in physical race, he was evidently pure Malay. Although
quite young, the extent of his acquirements in the way of languages,
was remarkable; and he wrote also in the Arabic character with great
ease and beauty. He too was held for ransom ; but being so useful a

person, we feared much for his prospect of a speedy release.

On the 6th, the Vincennes left Sooloo, and a few hours afterwards,
we passed more coral islands, similar to those of the Pacific; but with
the trees too tall and dense to allow a view of their Interior. On the
following day, we passed Kacayan Soo.oo, an island of some im-
portance, and much resembling Sooloo, but smaller. According to
our native pilot, it is inhabited, as well as all the islets we had seen,
“and by very bad people.”

33

130 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

On the 8th, the Vincennes anchored at the Manesi Islands; small
coral patches, situated between the extreme points of Palawan and
Borneo, in the middle of the Balabac Passage. ‘They were uninhabi-
ted at the time, but bore various marks of visiters. A Casuarina tree
(the club-wood or iron-wood of the Pacific) was growing near the
remains of a habitation, where it had evidently been planted: and the
fact seemed the more interesting, from the geographical position in
this main oceanic pass between the Kast and West; while on the
other hand, the plant is so rare at the Philippines, that Blanco knew
of but one instance of its occurrence.* We remained four days at
the Mangsi Islands, adding materially to our collections, not only in
marine productions, but rather unexpectedly, in plants.

The high island of Balabac was in sight to the northward, and
that of Banguey, to the southward of the anchorage. Near the last
named island, one of our surveying parties “saw some natives, who
manifested intentions of an attack, but who appeared much afraid
of fire-arms.” Our pilot stated, that “these people were very bad,
but that those of the mountains were worse; eating men, and having
tails; and he measured with his hands a space of more than a foot,
as the length of this appendage. Such a curiosity, if it really existed,
would hardly have escaped the European Establishment formerly in
the vicinity: but I had not before met with a locality for this well-
known legend.

The coast of Borneo is said to be low; and we did not get sight of
it, either before or after leaving the Balabac Passage. Continuing
our voyage, we saw no land until we reached the two islets of Pulo
Aor and Pulo Pedang; which are lofty and covered with woods, but
are of small dimensions, and are situated near the southern extreme of
the Asiatic continent.

d. Szngapore.
Shortly afterwards, we arrived at Singapore. The Malay popula-
tion was here lost amid a crowd of strangers, principally from China

and Hindostan: but individuals were occasionally met with, and the

* See Blanco’s Flora of the Philippines.

THE MALAY RACE. 131

original Malay village at the further end of the harbour, was still
remaining. The inhabitants were nationally Matay; this term, in a
strict sense, belonging to one only of the East Indian tribes. The
houses were built on posts, in the same style of architecture as at the
Philippines; and even in this native village, the Chinese appeared to
be the principal shopkeepers and artisans.

The original population, had however found a congenial occupa-
tion, in the exclusive management of the light ‘sampans ;’ the passen-
ger-boats which have been so much admired, and which, with some
similarity in the arrangements, form a decided improvement on the
Manila canoe. Malay labourers were also seen on some of the plant-
ations of the vicinity. Notwithstanding the unfavourable reports in
respect to character, and the general preference given to Manila
men, the proper Malays appeared to me to have an air of greater self-
respect, and to be in a more advanced state of society than the gene-
ral population of the Philippines.

The Malays are all Muslim, and are so strict, that they would not
take part in the celebration by the Indian Muslims, of the 21st of Fe-
bruary ; “regarding it as a corrupt proceeding.” Malay bearers had
however been secured for the shrine; as was said “to be usual on
occasions requiring any extra amount of labour.”

The language of this tribe, has become the general medium of
communication throughout the Archipelago. But if, like other Kast
Indian languages, it ever had a peculiar alphabet, this has long since
been replaced by the Arabic letters. An extensive and important col-
lection of Malay manuscripts, was procured at Singapore, through
Mr. North, of the American mission.

In one respect, Singapore offered novelty ; for man was now, no
longer the undisputed ‘lord of creation.’ One of the local advan-
tages, urged at the time when the English selected this spot, was the
‘absence of wild elephants and tigers :” but it appeared in the sequel,
that the island presented no attractions to the latter animal, until a city
had been built. The invasion took place about six years prior to our
visit, doubtless by swimming from the main land; which is at no
great distance. ‘The number of persons who have since “been taken
by tigers, amounts to some hundreds ;” there being scarcely any other
kind of prey; and instances sometimes occurred within two miles of
the centre of the city.

It was said that these animals “attacked in the daytime, though
perhaps more frequently at night; but they were not apt to come out

132 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

into the main road, or to fall upon a palanquin and horse. Such a
thing as a tiger pouncing upon a man without killing him, was un-
known at Singapore; although it sometimes happened, when several
persons have been in company, that the tiger has been immediately
frightened away. ‘There were persons who made a profession of kill-
ing tigers, and government had been paying a premium of a hundred
dollars for a head, but having recently reduced this to fifty, the busi-
ness was for the present at an end:” in reference to these prices it
should be observed, that the value of money here, is fivefold greater
than with us. In the wildest recesses of North America, the traveller
may throw himself upon the ground to pass the night; not so in
these countries; where, without disparagement to the rifle, I may state
my belief, that it would not prevail. ‘Tigers, however, require covert ;
and they will disappear whenever the island shall be cleared of woods ;
an event not likely soon to take place. Under present circumstances,
there is little difficulty in keeping out of their way; and European
residents, by observing certain precautions, do not much regard them.

An important moral effect, has been produced by this state of things.
“A decided diminution of crime has taken place,” owing to the cir-
cumstance that thieves and other criminals, are deprived of their
former resource of escaping to the woods. A raja of Celebes, was
said to have been so impressed with the advantages of such a system
of police, as to have seriously “ entertained the idea of introducing it
into his dominions.”

The tiger, though perhaps inferior in strength to the lion, is in re-
spect to the human family, a far more formidable animal. It may
even be said to rule in a good méasure those wooded countries in
which it has obtained footing; such as Java, Sumatra, the peninsula
of Malacca, the Indo-Chinese countries, and a portion of Eastern Hin-
dostan. In Western Hindostan, so far as my recent tour extended,
the true tiger appeared to be unknown; the country being in general
open; but in the thick woods towards Bengal, we read of a district
where “villages have been sometimes broken up by the ravages of
tigers.”

The Bucis of Celebes, now the dominant tribe or nation in the
East Indies, “resort in great numbers to Singapore at a certain
season of the year. Some, however, are present at all times; and
as they are distinguished from the proper Malays, only by a slight

THE MALAY RACE 133

variation in costume,” I may have unwittingly seen some of them.
They are strict Muslims; and Celebes, appears to be the most eastern
point from which pilgrimages are made to Mecca.

Several Bugis manuscripts are in the collection obtained at Singa-
pore; and a font of Bugis type had been prepared at the American
Mission press: but the national literature, so highly prized among
the people themselves, remains unknown to Europeans.

After leaving Singapore, we sailed through land-locked channels,
and in sight of the Dutch factory of Rhio, on the island of Bintang.
On the following day, we passed several rocky islets, hardly of suffi-
cient importance to be inhabited.

On the Ist of March, as we were entering the Straits of Banca, we
fell in with a bark under Dutch colours, that did not pay attention to
our signals. On boarding her, the circumstance was explained: the
captain, being a Malay, together with all his crew, had not understood
the language of a ship of war. Many of the English vessels at Sin-
gapore, were said to be likewise manned exclusively with Malays.

The eastern shore of Sumatra is low; and the land rising very
gently towards the interior, presented everywhere an unbroken forest,
without any distinguishable signs of inhabitants. The landscape,
as throughout the East Indies, notwithstanding the exuberance of the
vegetation, was decidedly more sombre than in Brazil. In the vici-
nity of the Straits of Sunda, the land becomes mountainous, with
clearings and other marks of cultivation, and evidently sustains a
dense population; who, I believe, are nationally styled Lampone.
We saw houses, also small canoes ; two of which came off at different
points; but as they directed their course to the other vessels of the
squadron, I was deprived of a view of the inmates.

We kept near the Sumatra shore, passing islets of little importance,
except to the navigator: but we could distinguish extensive clearings
on the opposite mountains of Java; again indicating a numerous popu-
lation. On the 7th, having passed Java Head, we were relieved from
the confined waters of the Archipelago, and once more entered upon
the open sea.

During our rapid progress through the East Indies, I had little
opportunity of noting the prevailing diseases. ‘The external marks
were rare; owing perhaps in some measure, to the concealment
usually attending a more advanced state of society. Dysentery is the
chief bane of the East Indian climate: “vessels rarely remain any

34

134 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

length of time in the harbour of Manila without having it on board ;”
and Singapore, even, is not altogether exempt from this disease. In
the Straits of Banca, we fell in with a vessel from Batavia, nearly
disabled in consequence of the loss of twelve of the crew by dysen-
tery. We experienced in the Kast Indies, a greater difference be-
tween the night temperature on the land and on the water, than
among the Pacific islands: and a further comparison seems to inti-
mate, that this tendency to gastric affections may possibly form an
element in the physical degeneracy of the population.

We were thirty-three days in crossing the wide expanse of the
Indian Ocean, without seeing land, until we reached the African
coast, eastward of the Care or Goop Hore. On landing at Cape
Town, I remarked among the population, many persons who were
obviously of Malayan descent, more or less mixed. I did not, during
our short stay, ascertain their precise origin, whether from the Hast
Indies or from Madagascar: and I felt the less interest on this point,
as they had been introduced through the agency of Huropeans, and
all nationality had been lost.

THE INDO-CHINESE COUNTRIES.

The Cocutn-CninEsE were easily distinguished at Singapore by the
black national dress. I there had an interview with a highly intelli-
gent young man, who “had been educated by the French missiona-
ries; and who spoke English, and had visited France, where he was
a good deal noticed.” He readily admitted the defects in the political
institutions of his own country; but he seemed resigned. He had
been sent to Singapore by his king, in charge of the cargo of one of
the two national ships then in the harbour.

It appears, that “a century ago or more, a French ship happened
to be wrecked on the coast of Cochin-China; and the people have
continued to copy her model, with great particularity, to the present
day.” Here then was a singular revival of the antiquated European
mode of construction; but on visiting these vessels, the workmanship
was pronounced by our naval critics, “exceedingly rude.”” We were
shown a finely executed chart of the coast of Cochin-China; appa-
rently the copy of some European survey, with the names of places
written in Chinese characters. Every individual on board appeared

THE MALAY RACE. 135

to be physically Malay; and there were no marks of Chinese lineage.
In stature, however, they were perhaps inferior to the insular Hast
Indians.

The SrameseE also frequent Singapore; though there happened to
be none present at the time of our visit. They “have likewise vessels
of European model; chiefly old English merchant ships which they
have purchased ; and they employ English commanders.” Siam and
Cochin-China were then at war; but I did not hear of any naval en-
gagements. ‘The ‘twins,’ well known in the United States, are the
only Siamese I have ever seen; and they bear the distinctive marks
of the Malay race.

Dr. Betton, of Philadelphia, on visiting Birman, found “ the Birmese
to belong to the same class of people with the Malays of the East
Indies: the Malay character of the population, commencing suddenly
a few miles beyond the Eastern mouth of the Ganges. He regarded
the Karens, however, as belonging to a different race:” and from the
descriptions and figures, they would appear to belong either to the
White race or to the Mongolian.

MADAGASCAR.

During my recent visit to Zanzibar, Il remarked among the lower
class of the population, four or five individuals who evidently belonged
to the Malay race. ‘Two of them were ascertained to be Ovahs from
Mapacascar; or as they were here termed, “Ambolambo from
Bookin.” They were held as slaves by the Arabs. One was a lad
of sixteen years, “from Nos Bey;” and the other, a middle-aged
woman; but having been both stolen when quite young, they could
give no account of their native country. ‘Their hair was very dense,
and they exhibited other obvious marks of the unmixed Malayan.
This resemblance was admitted by Europeans present; and it ap-
peared also, that the Arabs had remarked the identity in physical
race of the Ambolambo and the East Indians.

The survey of the immense series of ocean migrations was here
completed ; the Malay race having been traced by actual inspection,
from the shores of America, through the Pacific and Kast Indian
islands, to the immediate vicinity of Africa.

136 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

OTHER MALAYANS.

About two years previous to my visit to Zanzibar, “a canoe from
the Maupive Islands, drifted near enough to the African coast to be
picked up and brought in by adow. ‘There were several persons in
it;”’ and Mr. Waters was first led to make inquiries respecting them,
from their peculiar personal appearance; and he termed them “ Malay-
looking people.” Various interesting subjects being connected with
the question of the physical race of the Maldive islanders, I regret
that I have nothing further to add to the published accounts: which
are far from satisfactory.

Mr. Williams, of the American Mission in China, found on visit-
ing CeyLon, “a Malay expression of countenance among the Cinga-
lese: a class of the population, who, by their own account, are ‘dimi-
nishing in numbers, in consequence of the ‘Tamul people of the
neighbouring continent coming among them.’ ‘The canoes in Ceylon
have outriggers ;” a custom which seems derived from the Hast Indies.
And it may also be observed, that judging by the descriptions of the
Cingalese, the ambiguity in respect to race, lies, as with the Maldive
islanders, between the Malay and the White.

Among all the people of Hindostan who have passed under my
own notice, one individual only, offered some traces of Malay mix-
ture; a Lascar sailor serving on board the Calcutta steamboat. To
return to Ceylon, I would here notice one source of confusion, in the
recent introduction of ‘a regiment of real Malays.”

In Upper Egypt, Southern Arabia, and Western Hindostan, a large
proportion of the population have the Malay complexion ; moreover,
the Bedouins of the vicinity of Mocha, are often beardless and have a
good-natured expression of countenance ; but I was unable in any of
these countries, to detect the physical Malay. It is true, certain indi-
viduals, by a change of costume, might perhaps have escaped my
notice in the midst of a Malay population ; but hardly, I think, the re-
verse. From Mocha there is direct communication with the East
Indies, affording conveyance to pilgrims ; and indeed, I witnessed the
arrival of an Arab ship from Batavia: but in general the ‘ Malays’
spoken of at Mocha, are White Muslims from the Malabar coast.

Gas. Luploring Lapedition. The AUSTRALIAN Race. PIL 5V.o

Willilnga.

Anative of the Interior of Australia.

Drawn by AL Agate WEDougal Sc

CHAPTER V.

THE AUSTRALIAN RACE.

‘Tue Australian may be characterized in general terms, as having
the complexion and features of the Negro, with hair in the place of
wool. |

On closer examination, however, other points of diversity are re-
marked : and I think it will be very generally found, that the forehead
does not recede as in the Negro; an unusually deep-sunk eye giving
it rather the appearance of projecting. ‘The eye, at the same time,
though uniformly small, is uncommonly piercing. With regard to
other races somewhat approximating in personal appearance, the
genuine hair will at all times distinguish the Australian.

About thirty Australians came under my own observation ; who
neither had the lips so uniformly thick, nor the nose so much de-
pressed, as in the Negro: but in certain instances, both nose and mouth
were wider. Some individuals were of surpassing ugliness; while
others, contrary to all anticipation, had the face decidedly fine; and
several of the young women had a very pleasing expression of counte-
nance. ‘The general form, though sometimes defective, seemed on the
average better than that of the Negro; and I did not find the undue
slenderness of limb, which has been commonly attributed to the Aus-
tralians. Strange as it may appear, I would refer to an Australian,
as the finest model of the human proportions, I have ever met with ;
in muscular development, combining perfect symmetry, activity, and
strength; while his head might have compared with an antique bust
of a philosopher.

The Australian complexion appeared to me fully as dark as that of
the Negro; but I did not institute a critical comparison, neither did I
see the two races in company. ‘The hair seemed rather coarse, and
instead of being perfectly straight, was usually undulating, or even

35

138 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

curling in ringlets. The beard was by no means deficient, though
less abundant than in the Feejecan.

For characteristic representations of Australians, Iam hardly wil-
ling to refer to any except those in Mitchell’s Tour, and the por-
traits taken by Mr. Agate: among which latter, I have been most
pleased with that of Bamboro-kain. The coloured figures in the
French Voyages are deficient in that depth of hue, which at once
arrests attention in the Australians: the best I have seen, is the full-
length portrait in the “Voyage aux Terres Australes.” Natives in
a state of starvation, may have borne some sort of resemblance to the
delineations given in most publications; but in general, these have
appeared to me, simply caricatures.

EASTERN AUSTRALIANS.

On leaving the Samoa Islands in 1839, the vessels of the Squadron
proceeded to New South Wales; and arrived at SypNeEy at the close
of the month of November. An hour after landing, I happened to
meet an aboriginal in the street, wearing the Huropean costume, but
who was instantly recognised; and this single example, seemed to
dispel all danger of subsequently confounding the Australian with
any other race of men. In short, I soon found, that while persons at
a distance are doubting and disputing, at Sydney, every one knows
that an Australian is not a Negro.

Among other attentions shown us by residents, an invitation was
received from Mr. W. Stephens, to visit his estate at Peuen Beuen,
near the source of the Hunrer River. Mr. Dana and myself, accord-
ingly went on board the steamboat, on the evening of the 2d of De-
cember; and after a night at sea, we entered on the following morn-
ing, the estuary of the Hunter. The channel led for many miles
directly towards the Interior; and near the head of tide-water, where
the breadth was inconsiderable, we obtained a sight of a native canoe.
This appeared to have been formed without much art, from the hol-
low trunk of a tree; but I may have been deceived in this particular,
as I believe, bark is the usual material of construction; most of the
Australian timber sinking in water. ‘The natives are said to make a
rough bark canoe without much trouble, whenever occasion may
require. But their canoes are suitable only for a placid surface; and
the Australians do not appear to venture upon the open sea; either

THE AUSTRALIAN RACE. 139

amid the heavy waves of the Southern Ocean, or in the comparatively
quiet waters along the northern coast.

The occupants of the canoe, a man and his wife, crossed the water,
and were afterwards seen strolling along, attired in worn-out Kuro-
pean clothing. At our place of debarkation, three or four other
natives were seen; and one of them, who held some implements of
warfare, announced himself in English, as “king of the country.”
On inquiring further respecting his place of residence, he added, that
“he lived in his master’s kitchen.”

Although the range or territorial limits of the different Australian
communities, are carefully observed, the idea of any ownership in the
soil, does not appear to have occurred to these people. They neither
at any time, resisted the new-comers from Europe, nor did they
withdraw from the contact; but they continue to ramble over their
old domain, complaining only of the disappearance of the kangaroo.
For this loss, which they attribute to the “White man’s kangaroo
(the sheep and bullock) having driven away their own,” they con-
sider themselves entitled to indemnity.

On the frontiers, the natives doubtless occasionally spear the cattle;
though it was evident, that they have been far more sinned against
than sinning. They have further, been pecuharly unfortunate, in
being exposed to the contact of such a class of people as the escaped
convicts.

According to common report, “the natives cannot be induced to
cultivate the soil, and are equally averse to all other kinds of labour ;”
but in the towns, I met with one or two individuals, who appeared to
be engaged in some occupation. I am not aware, however, that any
instance is on record, of an Australian being employed as a mariner.

A striking difference from the aboriginal Americans, and perhaps
from all other known people, is found in the absolute rejection of all
innovation by the wild communities. Huropean customs or articles
of manufacture, do not make the slightest progress among them; and
relations of commercial intercourse continue altogether unknown.

In a region which has not added to the list of esculent plants, it
does not appear surprising that cultivation should be unknown;
especially as the soil rarely affords the capability. Moreover, such is
the forbidding character of the natural vegetation, that this contributes
very slightly to the sustenance of man; and I have sometimes doubted
whether any different branch of the human family, could have main-
tained its existence on the slender natural resources of Interior Aus-
tralia. ‘The original population, notwithstanding its sparseness, was

140 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

yet in proportion to the means of subsistence ; and the European ac-
cession has been owing solely to the introduction of sources of supply
previously unknown. ,

The Australians are strictly in the ‘hunter state ;’ deriving their
subsistence from game and from the spontaneous productions of the
country ; and they can only be compared with the hunting tribes of
America. ‘The parallel, however, is not very obvious: and the Aus-
tralians appear almost as anomalous as the inferior animals and plants
of the same quarter of the globe. ‘They have commonly been placed
at the bottom of the scale of civilization; yet in the few arts in their
possession they have displayed singular ingenuity : for instance, in the
method of ascending trees by making successive notches; the ‘ throw-
ing-stick’ for the light javelin; and especially, the boomerang, the
curved missile whose devious course remained so long the subject
of incredulity. ‘Their manufactures, indeed, are chiefly confined to
their peculiar weapons, which serve both for warfare and the chase.
They also use defensive armour; the light oblong shield, which is
rendered efficient only by the height of skill and activity.

Coming from among the Pacific islands, I was surprised at the faci-
lity with which the Australians acquire the English language; and
at the correctness of their pronunciation. ‘The latter circumstance,
is doubtless attributable chiefly to the frequent occurrence of terminal
consonants in their own languages. ‘A child educated at a school
in Sydney, showed intellectual capacity equal in every respect to
that of his Kuropean companions.” A difficulty, however, had been
experienced in undertakings of this sort, in consequence of the
mothers “returning to claim and carry away their children.”

Half-breeds must be rare, as I did not meet with an instance; but
some were spoken of ; and native women were occasionally seen, ac-
companying the wagons from the Interior.

There are no proper mountains in sight from Peuen Beuen, but
only gently rolling hills, perhaps six hundred feet above their base.
The ‘New England’ district, to the northward and nearer the
Tropic, was spoken of as being elevated, and as sometimes visited
with falls of snow; which are nearly unknown at Sydney. After
remaining some days at Peuen Beuen, without however seeing na-
tives, we set out on our return. On the 9th, we stopped at Bauman’s
estate; at the only house near the road for a distance of about thirty
miles. Great numbers of sheep were here pastured ; the Australian
climate having been found peculiarly adapted for the production of
the finer qualities of wool.

THE AUSTRALIAN RACE. 141

Much was said of the ravages of the ‘native dog,’ or rather Aus-
tralian wolf; for although the animal is somewhat at variance with
the Zoological character of Australia, I could not learn that it is ever
the companion of man. The only specimen I ever saw, was kept
in confinement; and I found other reasons for suspecting that it is
a peculiar species. If these inferences are confirmed, the Austra-
lians will be found to be destitute of domestic animals; a circum-
stance, perhaps fairly unique. Indeed, I know of no other branches
of the human family that are thus situated, besides the inhabitants
of a few detached coral islands, and possibly, the Californians of
Sacramento.

Continuing our journey, two natives were seen in the distance, who
were shouting, occupied apparently about a particular tree; but we
did not go near them. Being in their original state of nudity, I sup-
posed at the time, that they belonged to the wild communities; but I
was subsequently informed, that the locality was not far enough in
the Interior. In Australia, both sexes are destitute of clothing ; and
here we have a people of whom it may literally be said, that “ they
know not that they are naked.”

On the 16th, we again reached Sydney, where I remained until
the 8th of February ; most of the time, however, confined to the house
by illness. The only other natives I saw, were begging, sometimes
two or three in company, in the streets. I must refer the reader to
the Narrative and Ethnography of the Expedition, for various in-
teresting particulars respecting the Australians; involving, among
other matters, the absence of any proper form of government, and of
the idea of attributing superiority to one man over another.

NORTHERN AUSTRALIANS.

A great uniformity in the habits of the people, appears to prevail
throughout Australia; and it is only in the extreme Northeast, in
the immediate vicinity of Torres Srrairs, that any important vari-
ation is known to take place. In this quarter, Flinders observed the
use of “the bow; and he met with some individuals in the Gulf of
Carpentaria, who appeared to have been circumcised: but further
west, the usual Australian weapons again made their appearance.”
A missile club, analogous to the Feejeean, is represented in the

36

142 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

“ Voyage aux Terres Australes ;” but belonging, I think, to a different
part of the continent.

The source of these innovations may readily be divined: but a
greater one was found by Flinders at the Murray Islands, immediately
within the Straits; “the cocoa-nuts, bananas, and joints of bamboo
filled with water, that were brought off by the natives,’ showing a
knowledge of agriculture. While at the same time, no physical
difference from the continental Australians, appears to have been
remarked.

There are other reasons for supposing that the Australian race, does
actually extend among the little-known islands of the same vicinity.
All visiters speak of seeing straight-haired individuals among the
natives of the LovisiapE. And one of the figures of the natives of
Eastern New Guinea, contained in Belcher’s Voyage, seems to cor-
respond with the Australian.

It seems also probable, that as we become better acquainted with
this portion of the globe, there will appear less isolation in the cus-
toms of the Australians. We can at present refer to various con-
necting circumstances; to the use of a throwing-stick for the javelin,
in Eastern New Guinea, in New Britain, and even in New Caledo-
nia; to the oblong shield or buckler, worn in the Louisiade and
around Dampier’s Straits; and also to some corresponding methods
of dressing the hair. Some words too, appear to be in common:
thus, ‘dundw’ (the Australian name for the black swan) occurs in
New Britain, where, according to Morrell and Jacobs, it is applied to
a species of emu or cassowary.

TASMANNIANS.

We come now to the controverted point of the physical race of the
natives of Van Diemen’s Land, situated to the southward of the con-
tinent. They were spoken of at Sydney, as readily distinguishable
from the Australians, by their “woolly hair; peculiar, however, in
its texture ;”” and at the same time, all idea of affinity with the Negro
race, was rejected.

Mitchell has some observations on the T'asmannians, and concludes
in favour of associating them with the continental Australians; and
this opinion seems the most probable. Indeed, the portraits of Labil-

|
L

"hy e-

THE AUSTRALIAN RACE. 143

lardiere would have much weight with me, as they exhibit very deci-
dedly, the projecting forehead of the Australian. Not being aware
of the presence of a Tasmannian in Sydney, I lost the opportunity of
seeing him: those who were more fortunate, were unable to recog-
nise any resemblance in the Feejeeans, whom we shortly afterwards
visited.

OTHER AUSTRALIANS.

It is hardly probable that I have met with the Australian race in a
different quarter of the globe; but the personal appearance of two in-
dividuals seen at different times, so strongly reminded me of it, that I
have concluded to mention the particulars. The first instance was
that of a ‘Calcutta man,’ who commanded one of the schooners plying
among the Hawaiian Islands. He came on board the Vincennes in
company with two Chinese; when the inferior stature of all three,
became very striking in the midst of our men. His complexion, |
noted at the time, was “as black as the darkest Negro we have on
board ;” the features too, were similar to those of the Negro; but the
hair was entirely like that of Europeans.

The other individual referred to, was seen by me when travelling
in Western Hindostan. I here fell in with several of the immense
droves of bullocks, owned and accompanied by the Brinjarry women ;
who, with their husbands, evidently belonged to the White race. On
one occasion, I was surprised to see, as I supposed, a Negress among
them; but I was immediately corrected by my Parsee attendant; who
added, that ‘many of them are like this woman;” and on a nearer
approach, I perceived that her hair was perfectly straight.

In connexion with these two examples, I would refer to the
reported existence of a tribe of blacks in the vicinity of Lake
Zurrah, in central Persia; and also to the description by Hero-
dotus, of the ‘Asiatic Ethiopians.’

CHAPTER VI.

THE PAPUAN RACE.

Tue term ‘Papuan,’ notwithstanding some ambiguity, may be
conveniently applied to a race of robust blacks; of whom the only
examples [ have seen (with probably one exception), have been the
natives of the Feejee Islands.

So far as my observation extends, the Papuan race differs from the
rest of mankind in one remarkable physical peculiarity, the hardness
or harshness of the skin. This point long since attracted the atten-
tion of those Tonga people,* from whom Mariner derived his accu-
rate notices of the Feejee Islands. It is proper to add, that I have
not examined the quality of the skin in the Negrillo race.

The hair of the Papuan is in great quantity, is naturally frizzled and
bushy, and so coarse as to be rather wiry than woolly. When dressed
according to the Teejee fashion, it forms a resisting mass, and offers
no slight protection against the blow of aclub. I have had occasion
to remark that it actually incommoded the wearer when lying down ;
and to this circumstance, rather than to any foppery, I am disposed
to attribute the origin of the wooden neck-pillow. ‘The beard does
not appear to grow so long, or to cover so large a portion of the face
as in the White race; but the Papuan exceeds the remaining races,
in the quantity of beard.

The complexion is of a deeper shade than in the Malay race; but
is much the same as in the Bengalee or Telingan. The features
in many respects resemble those of the Negro, but the lips are not
quite so thick, and the nose is somewhat more prominent; while a
very general elongation of the face imparts a different aspect. I did
not meet with a really fine head among the Feejeeans; but the coun-
tenance was often grave and peculiarly impressive; and I had frequent

* See Mariner’s Tonga Islands.

CON £uploving Lapedition. The PAPUAN Race. PL 5 VI.

Ko -i beti.

A native of the heeee Islands .

OS Laploring Eapedition .

Lhe PAPUAN Race. PL ,VIl.

A Feejee $irl.

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THE PAPUAN RACE 145

occasion to remark, that strangers did not readily forget the features
of Veindovi. In average stature, the Feejeeans were found to exceed
the White race; but they fell below the men of Tonga and Samoa.

The profile in general appeared to be as vertical, if not more so
than in the White race; but this I find, is not confirmed by the facial
angle of the skull; and it may possibly be accounted for, by some dif-
ference in the carriage of the head. ‘The Feejeean skulls brought
home by the Expedition, will not readily be mistaken for Malayan;
they bear rather the Negro outline; but they are much compressed,
and differ materially from all other skulls that I have seen.

For characteristic representations of the Papuan race, I would
refer to Labillardiere’s ‘ man of Beaupré,’ and ‘ woman of New Cale-
donia.’ Also, to the portraits taken by Mr. Drayton and Mr. Agate;
particularly those of T'anoa, Veindovi, ‘Tui-Mbua, Thokanauto or
Philips, Ko-Mbeti, and the girl with stained hair.

FEEJEEANS.
a. Tongataboo.

A dark race having been long known to occupy New Guinea and
some of the neighbouring Pacific islands, I did not, at the time of our
leaving Sydney, doubt its being the Australian. Indeed, the perso-
nal appearance of the four Feejeeans seen at Toneatasoo, hardly led
to any satisfactory conclusion. One of them, a warrior, particularly
attracted my attention; and after my subsequent experience in regard
to the Feejeean character, I can revert more understandingly to the cir-
cumstance. He was arrayed on the side of the Christians, yet he had
no interest in the quarrel, no sympathies with the surrounding popula-
tion: what then was the secret motive, that had prompted him to
pursue far away from his native land his dangerous vocation ?

He and another warrior, had doubtless arrived in the Tonga canoes;
by the same mode of conveyance as the individuals met with by
Mariner and Cook; and these instances, form the only ones known
of aboriginal wandering on the part of the Feejeeans.

Two Feejeean women had been brought to Tongataboo in an Eng-
lish vessel; and as we were on the point of leaving, they escaped
from the shore, in the hope of getting back to their own country ; but
Captain Wilkes decided not to receive them on board.

37

146 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

b. Feeee Islands.

On the morning of the 4th of May, 1340, the Squadron left Tonga-
taboo ; and towards the evening of the following day, we came in sight
of Turrte Island; which is small and unimportant, except as a
guide to the navigator. We rested on our course for the night; but
by daylight we had drifted among the other outermost Feejee Islands.
Those in sight, were small and moderately high; and according to
our European pilot, were “destitute of yams, although permanently
inhabited.”

On the 7th, we reached OvoLav ; a small island, that from its central
position, and from its being the place of residence of some White men,
has become a convenient rendezvous for vessels. The broken and
mountainous land, in great part covered with woods, and situated in
a moderately rainy climate, presented a varied and most inviting as-
pect; and we felt that we were now in a part of the world, which,
except to a few traders, was very little known.

On the 8th, we entered the reef, and dropped anchor before the vil-
lage of Levuka; and our first greeting, was a shout of admiration from
the shore, when the sailors suddenly ascended the rigging. Canoes
soon made their appearance, moving in different directions, and by
a singular method of propulsion: a man standing in the centre of the
canoe, held an upright oar, and as he threw his weight upon it from
side to side, seemed actually to walk over the water, and at a surpris-
ing rate. At length three or four canoes approached us, one bearing
upon an elevated platform the chief of Levuka; who introduced him-
self to our acquaintance, with the accustomed present of yams.

Independently of the texture of the hair, the people differed
strikingly from the Australians in their stoutness of limb, and in the
entire absence of graceful forms. At first indeed, we did not distin-
guish them from Negroes; and this resemblance was even recognised
by Negroes on board: one of whom made use of the expression,
“people at home would hardly believe that these were natives.” But
it was soon perceived, that a Negro in the midst of a party of Fee-
jeeans, presented a marked distinction in colour.

I obtained other evidence of the hghtness of the Feejeean com-
plexion; for on scanning with a glass the crowd of natives on the
shore, I had supposed one half of them to be Polynesians ; whereas,

mee
‘ *

(eH sH) @PZACPsURA IN, RAC © ©: 147

upon landing, they proved to be all Feejeeans. ‘There seems, indeed,
to be much variation among individuals; and on comparing the
darkest Polynesians with the lightest Feejeeans, there will probably
be found no essential difference in the shade of colour. I sometimes
thought I perceived a purplish tinge in the Feejeean complexion,
particularly when contrasted in the sunlight with green foliage; and
the epithet of ‘purple men,’ might be given to this race, if that of ‘red
men’ be retained for the Malayan.

The circumstance that first tended to show the diversity from
the Negro, was the personal appearance of the children of resident
Whites; for they were evidently not ‘mulattoes.’ The hair of the
Feejeean girls also contributed to remove the Negro aspect. The
ashy colour, indeed, was extraneous; but the hanging locks, although
always somewhat crisped, proved that the erect mode of wearing
the hair and its woolly appearance in grown persons, were partly the
work of art. Inquiry being thus awakened, careful observation soon
led to the conviction, that the Feejeeans belong to a peculiar physical
race.

As evidence of the prevailing stoutness of limb, the instance may be
mentioned, in which the measure of a Feejeean’s leg was found to en-
circle three united of three of our men. Another physical peculiarity
was remarked, in the frequent examples of unusual shortness of neck.
The tallest Feejeean met with, measured six feet-six inches; and
he was tolerably well proportioned, though more slender than his
companions. It was stated on good authority, that there were Fee-
jeeans who exceeded in size any of the ‘Tonga men; but so far as my
own observation extended, the average stature was less.

One of our first inquiries on landing, regarded the safety of tra-
velling ; and we were informed, that “we should be entirely secure
within the territory of the chief of Levuka.” It appeared, however,
that his dominion included part only of the coast of this small island ;
while the Interior was held by independent mountain chiefs.

On my first excursion to the woods, at no great distance above the
village, I came upon the lair of a ‘mountaineer ;’ an impression left
on the herbage, by reclining to watch a small crop of upland taro.
The man had fled, and with the other mountaineers of the vicinity,
kept out of sight; having been forewarned, “ by putting the ear to the
ground,” of the approach of footsteps. Next to the indiscretion of
travelling alone in these islands, the visiter soon learns, not to precede
his guide.

148 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

I soon began to perceive the resemblance of the Feejeeans to La-
billardiere’s portraits of New Caledonians; and a further acquaint-
ance with the people, presented novelty at every step. Points con-
nected with their personal appearance, first arrested attention; as the
presence of wigs; and the variety of colours imparted to the hair.
Of these, the flaxen or ashy tint alone appeared to be the result of a
process of dyeing; while the coal-black and the red, were derived
from the mixture of foreign substances. Among a variety of fashions,
the men sometimes wore very numerous slender braids; and though I
saw nothing to justify the report, that “the Feejeeans count the sepa-
rate hairs,” the attentions bestowed on the head-dress occupy no in-
considerable portion of their lives.

The seeming absence of tattooing, was at first attributed to the
circumstance that the Feejee complexion is too dark to show the
markings conspicuously. It appeared, however, that the women have
the practice, and cover the markings by the dress. Ornament and
national designation, are in this case out of the question; and the
reasons assigned by the Feejeeans, are probably not more reliable
than their tales respecting circumcision and the removal of a finger-
joint. ‘Tattooing occurs among the modern Arabs, derived appa-
rently from certain nations of antiquity ; and there seems every pro-
bability, that the custom originated with a light-coloured race. The
question will acquire further interest, if it can be made to appear that
in this one instance the Feejeeans have borrowed a custom from the
Polynesians.

In many instances, the women were further marked on the arms
and upper part of the breast with elevated scars; such as have been
observed to replace tattooing in other countries where the complexion
is very dark. ‘These scars had sometimes the form of stars, or of con-
centric circles.

With the change in complexion, a change had taken place in
national taste in regard to colours; yellow, the favourite with the
Malayan race, giving place, among the Feejeeans, to vermilion-red.
White seemed in some measure a rival; for the lace-like tapa cover-
ing the hair of the men in the semblance of a turban, together with
the belt or sash completing their dress, were invariably white. By a
coincidence showing actual accordance with the complexion, red and
white, were subsequently found to be the favourite colours with the
equally dark Telingans of Hindostan; and were used almost exclu-
sively in the dress of those seen at Singapore. Another difference

Tia VRPALPsUeAY IN, Re ACE: 149

in Feejeean taste, consisted in an abatement of the excessive fondness
for flowers, which is manifested by the Polynesians.

Many differences from the Polynesians, involving even traits of cha-
racter, may be traced to another physical cause; to the harshness of
the skin. The Feejeean does not permit himself to be handled ; but
there is a mode by which the quality of the skin may be conveniently
examined. Indeed, I was often amused at the readiness with which
the people would present themselves to have their faces touched with
vermilion: the fears of the children would vanish, and grave-looking
dames and their haughty lords, would submit to and approve the
process.

The Feejeeans, again, unlike the Polynesians, rarely anoint them-
selves with cocoa-nut oil; but I saw this practised in one or two
instances. A woman of rank, who was awaiting the return of her
husband, had her face marked with irregular lines of clay. I heard
nothing of the practice of shampooing; though it is true, I did not
make particular inquiries on the subject. In caressing their children,
the Feejeeans agree with the Polynesians, in touching noses, and not
the lips.

The balance-beam is absent; and leaving aside the example of the
Polynesians, the circumstance will be found to tally with the practice
of the Hindoos and ancient Egyptians; for the Feejeean men are not
the regular carriers of burdens. The armlets (made of the outer rim
of the large Trochus), although worn by the men, offer also a seeming
connexion with the Hindoos and Arabs. I found the lobe of the ear
perforated, in both men and women, the opening being sometimes
enlarged to about an inch in diameter. The necklace of small shells,
was said to be “reserved for women of rank.” .

The Feejeeans practise a remarkable method of climbing cocoa
palms. By applying the soles of the feet to the stem, with a hand on
either side, they literally walk up on all fours: a feat which I have
never seen accomplished by persons of a different physical race.

In addition to the Polynesian implements of war, the Feejeeans use
a short missile club; which may be regarded as the national instru-
ment of assassination. ‘The men habitually wear one, stuck in the
belt behind. The bow is used in warfare by the Feejeeans; and they
have great skill in throwing the javelin; but their battles are princi-
pally decided by their favourite weapon, the large heavy club.

Among the musical instruments, one not previously seen, (but
well known in the East Indies,) the syrinx or Pipe of Pan, made its

38

150 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

appearance ; and the nose-flute was more common than among the Po-
lynesians. Indeed, we soon began to perceive, that the people were
in possession of almost every art known to the Polynesians, and of
many others besides. The highly finished workmanship, was unex-
pected ; everything being executed, until recently, and even now for
the most part, without the use of iron. In the collection of imple-
ments and manufactures brought home by the Expedition, the ob-
server will, I think, distinguish in the Feejeean division, something
like a school of arts for the other Pacific islands.

The origin of Polynesian circumcision, was now explained: and
various other customs, which had previously appeared unaccountable,
were found to rest on physical causes; having been extended abroad
by the process of imitation.

The personal aspect of the Feejeeans is unprepossessing. But all
residents concur in regarding them as ‘a far more ingenious people
than the Polynesians.” ‘They employ a greater variety of improve-
ments in domestic economy, are better cultivators, and are even more
skilful in the management of a canoe. In architecture, the Feejeeans
have made no mean progress; and they are the only people I have
seen, among those classed by Europeans as ‘savages,’ who manifested
a taste for the fine-arts; while, as with the ancient Greeks, this taste
was universal.

The esculent plants of the Polynesians, occur equally at the Fee-
jee Islands, and in general are cultivated in greater variety and _per-
fection. ‘he only apparent exceptions were: the batatas or sweet-
potato, which we did not meet with; the vi-apple (Spondias), heard
of in but one locality ; and the danana, as there seemed to be fewer
varieties of it than at Samoa. ‘To counterbalance these deficiencies,
roots and fruits unknown at the more eastern islands, made their ap-
pearance; and indeed, the number of cultivated plants is found to
increase with great regularity, on receding from the Hawaiian and
approaching the Feejee Islands.

Fish, in variety perhaps unexampled, are procured by the people of
the coast; and by means of numerous devices, among which the Sa-
moan method of frightening, was mentioned. Some of the Feejeean
nets and seines are of exceedingly neat workmanship; and others are
of coarse material, for capturing turtle. Shell-fish also exist in great
variety and profusion; and a peculiar large species of crab, abounds
in certain localities. A small whitish Holothuria, proof against other
than Feejeean powers of mastication, is sometimes used for food; but

2H ES PeASPLURAGN SRA) CoE, 151

this did not appear to be the case with the species of commerce, the
‘biche-le-mar.’ Fowls are abundant; but pigs and turtle, are re-
served for feasts. In times of scarcity, recourse is had to the large
Arum (C. macrorhiza), which is cultivated in certain localities; and
even to the fruit of the Bruguiera, a species of mangrove.

Dried squid (Octopus), were once met with; but otherwise I saw
no cured meats. Salt is readily obtained from sea-water, but the
Feejeeans use very little; and they uniformly manifested dislike on
tasting our salted provisions. Spirituous liquors do not meet with
more favour, although tobacco in one locality was making some slight
progress.

Cooking is not, as with the Polynesians, conducted exclusively by
the use of heated stones, and in the open air; but articles of food are
steamed rather than boiled, in earthen pots. Yams constitute the
principal support of the population; and are kept for months, in ele-
vated storehouses: a paste is likewise prepared from them, which re-
sembles the fermented bread-fruit of Taheiti, and in like manner “is
deposited in the ground.” ‘The Feejeeans have besides a variety of
compound dishes. They dwell in the midst of abundance; and it
has been truly remarked of them, that “no people in the South Seas
could live more comfortably and happily, but for their continual trea-
chery towards each other.”

On the 12th, I witnessed the landing of Tanoa, of Mbau, the most
powerful of the Feejee chiefs. The Levuka chief with a party of
attendants, were on the beach to receive him, and remained squatting
close to the ground, until he had passed by. It is the rule, when two
canoes meet, for the person of inferior rank to have the outrigger in a
particular position: and indeed, it will be difficult to find another na-
tion so observant of etiquette, as the Feejeeans.

On meeting with Captain Vanderford, Tanoa said, “that he himself
should not die while his old acquaintance was alive:” this supposed
union of destiny, being a common superstition with the Feejeeans.
Tanoa had formerly protected Captain Vanderford and his com-
panions, when wrecked at Mbau; but not to violate further the cus-
tom of the country, he connived at the robbery of all the property,
after it had been placed in his own house.

For the particulars of the reception of 'Tanoa on board the Vin-
cennes, [ must refer to the Narrative. I would add, however, that he
was at first disconcerted at the unusual display ; apparently dreading
some more substantial evil. He was also greatly astonished at the

152 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
noise of the cannon, and the effect of the shot upon the water; but
unlike his retinue, he manifested terror rather than approbation, and
at his request, the firing was discontinued. I remarked also, that
after some discussion among themselves, one of the natives set about
taking the dimensions of the Vincennes.

Tanoa’s life had been an eventful one; and owing apparently to
the regard for his personal character, he had been allowed to exceed
the usual limit of years. He had become, however, quite timid, and
with reason ; for in a country where natural death is scarcely arrived
at by the common people, the precarious state of royalty may be
imagined. Indeed, it was said, that his son at times, did not scruple
to remind him of the Feejeean privilege.

A general system of parricide, was a novel social institution; but
where the quantity of food is fixed, one result will be perceived to
follow; an increased proportion of persons in the prime of life, “ for
the service of the state.”

Every Feejee village has a sacred house or ‘mbure,’ constructed
with more care and more regard to architectural taste, than the ordi-
nary dwelling-houses. ‘The name shows a connexion with the ‘morais’
of the Polynesians. Women are excluded from the Feejee mbures ;
which are used by the men as places of public resort, and around
which they are often seen lounging. Strangers are entertained and
lodged, and kava-drinkings and feasts are held in these houses. It
was reported that on some occasions, a sort of ‘grace’ is sometimes
pronounced, and a great variety of toasts and compliments inter-
changed.

At Samoa, we had seen women only employed in the preparation
of kava; but here, the process “is conducted exclusively by the men.”
The kava-bowls are shallow, and of the same general pattern as the
Samoan, but are much larger and finer; indeed, they cost so much
labour, and are so highly valued, that it is no easy matter to procure
one. <A specimen is, however, contained in the museum at Salem.

‘There was also at Levuka, a small high-pointed building, some-
what conspicuous, which contained the Oracle. The Feejeeans pos-
sess a regular system of mythology. According to report, regard is
paid in the selection of their priests, to the capacity of maintaining
a voluntary fit of tremor; an instance of which feat, I witnessed.
Human sacrifices are not unknown, as was shown in an attempt by
some Mbau people, on the lives of two women near Levuka, to pro-
vide for “the consecration of a new mbure.”

THE PAPUAN RACE. 153

The ‘taboo’ is recognised; but I did not meet with any outward
tokens of its being in force. Indeed, from the settled character of the
Feejee institutions, and some difference in the division of landed pro-
perty, there would seem to be fewer occasions for its exercise than
among the Polynesians.

Everything relating to the procuring and preparing of food, except
in part the taking of fish, appeared to devolve upon the women;
and I often met them bearing (on the back) enormous loads of fire-
wood and yams. On the other hand, I do not remember to have seen
the men carrying burdens, unless when hired (through the chiefs) to
bring supplies of wood, water, and provisions, for trading vessels.
The men, however, exclusively manage the canoes, which, as well as
the houses, they also build; they construct the terraces for taro culti-
vation ; and engage in other details of agricultural industry. These
occupations, however, take up a comparatively small portion of their
time; and in reference to the prevalence of polygamy, I heard a resi-
dent declare, that the care of a Feejee household was “too much
hard work for one woman.” ‘This custom of the country may not be
so easily avoided: for as gifts when refused are destroyed, in the case
of the present of a wife, considerations of humanity will place a resi-
dent stranger in a dilemma.

European ideas of ‘loyalty’ make but a slight approach to the deep
feeling entertained by the Feejeeans towards their chiefs. In this, the
women appear even to exceed the men; and their devotion to the
chiefs was said to be so entire, “that they regard it as an honour to
receive death from their hands.” No point of difference from the
Polynesians, was so striking as this political change.

Leaving the Vincennes at Ovolau, the Peacock sailed for the island
of Viri-Levu; and on the 16th, reached the anchorage about six miles
below the town of Rewa.

Some English missionaries were established near Rewa. But the
ladies could never have anticipated the terrible sights they had been
compelled to witness at the Feejee Islands. Contrary to what takes
place in the other countries I have visited, the most experienced resi-
dents at these islands, invariably entertain the worst opinion of the
native character.

The missionaries were assisted, and to some extent protected, by
a body of converted Tonga men. ‘The field was most unpromising ;
and I saw but one converted Feejeean; whose motives, as he was

39

154 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

growing old, were not altogether free from suspicion. Mbau not being
included among the three mission stations at the Feejee Islands,
Tanoa, it was said, would not now receive a missionary unless arri-
ving from abroad.

Rewa appears to advantage when seen from the river on which it
is situated ; and we were astonished to find, in a country like this, so
considerable a town. After the house of the queen dowager, the most
conspicuous building was a high and much-ornamented monument,
erected on the spot where the late king was assassinated. ‘The dwell-
ing-houses usually rested on a basement, three or four feet in height,
constructed of angular stones laid without cement. ‘These had been
brought down the river; and timber-rafts also, were seen lying in front
of the town.

I visited Ngaraningiou’s house, the finest in the place, and which
was regarded “as on a par with any other at the Feejee Islands.” It
was built on the usual plan, and the increased labour had been chiefly
expended on the interior arrangements; the timbers being all covered
with a layer of rods (stems of the small sugar-cane), and each rod
coated with sinnet. ‘The mode of access, was that in common use,
by means of a plank, with cross-bars ; each of which is made to retain
a small quantity of water for cleansing the feet.

On the 20th, we took leave of Rewa; and proceeding down the
river, our boat stopped at a village where earthen-ware is extensively
manufactured. In a few moments after it became known that we
were desirous of purchasing some, a crowd gathered around us, with
such a superfluity of articles, that we were glad to conclude our
traffic, and escape from the noise and confusion. In the evening, the
boats all rejoined the Peacock.

We had become acquainted with the noted chief, Thokanauto (or
Phillips), who was very sportive and agreeable as a companion, and
who spoke English fluently. It was said, that he had also “some
knowledge of French and Italian, and that he manifested a desire to
learn every new language that he heard.” He had made a voyage to
Taheiti and back, in an American vessel; and unlike the other Fee-
jeeans, he had manifested in his house, some predilection for the
furniture and fashions of Kuropeans. He besides owned a small
schooner, which had been built by the resident Whites.

Thokanauto was ‘vasw’ of Mbau; his mother having been the
woman of highest rank in that district; and in consequence, he had
the privilege of appropriating therefrom whatever he fancied. Thus

THE PAPUAN RACE. 155

even T'anoa was obliged to send our present of a rifle, to a distant
part of the group, lest it should be seen and claimed by Thokanauto.
So absolute is this regulation, that on the occasion of a battle between
the Rewa and Mbau people, Thokanauto actually “supplied himself
with ammunition from the ranks of the enemy.”

It appears that there are several degrees in Feejeean warfare, cor-
responding, according to Thokanauto, to the force of the challenge ;
and only certain expressions of defiance are prosecuted to final exter-
mination. In describing one of his exploits in the Interior, he stated,
“that the river ran blood:” and from another source, we heard of a
battle in which “six hundred persons were slaughtered.” It was
evident, however, that in their frequent and bloody wars, the Fee-
jeeans are not influenced by views of extending their possessions,
according to the European idea of conquests.

Notwithstanding the slippery tenure of Feejee royalty, the honour
is sought with a devotion, perhaps unparalleled elsewhere. ‘“O yes,”
said Thokanauto, ‘‘me would like to be king; me would like to walk
about and say, do this thing, and do that.” The path was a very
plain one; and in extenuation it may be observed, that the institution
of polygamy virtually dissolves the ties of relationship.

A Feejeean king has no scruples in putting a subject out of the
way, even on the most trivial occasions: and Thokanauto gave as an
instance, the accidental “ breaking of a cup.”” We heard from another
source, that the executioner usually communicates his errand with a
harangue; and that the victim submits without resistance or attempt-
ing to escape, often simply remarking, that “ whatever the king says,
must be done.” ‘Thokanauto himself had been sometimes charged
with such commissions. He acknowledged having killed as many as
fifty persons with his own hands. On our explaining to him the rule
of European nations in regard to murder, he appeared surprised and
thoughtful for a time, and at length exclaimed, “ah! no good law, no
good.”

He stated that he had been ‘a very wicked boy,” and described
some of his juvenile pranks. He admitted that at the same period of
life, he had once unwittingly “tasted human flesh; his father after-
wards frightening him, by producing the hand.” Residents how-
ever asserted, that he had been reared in no inconsiderable degree
upon this species of food; and considering the unusual pains be-
stowed on his education, such a circumstance is not so improbable as
it may appear at a distance. One, who has had many opportunities

156 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

of forming a correct opinion, considered Thokanauto as being “in
reality a very cruel man; and as continuing to indulge in the national
propensity, although he now takes pains to conceal the fact from
Europeans.”

On the 21st, the king and queen of Rewa, together with Negara-
ningiou and Thokanauto, visited the Peacock. One of our survey-
flags having been stolen, the delinquent was now brought to us,
already, however, punished by the “deprivation of his house, lands,
wife, and all his property.” Residents thought, that the king was
probably “not unwilling to avail himself of an excuse to take the
property :” from which it may be inferred, that the regal authority is
not unlimited on this point; or at least, that it is exercised with some
discretion.

As is related in the Narrative of the Expedition, the royal family
were detained by Captain Hudson, until Veindovi should be given
up. ‘Thokanauto was apart from the others, when the drum beat to
quarters, but he at once showed signs of distrust. It was a severe
blow to his special interests, Veindovi being a partisan. He, how-
ever, put the best face on the matter, and made himself merry about
the alarm of the king and queen. A native selling a pig, for which
he was to receive a hatchet, Thokanauto said, “ Feejee man fool
White man, for the pig is not fat, but me fool Feejee man;” 1. e. by
taking the hatchet himself; but after a while, he returned it. Inter-
course with the shore being prohibited, one of the canoes alongside
got astray, and was on the point of receiving a shot, when it was re-
called with the aid of Thokanauto. ‘The two other royal brothers, it
was understood, acknowledged privately that “they were afraid of
Veindovi, and considered him their enemy.” Ngaraningiou was
despatched to bring him on board.

Some forty natives remained on board the Peacock; and in the
evening, under the direction of Thokanauto, they performed a dance,
singing in a monotonous tone, and keeping time by clapping hands;
according ‘to the well-known Arab custom. The Feejeeans have a
great variety of dances; some of them making an unexpected ap-
proach to a system of military tactics: and the children even, dance
with singular precision. Unlike the majority of the Polynesian
dances, only in a single instance did I witness one that was indecent.

On the following day, Veindovi was brought on board; and after a
long conversation with him, the king took leave. We had proposed
carrying ‘Thokanauto around the group, but he likewise went away,

THE PAPUAN RACE. 157

evidently a good deal disturbed. The parting of Veindovi from his
immediate adherents, was really affecting. They embraced his knees,
and some even offered to accompany him, which, for a Feejeean, is no
slight sacrifice.

Veindovi’s offence, was the murder of part of the crew of an Ame-
rican vessel, some years previous. According, however, to his own
version of the affair, he was deputed by higher authority ; which is not
at all unlikely. As an example of the Feejeean idea of justice, I will
mention, that subsequently on our arrival at Oahu, Veindovi expressed
penitence; declaring, “that he perceived, what he had never before
believed, that White men had told him the truth about the houses
and customs of civilized countries; and he intended therefore, on his
return to the Feejee Islands, to put to death all those persons who had
assisted him in killing the Whites.”

The Feejeeans, according to the testimony of residents, are yearly
becoming bolder and more dangerous in their schemes for capturing
vessels. When successful, the lives of the crew are sacrificed; and
it is highly imprudent, under present circumstances, for an unarmed
ship to venture among the Feejee Islands. In seeking to accomplish
their purposes, natives have been known, during a stormy night, to
climb up the cables of a vessel at anchor. In the recent capture of a
French brig, the principal allurement was said to have been, “the
sight of some glass decanters.”

On the 23d, a Hawaiian came on board, to act as barber to Vein-
dovi. He had been sent by Thokanauto; who placed in his hands
the sum of ten dollars, with which to make purchases in America;
and the articles wanted, were very particularly specified. This man,
was subsequently transferred to a different vessel, and being thus
separated from Veindovi, he concluded not to leave the Feejee Islands.

The Peacock sailed on the morning of the 23d; and we were for
some time in sight of Kanravu; but being becalmed, the intention of
touching there was finally abandoned. We next passed near Vatu-
LELE ; which presented every appearance of a raised coral island; not
so high as Metia, but resembling it on a smaller scale.

On the 26th, the Peacock entered the great barrier reefs, on the
leeward side of the group; and we obtained a view of the island of
Melolo; which was soon afterwards the seat of a tragedy. Our pilot
stated, that the inhabitants of this and the other Asava islands,

“spoke a different dialect from the remaining Feejeeans, with whom
40

158 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

they were at enmity.” The Sinbad-like story of a gigantic bird, was
likewise referred to the Asaua islands.

The Peacock now sailed for some hundreds of miles behind these
reefs, along a narrow passage close to the rocky shores of the two
main islands; keeping always, in the leeward portion of the group.
The face of the country in this portion, is in great part bare of trees ;
and there is less rain than in situations exposed to the southeast
trades. We first coasted Viri-LEvu; where the villages perched
everywhere on the hill-tops, plainly indicated the social condition of
the district.

Our boats landed a few miles from Mba; but the town was con-
cealed by mangroves; it being evidently situated at the mouth of a
considerable stream. We saw no natives; but in consequence of the
bad character of the neighbourhood, we did not extend our walks far
from the beach.

On the Ist of June, the boats landed at an islet connected with the
main land by a shelf of coral ; over which a party of natives were seen
retreating. We remained on shore for some hours, and made consi-
derable additions to our botanical collections.

On the 2d, the boats landed at a detached islet, not far from the
town of Rake-rake. At the summit, we found remains of trenches
and stone-work, similar to those subsequently seen on the islet
near Muthuata. On descending through some open ground, we
found ourselves suddenly sinking in marshes; and it appeared on
further examination, that the tract was artificially terraced, and had
been once appropriated to the culture of taro. ‘The whole vicinity
had been desolated by the Mbau people. Its present inhabitants bore
the character of being “extremely civil.” Some six or eight of them
visited us.

The boats landed at another detached islet, situated near the usual
point of departure from Viti-levu. ‘This islet likewise contained aban-
doned plantations ; showing that it had once been inhabited.

On the 5th, the Peacock crossed over to VANUA-LEVU, the second
principal island; and anchored in Mbua or Sandalwood Bay. During
our stay, I visited repeatedly the two fortified villages, situated on the
middle stream emptying into the bay. ‘They had strong palisades
and low gateways, but the ditch did not appear to be planted with
stakes ; as in some Feejee fortifications.

THE PAPUAN RACE. 159

The canoes “ having been chiefly destroyed during the war” which
was pending, none made their appearance about the ship. ‘The con-
tending parties were a father and son, who, to outward appearance,
were reconciled by Captain Hudson; although, as it proved, his in-
tervention did not lead to any permanent result.

On the 11th, the Peacock left Mbua Bay, continuing along the
coast of Vanua-levu, and came to anchor in the passage separating the
considerable island of Anganga. The natives of this vicinity sustain
a bad character; but one of our boats had some communication with
them.

On the 12th, the Peacock reached Naloa. Captain Kagleston, in the
ship Leonidas of Salem, was here engaged in the diche-le-mar fishery.
The groundwork of success in this occupation, appears to be the hardi-
hood of the Feejeeans in diving; a point in which they excel even
the Polynesians. A large drying-house must be built at each fishing
station. And the management of the natives, who may work or not
as they happen to be in the humour, independent of interruptions
from frequent wars and outrages, affords ample scope for the exercise
of tact and prudence. Add to this, the state of watchfulness that
must be kept up for months; and the conversion of the labour of
such a population to general purposes of utility, will demand a place
among the most remarkable triumphs of Commerce.

Whale teeth are extravagantly valued at the Feejee Islands; and
may be regarded as in some respects representing the precious metals.
Purchases may be made with them; but they hardly form a ‘cur-
rency,’ since it is unsafe for a person not of the class of chiefs to re-
tain one. What becomes of the great quantities brought here by
traders, 1s a problem yet unsolved. Whales are common among the
Feejee Islands; and it seems remarkable that a people so ingenious,
should not, like the tribes of the Northern shores of the Pacific, have
devised some method of capturing them.

I visited the village, at a little distance from the coast; and on the
way, I observed some basaltic columns, from which the earth had
been removed for the purpose of quarrying them. ‘The undertaking
will appear of some importance, when it was considered, that beasts of
burden and all mechanical contrivances for assisting transportation,
are unknown. An old bridge, about two hundred feet in length,
consisted of a single line of cocoa trunks, supported by a pile or post
at each point of junction.

At another village, built on the islet near the anchorage, young

160 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

women were seen bearing bamboo stems, on their way to procure
water: this was drawn up from an excavation like a well, about
ten feet in depth, by means of a cocoa-nut shell fastened to a pole.
Other women were employed in pottery; working altogether by hand,
but making large vessels of great regularity in size and shape: the
resin of a species of Dammara, closely allied to the Kauri of New Zea-
land, was used for glazing. Some twenty canoes were lying on the
beach ; forming the largest fleet met with at the Feejee Islands. I
returned from the islet in one of these canoes, with a rapidity une-
qualled by European sailing vessels, the outrigger being lifted above
the water sometimes for a distance of fifty yards.

On visiting the Leonidas, I met with the solitary instance of a Fee-
jeean, who was really and generally esteemed by traders. It ap-
peared that an unfortunate “native from another district, who came
to assist in procuring biche-le-mar, had been waylaid at night:” fish-
ing operations were in consequence at an end, and Captain Eagleston
had concluded to quit the station.

On the 17th, the Peacock left Naloa. In sailing along the coast,
fires were frequently observed on the hills; having been kindled, it
was said, “for burning over the grounds, as the season had now
arrived for planting yams.”

On the 19th, the Peacock reached Muthuata; one of the most im-
portant of the Feejee towns. Owing to the close vicinity of the high-
lands, the mountaineers make frequent visits to this part of the coast.
And in reference to the character of the natives, the district was re-
garded by traders as one of the worst in the whole group.

In front of the town, we saw some turtle-pens; which were shallow
pits formed within the flow of the tide, and surrounded with stakes.
The cattle brought from Taheiti about five years previously, by Cap-
tain Eagleston, were still remaining. ‘The location seemed a more
favourable one for cattle, than any part of the windward or rainy side
of the group; but I remarked an unlooked-for obstacle, in the aro-
matic properties of some of the most abundant grasses.

On the 24th, I set out with a party, to ascend the heights, under
the guidance of one of the Rotuma men; and we were joined by
other inhabitants of Muthuata, who took advantage of this oppor-
tunity of visiting, to them a new country. Before entering the ham-
let of mountaineers, situated about half way up, our guide warned us
to have our fire-arms in readiness. We however met with a friendly
reception; but there was some unexpected difficulty even here, in

Se

THE PAPUAN RACE. 161

finding a person who could direct us to the summit. We at last
reached a position near it; and ascertained the height to be about
twenty-three hundred feet.

On the 25th, I visited the village which is situated in a low and
fertile spot, about two miles back of Muthuata. I was conducted
to a house, where dinner happened to be ready; consisting in this
instance, of arrow-root made from the T’acca; and using as a spoon a
slip of cocoa leaf, according to the fashion of the country, I partook
of Feejee hospitality.

On another day, Mr. Peale and myself, took a ramble along the
coast to the westward; passing in the first place, through the banana
plantation, which as usual, appeared to be carried on by the joint
labour of the village. We proceeded about two miles to a small
stream ; where some natives, having formed dams, were engaged in
poisoning the fish with the stems of the climbing Glycine. Our Fee-
jee guide would not suffer us to taste the water. I was desirous of
purchasing some of the fish, of a woman who was standing a little
apart; but, as was usual with the women when away from the villages,
she took to flight at our approach. We returned by an inland route ;
stopping at a cluster of three or four houses, into one of which we
were invited, and were offered yams. Our guide, it appeared after-
wards, had looked to us for protection in this excursion.

In a country where there is hardly an interchange of friendly
visits, and where it is often a hazardous thing to go to the nearest
village, it may well be supposed that the inhabitants do not travel
much. Geographical knowledge is therefore extremely limited; and
I can readily give credence to the allegation, “that many persons on
the larger Feejee islands are quite unaware of the existence of the
ocean.” In this particular, there is a wide difference from the Poly-
nesians, who have universally a thorough acquaintance with their
respective groups.

On the 30th, an excursion was made to another portion of the
heights, whence a view was obtained of the Interior of the island; a
region full of mountains, with some sharp peaks that appeared to be
not less than four thousand feet in elevation. In returning, our party
passed through another hamlet of mountaineers, and we were invited
into one of the houses. The male inhabitants were absent at the
time, engaged, it was said, in ‘cooking a man;” a statement which,
although it was not doubted, we did not feel particularly desirous of
verifying.

41

162 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

On the Ist of July, the Peacock sailed from Muthuata, retracing
her previous course. Many on board, finding the natives in their
deportment always “timid and obliging,” began to have doubts as to
their reputed character; and even their cannibalism, was called in
question, in a discussion the same evening. We might have returned
home with conflicting opinions on this point; but on the following
morning, they who had refused to believe, were made to see; and as
we were repassing Naloa, an incident occurred, for the particulars
of which I must refer to the Narrative.

On the 5th, the Peacock re-entered Mbua or Sandalwood Bay; and
the Vincennes arrived there a few hours afterwards. The weather,
up to this date, had been invariably fine; but a change now ensued,
and it continued stormy and rainy for several days.

On the 12th, news was received of the seizure of one of our boats,
at a place about twenty miles distant; and two natives, who had deli-
vered themselves up on the occasion, were brought on board the Vin-
cennes. While a party was getting ready for the scene of action,
Tui Mora proffered his assistance, and proposed “to carry the big
guns by land.”

On revisiting the two fortified villages, I was surprised at the ad-
vance in the season, during our five weeks absence, as shown by the
various wild shrubs that had come into flower. In the cultivated
ground, the banana plants had been stripped of their leafy portions
and the old stocks had been grubbed up; while the soil had in great
part been burned over.

Formerly, according to Captain Vanderford, “this neighbourhood
was in a much more flourishing condition ; when the whole district
was ruled by the father of the present king. ‘The Feejee Islands,
within his experience, had been generally depopulated, and a marked
diminution had taken place in the number of canoes; but the inhabi-
tants were always in a state of war.”

In my previous visits to the two villages, I had been at some pains
to make acquaintances; and I was therefore surprised at meeting with
no marks of recognition. ‘This, with a single exception, was every-
where the result of a few days absence. From the terms on which
the Feejeeans live together, it is hardly to be expected that friendship
should exist among them; and indeed, I did not witness any mani-
festations of it.

Where parricide is an established custom, all affection may at first
seem questionable; but the institution in reality, is a sacrifice in favour

q

THE PAPUAN RACE, 163

of the children; towards whom, we often remarked various proofs of
strong attachment. Feejeean society is highly artificial; and a more
intimate acquaintance with the people, will doubtless show less varia-
tion than at first appears, from the common attributes of the human
character. One piece of romance was hardly anticipated: according
to Veindovi, “‘ when two fall in love, and the young man, from poverty,
is unable to make the accustomed present to the parents of his inten-
ded bride, the lovers will run away ;” an undertaking, which at the
Feejee Islands, is rather serious.

Among the Polynesians we had been everywhere importuned by
individuals desiring to be taken on board, to go they knew not
whither; but after entering the present group, we were entirely free
from such applications. On sometimes speaking with Feejeeans on
the subject, it did not appear to be an easy matter to persuade them
to leave their homes. Captain Vanderford stated, “that he never
knew one of them to become a sailor, and that he had invariably found
them useless on shipboard.” In all which, there appears something
beyond the mere result of institutions.

Another difference from the Polynesians, is found in the existence
of strong national pride. ‘The Feejeeans are fully persuaded that their
own institutions are superior to those of other countries; and are dis-
inclined to adopt foreign customs.

On the 17th, Mr. Brackenridge and myself, set out on an excursion
to a ridge of mountains, about seven miles back of the watering
place. ‘Tui Mora appointed two guides to accompany us; the route
being through a district that was under his authority. At the base of
the mountains, we found scattered houses and plantations; and other
unexpected indications of a peaceful neighbourhood. Half way up,
we came to a cluster of three or four houses, belonging apparently to
mountaineers; and after speaking to the chief, we went on, at first
through open grounds, which had been burned over, and completed
the ascent. The summit appeared to be about two thousand feet in
elevation; but owing to the rainy weather, we were unable to get a
distant view in any direction.

We descended by a more direct route; but before reaching the bay,
night came on, and we began to feel some anxiety about our situation.
Tui Mora, returning with his party from the watering place, re-
lieved us; and we all took the path leading to a village that occupied
a strong military position; being surrounded by a morass and deep

164 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

water-channels. ‘These were crossed on a pole placed horizontally
nearly a foot beneath the surface of the water; and to a White man,
were passable only in one mode, astride the neck of a Feejeean. A
woman had been gathering shellfish among the mangroves; and on
our arrival at the village, the product of her industry was brought to
us, together with yams. We passed the night in a small house, with
the chief and one or two of his men; and in the morning, we re-
turned to the watering place.

It has been asserted, that a European “knowing the language,
could travel throughout the Feejee Islands, provided that he carried
nothing to tempt the cupidity of the natives; that he would be every-
where hospitably entertained, and would fare as well as the people
themselves.” A European would doubtless have many advantages
over a native in such an undertaking; but I did not hear that any
one had made the trial. I was informed, however, that the journey
had been “once made by land, from Mbua Bay to Naloa.”

On the 20th, Mr. Waldron, Mr. Brackenridge, and myself, accom-
panied by a European interpreter, set out on a visit to the sandalwood
district. We suppled ourselves with provisions, being forewarned
of the necessity of it by Tui Mbua; who further stated, that “it was
more than ten years since a White man had been at his village, and
that we should be objects of some curiosity.” We were conveyed in
his canoe; for he still had command of the water, and was thus ena-
bled to keep up a communication with the disjointed portions of his
former dominions.

After proceeding among the mangroves, more than a mile up the
northern stream, we landed at a place where Tui Mbua’s “ former
town was situated ;” but being hemmed in by the defection of his
own people, he had been forced to remove to the summit of a high
rocky knoll, about two miles inland.

After reaching the existing village, and resting awhile, we proposed
making an excursion into the country beyond; and ‘Tui Mbua ap-
pointed two natives to accompany us. We had scarcely proceeded
a hundred yards, before our guides pointed to another rock-village,
less than a mile distant; and it appeared that there were enemies,
even in this direction. Turning to the right, we were led through
one or two small plantations, and over some diversified ground, where
we added to our botanical collections. ‘Towards evening, we re-
ascended to the village by a different route.

THE PAPUAN RACE. 165

We were afterwards entertained with a dance, and passed the night
at the mbure house. Our previous acquaintance with Tui Mbua,
had created an interest in his personal character and his misfortunes ;
and we could not avoid a feeling of sympathy, on taking leave of his
dreary abode upon the top of a rock, and of his people reduced for sub-
sistence, as a last resort, to the fruit of the mangrove.

On the 29th, the Vincennes sailed from Mbua Bay, and being fa-
voured by the wind, anchored in the evening at Naloa; and I was
enabled to revisit the two villages. ‘The breeze continuing, we ar-
rived, on the 30th, at Muthuata. News here reached us, by one of
our survey-boats, of the murder at Melolo of two of our officers, Mr.
Underwood and Mr. Henry. For the particulars, I must refer to the
Narrative.

On the 4th of August, I went on board the Leonidas, in company
with Captain Vanderford. We found here a young chief, whom he
had formerly confined on board ship, as a prisoner; but the meeting
was frolicsome, and without any manifestation of a sense of injury.

The Squadron having reassembled at Muthuata, we sailed on the
9th; and on the following day, we reached Mali. On the 11th, we
passed through the reefs that had so long hemmed us in, and once
more welcomed the bounding waves and the free ocean atmosphere.
Our stay nevertheless had been instructive; for however well versed
a person may regard himself in the knowledge of mankind, a visit to
the Feejee Islands will bring new ideas.

In regard to the diseases, 1 met with the same set as among the
neighbouring Polynesians; though perhaps in somewhat fewer in-
stances. Ophthalmia, with the loss of at least one of the eyes, was
frequent: an instance was observed of the loss of the nose; also, seve-
ral cases of cedematous or dropsical leg; and a few hump-backs. One
lad at Muthuata, was very much deformed; but being unwilling to
show himself, I got only an accidental glimpse of him; I was in-
terested, however, in finding that the Feejeeans do not destroy these
unfortunates. In cases of wounds, an extraordinary method of blood-
letting is sometimes practised; a slender instrument of bone being
passed into the urethra, and thence outwards through the perineum.

The half-breeds between the Polynesians and I*eejeeans, were pre-
cisely intermediate in their personal appearance; only in some in-
stances, the complexion was not strikingly lighter than in the Fee-
jeeans. The half-breeds between the Whites and [eejeeans, differed

42

166 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

from mulattoes not only in the expression of countenance, but in the
hair ; which so far as observed, was hardly distinguishable from that
of Europeans. I thought at first that they had not a thriving appear-
ance, but this had not been remarked by residents. They, like the
Feejee children, are very generally subject to the ‘dthoke ;’ a peculiar
eruptive disease, which for a time disfigures them exceedingly ; but
after getting through, they were said to be healthy enough. The
same affection to all appearance, has been mentioned in the accounts
of the more western groups; but so far as at present known, it does
not extend beyond the islands inhabited by the Papuan race.

The alleged non-susceptibility of the syphilitic virus, must rest on
the authority of residents. ‘These likewise asserted, that the women
live apart during child-bearing until the period of weaning; a fact
having an important bearing on the existence of polygamy. On the
other hand, it was said, that in war-time, the men will sometimes re-
main separate from their wives for years together.

The son of the Muthuata chief was found to be nearsighted, a
novelty to us, among the natives of the South Sea islands; though
examples of the opposite fault of vision had been remarked in
elderly Polynesians. He was greatly surprised at the improvement
produced by spectacles; which were now first made known to the
Feejeeans. The Muthuata queen was disposed to corpulency, a rare
circumstance among the Feejeeans. I did not meet with an instance
of a defective tooth.

At Rewa, I saw a dwarf, who had been carried to the United States;
but the disparity in stature was not very remarkable; and an ordinary
Feejeean would probably have excited more curiosity. I have also
heard of a lad who was brought to the United States; but he was
soon sent away; and I did not ascertain his subsequent history.

Several Albinoes were enumerated by residents ; and I am inclined
to think that they occur more frequently in the Papuan race, than in
any other. I saw one of them; aman, whose complexion was even
fairer than that of Kuropeans when equally exposed to the sun, but
was not free from brownish specks. ‘The iris was blue, without any
perceptible tinge of red; and he had his brows always knit, as if
affected by the light. The hair was not white, but flaxen; and on
my second visit, he had changed it to coal-black, according to the
fashion of the country, and made a very odd appearance. An excel-
lent portrait of him was taken by Mr. Agate.

In other parts of the globe, instances of cannibalism have oc-

TER Pra PeUrAN RACE: 167

curred, sometimes from extreme necessity, or as a deed of savage fero-
city ; and we read of tribes who practise it as a ceremony, religious
rite, or even as a manifestation of-affection. At the Feejee Islands,
the custom rests on different grounds. It is here interwoven in the
elements of society; it forms in no slight degree a pursuit; and
it is even regarded in the light of a refinement. Instances are of
daily occurrence ; and the preparation of human flesh, calls into re-
quisition a variety of culinary processes, and is almost a distinct art.
There are, however, degrees in the practice, in different parts of the
group; and some revolting details were given, which, it seems hardly
worth while to repeat.

In common with arts and attainments, the traces of cannibalism
existing among the Polynesians, have appeared to me referable to a
Feejeean source. And it is an interesting circumstance, that this
practice should not have acquired general and permanent foothold
among a people so easily influenced by example. In passing through
the Polynesian Groups, I made special inquiries on the subject ; and
this seems a suitable place for recording the result.

At the Samoan Islands, according to the missionaries, “the natives
had never been cannibals, in the proper acceptation of the term;
but human flesh had been sometimes tasted in the wars, as an act of
vengeance.”

At New Zealand, the existence of cannibalism was denied by those
who were most intimately acquainted with the natives; and notwith-
standing some authentic instances on record, I was satisfied that there
had been much exaggeration on the subject.

At Tongataboo, the missionaries stated, that “the natives strenu-
ously deny having ever committed acts of cannibalism; and that they
are offended at the charge.’ But one of the missionaries thought
that nevertheless, there had been a few instances. ‘The amount
of Tonga cannibalism, may indeed be gathered from the work of
Mariner.

Cannibalism was certainly once practised at the Hawaiian Islands ;
not by the community generally, but rather, it would seem, by a class
of outlaws. According to the Hawaiian lady so often quoted, “persons
travelling singly, or even two in company, were sometimes waylaid ;
and their flesh was cooked in stone vessels having somewhat the form
of jars.” The latter circumstance, differing so essentially from the
_ usual Polynesian cookery, together with the ‘necklaces of human

168 PHYSICAL HiUSWORW “OmeiMAN:

teeth worn by the Hawaiians in former times,” have appeared to me
to point distinctly towards a Feejee origin.

From the concurrent testimony of visiters, it would appear, that
cannibalism is more frequent at the Marquesas than at the other
Polynesian groups; and likewise, that it is carried on there, more in
accordance with the customs of the Feejeeans.

OTHER PAPUANS.

Of the two natives, brought to the United States by Captain Mor-
rell, about the year 1833, one probably belonged to the Papuan race.
[ have a clear recollection of his large stature, stout limbs, and crisp
hair; and I think I can recall in some measure his features, which
were rather good-humoured than impressive. It would seem from
the account given by Jacobs,* that he came from the vicinity of the
ApMIRALTY Group; but from a separate island from his companion.

Mr. Hadley, of Wenham, on visiting BoucainvitLE Isianp, found
the natives to be “much the same sort of people as the Feejeeans,
except that they were in a ruder condition. They were fully as

large, and their complexion he thought was blacker. The men were.

entirely naked. They brought off sugar-cane in their canoes; which
were much more roughly made than those of the Feejee Islands. In
the course of much experience, the Feejeeans were the only ‘savage
people’ he had ever met with, who would give reasons, and with
whom it was possible to hold a connected conversation.”

Captain Jackson, of Salem, spoke of “the inhabitants of the east
coast of New GuInea, as being a very large set of men, soot-headed,
and resembling the natives of Bougainville Island.” Indeed, the
“huge black men” of Dampier, and those described by Sonnerat as
having a “hard and rough skin,” can, I think, be only referred to the
Papuan race.

To the same race, | would refer the natives of New Caneponta;
judging from the figures of them by Labillardiere. That of the
‘woman’ in particular, even to the attitude and dress, is eminently
characteristic of the personal appearance of the Feejee women. The
Vincennes visited Hunter Island; which is near the southeast end of
New Caledonia, but is too unimportant to be inhabited.

* Adventures in the Pacific Ocean. New York, 1844,

|

=

AE, Hie RASPAUEAL INE RAC. Et: 169

The Papuan race may thus be traced with tolerable certainty, from
the Feejee Islands to the shores of New Guinea. The population
appears to be everywhere dense; and to be divided as at the Feejee
Islands, into two classes that are politically independent, the fisher-
men or people of the coast, and the mountaineers. The practice of
cannibalism seems also coextensive with the race; while the sur-
rounding islanders, though often in a less advanced state of society,
as generally hold it in horror.

The Papuan race appears also to extend through a portion of the
East India islands; but it probably does not occur to the west-
ward of Fioris, or Ende. Dr. Dickenson “had seen some natives
of Floris, who came in a proa to Macassar;” and he did not at first
recognise in Veindovi the least similitude; but was less positive on
being informed that Veindovi’s mode of wearing the hair erect, was
in part artificial.

We read of a class of unmanageable ‘“ blacks, who have been some-
times taken with other slaves to the Philippines ;” and all the attend-
ant circumstances seem to indicate the Papuan race.

Mr. Jenkins, of the English mission in the Tamul country, “was
once reading to some Hindoos, Dillon’s account of the Feejee Islands;
when his auditors became greatly interested, perceiving that the same
description of people had been mentioned in their sacred books.
They were indeed spoken of in these books rather as a species of
demon, but they were clearly designated, and their geographical posi-
tion, ‘far in the Southeast,’ was lkewise indicated.” All which,
may be compared with the intercourse, known to have existed from
ancient times with the Molucca Islands.

Notwithstanding the various remarkable coincidences in customs,
as the use of the neck-pillow, circumcision, similar modes of dressing
the hair, even to the staining of it of a flaxen hue, the Papuan race
does not appear to exist in Kastern Africa. At Zanzibar, I met with
two or three individuals of mixed race, who somewhat resembled
Feejeeans; but the softness of the skin, at once marked the absence of
true affinity.

CHAPTER VII.

THE NEGRILLO RACE.

Tue Negrillo race, has much the same complexion as the Papuan ;
but differs in the diminutive stature, the general absence of a beard,
the projecting of the lower part of the face or the inclined profile, and
the exaggerated Negro features.

The hair also, is more woolly than in the Papuan, though far from
equalling in knotty closeness that of the Negro. On a direct compa-
rison with the Negro, I have observed that the complexion appears
to be rather red than black.

For characteristic figures of Negrilloes, I would refer to that given
in Crawfurd’s Indian Archipelago; to the portrait by Choris, of the
girl of Luzon, which may be compared with another, taken likewise
at Manila by Mr. Agate; and to that of the Aramanga lad, by Mr.
Drayton.

NEW HEBRIDES.

One day, at ‘Tongataboo, I observed as I supposed, a Negro lad
sporting in the midst of a group of native children. I should perhaps
have thought nothing of the circumstance, had I not been told by a
resident, that he was a native of the island of ARamanea. It ap-
peared, that ‘““he had been brought in a trading vessel, about ten
years previous.” My informant, who was on board the vessel, stated,
“that the object of the voyage was, to cut sandalwood ; but so much
opposition was experienced from the natives, that after obtaining a
little, the enterprise was abandoned. Beards were rare at Ara-
manga.”

On invitation, the lad subsequently came on board the Vincennes,
bringing a little present of fruit; and I was thus enabled to examine

OS. Eaploring Expedition. The NIG GARILLO Race. PL VM

An Aramanga lad.

THE NEGRILLO RACE. 171

his features more particularly. The forehead was remarkably re-
treating, with a horizontal sulcus or furrow, and the lower part of the
face was very prominent; the lips were thick; the nose, hardly as
broad as in the Negro, and the eyes, though small and deeply sunk,
were very lively; the cheeks were thin, and the limbs slender, with
the calf of the leg high. Notwithstanding his orang features, the
countenance was very pleasing, and he seemed unusually active and
intelligent. Having been brought away when a child, he had for-
gotten every word of his native language. It was reported of him,
that at night, instead of seeking like his companions, the protection of
houses, he resorted ‘‘to the sea-shore, and buried himself in the sand.”

Captain Vanderford once visited Aramanga; and in circumnaviga-
ting it, “attempted at various points to open communication with the
natives; but he could get nothing from them, except a spear or a
stone. They were the most singular-looking people he ever beheld ;
and appeared to him rather like monkeys than men.” ‘The last ex-
pression, will be found to be nearly identical with the terms used by
Forster, in speaking of another island of the same group.

While the Squadron was at Sydney, news arrived, that the Rev.
John Williams had been killed by the natives of Aramanga. The fol-
lowing particulars were communicated by Mr. Cunningham, who was
present on the occasion. ‘The party first landed on Tanna, an island
in a high state of cultivation; where they were received in a friendly
manner: the inhabitants spoke a language much lke that of the
Hervey Islanders, so that the missionaries were enabled to make
themselves understood.”

“ After leaving some of the Samoan assistants, the missionaries
next proceeded to Aramanga; which, although at so short a distance,
proved to be uncultivated and barren. It was also inhabited by a dif-
ferent race of men; who were black, and had woolly hair; and whose
language they were totally unable to comprehend. ‘The natives
seemed suspicious from the beginning, but made no hostile demon-
strations; and the missionaries,” who, it should be observed, had
been accustomed to the habits of the Polynesians, “landed, and
amused themselves with picking up shells and pebbles along the
beach. They had strolled some distance from the boat, before the
attack commenced ; which, although apparently not preconcerted,
soon became general, with arrows, spears, and stones.”

Forster expresses himself as having been much surprised at the

172 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

behaviour of the people of Matixoto, (a third island of the same
group); and it will appear the more extraordinary to one familiar
with the usual deportment of the islanders of the Pacific. “They
came on board, and climbed up the rigging to the mast-head. And
at dark, they procured torches, and continued about the ship till mid-
night. They were the most zntelligent people we had seen in the
South Seas. They coveted everything, but did not repine at a re-
fusal. They had curiosity enough to learn our language, which they
pronounced with great accuracy; and set about teaching us their
own.” ‘True, however, to the character of the race elsewhere, they
expressed unwillingness for the continuance of the acquaintance.
From the remainder of Forster’s account it may be inferred, that the
island is thickly peopled, like others in the vicinity; and that the in-
habitants cultivate the soil, dwell in cabins, have the same useful
plants and animals as the Polynesians, and construct canoes, though
of indifferent workmanship.

NITENDI GROUP.

Of all writers, D’Urville appears to have enjoyed the best opportu-
nities for becoming acquainted with the Negrilloes of the Pacific ;
and principally at Vanikoro, the scene of the shipwreck of La
Perouse. I must refer to his account, published in the Voyage of
the Astrolabe; citing only one remarkable peculiarity, that of “ wars
being carried on by the people of different districts, while the chiefs
remain friends.”

SOLOMON ISLANDS.

This group, which is sometimes called New Georgia, was visited
by D’Urville, in his recent voyage; and he ascertained, that the prin-
cipal island is inhabited by the race under consideration. The bows
and arrows from New Georgia, presented to our Expedition, are
scarcely distinguishable from those of the Feejee Islands.

THE NEGRILLO RACE. 173

NEW GUINEA.

The Malays at Singapore, have a few Negrillo slaves; who, how-
ever, might readily recover their freedom, were they sufficiently well-
informed to take advantage of the laws. I met with three of them;
and notwithstanding an air of contentment, they seemed to be rather
passing with the crowd than belonging to it. Their stature was
dwarfish, even amidst the surrounding population. ‘Their com-
plexion was not darker than in the Telingans of Eastern Hindostan.
One individual had the mouth unusually wide; and in all three the
features were coarser than in the Negro race; the forehead being
more retreating, and the lower part of the face yet more projecting.

According to the missionaries, the Malays uniformly declare, “that
this class of people come from Papua (or New Guinea), and are
brought by the Bugis.” Dr. Dickenson had visited 'Tidore ; where
‘he had witnessed the common importation of this description of
slaves, together with birds of Paradise, direct from New Guinea.”
These statements being somewhat at variance with other accounts of
the population of New Guinea, seem to call for further remark.

We learn from Forrest, that commercial intercourse takes place
across the western peninsula of New Guinea, by means of the deep
gulf or inlet: and further, that slaves are brought to the harbour of
Dory from the eastward. The accounts obtained by Morrell and
Jacobs, of the population of the Interior of New Guinea, and the
discovery by them of a large river emptying into Geelvink Bay, may
probably furnish the required explanation.

It appears further, that proas occasionally visit the harbour of Dory,
situated near the entrance of Geelvink Bay ; and this seems to form
the proper eastern limit of the navigation of the East Indians.

LUZON,

Negrilloes inhabit the mountains in various parts of Luzon; and
even it was said, those at the entrance of the bay of Manila. So far
as I could learn, they are an inoffensive people. Nevertheless, some
asserted, that the Malay “ buffalo-hunters do not scruple to shoot
them like wild game, when they chance to meet one in the woods.”

44

7A! PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Negrillo children are sometimes caught and held in slavery; but
when “they attain the age at which the Spanish laws set them free,
they, with but a single known exception, return to the woods.”

After some inquiry, a Negrillo slave-girl was found at Manila;
who in physical race, was identified by Mr. Drayton with the Ara-
manga lad. I was absent at the time in the Interior; and I did not
meet with any of the Negrilloes of the Philippines.

At the mission of Mayjayjay, Father Aranda communicated the
unexpected intelligence: that “the Negrilloes of Luzon do not pos-
sess a peculiar language, but use the ‘Tagala; that they have houses
and villages; and that individuals will sometimes come into the settle-
ments and labour for a few days, until they have earned some trifling
sum; when they will again retire to the mountains.”

SOOLOO.

I saw a Negrillo at the capital of Sooloo; a young man, who was
probably a native of the island; and who bore the marks of mixed
descent.

According to Hunt, the aboriginal Negrilloes were on a former
occasion “chiefly instrumental in driving out the Spaniards. They
hold the mandates of the Sultan in high respect; and continue on
friendly terms, while the other Interior people are at open war with
him: and,” what I have never heard of any other branch of the
race, ‘they are converts to Islamism.”

OTHER NEGRILLOES.

The Andaman islanders, from the concurrent accounts, may be
referred to the Negrillo race; which seems also to be present in the
Malayan Peninsula; if not in Sumatra. On the other hand, Dr.
Dickenson heard nothing of Negrilloes in Borneo: they appear to
be equally absent from Celebes and Mindanao, where the Interior is
occupied by Harafora tribes; and from Java, where the population
is comparatively advanced. Indeed, the geographical distribution
sufficiently indicates, that the Negrillo race once occupied more
space than it does at this time; and that in many instances it has
preceded the dissemination of other races.

CHAPTER VIII.

THE TELINGAN OR INDIAN RACE.

Tue Eastern Hindoos, those at least who make visits to the East
India islands, present great uniformity in their personal appearance ;
and in this respect, they agree with the tribes and nations situated
to the eastward of Hindostan.

The complexion is much the same as in the two preceding races ;
and is so decidedly darker than in the Malayan, that by common con-
sent it is called black; although on comparison, the hue differs widely
from that of the unmixed Negro. The true colour may be formed by
mixing red and black: and in reference to the use of the term of
‘purple-brown’ and that of ‘olive,’ it should be observed, that neither
blue nor green enter into any variety of human complexion.

The features approximate very closely to those of the White race :
but in general, the mouth appeared to be wider; the nose, rather less
prominent; and the lips, sensibly thicker. The profile was observed
to be less vertical than in the surrounding Malays; the lower part
of the face projecting with a regular arch, as in the Mongolian: and
there was a further correspondence with the latter race, in the fre-
quent instances of the arched nose.

The skin was ascertained to be very soft. The beard occurred
more frequently, and was decidedly more copious than in the Ma-
layan race. ‘The hair was straight and fine; and I have never seen
it of any other colour than black. I have not met with Albinoes in
the Telingan race.

Iam unable at present to refer to a characteristic portrait of the
Telingan race: most of the published figures of Hindoos having been
taken either from the White race or from mixtures.

176 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

EASTERN HINDOSTAN.

‘ Lascars’ usually enter into the composition of the crews of Anglo-
Indian vessels; and they thus reach Manila ; where I once met with
four or five of them in the streets. I did not, however, hear of any
who were permanently settled at the Philippine Islands.

At Sooloo, I saw two Lascars; who had been brought there equally
though indirectly through the agency of Kuropeans, and were held in
a state of captivity. As they stood in the midst of the native popu-
lation, the ‘hatchet-face,’ the more prominent nose, and darker com-
plexion, rendered them quite conspicuous.

At Singapore, on the other hand, the Hindoos had principally ar-
rived by their own means of emigration; in the manner described by
Crawfurd and others. Next to the Chinese, they formed the most
considerable part of the population; and like them, they were mere
visiters, bringing no women with them, and purposing to return after
a series of years. A large proportion, were from Peninsular India;
and were called ‘'Telinga people,’ or more commonly, ‘ Klings.’

Coming as we did, from among the tribes of the further East, the
transition to the Hindoos and Chinese, was very striking. Not on
account of the costume, which continued, in many instances, as
scanty as in the Pacific; while the dances, shows, and processions,
might have passed for mummeries; but these, had accompanied all
the substantial advantages of civilization, laws, civil order, security of
person and property, from a period anterior to the rise of Greece and
Rome. We were looking upon people, who have remained essen-
tially the same throughout the revolutions which have befallen other
nations; and upon ceremonies, that for aught we can see to the con-
trary, may yet be destined to survive the institutions of Europe and
the West.

While we were at Singapore, a play was performed by the Hindoo
workmen residing on Mr. Balestier’s plantation. In the music, I re-
marked a similarity to the Spanish airs heard on the western coast
of America; but I should hardly have ventured an opinion on this
point, had not Mr. Rich, (who passed his earlier years in Spain,)
recognised the identity. The connexion may probably be esta-
blished through the Muslims; but I must leave it to others, to decide
upon the relative claims of priority.

THE TELINGAN RACE. 177

A ‘clown’ was in attendance; whose sayings and pranks appeared
to be much relished. ‘This custom has even reached the Feejee
Islands; but it does not occur upon the Chinese stage. ‘The regular
acting, consisted principally of singing and dancing conducted in the
open air, and to one unacquainted with the language, was rather mo-
notonous. But the style of the gilded head-dresses, seemed to resusci-
tate the Egyptians of antiquity ; and even the ‘vulture-cap’ was pre-
sent upon the head of one of the actors.

A Bramin, on account of some difficulty, was residing at Singapore :
and as the hereditary growth of the Nobility of urope was compa-
ratively ephemeral, I examined with some interest, his personal ap-
pearance. ‘The complexion was the same as in the low-cast Hindoos,
and the countenance might not have attracted notice in the street ;
but the mouth was small, the lips thin, and the facial angle ap-
proached unusually near to ninety degrees. ‘The latter circumstance
was not perceived in another Bramin belonging to the Telingan race,
who was subsequently seen at Bombay ; though in both, the lobe of the
ear was broader than usual; and contrary to a custom which occurs
among various uncivilized tribes, as well as in the Cutch Banians
and in representations of Hindoo deities, it was not perforated.

The Bramin first-mentioned, was very affable, spoke English cor-
rectly and fluently, and was ready to answer any questions in relation
to his religion, or to go into an argument in its defence. He stated,
that “the Braminical religion can only be inherited ; that ‘cast,’ when
once lost, cannot be regained, either by the individual or by his de-
scendants; that Bramins would lose cast by partaking of animal food,
or by the commission of any immorality; and that a Bramin, could
leave his own and enter either of the inferior casts.” ‘The system of
thus visiting the sins of the parent upon the children, seems intended
to offer the utmost inducements towards leading a pure life; whatever
may be said of the selfishness of the principle. The reported national
failings, however, tempt us to suppose, that lying and pecuniary of-
fences can hardly be mentioned in the Braminical code.

The Bramin further asserted, that the burning of widows, “ con-
tinues to be practised in Hindoostan, at least among the upper classes ;
though in consequence of the interference of the government, it is now
done privately.” Hook-swinging, according to his explanation, is a
manifestation of faith; the sufferer “ believing that if he has courage
to go through the ordeal, the Deity will protect him from harm.”

45

178 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

This penance, and that of running through the bed of coals, had
been sometimes practised by the Hindoo emigrants at Singapore. +

The temple, was found to be a substantial stone building, much in
the style of the two mosques; but the Bramin would not admit the
resemblance, alleging that there was a difference in the shape of the
dome. In the details of these three buildings, I thought I could dis-
cover traces of the ancient Kgyptian style of architecture; something
corresponding to the incorporation of the Greek and Roman in our
modern dwelling-houses ; but I found no confirmation subsequently
in Western Hindoostan. I was not admitted into the main building,
and it was the same with the more select temples of Western Hin-
doostan; the idea of a sanctuary, being common to the Braminical,
Parsee, and Muslim, as well as to various ancient forms of worship.

The Hindoos at Singapore, according to the Bramin, were “ nearly
all Sudras, or fourth-cast men; and there were no Pariahs in the
place.” He denied, that there were “ Bramins on Bali,” and spoke
of the system prevailing on that island, as “the Hindoo religion ;”
which term, he likewise applied to the Buddhism of China and the
Indo-Chinese countries.

The rules of cast would restrict the Hindoos from imtermarrying
with the Malays; even if there were no objections on the other side.
The descriptions, however, of the Amboynese, seem to correspond
with the Telingan race. Stavorinus states, “that the Chinese inter-
marry with the Bouginese and women of Macassar, but not with the
Amboynese ;” a circumstance which seems to indicate the presence
of a third physical race.

We have abundant evidence that a cormmercial intercourse has ex-
isted with this quarter from a very early period. ‘The Papuan race,
as already mentioned, is noticed in the Hindoo sacred books. In the
fourth century, the Chinese traveller Fa-hian, sailed from Southern
Hindoostan to the Hast Indies in a vessel manned by Braminical Hin-
doos. ‘The cloves and nutmegs of Amboyna and the Moluccas, appear
to have been known in the Mediterranean as early perhaps as the
time of Fa-hian. According. however, to the following deductions, we
have a much more ancient notice of the countries beyond Hindoostan.

Cinnamon is mentioned by Herodotus, and hkewise in the books
of Moses; and the article, could not have been obtained from any place
nearer than Ceylon. During my recent visit to Bombay, I learned
that the word ‘cinnamon,’ is only in part Sanscrit; the Mahratta,
or modern Sanscrit name for the article, being ‘dhal-Kinna,’ which

THE TELINGAN RACE. 179

means ‘China-wood.’ That ‘cinna’ really means China, is shown in
‘cinnabar,’ another article of commerce, well known to the ancient
Greeks and Romans: but the place referred to, is probably the Indo-
Chinese Peninsula; the only country, I believe, besides Ceylon, where
cinnamon is cultivated.

I observe, that ‘maun,’ in the Tamul language of Southern India,
is In some respects the equivalent of the Sanscrit ‘dhal;’ and this
point, it will be seen, involves the subject of the antiquity of the
Tamul language. 1 would add, that the Tamul literature was re-
garded by the missionaries, as being “equally rich with the Sanscrit;
although hitherto very imperfectly explored.”

The larger portion of the Ivp1an Mus.ims at Singapore, and parti-
cularly those of the lower orders, did not appear to differ physically
from the Telinga people. Both the Muslim and the Chinese holy-
days, took place during our short visit; thus affording a favourable
opportunity for inspecting these two classes of the population.

On the evening of our arrival, after witnessing various Chinese exhi-
bitions, | met with one of a totally different character; comparatively
rude, and which I perceived at once, belonged to Hindoostan. It was
a procession, accompanying two boys who were dancing; their close
red female attire brushing the ground, while the bells on their ancles
chimed with the music. Their faces were whitened, and one wore a
tiara cap, which was higher than those I afterwards saw in Egypt.
They were preceded by swordsmen bearing shields, engaged in mock
combat. ‘The same procession was renewed on subsequent evenings ;
and the people were found to resort to some booths, “established tem-
porarily on account of the Muslim holy-days.” One of the booths
was a place of worship, and contained an illuminated screen; and the
‘jos sticks,’ or tapers of the Chinese temples, were also in use. ‘This
was Islamism, apparently in its most corrupted form.

The annual celebration, in memory of the death of the two sons of
Mohammed, took place on.the 21st of February, 1842. Among three
or four thousand persons who took part in the ceremony, many bore
the marks, more or less obvious, of partial White descent: and such
individuals were often distinguished by being more robust; but un-
mixed Whites were rare. I saw but one green turban; the badge of
the lineal descendants of the founder of the religion. Neatness and
decorum prevailed throughout. ‘This was not the case in the disor-
derly proceedings I witnessed at the same celebration, held on the

180 PHYSICAL HISTORY O25 MAN:

19th of January, 1845, at Bombay; in which, I recognised scarcely
any points of resemblance, besides the bearing of paper shrines.

In connexion with the Telingan race it is of importance to note,
that Muslim political influence in India, “never reached the eastern
coast.” The practice of seclusion, I believe, prevails on that coast;
and it may in part account for the circumstance, that 1 saw but one
woman of Hindoostan at Singapore.

Individuals who called themselves ‘ Arabs,’ were numerous at Sin-
gapore ; but their claim was not in all instances free from suspicion,
on account of an obvious motive: Arab influence being paramount
with the Malays, “‘ who plume themselves according to the proportion
of the blood they may have in their veins;”’ while on the other hand,
they look down upon the Indian Muslims. These self-styled Arabs
were mostly persons of mixed descent; but I was not prepared at the
time, to distinguish the Ethiopian from the Telingan admixture ; and
indeed, the task may not prove of easy accomplishment. One of these
persons had his beard striped longitudinally gray and black (it is pre-
sumed by artificial means); and the same was observed in an Abys-
sinian-Arab from Mukdusha, who was likewise residing at Singapore.

Through the operations of modern commerce, people of Hindoostan
have been sometimes carried far to the eastward of their limits when
left to their own resources. Besides those seen at Sooloo and Manila,
I found several living in Sydney. A “native of Calcutta” had taken
up his residence with the White men at Ovolau, in the Feejee Islands.
Others were seen at Oahu; where, too, I heard of “ persons who called
themselves Arabs,” and saw, if my memory serves me, a Muslim tomb.

WESTERN HINDOOSTAN.

During my recent visit to Bombay and the Dekkan, I was much
surprised at the rare occurrence of the Telingan race: at least in a
condition at all approaching purity. I sometimes thought I could dis-
tinguish traces among the low-cast Mahrattas; and of two “'Telinga
Bramins, who came from the vicinity of Hyderabad,” one (the indivi-
dual above-noticed) was devoid of any marks of intermixture with the
White race. This man stated, that “his cast intermarried with the
Bramins of the Dekkan; but not with those of Bengal or Guzerat.”
All the Mahratta Bramins I met with, appeared to be of unmixed

THE TELINGAN RACE. 181

White descent; but one of them said, that “the Telinga Bramins
were highly respected; while the Bengal, Guzerat, Cutch, and Cash-
mere Bramins, were regarded as impure.”

From repeated inquiries it appeared, that the rules of ‘cast’ are
independent of colour or physical difference between the two races;
and further, that unlike what takes place in other countries and in
respect to other races, no such distinction is recognised by the people
themselves. I am not, on this account, prepared to abandon the
claims of the 'Telingan to be considered a distinct race; but I confess
the population of this part of India seemed so blended, that I was
unable to define the precise limits.

To the Westward of Hindoostan, at Muscat, I saw two individuals
whose personal appearance agreed entirely with that of the Telingan
race. ‘They were from Bahrein, in the Persian Gulf.

MADAGASCAR

On the passage from Singapore to the United States, the Vincennes
touched at the island of St. Helena ; where I found myself, as I sup-
posed, again among Lascars; in this instance, more or less mixed
with Negroes. On inquiry, I was greatly surprised to learn, that
notwithstanding the admitted resemblance, “this class of the popula-
tion had been all brought many years since from Madagascar.”

On the other hand, I was unable to detect the slightest appearances
of 'Telingan admixture, among the numbers of Madagascar people
seen subsequently at Zanzibar. It is true, these had been derived,
perhaps exclusively, from the Sakalava country, on the western
coast. In regard, however, to the alleged origin of the St. Helena
people, Ellis’s* description of the “Betanimena and Betsimisaraka,”
seems to correspond; and in another place, he expressly mentions the
occurrence of “straight-haired blacks” among the population of Mada-
gascar.

Drury appears to have been the only writer who has seen some
of the ‘Vazimba’ of Madagascar; and he speaks of them as being a
distinct race from the other inhabitants of the island; but his descrip-
tion does not well correspond with the Telingan race.

* History of Madagascar, vol. 1. p. 180, &c.
46

CHAPTER IX.

THE NEGRO RACE.

Art the present day, the personal appearance of the Negro, is gene-
rally familiar ; and the thick lips, flattened nose, retreating forehead,
close woolly hair, and dark complexion, have become proverbial.
The Negro appears to exceed all other races in depth of hue; and in
the close woolly texture of the hair, is rivalled only by the Hottentot.
The absence of rigidity and of a divided apex in the cartilage of the
nose, is a character common equally to the Malayan, and probably to
some of the other races.

In the case of two Albino children, the Negro aspect had so entirely
disappeared, that they might have passed for the children of Euro-
peans, but for the remarkable appearance of the hair; which I could
only compare to a white fleece.

The Negro race seems to occupy about one half of Africa; and,
excluding the northern and southern extremes with the table-land of
Abyssinia, it holds all the more temperate and fertile parts of the con-
tinent. ‘These limits, to all appearance, would not have been exceeded
to this day, aside from foreign interference: but as one consequence
of the events of the last two centuries, the Negro race seems destined
to fill hereafter an important place in general history.

COLONIAL NEGROES.

a. Luropeanized Negroes.

Negroes are now to be found in most parts of the globe where
Europeans have established themselves; and although separate no-
tices seem hardly to be required, I have selected the following.

OLS Laploring Lapedtion. The NEGRO Race.PL UK.

Noulore koe

A native of Western Aliica.

THE NEGRO RACE. 183

During a week spent in different parts of the island of Madeira, I
met with no Negroes, except at the port of Funchal; and the few
individuals seen at this place, may have been connected with the
foreign shipping.

On the other hand, the population of the Cape Verd Islands, judg-
ing from our hasty visit, appeared to be principally composed of Ne-
groes; and they were living in a very rude state for the subjects of a
civilized government. ‘They however exhibited a certain air of inde-
pendence, not seen in the same race in the United States.

Brazil had more of the aspect of a European colony ; although Ne-
groes formed the most numerous class of the population of Rzo Janezro
and its environs; and instances of even mixed descent, were compara-
tively rare. Most of these Negroes were slaves; but very many, were
employed as soldiers in the military police. Others held places of
honour and trust under the government; and one man was spoken of,
as being distinguished for his abilities as an advocate. Several of the
women too moved, with their Portuguese husbands, in the first circles
of society.

I was careful to look among the imported Negroes for traces of
some different race; but I was unable to detect any; neither have
I met with more success in other parts of America. A second race
may have been sometimes included in the importations from Mada-
gascar ; but otherwise, I think, instances have been extremely rare;
prior at least to the recent introduction by the English of people of
Hindoostan.

Some Negroes were seen among the ‘guachos’ or mounted herds-
men of the Rzo Negro, in North Patagonia. ‘“'They had come by
land from Buenos Ayres;” and they hardly appeared to be on the
footing of slaves.

There are perhaps fewer Negroes in Chih, than in any other
Kuropeanized portion of America. I do not remember seeing more
than ten or twelve, during the eighteen days I spent in Chih, chiefly
at the cities of Valparaiso and Santiago.

In Peru, Negroes are common; but they are chiefly confined to the
vicinity of the coast, where many of them are held as slaves; and
where the practice of merely ‘requiring them to furnish their masters
with stated sums of money, had contributed essentially to the frequency
of robberies.” Some of the free Negroes seen at Lima, had reached
the middle class of society; but I did not hear of any one who had
acquired eminence, or who held an important office. In the churches,

184 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

however, some deceased Negro priests had been canonized. Among
the military, Negroes were sometimes observed in the ranks; together
with a much larger proportion of persons of mixed origin, ‘“ zamboes
and mulattoes.” In the region of the Andes, I saw but one Negro;
who held some subordinate office in a small village.

In New South Wales, I met with two or three Negroes in the
streets of Sydney ; but I saw none on my visit to the district of the
Hunter River.

Free Negroes were occasionally seen on such of the Polynesian
islands as have resident Whites; having been derived, as in various
other parts of the world, chiefly from the American shipping. I also
met with a few half-breeds, between the Negro and Polynesian. Up
to the time of our visit, no Negroes had taken up their abode at the
Feejee Group.

Among the Hast India islands, Negroes seem to be very nearly
wanting; and, indeed, we read of their being carried to the Indo-Chi-
nese countries as curiosities. At Singapore, situated in respect to the
route of travel at the entrance of the whole region, I met with three
Negroes; and one of them, had been introduced partly through the
agency of Wuropeans. This man was large and muscular in com-
parison with the surrounding population, and was called a ‘Koffri;’
a class of persons, said to have been originally imported from Mozam-
bique into Southern India; and who bear a high character for fidelity.
It seemed singular that their identity with the Negro, was not recog-
nised even by American residents.

At Cape Town, the lower class of the population appeared to be
composed chiefly of Negroes; and, according to report, “they had
been derived principally from Mozambique and Madagascar.” They
appeared to be more cleanly, and to live on a better footing with their
White neighbours, than their brethren in our northern cities.

At St. Helena, the Negro portion of the population, as already
stated, had been “derived exclusively from Madagascar.” A re-
markable deviation from direct commercial intercourse, may be here
noted; the circumstance “that slaves from Africa, are now carried
across the island of Madagascar, to be sold to Europeans from its
eastern coast.”

One or more Negroes from the United States, had taken up their
residence at Zanzibar, and others again, at Bombay ; conforming to
the customs of their several adopted countries, and having no wish
to return to the land of their nativity.

THE NEGRO RACE. 185

In passing through the Mediterranean Countries, I observed two or
three Negroes at Malta; and as many, at Marseilles; but I met with
none at the Sicilian and Italian ports, nor in the Interior of France.

The general excellence of the Negro ear for music, is a subject of
common remark in the United States ; and is manifested in many of
the ordinary occurrences of life. Indeed it has been stated, apparent-
ly on sufficient grounds, that much of our popular music can be traced
toa Negro origin. Observations on my recent journey, have led me
to suspect that some of this music may have a yet more distant
source, and one perhaps more ancient than is commonly supposed.

b. Arabized Negroes.

With the exception of the two individuals at Singapore, I first saw
Muslim Negroes in Kgypt. In this country, the Negroes seem to be
in a good measure confined to the two cities of Cairo and Alexandria ;
and, excepting a large body of soldiers, are principally employed as
house-servants. It sometimes happens, that one of them “inherits his
master’s property together with the charge of his family ;” in accor-
dance apparently, with ancient usage, with Abraham’s selection of an
heir from among the members of his household.

Negroes are occasionally purchased and educated both by Copts
and by resident Europeans; but the influences of locality prevailing,
they do not form a distinct class from the Muslim Negroes. I do
not remember to have seen Negro servants among the Jews, either at
Cairo, or anywhere in the Hast.

I did not in Egypt observe Negroes engaged in the labours of agri-
culture. Neither, indeed, are they so represented on the ancient
monuments; where Whites, distinguished by their profile from the
proper Egyptians, are often serving in the capacity of slaves. Ne-
groes are figured, principally in connexion with, and as illustrating
the military campaigns of the Highteenth dynasty ; and there is evi-
dence, moreover, that one of the Pharaohs of this dynasty (Thouth-
mosis [V.), selected a negress for his queen. I do not remember
seeing Negroes represented on the anterior monuments ; nor indeed
on those of a much later date; though I did not, as carefully as the
case requires, search the records of the Ptolemaic conquests.

I am not aware of any fact contravening the assumption that Negro

47

186 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

slavery may have been of modern origin; and the race even, seems to
have been very little known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. I
have seen the Negro skull which was exhumed in the island of Malta,
among the ruins of Hadjerkim; but in the absence of inscriptions, I
am not aware that any date has been assigned to these anomalous
constructions ; other than referring them indefinitely to idolatrous
times. In regard however to the general subject of the ancient Ora-
cles, I wiil mention, on the authority of Dr. Schembri, that “the
name of ‘dodon,’ is to this day applied by the Maltese to a particular
variety of black pigeon.”

At Suez, 1 remarked one Negro among a party of ‘Arabs of the
Hedjaz;’ and this man wore the same costume, and appeared to be
living on a footing of equality with his companions.

At Mocha, Negroes were numerous; and they had been derived
from two distinct portions of Africa. Some had come, like those of
Beypt, from the White River of the Nile; and were called ‘ Nuba.’
These were “highly esteemed as soldiers, and as such were kept in
numbers by some of the more powerful chiefs of Southern Arabia.”
The majority, however, of the Negroes I saw at Mocha, had been
brought from Zanzibar.

At Mocha, I also met with a class of persons more or less mixed,
who were called ‘HapEm;’ aterm which appeared to be. equivalent
to that of ‘low people,’ and which was used in other instances to be
mentioned hereafter. ‘They were characterized as “a sort of Arabian
Negro, coming from the Interior or the Desert, who, among other
usages, practise eating dead animals.” Of the individuals pointed
out to me, some were not distinguishable from the Arabs of the
country ; but others presented traces of Negro descent, and one man
had the aspect of an unmixed Negro.

At Muscat, the influx of Negroes appeared to be exclusively from
Zanzibar; and excepting those brought as slaves, they consisted
chiefly of Soanini. ‘The latter were perhaps only visiters; since
they compose the principal part of the crews of the numerous dows
trading to the African coast. ‘The Soahili are all Muslims; and I
did not hear of any who were held in slavery in this part of Arabia;
but at Mocha, I met with slaves who called themselves Soahilt.

In the streets of Bombay, I frequently fell in with Soahili; who
belonged as before, to the Arab shipping. But at Singapore, I saw

THE NEGRO RACE. 187

none of these people; and their absence was confirmed by the testi-
mony of the Abyssinian-Arab.

At Zanzibar, the Soahili were found to assume the exclusive ma-
nagement of the small dows trading along the coast as far south as
Mozambique and Madagascar; while another, and in their own esti-
ination a more responsible class of navigators, direct the larger vessels
to Arabia and Northwestern Hindoostan.

The Soahili are a mixed nation, consisting principally of Negroes,
but embodying the remains of an infusion of Whites; and many indi-
viduals among them, would not be distinguished from Arabs. The
inhabitants of the fertile islands of Zanzibar and Pemba, are chiefly
Soahili; together with, in all probability, the mass of the population
at Mombas and in the Arab towns in the delta of the Juba. Soahili,
however, are scattered along the coast beyond these limits; and ad-
venturers sometimes join the caravans of the Interior Negroes, and
make visits to the Great Lake; or in conjunction with Comoro men,
form independent trading expeditions for minor distances.

The Soahili language, has in consequence become the medium of
commercial intercourse along the Eastern coast of Africa. It con-
tains numerous foreign words, derived principally from the countries
around the Persian Gulf; but it is properly a Negro language. At
the same time, instances may probably be found of the transmission
of words in the opposite direction.

My interpreter, Sadik, a Soahili of mixed race, who was born at
Marka, gave me the following account. ‘“'The people of Brava,
Marka, and Mukdusha, all came originally from Arabia, and esta-
blished these towns in the Somauli country. The island of Lamo
was formerly uninhabited; while the Sela (Soahili) dwelt at Ketao,
a town directly opposite, on the main land. The Arabs settling
upon the island, ‘made them low.’ The Soahili do not like this
state of things, but they cannot help themselves. The Soahili did
not in former times fight the Galla; but the people of Lamo, now
fizht them, when they come to steal.”

“The Soahili have feeling, but the Arabs have none; and are a
very bad people. Arabs will kill a man to get the money in his
pocket; and he had known of their killing their parents, when they
happened to have property. A blind man had mentioned several in-
stances of theft, accomplished by Arabs taking advantage of his in-
firmity. ‘The Negroes are fools; but if they had knowledge, like the

Arabs, they would be a better people.” Sadik was for a time enrap-

188 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tured with a musical-box which was provided with an artificial bird ;
but on recovering from his revery, and the price being named, he re-
marked, “*who would give two hundred dollars for a bird like that,
while one that God made, can be bought for a farthing ?”

The Soahili, besides the usual Muslim calendar, have one of their
own. Their new year commenced, in 1844, on the 29th of August;
or more precisely, at 6 p. M. on the evening of the 28th; and I re-
marked further, that it immediately followed full moon. Sadik stated,
that the Soahili year “consists of twelve moons and ten days; and
that from the weather on these supernumerary days, the people prog-
nosticate that of the whole year. The months or moons are num-
bered, and three only have names, Shaban (understood to indicate
the time of planting), Rejib, and Ramadan ;” appellations, which are
well known in the Muslim calendar. Indeed it was reiterated, “that
the Soahili year is the same with the Arab, and consists in like man-
ner of three hundred and sixty-five days, or of twelve moons and ten
days.” A statement which seems to refer to some agricultural calen-
dar used in Southern Arabia.

The following additional particulars, were obtained from the Sultan
ot the Soahili; a highly intelligent personage of mixed race; who,
agreeably to ancient usage, was retained with other Sultans at the
seat of government. ‘The person who has charge of the Soahili
year, resides on Tombat, (an inconsiderable islet detached from the
larger island of Zanzibar.) He looks at the sun, and makes figures on
the ground; when, on comparing his work with a book (written in
Arabic), he declares which is the first day of the year.”

A Parsee, then in Zanzibar, identified the day with the commence-
ment of one of the Parsee years; though he spurned the idea of any
connexion in the calendars. The 29th of August, is well known to
be new-year’s day with the Abyssinians and Keyptians; except that
these nations have not abandoned their reckoning of the lapse of time, |
as has been done to a certain extent, by modern Europeans. And on
this point, the Parsees and Soahili are commonly supposed to have
borrowed, in their calculations. According to the above authority,
“the Parsee year now contains three hundred and sixty-five days;
while formerly one-fourth of a day was added.”

The Soahili Sultan stated in regard to his own family, that “his
ancestor came from Sheerazy (Shiraz in Persia), about two centuries
ago, and finding the country ruled by a woman, married her.” He
assigned the same date to the arrival of the people of Muscat; and he

THE NEGRO RACE. 189

placed the “coming of the Portuguese, about a century earlier.” As
to the predecessors of the Portuguese, he was uncertain; but others
spoke of the “ Debully people; who were straight-haired;” and who
perhaps belonged to Northwestern India.

An old fortification forms a conspicuous object at the city of Zan-
zibar, and like similar ones along the coast, it has been commonly
attributed to the Portuguese. Besides the presence of plastering on
the outer walls, a little attention to other details, will show that these
constructions have no reference to the use of artillery; and they
thus reveal one secret of the successes of Kuropeans in this quarter
of the globe. I have seen similar fortresses, having the like round
towers, in the Interior of Hindoostan ; and all such, may be referred to
the early Muslims, or in a general way, to the time of the Caliphs.
Indeed, the Soahili have preserved a tradition, that one of the ‘“Ha-
leefeh, sent out, as it were missionaries, to convert Eastern Africa.”

Notices of Eastern Africa have been found, of a date anterior to
the time of the Caliphs; and particularly, I believe, an account by
Arrian, which I have not consulted. With respect to “ Agizymba,
the most distant country known to Ptolemy,” I have been struck with
the similarity of the word to ‘ Kissimkazy, Kissimbany,’ and other
local names which occur in the island of Zanzibar. ‘The ‘Cazembe,’
a shadowy personage who figures in some Portuguese accounts of
the Interior of East Africa, may also have a connexion with the same
island.

The city of Zanzibar, does not present any striking variation from
other Arab towns; unless in the greater number of Negroes. There
seemed, however, to be more than the usual proportion of ancient
Hebrew and ancient Egyptian customs. Amulets, composed of a
variety of articles strung together, are tied around the heads of in-
fants; and a Soahili at once recognised the purpose of an ancient
Egyptian amulet, which I happened to have in my possession. In-
dependently of the regular slave trade, child-stealing is practised by
adventurers from the outer coast of Arabia; and on much the same
footing as formerly, according to Homer’s description, by the Pheeni-
cians. The visiter will again be reminded of early Greece, in the
attitude and costume of various individuals walking with spears: and
some particulars in the construction of these weapons, will be found
to correspond with the Mosaic regulations.

One article of Zanzibar manufacture, is exported in great quantities

48

190 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

to the Arab countries; the shallow earthen water-jars, which in their
general shape approach the Feejeean.

Since the recent introduction of profitable articles of cultivation,
slavery in Zanzibar, has assumed a form more resembling its condition
in America; and there are now wealthy proprietors, and large bodies
of agricultural Negro slaves. On the other hand, the state of things
commencing through the agency of Europeans in Western Africa,
where the ‘ Kroo-men’ have of late taken up maritime pursuits, seems
to offer some parallel to Arab influence on the Eastern coast.

c. Malayized Negroes.

This class of people is confined to the immediate vicinity of Eastern
Africa; and constitutes the chief part of the population of the Comoro
Islands and Madagascar. ‘The languages and customs of these island-
ers, are not Arab, but correspond with those of the East Indies; and
most of the plants cultivated, have evidently been derived from the
same quarter. ‘There are no records, and no existing intercourse ;
aboriginal Negroes may, or may not, have once dwelt upon these
African islands, but the state of things now prevailing, is clearly the
result of Hast Indian colonization.

Indeed, the Malayan race is actually present in Madagascar, and
is still dominant there; and as to the time of arrival, it is sufficiently
evident, that Malay influence has preceded the visits of the Arabs.

The Mapacascar people seen at Zanzibar, with the exception of
the two Ovahs already noticed, were all Negroes; who did not even
present any distinguishable traces of Malayan admixture. I did not
hear that any of them had voluntarily left their native country, but
many appeared to be free; and a cluster of their houses was pointed
out to me, as an example of the Madagascar style of building. All
the Madagascar people whose origin I ascertained, belonged to the
‘Sakalava’ nation.

Comoro men, were found to be yet more numerous at Zanzibar ;
where they form a very considerable portion of the population of the
city. I was equally at a loss to discover in the Comoro men any
traces of the physical Malayan; and some of them assured me, that
“there are no long-haired people upon their native islands.”

Many of these Comoro men, were said to be “slaves; who had

THE NEGRO RACE 191

been sent to Zanzibar, to earn something for their masters;” but
others seemed to be really independent settlers and adventurers.
These join the Soahili in trading excursions, and thus become the
medium of carrying Malay influence into the heart of Africa. ‘They
likewise engage in maritime pursuits; and many of them serve on
board American vessels, which is hardly the case with the Soahili.

The Comoro men have undergone a double tutelage; the second,
not only in visiting Zanzibar, but also from the extension of Arab
power to their own islands; where the people are now perhaps no-
minally Muslim. Among a collection of Arabic pamphlets which I
obtained at Zanzibar, several had been written at the Comoro Islands,
and some even at Madagascar.

ABORIGINAL EASTERN AFRICA.

On one of my visits to the slave-market at Zanzipar, a Negro
among the bystanders, attracted my attention on account of the rude-
ness of his dress and his whole appearance. ‘The race was evidently
pure; and if there was any peculiarity, it was only in the beard being
nearly wanting. On inquiry, I learned with surprise, that he was an
aboriginal of the island; and further, that having come from an un-
frequented district, he was acquainted with the original language.
He searched out two other ‘Hadem,’ in order that I might hear him
converse in it; but these, it appeared, could only speak Soahill. A
vocabulary would doubtless have been interesting, and [ regret being
unable to give more than a single word: ‘monakela,’* which sig-
nifies ‘a small boy.’ Zanzibar, being situated nearly twenty miles
from the main land, these circumstances have a bearing on the ques-
tion of the original population of the Comoro Islands and Madagascar.

The above three individuals, were the only aboriginal Negroes L
nave met upon their native soil; for notwithstanding that I have looked
upon a large portion of the outline of the African continent, it has
been my lot to set foot on it only in Egypt and at the Cape. I have,
however, seen great numbers of the exported aboriginals, belonging
probably to most of the countries that afford slaves; and at Zanzibar

“In the Negro languages of this part of Africa, the plural is formed by changing the
initial ‘m? into ‘w.’? An instance of some analogy, may be remarked in our English
‘me’ and ‘we.’

192 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
I have seen in addition, a few aboriginal Negro visiters. The follow-
ing details respecting the tribes which inhabit the main land of Hastern
Africa, were collected at Zanzibar.

The Wanika possess the country around Mombas; and their towns
were found by Dr. Krapf, to be “ protected by being built in clumps
of thick woods ;” it is presumed, against the incursions of the Ethio-
pian tribes, who border on the north and partly on the west. The
Wanika are known at Zanzibar only as slaves, and as such are in
request for the special purpose of ‘ procuring toddy ;” for from living
on the coast, they have been accustomed to climb cocoa palms. Not-
withstanding that they were said to be common on the plantations,
I fell in with but a single individual.

This man bore the marks of national designation; consisting of a
single notch filed between the two upper front teeth, with numerous
small scars on the breast. He gave me the following account of him-
self and his nation. ‘He belonged to Giriama, a town on the beach,
two days journey to the northward of Mombas. ‘The Wanika extend
from Giriama, two days journey into the Interior; and the country
beyond, is uninhabited.” He had not heard of the river Oozy; but
from the opposite direction, the ‘“Mombas people are continually
coming to Giriama. ‘The Wanika fight with the bow and arrow,
and at close quarters, with the sword. ‘The blade is made by the
M’Sigua and Wanika, from iron obtained partly from the Arabs; and
partly dug out of the ground and brought by the Wakamba. The
Wanika bury their dead, placing the head to the east; and it is cus-
tomary, after waiting ten days, to kill a bullock and make a feast, pour-
ing the blood upon the grave. ‘The Wanika are all freemen; and in
regard to his own case, he stated, that on the occurrence of a famine
about three years previously, families were obliged to sell some of
their members to purchase food. ‘The Wanika circumcise, and are
all Muslim.” Some bystanders, however, thought that they had no
other claim to the title, than the practice of the rite as an aboriginal
custom. “The Wakamba are friends, and would join the Wanika in
fighting against the Galla. The M’Sigua are likewise friends, and
come to Giriama: the Chaga do not come, but the Wanika sometimes
make visits to the country of the Chaga.” With respect to the Ethio-
plan tribes, he stated, “that he had been at the market to which the
Galla come to trade, after a journey on their part of two months.
They are bad people, but after having taken an oath, they may be

THE NEGRO RACE. 193

visited. The Galla are rich, but the M’Kuafy are poor. The latter
do not come to market; and they once robbed his town; when,
being intercepted on their return, they did not succeed in carrying
off the booty. He had once visited a place called ‘Rombo,’ and saw
at a distance a town belonging to the Mussai; who are bad people,
and are like the M’Kuafy.”

A detached tribe of Negroes are found upon the African coast
north of the Wanika, in the delta of the Juba. The Sultan of Patta
termed them, Poxomo, and also ‘Hadem;’ and he spoke of them as
“rather a good sort of people, who will pull a boat up the Oozy,
being relieved at each town by a fresh set of hands. They live on
one side of the river, the other side belonging to the Galla. Boats
ascend the Oozy, which is excessively winding, for twenty-five days,
and no more; and he thought that the Juba must be the same river,
since persons proceeding from the mouth of each channel, meet to-
gether.”

The Cuaca dwell in the Interior, to the southwest of the Wanika,
and on the upper part of the Pungany River. A Comoro man stated,
that he “was fifteen days in reaching the country of the Chaga,
journeying towards the setting sun. The party he accompanied, was
commanded by a Makamba man, who had often conducted similar
expeditions, and who knew all the languages on the route. Some
Soahili were of the party, but no Arabs. The object in view, was, to
procure ivory, and not slaves; and some M’Kuafy and Wakamba
were seen, who were on the same errand. ‘The Chaga have plenty
of bananas, yams, sugar-cane, Indian corn, and other cultivated plants.
They are bad people, all the same as slaves; black and like Negroes;
while the Mussai are like Arabs. The Mussai,” if I understood him
aright, ‘look upon the Chaga in the light of slaves. But the two
nations circumcise in the same peculiar manner.” All accounts of
the Chaga, agree in representing them to be an agricultural and a
Negro nation. Individuals were said to be common at Zanzibar, but
I did not succeed in finding any.

In all my inquiries respecting the people of Eastern Africa, I
could not hear of pastoral Negroes, nor of Kthiopian cultivators: but
there are some undetermined tribes holding an intermediate position
along the borders of the cultivable soil, who may offer trifling excep-

4)

194 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tions. These minor tribes are situated to the westward of the Wa-
nika, and apparently to the northward of the Chaga; and they may
be conveniently noticed in this place.

The Wakamba, already alluded to, have by some writers been termed
‘Merremengo.’ Sadik stated, that “they are not bad people; but all
the same with the Monomoisy; they trade and do not fight. They
do not bring slaves, except a few, but trade in ivory.” Dr. Krapf,
writing from Mombas, considers them a kindred nation to the Wanika
and M’Sigua, but as having no affinity with the M’Kuafy ; and it may
therefore be inferred, that they use a Negro language. He further
states, that they “live partly among the Wanika, and partly ex-
tended into the Interior; that they throw their dead in the bush;
and that some lead a pastoral life, and possess a fine breed of cattle.”
I did not meet with any of the Wakamba; although they were spoken
of as not rare at Zanzibar.

The Wataita, seem also to be borderers; their country “commencing
not more than a five days journey from the coast.” ‘They were spoken
of as “good people, who do not fight, unless the Wakamba come out
against them.” Sadik called them “ Wanika, but a different nation.”
They were enumerated among the tribes pillaged by the M’Kuafy.

The Tavarti, dwell to the westward of the preceding. And a girl
belonging to this tribe was seen at Zanzibar. She was apparently in
the condition of a slave, though not of the lowest class: and she spoke,
it was said, neither the Chaga nor the M’Kuafy language. Her hair
was cropped close; and from the hasty glance I obtained, I was un-
able to decide whether the Negro race was entirely pure.

The Wampugo, appear to be quite a local tribe; dwelling, accord-
ing to the M’Kuafy lad, “on the river Ruvu, which comes into the
Pungany, and not more than half a day’s journey from his own coun-
try.” Sadik said, that “they brought ivory and not slaves.”

The Monomotsy, on the other hand, occupy an extensive territory,
which is situated far in the interior of the continent, and is bounded
on the west by the ‘Great Lake.’ An Arab informed me, “that on
his journey to the Monomoisy country, he crossed numerous rivers
coming from the mountains; none of them, however, of greater depth
than mid-leg ; and donkeys had been taken the whole distance. He
was four and a half months in going, and was absent, in all, three
years; but he did not visit the lake. He returned with a party of

seven hundred persons, and was only seventy-six days in reaching

THE NEGRO RACE. 195

the coast.” I did not inquire of him the point of arrival; but I would
observe, that according to some authorities, Kilwa (Quiloa) is nearer
than Zanzibar to the Monomoisy country.

In some memoranda communicated to me at Zanzibar, I find the
following statement of a Soahil, who “was eleven months absent on
a similar journey. He saw the Great Lake, which has many islands.
The canoes carry from five to fifteen men. He did not go armed while
he remained among the Monomoisy. The kings fight much among
themselves. ‘The Monomoisy have no money, but they are fond of
beads and brass.”

I learned moreover, that the Imaum has some sort of patriarchal in-
fluence with the Monomoisy; and that the great caravans which come

_to Kilwa and to the coast opposite Zanzibar, “bring him a present, and
look to him for protection during their stay.”

Beasts of burden appear to be entirely unknown to the Monomoisy ;
and the ponderous elephant tusks, when brought to the coast, have
been sometimes found to contain a little box or other article, depo-
sited under the fancied idea, that “it will lessen the weight.” Accord-
ing to Sadik, “the Monomoisy trade only in ivory, and do not bring
slaves; but sometimes a bad fellow among them will manage to sell
his friend.”

One of the Monomoisy caravans, reached the coast just before my
arrival at Zanzibar; and several individuals, attracted apparently by
motives of curiosity, came over to the island. ‘They had a general
air of superiority over the Zanzibar Negroes; and some of them were
tall and manly in their bearing, and had finer countenances than I
have elsewhere seen in the Negro race. ‘Their teeth were slightly
filed; but there were no marks or scars upon the skin; and the head
was shaved, with the exception of a small tuft on the crown.

I had some conversation with three of them, through the medium
of two interpreters. “They had been a week at the coast; which
they were four months in reaching, travelling directly towards the
rising sun. At the coast, they obtain brass; and their armlets and
the beads on their ankles, were manufactured by themselves from this
foreign material. They carry brass to their neighbours on the oppo-
site side of the Lake; who at the same time, dig brass and cast it, and
sell it to them. Their neighbours go to the Malungo, a four months
journey to the westward, but not to the sea; and procure ivory and
slaves, passing many nations on the route. The Malungo go to the
Western sea, likewise after a journey of four months; and find White

196 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

people, from whom they procure beads, cotton cloth, and other arti-
cles.” An intercourse across this portion of the African continent,
has long been known to exist; and the circumstance is in accordance
with Mr. Hale’s remark, that dialects of one general language prevail
throughout.

The three Monomoisy further stated, that “two days are required
to cross the Lake; sleeping at night on an island, the inhabitants
of which are friendly, and sometimes come down to the coast. ‘The
length of the Lake is a two months journey by water,” and one of the
party asserted, that he had been the whole distance. “The canoes
keep near the shore, and occasionally land to procure provisions.
Sails are not used, and the paddle is held vertically. The water
flows from south to north; and sometimes during rains, it rises and
covers houses.”” On mentioning the Moviza and Makua, they said,
that “the latter were far from them, but that the former, the Wabiza,
were near.”

“Their own town or district, is on this side of the Lake;’ and if I
understood rightly, its name is ‘‘Tengasha;’ but ‘'Tarika’ was also
mentioned. “Every town has its king; and theirs is Kiswagara.
Wutumbara, a large town, and the principal one of the Monomoisy
nation, is five days journey from them. Another town, Wajiji, distant
from them a ten days journey, is situated close to the Lake; and has
a market, with great abundance of fish. ‘The Monomoisy towns are
stockaded, but are all built in the plains, and not upon high hills or
rocks.” Cannibalism was evidently a new idea to my informants,
who shuddered as it was explained; saying, “that there are plenty
of tribes who fight and rob, but none that eat men.”

“Tt is sometimes cold in the Monomoisy country :” but my infor-
mants were found to be unacquainted with snow or ice: a fact imply-
ing the absence of high mountains. “Salt is procured from a hill,
distant about two days journey from their town. Honey is abun-
dant; and there are plenty of wild trees. Coffee is also abundant in
the bush, and is not cultivated. Ginger, too, is plentiful; together
with a production resembling Cardamum seed, but large.”

The “Monomoisy cultivate ‘paddy’ or rice, also peas (Cajanus),
beans, pea-nuts (Arachis), sweet potatoes, cassada, and ‘ Hindi’ corn ;”
but whether they are acquainted with juari (Sorghum), I could not
clearly ascertain. “ Gourds, the same as at Zanzibar, are plentiful,
and are called ‘buyu:’ and in some places, there is swgar-cane ; which
was likewise seen on the journey to the coast.” Some Arab bread

THE NEGRO RACE. 197

proved acceptable to two of the party, but was not to the taste of the
third, who asked for dates. A hand-organ at once absorbed their
attention, and they listened with great delight.

They added, that “in the Monomoisy country, there are neither
horses, donkeys, tame geese, nor ducks; but the common domestic
fol is well known; dogs are numerous; and there are a few cats,
which have been carried from Zanzibar. Goats and sheep abound ;
also coms, which are milked in the morning and evening, and are not
used for riding.” In connexion with this latter circumstance, it should
be noted, that bullocks were not seen labouring at Zanzibar; where
they belong principally to the Banians, whose religious scruples ex-
empt the female of this animal from all kinds of employment.

The Wasiza (Moviza of some writers), who have been alluded to
above, appear to be the neighbours of the Monomoisy on the south.
According to another account, “they dwell at the Great Lake, and
generally come to Kilwa.”

The N’Yasa, who inhabit the islands and perhaps the further
shores of the Great Lake, seemed to be the most distant tribe known
at Zanzibar. Individuals in the state of slavery were not uncommon;
and one of them stated, ‘that he was one day in reaching the Great
Lake, and spent another in crossing it, making two days to the Mo-
nomoisy country.”

Another individual, evidently a visiter, had taken up the profes-
sion of a strolling musician; and went about collecting corn in small
quantities, which he poured into a goat-skin. He had a bow provided
with a half gourd-shell, which was applied to the breast, while the
string was beaten with a slender wand; and wearing below the knee
rows of a rattling hard-shelled fruit something like sleigh-bells, he
danced to his own music, ‘There was no regular tune, but only the
constant repetition of some half-a-dozen notes.

The M’Sicua dwell on the coast, and appear to be much scattered
among the Wanika; although their proper country, I believe, is south
of the Pungany River. Individuals were commonly seen in the slave-
market at Zanzibar; where they were recognised by the numerous
small scars on the temples.

Dr. Krapf speaks of the M’SampBara, who dwell somewhat further
in the Interior, as “a kindred nation to the M’Sigua, Wanika, Wa-

50

198 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
kamba, and Soahili;” grounding his opinion, it is presumed, princi-
pally upon the affinities of language.

With the exception of the M’Sigua, almost all the slaves offered for
sale at Zanzibar, had been brought from the Southward; and prin-
cipally from Kilwa. Small dows arriving from that place, were
crowded with the living freight; and the influx was represented as
being much greater at a different season of the year.

The Maxua occupy the coast immediately to the northward of Mo-
zambique, and trade with that city. They were spoken of, as “bad
people, who kill the crews of vessels that happen to get on shore;
and dows, in consequence, do not visit that part of the coast, unless
several are in company.” A Makua girl pointed out to me in the
slave-market, bore the national mark of a crescent-shaped scar in the
middle of the forehead.

The district of the M’K1npo is back of Kilwa; anda man of this
tribe, who was seen in the slave-market, was only “two days in
reaching Kilwa.” <A slave girl, who likewise belonged to a tribe
near Kilwa, had a thread-like scar a little below the hair, quite encir-
cling the head.

The country of the M’Hiao is much further in the Interior; and
must be extensive, since it furnishes a large portion of the slaves
offered for sale at Zanzibar. ‘The markings vary in different indivi-
duals; but often consist of raised scars or welts crossing each other,
like stars. Many of the females have the upper lip perforated ; and
the opening enlarging with age, at last forms a false gaping mouth,
which destroys all natural expression of countenance, and singularly
disfigures them. I once observed two M’Hiao women, free residents
of Zanzibar, in the act of purchasing one of these elderly deformed
persons.

A Soahili, who had travelled by land to the southward along the
coast, gave me the following particulars. “The river Lufijy is larger
than the Pungany, and has more plantations; dows can ascend it for
three days, and canoes for a long distance. ‘The Lovuma is of the
same size with the Lufijy; canoes ascend it for more than two weeks,
and no one has seen the end. The Wamera and Waxonpy dwell
on the Lovuma; and at the top, the Mavima and Makua:” from

THE NEGRO RACE. 199

which latter circumstance it may be inferred, that some of the head
waters of the Lovuma are at no great distance from the coast. “ All
the people coming from the Interior walk to Kilwa;” and on my ask-
ing why they do not avail themselves of the canoe navigation, he
replied, “they donot understand. Silver and gold are unknown to
the people of that portion of Africa; and they have no money; but
they will barter sheep, goats, and brass beads. They are acquainted
with iron; and they dig copper, which is abundant, but they do not
know how to compose brass, otherwise there would be no trade.
Copal is too plentiful near the coast to be worth the trouble of bring-
ing from the Interior; and ivory is the only article of commerce
which comes from a distance.”

Among many individuals interrogated at Zanzibar, no one had
voluntarily entered the condition of slavery; neither could I, from
any source, obtain evidence of the existence of such a practice.

On comparing the various circumstances already mentioned, it
may I think be inferred, that if the outlet of the Monomoisy river
or lake is upon the Hastern coast, it is to be looked for only in the
Juba. It may also be observed, that the mouth of the Juba being
situated in barren territory, its waters must be derived from a dis-
tance; either from the mountains of Abyssinia, or from the rainy
region to the southward.

Some of the negroes imported from Mozambique into Rio Janeiro,
had come from the southern part of the above-described slave-district ;
and Mr. Hale met with Wakondy, M’Hiao, and Makua. Others,
however, had been brought from further south; as “the Taxwant,
from the Zambezi river, and the N’Yampana, from Inhambane.”
The latter were observed to be marked in a singular and unique
manner, with a row of fleshy knobs like buttons, which had been
artificially formed upon the forehead.

SONU Ey PACER: Cray

There were no Karrers at Cape Town, at the time of the visit of
the Vincennes; but from statuary and other sources, I obtained
abundant evidence, that these tribes belong physically to the Negro
race. ‘hey appear, however, to be more familiar with pastoral life

200 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

than their brethren on the north; but they agree in their dialects ;
which, according to Mr. Hale, form a subdivision of the same general
language.

A fortnight previous to our arrival, some families of the Pingo
tribe were encamped in the vicinity of Cape Town; but on visiting
the spot designated, I found that they had departed. ‘The owner of
a neighbouring plantation stated, that ‘a large body of Fingoes once
remained there for several weeks, and formed a regular town or
‘kraal.” Their hair was exactly like that of the Negro; but the
complexion varied, in some individuals being nearly as light as that
of the Hottentot, and in others quite black. The men marry as
many wives as possible, as by this means, they secure at all times
a support.”

WESTERN AFRICA.

I have seen aboriginal Negroes of Western Africa, only at Rio Ja-
neiro; where I enjoyed the advantage of being present during many
of Mr. Hale’s examinations, and of thus learning the precise place of
origin of the different individuals. ‘They mostly belonged to the
countries south of the Equator, to tribes speaking dialects “of the
Congo-Makuan subdivision of the general language; such as the
Bencueta, Kasaneai, and Coneo; the Kampinpa, from the Congo
River; and the Munpjoua, from the country back of Loango.”’

The Negroes from the coast north of the Equator, or from GuinrEa,
had been brought principally from Mina; a port in the Ashantee coun-
try. ‘They as a class, and particularly individuals from the far Inte-
rior, were much dreaded by the planters. 1 saw one man who spoke
a little Arabic: and “in the instance of a former insurrection, the
slaves were said to have corresponded in this language.” For a more
particular account of the various Negro tribes furnishing the slaves
brought to Rio Janeiro, I must refer to the Narrative.

I would remark, however, in reference to the condition of Western
Africa; that the descriptions I have read, exhibit on the part of the
natives, no deficiency in shrewdness and natural good sense ; accom-
panied however by a grossness of manners, not found in those parts
of the world which I have visited.

THE NEGRO RACE, 201

CENTRAL AFRICA.

Natives of Central Africa, were chiefly seen in Kgypt; where,
through the assistance of Dr. Gasparino, I was enabled to learn the
history of a number of individuals selected from the Negro regiment.
On inquiring for ‘ Shilluk,’ several were at once pointed out; but it
appeared, that the term as here used, had reference to height of sta-
ture, rather than to the river tribe bearing the name. ‘The persons
designated, called themselves Janca; and one very tall man, ‘came
from the mountains, and spoke the Denkawi language.” ‘Three other
Janga, one of whom was short, were from the plains.

Three individuals called themselves NuBawi: the name of the class
of Negroes who have been already mentioned as well known at Mocha,
and in Southern Arabia.

One Negro from Korporan, termed himself an Arab, and said that
his language was the Arabic; and the same account was given by
three other natives of that country; although they were all manifestly
of unmixed race. Another Negro, styled his nation Hamasauwi. And
two individuals, were from FazocLo.

It appeared, that all present, without exception, came from the Bahr
el Abiad or the White River; and as late accounts place Darfour
within the valley, it is quite possible that no Negroes may reach
Egypt from countries beyond the waters of the Nile.

I did not find in Egypt, the scars and marks on the skin, or the
filed teeth, which usually distinguish aboriginal Negroes. In the
slave-market, I remarked among the females, considerable variety in
the mode of dressing the hair; and much pains had been often taken
to form it into rolls, or in other instances, into numerous slender
braids. I once observed the eyelids coloured with blue paint, as a
substitute for ‘kohhl;’ which latter material, would hardly in this
instance have been conspicuous on the complexion. ‘The Negroes
seen in Kgypt, appeared to me unusually slender, even after making
every allowance for the style of dress.

The following extract from Leo Africanus, which is borne out in
some measure by Bruce’s account of the Shangalla, refers to the pri-
mitive condition of Central Africa; prior to the visits of the Mus-
lms. “The land of Negroes was then inhabited by men living in
the manner of beasts: without kings, lords, senates, government, or

ol

202 PHY SIG AL EESavOrR Yo lO MeAUN:

taxes. They hardly sowed corn, had no clothing but skins, and no
property in wives. ‘They spent the day in tending their herds, or in
labouring the ground. At night, they met in little companies of ten
or twelve, men and women, in bowers covered with boughs of trees.
They never made war, or travelled, but contentedly lived all their
days in their native country, and never set foot out of it.”

At the present day, three important Muslm-Negro kingdoms are
found along the southern border of the Desert; Darfour, Bornou, and
Soudan. An account of the two last, may be found in the work of
Denham and Clapperton. Darfour is less known; although in the
eye of the Egyptian Arab, it ranks as one of the three great political
powers which divide the earth; the two others being, Persia and
Constantinople.

At Singapore, [ saw two Negroes in the shop of the Abyssinian-
Arab; who, in their deportment, in their air of resolution and self-
respect, seemed a different class of beings frorn those of their race I
had previously met with. On inquiry, I was informed, that “the
black Arabs come chiefly from Sennaar ;” and on regarding the two
individuals more closely, I thought I could distinguish the costume of
Bornou, as figured by Denham and Clapperton. It appears however
from Burckhardt, that pilgrims very rarely come from as far west as
Bornou; and the probable origin of the above individuals, may have
been Kordofan or Darfour. ‘The head was habitually uncovered, and
one had the wool so close as fairly to justify the appellation of ‘ pepper-
haired ;’ which is so universally applied to the race in Eastern coun-
tries. They had doubtless come by the way of Mocha. But I did
not meet with the same costume on my recent journey.

GaSe Eup lori Evpeditton : The TH TTI O IPILAN Lace. Phy Xo

A Bisharee Woman.

E.Prisse Del WHDougal Se.

CHAPTER X.

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE.

Tue Ethiopian race, is in some measure intermediate in personal
appearance between the Telingan and the Negro. The complexion
too, seems generally darker than in the Telingan race; holding the
third rank in depth of hue. The hair is crisped, but fine in its tex-
ture; and I have never seen it wiry, as in the Papuan; from which
latter race, the Ethiopian differs in having a soft skin and European-
like features.

Various modern travellers have been struck with the resemblance
of the Ethiopian to the Telingan race. The same circumstance was
noticed in ancient times by Herodotus; who also speaks of the re-
markable beauty of those living southwest of Arabia;* an opinion in
which, from actual observation, I am now prepared to concur.

The Ethiopian race occupies the hottest countries of Africa. Most
of its tribes are purely pastoral; and some of them, are perhaps alone
acquainted with all the recesses of the Great Desert. ‘The only por-
tions of the race that are known to lead an agricultural life, are the
Nubians of the Nile, and some of the tribes bordering on the table-
land of Abyssinia.

Characteristic portraits of Ethiopians, may be found in various
works on Egypt and Nubia; and I would refer particularly to the
figures given in Hoskin’s Travels on the Upper Nile.

The Ethiopian race was not seen in its purity during the voyage
of the Exploring Expedition; but it was doubtless present among
some of the mixed Arabs at Singapore. My acquaintance with it,
commenced on the day of my landing in Egypt.

* Herodotus, Thalia, 101, 114, &c.

204 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

NUBIANS.
a. Barabra of the Nile.

The Barabra found in Lower Egypt, are principally adventurers
from the banks of the Nile in Nubia; who seek employment for hire,
and after a series of years return to their own country. They are
favoured in certain particulars by the government; being “exempted
from military duty ; and being sometimes employed as task-masters,
an occupation in which they particularly excel.” They are ex-
tremely clannish; and strong antipathies exist between them and the
common Egyptian Arabs. Old residents have assured me, that they
have never known in Lower Keypt of an instance of mixed offspring
between these two classes. My own servant and interpreter, was
from Dongola; and he was considered by eye-witnesses, as a fair ex-
ample of the people of his native country.

Some of the boats on the Nile, are manned and commanded by Ba-
rabra; who, however, hardly form mixed crews, or serve under Arab
commanders. These Barabra boatmen, appeared to belong princi-
pally to the immediate vicinity of the Cataract; where a fondness for
the water is acquired in early life; and they perhaps correspond to
the “Icthyophagi of Klephantine,” mentioned by Herodotus.

A third class of Barabra, are the ‘Jellab;’ who procure slaves on
the upper parts of the Nile, and conduct them in slave-caravans to
Cairo and Alexandria. One individual of this class, had the face un-
usually compressed ; a peculiarity noticed by Ledyard; but I did not
meet with a second instance.

A fourth class, consists of a large portion of the slaves; those who
in Keypt, are termed ‘Abyssinians.’ Such as I saw offered for sale,
were nearly all children and half-grown persons; having their hair
dressed with much pains, according apparently to their respective
national fashions. Some of the children proved to be ‘Galla;’ but
through the diversity of dialects, their place of origin could rarely be
ascertained; and they perhaps, had not all been derived from the
southern border of Abyssinia.

On ascending the Nile, I met with the first instances of mixed de-
scent at Kenneh; the modern capital of the Thebaid, about thirty
miles below the site of ancient Thebes. Market-women of the Ethio-

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE. 205

pian race, likewise made their appearance at Kenneh; where a change
took place in the weights and measures, and cowries were seen used
as money ; and where articles from ‘Hindi’ were commonly offered
for sale; such as black pepper, which had been brought, together with
dates and coffee, from Mecca. Above Kenneh, men walking with
spears, were occasionally met with; and according to the words of
my Barabra servant, “thief had finished.”

The true boundary, however, between the two races, appears to be
at Silsilis; about one hundred miles above Thebes, and forty miles
below the Cataract. ‘The Krnoos begin at this point, and with them
a change takes place in the mode of raising water for irrigation ; a
task now accomplished by means of the wheel. I saw numbers of
Kenoos, on landing at different places, and particularly at Assouan
and Phil, the limit of my journey. The Barabra boatmen above
mentioned, hardly appeared to form a distinct class. Contrary to
the practice of the Arabs, the women were observed to take much
pains in braiding and dressing their hair in a variety of modes; but
they had other customs which they had evidently borrowed from the
Arabs, as the use of kohhl or eye-paint, and of tattooing; both conti-
nued, notwithstanding the deep hue of the complexion. ‘The Kenoos
are all Muslims; but they do not appear to regard very rigidly some
of the observances of their religion ; and swine were seen at Assouan.
At the same place, I fell in with a body of slaves on their way down
the river; and also, with an Arab merchant, proceeding with bales of
goods to Sennaar.

b. Barabra of the Desert.

The ABaBDEH inhabit the eastern desert of the Thebaid, between
the Nile and the Red Sea; and I met with individuals at Kenneh, and
at other towns higher up the river; but principally at Assouan. The
Ababdeh use the Arabic language, and they do not understand that
of the agricultural Nubians. An opinion, however, prevailed at As-
souan, that they once had a language of their own, as the Bishareen
now have; and that it was displaced by the Arabic. The Ababdeh
‘‘bring charcoal to Assouan, procuring it within two, three, or more
days journey in the desert; and they occasionally bring ostrich eggs,
obtained at a distance of not more than two hundred miles.” My

52

206 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Dongola servant expressed surprise at this statement, having sup-
posed that ostrich eggs were at present procured altogether from Kor-
dofan; and he asserted, that there were “none now in Dongola, and
that Sennaar had been likewise exhausted.”

In returning down the river, I fell in with the Shekh of the Abab-
deh ; who was reported to hold authority likewise over the Bishareen.
His personal appearance was indicative of mixed Arab descent, but I
did not learn the history of his family. He wore a turban, in conse-
quence as he said, of being on his way to Cairo; but he intended on
his return, to dress his hair after the fashion of his own country. He
was well acquainted with Soakin, where he had seen some of the
Somali; and he spoke of the Kostan, as being an extremely trouble-
some and ferocious people. He was particularly desirous of ascer-
taining why Europeans came so far to look at antiquities; and on
learning that hieroglyphic characters could be read, he considered
himself in possession of the secret.

The BisHAaREEN, dwell in the district to the southward of the Abab-
deh, and situated in like manner eastward of the Nile. ‘Two indivi-
duals seen at Assouan, enabled me to identify the physical race. One
of them, wore a pin for dressing the hair, similar to the Feejeean, but
shorter and curved.

The Ababdeh and Bishareen, do not mix with their hair any foreign
substance except ghee or butter; which in this climate is entirely
fluid, and is an effectual safeguard against vermin. ‘The curved club,
which these tribes have been accustomed to use from remote anti-
quity, is small and hght in comparison with that of the Feejeeans.

I could hear nothing in Egypt of the ‘T1sBo0 of the central Sahara;
and it is possible that they may have no communication with the
Kigyptian Oases. Herodotus seems to allude to these people under
the name of the ‘ Kthiopian Troglodytes;’ and they are probably to
be regarded as the proper aboriginals of the Desert. According to
Horneman and others, the Tibboo continue in part Pagan; and they
hold their flocks about the widely separated wells and Oases, some
of which are perhaps known only to themselves; yet in their track-
less solitudes, they are not altogether free from the depredations of the
Tuarick and Arab. Some points in their history, present unexpected
analogy to the customs of the Australians; as their use of a curved
missile; and their counterfeiting a lump of black basalt in order to
elude observation, as the Australians counterfeit a burned stump.

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE. 207

Denham and Clapperton moreover state, that the Tibboo couriers “ are
the only persons who will undertake singly to cross the Sahara.”

On my journey from Cairo to Suez, I met the caravan returning
from Mecca; but it was unfortunately at night, and I obtained a view
of the travellers only by the light of their own torches. There seemed
to be a large proportion of Ethiopians; many of them doubtless from
Nubia; but some, who made inquiries about Alexandria, and main-
tained a more independent bearing than the Egyptian Barabra, may
have belonged to the far West.

The Ethiopian profile has appeared to me, to have furnished the
model for the Egyptian features of the earliest monuments, as far down
as the conclusion of the Highteenth Dynasty: and we may otherwise
look in vain for representations of a people, who, at least must have
been intimately known to the ancient inhabitants of the Thebaid. I
am aware that the Desert tribes have been separately and distinctly
delineated, though even here, I would appeal to the profile: and after
making every allowance for a conventional style of art, those highly
finished portraits of Egyptians in which the hair is disposed in nume-
rous slender braids, have appeared to me intended for men of the
Ethiopian race. ‘The same rule respecting the hair, will, I think, be
found to prevail in the mummies, (though few of these have proved
to be of greater antiquity than the Greek or Ptolemaic period); and
the wooden neck-pillow accompanying the mummies, was certainly
not an invention of men of the White race.

On the monuments of the Eighteenth Dynasty, men of the White
race are frequently represented; but chiefly as slaves, or as foreigners ;
and they may always be distinguished by the profile, from the Kgyp-
tians. The earliest unequivocal representations of the White race
occur in the grottoes of Beni Hassan; excavated during the ‘Twelfth
Dynasty, or towards the conclusion of the “time of the Pyramids ;”
and it should also be observed, that some of the transactions here
recorded, seem connected with the first appearance in EKeypt of the
Hyksos, or Shepherds.

The portrait of Osortasen L, discovered in Nubia, is however of a
somewhat anterior date; and it seems to agree best with the White
race, so far as I can judge from copies. Most of the monarchs of
the Eighteenth Dynasty, can be clearly referred to the White race ;
and their portraits, in some instances, are even painted flesh-colour ;
as one of Rameses III., which I saw at Thebes. It may also be re-

208 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

garded as established, that subsequent to, if not before the Eighteenth
Dynasty, the Egyptians were regarded as belonging nationally to the
White race.

On the other hand, there exists abundant evidence, that some of the
Egyptian Pharaohs were physically Ethiopians. Eighteen of these,
were enumerated by the Egyptian priests to Herodotus. And if the
place of birth may be regarded as an index in this question of race,
the claims of the Klephantinite Dynasty would seem to deserve special
consideration.

SOMALI.

The Somali inhabit that projecting portion of the African continent,
which is opposite to and hems in the southern angle of Arabia; and
they extend along the coast and more or less into the Interior, from
the Straits of Bab el Mandeb to the river Juba under the Equator.
Their country, although arid and intensely hot, affords pasturage, and
seems eminently adapted for rearing a peculiar close-haired variety
of sheep. The Somali also engage in maritime pursuits; and many
of them are to be found established in separate communities, at the
principal ports on the lower portion of the Red Sea.

The Somali seem to be very much confined to the above limits. I
met with one individual who had strayed as far as Muscat. But I saw
none of them at Bombay ; where there occurred but a single example
of the Ethiopian race. I heard of a Somali woman at Cairo, but
such instances, I presume, are rare; I observed, however, a Somali
lad, among the crew of the English steamboat on the Red Sea.

The Somali, appear to have had very little intercourse with Kuro-
peans, prior to the recent establishment of the English at Aden. On
landing at that place, their flaxen locks (stained like those of the Fee-
jeean girls) rendered many of the Somali conspicuous; and where
this mark was wanting, their slender graceful forms, and their Euro-
pean-like features, readily distinguished them from the Negroes
around. ‘They consisted chiefly of young men and boys, in search
of employment, after having brought from the opposite coast great
numbers of sheep for the supply of the town. I also saw a few
women, offering articles for sale in the market-place. My Parsee in-
terpreter, Manockjee, regarded the Somali as ‘a better class of people

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE. 209

than the common Arabs of the country ; for instead of stealing, they
would work, and if required, the whole night long;” and from his
having had much experience at Aden, having even suffered pecu-
niary loss through a Somali, I have thought his opinion entitled to
consideration.

At Mocha, the Somali women had monopolized the most laborious
avocation of Muslim countries, that of water-carriers. At night, they
all retired to a village, apart from the Jewish suburb, and consisting
of thatched houses; some of which were in the African style, cylin-
drical with a conical roof.

On visiting this village, the women were found to perform most of
the work for the support of the family; as is the custom with the
Feejeeans; and various other points of resemblance were recognised.
The unmarried women were in like manner designated by an ob-
vious sign; not indeed by flaxen hair, (which was here worn only by
the men,) but by the head being altogether destitute of a covering.
Great pains were always taken by the women in dressing their hair ;
which was sometimes braided into fine cords, and in some instances
these cords were united at the ends.

On one occasion, I witnessed a wedding-dance; which, contrary to
the custom of the Fellah-Arabs of Egypt, was conducted exclusively
by the women; and indeed, it resembled the Egyptian ceremony
only in the clapping of hands. The music consisted of three drums ;
each beaten by two female performers. The other women danced,
two or three at a time, in the middle of the circle, with somewhat en-
ergetic, but not very graceful movements. It was evident, from the
marks of designation above-mentioned, that early marriages are not
customary among the Somali.

A principal branch of female industry among these people, con-
sisted in the making of matting from leaves of the Doum palm; and
a variety of articles of this material, were offered in the market. ‘The
plait, was the same that is figured on the Egyptian monuments. The
only colours were dull red and black; both of which are common
among the Feejeeans, and appear also to be aboriginal in Northwest
America. The Somali boys brought to market, ropes or halters for
camels, of very neat workmanship.

The men, were not seen engaged in any occupation; though their
province was doubtless to procure fish, and in their own country, to
attend to the flocks. A small species of anchovy is taken abundantly
at Mocha, and dried for the Java market. Quantities of these fish

03

210 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
were spread out before the Somali houses; and a curious sight was
offered by the gulls and terns persisting in obtaining a share, in spite
of the boys who were in attendance; for as a general thing in these
countries, no one thinks of molesting or frightening the brute crea-
tion.

The men commonly wore a wooden pin for the hair, or a three-
toothed wooden comb, both articles corresponding to those used by
the Feejeeans: but unlike the state of things among the last-named
people, the Somali offered instances of baldness. The head was
always uncovered, in both old and young; and lads sometimes had
it shaven. Regularly towards evening, the men would assemble to
throw the javelin; but their performances were trifling in comparison
with those of the South Sea islanders. Several of the Somali boys
spoke a little English, which they had acquired at Aden; and on one
occasion, I found them somewhat free with their tongues, now that
they were beyond the reach of English rule.

During the five weeks I spent at Mocha, from the latter part of
April throughout the month of May, the temperature did not fall be-
low 90° Fahrenheit. ‘The Somali, however, did not appear to be in-
commoded by the intense heat; and that they enjoy more robust
health than the Arabs, was a subject of common remark among the
inhabitants of Mocha.

I learned that some years ago, ‘‘an English vessel anchored at Ber-
bera, on the Somali coast; when the captain’ with others having
landed, the natives took advantage of the circumstance to drag the
vessel ashore and pillage the cargo.” Payment of damages having
been promptly enforced by the Anglo-Indian authorities, the affair
was said to have had a salutary influence throughout the vicinity.
A trader who once visited Berbera, informed me, that the natives,
after working together during the day, would repair to the beach to
fight; often, until some of their number were badly wounded, or
even left dead upon the ground.

There were no Somali at Zanzibar, at the time of my visit to that
place; but during the other monsoon, they were reported to arrive in
great numbers; consisting as it appeared, chiefly if not exclusively,
of persons who belong to the vicinity of Brava and Mukdusha. My
Soahili interpreter, Sadik, recognised a Somali comb which I brought
from Mocha, and he was aware of the custom of staining the hair. He
stated of the Southern Somali, that “they have many books, which

THE ETALTOPIAN RACE: ile

are written with the Arabic character, but in a different language ;
and that there are learned men among the Somali, who make books.
The language is harsh. He had never heard of the existence of anti-
quities or inscriptions in the Somali country. Hach man carries three
or four spears, but some have bows and arrows. ‘They cannot fight
the Galla, who are the strongest ;” but he declared at the same time,
that “he had never heard of the Galla fighting the Somali.”

DENKALIL

The Danakil tribes, inhabit the district north of the Somali, and
fronting on the lower portion of the Red Sea; and on a line with
Zeyla, they appear to be much extended into the Interior. They
‘speak a different language from the Somali; and individuals visit
Mocha for the purpose of bringing slaves, which they obtain in the In-
terior;’’ and which it is presumed, are chiefly Galla.

The Denkali, were said to ‘conduct themselves well while at
Mocha; but to come only a few ata time.” The first individual I
met with, happened to be of short stature and short-necked; and he
might readily have been mistaken for a Feejeean, agreeing even in
the disposal of his hair. Points of difference, however, were perceived
on a Closer inspection; and the other Denkali seen, did not differ phy-
sically from the Somali and Barabra.

GAUL AY

The Galla tribes, have long been regarded as the terror of Hast
Africa; and the extensive region they inhabit, has been very little
visited by strangers. ‘The Galla are for the most part, purely pasto-
ral in their habits: but according to Mr. Isenberg, the tribes border-
ing on the highlands of Abyssinia, cultivate the ground.

The Nortuern Gaus, furnish great numbers of slaves; princi-
pally women and children, who are sent by the way of Abyssinia
into Eeypt and Arabia. In the latter country, many of the town
Arabs are of partial Galla descent. I did not meet with like in-
stances at Cairo and Alexandria; where, however, the Galla women
hold a similar position with those in Arabia. Some of them, more-

212 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

over, were married to European residents of the first respectability ;
having been carefully educated, they proved elegant and accomplished
companions.

At Zanzibar, I met with but one of the Northern Galla; a slave-
woman, who called her nation ‘Chory ;’ and who, according to her
own account, came “by the way of Mocha from Massowa.” ‘The
point of embarkation, interposes an objection to affinity with the Bi-
shareen; and she was expressly termed a Galla by the Arabs in com-

pany.

The Sournern Gata, are rarely slaves; but I heard of an in-
stance, in a ‘Musagna’ woman, who was the only representative of
these tribes at Zanzibar. It was said, that in times of scarcity, the
Southern Galla will sell some of their number; who however are not
esteemed ; for when directed to perform any service, they will ask
questions, or reply, ‘“‘go and do it yourself.”

The nation is well known by report at Zanzibar, as frequenting
the western bank of the Oozy, and intercepting the land-route from
Mombas to Lamo; and as visiting the settlements on the coast, for
the purposes either of plunder or traffic. ‘The Southern Galla refuse
vegetable food, and live exclusively on milk and meat; the only sem-
blance of an exception that I could hear of, being the fact, that they
have been known to “steal corn from the people of Brava.”

The Sultan of Patta, and an Arab who was present at the inter-
view, gave me the following account of the Southern Galla. “Their
country is called ‘ Bararata,’* and is situated eight days journey
from Patta;” perhaps not including the “two days to the river
Oozy, where they come to trade. They bring cattle, which have a
hump; and which are greatly superior to the Indian cattle at Zan-
zibar. ‘They have camels, which they use for carrying burdens, but
not for riding. ‘They elect a king every eight years; and the new
king circumcises his subjects. ‘They shave the head, preserving a
lock of hair on it for every man they have killed. ‘Their king, when
sent for, will come to Oozy; and if a present were made, he would
be willing to take an unattended European into the country, and
would bring him back in safety; but if several persons wished to go,

* As the transfer of Geographical names serves to illustrate history, the resemblance
may be here noted to Bahratta or Mahratta, “ the ancient name of India.”

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE. VALB}

the visit would be impossible. For the last eighty-five years, or since
the time of his grandfather, the Patta people have not been able to go
into the Galla country. In person, the Galla are tall and good-looking,
and resemble the M’Kuafi, with whom they often fight; both nations
having precisely the same description of hair. The Galla have strong
beards, but these are habitually clipped. They have no bows; and
in warfare, they use only the spear, (which is held and is not thrown,)
protecting themselves with shields. ‘They are very much afraid of
firearms.”

A ‘Vagugna’ man, from Rassini, a town on the coast near Patta,
subsequently called on me, and assured me that he had travelled in
the Galla country ; and he made the following statement. ‘“ After the
death of the former Sultan of Patta, there remained two brothers, who
were enemies; and when one of them returned from Muscat; the
other, withdrew with all the soldiers into the Galla country, and ob-
tained protection from the king of the Galla. These two rival bro-
thers died; and the present Sultan of Patta is a fourth brother, and
the son of a Galla woman; but they all had one father.”

My informant, was ‘one of the soldiers above-mentioned; and he
was two months in going to Bararata, travelling always west, towards
sunset, in which direction the country is all Galla. The Gololy Galla
are next. After the first day’s journey, he crossed no large river; but
there was no difficulty in finding water to drink, and towns to sleep
in. No molestation was offered on the route, it being given out, that
the party was going to visit the king. Rice was carried for provision ;
and sometimes the people of the country tasted it, but they invariably
threw it away, and contemned the eating of such trash.* He re-
mained among the Galla for ten months, and he afterwards spent
two, in returning to the coast.”

“The Bararata eat beef, which they cook in boiling water; and
they mix blood and milk together for drink. They have no corn, rice,
nor bananas. Weemdi (Eleusine coracana), is sometimes planted by
their slaves; but the Bararata themselves eat only milk and meat.
The men have strong beards, sometimes two feet long; and the king
has one which is very large. ‘They shave the head, which is always
kept uncovered. They take as many wives as they please; and they
live in skin-houses; and are good people. ‘They have donkeys, but
not horses. They go out to fight, every day; they fight Wama and

* Compare Herodotus, Thalia, 22 and 238.

o4

Q14 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

other Galla; also Gololy, and Gingeero, (a place I had named,) which
is close to them.” He had never heard of cannibals.

On inquiring about Kaffa, he stated, that “the Bararata go to Moor-
kafa. Bararata is close to Habbusheea; and all the same; and they
do not fight. He knew three towns in Habbusheea, but on this side ;
one of them, a small town, is called Kebong. Some Bararata go to
Habbusheea, taking with them ivory and gums (aloes, gum-arabic,
and myrrh, all which they call ‘lubanum’), but not slaves; and
they bring back cloth, which is of the same description with that
of Brava.”

“He once accompanied a friend, on an excursion to kill elephants,
as faras Looggoon; which is alarge town. ‘The inhabitants are free,
but among them are some slaves. A few are Muslims, and the rest
are Kaffri. They have coarse manners, and they pay no regard to
the decencies of life. Men and women go naked, with the exception
of a girdle round the waist, and a skin cloak over the shoulder. The
men do not practise circumcision. ‘They each carry two spears, and
they possess many horses. ‘These people go every year to the beach,
which is about ten days distant in Hazaeen,” or the Somali country.
When asked about Massowa, he “thought it was the other side, in
Juda country; he had heard one man speak of it. A slave, now
living on the main land of Africa, was the only person about Zanzi-
bar besides himself, who had visited Bararata.”’

M’KUAFL

The M’Kuafi dwell in the Interior, to the west of Mombas, and
south of the proper Galla country. The following information re-
specting them, was derived from young persons seen at Zanzibar :
where, according to the Arabs, slaves of this class were formerly
cheap and not much esteemed, but now bring high prices.

A M’Kuafi girl stated, that “she had been captured by the Mussai;
who killed her father and mother, and who sold her to the Chaga.
She was twenty-five days in reaching the coast. Formerly, her na-
tion was powerful above others; so that one woman with a stick,
would stop a thousand persons from passing through the country,
unless a present was first made: but her people are broken; and at
present they would not fight the M’Sigua.”

‘Her people do not cultivate the ground, and they eat only milk

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE. 2Q15

and meat. Children when hungry, help themselves by direct appli-
cation to the cow. Cattle are killed by piercing the spine; numbers
of them every day, until each family is supplied. The M’Kuafi have
no fixed meal-times; but they eat whenever they feel inclined, invit-
ing their neighbours of the same village to partake with them. Hach
family has its own cattle, which all go to pasture together, and outside
the town is a place to receive them at night. The men marry as
many women as they please; and each wife has a separate house.
These habitations are tents of bullock-skin, supported by poles set
around. ‘The men decorate themselves with large beads; and their
dress is made of skin, and consists of a painted cincture full of openings
and hanging strips, and of a long cloak worn over one shoulder. Cloth,
however, is now brought by traders. The women, by way of ornament,
coil brass wire about the arm as far as the elbow. ‘The beads and brass
wire, are procured at Pemba, by selling ivory; obtained from elephants,
some of which are found dead, while others are purposely killed.”

“The M’Kuafi do not bury, but they put their dead in the bush, for
the wild beasts to eat. The friends afterwards cry from ten to twenty
days, and then kill three bullocks and make a feast. The M’Kuafi
have neither prayers, nor religion, but they eat and sleep. ‘The name
of their Deity, is Angayai; and on some big days, they take feathers
and dance. ‘They have cows, goats, donkeys, sheep, and dogs; but
neither cats, nor horses. They take off the fleece of the sheep, and
spin yarn; with which they sew the skins together. They have
gourd-shells for holding water, which are bought of the Chaga.
They go out to fight with the Mussai, frequently, sometimes every
day; and they take cattle; they fight also with the Wampugo and
the Wataita, but not with the Chaga. The country of the M’Kuafi,
consists of mountains and plains, and produces some trees which
supply tentpoles, but there are no fruits. Persons while sleeping, are
sometimes eaten by leopards.”

On another occasion, the same girl brought two of her companions;
and they sung together some simple and plaintive airs, such as are
used “in getting children to sleep.” Their dancing, was not graceful ;
but was somewhat violent, and not altogether decent. Their language
was soft; and | heard terminal vowels only, the two syllables ‘goonga’
frequently recurring. I read to them some translations in the Galla ;
but this proved to be a different language, and they did not recog-
nise a word. On being questioned on the subject, the first girl said,
“she did not wish to return home, for her relations were all dead ;”’

216 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

and some tears followed the allusion to the subject. Beads being
offered; she preferred the red to the blue, according to the general
taste in this part of Africa. Of the other girls, one came from ‘ Ka-
puta;’ and the third, from ‘ Aseta.’

A fourth girl whom I interrogated, was too young to give much
information ; and she besides, had not yet learned the Soahili lan-
guage. It appeared, that she “had been stolen by some Chaga ; that
she came from the vicinity of the Kilmungaro mountain” (which is
visible from the sea); and that she “understood the language of the
other girls, when they were brought together.”

A highly intelligent lad, who had the lobe of one ear perforated,
stated, that the size of this opening among the M’Kuafi “indicates
the rank of the individual; the king having one of very remarkable
dimensions.” With regard to his own history, he stated, that ‘on the
oceasion of an attack by some foreign tribe, he with other children,
hid themselves ; but the circumstance had been observed from a dis-
tance by some Wampugo, who came to the spot and carried them
away. ‘lhe towns of the M’Kuafi are not fixed; but when the grass
fails, a new one is made in another place. ‘The M’Kuafi ride don-
keys; they eat beef and sheep, and drink water and milk. It is cus-
tomary when a man kills a bullock, to send a piece to the king, to
give away another on account of circumcision, and then to call his
friends to eat the remainder. There are cameleopards in the country ;
and poor people, who have no bullocks, kill them for food, taking them
in pitfalls, or sometimes with poison. The mode of circumcising, dif-
fers from that prevailing among Muslims. The government likewise
differs ; and if one man kills another, the price of blood is from ten to
twenty bullocks.”’

“The M’Kuafi put on a cap of ostrich feathers, when they go out to
fight. Ona former occasion, they beat the M’Sigua, taking all the
cattle, which they sold at Zanzibar. They fight with the Wakamba,
towards sunrise; and they are so warlike, that they would fight even
with their nearest relations. ‘They sometimes go to the Monomoisy
country, to fight and take property; but not into the country of the
Chaga, with whom they do not fight, unless meeting by accident.
They fight however with the Lupalaconga, who live on a mountain,
and speak the same language with the Chaga;” and who, according
to his description, must be a Negro tribe.

- “Vis people once went towards sunrise to fight with the Sikir
washi; who are the nation called Galla at Zanzibar. They saw a

THE ETHIOPIAN RACE. 217
large river, which ‘came dry,’ and men carrying large spears, who
spoke a different language from their own. They took all the cattle,
the donkeys, and the fat-tailed sheep; but they disdained taking the
horses, an animal they had never before seen. ‘The king of the Sikir-
washi wears a large beard, while the rest of the people shave, using
for the purpose a sort of small iron chisel; and these practices prevail
equally with the M’Kuafi.”

When the lad was asked about the Mussai, he rejoined with some
emotion; “they who break my country; he knew them well. They
dwell further inland than the M’Kuafi.”

He did not know how old he was, and asked, “if any one could tell
him. His people have no prayers; he could not speak lies. He did
not wish to return to his native country ; he had got no bullocks. He
was now a slave; no matter, he should soon die. He did not know
where he should go to, after death. He had heard that God made
him; that was all.”

MUSSAL

The Mussai, hold the country west of the M’Kuafi; and they are
the most distant of the pastoral tribes known at Zanzibar. Accord-
ing to the girl above-mentioned, they speak the same language as the
M’Kuafi; with whom they agree in not cultivating the soil, and in
living exclusively on milk and meat. Indeed, all the accounts show
them to be a kindred nation.

My interpreter, Sadik, had conversed with persons, who, on a
trading expedition to Chaga, saw there some of the Mussai. ‘These
were described, as being “like the M’Kuafi, but stronger; and as hav-
ing shields that reach to the breast; together with long-pointed spears
and round-headed clubs, neither of which are missile. The young
men only, go out to fight, sometimes five hundred of them in a body ;
and when they capture a town, they put to death all except the hand-
some women; remaining afterwards for two or three days upon the
ground, lest they should seem to run away.”

595

218 | PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

OTHER ETHIOPIANS.

I have felt much uncertainty respecting the physical race of the
Fellata of Central Africa; especially, as the descriptions of them by
Denham and Clapperton, seem to accord entirely with the Ethiopian.

The Foula, who dwell nearer the Western coast, are said to be
connected in language and customs with the Fellata, except that they
are not Muslims; and to differ from the Negro tribes among which
they are scattered, in leading a pastoral hfe. A Foula seen at the
Cape Verd Islands by Mr. Hale, did not appear to him to differ in
physical race from the Negro.

A trader at Zanzibar, on seeing the M’Kuafi above-mentioned,
assured me that he had met with the same sort of people on the
Western coast of Africa; but whether these were Foulas, or ‘ Moors’
of the Southern Sahara, he was uncertain.

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The MOTUVENT OT Race. PI, Xo

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A Bosjesman lad.

WHDougal Sc.

Fram a Daguerreotype

CHAPTER XI.
THE HOTTENTOT RACE

I am not sure that I have seen Hottentots of pure race; and in the
following account, I am obliged to rely in part on published figures
and descriptions of them. Eye-witnesses uniformly agree in regard-
ing the Hottentot as differing in physical race from the Negro; and
they refer to the diminutive stature, and the light complexion; the
latter, in some well-authenticated instances, having even been known
to exhibit a flush.

Both races seem to be alike in the texture of the hair, which is more
closely woolly than in the rest of mankind; and to agree also, in the
general style of feature. But many travellers describe the Hottentot
countenance, as being to a marked degree peculiar.

I am inclined to think, that the coloured portrait of a Hottentot
woman in F’. Cuvier’s Mammiféres, will prove to be a characteristic
representation of the race.

The three days I spent at the Cape of Good Hope, were in great
part occupied in an unsuccessful search for examples of the Hottentot
race. Some individuals of mixed descent, were pointed out to tne,
and I thought I could myself distinguish others. A wagon from the
Interior, was accompanied by several individuals who differed in their
personal appearance from mulattoes; and who, like the other mixed
Hottentots I saw, were rather good-looking. Hottentots were said to
he extremely serviceable, and indeed indispensable, to military expe-
ditions; as well from their knowledge of the country, as from their
intimate acquaintance with the habits of the Kaffer tribes.

I have found many points of interest in the Hottentot character, as
portrayed by travellers; who universally bear testimony to the faith-
fulness, efficiency, and courage of their guides in trying situations,

220 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

amid the dangers of this difficult and desolate country. Unlike many
wild tribes, the Hottentot did not shrink before the advance of Eu-
ropeans ; but readily adopting the habits of civilization, these people
have ever proved active and useful assistants to the colonist; their
history in this respect, contrasting strongly with that of the neigh-
bouring Kaffer tribes. Indeed, the advantage of the Hottentot cha-
racter appears to have contributed essentially to the admission of Eu-
ropeans into this, the only part of Africa that has proved accessible
to foreigners; and the benefit deserved a better return than unequal
legislation.

The following quotation, is descriptive of the wild life led by the
Bosjesmans of the frontier; who furnish abundant proof, that man in
his natural state is by no means a helpless animal. “They live
among rocks and woods; have a keen vivid eye, always on the alert;
will spring from rock to rock, like the antelope; sleep in nests which
they form in the bushes, and seldom pass two nights in the same
place ; supporting themselves by robbery, or by catching wild ani-
mals, as reptiles and insects.”

Recent discoveries, have shown that the Hottentot race is more
widely diffused than was previously supposed ; and that it extends in
a scattered manner, for an unknown distance towards the heart of Af-
rica. According to the testimony of Owen, Morrell, and others, Hot-
tentot tribes occur along the Western coast, as far as latitude 20°
South; and remain in some instances, still unchanged by contact
with Europeans.

OS Eaploring Expedition. || The ABYSSINIAN Race. PIL, AU o

A native of Abyssinia.

WEDougal Sc.

CHAPTER XII.

Eh AUB YoSis TN TAgN@ RAC hE.

I Have seen but few genuine Abyssinians, and these few have not
presented among themselves a very uniform personal appearance.
In a general way, the race may be said to possess Huropean features
in combination with crisped or frizzled hair. The complexion, how-
ever, though it is often very light, does not appear ever to become
florid.

The race seems to be confined to the table-land of Abyssinia, and
to its prolongation in a mountainous tract that extends towards the
interior of the continent; but even within these limits, there appears
to be a large infusion of Ethiopians, belonging to the Galla tribes.
The Abyssinians, having been converted during the early ages of
Christianity, continue to make pilgrimages to Jerusalem; but other-
wise, their presence in foreign countries, is for the most part involun-
tary.

My first interview with Abyssinians, took place at Singapore ;
where, on entering one of the principal shops, I was greatly sur-
prised to find its three occupants differing in physical race from all
the men I had previously met with. ‘The wonder increased, on per-
ceiving their superiority in refinement and intelligence over the other
Orientals around; and that although so unlike, they did not, on these
points, seem to fall below Europeans.

The hair was much alike in all three, and was crisped and fine ;
neither coarse enough, nor in sufficient quantity, to form a resisting
mass. ‘The beard of one individual, was in pellets, absolutely like
the close wool of the Negro; but the prominence of nose, greater
even than usually occurs in the White race, bore sufficient testimony
to his purity of descent. ‘The second individual, had the face very

56

6

wo

29 PHY STCALVER LS TORY 4037 SMeAVN:

much elongated, but the nose was not particularly prominent. The
third individual, had a straighter beard ; which was black and gray in
regular stripes, as in another instance already mentioned. 'The com-
plexion was the same in all three, and though very light, was by no
means of a sickly hue; and indeed, these persons might readily have
been passed in the street, as belonging to the White race.

The last-mentioned and principal man, was an Arab by education,
and perhaps partly by descent. He was acquainted with Southern
Arabia and Eastern Africa, and he spoke of Americans residing at
Zanzibar; he named also, “ Yummen, Melinda, and Larno,” but the
place he appeared to be most familiar with, was Mukdusha. He had
a large stock of Surat stuffs, cottons and silks, some of them, of rich
and costly patterns, such as are worn by the most wealthy among the
Arabs.

A fourth individual belonging to the Abyssinian race, was seen at
Singapore; a woman, who was called a Koffri, and who was living in
a European family. She was unwilling to make her appearance be-
fore strangers; but a momentary glance, enabled me to distinguish
the elongated style of countenance above-mentioned, unaccompanied
by any perceptible signs of Negro descent.

At Zanzibar, a rough-looking man attracted my attention, on ac-
count of the texture of his hair; which, besides being crisped, was
coarse and wiry like that of the Feejeeans. A further agreement was
observed in the complexion; but the expression of countenance, dif-
fered totally from both the Feejeean and Ethiopian, the nose being
even upturned. ‘This man stated, that “he was born in Habsy; but

having been brought away while very young, he did not know by

what route he had arrived at Zanzibar,” whether by the Red Sea, or
otherwise.

All the other genuine Abyssinians met with, were seen at Mocha.
The first of them, was as fair-complexioned as the Arabs of the middle
class, and was even mistaken for one by my Arab interpreter; who,
however, on my desiring him to look again, corrected himself, saying,
“at was different blood.” The age of this Abyssinian was about
thirty-five years; and he had formerly been a slave, but he had be-
come free. Another individual was darker, and more resembled a
mulatte, though an obvious difference was soon discovered in the
qualities of the mind: indeed, they both seemed to have a more in-

THE ABYSSINIAN RACE. 293

quiring disposition than the Arabs, especially as they manifested some
desire to be informed about foreign countries. I learned subsequently,
that one of the large ships trading between Mocha and India, was
owned by Abyssinians.

At Mocha also, I became acquainted with a young Abyssinian,
whose feminine amiability plainly told his history: and who ex-
pressed much gratitude for some slight medical assistance. He had
been purchased at a high price; and the Arabs stated, that “he was
born a Christian, but his master had educated him and had made
him Muslim;” a benefit which no one at Mocha thinks of question-
ing. I was further informed, that eunuchs are exclusively imported
from the opposite continent; and that all attempts to perform this
operation in Southern Arabia, had been attended with a fatal result.
All the eunuchs I have ever met with, have belonged either to the
Abyssinian or to the Ethiopian race; both these races indeed, being
often combined in the same individual.

The custom of the country, precluded me from seeing any of the
‘red Abyssinian’ slave-women, who are so highly prized in Arabia ;
but I thought I could distinguish in many of the Southern Arabs, the
marks of this mixed descent.

Among the Somali seen at Mocha, one woman differed strikingly
from her companions in her personal appearance, in her ight com-
plexion, and in the style of countenance. I supposed at the time
that she was an Abyssinian, but I did not learn her history.

I will here insert the opinions of two travellers in Abyssinia, com-
municated to me orally. Mr. Rochon, regarded the Galla as differing
physically from the Abyssinians; and spoke of the latter, as being “a
fine set of people, men absolutely such as ourselves, and capable of
doing anything that we can do; except only, that they have been
secluded from the remainder of the world.”

Mr. Isenberg, whom I saw at Bombay, thought that “under the
same advantages, Abyssinia might rise to an equality with a Kuro-
pean nation. In times of peace, there is tolerable security for person
and property; and the present condition of Abyssinia, is not very un-
like that of a European nation when distracted with civil war.”

The Abyssinian, is the third physical race, which will enter into
the question of the primitive Egyptians. The profile of the young

224 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

person above-mentioned, corresponded well with that of the monu-
mental Egyptian; and his shaven head, large projecting ears, and
grave expression of countenance, heightened the resemblance. It
seems, however, that the true Abyssinian, (as first pointed out to me
by Mr. Gliddon,) has been separately and distinctly figured on the
Egyptian monuments; in the two men leading a cameleopard in the
tribute-procession to ‘Thouthmosis III.; and this opinion, was con-
firmed by an examination of the original painting at Thebes.

CHAPTER XIII.

THE WHITE OR ARABIAN RACE,

Europeans and European colonists, are comparatively uniform in
their complexion and personal appearance; and they can hardly con-
ceal their origin by dress, even amid the population of Northern
Africa and Northwestern Asia. The inhabitants of the two last-
named countries, present among themselves more diversity; although
at the same time, there is rarely any difficulty in recognising the phy-
sical race.

The White race then, as it exists in Northern climates, may be
characterized by its superiority in lhghtness of complexion, in thin-
ness of lip, in prominence of nose, and in length and copiousness of
beard. No one of these tests, is of itself sufficient to distinguish the
race; for Abyssinians, in some instances, rival it in prominence of
nose; ‘Telingans, or even Ethiopians, in thinness of lip; many Pa-
puans, have as copious a beard; and I have myself seen the florid
complexion among Mongolians of high Northern latitudes. So far
however as my observation has extended, flaxen hair, red hair, and
blue eyes, (albinoes being excepted,) are found only in the White
race.

The hottest portion of the globe, appears to be about seventeen de-
grees in width, counting from latitude 27° North, and extends from
the Atlantic Ocean to the Ganges. One third perhaps of this im-
mense tract is inhabited by the White race; although often under a
physical aspect, that would not readily be acknowledged by Euro-
peans. ‘The complexion, always dark, is in frequent instances suffi-
ciently so to conceal a flush; indeed, the Malay-brown complexion
seems rather to predominate; and I have seen Arabs of a deeper hue,
who yet were apparently of unmixed descent: moreover, a considera-
ble proportion of the inhabitants of Southern Arabia, are nearly or

57

226 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

quite beardless. In short, the White race is here protean or polymor-
phous, and exhibits a diversity in feature and complexion that I have
not found in the other races. ‘The prominence of profile is, how-
ever, for the most part permanent; and I further remarked, that the
various series of expressions of countenance, which pertain respec-
tively to the other races, appeared to be absent. It should be ob-
served, however, that actual mixtures of race, have been more fre-
quent and more complicated in the southern Arab countries, and have
been taking place there for a longer period, than in the other parts of
the globe.

While acknowledging that we are only beginning to be acquainted
with the countries and people of the East, I have been impressed with
one view of the circumstances, in correspondence apparently with an
ancient condition of the human family. In the course of my recent
tour, [ was continually hearing from the lips of Orientals the words of
different ancient and modern European languages; until at last, the
whole class of these languages, seemed as if merely recomposed from
fragments of Arabic and Sanscrit. Of fragments indeed, which have
been disguised more or less by interchanges during some thousands
of years; and if any European words can be traced to a different
source, they at least remain to be pointed out.

The same state of things appears to exist in the Malay class of
languages; and instances have been discovered, of English words
which can be traced through the Sanscrit to the remotest islands of
the Pacific. The rule may perhaps be further extended to the lan-
guages of the African continent; but whether applicable in any de-
gree to the Chinese, or to the aboriginal American languages, I am
uninformed.

At the present day, the White race may be conveniently disposed
in two divisions, as well geographical, as differing in institutions and
habits of life; the Frank or European, and the Oriental. The ex-
traordinary intensity of heat, in some of the countries inhabited by
the White race, may help to explain a portion of these differences.

One of the above divisions, may in some measure be said to rule
the land, as the other rules the sea; for the extent of the caravan
routes, is almost an equivalent to the universal maritime intercourse
now attained by Europeans.

THE ARABIAN RACE. O27

EUROPEAN COLONISTS.

At the present day, Europeans and their descendants, are to be
found in most parts of the globe that are accessible by sea; the Hast-
ern coast of Asia, together with New Guinea and the neighbouring
islands, forming the only considerable exceptions. This modern ex-
tension of the White race, has not been represented on the accompa-
nying map; but it should be observed, that the intrusion on other
races, has been much more feeble than is commonly supposed, and
that in no other part of the world, has so great a change taken place
as in North America.

Although separate notices seem hardly to be required, I have con-
cluded to insert the followimg,; from notes taken chiefly during the
progress of the Exploring Expedition.

Madeira, having been discovered in modern times, and having been
found uninhabited, must be regarded as a colony; although in the
character of its population, it seems rather to form a part of Europe.
A week spent at this island, chiefly in a journey with horses of
nearly a hundred miles, afforded me a fair opportunity of seeing the
inhabitants. According to an idea commonly entertained in regard to
the Spanish and Portuguese, I had anticipated universal swarthiness,
with the hair and eyes invariably black; but I found as much va-
riety in complexion and feature as at home, and many instances even
of flaxen hair.

The singularly rugged character of the surface, (the roads intersect-
ing deep mountain ravines and leading along the brink of frightful
precipices,) tends greatly to impede intercourse. At San Vincente,
on the northern coast, we were told that but three travellers had
visited the place during the preceding four months: and one of the
Catholic Fathers residing there, had grown gray in that single ra-
vine, which he had never once left since his first arrival.

The peasantry of Madeira, appeared to be laborious, civil, and sober ;
but the idea of political rights, in all probability, seldom enters their
heads; it may be doubted, whether the news of the great world
around, ever reaches them. In secluded situations, we sometimes
met with young persons in a state of nudity, and on one occasion,
with several who were nearly full-grown. ‘The strange tone of

2283 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

voice everywhere heard, was explained by Mr. Drayton; for it ap-
peared, that “the peasantry in their conversation and music, habi-
tually use the minor key.”

During the few hours spent on shore at the Cape Verd Islands, I
saw only three or four Whites; who were residing in the town of
Porto Praya. ‘They were sallow and languid; having evidently suf-
fered in their health, from the powerful influence of the sun.

At Rio Janeiro, I did not find the like marks of a deteriorating in-
fluence in the climate; and the popular prejudice against the general
healthiness of the Tropics, was soon perceived to be without founda-
tion. In the city, artisans direct from Europe, were seen working
steadily at their various vocations; some of which, such as that of the
blacksmith, were peculiarly oppressive.

In the course of an excursion beyond the Organ Mountains, I had
an opportunity of witnessing some of the hardships of a life in Interior
Brazil. I had previously imagined with many in the North, that the
bane of tropical climates, consisted in the absence of a stimulus to in-
dustry ; and that the soil poured forth, almost spontaneously, a profu-
sion of dainties in addition to the necessaries of life; I was therefore
unprepared to find the stigma of luxury reflected back upon my own
countrymen, even upon those undergoing the reputed privations of our
frontiers. Among other peculiarities in manners, derived to all ap-
pearance from the parent country, the seclusion of the women may
be mentioned; for their existence in certain families, appeared to be
known chiefly through report.

During our short stay at the mouth of the Rio Negro, in North
Patagonia, 1 did not come in contact with many of the inhabitants.
One of the pilots, was a Frenchman; and the other, an Englishman ;
and I met with three individuals from the United States.

The remainder, about twenty in number, were ‘guachos, or mounted
herdsmen; who (with the exception of some Negroes) were of Spanish
descent; and who were rendered conspicuous in the distance, by the
scarlet and white of their fantastic dress. It has been said, that the
guachos, “owing to their being perpetually on horseback, appear per-
sonally to disadvantage when dismounted ;”” I did not remark this; but
I saw some well-formed men, who moreover did not appear to be defi-
cient in either intelligence or general information. I observed, how-

THE ARABIAN RACE. 229

ever, an evident disinclination to walking; and it must be a rare cir-
cumstance in this region, to meet a man on foot. ‘The country has
such a desert aspect, that it is matter of astonishment, how the great
numbers of horses and bullocks are enabled to procure subsistence.

We here began to perceive an influence in the surface of a country,
in modifying the habits of its population. In an open accessible re-
gion, men in the course of their ordinary pursuits, become accustomed
to rove widely ; tenfold more, than in agricultural districts; or even
a hundred fold more, than where hemmed in by close woods.

Northern Chit, although less barren in aspect than the country on
the Rio Negro, supports comparatively fewer cattle; but being broken
and mountainous, irrigation for agricultural purposes, is sometimes
available. The climate seems extremely healthy, as is shown, among
other circumstances, by the robust forms of the women of the lower
orders. The hospitality and obliging disposition of the country
people, formed a strong contrast to the habits of the Brazilians; and
extended even to annoyance on our botanical excursions, by the offer
of horses.

At a ball given in honour of a victory, I had occasion to admire the
good taste shown in the arrangements, and the dancing; an accom-
plishment in which the Spanish ladies are acknowledged to excel;
and I was also struck with the similarity between such fetes in this
remote quarter of the globe, and those I had attended at home.

It will be difficult to find another continental nation that is so com-
pletely isolated by natural boundaries; the Andes forming a barrier
to the extension of population on the East, and the Atacaman desert,
on the North. Chili is generally conceded to be in advance.of the
other Spanish American countries; among which, it alone has en-
joyed internal tranquillity. It should also be observed, that only in
one direction can Chili conveniently carry on foreign war.

The English language, was found to be making progress in Chili.
I often heard it spoken; and I observed translations on many of the
sign-boards, both at Valparaiso and in the Interior; showing the nu-
merical importance of customers from England and the United States.
Of other foreign residents, those from Germany and France, appeared
to be the most numerous.

A change had taken place in the relations between the former domi-
nions of Spain, and a severe battle had been fought immediately prior
58

230 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

to our arrival in Perw. Lima, in consequence, was occupied by Chi-
lian troops; and in many respects, Peru was a conquered country.
Ata religious procession, I had the opportunity of viewing the mili-
tary forces of both nations; and of remarking the much greater mix-
ture of physical race among the Peruvian troops; even after allowing
for the influence of recent events, in filling the ranks in an unusual
manner from the Aboriginal stock. According to the census of 1803,
the unmixed Whites at that time composed little more than one eighth
of the population of Lower Peru. What change may have since taken
place, Lam uninformed; but I remarked an obviously greater propor-
tion of Whites in the city of Lima, which is the principal resort of
foreigners.

Amid the general analogy to the dress and customs of Chili, some
particulars have evidently been derived from the aboriginal inhabi-
tants; together with certain gross usages, which cannot fail to arrest
the attention of the stranger.

The country-women are often seen mounted upon donkeys; and
their peculiar mode of riding, and the ease and grace with which
they descend and remount, have been much admired; while the
broad-brimmed hat, the small cigar, and the knife which report
places in the stocking, give them a striking air of independence.

There were also circumstances, that brought to mind the early date
of the settlement by Europeans; such as the novelty in America, of a
walled city; and the Moorish costume of the higher class of females,
even to the concealment of the face when they appear in public.

At the distance of only twelve degrees from the Equator, I did not
anticipate finding cloaks in common use. It is true, we had arrived
in what was called the ‘cool season ;’ but the sky throughout the year
is very generally overcast, and in addition to the frequent drizzle,
there is a prevalent feeling of moisture in the atmosphere. ‘There
are, however, no proper rains, and provision against running water,
has been found unnecessary in the streets and buildings. ‘The ex-
tremes of cold and heat, appear to be nearly 60° and 85° of Fahren-
heit; and during our stay, (which included June and the beginning
of July,) we uniformly found the morning temperature below 70°;
yet we often heard complaints of the variableness of the climate.

Intermittent fevers are rather frequent, but otherwise, the country
appeared healthy; although it is evidently less so, than Chili. The
market is abundantly supplied with an immense variety of articles ;

THE ARABIAN RACE. 23]

and there are probably few spots on the globe, where so many luxu-
ries for the table can be procured. But there is one drawback, in the
frequent occurrence of earthquakes; for these are events, to which the
human mind does not become habituated.

The country is for the most part devoid of vegetation ; and would
be uninhabitable, did not streams from the Andes afford the means of
irrigation. In the district of Atacama, further south, the streams do
not reach the coast.

At the base of the Peruvian Andes, the soil was found to be
clothed with vegetation; and the inclined roofs of the buildings
showed the occurrence of rain. Villages soon became frequent, some
of them containing as many as a hundred houses; but the people
were in the practice of leaving home to attend to their flocks at a
distance; their habits being chiefly pastoral. Their miserable style
of living, while surrounded by abundant means, seemed truly re-
markable.

In two separate valleys, our party found the last village about
eleven thousand feet above the sea, and precisely at the upper limit
of cultivation; which terminated with the tuberous roots of the 'Tro-
peolum, Oxalis, Basella, and common potato. Above this elevation,
is the ‘paramera;’ a cold region, avoided by the inhabitants of the
lower country, but yet affording pasturage, and containing scattered
houses. Moisture increasing with the ascent, the reverse of the state
of things in Chili, the Peruvian Andes do not present a barrier to
population; and the dreary tract along their crest, is further enlivened
by mining stations.

Already on the Andes, we thought we perceived a feeling of inde-
pendence of the seat of government; and we were assured, that at
their Eastern base, in territory nominally Peruvian, one may live in
ease and abundance, altogether beyond the reach of the revolutions at
Lima.

California, the only other Spanish-American country I have visited,
presented a third variation in the costume; which was again fantastic,
and unlike anything Huropean. ‘The Californians are mounted herds-
men, skilled in the use of the lasso; and they are as expert in feats of
horsemanship as their brethren of the far South. Great ignorance of
geography and of foreign countries, was found to prevail even among
the upper ranks, as we had remarked at Lima.

232 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

In the other countries visited by the Expedition, the Huropean
emigrants had not acquired separate nationality. ‘They were rather
residents ; or if born on the spot, they nevertheless did not differ from
the population of Europe and the United States.

Two instances came to my knowledge, of Europeans trying a resi-
dence at the Paumotu coral islands. An individual found at Raraka,
according to his own account, had been wrecked there; and he was
glad to obtain a passage in the Vincennes to Taheiti. One of our
own men deserted at Manhii; but we learned subsequently, that not
finding his new situation agreeable, he left by the first opportunity.

The Hawaiian, is the only Polynesian group, on which foreigners
are established in sufficient numbers to form anything like society.
Some hundreds of them, chiefly from the United States, were resid-
ing at the commercial centre, the town of Honolulu.

The island of Tahette, has also become an important place of resort
for shipping; but its commercial advantages are inferior to those of
the Hawaiian group, and we met with but few European residents,
who were unconnected with the mission.

Huropeans had but recently established themselves at the Samoan
or Navigator Islands; and, excepting the missionaries, they consisted
exclusively of runaway sailors. I met with seven on Savaii; and
nearly a hundred were supposed to be scattered about the group;
some following the occupations of pilots, blacksmiths, or interpreters ;
but the majority, coutent to obtain without labour the means of sub-
sistence ; and certain individuals had even adopted the Samoan cos-
tume. In various native families, White men were kept as a sort
of pet; although “they were at liberty to leave at any moment,
provided that they took nothing away.”’ ‘The value, however, of this
description of property, within a short time, had much depreciated
in the estimation of the natives.

Prior to the arrival of the missionaries, a vessel happened to be
wrecked on the Samoan Islands; and, by the advice of the captain,
several of the crew took up this profession as a means of support.
Some churches were built under their auspices; and one of the per-
sons concerned, assured me in all sincerity, “that he instructed the
natives as well as he knew how.”

Intercourse with Europeans, had indirectly led to the founding of
a new religion, by Siovidi; a native, who had served on board Eng-
lish vessels, and who had formed his plans in the course of a visit to

THE ARABIAN RACE 233
Taheiti. He had met with some success in obtaining followers among
the Samoans.

Although Tongataboo has been so much frequented, Europeans had
not exerted much influence over the minds of the natives. Indeed a
low island like this, which produces chiefly cocoa-nuts and bananas,
and is otherwise not an agreeable place of residence, may probably
for years to come, offer a point of resistance.

There were many European residents around the Bay of Islands,
in New Zealand ; and in the course of our excursions it was ascer-
tained, that runaway sailors were living in some of the native villages
on much the same footing as at the Samoan Islands.

A short time prior to our arrival in New Zealand, a cession of so-
vereignty had been obtained from the natives, mainly, through the
influence of the missionaries. Whatever opinion may be formed re-
specting the course pursued by these gentlemen, the fact should not
be lost sight of, that they were acting under instructions from home.

Europeans have obtained foothold in Austraha, by introducing
useful animals and plants previously unknown in that country. The
same process indeed, had to some extent taken place in New Zealand ;
except that here, the native population was more ready to take advan-
tage of the new means of subsistence.

To return to the Tropics. Captain Vanderford, who was making
his tenth voyage round the world, and who had witnessed in a
sealing vessel the founding of the English colony in Australia, was
likewise present at the opening of the trade with the Feeee Islands.
This was accomplished thirty-one years previous to our visit, by
William Putnam Richardson, of Salem: and Captain Vanderford
had inherited the middle name of his former commander, the Fee-
jeeans finding the terminal one difficult of pronunciation.

Some convicts from Australia, reached the Feejee Islands a little
earlier; and among them, an Irishman, whom we found still living
after a residence of forty years. At one time, this man had attained
higher honours than will probably be hereafter conferred on a Kuro-
pean; among other marks of distinction, having a hundred wives.
And he continued to be a favourite with the natives, although the
number of his wives had been reduced to three. His children,
amounted in all to forty-seven.

234 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

At Rewa, we found a European wearing the native costume, who
had been brought to the place when quite young, and who had no
wish to leave; being content to remain in a condition not far removed
from servitude.

The White men established at Ovolau, were it is true, dependent
for support upon the labour of the natives; but their position clearly
demanded more energy of character, than a residence among Polyne-
sians. Being well provided with fire-arms and ammunition, they
added to the influence of the chief of the district ; who, on his part,
was glad to reciprocate the benefit by extending to them his protec-
tion. ‘They had put an end, within the limits of his territory, to the
practice of cannibalism.

In the Hast Indies, we met with but two or three Europeans of
the lower class; and these expressed dissatisfaction with their situa-
tion, and they evidently could not maintain themselves among the
surrounding population. ‘The European residents, continue to be
confined to those portions of the Archipelago which are under Euro-
pean rule; and they consist of the officers of government, civil, mili-
tary, and ecclesiastic, and of a few persons engaged in foreign com-
merce. Persons of European descent, more or less mixed, now form
an intermediate class of some importance.

European power in Hzndoostan, amounts rather to the possession of
the government than to a proper colony; for should it now cease,
there would scarcely be a separate class of population left behind ;
except only, in the instance of the mixed Portuguese.

Of mixed European colonies, the most complicated perhaps, is the
recent establishment of the English at Aden; where, without count-
ing the troops, the majority of the inhabitants, appeared to be volun-
tary emigrants from Hindoostan.

HEBREWS.

The White men met with previous to arriving at Singapore, had
been exclusively of the European stock; and only at that place, did
the Exploring Expedition come in contact with Orientals; with men
physically like ourselves, who yet differed from us in their customs,
and who had not derived their arts and acquirements from Europe.

THE ARABIAN RACE. 235

The Jews indeed, at the present day, are common to both divisions
of the race; being spread abroad like a net, throughout all the coun-
tries possessed by Whites; and even to a short distance beyond, in
the instances of Abyssinia and India. Their various adopted countries
having for ages exerted modifying influences, four classes may now
be distinguished in the Jewish family: the Syrian, Indian, Arabian,
and European Jews.

I first saw Syrian Jews at Singapore; some ten or twelve indivi-
duals, who were robed and turbaned, and who in person appeared to
advantage among the surrounding population. ‘The complexion was
fair; and in a different costume, they probably would not have been
distinguished from Europeans. One of them, who spoke English, in-
vited me into his shop; and stated in the course of conversation, that
“he came from Aleppo, when quite young; travelling by land with
his father to India.” He knew nothing of the Malabar Jews; and in
respect to the origin of black Jews, he showed us one in his service,
who was of mixed Telingan descent. He was unwilling to acknow-
ledge the fellowship of Kuropean Jews, some of whom he had seen at
Calcutta; objecting, that they shaved the beard, and in various other
particulars he thought they had departed from the law. He spoke
of a European Jew then residing at Singapore; but said, that “he
should never think of questioning him on the subject of religion,
unless on the occasion of a proposal to marry a daughter.”

At Bombay, I saw a Jew, who, about twenty-five years previously,
came by land from Jerusalem. He stated in regard to his journey
through so many foreign countries, “that he found Jews along the
whole route, with whom he could communicate in the Hebrew lan-
guage.”

The agent of the English government at Muscat, a Jew probably
of the Syrian class, died a short time previous to my arrival at that
city. I saw there, however, a young Jew from Bagdad; whose scanty
turban included the Kgyptian ‘turboosh,’ and who wore a side-lock,
differing however in some respects, from that of the Arabian Jews.
He carried a rosary or string of prayer-beads, like the Catholics and
Muslims ; a custom of high antiquity.

A Jew had resided for several years at Zanzibar; to which place
‘he came in a dow,” it is presumed, for purposes of commerce. I
did not learn his further history ; but from his allowing the whole of

236 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

his beard to grow without regard to a side-lock, I supposed him to be
a Syrian Jew.

I did not observe the side-lock among the Jews of Egypt; who like-
wise belong to the Syrian class. They inhabit a distinct quarter of
the city of Cairo; where, as in Kurope, their principal occupation ap-
peared to be, dealing in money. Their traditionary acounts of Kgyp-
tian matters, have not proved to be of much value. On viewing, how-
ever, the scenes of their early history, one can better realize the won-
derful and unique development of a whole nation from a single family.

At Bombay, the Inp1an Jews form a considerable body of artisans
among the lower orders of the population. The greater proportion
of them, distinguish themselves as Beni-Israel; and in the opinion of
competent inquirers, the title had not been lightly assumed. Poly-
gamy, I was informed, “exists among the Beni-Israel, but principally,
when the first wife proves barren; and the ancient custom of marry-
ing a brother’s widow, is not continued.”

In such of the Beni-Israel as were pointed out to me, I did not
perceive any peculiarity in personal appearance distinguishing them
from the rest of this Jewish community ; which presented an unex-
pected variety in feature, complexion, and even in costume. I ob-
served, however, one point of agreement, in the head being shaved ;
entirely in some instances, but usually in such a manner as to leave
traces of a side-lock. The head-mantle, apparently a relic of the life
of their forefathers in the Desert, was used in the synagogue; and
their religious service was the more impressive, as being practised in
the midst of an idolatrous population.

“A few years ago, the Bombay Jews were in a very low and de-
graded state; being dependent for the little Hebrew they possessed,
on the Arabian Jews; by whom they were held in very little con-
sideration. ‘The attention of the missionaries having been turned in
this direction, the Bombay Jews were supplied with printed copies
of the Scriptures ; since which time, their knowledge of Hebrew had
become more general, and their condition in other respects had im-
proved. ‘They had expressed much gratitude for the benefit, saying,
that the sun then rose upon them for the first time.”

I saw numbers of Arabian Jews at Aden; which place seems to
have been principally inhabited by them, prior to the English occu-

THE ARABIAN RACE. 237

pancy. ‘They appeared to have preserved more of the primitive He-
brew customs, than I have seen among their brethren in other coun-
tries. Their style of architecture, offered unexpected analogy to the
ancient Arabic as depicted on the Egyptian monuments; the build-
ings being devoid of arches and of all curved lines, but having square
towers with battlements, and at each story a projecting ledge.

The men wore long side-locks, reaching from above the ear to the
shoulder; and these may perhaps constitute “the corners of the
beard,” in the passage of Scripture which has sometimes been dif-
ferently interpreted. ‘The women had their eyelids and eyebrows
painted, and they wore a large silver ring in the nose, and numbers
of similar ones in the ears: children sometimes had their ears folded
downwards with the weight of the rings inserted around the margin.
Education, as among the southern Arabs, was general; and all the
children attended school.

In this scorching climate, the Jewish complexion, instead of being
in any degree florid, presented a universal tinge of yellow; but it was
obviously lighter than the hue of the common Arabs of the country.
Some of the boys had a coarse expression of countenance combined
with flaxen hair; reminding me of faces seen occasionally in North-
ern climates, and at variance with the usual Jewish physiognomy.
I do not remember on any other occasion, meeting with flaxen hair
among the Orientals.

It would seem, that the Hebrew is not altogether a dead language
with the Jews of Aden; but they commonly use the Arabic, which
they write with the Hebrew character. I obtained from them a copy
of the Pentateuch, “written at Sanaa, in the Interior;’’ and I saw
another work in the Hebrew character, which “had been brought
from Bagdad.” It was said, that the Aden Jews, refused to hold com-
munion with their Indian brethren who had been brought to the place
by the English, and that they worshipped apart.

The Jews at Mocha, lived outside the walls of the town, in a vil-
lage by themselves; and they consisted of artisans, especially builders,
as at Aden. Notwithstanding a residence for many successive gene-
rations, the complexion remained lighter, and the beard longer, than
in the Arabs of Mocha.

With respect to the Jews of Abyssinia, geographical considerations
would lead us to suppose, that they were originally derived from
Southern Arabia, rather than by the route of Egypt and the Nile.

60

238 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN:

While at Zanzibar, I asked one of the best-informed Arabs, whether
he knew of any place bearing a name similar to Ophir: he at once
mentioned “'Thofar or Dhofar,”’ a well-known town on the southern
coast of Arabia. He found no resemblance in the word to ‘ Zofal’ or
Sofala; a country of which he had often heard, and which an Arab
then in town, had visited. On reflection, it has appeared to me, that
Dhofar may very well have been the limit of the voyages of Solo-
mon’s ships; taking into account the monsoons, and especially the
length of time subsequently occupied by Darius’s Expedition from
the Indus to the head of the Red Sea.*

ARMENIANS.

Of all Orientals, the Armenians, next to the Jews, are most fre-
quently to be met with in the society of EKuropeans. They do not
occupy much space in history; but it seems a remarkable circum-
stance, that without any decided distinctive traits, they should have
preserved their nationality from remote antiquity.

My acquaintance with Armenians, commenced at Singapore; and
from their uropean costume, their florid complexion, their manners
and familiar use of the language, I did not at first suspect them to be
other than English. They were engaged in commerce, and some of
them had acquired great wealth. The Armenian church gave evi-
dence of a taste for architecture, that seemed hardly to have been
acquired through modern Europe; and unexpectedly in the Hast
Indies, brought to mind Balbec and Palmyra.

Indeed Rome was often spoken of, by the Orientals at Singapore;
a circumstance that, with the various antiquated expressions and trains
of thought, at length reminds one, that the ‘astern Empire’ is really
extant, in the rule of Constantinople. A Muslim at Singapore, once
invited me into his shop, and questioned me respecting American in-
stitutions, for the evident purpose of satisfying his mind, whether my
countrymen were really without a king.

The range of Armenian emigration, is chiefly a northern one; ex-
tending from the Mediterranean, by the way of Constantinople, to
Northern Hindoostan, and to Calcutta. I heard nothing of Arme-
nians in the Arab countries, nor in Southwestern Hindoostan, except

* See Herodotus ; Melpomene, 44.

THE ARABIAN RACE. 239

at the city of Bombay. Here, I saw several of their tombs in the
European burying-ground; and I remarked, that they were pro-
vided with a niche for burning incense, like those of the Indian
Muslims.

In the Mediterranean, Armenians are now frequent passengers in
the steamboats to and from the Levant; a circumstance attributable
in a good measure, to the extent of their commercial relations. Many
Armenians, are doubtless settled in the principal cities of the United
States ; although their presence may not be generally known.

ASSYRIANS.

I have not heard of any modern distinctive name for the inhabitants
of the valley of the Euphrates, and I have therefore had recourse to
an ancient appellation. ‘The district is well known on the Indian
Ocean, as belonging to Turkey; its southern angle being interposed
between Persia and the territory of the Arabs. Formerly, it was the
seat of the power of the Caliphs; and although the lower country has
been much overrun by Arab tribes, I believe there is some separate
nationality remaining.

While conversing at Singapore with a Barbary Arab, an individual
interposed with great ease and address, to assist in the interpretation.
His polished manners, and the graceful disposition of his turban (an
art regarded as very difficult), at once attracted attention. According
to his own account, he belonged, to Babylon (Bagdad). And in reply
to a question respecting the personal appearance of the Bedouins, he
stated, that “some of them were white, others brown, and that some
were black.”” The conversation, however, was soon interrupted by
his withdrawing, having taken umbrage at the rudeness of European
manners. His complexion was at least as fair and as clear as that of
any northern EKuropean; and in costume and mental refinement, he
differed widely from the Turks of the Mediterranean.

From the geographical position, it seems probable, that many na-
tives of the valley of the Euphrates, visit Hindoostan and the shores
of the Persian Gulf; but none were pointed out to me on my recent
journey, and perhaps, they are not generally distinguished from other
Muslims.

240 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

MOGULS.

I have not found a more convenient name for the modern Persians,
than that of Moguls; which I sometimes heard applied to them at
Bombay; but the term, I believe, is also used in reference to rank.
Numbers of these Persian emigrants, were settled at Bombay ; where
they were distinguished, by wearing in place of a turban a high pointed
cap, made apparently of black lambskin. ‘They seemed to be a rude,
hardy, able-bodied set of men; and they were perhaps all of them, from
the Northern section of the country ; for Persians wearing a different
costume will be spoken of hereafter. ‘They belonged among Muslims
to the sect of Ali.

I saw none of the above class of people, at Singapore. But in the
streets of Cairo, 1 once met with several strangers who wore a some-
what similar dress ; and who had doubtless come either from Persia or
from a neighbouring country.

AFGHANS.

Afghans, were spoken of as being by no means rare at Bombay ;
and I met with two or three individuals wearing the Afghan dress,
as this was described to me; but in the absence of my interpreter, I
could not ascertain their place of origin.

Some ‘“Cabul people” were once pointed out to me at Bombay.
These differed from the preceding individuals, in their costume; and
they strongly resembled the Sindians and Bedouins of Northwestern
India. ‘They wore a hemispherical cap, on the top of the head.

SIKHS.

Sikhs were well known at Singapore; which place they had reached
by the route of the Ganges and Calcutta. An individual was pointed
out to me; who was perhaps not a fair example of the nation, and who
was obviously of mixed descent; his complexion was as dark as that
of the Telinga people, but he presented points of resemblance to the
Ethiopian, and even to the Negro race. Notwithstanding that the
Panjab, or country of the Sikhs, is situated on the waters of the
Indus, I did not meet with any of these people at Bombay.

THE ARABIAN RACE, 241

PARSEES.

The Parsees are the living representatives, and remnant of the
Persians of antiquity. And they continue, as in former times, to
reject image-worship, and to pay their adorations to the elements,
holding that of fire in more special reverence. They agree even in
various minor particulars which are related by Herodotus of their
forefathers ;* as in “their names ending without exception alike ;
in those words which are expressive of personal or of any other dis-
tinction, terminating in the Doric san, which is the same with the
Tonic sigma; and in their dead being never interred (placed in the
cemetery) till some bird or dog has discovered a propensity to prey on
them.” When compared with the Parthians, of a somewhat later
period, the points of resemblance will be found to be yet more nu-
merous.

Resident Parsees, were spoken of at Singapore; but I first met
with individuals at Aden. ‘Their settlement here, was in conse-
quence of the English establishment; and unlike the Banians, they
are not found in other parts of Arabia. At Zanzibar, indeed, I met
with two or three Parsee artisans, who had been engaged by the
Imaum, for temporary employment. ‘The servants in some of the
Bombay steamboats, were Parsees; and one of them seen in full cos-
tume on the road to Cairo, reminded me of the strangely different
auspices, under which this people after the lapse of ages, were revisit-
ing the valley of the Nile.

The present head-quarters of the Parsees, is at Bombay ; where, al-
though possessing a less amount of wealth than the Banians, they
have become the most prominent class among the native population.
They vie with their English rulers, in their country-seats, and
showy equipages; and some of their houses have a profusion of
costly furniture. ‘Their commercial relations, extend on the east to
China, and of late years, they have even exported to Europe the pro-
duce of India. They excel also in ship-building; having constructed
most of the vessels belonging to the Imaum of Muscat; and some
ships of the line, built by Parsees for the English government, are
ranked as master-pieces.

* Herodotus, Clio 131 to 140, &c.
ol

242 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

In one wealthy Parsee family, the father bequeathed his estate to
four sons and a daughter, with instructions, “in case they should not
agree, to divide it when the youngest became of age.” Since the
latter event, seven years had elapsed at the time of my visit, and the
property remained intact. ‘The Parsee, who visited England, and
who has published in English an account of his travels, is one of the
brothers of this family.

At the country-seat of a wealthy Parsee, I was shown the apart-
ment of the proprietor’s father, who had been dead “for eighteen
years.” This apartment was kept precisely as if he were still living ;
his bed was made every day, and at the same time, a vase by its side
was supplied with fresh flowers. No religious ideas were connected
with these attentions, the design being solely and literally, to cherish
the memory of the departed.

Charity, forms a leading principle in the Parsee institutions; and
according to English testimony, the habitual discriminative exercise
of this virtue, “renders the Parsees a blessing to those districts in
which they establish themselves.” In fact, the closing scene of life,
is with them a deed of charity ; in the consignment of their bodies to
the vultures.

The Parsee cemetery, on a height near Bombay, was found to con-
sist of several low round towers, open above, and built of stone. The
bodies are deposited on an interior ledge which slopes towards a cen-
tral pit; and the remains of the men, women, and children, are scru-
pulously kept separate in three concentric rows. ‘There was a sepa-
rate tower for the children of Parsees by women of other religions:
the half-casts being admitted into the sect, but not their mothers.

The complexion of a few of the Bombay Parsees, does not materi-
ally differ from that of Europeans; and as their forefathers all came
originally from the north, this was doubtless once the national hue.
Sometimes I thought I could distinguish a European cast of features,
not seen in other Orientals; and one individual, in his personal ap-
pearance and manners, offered an unexpected counterpart to a Scot-
tish friend of mine. Other Bombay Parsees, were as dark or darker
than Malays; owing doubtless, to repeated intermarriages with the
women of their adopted country.

The Parsees shave the head; and wear a round inner cap, like that
of the Arabs. ‘They usually preserve the mustache, but they always
shave the chin. Sometimes a portion of the hair is left on the sides
of the head, in continuation of the whiskers; in accordance in some

TE He AGS AS bE ANN UReACC: Ei: 243

measure, with the practice of the Pharaonic princes. The dress of
the Bombay Parsees, has varied perceptibly within two or three gene-
rations, but always within certain limits; as in respect to the fulness
of the robe.

The costume of the women throughout the Hast, has a general simi-
larity ; whether among the Arabs, Hindoos, or Parsees. Unlike, how-
ever, the practice with the higher class of Arabs, the Parsee women
do not conceal the face.

When a Parsee woman proves unfaithful, “she expiates by poison
the disgrace brought upon her husband and upon the relations on both
sides ;” and an escape from death, notwithstanding the supremacy of
English law, was deemed to be nearly impossible. Marriages take
place during childhood, and the father of the boy, often spends his
whole fortune upon the ceremony; a custom which has also de-
scended to the Muslims of India.

The Parsees wear a religious cord; and they present other points of
affinity with the Bramins. ‘They regard certain animals as unclean ;
and among them the swine, a point in accordance with the Jews and
Muslims.

‘¢Mohammed Shah, the present ruler of Persia, greatly favours the
Parsees; and they are now in a flourishing condition in their native
country. Individuals are continually coming from Shiraz and Yezd ;
and they are received at once by their Bombay brethren. ‘The emi-
grants, do not on their arrival understand the Guzerati language; but
they speak Persian only, and they wear the modern Persian dress.”
Mr. Allen had conversed with one of these emigrants, who came from
beyond Cabul; and who complained greatly of the corruption of the
Parsee religion at Bombay.

The modern profanation of their revered element by the custom of
smoking, has not hitherto extended to the Parsees; and I found that
my not practising this custom, had been remarked by them. It is
commonly said, that Parsees will not fire a musket; but one of the
sect assured me, that his people used muskets at the time when they
fought with the Muslims.

The same individual, spoke of the great power of the Parsees in
former times, and of its sudden departure. He accused the Arabs of
having “burned their great library ; reserving only such books as re-
lated to the resources of the country, with some ancient history.”
And he added, that ‘the few Parsee books now extant, relate only to

244 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

religious subjects, and were brought by the refugees” who found an
asylum in India.

THE ARAB COUNTRIES.

a. Arab Colonists.

Numerous adventurers from Arabia, are scattered around the shores
of the Indian Ocean, and among the East India islands; seeking often
a permanent residence in countries more desirable in every respect
than their own. The Exploring Expedition first met with an Arab at
Sooloo ; who has been already noticed while speaking of the Malayan
race.

At Singapore, various individuals of dissimilar personal appearance,
and even differing in physical race, laid claim to the title of Arabs.
Moreover, we were here introduced to the extraordinary diversity of
aspect, which, independently of mixtures of race, prevails in the south-
ern Arab countries.

I well remember my first interview at Singapore with an Oriental
whose brown complexion and prominent profile perplexed me. With
my subsequent experience, I should at once have recognised this man’s
affinity ; though even now, I would not undertake in all instances to
point out the physical White.

Once about sunset, [ visited the principal mosque. And on inquir-
ing if there was an Arab present, an elderly man of meagre form came
forward ; whose thin lips, arched nose, and fair Kuropean complexion,
would anywhere have vindicated his purity of race. With his white
robes and peculiar turban, he made a picturesque appearance amid
the motley group of Muslims, from various and distant lands; who
had assembled to testify a sense of dependence on Divine power.

The self-styled Arab, spoke such bad Malay, that my interpreter
could make nothing of it; until the Babylonian interposed as already
mentioned. His history was told in the following words: ‘“ Mogreb,”
the West; “a year’s journey with camels beyond Mecca; Arifat, Is-
kander (Alexandria), ‘Tunis ;’”’ and something was said about “eight
or nine days journey beyond Tunis.” Here then, at the furthest limit
of the wanderings of the Orientals, was a man who had travelled from
as far west as England, and chiefly by land! A circumstance that

THE ARABIAN RACE. 245

will appear the more extraordinary, after counting in a fast-sailing
ship, the weary days consumed in traversing a third of the circum-
ference of the globe. Moreover, so far as regards travelling facilities,
the above journey might have been made a thousand years ago; and
as readily perhaps, as at that period one from Rome to London.

b. Arabs of the Mediterranean.

I am now enabled, without deviating much from a strict classifica-
tion of the people met with, to give a connected account of my second
Voyage.

I left Boston on the 11th of October, 1843, in the barque Stamboul ;
and after a voyage of about twenty-five days, we entered the harbour
of Gibraltar. Here we remained for the greater part of a day; but
owing to some formalities in the port-regulations, I was debarred from
landing; and from seeing, in all probability, some of the countrymen
of the above-mentioned Barbary Arab. I am not aware that I sub-
sequently came in contact with more than one; a recluse from
Algiers, who had taken up his residence at the cataract of the Nile.
As, however, Barbary Arabs are continually passing through Egypt
with the Mecca caravans, I may have fallen in with individuals
without distinguishing them.

In November, we arrived at Malta ; where I remained three weeks,
waiting for a passage to Tripoli; but the prospect of further delay,
induced me to abandon my intention of visiting that place. The little
intercourse between the inhabitants of the northern and southern
shores of the Mediterranean, seems a surprising circumstance to a
stranger from the United States; especially when it is considered, that
this little, is chiefly carried on through Gibraltar and Malta. The
identity in language, has contributed to throw the traffic into the
hands of the Maltese; numbers of whom, are now settled around the
southern and eastern borders of the Mediterranean.

On my subsequent visit to Malta, | was better prepared to distin-
guish the many coincidences with the customs of the Arabs; as in the
style of architecture, in the female dress, and in the fashion of early
marriages. Also, in the four-pronged anchors, such as I had seen
used in the Indian Ocean; where, moreover, I had been reminded

62

246 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

by the practice of towing a boat under sail, of some of the incidents
narrated in the Voyage of St. Paul.

The painted row-galleys of Gozo, offer a decided approximation to
the antique Mediterranean model: and the inhabitants of this neigh-
bouring island, which from being without harbours is very little
visited, have retained more of their ancient usages than the Maltese.
I sometimes witnessed the transhipment of Alexandria wheat, for dis-
tribution to surrounding ports; Keypt being, as in the time of the
Romans, the granary of this portion of the Mediterranean.

The antiquities of Malta, although consisting principally of frag-
ments, are extremely interesting; especially, on account of the inti-
mate relations between this island and ancient Carthage. The variety
is unusual; including Phoenician or it may be Carthaginian, early
Greek and Etruscan, Kgyptian, Roman, Saracenic or Muslim-Ara-
bic; and another class already alluded to, which may receive the
provisional name of Mauritanian.

On the 8th of December, I left Malta in the French steamboat; and
on the second day after, we were close in with the rugged mountain-
ous land of Greece. Although forewarned by an ancient writer, that
“Greece was always the child of poverty,” I did not anticipate the
aspect of sterility. Among other undulations of surface offered to our
view, was a valley, remarkable only for having existed in the reminis-
cences of three thousand years; a young Turk, who happened to be
looking in that direction, pronounced its name, ‘ Sparda.”

Astonishment may well be excited, that such a district should have
brought Xerxes out of the depths of Asia. Even in modern times,
this further peninsula is said “to have been never actually conquered ;
the ‘Turks contenting themselves with requiring only some trifling
tribute.”

On the 11th, we arrived at Syra; where, with other passengers, I
was immediately transferred to the Alexandria steamboat. I counted
at Syra, no less than eleven vessels in the course of building; for the
Greeks, as in former ages, still hold the navigation of the eastern
division of the Mediterranean; their vessels being comparatively rare
to the westward of Malta. The Greek costume, is in many respects
half oriental, ike the position of the country; and indeed the people
themselves, according to Hastern classification, are hardly ranked
among Franks or Europeans.

THE ARABIAN RACE. 247

I had previously seen Greeks at Malta; and even in one or two in-
stances, persons wearing the Oriental costume. Several Greeks and
Muslims, from Constantinople and Smyrna, were now deck-passen-
gers in the Alexandria steamboat. Some embarrassment arising in
consequence of the quarantine regulations, a good-natured man ad-
dressed me in English; and while in the midst of Huropeans, I found
myself under obligations to an Egyptian Arab. My acquaintance thus
commenced with Ishmael Moosa; who had accompanied a party of
travellers through Syria and Asia Minor, and was now on his return.
He complained of the quarantine house at Syra, and at the same time,
spoke rather lightly of the Greeks in general.

In respect to his own country, he stated, that the people of Upper
Egypt “are all black, the climate turns them black.” | I remembered
that the same words had been used by Herodotus, derived perhaps
from a not very dissimilar source; and as they have given rise to
controversy, I will mention, that on subsequently meeting Ishmael
Moosa at Thebes, he took occasion, in manifest disregard of the evi-
dence of the senses, to repeat the assertion.

We obtained a distant view of Crete and of Mount Ida; and on
the 14th, we reached the low shores of Egypt. The first glance on
landing at Alexandria, sufficed to dispel all ideas of romance as con-
nected with Oriental life.

Excepting my slight introduction at Malta, I was now for the first
time within the territorial domain of history ; and passing the modern
village, I looked around, expecting to see ruins. What had become
of the great city of Alexander, for so many centuries the emporium
of the world? ‘The ground was only hilly and uneven; and a culti-
vator complained of its being ‘stony,’ meaning by the expression, the
fragments of pottery.

‘T'wo objects, however, still mark the site of the ancient city; and
towards one of them, on the following day, I directed my steps.
The cabins of the South Seas, were palaces in comparison with the
low mud hovels on the way; and the whole neighbourhood was dis-
gusting. On reaching the base of the obelisk, my attention was
principally engaged by the size and the bold sculpture of the charac-
ters, seemingly designed to transmit a record through ages of bar-
barism. ‘The dimensions of the stone were sufficiently astonishing ;
and I next considered, the intellectual attainments of the existing
population. ‘Turning to my Barabra guide, “Ali,” said I, “ who do you

248 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

think placed the stone here?” His reply, coming from an unexpected
source, startled me; ‘ Pharoon.”

Richly carved capitals and columns, some of marble, some of po-
lished porphyry, and some of granite, had been here and there dug
out of the ground; abundantly vindicating the splendour of the ancient
Grecian city; and I occasionally remarked a fragment, which had
proved too massive to be of use to modern Egyptian architects. My
Barabra guide, pointed out these various antique relics, referring them
always to “Sooltan Iskander;” and only in a single instance, did I
find him at fault; in that of the unmeaning Roman column, which
he persisted in attributing to Pharoon. On a subsequent occasion,
the accuracy of the popular tradition was most unexpected; for Ali
declared, that “he did not know the builder of the Pyramids, who,
however, was certainly not Pharoon.”

On the 20th of December, I started for Cairo in the steamboat, by
canal and river. Owing principally to the groves of date-palms
planted around the villages, the character of the scenery is rather
Indian than European. In ancient times, the people of the Medi-
terranean, knew of the Tropics only by the valley of the Nile; which,
notwithstanding its two foreign palms, affords but a very slight in-
sight. At Cairo, 1 had the good fortune to meet with Mr. Bonomi,
and I was thus at once initiated into the subject of the Kgyptian
antiquities.

I visited the Pyramids, placed like a rock in the current of time;
a spot where the mind is directed to the roll of empires. I witnessed
the perfection of masonry in the workmanship around the entrance
of the great Pyramid; and the fact also, that the principle of the
arch, is carried out in a neighbouring coeval tomb. While at Sac-
cara, the beauty of the sculptures in a tomb of the Sixth Dynasty,
seemed to justify Herodotus in his exalted commendation of the
Labyrinth.

Of human works, the most ancient not only promise to endure
the longest, but they bear the impress of superior skill, and of
extreme purity of taste. And the decline of art in Egypt, is clearly
referable to the Pharaonic ages; to the accession of the Eighteenth
Dynasty. A point of higher interest, is the fact, that the earliest
Kieyptian monuments appear to have preceded the origin of idola-
try: but this question, with many others relating to the same period,
may probably be decided by the researches of Lepsius.

THE ARABIAN RACE. 249

At Thebes, once the mistress of the world, the remains are nearly
all Pharaonic, and in a corrupted style of art; yet they present a
greater variety of subjects of interest than the antiquities of Lower
Egypt; or those of any other country.

In the Tombs of the Pharaohs, such is the freshness of the un-
finished paintings, that one can hardly avoid expecting the return of
the artist to his task. The excavations are in a material which resem-
bles lithographic stone; and which is admirably adapted for painting,
in a climate devoid of the elements of destruction. But it must not
be supposed, that Egypt is mainly indebted to this circumstance, for
the abundance of antiquities; since the climate of various other coun-
tries, is equally favourable for the preservation of the works of human
hands.

Although I may appear singular, I confess being interested in the
Kigyptian colossi. These are by no means simple enlarged figures
of men, a kind of work that does not require genius; but they have
lines not strictly anatomical, which yet appeared peculiarly expres-
sive of physical strength. Among the numerous colossi at Thebes,
the largest excites astonishment, not merely from the size and the
freshness of polish, but from having been subjected to a mechanical
force capable of rending it.

The mode of warfare described by Homer, is abundantly illustrated
on the walls of the Theban temples. Here are portraits of indivi-
duals, costumes of foreign nations, military campaigns in distant
lands, and other evidence of great international events, most of
them anterior to written history. In fearful pre-eminence among
the records of carnage, the most recent of the larger temples bears
the battles of Sethosis. This Pharaoh preceded Alexander by about
a thousand years; and a narration of his career, is given by Ma-
netho, with much simplicity and dignity in the following words:
“Sethosis, then made an expedition against Cyprus and Phcenicia,
and besides against the Assyrians and the Medes: and he subdued
them all, some by his arms, some without fighting, and some by the
terror of his great army. And being elated with his success, he
went onward the more confidently, and overthrew the cities and the
kingdoms of the East.”

While ascending the Nile, I remarked among much individual
variation, that the complexion sensibly increases in depth; until in
the Thebaid, the Malay-brown hue is not uncommon. ‘This gradual

63

250 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

change takes place in both Copt and Arab, and to all appearance, is
independent of mixture of physical race; although individuals might
readily be selected, who in Kurope and the United States, would not
be recognised as Whites.

With the exception of the Cina the modern Egyptians all rank
themselves as Arabs. I found, however, that the people living near
the Pyramids, on the western margin of the valley, equally claimed
Berber or Lybian descent. The circumstance, seems to favour the
suggestion of Hodgson, that the Lybian was once the spoken lan-
guage of Keypt. "The coincidences between Lybian and Sanscrit
words, are numerous; and the point might be worth ascertaining,
how far a Mahratta from the Dekkan and a Kabyle from Mount
Atlas, would be able to understand each other’s language.

On the 10th of March, 1844, Iagain reached Cairo. This city con-
tains a large proportion of strangers, and to Kuropean eyes, the popu-
lation presents great diversity of aspect. But in this respect, Cairo is
far from rivalling Singapore, or even the places around the Indian
Ocean: and if for a moment I had any doubt respecting the physical
race of individuals, it was only in the instance of a few of the fellahs,
or cultivating Arabs.

I frequently met with Copts; a class of the population, noted for
having maintained their religion throughout the Muslim Conquest,
and for having preserved the sacred language of ancient Egypt. In
the upper country, where the Copts have monasteries and villages,
and where they cultivate the soil, the complexion is dark; and in the
absence of my interpreter, I should not have distinguished them from
the rest of the peasantry. The Copts of Cairo and Alexandria, have
the fair European complexion; accompanied frequently with a Greek
or an Italian cast of countenance, that suggested doubts as to their
exclusive Oriental descent.

Although Egypt at present, may be regarded as politically indepen-
dent, it is not the less governed by TurKs; and these have appropri-
ated most of the offices of honour and profit. In appearance and man-
ners, the Turks of Egypt are not very distinguishable by strangers:
but they experience the same difficulty with Iuropeans, in rearing
their children in the climate of Egypt.

The few Turks I saw in other parts of the Mediterranean, were

THE ARABIAN RACE. 251

more readily recognised, from their wearing a distinctive dress. As
a class, the Turks are manifestly less inclined than the Armenians,
to assimilate with Europeans.

Muslim Syrians, were said to be numerous at Cairo; although I
was unable to distinguish them. Ido not know whether Christian
Syrians are in the habit of visiting this city; but I saw one of them
at Malta, a person who had acquired eminence by his learning.

Among the most interesting visiters at Cairo, were a party of Bre-
pouins, from Petra, near Palestine; who had accompanied some tra-
vellers, and who were making their journey subserve the additional
purpose of buying corn. ‘They were six or eight in number, and
from their lineaments, it was evident that they belonged to one
family. The hair was straight, and the features were those of the
White race; but the depth of hue surprised me, as it fully equalled
that of my Barabra servant, who chanced to be standing near. ‘They
were warmly clothed, in which respect they differed from the south-
ern Bedouins.

I once met with three or four AraBS oF THE HeEpsaz, in the streets
of Cairo; and I was struck with their peculiarly dignified deportment.
Their complexion was not particularly dark, and the physical race
could not be mistaken. At Suez, however, where this class of Arabs
are frequent visiters, I observed signs of mixed descent; and in an
instance already mentioned, a Negro was in company.

In place of a turban, all wore a mantle striped with yellow; an
article of dress perhaps general in the Hedjaz; but which I have oc-
casionally seen in Southern Arabia, and among Arab visiters at Bom-
bay and Zanzibar. At the last-named place, a man wearing it, was
pointed out to me as a “ Wahabi, who had fought against the Pasha
of Egypt:” and I have elsewhere heard this mantle termed, the badge
of the Wahabi. At Muscat, I saw it worn by Negroes, whose filed
teeth designated an African birthplace.

c. Southern Arabs.

On the 24th of March, I left Suez in the English steamboat, and
on the 30th, I landed at Aden; where I remained for three weeks,

252 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

besides making two subsequent visits. gress was here prohibited to
the new comers; but the people of the country were often seen, bring-
ing upon camels articles of produce for the supply of the market. A
body of these Arabs, hired by the English authorities, were at work
on the road; and a few, had become permanent residents. In some
individuals, the complexion was yet darker than I had seen it among
the fellahs of the Thebaid; while in other respects, the affinity with
the White race was hardly distinguishable. I remarked nothing pe-
culiar in the costume; except on one occasion, in the instance of three
Arabs wearing caps, which were not padded like those of the Banians,
but which equally resembled in outline the common monumental
pattern of Egypt.

On the 22d of April, I left Aden in the brig Cherokee, Captain
Mansfield, of Salem; and we arrived at Mocha on the following day.
A boat soon came off to the anchorage, bringing the interpreter; who,
with three other persons employed in the intercourse with American
vessels, were the only natives of the place who could speak a Euro-
pean language. ‘The interpreter stated, that “Mocha had now a good
governor, and that all was right;”’ and he proceeded to descant with
great simplicity upon the manifold advantages of good government.

On landing, we visited the governor; who was called a Bedouin,
but who resembled in personal appearance the other principal Arabs
of the place. ‘These seemed to be a superior set of men to the Mus-
lims of Cairo. Many of them were tall and of large stature; and al-
though their physical race would anywhere be recognised, I thought
I could distinguish a local cast of countenance, independent of the
unusual shortness and scantiness of beard. Indeed, the only long
beards I saw among the native population of Mocha, were those of
the Jews.

The common Arabs of the town, varied more than the upper classes
from the usual aspect of the White race. Their average stature
was decidedly inferior; the beard was yet more scanty, and in-
stances occurred of its entire absence, in combination too with the
deep Malay-brown complexion. Polygamy seemed hardly to exist
among the mass of the population, notwithstanding the frequency
of unfruitful marriages; neither did I hear of any undue facility
of divorce. I remarked many other points of difference from
the Egyptian Arabs; as in the costume, (the head-dress usually
consisting of a blue turban more or less covering the ears); in

ree PS ee

THE ARABIAN RACE, 253

the eating of camel-meat; and especially, in the universal diffusion of
education.

The country immediately behind Mocha, is level, and on a general
view appears to be utterly desert. Here and there, however, I met
with small patches of cultivated soil, that are irrigated from wells; a
discouraging task in such a burning climate. On inquiring as to the
safety of travelling, I was told, that “it would be better not to go far
from town, for being a stranger, if I should happen to be robbed, I
should be unable to tell by whom.” I asked my informant, if he
would be willing to make the journey by land to Aden? “ Nothing
would induce him to go among people with whom he was unac-
quainted.” I then asked, whether the people of Mocha would fight
for their governor? ‘This question elicited surprise, and he rejoined :
“Why should we fight for the governor; who only taxes us?”

The poverty and primitive manners of the people, rendered Mocha
one of the most interesting places I have ever visited. ‘lhe continual
invocations, brought to mind the passage, “then began men to call
upon the name of the Lord.” Indeed, a deep sense of the immediate
guardianship of the Deity, seemed at all times to pervade the commu-
nity. The religion, unlike what I have witnessed in other Muslim
countries, approached that of Abraham. Do you ever address prayers
to Mohammed? “ Mohammed was a man, we do not pray to a man.”
It was well remarked by an eye-witness, that “this would be a beau-
tiful world, were Christians as observant of the precepts of their own
religion, as these poor Arabs are of theirs.”

The warehouse of the principal Arab merchant, presented some
striking analogies to the granary scenes of the Pharaonic monuments;
as well in the dress of the workmen, as in the large baskets made of
matting, which they carried upon one shoulder. On proposing to the
superintendent a slight change in the manipulation of some article,
he replied, ‘‘ Must we learn something new ?”

Checkered baskets, like those imported from Nubia into Egypt,
and which are represented on the Pharaonic monuments, are com-
mon in Southern Arabia; and are principally manufactured at Ma-
kulla. But flag-shaped fans, such as I had seen at the Cataract of
the Nile, are made in quantities at Mocha.

‘In addition to the slight tattooing usual with Arab women, I ob-
served at Mocha ornamental markings with a black pigment; but
these occurred more especially upon children. Similar markings

with pigment, rather than true tattooing, have appeared to me to be
64

254 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

represented on the Pharaonic monuments, on the bodies of certain
foreigners. A cane which I obtained at Suez, having the oblique
monumental handle, was recognised as being made after the pattern
of Western Arabia; while the fashion of the rounded hook, was refer-
red to the cane of Muscat.

The unusual fondness for cats, manifested by the Mocha Arabs,
brought to mind Herodotus’s account of the ancient Egyptians: and
in further illustration of the permanency of manners and institutions,
the governor during a portion of the day, was usually to be seen sit-
ting at the receipt of customs. ‘The interpreter, although in general
he appeared to be well-informed, knew nothing of Yoktan, Abraham,
or even of Ishmael.

An Arab was pointed out to me, as the brother of a powerful chief,
who, some forty years ago, plundered a Salem vessel. Of those on
board, a lad (of whom I had heard at home) was alone spared; and he
was subsequently educated and married in Arabia, where he remained
until his recent death. Pirates were said to be still numerous about
the Persian Gulf; but since the proceedings of the English at Berbera,
they had disappeared from the Red Sea. The affair of the United
States frigate Potomac on the Coast of Sumatra, was well known at
Mocha; the relations with that island being rather intimate.

I saw at Mocha an English lad, who had deserted from a trading
vessel and had turned Muslim; but the gulf between him and our-
selves, proved to be impassable. ‘The arrival of an Italian adventurer
on his way to India, the probable presence of a Maltese, and the cir-
culation of German crowns (or Venetian dollars), were the only tokens
of a direct communication with Europe.

The few Bepouins pointed out to me, were hardly distinguishable
from the lower class of town Arabs, except, by the absence of a
turban. ‘They were all young men, having uniformly the Malay-
brown complexion, and the hair curling in ringlets all over the head.
A powerful tribe of Bedouins, who sometimes rob and kill people
even within a few hours of Mocha, interrupted the land-route to
Aden. Couriers, however, are occasionally despatched, and we trans-
mitted letters by one of them.

‘About eleven years prior to our visit, Mocha was seized by the
Turks (as the Egyptian forces were here called), who left a garrison
of some five hundred men.” ‘This state of things, afforded a pretext
to the Bedouins of the vicinity, to pillage the place. ‘“ Assembling to
the number of some thousands, they approached the town regardless

THE ARABIAN RACE. 255

of the artillery, and scaled the walls with ladders. They afterwards
robbed every house, and left the inhabitants almost literally naked.”
Mocha, since that event, has been ruled by a Bedouin. Among other
results of the affair, it was found that Egyptian money, which had
been in use during the short accession of Turkish power, gave place
to the former currency.

I sometimes heard references to the palmy days when “ Mocha be-
longed to the king of Sanaa,” when her staple was more in demand,
and especially when it was paid for in dollars. The recent death of
the last-named potentate, had added to the usual disturbances of the
country; and a battle was daily anticipated, in consequence of “the
revolt of some of the villages belonging to his soldiers.”

On the 31st of May, we sailed from Mocha; and after stopping at
Aden until the 13th of June, we continued our voyage notwithstand-
ing the adverse monsoon, and reached Zanzibar on the 20th of July.
I have already spoken of the Soahili inhabiting this Arab colony: but
Zanzibar seems further to be the most favourable spot for meeting
with persons from all parts of Arabia; and more especially from the
Seheery, or the coast fronting on the Indian Ocean. One individual
attracted my attention, on account of his long braided side-lock, and the
striking similarity in his whole appearance to the Rebo of the Pharaonic
monuments. I did not learn his history; but his complexion was unu-
sually light; and the incident called to mind, the existence of a class of
people very little known to Europeans, the Arabian mountaineers.

Bepovurns, are often seen at Zanzibar; a circumstance the more
unexpected, as I had ascertained that they do not visit Singapore.
Besides the individual adventurers at Zanzibar, the Imaum sometimes
imports bodies of Bedouins, to serve as soldiers in his military cam-
paigns.

On the 3d of October, I left Zanzibar in the barque Wm. Schroeder,
Captain Jackson, of Salem; and after making an unsuccessful at-
tempt to land at Mombas, we arrived on the 18th, at Muscat. ‘The
people of this part of Arabia, like those of the Hedjaz, have long
beards; and they may be recognised by the checkered and banded
turban, which I first saw at Zanzibar. Some individuals were found
to be more polished and liberal-minded than any other Arabs I have
met with; and a more advanced tone of society, pervaded their prin-
cipal town.

eo FS Se ae
e's "

256 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

I witnessed, however, at Muscat, the abduction of a child by its
own father: who had taken advantage of the temporary absence of
the mother. The screams of the little one while being borne to the
landing, found no response from the bystanders, further than an ex-
pression of blame, for a right being exercised “in such a manner as
to break its heart.”

The name of Ishmael was well known at Muscat; and two classes
of Arabs were recognised, “ who are fighting to this day. The Kah-
tan Arabs, ruled formerly for a century and a half; and they are
many of them a fine-looking set of men, having, unlike the Abyssi-
nians, regular hair. They are all Muslims, and are not rare in the
Interior; but there were none of them residing in Muscat. The
Imaum’s family, came from the town of Adam, in Uzjd, and belonged
to the other class of Arabs, the Hameer ; as did likewise, most of the
people of Muscat, and many of the Bedouins. Inscriptions on the
rocks, are unknown in Eastern Arabia.”

At Muscat, I saw an Egyptian of the lower class, who had arrived
doubtless by the way of the Persian Gulf. I was also surprised by
a reminiscence of Keyptian history. A wealthy Arab, in speaking of
some law-decisions, declared, that the judges were “as bad as Pha-
raoon who took Mussera.”

The Bepovins visiting Muscat, differed in personal appearance
from those seen at Mocha; and they were more readily recognised as
belonging to the White race. Their complexion, however, in most
instances, seemed to be yet darker than in the Mongolian race.
Their long hair was much undulated; and they usually wore a fillet
around the head, such as is seen on the Pharaonic monuments, in
representations of captive monarchs. One of the Bedouins, who
bore no outward marks of distinction, was pointed out to me as being
chief “over a thousand men; all to get angry whenever he is angry,
and at no expense.”

I was informed, that no one came to Muscat from a greater distance
inland than two or three hundred miles, and that the great interior of
Arabia is unknown, even to the Bedouins; who, however, suppose it
to be inhabited. Persons sometimes go by land to Mecca, keeping
near the Persian Gulf; but this is not often done, the route being
considered dangerous from the scarcity of water; and the usual
course, is by sea to Bahrein, and thence through the Interior.

The communication along the outer coast of Arabia, is carried on al-
together by sea. Captain MacFarland, of Salem, joined us at Muscat,

THE ARABIAN RACE. 257

after a voyage in an Arab dow, of forty days from Mocha during the
favourable monsoon. As the vessel touched at several places along
the coast, he had unusual opportunities of viewing the country ;
which, he informed me, “looked everywhere alike ;” broken, moun-
tainous, and devoid of vegetation, as at Aden and Muscat.

At Zanzibar and at Muscat also, two or three persons from Socotra
were pointed out to me; otherwise, I should not have distinguished
them from the surrounding Arabs. Captain Jackson, regarded the
inhabitants of the interior of Socotra, as being “much the same sort
of people with the Bedouins of Muscat; their Sultan in like manner
wearing a fillet around his head. Their hair is long and straight, and
not in the least inclining to be woolly.”

On the 29th of October, we sailed for Bombay ; where we arrived
on the 11th of November. And where I found in the Srypians of
the Lower Indus, a striking resemblance to the Bedouins of Muscat.
Indeed, the spot occupied by a body of these Sindians, who had
brought horses for sale, was usually termed “the Bedouin camp.”

I frequently met with Arab visiters in the streets of Bombay; and
judging from the costume, they were mostly from Tastern Arabia.
And in instances where the original dress had been abandoned,
the language often revealed the presence of Arabs of the lower class.
In the territory of the Nizam, and more than two hundred miles
from Bombay, I found the gate of one of the towns guarded by
an Arab soldier.

d. Indian Mushms.

I have spoken in another chapter, of the Indian Muslims who were
seen at Singapore, and who came chiefly from Eastern Hindoostan.
Those met with on my second Voyage, belonged to the North and
West; and for the most part, unequivocally to the White race.

As the pilgrim vessels usually touch at Mocha, numbers of Indian
Muslims are to be met with in that city; where I soon learned to
distinguish them by the straightness of the beard ; a point in which
they differ from EHuropeans, and which is expressed in certain Greek
and Roman representations of Orientals. ‘Some of these Indian Mus-
lims, dealt in precious stones; while others had become residents,

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258 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

and had opened shops. A Bombay ship at the anchorage, was
laden principally with Surat cloth; and had on board about forty
merchants; each of them, as in the Chinese junks, having the charge
of his own wares.

The larger edifices at Mocha, are built in much the same style as
those of Cairo, except that there is greater refinement of architectural
ornament. ‘This was traced to the workmen of India: and I soon
perceived, that the Arabs here, as every where, are a rude people, and
that all the arts requiring skill and ingenuity, belong properly to Hin-
doostan. On proposing to have an umbrella covered, I was told,
that this “could not be done; because the people of Mocha, are
not India people.”

I met with a class of individuals called PERstans, who are noted as
the fairest Orientals that come to Mocha; and who appeared to me
to have close affinity with the Indian Muslims. One of them
accosted me in English, and among other matters, stated that “he
was from Iraun, and that the English and his countrymen were
friends:” although a person of much intelligence, he had never
before heard of America, and he was evidently at a loss to com-
prehend where it could be situated. I met with another of these
Persians, immediately after he had performed a surgical operation ;
and to my surprise, he described the ‘couching of the cataract ;’ but
I did not undo the bandages to verify his account.

At Bombay, and throughout my journey in the interior of India,
I found myself always at a distance from the seat of arts above
alluded to; and my inquiries now placed it to the northward, and in
the direction of the Indus. Other attendant circumstances, taken in
connexion with the geographical position of the Upper Indus, seem
to point yet further east.

Bombay, appears to be the headquarters of the Indian Muslims;
and I remarked among them, various evidence of Persian descent,
as in the custom of child marriages. Polygamy is rare, even among
the wealthy; but their religion has been much corrupted; “they
have saints, and they address prayers to Mohammed, and even to
Ali.” I was informed, however, that four castes of Muslims are
recognised at Bombay; who all eat together, but who will not in-
termarry.

It has been sometimes asserted, that the boatmen of the western
coast of Hindoostan are all Muslims. Exceptions, however, must be

THE ARABIAN RACE. 259

made in regard to Cutch: and a Rajpoot sailor was serving in the
Bombay ship at Mocha, under a Muslim commander.

Indian Muslims, are likewise common at Zanzibar; and it was
said of them, that “after getting married and mixed up a little, they
wanted to pass for Arabs.” Most of the White women I saw at Zan-
zibar, belonged to the class of Indian Muslims.

Two or three BELoocuEs, were pointed out to me at Zanzibar, and
others again at Bombay. They seemed to have affinity with the In-
dian Muslims, rather than with the Sindians and Bedouins; but I am
hardly prepared to decide from these few examples. Belooche women
have been sometimes imported for the harems of Zanzibar.

e. Western Hindoos.

In the various ports of Arabia and Eastern Africa, individuals
may occasionally be met with, who differ remarkably in their bearing
and costume from the surrounding population. An equal difference
will be found. in the qualities of the mind; in a surprising amount
of intelligence and general information. These people have influ-
ence, not however derived from battles; their empire is not of the
sword; neither is it based on their religion. They are the idolatrous
merchants of India; who for ages, have mainly held the commerce of
the above-named countries.

My acquaintance with the Curcu Banians, commenced at Aden;
and at first, 1 mistook them for Parsees. Whom they resemble in
many striking particulars; as in their names, in their general style
of dress, and in their shaving the beard with the exception of the
mustache, (a circumstance possibly connected with the prevalence of
the same fashion at Cairo); but on further acquaintance, I was soon
able to distinguish a pecular style of countenance.

The Banians visiting Mocha and the neighbouring parts of Arabia,
belong to a different caste from those usually seen at Zanzibar, Mus-
cat, and Bombay. ‘They may be distinguished by the more flattened
turban; the shape of which, as is shown by Niebuhr’s figure, has not
changed for the last eighty years.

At Zanzibar, | was more particularly struck with the analogy to

260 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

the ancient Egyptian priests; for in like manner, the Banians seemed
to be the depositaries of knowledge and of the relics of civilization in
the midst of barbarians. Herodotus says, that “the Egyptians vene-
rate the cow ;” and this is a fundamental principle of the Hindoo reli-
gion. Also, in minor particulars, the undress Banian cap entirely
resembles the pattern most frequently represented on the Egyptian
monuments.

One of the principal Banians at Zanzibar, spoke English; and he
repeatedly complained to me of the “hard life required in being a
Banian. There are eighty-four castes of Banians;’’ but, said he,
“God made all men free. The Banians who go to sea, do not asso;
ciate with those who remain in India; and the same rule prevails
among the Lascars, who are Sudras, and are allowed to eat fish. His
own diet consisted of rice, dohl (Cajanus), some ghee or butter, and
sometimes milk ; but he did not eat oranges.” It appeared, that he was
versed in palmistry ; and he once asked me, if I understood phrenology.
He bestowed abusive expressions on the Arabs, for not permitting the
building of a temple; adding, that there were “ more than four hun-
dred Banians in Zanzibar, being a threefold increase within ten years ;
aud that he supposed it will go hard with them, when the present
Imaum dies.” He called a Calcutta dobi (or washerman), not a
Banian, but a Hindoo: the individual alluded to, was serving in a
European household, and according to his own account, was _per-
mitted to eat mutton, but neither beef nor fowls.

A second Banian, who had recently arrived from Mombas, “ had
resided in Eastern Africa for twenty years.” I did not learn that any
Banians were established to the southward of Keelwa; but I saw indi-
viduals on board the dows arriving from that town. Moreover, if re-
liance may be placed on the Arab accounts, the Banians are not en-
tirely free from the suspicion of slave dealing.

Banians are very numerous at Muscat, where they possess a more
pervading influence, than at the places I had previously visited. They
belong to the same class with those of Zanzibar; but they are not ex-
clusively merchants; and I observed among them, a blacksmith and
other artisans. One of their singular-looking dows, having serrated
streamers with a pair of flags at the stern, had just arrived from Cutch.
An Arab merchant informed me, that having displeased the Banians
by sending cattle on board an American ship of war, he was obliged
at last to declare, that ‘he would find out whether Muscat belonged
to the Banians or to the Arabs; for having a right to expend his

THE ARABIAN RACE, 261

money as he pleased, he would buy cattle, and slaughter daily for
distribution among the poor.”

The Banians of Bombay, judging from the form of the turban,
are mostly to be referred to the last-mentioned class; except only,
that they had not in all instances arrived by sea. They were
spoken of, as “Cutch and Guzerati people, not properly belong-
ing to this part of India; who, by their superior enterprise, have
nearly or quite supplanted the original Mahratta caste of traders.”
Like their brethren of Cashmere and Bengal, they are regarded in
the binary division of the Hindoos, as belonging to the ‘left hand,’
and inferior.

The mass of the population of Bombay, is composed of Hindoos,
who, by way of territorial distinction, are usually termed Manratvas.
From my first view of them, I could only regard them as Arabs;
as the unconverted idolatrous Arabs, such as we are familiar with
in the history of the Mediterranean countries; and I soon perceived,
that it was possible at the present day, to obtain an insight into the
influence on the mind of the ancient system of image-worship.

I perceived also, that in various points of difference from the
modern Arabs, the Mahrattas accord with the ancient Egyptians.
Thus, polygamy is rare; the women do not conceal the face; the
men carry burdens (with the balance-beam) on the shoulders; and
the drinking-cups and water-jars, are universally made either of cop-
per or brass. Other customs witnessed, have not yet become obso-
lete in Egypt; as that of the women carrying burdens on the head,
and their collecting manure (for fuel) with the hands. It is true, the
analogy in surrounding circumstances, (periodical rains compensa-
ting in reservoirs for the inundations of the Nile), tends doubtless
to assimilate the population; yet with every allowance, the Mah-
rattas appeared to me to be more than a counterpart to the Egyp-
tians of Herodotus. The fact too should be noted, that the Sanscrit
language, which has been inherited by the Mahrattas, is regarded
by writers as originally foreign to India.

In the vicinity of Bombay, stones, trees, and other natural objects,
are often consecrated with a mark of red paint: the original intent of
the practice, being apparently, to remind the passer-by of the omni-
presence of the Deity. I heard a Mahratta of the lower class com-
plaining of the Parsees; and saying, as he pointed to the sea, “ the

66

262 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Parsees worship the water, that is not God; neither is fire, nor the
earth.”

Within my own experience, I have met with no evidence of the
idea of a Supreme Being having spontaneously arisen in the human
mind. I would enumerate as possessing this idea, the Patriarchs, the
ancient Egyptian priests, the Jews, Christians, and Muslims, and the
Braminical Hindoos. I have never conversed on the subject, with
followers of the Budhist religion; but the remaining portions of the
human family, are probably to be excluded; although not in all
instances unenlightened, as appears from the writers of antiquity.

On questioning the above-mentioned individual in regard to his
own religion, he said, that the Mahrattas “have priest-gods or Bra-
mins; that he was himself a Mahratta of the Hindoo Caste, though
he did not go to the temples; and that he was allowed to eat vegeta-
bles, milk, butter, and eggs; but not pork, beef, mutton, nor even
fish.” His complexion was darker than usual, and in personal ap-
pearance he seemed to partake of the 'Telingan race.

On the other hand, the complexion of the Bramins of this part of
India, is in general lhghter than the average; and coincides with
the hue of the Cutch Banians, in like manner hardly ever becoming
florid. ‘The physical race too, in most instances, is obviously pure.

A Mahratta Bramin, stated, in reply to some inquiries, “that
it is not considered proper, for a Bramin to take up occupations
belonging to other castes; and that even the work in which he
was then engaged, (correcting a Mahratta Dictionary for the Eing-
lish Government,) was rather derogatory to his dignity.” With re-
spect to the practicability of entering lower castes, if he could enter-
tain such an idea, he thought that “the Sudras would probably
receive him and give him a wife; but this was by no means a matter
of certainty ; and the Malrs, who are the lowest of all castes, would
refuse.”

‘Formerly, there was a severe punishment for the unauthorized
wearing of the Braminical cord; but the English government having
declined to interfere in the matter, it is not at present always easy
to distinguish a Bramin. For himself, he thought he could not be
deceived, but Bramins had been, frequently. ‘This, he exclaimed, is
the Age of Iron.”

“Two or more princes in India, claim to be Kshatryas; together
with some bodies of people, in one or more districts, who keep them-

THE ARABIAN RACE. 263

selves aloof from other castes, and are respected by the Sudras; but
he thought, that they have rather a sort of substitute for the Kshatrya
caste.” He expressed the same opinion respecting the Wyse, or
mercantile caste; and said, that “a great mixture of Sudras exists
among the persons who now exercise the profession.” He further
declared, somewhat unexpectedly, that “the Sudras themselves are
nearly extinct.”

Mr. Allen, of the American Mission, had found “¢reat variation
in habits, among the population of different parts of India; much
confusion in the accounts of writers, having arisen from attributing
to the whole people that which is true in a district only. Bramins
may compose, perhaps one-tenth of the population of India. In
some districts, they are rare; and are confined to a few large temples,
and have very little influence throughout the mass of the popula-
tion. Many, too, of the Bramins, are quite ignorant, and have not
even learned to read. ‘The Mahrattas, are the only Hindoos over
whom the Bramins have obtained political ascendency. Animal
sacrifices are still practised in India; and Bramins are permitted
to partake of such meats. Bramin widows shave the head, and
are not allowed to marry again; but second marriages, are by no
means rare with other Hindoo women. In Bombay, there are no
less than five or six castes of Bramins, who will neither intermarry
nor eat together.”

“The original distinctions of caste, have not been altogether ef-
faced among the natives converted by the Portuguese; and in some
places towards the Hastern coast, the observance is quite strict.”

“Hereditary village-authorities, form a peculiarity in the institu-
tions of India; and the practice has grown into the associations, feel-
ings, and ideas of the people. When complaints of oppression have
been substantiated, government has merely transferred the office to
another member of the same family; and this system, has continued
throughout all the revolutions of the country.”

‘In former times, the nations of India were principally four ; corre-
sponding with the four languages, the Mahratta, Telugu, Canara, and
Tamul. The Mahrattas have retained the Sanscrit alphabet, but they
possess very little literature of their own; and the Tamul language,
is the only one of the four that is rich in literary treasures.”

On the 16th of December, I started on an excursion into the Inte-

264 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

rior; proceeding in the first place by water to Panwell. On the fol-
lowing day, I traversed the Concan, or the low country; and in the
evening, I reached the foot of the mountains.

On the 18th, I ascended the ghaut or mountain-slope, and en-
tered upon the extensive table-land which occupies the interior of
Southern India; and which is commonly called the Dekkan. Its ave-
rage elevation of about two thousand feet, is insufficient to produce
any striking change in the vegetable growth; but I soon perceived
some difference in the climate. The nights were now colder, and the
days, perhaps hotter; while the greater aridity, was shown by the ab-
sence of dews after leaving the low country.

The surface generally, was found to be unwooded, and the far
greater proportion of it, uncultivated; neither were cattle seen
upon the hills; but, at this season, the whole country was covered
with dried herbage, and wore the aspect of barrenness. I did not
remark any particular change in the habits of the people; except that
the cultivation of rice had become rare; but I am informed, that the
inhabitants of the Dekkan and Concan do not much intermarry.

An incident, may serve to illustrate the train of associations in the
mind of the people of India. Meeting on the road with a woman who
seemed to belong to the lower class of Hindoos, I inquired her caste
of my interpreter. He informed me, that she was a Christian; not
Portuguese, but Mahrass. What, I asked, is she carrying under that
covering? He replied, “it contains a god.”

Stopping at Karl, I spent the remainder of the day at the largest
of the caves in that vicinity; and on the following morning, I re-
sumed my journey.

On the 20th, I reached Poona; where I remained some hours.
Muslims were said to be “common in this city; but to have no tem-
ples beyond the towns of the coast ;” a rule, which has exceptions fur-
ther in the interior, in the dominions of the Nizam. Poona, seemed
to be in a good measure the limit of Parsee influence; and thus
far, wealthy Parsees have established houses along the road, for the
gratuitous shelter of travellers.

Cowries, were seen used for money at Poona; the species being
Cyprea annulus. Hitherto, I had met with but a single camel, which
was laden with the baggage of a Bramin; and camels were seen in
rare instances, further in the Interior. Pzgs made their appearance
in the villages beyond Poona; a small variety, uniformly black and

THE ARABIAN RACE. 265

long-bristled. I do not remember meeting with buffaloes in the Dek-
kan: but in many of those seen at Bombay, I remarked a white spot
on the front; showing even in this animal, a tendency to become
parti-coloured.

The sheep, appeared to belong to the same breed with those of mo-
dern Egypt; and I remarked, that in like manner, the majority of
them were black. The outer garment, worn in the cool of the morn-
ing by the people of the Dekkan, has broad black stripes; formed, as
in a dress common in Keypt, by combining the natural colours of the
wool. And a similar manufacture, is found, I think, among the
Spanish Peruvians.

Although the Indian dudlock is regarded as identical in species with
our own, there is a striking difference in the voice. I never heard
any lowing from the cattle of India; but only a sort of grunt, some-
what like that of the buffalo. However, I have occasionally seen
Indian bullocks, having long horns, and also a form of body ap-
proaching that of our own varieties.

On the 22d, I arrived at Gorputi (called by the English Seroor); a
considerable village, where Mr. French, of the American Mission, was
residing. Some thin plates of metal, were shown me, as examples of
“‘Hindoo household gods.” Also, the tomb of a British officer,
before which the natives had erected an altar for burning incense ;
the new Hindoo saint, having been esteemed peculiarly efficacious for
the fulfilment of vows, until such proceedings were stopped, by being
brought to the notice of the local authorities.

The river Bima runs by Gorputi; but like the other rivers of the
Dekkan, it contained at this season very little water. The country
beyond, was found to be more level, with a larger proportion of the
soil under cultivation. The crops, however, were suffering from
drought; the rains during the preceding wet season, having been
scanty ; and there was every prospect of a famine.

In the evening of the 23d, I reached the city of Ahmednuggur ;
the most distant of the Mission Stations. Messrs. Ballantine and
Abbott had resided here for ten years, without having before seen one
of their countrymen who was unconnected with the mission.

I resumed my journey on the 25th; and on the morning of the 27th,
I reached Toka, on the banks of the Godaveri. Crossing the mouth
of a tributary stream, I visited the principal village, which is inha-
bited exclusively by Bramius; many of whom, were not distinguish-
able in personal appearance from the other people of the country.

67

266 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.
Two large flat-bottomed boats, each bearing a carved horse’s head,
indicated that the river at a different season is navigable.

Crossing the Godaveri, I entered the Nizam’s dominions; but Mus-
lim rule, did not appear to have wrought any marked change in the
character and habits of the population. Among various agricultural
details reminding me of ancient customs, I observed strings of bul-
locks treading out the grain.

On the 28th, I arrived at the city of Aurungabad; the residence of
the Nizam ; whose government is still recognised, although it is much
under English influence. A few Parsees were living here, farming
the revenue, as the Banians do at Zanzibar; and one of them, cashed
a draft for me. A Parsee priest, who was called by my interpreter
“the archbishop,” stopped here, after travelling in company with us
from Poona.

The vicinity of Aurungabad, is noted for producing Mandarin
oranges of a superior quality. An English officer was riding the
only elephant I met with in India: where, it appears, “elephants are
principally confined to two separate districts, to a tract on the Ganges
to the northward, and to the extreme south of the Peninsula.”

A man joined our party at Aurungabad, who had overtaken us on
the road some days previously, at which time, he inquired our desti-
nation. It appeared, that he belonged to the Jair caste, and to the
Rajpoot country to the northward; and being of a more enterprising
turn than the local population, he furnished the means of conveyance
for the remainder of my journey.

On the 3st, | reached Adjunta; a place apparently designed by
the Early Muslims for an important city ; but the space enclosed by
the massive walls, is now principally vacant. I observed here, small
burnt bricks, of the same description with those of Southern Arabia;
and also, somewhat unexpectedly, the Muslim custom of carrying
water in skins.

I descended the ghaut which borders the basin of the river Tapti,
and proceeded to Purdapur; a fine Muslim caravansary converted
into a petty modern village; the walls affording protection at night
to the inhabitants and their cattle. Fires were seen in the distance
down the valley, kindled it was said, likewise for the purpose of
‘keeping off the tigers.”

I first heard of this animal at Adjunta; and it proved to be, not the
true tiger, but the ounce or pale-coloured leopard. A skin was shown
me by a person, who stated, that “he had shot twenty-six of these

THE ARABIAN RACE. 267

animals, in the course of his life; and that they destroy not only
cattle, but in some instances even men. He and his companion, were
Muslim and Mawotti, from the Northward; and one of them came
from Lucknow.”

On the Ist of January, 1845, I visited the Caves; which are situated
several miles from Purdapur, the nearest inhabited place. A stream
comes out of the mountain-slope through a deep glen, walled by cliffs
six or seven hundred feet in height; and half-way up, a horizontal
series of caves extends around a semicircular sweep. The river-bed
being dry at the time of my visit, afforded access to the secluded spot;
and the first care on arriving, was to discharge fire-arms, “to start
the tigers.” ‘The only response, however, was an alarm among mul-
titudes of the domestic pegeon. Man had withdrawn for ages, but
his dwelling-place was not abandoned by his associate bird. I spent
several hours in examining the caves, and my guides being unwilling
to pass the night there, I left before dark ; and taking the direct route,
I reached Adjunta late in the evening.

On the 2d, 1 commenced my return; for the first few miles, in com-
pany with a Braminical wedding-procession; the antique pattern of the
cars, calling to mind the heroic ages. ‘Through some mismanagement,
one of the cars was overturned, and several women and children were
severely bruised ; soon, however, one of the party came along bearing
a flagon, and poured oil upon the wounds.

By an exception to the usual cloudless sky of half the year, the
heavens were obscured on the 3d and 4th; and a corresponding
change took place in the otherwise constant direction of the wind.
But the general use of adobes or sun-dried brick, affords proof, that
the rains in the Dekkan are never very copious.

In geological structure, the Dekkan to the limit of my excursion,
was found to be a trap-formation; and in this respect, it corresponds
with the table-land of Oregon. I left the main road at Phoolmarry,
and on the evening of the 4th, I reached Ellora; where I spent the
following day, in examining the Caves.

On the 6th, I proceeded through a Muslim village, noted for the
manufacture of paper. I next passed the base of the artificially insu-
lated mountain of Dowlutabad; a stupendous work of the ancient
Hindoos, requiring even at the present day the jealous care of go-
vernment. ‘The vicinity of Ellora, appears also to have been the
principal seat of Muslim power ; and it abounds in Muslim temples,
which are now for the most part abandoned. In the evening, I re-

268 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

joined my former route; and on the following day, I recrossed the
Godaveri.

Hitherto, the numerous Hindoo temples and worship-places visited
along the road, had been found to be all dedicated to Siva. And I
remarked, that the offerings, ike that of Cain, were confined to the
products of the soil; to Tagetes, and other cultivated flowers, with
occasionally, fruits.

Before however re-entering Ahmednuggur, a small temple attract-
ed my attention, from some peculiarities in its construction, and from
a second species of Sacred Fig (with the fruit devoid of an invo-
lucre), being planted around. ‘The temple contained a simple flat-
topped altar, on which Tagetes flowers were strewed; and it proved
to be dedicated to the worship of Krishna.

Some votaries of this Hindoo deity, were encamped near; and they
were called by my Parsee interpreter, ‘“fakeer or beggars, but high-
caste.”” The party consisted of men and women, several of the former
wearing black turbans; and it appeared, that they belonged to the
Manasuawa caste. Among other peculiarities, this caste is remarka-
ble for being kept up by purchase; for marriage is prohibited, and
the children are all regularly killed.

The grain being now nearly ripe, persons were sometimes stationed
in the fields, to drive away the birds by slinging stones. On the
11th, [ again arrived at Gorputt.

The following day, the 12th of January, “was regarded by the
Hindoos as the winter solstice; in consequence of following the Shas-
tras in their calculations, without regard to the precession of the
equinoxes.”’

On the 16th, I visited the lesser caves at Karli: but I was not aware
at the time, that a ‘hill-fort’, another work of antiquity, exists in the
same vicinity. On the morning of the 18th, | again reached Bombay.

f. Irregular Castes of India.

In India, the term ‘caste’ is not restricted to the followers of the
Braminical religion; but it is used in a general sense; and Parsees,
Muslims, Jews, and Huropeans, are commonly spoken of as so many
castes. ‘The population is heterogeneous, made up of the remnants
or wrecks of a variety of nations, some of which are perhaps extinct
at their place of origin: for it would seem, that amid “the violence

THE ARABIAN RACE. 269

with which the earth has been filled,” toleration has existed only in
India.

The Manars, are commonly supposed to be the original inhabi-
tants of the Dekkan. ‘Three or four of them were pointed out to me
at Ahmednuggur; but in costume and personal appearance, they did
not present any marked difference from the surrounding population.
They may have been a little darker; and one individual, who accom-
panied me to Adjunta and back, seemed to be as dark as a Telingan.

I met with a party of Buiiis on the road, near the limit of my ex-
cursion. ‘They presented very distinctly, the lineaments of the White
race; but I did not remark any thing peculiar in their dress or per-
sonal appearance.

One of the converts at Ahmednuggur, “had formerly been in the
service of a Bhill, during which time he had killed many persons.”
He showed mea bow, having two strings and a cross-band, for the
purpose of shooting pebbles; a kind of weapon said to be common
in the vicinity. Heber* found among the Bhills, bows made of split
bamboo; a peculiarity in construction, which may be compared with
Herodotus’s account of the Indian bows.

The ‘Brinsarry,’ were principally met with on first entering the
Dekkan ; their immense herds of bullocks sometimes occupying the
road for nearly a mile. At regular intervals, a woman in the midst,
was spinning or sewing as she walked along; and one, was carry-
ing a dog; an act which, according to my interpreter, “neither Hin-
doos nor Parsees would do.” The dress, more resembled the Euro-
pean female costume, than the Hindoo: but the Brinjarry women,
had large anklets of fantastic pattern, with other brass ornaments.
The men carried spears, having the broad blades covered with lea-
thern sheaths. In parties returning towards the Interior, the bullocks
were all heavily laden with merchandise.

Except in the masculine forms of the women, I could find no phy-
sical difference from the general population of the country. The
lineaments of the White race, were readily distinguishable; except
in an individual already noticed as resembling an Australian. The
herds were spoken of as the property of the women; who indeed,
had the air of being the heads of the community; but whether the

* Heber’s Narrative, vol. ii. p. 466.
68

270 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

system of polyandry prevails, as among certain classes in the south
of India, I did not ascertain.

The ‘Duneur,’ were encamped near every village of importance,
in small huts formed of rush-mats. I have seen these huts, not only
hemispherical in shape, but disposed in a circle with their entrances
towards the centre; thus presenting an unexpected resemblance to
the ‘kraals’ of Africa. The Dungur have drays of a very rude and
primitive construction ; formed of three cross timbers resting on an
axle, the wheels being merely sections of the trunk of a tree.

The Sixxicur, have similar wandering habits; but they hold them-
selves aloof, they are less numerous, and are said to exercise the pro-
fession of ‘chatty-makers,’ or tin-men. I fell in with one of their en-
campments, which consisted of low woollen tents. ‘This I think, is
the class of people, to which the origin of the Gipsies has been some-
times referred.

Some of the numerous Irregular Castes of India, are supposed to
be the remains of the aboriginal population. I did not meet with
any direct evidence of this; but I am inclined to think, there may
be something in the point of view. Some parallelism in social con-
dition, seems wanting in the White race; and the required connexion
may possibly be traced in the hill-people of Nepaul, the Karens of
Birmah, and even tribes situated further to the southeast.

g. Return to Egypt.

On the Ist of February, I left Bombay in the steamboat Victoria;
and after a third visit to Aden, I arrived on the 17th at Suez.
Coming from India, I was struck with the ruddy sun-burnt hue of
the Eayptians; who now seemed fairer than before; and I thought
I could further distinguish, instances of that width of nostril, which
contributes to the un-Huropean expression of the Bramins and Cutch
Banians. Within a single year, marked innovations on Arab cus-
toms, had taken place at Cairo and Alexandria, in consequence of in-
creased intercourse by steamboats with Europe.

THE ARABIAN RACE, 271

EUROPE.

On the 21st of February, I left Alexandria in the English steam-
boat Iberia; and on the 26th, I again arrived at Malta; where I
passed quarantine.

On the 14th of March, I left Malta in the Neapolitan steamboat ;
and I thus had the opportunity of landing in Szcz/y, at Syracuse, Ca-
tania, and Messina. I remarked among the Sicilians, some tradi-
tionary remembrance of wearing the Arab costume.

We stopped at two or three places on the Calabrian coast; and on
the 18th, we reached Naples ; where the boat remained eight days.
A ‘Calabrian’ peasant, clad in a sheepskin jacket, was seen perform-
ing on the bagpipe; an instrument somewhat Oriental in the cha-
racter of its intonations; and which I believe, is now nearly confined
to the extreme mountain-fastnesses of Italy and Scotland.

The superstition of the ‘evil eye,’ is common in Italy; and I re-
marked traces of other Arab customs, which generally, in Europe,
have become obsolete; and further, at Herculaneum and Pompeii,
that the Arab analogies increase on ascending into antiquity.

The environs of Naples, offer a striking example of a succession of
languages within a given district; as is shown by the Latin inscrip-
tions of the Roman towns; and by the anterior Greek inscriptions of
the Catacombs. Where moreover, at this distance in time and space,
I did not anticipate meeting with evidence of the Hindoo worship of
Siva. The severe penalty for killing a cow, according to Pliny once
in vogue at Rome, is another fact in point.

On recurring to Hawaiian volcanic action, it appeared to me,
that a subterraneous lava-stream coming in contact with water, would
account for the catastrophe of Pompei.

After leaving Naples, the boat touched at Civita Vecchia, Leghorn,
and Genoa. Italy offers another subject of interest, in its rich monu-
mental history continuing uninterrupted through the Middle Ages.

The boat finally stopped at Marseilles; and after a ride through
France, I sailed from Havre on the 12th of April, in the ship Iowa;
and on the 16th of the following month, we arrived at New York.

CHAPTER XIV.

ASSOCIATION.—NUMERICAL PROPORTIONS,

In order to complete the foregoing account, I will here insert a
specification of the several races occurring at each place visited ; or in
other words, an analysis of the population.

In the United States, three races are familiarly known: the White,
the Negro, and the Mongolian; the latter represented, both by the
aboriginal population, and by a few Chinese settled in our princi-
pal cities. A fourth race, the Malayan (represented chiefly by Poly-
nesians), is not uncommon in the ports frequented by whale-ships ;
and in some few instances, I have met with a fifth race, the Telingan
or true Indian.

At Madeira, I met with two races: the White and the Negro; but
the latter race, occurred in only a few instances, and exclusively at
the principal seaport town.

At the Cape Verd Islands, 1 met with the same two races; but they
occurred in inverse proportions; and the White race was here com-
paratively rare.

At Rio Janeiro and the vicinity, I fell in with only the same two
races,—the White and the Negro; and they appeared to be here in
nearly equal proportions.

The same two races, were again seen at the mouth of the Rio
Negro, in North Patagonia ; but a third race, the Mongolian or the
aboriginal, was said to be present, among the population of the neigh-
bouring village.

In Terra del Fuego, there occurred but a single race,—the Mongo-
han, or the aboriginal. I have never heard of runaway sailors resort-
ing to the southern side of the Straits of Magellan.

In Northern Chih, at Valparaiso and Santiago, I met with the three
races last mentioned : the White, the Mongolian or the aboriginal, and
the Negro; but the latter race, was decidedly rare.

NUMERICAL PROPORTIONS. 273

In Peru, at Lima and in the vicinity, I met with the same three
races; here, however, interspersed in more equal proportions; and a
variety of complicated mixtures had sprung up, which were distin-
guished by different names. On the Andes, the aboriginal race was
found to preponderate; and the Negro, was rare.

At San Francisco, in North California, I met with three races; the
Malayan, which is the aboriginal, and is also represented by the Poly-
nesian crews of trading vessels; the White race; and in a single in-
stance, the Negro.

Three races also occurred in Oregon ; the Mongolian, here the abo-
riginal, and far predominating at the time of our visit; the White
race, consisting principally of the missionaries, and of persons con-
nected with the Hudson Bay Company; and the Malayan, represented
by a few Polynesians. A Negro, I believe, effected his escape from
one of the vessels of the E:xpedition ; and in this manner, a fourth race
was added to the foregoing.

Leaving now the shores of America, at the Hawaian Islands, I met
with five races; the Malayan, here the aboriginal; the White; the
Negro; the Mongolian, represented by several imported Chinese; and
the fifth race, by an individual from Hindoostan.

A single race occurred among the eastern Pawmotus ; the Malayan
or the aboriginal. In the western part of the same coral archipelago,
we received on board a shipwrecked European.

At Taheiti, notwithstanding it is so much frequented by trading-
vessels, I observed but two races; the Malayan, or the aboriginal ;
and the White race.

The same two races occurred at the Samoan or Navigator Islands;
where the resident Whites, consisted of the missionaries, and of nu-
merous deserters from trading vessels.

The island of Tongataboo, was the first place visited, where two
races had been brought in contact without Huropean intervention ;
these were, the Malayan or the aboriginal, and the Papuan from the
Feejee Islands. Three additional races had arrived in trading vessels ;
the White; the Negro, represented by a single resident ; and the Ne-
grillo, by a lad from Aramanga.

At the Feejee Islands, the Papuan and the Malayan races, had
again aboriginally met together. But Polynesians had likewise been
introduced by trading-vessels; as had the resident Whites; and a
native of Hindoostan; making in all, four races.

At the Bay of Islands, in New Zealand, I met with but two races;

69

274 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

the Malayan or the aboriginal; and the White; the latter, already
settled in considerable numbers, before obtaining a cession of the
sovereignty of the group.

At Sydney, and in the vicinity, I met with five races ; the Australian,
or the aboriginal ; the White, far preponderating ; the Negro, in a few
instances; the Malayan, represented by Polynesians, chiefly from
New Zealand; and the Telingan, by some natives of Hindoostan.

In Luzon, there occurred five races; two of them aboriginal, the
Malayan and the Negrillo. ‘The Mongolian race, was represented by
numerous Chinese residents; the Telingan, by a few Lascars from the
shipping; and the White race, by Europeans and persons of HKuro-
pean descent. f

At Caldera, on Mindanao, I met with but two races; the Malayan,
and the White; the latter, represented by the commander of the post,
and possibly also, by some traces among the Muslim population.

At Sooloo, | met with four races; the Malayan; the Negrillo, in an
individual perhaps aboriginal; the Mongolian, represented by a single
resident Chinese; and the Telingan, by two captive Lascars. There
was besides, evidence of some mixture of a fifth race, in the persons
of the chiefs and the Muslim priest.

At Singapore, individuals belonging to no less than eight physical
races, were found to be congregated together. The White race, was re-
presented by Europeans, and by numerous Orientals; the Mongolian,
by Chinese ; the Malayan, by the native population of the East Indies;
the Telingan, by adventurers from Hindoostan; the Negrillo, by
slaves from New Guinea; the Negro too, was present in a few in-
stances; as was likewise, the true Abyssinian ; and in all probability
the Ethiopian, in some of the mixed Arabs. Indeed, as we had
brought with us the Papuan, in the person of Veindovi; the Austra-
lian and the Hottentot, were the only races remaining unrepresented
at Singapore.

The existence of such a spot on the globe, is a fact deserving atten-
tion; especially when it is considered, that this gathering is chiefly
independent of Kuropean shipping, and of the modern town of Sin-
gapore; the same causes and the same modes of conveyance, having
for many centuries, directed emigration from various quarters to the
Straits of Malacca.

At the Cape of Good Hope, the Hottentot race is the aboriginal; but
I did not meet with individuals, who were unmixed. ‘The four addi-
tional races introduced through European intercourse, have also

a.

NUMERICAL PROPORTIONS. Q275

become much intermixed. At Cape Town, the Negro appeared
rather to preponderate in numbers over the White race; while the
Malayan and the Telingan, were comparatively rare.

At St. Helena, in a population of only a few hundreds, introduced
in European shipping, I observed no less than four races; the White ;
the Negro; the Mongolian, represented by a Chinese; and to all ap-
pearance, the Telingan was present, in the descendants of individuals
derived from Madagascar.

At Zanzibar, on the east coast of Africa, I met with six races;
the Negro, here preponderating; the White, derived either directly
or originally from Arabia, Persia, and Western Hindoostan; the Ma-
layan, represented by three or four Ambolambo from Madagascar ;
the Mongolian, by one resident Chinese; the true Abyssinian, ob-
served in a single instance; and the Ethiopian, which during the
monsoon then prevailing, was somewhat rare.

At Bombay, 1 observed five races; the White; the Telingan, rare .
in a state of purity; the Negro, chiefly among the crews of Arab
vessels arriving from Zanzibar; the Mongolian, represented by a few
Chinese residents; and the Ethiopian, which in a single instance
was seen unmixed.

At Muscat, 1 met with four races; the White, represented exclu-
sively by Orientals; the Telingan, apparently present in two indivi-
duals from the shores of the Persian Gulf; the Negro, chiefly derived
through Zanzibar; and the Ethiopian, seen in individuals of mixed
race, and in a single Somali.

The same four races, occurred at Aden; the Ethiopian, however,
was here represented by numerous Somali visiters; and the Telin-
gan, by individuals among the Sepoy regiments.

At Mocha, I fell in with five races; the White; the Mongolian,
represented in a half-breed Chinese; the Abyssinian, seen in several
instances; the Ethiopian, which is here numerous; as is likewise, the
Negro race.

In Egypt, | met with but three races, the same known there from
remote antiquity; the Ethiopian; the Negro; and the White. [
learned, however, that individuals belonging to a fourth race, the true
Abyssinian, are sometimes seen at Cairo.

I observed two races at Malta ; the White race; and in the instance
of two lads, who were probably derived from the neighbouring Mus-
lim countries, the Negro.

On the continent of Lurope, | met with the same two races; but

ee et

276 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

with the Negro, only at Marseilles, and in the instance of two or
three resident individuals.

All innovations resulting from the developement of European navi-
gation, have been excluded from the accompanying map; which (the
Arab countries being partially excepted), is intended to represent the
aboriginal diffusion of the races. Of isolated districts, Africa appears
to contain the greatest number of aboriginal races; and next in order,
will probably follow, either Madagascar or New Guinea.

Density of population being independent of territorial extent, the
races when compared by the number of individuals, rank differently
from the appearance of things on the map. ‘The usual estimates of
the population of the globe, vary from eight hundred to a thousand
millions; and taking the mean, the human family would seem to
be distributed among the races in something like the following pro-
portions : |

The White, : . 350,000,000 The Abyssinian, . . 8,000,000
The Mongolian, . . 300,000,000 The Papuan, . 4 . 3,000,000
The Malayan, . . 120,000,000 The Negrillo, : . 3,000,000
The Telingan, . : 60,009,000 The Australian, . : 500,000
The Negro, : . 55,000,000 The Hottentot, j . 500,000
The Ethiopian, . : 5,000,000

a ee el es ee Sn ere yh ekee

CHAPTER XV.

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RACES.

ALTHOUGH languages indicate national affiliation, their actual dis-
tribution, is to a certain extent independent of physical race. Con-
fusion has sometimes arisen, from not giving due attention to this
circumstance; and indeed, the extension, or the imparting of lan-
guages, is a subject which has received very little attention.

Writers sometimes reason as if nations went about in masses, the
strong overcoming the weak, and imposing at once their customs, re-
ligion, and languages, on the vanquished. But a careful examina-
tion of the present, being regarded as the best guide to the history
of the past ; the following examples, selected from among others which
I have noted, may be found deserving of attention :

In the mining towns of the Peruvian Andes, the Spanish language
is not commonly spoken; but Spaniards and other foreigners, learn
the Quichua, or the native Peruvian.

In Luzon, though a “conquered country” for more than two centu-
ries, the Tagala is still the general language; and the Spanish,
makes no progress in the interior towns and districts.

At Singapore, where the native population is lost amid the influx of
foreigners, the current language is nevertheless the proper Malay.
Were foreign intercourse cut off from the Hawazian Islands, I think
I shall be supported in the opinion; that notwithstanding the large
number of resident Whites, the English language would soon be-

come obsolete.

The English language makes no progress in Hindoostan ; neither do
the Roman letters; and among the native population, newspapers
are printed in five or six different alphabets, and a yet greater
variety of languages.

70

278 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The language most likely to prevail at Aden, in case the English es-
tablishment becomes permanent, is the Hindoostanee.

On the East Coast of Africa, notwithstanding the large number of
resident Arabs, the general medium of communication, is the Soa-
hil, a Negro language.

In Malta, a Catholic and European island, Arabic is alone spoken by
the mass of the population; moreover, it is not here a written
language.

The adoption of a language, seems to be very much a matter of
convenience ; depending often on the numerical majority. A stranger,
learns the language of the community in which he may happen to fix
his abode; and bis children, often know no other. On the supposition
then, that PoLynestans in former times may have reached the shores
of America, it does not necessarily follow, that we ought to meet with
traces of their language. Some combined association of individuals,
some clannism, seems requisite to the preservation of a language in
the midst of a foreign nation.—Thus it may be inferred, that the Hr-
BREWS retained their language during their sojourn in Eeypt: while
in their present dispersed condition, they speak the languages of their
several adopted countries, to the very common neglect of their own.
—The Gypsies, who are almost as widely though less individually
dispersed, retain every where something of their original language.
—But a more remarkable instance, is found in the Yucui, a tribe
‘long incorporated in the Creek Nation; their peculiar language*
abounding in low, difficult, guttural sounds, so that with the excep-
tion of a few words, no one but the children of the Yuchi has ever
been able to acquire it.”

The following, are instances of more complicated relations :—A
foreigner might naturally suppose, that he could learn in the United
States, something of African languages and customs; but he might
traverse the country without hearing a word of any Negro language ;
a single generation being sufficient to efface all knowledge of Africa.
—fHayti, would furnish him a more perplexing case; and perhaps
nothing short of written history, could solve the enigma of French
being the language of that island.—Moreover, his search for African
institutions, would not be more successful among the St. Vincent

* On the authority of Dr. Boykin, of Georgia, U. 8.

RELATIONS BETWEEN THE RACES. 279

Carips.—And thus we have three examples, where one physical race
of men has succeeded to the language and institutions of another.

Turning now to the Pacific and Kast India islands, we find lan-
guages of the Malay class, spoken by three distinct physical races:
and all analogy indicating, that this type of language belonged ori-
ginally to a single race; the particular source, becomes a fair sub-
ject of inquiry. In determining this point, aid may be obtained
from the geographical distribution of the three island races; from
the well-kuown composition of the population of the East Indies,
where the Malayan is an invading race, intruding and encroaching
on the territories of the Negrillo; and from the fact, that the Negro
race, uses the same type of language at the Comoro Islands and
Madagascar; while at the last-named island, the physical race of the
Vazimba remains undetermined.

The relations between the three island races, are further illustrated
by the state of the diffusion of knowledge in the Pacific; where al-
most every Polynesian art, can be distinctly traced to the Feejee
Islands.

Agriculture and civilization, are very commonly regarded as in-
separable; but the Feejeeans, notwithstanding their ferocious and
barbarous manners, are found to possess a high degree of skill in
cultivating the soil.

A little further west, at Vanikoro, the trunk of a tree, rudely
fashioned, is simply grooved to afford foothold, while an outrigger
is attached, and a mat is spread fora sail.* In our part of the globe,
few would be willing, thus on a simple log to launch out into an un-
known ocean. The pattern, however, seems to shadow forth the
Feejee canoe: and it by no means follows, that the race which eli-
cited the spark of civilization, should have most profited by the ad-
vantage.

The inventions of the Negrillo, a race so averse to, and almost
refusing voluntary intercourse with strangers, were not likely to
benefit the rest of mankind. If acquired, elaborated, and improved
by the Feejeeans; still, from the social condition of this people, their
dislike of change, and unwillingness to leave home, the knowledge
might not have extended further. A third race is called into requi-
sition, one of a roving disposition, the proper children of the sea;

* See the vignette in D’Urville’s History of the Voyage of the Astrolabe,

280 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

who, naturally the most amiable of mankind, are free from antipathies
of race, are fond of novelty, inclined rather to follow than to lead;
and who in every respect, seem qualified to become a mediuin of
communication between the different branches of the human family.
Such an office, is even indicated in the geographical distribution ;
for the Malayan alone, makes a near approach to universal contact
with the other races.

While admitting the general truth, that mankind are essentially
alike, no one doubts the existence of character; distinguishing not
only individuals, but communities and nations. I am persuaded that
there 1s besides, a character of race. It would not be difficult to
select epithets; such as “amphibious, enduring, insititious ;” or to
point out as accomplished by one race of men, that which seemed
beyond the powers of another. Each race possessing its peculiar
points of excellence, and at the same time counterbalancing defects,
it may be, that union was required to attain the full measure of civi-
lization.

In the organic world, each new field requires a new creation ; each
change in circumstances going beyond the constitution of a plant or
animal, is met by a new adaptation, until the universe is full; while
among the immense variety of created beings, two kinds are hardly
found fulfillmg the same precise purpose. Some analogy may pos-
sibly exist in the human family; and it may even be questioned,
whether any one of the races existing singly, would, up to the pre-
sent day, have extended itself over the whole surface of the globe.

CHAPTER XVI.

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS OF KNOWLEDGE.

LEAvinG now the physical diversity of the human family, and re-
curring to the order of the voyage of the Expedition: in proceeding
always west, the American tribes first engaged our attention, and next,
the widely scattered Polynesians.

Among the latter people, it soon became evident, that their customs,
arts, and attainments, were not of independent growth. And further,
that the supposition of the Polynesians being the descendants, the
scattered remnants of a highly civilized people now relapsed into
barbarism, did not altogether meet the case.

The East Indies, being regarded by general consent as the place
of origin of the Polynesians, it was natural to seek there for some cor-
responding tribe; for something analogous to the relation among EKu-
ropean nations, of England to the United States. But on the contrary,
surprise arose at the want of resemblance; and the term, “ Malay
origin,” if used in a national sense, was discovered to be incorrect.

So, in looking to Asia, to China, Japan, or the neighbouring coun-
tries, for some tribe corresponding with the aboriginal Americans ;
we shall equally find ourselves at fault. For the remote environs of
Bhering Straits, do not offer a fair exception.

After being much perplexed for an explanation, it was only on
taking leave of the Hast Indies, that the following simple reflection
occurred to me:—If the human family has had a central origin, and
has gradually and regularly diffused itself, followed by the principal
inventions and discoveries; the history of man, would then be in-
scribed on the globe itself: and each new revolution obliterating more
or less of the preceding, his primitive condition should be found at the

71

282 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

furthest remove from the geographic centre; as, in the case of a
pebble dropped into the water, the earliest wave keeps most distant
from the point of origin.

If then we could go back into the early history of the East Indies,
we might find there a condition of society approximating to that of
the Polynesian Islands. And we can readily understand, how cus-
toms may continue in remote situations, after having become obsolete
at the place where they originated.

They, who send ships over every sea, and who live where inven-
tions from different sources become common property at once, may not
readily appreciate the state of things in the absence of such universal
intercourse. But on the other side of the globe, in the vast space
between Arabia and the coast of America, traces of successive waves
in society, seem actually to exist.

a. The East Indies.

Thus, in the East Indies, in the northeastern or the heathen part
of Celebes,* we observe many striking coincidences with the state of
society among the ancient Greeks. We have the spear, the shield, and
the sword ; and these weapons, are even almost identical in pattern.
Altars and sacrifices, so generally obsolete at the present day, are
here extant. Auguries, continue to be drawn from the entrails of
offered victims; and also, from the flight of birds. A separate litera-
ture, has become an object of national pride. While the proa of the
surrounding seas, approaches in many respects the ancient row-galley
of the Mediterranean. A further analogy, may even be found in the
custom of putting to death strangers arriving by sea; which, it ap-
pears, was not unknown among the ancient Greeks.

A little to the west of Celebes, the literature of the Malay Nation,
contains a translation of the Fables of A’sop: who, according to the
unsatisfactory accounts we have of him, was one of the earliest of the
Greek writers. And further, the fact may be noted, that the A%sopian
style of composition, is still in vogue at Madagascar.

Superstitions also, appear to be subject to the same laws of progres-
sion with communicated knowledge: and the belief in ghosts, evil
spirits, and sorcery, current among the ruder East Indian tribes,

*See the accounts, by D’Urville and others. T See Ellis’s Madagascar.

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS OF KNOWLEDGE. 983

in Madagascar, and in a great part of Africa, seems to indicate: that
such ideas, may have elsewhere preceded a regular form of mytho-
logy.

In the East, Luzon is one of the most distant points reached by the
invention of letters; or having an aboriginal alphabet. 1 was there-
fore much struck with some coincidences in the forms of the letters,
between the obsolete ‘Tagala alphabet and the ancient Geez of Abys-
sinia ;* while in the intervening countries, the alphabets, although
various, are altogether unlike. It is true, the connexion is not en-
tirely obliterated; but may be traced in the mode of marking the
termination of words, among the Bugis and the Siamese.

The multiplicity of alphabets in the East Indies, seems to offer a
parallel to the multiplicity of languages in America. And I have
found nothing in all this, contravening the idea of a single source to
the invention. Many of the East India alphabets, are plainly de-
rived, one from another; the form of the characters often being merely
modified, and new ones superadded: but I shall assume only, that
the knowledge of the existence of the art, was derived from abroad.
Much of the difference, between alphabetic writing in the East Indies
and our own more perfect system, seems attributable to the circum-
stance: that the alphabet transmitted to the West by Cadmus, had
been already elaborated.

Let the reader in thought, divest himself of his education, and sup-
pose that his mother tongue had never been reduced to writing; and
further, that the possibility of representing sounds by signs, had sim-
ply arisen in his mind. ‘The attempt to carry this idea into practice,
will be found by no means so easy as it may at first appear; and by
most persons, would probably be abandoned. With the aid of exam-
ple, there would be a greater prospect of success; but even, with
several characters communicated, their forms would probably be mo-
dified and new letters invented, for sounds difficult to be reconciled, or
that might be unrepresented. Where the model has been imperfect,
it has appeared to me, that the system founded upon it would natu-
rally be complicated; one requiring long study, and which might
serve for a profession, a means of procuring support; in short, more
resembling the inconvenient alphabets of the Kast India islands, than
the simple analysis of sounds which we have in the Roman letters.

*T refer to the ‘ Nubian Alphabet,’ of Frye’s Pantographia.

ee eee

284 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

b. The Feejee Islands.

Eastward from Celebes, and nearly equidistant with Madagascar,
we have the Feejee Islands; situated entirely beyond the direct in-
fluence of the East Indies. We find nevertheless, a regular system
of mythology; oracles; the javelin or throwing-spear; the patera or
shallow drinking-bowl ; the ‘ pipe of Pan;’ and the ‘alabastron,’ with
the practice of anointing. We have likewise, the wooden neck-pillow,
and the practice of circumcision; both, common to the ancient inhahi-
tants of the Thebaid, and also to the modern Abyssinians, and their
neighbours on the south. We have further, the legend of an enor-
mous bird, the ‘Rok’ of the Arabian Tales; and a similar story, is
said to be likewise current in Madagascar and in the neighbouring
parts of Africa.

Among the subjects which promise to throw light on the affiliation
of nations, none more deserves attention, than the calendar and state
of astronomical knowledge. ‘These points, have been much neglected
in the accounts of the East Indian and Pacific islands. The Fee-
jeeans, have a regular calendar. And I may add, that Veindovi kept
a strict account of the number of moons, during the whole time he
was on board the Vincennes.

c. Polynesva.

The Polynesians, notwithstanding their more eastern geographical
position, have most of their customs, arts, and acquired knowledge, in
common with the Feejeeans; but there are certain points, which re-
quire a separate notice.

The eagerness with which whole communities, young and old,
devoted themselves to reading and writing, when these arts were
introduced ; and the care previously taken, to preserve and transmit
poetry and history by means of living records, are facts of interest,
under more than one point of view. Whoever has witnessed some-
thing of this, will hardly be willing to admit: that such a people
would ever have Jost the art of writing. It should seem then, as has
been remarked by others, that the Polynesians belong to a wave of
migration that preceded the invention of letters.

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS OF KNOWLEDGE. 9285

Corresponding results, may be deduced: from the ignorance of
money, or of a medium of exchange; although property is acknow-
ledged, inherited, and guarded by regular laws, even to a division of
the soil. And again, from the absence of all kinds of ‘grain ;’ not-
withstanding the advanced state of the art of cultivation.

The strict adherence to truth among portions of the Polynesian
family, stands opposed to the treachery of the Feejeeans: and fur-
ther, it seems to result mainly from the simplicity of the Polynesian
character; the contrary practice, being looked upon rather in the
light of an error of judgment. The pseudo-accomplishment, how-
ever, proved to be not unknown to the chiefs. Other traits in the
moral man, might be adduced; for the ‘golden age,’ in accordance
almost literally with the ideas of the ancient poets, still exists on some
of the secluded Polynesian isles.

d. America.

I hardly know whether to refer here to America; though in gene-
ral, the aboriginal Americans are to be regarded, as in a less advanced
state of society than the Polynesians.

We note throughout Aboriginal America, the entire absence of
poetry and literature. Records, indeed, of a certain description, were
preserved by the Mexicans: but among the tribes of the United
States, the tradition of remarkable events, is said to disappear in
very few generations. We note also in extensive and varied dis-
tricts, a complete ignorance of agriculture; and where it is otherwise,
there is usually no division of the soil. A further difference from the
islanders, is found in the absence, in most instances, of hereditary
governments.

The custom of scalping, so well known in North America, may be
noticed in this place, on account of its having been described by He-
rodotus ;* while it is not, that I am aware of, in vogue among any
Asiatic tribe of the present day.

* Herodotus, Melpomene, 64.

72

CHAPTER XVII.

MIGRATIONS BY SEA.

e

Tue state of the diffusion of knowledge, depends then in a good
measure, on the facilities of intercourse; and in the foregoing in-
stances, of maritime intercourse; for I think it will be admitted, that
the islands and countries referred to, were chiefly if not exclusively
discovered and colonized by seafaring tribes. This, however, may
be more evident, to those who have some knowledge of maritime
affairs; some familiarity with the world of waters, and with that dis-
tinct class of human beings who thereon seek subsistence. Many dif-
ficulties, which previously existed in my own mind, have vanished
since making a sea-voyage.

Coral shores, are vastly more productive in animal life, than the or-
dinary sea-coast; and thus, yield a more important contribution to
human sustenance. After witnessing at the Pacific islands, the mul-
titudes of persons who daily resort to the reefs, where they become
familiar with the surf: I have questioned, whether something like
this, did not first tempt man to venture upon the ocean. On coasts
of a different character, destitute of harbours and of outlying isles,
and especially where lashed by a heavy surf; the idea of quitting the
land, does not seem a very natural one. On the other hand. a coral
shore, an islet in sight, with the water of an agreeable temperature,
have appeared to me to constitute all the requisites for the birth of
navigation.

In considering why the comparatively narrow Atlantic so long
proved impassable, the character of the coasts should be kept in
view; and those especially, of the African continent. Something
may be allowed for a difference in the natural disposition of the
races ; and also for the probability, that distant voyages were first
made by following the coasts.

MIGRATIONS BY SEA. 287

a. The North Pacific.

To persons living around the Atlantic shores, the source of the abo-
riginal population of America, seems mysterious; and volumes have
been written upon the subject. Had the authors themselves made
the voyage to the North Pacific, I cannot but think, that much of
the discussion would have been spared. In the absence of such an
opportunity, a reference to a good globe may be useful before entering
upon the question. But I confess, it was only on actually visiting that
part of the world, that the whole matter seemed to open to my view.

The coast of northwestern America, is broken by countless inlets
and channels, which penetrate the continent as well as lead among
islands; and for a distance perhaps unparalleled, offer a land-locked
passage to the largest vessels. The shores are everywhere occupied
by populous maritime tribes, who derive subsistence from the abun-
dant products of the water. This description of coast, extends north-
ward, almost without interruption, to the peninsula of Alashka; and
in continuation, the islands of the Aleutian Group, stretching in close
proximity to the very borders of Asia, are inhabited by the same class
of population. Where then shall Asia end, and America begin ?

To the southward, the character of the coast changes near the
mouth of the Columbia River; and beyond this point, there is no
room for the developement of a maritime population. ‘T'he canoes of
the Straits of De Fuca, are of wood, are well made, and the natives
frequently go in them many miles into the open sea. A little further
north, we meet with an improved model; the ‘ baydar,’ or skin canoe;
which is used among the Aleutian Islands, and generally throughout
Russian America. I have seen one of them; and from its lightness,
elegance, and the capacity of being rendered impervious to both air
and water, I could not but admire its perfect adaptation to the pur-
poses of navigation: for it seemed to almost enable man to take a
place among the proper inhabitants of the deep. Such vessels, are
obviously fitted to cope with the open sea, and so far as the absence
of sails permits, to traverse a considerable expanse of ocean.

The presence of these skin canoes among the HWsquimaux of the
Greenland seas, was long regarded as proof of the existence of a north-
west passage: and it likewise indicates the course of human migra-
tions.

288 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

I have not examined authorities, to ascertain: whether the passage
across Behring Straits, is practicable for a people in the purely hunter
state. But in view of the large portion of Northwest America in con-
tact with maritime tribes, these tribes, have appeared to me the most
probable source of the inland population.

It should be observed, that there are two other portions of America,
that afford room for the developement of a maritime population: the
coral-bound West Indies, and the border Magellanic Archipelago.
The latter, is a counterpart to the region we have been considering ;
and its remote geographical position, seems to imply an independent
rise of navigation; together with an inverse order of descent, in the
derivation of maritime from inland tribes.

Men of a second physical race, have aboriginally found their way
to the western coast of America; and by the open sea: which latter
circumstance, will be found to have several important bearings.

The Polynesian Groups, are everywhere separated from South
America by a vast expanse of ocean; where rough waves, and perpe-
tually adverse winds and currents, oppose access from the west. In
attempting from any part of Polynesia to reach America, a canoe
would naturally and almost necessarily be conveyed to the northern
extreme of California; and this, is the precise limit where the second
physical race of men makes its appearance. So well understood is
this course of navigation; that San Francisco, | am informed, is com-
monly regarded in Mexico as “ being on the route to Manila.”

Again, the northern extreme of California, is as favourably situ-
ated for receiving a direct arrival from Japan. At the present day,
owing to a change in national policy, Japanese vessels are only by
accident found at large. But within a few years, one has been fallen
in with by a whale-ship in the North Pacific; another, has been
wrecked on the Sandwich Islands; and a case more in point, a
third, has been drifted to the American coast near the mouth of the
Columbia River.

b. The Main Pactjic.

Of the aboriginal vessels of the Pacific, two kinds only are adapted
for long sea-voyages; those of Japan just mentioned, and the large
double canoes of the Society and Tonga Groups. In times anterior

MUG RATT ONS BY" S EA. 289

to the impulse given to civilized Kurope through the novel Enter-
prise of Columbus; Polynesians, were accustomed to undertake sea-
voyages nearly as long, exposed to equal dangers, and in vessels of
far inferior construction. However incredible this may appear to
many, there is sufficient evidence of the fact.

The Tonga people, are known to hold intercourse with Vavao,
Samoa, the Feejee Islands, Rotuma, and the New Hebrides. But
there is a document, published before those seas were frequented by
whalers and trading-vessels, which shows a more extensive aboriginal
acquaintance with the islands of the Pacific. I allude to the map,
obtained by Forster and Cook from a native of the Society Islands ;
and which has been shown by Mr. Hale, to contain not only the Mar-
quesas and the islands south and east of Taheiti, but the Samoan,
Feejee, and even more distant groups.

Again, in regard to the principles of Navigation, the Polynesians
have been found to possess a better knowledge of the subject, than is
commonly supposed; as appears from recent discoveries at the Ha-
walian Islands. One of the Hawaiian headlands, has been found to
bear the name of “the starting-place for 'Taheiti;” the canoes, accord-
ing to the account of the natives, leaving in former times “at a certain
season of the year,* and directing their course by a particular star.”

The two blackish races, inhabiting the extensive archipelagoes be-
tween the Feejee Islands and New Guinea, are often skilful enough
in canoe-management; but the absence of a wandering disposition,
and peculiarities in civil institutions, would seem greatly to impede
diffusion and colonization. ‘The Feejeeans, hold no intercourse with
their brethren of the New Hebrides; and a similar state of things,
appears to prevail at the more western groups: though the existence
of intercommunication of some sort, is shown by the use of betel
having reached the Santa Cruz or Nitendi Group, and even Ti-
kopiat and the New Hebrides.

North of the Papuan archipelagoes, the Micronesians, like their
brethren the Polynesians, are a migratory people; and they are re-
ported to traverse, even in small canoes, the widely extended archi-
pelago of the Carolines. There is yet, no direct intercourse with
the East Indies; notwithstanding the advantage of the monsoons, for
a good part of the distance.

It will be perceived then, that there are actually (though not so

* On the authority of the missionarics. + See D’Urville, and others.
73

290 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

represented on the map), two routes of migration leading from the
East Indies into the main Pacific; one, through the Micronesian
groups; and the other, by the Papuan archipelagoes.

ce. The East Indies.

The proas of the East Indies, seem to be every way adapted for
traversing the open sea; yet in no instance that I am aware of, have
they been found at any considerable distance from the outer coasts;
and these even, are in a good measure avoided. There is certainly-no
exception to the usual semi-aquatic habits of the race; for the East
Indians, are fully as fond as the Polynesians of being in and upon
the water. At the present time, the Bugis of Celebes, may be said to
rule the Hast Indian seas; their commercial enterprises, extending to
all parts of the immense closed archipelago, from the borders of Asia
to the northern coast of Australia.

The Chinese ‘junk,’ seems also to belong properly to the region
under consideration. And being used chiefly within the limits of the
monsoons, and among land-locked expanses where the Equator brings
exemption from storms, the construction, may prove to be by no means
ill-adapted to the circumstances.

d. The Bengal Sea.

The Telinga people, in company with various adventurers from
the eastern coast of Hindoostan, have long been in the habit of resort-
ing in large bodies to the East Indian islands. Among some thou-
sands seen at Singapore, nearly all the individuals I questioned, had
embarked at Madras.

I observed, however, in the harbour of Singapore, a vessel from
Cochin, (near the southern point of Hindoostan.) It was clearly a
proper sea-vessel; one, vindicating the more advanced knowledge of
Navigation in the West: moreover, the construction, although pecu-
liar, offered, with the raking masts and the sharpness of hull, a nearer
approach than was anticipated to a celebrated model at home.

The Maldive islanders, likewise, are known to make voyages to
and from the East Indies. Iam not sure that I have met with any
of these people, and I am even undecided as to their physical race;

2 ge a

MIGRATIONS BY SEA. 291

though a range of coral-reefs, would seem to present attractions to but
one branch of the human family. The geographical position, and
reported enterprising character of the inhabitants, seem to indicate,
That these islanders may have taken an important part in colonizing
the surrounding regions; and I can even conceive of the possibility,
of the whole population of the Malay countries, having been origi-
nally derived from such a limited source.

e. The Arabian Seas.

We come now to the fifth and last
remove in the main route of marine mi-
grations; the tract of ocean, interposed
between Hindoostan and East Africa,
and terminating in two separate ap-
pended seas. Voyages in this quar-
ter, are made by following the coasts; and the navigation, is chiefly
in the hands of the Arabs. The vessels they employ, are of uniform
model, and are called ‘dows.’ A figure of one of them, is annexed.

The Arabs, however, for several centuries, have exceeded these
precise limits; as may be inferred among other circumstances, from
the extension of Islamism to the East Indies without its undergoing
the modifying influence of Hindoostan. Of late years, since the
Arabs have procured European ships, and have learned to quit the
coasts, this direct intercourse has much increased. I have myself
seen at Mocha, vessels arriving from the East Indies; and I met with
the circular-bladed oar of the Persian Gulf, both at Singapore and in
the harbour of Manila.

Arabia, being situated entirely within a Desert region, the timber
used by the inhabitants, is all imported from abroad; either from the
Malabar coast, or from Zanzibar. And leaving the absence of natural
inclination for maritime pursuits, it would seem a fair inference:
That navigation, did not take its rise in a country devoid of the
materials of construction.

South of the Arab colonies of Kast Africa, we have Malay influence
of unknown antiquity, at the Comoro Islands and Madagascar. Here,
too, the outrigger makes its appearance; an article not used by the
Arabs, but which is general in the Pacific, and occurs at Sooloo, and
if I am rightly informed, at Ceylon. ‘The Maldive islanders, make

e
-

292 PHYSICAL HISTORY] OR MAIN:

regular voyages only to the eastward; but the fact of a Maldive canoe
with several persons on board, having recently drifted to the vicinity
of the African coast, shows at least, the practicability of intercom-
munication.

We have thus designated, between Eastern Africa and the coast of
America, no less than five separate theatres of maritime intercourse.
Hach of these, has different attendant circumstances, is navigated by
a different people, and in vessels of a different construction; each, if
thoroughly examined, would furnish ample materials for a separate
volume; and this state of things, has existed for ages, notwithstanding
the silence of History.

CHAPTER XVIII.
MIGRATIONS BY LAND.

WE are unacquainted at the present day, with “men living in the
state of nature;” or devoid of all communicated knowledge. Some
idea, however, of such an original state, may be gathered from the
condition of certain uncivilized tribes; but not on the continents.
Where intercommunication 1s universal, manners assimilate, changes
become general, and society in some shape, seems an unavoidable
result.

Islands, afford more scope for the developement of local and inde-
pendent institutions ; and one portion of the globe, situated aloof from
continental influence, more particularly demands attention: an island-
world, where the widely-extended coasts have been for ages occupied
by invading maritime tribes, to the seclusion of the people of the In-
terior. Man, in some of the larger East India islands, presents phases,
difficult to be comprehended by those who have seen him only on
coasts and continents.

I have selected, from authorities which I think may be relied on,
the four following examples of Life in the East Indies. And it will
be observed: that some of the tribes spoken of, are in the ‘hunter
state,’ and live on the spontaneous products of the land; a circum-
stance, rare among islands: where, moreover, the proper ‘pastoral
state,’ appears to be quite unknown.

1. I shall notice in the first place, the Barras or Sumatra; and
chiefly, on account of the extraordinary character of some of their
customs: for compared with many tribes in the same quarter of the
globe, they are an advanced, and in some respects even a polished
people. They cultivate the soil, have a division of landed property,
a currency, a regular system of laws and government, an alphabet,

74

294. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

and a literature of their own: and yet, they not only eat their parents,
(a custom among other East Indian tribes, and mentioned even by He-
rodotus); but they seem literally, to devour them alive :

‘“ Marsden,* confines their cannibalism to two cases, that of persons
condemned for crimes, and that of prisoners of war; but they them-
selves declare, that they frequently eat their own relations, when aged
and infirm; and that, not so much to gratify their appetite, as to per-
form a pious ceremony. Thus when a man becomes infirm and weary
of the world, he is said to invite his own children to eat him, in the
season when salt and limes are cheapest. He then ascends a tree,
round which his friends and offspring assemble, and as they shake
the tree, join in a funeral dirge, the import of which is, ‘ The season
is come, the fruit is ripe, and it must descend.’ ‘The victim descends,
and those that are nearest and dearest to him deprive him of life, and
devour his remains in a solemn banquet.”

Major Canning states,t “that during his residence at Tappanooly,
(1814), in the heart of the Batta country, he omitted no opportunity
of making the most minute inquiries” on the subject of their canni-
balism: “all of which tended, not only fully to corroborate the reality
of the practice, but that it is much more frequent than is generally
imagined, and carried on in a manner even more savage than is re-
lated by Mr. Marsden. The following are the questions put by me
to a native chief, selected indiscriminately from an assembly of seve-
ral, collected on some particular occasion at the house of the officiating
resident at ‘Tappanooly, and his answers:

Q. “I understand the practice of eating prisoners taken in war,
also malefactors convicted of certain crimes, is prevalent in the Batta
country ; were you ever personally present at such a repast ?”

A. “The custom you mention is prevalent throughout the Batta
country, and I have been more than once present when it has been
put in practice.”

Q. “Describe what takes place on such occasions.”

A. “'Three posts are fixed in the ground; to the middle one, the
body of the prisoner or criminal is made fast, while his arms and legs
are extended to the two others. (The narrator and other chiefs pre-
sent, here simultaneously made with their arms and legs, the figure
of St. Andrew’s cross.) Ona signal being given, every one entitled

* See Leyden, Asiatic Researches, vol. x. p. 202.
t Malacea Observer, 1827; cited, as also the preceding extract, from Moore’s Papers
on the Indian Archipelago,

ve
a=
“

ae hs!

MIGRATIONS BY LAND. 295

to a share in the feast, rushes on him with hatchets and knives, and
many with no other instruments than their teeth and nails. He is
thus in a few minutes entirely cut or torn to pieces, and I have seen
the guests so keen at a repast of this description, as severely to wound
each other’s hands and fingers. A mixture of lime-juice, salt and
chillies, prepared in the shell of a cocoa-nut, is always at hand on
these occasions, in which many dip the flesh previous to eating it.”

Q. “Then the prisoner is not previously put to death, but devoured
alive and piecemeal?”

A. “The first wounds he receives, are from the hatchets, knives,
and teeth of his assailants, but these are so numerous and simulta-
neous, as to cause almost immediate death.”

“The above are the questions and answers, which I put to and re-
ceived from the native chief; on which occasion it was remarkable
that more than once, when he was proceeding to give the latter, the
others altogether and at the same moment joined assent; which leaves
little room to doubt, that to most of them at least, such scenes were
familiar.”

2. The second instance selected, that of the Winp PropLe or
Ceram, is of a widely different character. Society, here appears
hardly to exist; but each family, lives in a state of perpetual hostility
with all around :

“Among* these Alforese, (inhabiting the interior of Ceram,) there
is another kind of savage people, who do not dwell in any houses
or huts, but upon high Warinje and other trees, that spread their
branches wide around. They lead and intertwine the branches so
closely together, that they form an easy resting-place; and each tree
is the habitation of a whole family. ‘They adopt this mode, because
they dare not trust even those of their own nation; as they surprise
each other during the night, and kill whoever they take hold of.”

3. But I cannot persuade myself, that the first natural impulse of
man, is to kill; and in this respect, the third example, that of a
Forest TRIBE ofr THE Matay PENINSULA, especially deserves atten-
tion. The following account} of this so-called ‘Original People,’ is
stated to have been derived, partly from the Malays, and partly from
people of neighbouring tribes :

* Rumphius, MS.; copied in Stavorinus’s Voyages, English edition, 1798.
+ From a printed sheet, obtained at Singapore.

296 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

“The Original People live in the dead of the forest. ‘They never
come down to the villages for fear of meeting any one. ‘They live on
the fruits of the forest, and what they take in hunting, and neither
sow nor plant. When a young man and woman have engaged to
marry, they proceed to a hillock ; the woman first runs round it three
times, when the man pursues; if he can get hold of her, she becomes
his wife, otherwise, the marriage does not take place, and they return
to their respective families. ‘Their language is not understood by any
one; they lisp their words, the sound of which is like the noise of
birds, and their utterance is very indistinct. They have neither king
nor chief of any kind; but there is one man whom they style Puyung,
to whom they refer all their requests and complaints, and they inva-
riably adopt his decision. They have no religion, no idea of a Su-
preme Being, creation of the world, soul of man, sin, heaven, hell,
angels, day of judgment. They have no priests: the Puyung instructs
them in matters relative to sorcery, ghosts, and evil spirits, in the be-
lief of which they are all influenced. They never quarrel or go to
war with another tribe. In sickness they use the roots and leaves of
trees as medicines. When one of them dies, the head only is buried;
the body is eaten by the people, who collect in large numbers for that
purpose.”

What is stated of their language, is the more worthy of note; when
it is considered, that the dialects of the neighbouring and closely re-
lated tribes, belong to the Malay class. Whoever has chanced to be
thrown among people, not a syllable of whose speech he could com-
prehend, will know, that amid many inconveniences, it is still possi-_
ble to get along. And in the condition of things to be next men-
tioned, the nearest I have heard of to the ‘natural state of man,’ it
seems questionable, Whether a language of words, is really needed.

4. The instance alluded to, is that of the WiLtp PEopLE or Borneo;
who are described by Dalton,* in the following words :—* Further
towards the north, are to be found men living absolutely in a state
of nature; who neither cultivate the ground, nor live in huts; who
neither eat rice nor salt, and who do not associate with each other;
but rove about some woods, like wild beasts. The sexes meet in the
jungle, or the man carries away a woman from some campong.

* In the Singapore Chronicle, March and April, 1831. Reprinted in Moore’s Papers
on the Indian Archipelago.

MIGRATIONS BY LAND. 297

When the children are old enough to shift for themselves, they
usually separate, neither one afterwards thinking of the other. At
night they sleep under some large tree, the branches of which hang
low: on these they fasten the children in a kind of swing. Around
the tree they make a fire, to keep off the wild beasts and snakes.
They cover themselves with a piece of bark, and in this also they
wrap their children. It is soft and warm, but will not keep out the
rain. ‘These poor creatures are looked on and treated by the Dayaks
as wild beasts. Hunting parties of twenty-five and thirty go out, and
amuse themselves with shooting at the children in the trees with the
sumpit, the same as monkeys, from which they are not easily distin-
guished. The men taken in these excursions are invariably killed,
the women commonly spared, if they are young. It is somewhat re-
markable, that the children of these wild people, cannot be sufficiently
tamed to be entrusted with their liberty. Selgie told me, he never
recollected an instance when they did not escape to the jungle the
very first opportunity, notwithstanding many of them had been treated
kindly for years. ‘The consequence is, all the chiefs who call them-
selves civilized, no sooner take them, but they cut off a foot, sticking
the stump in a bamboo of molten damar; their escape is thus pre-
vented, and their services in paddling canoes retained. An old
Dayak loves to dwell upon his success on these hunting excursions ;
and the terror of the women and children when taken, affords a
fruitful theme of amusement, at all their meetings.” The following
additional information, is, however, somewhat unexpected. After
speaking of the excellence of the iron and steel of the interior of
Borneo, and of the extent of its manufacture among the Dayak
tribes, Dalton continues: “Those men whom I have noticed, living
in a state of nature, building no habitations of any kind, and eating
nothing but fruits, snakes, and monkeys, yet procure this excellent
iron, and make blades, sought after by every Dayak; who in their
hunting excursions, have in view the possession of the poor creature’s
spear or mandow, as much as his head, improbable as it may appear.”
Above, will be found, something like evidence: That mankind,
have the ability to diffuse themselves widely over the globe, without
associating, and in the absence of the invention of language.

Beginning now at the extreme West: let us consider some of the
barriers to such a diffusion, the means of overcoming them, and the
geographical position of adjoining countries.

79

298 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The fertile portion of Africa, is surrounded by water on every side
except the north; where a vast uninhabitable space, seems impassa-
ble to man in his ruder state.

There exists, however, a natural highway across the Sahara, in
the unique geographical position of the Nile: and individuals, by
following the banks, or floating on the bosom of this remarkable
river, could easily reach the countries of the North.

The acquisition of domestic animals, and more particularly that
of the camel, wrought a change throughout the region in question.
And one of the camel routes, may be here specified, as connecting
countries which make a conspicuous figure in History. Com-
mencing in the table-land of Abyssinia, and crossing the entrance
of the Red Sea, the route leads northward, and through the narrow-
est part of Arabia, to Persia (a country more conveniently accessible
from the heart of Africa than may at first be supposed); continuing
eastward, the route terminates in Hindoostan, at the second grand
natural barrier of races and nations, the Himalaya range of moun-
tains.

In order to a clear understanding of the history of Oriental nations,
it is necessary to observe: That the above Desert tract, contains four
principal oases: the first, consists of Egypt, or of the alluvial flats of
the Nile; the second, consists of the alluvial flats of the Euphrates ;
the third, of a strip of land along the southern margin of the Caspian ;
and the fourth, of the alluvial flats of the Indus.

The difference in the circumstances between intercourse by land and
by sea, involves a corresponding difference in the state of the diffusion
of knowledge. But successive waves of social revolution, are traceable
in the relics of ancient nations preserved in Hindoostan: likewise, in
the slow progress of innovation in mountain fastnesses, and in other
secluded situations. Thus, the people of the western Sahara, con-
tinue to entertain the belief: ‘That Cimmerian darkness overhangs the
Atlantic, and that the sun rises only for themselves. They have been
known to ask visiters, “Do you sow barley in your houses?” mean-
ing the ships, in which they supposed that Europeans were born and
passed their lives.

CHAPTER XIX.

ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE.

Tue alimentary resources offered to man by the natural vegetation
of different countries, are by no means in proportion to the fertility of
the soil, or the variety of the productions. And the wanderer, would
be in more danger of perishing from hunger in the wilds of Brazil,
than in Terra del Fuego.

The first part of the voyage of the Expedition, led into regions
which present striking peculiarities and marked contrasts in the
vegetable growth. And after visiting successively, Madeira, the
Cape Verd Islands, Brazil, Patagonia, Terra del Fuego, Chili, the
Chilian Andes, and Lower Peru, I hardly anticipated further novelty
in the general aspect of vegetation. A new phase, however, awaited
me at the very next stage of my progress; and one, in regard to
which I will enter into some details.

The western slope of the Peruvian Andes, at the elevation of from
six thousand to eleven thousand feet, presents nothing of the wildness
and magnificence of primeval forests; it is not, like some Northern
‘prairies, clothed with a grassy sward, or at one season of the year,
with a fleeting array of a few kinds of flowers; neither again, like
most open countries, is it fairly arid. ‘There is no general tendency
to the production of spines; and if occasionally, a woody plant of
moderate height, has a tree-like trunk, there are yet no marks of
stunted growth. Proper shrubs, of various affinity, are common
enough; yet they nowhere grow in contiguity, or form thickets.
Cacti, too, are everywhere conspicuous; not such as are familiarly
known in green-houses, but a varied and peculiarly fantastic series.
The soil, however, is principally occupied by herbaceous and other
humble plants; growing, not in such a manner as to cover the surface,
but detached, almost as if artificially set out. Ornamental plants, are

300 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

in profusion; and in the absence of all rankness of habit, they are
precisely such as meet the general taste of florists. ‘The most abun-
dant of these showy plants, may be enumerated in the order of colours:
and here again, instances will be observed, contravening our usual
associations. Scarlet, shines forth in Salvias, Scutellaria, Mutisias,
and Indigofera ; interspersed and tempered amid the blue of other
Salvias, of Lupines, Plumbago, and Polygalee ; orange, too, is present,
in the frequent Tropwolums, Lobelia, and Loasas ; and likewise purple,
in Bacasia, and in large-flowered Boerhaavias ; but over all, yellow
predominates, from the profusion of Calceolarias, and of Senecios and
other rayed Composite.

While travelling in the midst of what I could only compare to an
artificial flower-garden, outspread over hill and dale, the thought
arose: In a region like this, producing also esculent and tuberous
roots, how natural would be the origin of agriculture ; how little
seems here wanting, to disclose to man in searching for his daily
food, the secret of multiplying his means of subsistence.

In a forest, supposing a useful plant to be discovered, its cultivation
would require a clearing; which seems too complex an idea, fora
first suggestion. On the other hand, the aridity of most open coun-
tries, precludes cultivation; unless with the aid of irrigation; and
this requires even further advancement. Of countries not altogether
barren, we have an instance in Oregon: where, notwithstanding that
the natives annually seek subsistence from bulbous and other roots
(none however tuberous), the idea of assisting nature by art, has not
been developed. Again, on the Sacramento River, of California;
where, by a singular approximation to the use of grain, minute seeds
of grasses and other plants, constitute an article of food; the natives
nevertheless, have not advanced beyond gathering the spontaneous
crop.

In considering the topographical resemblance between Mexico and
Peru, and the aboriginal condition of these countries when compared
with that of the rest of America, the conclusion seems hardly avoida-
ble: That table-lands, are the natural birthplaces of civilization. A
further inference, would seem to follow: That on entering a woody
country, man will naturally relapse into a ruder state; and he must
either conquer and destroy the forest, or he will himself yield before
its influence.

The remote and widely isolated geographical position of Peru,
favours the supposition of a spontaneous developement of civiliza-

ORIGIN OF AGRICULTURE. 301

tion; and there are attendant circumstances, which point to the same
conclusion.

In the mountain-region above described, and particularly in its more
elevated portion, I met with small plantations devoted to three articles
of aboriginal culture; the Basella tuberosa, the Oxalis crenata, and
the Tropeolum tuberosum. ‘These are plants, which besides, appear
to belong naturally to the region in question; and they all have tu-
berous roots. A fourth tuber-bearing plant, was seen cultivated side
by side; one, which did not aboriginally reach Mexico, but which
has now become universally known; the common potato.

Again, Peru, is possibly the only part of America, that possessed
indigenous domestic animals. The Jama and the guinea-pig,* like
the above-named cultivated plants, are actual natives of Peru. But
the third American domestic animal, the turkey, is well known to have
its proper home in the wooded portions of the United States; and
although not found in its domesticated state among the surrounding
aboriginal tribes, it was probably reclaimed by a people less remote
than the Peruvians.

America, contains two of the natural centres of civilization; and
Asia, contains one, the table-land of Thibet; all three, being in the
possession of the Mongolian race. If now, we search the continents
for a fourth table-land, which in height, extent, and geographical im-
portance, can be ranked with the preceding; we shall find it, only in
Abyssinia.

It is, however, tolerably certain: That agriculture, was not sponta-
neously developed in any part of Africa. And it should also be ob-
served, That the cultivated plants of the East Indies and the Pacific
islands, are not mountain productions. The same indeed, may be
said of the cassada (Jatropha manihot); a plant aboriginally culti-
vated in the hotter portions of America.

* The fact may be here noted, as of some interest in Zoology: That these two ani-
mals, have become particoloured, and also subject to individual variation in colour ; like
other domestic animals. This change has equally taken place in the turkey ; accompa-
nied with one of the additional marks of servitude, the dewlap.

76

CHAPTER XX.
ZOOLOGICAL DEDUCTIONS.

THERE is surely no reason why the order of nature should be set
aside, for the special accommodation of physical man; and taking it
for granted, That he has been placed on the globe in unison with the
rest of creation, and subject to the same general laws which guide
us in investigating other beings; we may proceed to search for his
place of origin, in the same manner as for that of other natural pro-
ductions. And in the first place, let us examine his relation to cli-
mate.

The species of organic beings allotted to the various regions of the
globe, have in no instance been modified by climate, or by other ex-
ternal circumstances ; but each, has been originally fitted in struc-
ture and constitution, precisely to the station in which it is naturally
found. In a district exposed to extremes, whether of heat, cold,
moisture, or aridity, the indigenous animal or plant has the means
of avoiding them, or else is protected against them in its outer cover-
ing: purposes, accomplished in various modes, some of which are
sufficiently familiar. It will follow: That if Europe were the proper
home of the White man, he would be born with natural clothing ;
with at least, some inherent provision securing the maintenance of
life without aid from art.

oa then, does not belong to the cold and variable climates; his
original birthplace, has been in a region of perpetual summer, where
the unprotected skin, bears without suffering the slight fluctuations
of temperature. He is, in fact, essentially a production of the ‘T'ro-
pics; and there has been a time, when the human family, had not
strayed beyond these geographical limits.

According to another principle, established by the observations of
naturalists: Species, are found to have a certain geographical range;

ZOOLOGICAL DEDUCTIONS. 303

and notwithstanding a few instances of wide diffusion ; Nature, has
not reproduced a species in different quarters of the globe.

Each of the main divisions of the globe, has its own natural pro-
ductions ; and these, moreover, are in such correspondence or conso-
nance with each other, that any incongruity is rendered obvious; or
at least, may with practice be detected. Independently, too, of struc-
tural affinity; a local aspect, often points to the geographical origin.
The experienced naturalist, will in general be able to distinguish an
American production; and even, whether it is from Northern, ‘Tro-
pical, or Austral America. The northern portion of the Eastern con-
tinent, has an impress as clearly distinguishable on its animals and
plants; and so with the Sahara, South Africa, Australia, the East
Indies, and even with various more limited districts. The supposi-
tion then, put forth by some writers, That man was originally planted
on frosty Caucasus—is disproved, by his physical discordance with
the surrounding natural objects.

Nature in her productiveness, seems, if we may use the expression,
to delight in eluding our pursuit. In a given district, all the outward
circumstances, may favour the presence of beings of a certain class ;
and yet, their places will be found occupied by other and unlooked-
for forms. ‘Tropical America, offers indeed an extraordinary variety
of climates; nevertheless, I think it could be shown on zoological
grounds alone, That the human family is foreign to the American
continent.

Turning now to the East Indies: we observe a marked interruption
in the approximated lands, separating New Guinea from the remainder
of the archipelago. A change here, takes place in the zoological pro-
ductions. ‘Those of New Guinea, it is true, are imperfectly known ;
but so far as ascertained, they partake of the Australian character ;
which precludes from this quarter the origin of man.

Madagascar, being furnished with a peculiar set of quadrupeds, is
for that very reason, equally out of the question. And the simple
absence of ground-quadrupeds, is sufficient to set aside the claims
of the far-scattered Isles of the Pacific.

We are thus restricted to the remaining Tropical portion of the
Eastern continent; which yet includes extensive countries, all pos-
sessing the Quadrumana; whose undoubted affinity to man in phy-
sical structure, may not in this inquiry be neglected. Oriental tra-
dition, in placing the origin of mankind in Ceylon, reconciles in

304 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

many respects the requirements of Zoology. But there are certain
coincidences, which point in a different direction.

Of all parts of the globe, save only the very Poles, the EquaTor1aL
COUNTRIES, continue the least known. Owing in some measure, to
the forests with which they are generally invested, to the rains, to
ferocious beasts of prey, and to the unhealthiness of the coasts. The
portions which I have myself visited, have not offered any striking
variation in natural productions from the adjoining countries: and I
only remarked, a cooler climate than in the vicinity of the northern
Tropic. It appears, however, that some of the most remarkable
objects in the vegetable and animal creation, have their home pre-
cisely under the Equator. :

In the vast area of the Pacific, the Equator, for two-fifths of the
circumference of the globe, intersects only coral islets; the Galapagos
Group, being excepted; and this is provided with remarkable reptiles
and other productions, having no parallel on the neighbouring conti-
nent, or on the numerous and extensive archipelagoes of the same
ocean. <A distinct correspondence, however, may be traced in the
Indian Ocean; in the instance, of the near approach of the Equator
to the Seychelles.

In the East Indies: we have the Clove, “originally confined to five
islets near the coast of Gilolo;” the Nutmeg, from the same quarter,
and in its native state not much more widely diffused; and these two
plants, are not even cultivated to advantage at a distance from the
Kiquator: we have further, the Dryobalanops (or precious camphor
tree), limited “to a belt of three degrees in width across Sumatra and
Borneo”; also, the gigantic Rafflesias; and various other remarkable
vegetable productions.

Among animals: we have the Paradise Birds, of New Guinea;
the Argus Pheasant, and other showy birds, of Sumatra and the
Malay Peninsula; the Galeopithecus; the Tarsier, of the Moluccas;
the Babyrussa, and the Anoa Antelope, of Celebes; the long-nosed
Ape, of Borneo; the Sumatran Tapir and Rhinoceros. And of the
three Orangs; which of all animals, in physical conformation and
even in moral temperament, make the nearest approach to humanity ;
one has been allotted to Borneo; another, to Sumatra; and the third,
to a far distant region, but equally under the Equator, in Western
Africa. Precisely in these countries, physical man, seems most in
unison with the beings around him.

Z,0,0,1; OG LC ALADE D UsCyTT OAS; 305

On referring to the accompanying map, we shall find: That the
races of men, could all be conveniently derived from the same two
centres; the one, in the East Indies; and the other, in Africa: and if
we could suppose separate species, this, agreeably to known. laws,
would reconcile the geographical portion of the subject.

The objection of the slight external differences, would not of itself
be sufficient. For it is found in the organic world: That species,
differ by peculiarities which tend merely to change the aspect;
while any radical change of structure, involves the habits of life,
and marks out a genus or group: in other words, ‘That specific cha-
racters are external, while generic characters are anatomical.

On the other hand, a very decided change may take place in the
aspect, without a specific difference: as is more particularly the
case, in domestic animals and plants. Among these, moreover, we
occasionally observe, new varieties springing up at a distance from
the original locality. Thus, new varieties of plums, apples, and
pears, have made their appearance in America since the introduction
from abroad of the parent stocks.

Not so, however, with the human family. Notwithstanding the
mixtures of race during two centuries, no one has remarked a ten-
dency to the developement of a new race in the United States. In
Arabia, where the mixtures are more complicated, and have been
going on from time immemorial, the result does not appear to have
been different. On the Egyptian monuments, I was unable to
detect a change in the races of the human family. Neither does
written history, afford evidence of the extinction of one physical race
of men, or of the developement of another previously unknown.

It is true, varieties, appear to have more permanence in certain
kinds of animals than in others. ‘Thus, the breed of sheep figured
on the most ancient Hgyptian monuments, is unknown at the pre-
sent day: and at least, one variety of the bullock formerly known in
Eeypt, has in like manner become extinct. On the other hand,
among the many varieties of the dog, figured at Beni-Hassan, (ante-
rior to the Pharaonic Ages,) two have been pronounced identical with
the Greyhound and the Turnspit now existing.—Within my own ob-
servation, I have found no tendency in varieties, to revert in the
course of successive generations, to the original type. But this
whole subject of varieties, has received from naturalists very little
attention; and when it shall be better understood, it may perhaps
throw heht upon the origin of the races of the human family.

an

306 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

There is, I conceive, no middle ground, between the admission of
eleven distinct species in the human family, and the reduction to one.
The latter opinion, from analogy with the rest of the organic world,
implies a central point of origin. Further, Zoological considerations,
though they do not absolutely require it, seem most to favour a centre
on the African continent. Confirmatory circumstances of a different
character, are not wanting; some of which, may be worth enume-
rating.

In the first place, we have no less than five races actually inhabit-
ing ‘Tropical Africa; while the diversity diminishes as we recede;
until districts of greater territorial extent, are inhabited by but a
single race. ‘

Again, some accordance may be found, in the history and habits of
the Arab tribes; holding as they do, the country interposed between
the heart of Africa and extensive and important seats of population ;
while these are occupied in regular succession, by pastoral and agri-
cultural nations. ‘The disowning, too, by the Desert tribes, of such
individuals as take up agricultural pursuits, looks very like the inci-
pient extension of population.

There is something also, in the fixed condition of the African
tribes; on which, ‘Time, in some instances, seems scarcely to make
an impression. Something, in the near approach to the absence of
Invention, or of the spontaneous evolution of knowledge: something,
in the seeming yielding of civilization before barbarism: and in the
bounds prescribed to ambition, from the general failure of attempts to
colonize this continent. Africa, under various guise, having been
always sending forth streams of population; and at the same time,
prohibiting a return

_

CHAPTER XXII.

INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF AMERICA.

America, when first visited by Europeans, appears to have con-
tained but a single species of quadruped of foreign origin, the domes-
tic dog. ‘The route of its introduction, is indicated by various circum-
stances; such as, the aboriginal use of this animal for draught on
both sides of Behring Straits, and the interweaving of the hair in
blankets by the neighbouring maritime tribes. We shall find, more-
over, a geographical coincidence; for according to the presumed order
of human migrations, All foreign animals wheresoever occurring in
aboriginal America, should be equally in the possession of the North-
western tribes.

a. Plants of Aboriginal Introduction.

Independently of the usual habits of sea-going people, the Latitudes
above referred to, preclude agriculture; and we have thus, a ready
explanation, of the absence of this art from the adjoining more south-
ern portion of the American continent. For until the recent visits of
foreigners, ‘(no Oregon native had ever thought of planting a seed.”
It is clear then, that no cultivated plant was introduced into America
by this Northern Route: but we cannot speak so positively in regard
to weeds.—I found two weeds, growing abundantly around the Chi-
nook villages, Polygonum aviculare, and Chenopodium album: and
Mr. Brackenridge, met with a third, Plantago maor, in the secluded
district of Gray’s Harbour.

Further South, I discovered some doubtful appearances of aborigi-
nal agriculture, on the Sacramento River; in a bed of the “ chili-

308 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

coyote or wolf-poison,”’ Cucurbita fetidissima?, growing near a native
village: as, however, the plant did not seem to be valued, (the natives
making no objection to my taking the fruit,) it may have been merely
naturalized. I did not meet with any other weeds growing around
the native villages of the Upper Sacramento; but Solanum nigrum,
was occasionally seen on the river bank.

In the eastern part of America, both within, and for a considerable
distance without the Tropics, agriculture is known to have existed
aboriginally ; and moreover, some of the objects of cultivation, appear
to have been derived from abroad. ‘The latter point, is of importance;
for it may be after all, that agriculture was not of spontaneous deve-
lopement in America. ’

In the aboriginal condition of America, the indigenous domestic
animals and plants, seem to have been principally and separately
confined to the two centres of civilization, Mexico and Peru: the
lama, and the Peruvian cultivated plants, had not reached Mexico;
while the Mexican cochineal, agave, and tobacco, had not reached
Peru. On the other hand, the plants which seem to have been abo-
riginally derived from abroad, were much more generally diffused ;
as in the corresponding instance of the dog.

The plant most widely cultivated in aboriginal America, is the maize
or Indian corn. If it shall prove foreign, there is but one route
open to its introduction, that of Japan. It is further manifest,
from the local absence of the plant; that North California, was
not the point of dissemination to other parts of America.

I met with specimens of aboriginal cotton, at the ancient Peruvian
cemetery of Pachicamac. ‘The species, differs from the Polyne-
sian, and is perhaps peculiar: though the plants of this genus, are
sufficiently hardy to have been derived through Japan. We have,
moreover, a direct tradition, (mentioned by Humboldt,) that the
culture in Mexico of both cotton and maize, was taught by the
Toltecas.

Cloth dyed blue, apparently with ezdigo, was also found at Pachica-
mac. ‘The manufacture of indigo, could not have been derived
through the Polynesian islands. It should also be observed; that
there are indigenous species of Indigo-plant in America.

Specimens of the small-fruited variety of gourd, which is still common
in the market of Lima, were exhumed at the same ancient ceme-
tery. Idid not see the plant growing. The Lagenaria vulgaris, is

~

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF AMERICA. 309

a hardy Tropical plant, that could have been introduced either
through Japan, or through the Polynesian islands.

The sweet potato (Convolvulus batatas), is equaily hardy in its con-
stitution; and could have been introduced, either by the route of
Japan, or that of the Polynesian islands\—The Portuguese Pilot,
(who set out in a. D. 1520, on his voyages to the colony at St.
Thomas, in the Gulf of Guinea,) speaks of this plant, and states ;
that it is called ‘batata’ by the aboriginals of St. Domingo.

The Capsicum, is sufficiently hardy to have been introduced by the
route of Japan ;

And so is, Physals edulis,

And Solanum nigrum: though the most convenient route for the
three last-named plants, is that of the Polynesian islands.

On the other hand, the danana is too strictly ‘Tropical in its constitu-
tion to have been derived through Japan. ‘The two American va-
rieties, 1t may be observed, were not seen at the Polynesian islands.

The Carica papaya, likewise requires a Tropical route; and it could
have been conveniently introduced through the Polynesian islands:

The same remark, will apply to the cocoa palm.—l am not sure, that
this plant is of aboriginal introduction; but Oviedo, (who was per-
sonally acquainted with some of the companions of Columbus, and
who commenced writing in a. D. 1525,) mentions the presence of
cocoa palms in the West Indies.

Ageratum conyzoides, perhaps an aboriginal weed, likewise requires
a Tropical route for its introduction.

b. Animals and Plants recently introduced into Northivest America.

I shall mention in the first place, the animals and plants which have
been fairly imparted, and have attached themselves to the aboriginal
tribes of Oregon:

Horses, were found by Lewis and Clarke, among the tribes of Interior
Oregon; having been derived from the Spaniards of New Mexico.
—It seems, therefore, the more remarkable, that horses have not
been acquired by the wild tribes of the Sacramento.

Helianthus, an annual species, and the only weed I saw growing
around the native villages of Interior Oregon, was perhaps aborigi-
nally introduced from the southward.—I met with the same plant,
however, at the California settlements.

78

310 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Pectocarya penicillata, (a Boragineous plant,) was seen on the north
branch of the Columbia River, growing as a weed around Fort
Okonagan; a post, where the soil is not cultivated. The plant
may have accompanied the cattle from the Lower Columbia; and
its history, seems connected with that of the preceding plant.
Moreover, these two, were the only introduced plants I could dis-
cover growing around Fort Okonagan.

Solanum tuberosum. The French Catholic missionaries and_ the
Hudson Bay Company, have imparted the cultivation of the potato
to the Chinooks of the Straits of De Fuca. ‘The potato, was also
seen cultivated at one native village on the north branch of the Co-
lumbia. .

The other plants and animals introduced by the Hudson Bay Com-
pany, were found to be confined to the immediate environs of Forts
Colville, Nisqually, and Vancouver, and to the agricultural settle-
ments on the Willamette and Cowalitz. ‘The plants under cultiva-
tion at the two first-named places, were few, and were not specially
noted: but at Vancouver, an extensive and well-conducted garden, had
been established for many years. ‘The original packages of seeds, were
brought, some by sea, but chiefly overland from Montreal.

Bullocks, were introduced into Oregon some years prior to our visit.

Sheep, were of somewhat later introduction.

Chenopodium album, already mentioned, as perhaps an aboriginal
weed.—Is yet, possibly of Huropean introduction. It was seen in
the cultivated ground, at Forts Nisqually and Colville; and unlike
the following plants, widely spread over the adjoining prairie.

Plantago major, also mentioned, as perhaps an aboriginal weed.—The
plant was seen naturalized in pathways, at Fort Colville.

Polygonum aviculare, also mentioned, as perhaps an aboriginal weed ;
and observed growing in beds around the Chinook villages.—The
plant was seen naturalized around Fort Colville; but, at Fort Nis-
qually, I met with the broad-leafed variety only.

Polygonum nigrum, was seen established in the cultivated ground at
Fort Colville.

Anthemis cotula, had become an abundant weed around Fort Colville.

Amaranthus, a weed in the cultivated ground at Fort Colville. A
species, perhaps the same, was seen at the Kooskoosky station.

Capsella bursa-pastoris, a weed at Fort Colville; a single specimen
was found at Fort Nisqually.

;
‘

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF AMERICA. 811

Sonchus oleraceus, a weed in the garden at Fort Nisqually.

Poa annua, observed, both at Fort Nisqually, and at some of the posts
in the Interior.

‘riticum sativum, wheat, hardly succeeds at Fort Nisqually; but it
was said to be cultivated to some extent, on the Willamette and
Cowalitz. Three or four varieties, were seen at Fort Colville ;
whence they had been transferred to the Kooskoosky station.

Hordeum vulgare, barley ; together with

Avena sativa, oats; and

Secale cereale, rye; were observed by Mr. Brackenridge, under culti-
vation at Fort Vancouver.

Pyrus malus, the apple, was said to produce abundantly at Fort Van-
couver. But fruit-trees, could hardly be cultivated at Fort Colville ;
on account of the ravages of the small marmot.

Pyrus communis, the pear. The tree, was seen by Mr. Brackenridge,
under cultivation in the garden at Fort Vancouver; together with

Vitis vinifera, the European grape ;

Amygdalus Persica, the peach ;

Armeniaca vulgaris, the apricot ;

Prunus domestica, the Kuropean plum ;

Prunus cerasus, the Kuropean, or the common garden cherry ;

Fragaria, several imported varieties of the strawberry ;

Ribes rubrum, the garden currant ;

Ribes grossularia, the Huropean, or the common garden gooseberry ;

Cucumis sativus, the common cucumber ;

Cucumis melo, the muskmelon ;

Cucurbita melopepo, the squash ;

Pisum sativum, the garden pea;

Phaseolus, the common kidney bean ;

Solanum melongena, the egg-plant, or aubergine; together with

Beta vulgaris, the beet ;

Apium dulce, the celery ;

Petroseinum sativum, the parsley ;

Allium cepa, the onion; and all the other common garden vegetables.

At the Kooskoosky mission station, irrigation is necessary to agri-
culture. And in all probability, the seeds of some of the plants which
were seen cultivated and naturalized, had been derived from the
United States. The following, is by no means a complete list :

Zea mays, Indian corn, which has always failed in the vicinity of the

312 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

coast, was found to be cultivated with success at the Kooskoosky
station.
Daucus carota, the carrot, was seen under cultivation; together with
Lycopersicum esculentum, the tomato ;
Brassica oleracea, the cabbage; and various other garden vegetables.
Bidens trifida, had become an abundant weed; growing with
Campanula amplexicaulis, in the irrigated and cultivated ground; and
accompanied by
Polygonum persicaria: and these three plants, were not met with in
any other part of Oregon.

At the Bay of San Franctsco, the introduced plants, had arrived
by a third route, that of Mexico: and a variety of species, (mostly
European,) have become naturalized; notwithstanding that cultivation
is on a very limited scale. I shall notice only the five following:
Mirabilis jalapa, seen cultivated as an ornamental plant.

Anagalls arvensis, naturalized abundantly; but not extending beyond
the environs of the Bay.

Lrodium, probably a European species, and introduced with cattle.
Perhaps the same, with one seen naturalized at the Kooskoosky
station; and also in Chih.

Avena sativa, the common oat, has now overspread the environs of the
Bay ; 1n some instances, taking exclusive possession of the prairie.
Mr. Brackenridge, in coming with the land-party from Oregon,
“first met with the oat in the valley of the Sacramento, about one
hundred and fifty miles above tide-water.”

Mollugo verticillata, was found by Mr. Brackenridge on the Upper Sa-
cramento, in the vicinity of the Shasty Mountain.

CHAPTER XXII

INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF THE
ISLANDS OF THE PACIFIC.

From the rapid changes taking place at these islands, through
commercial intercourse, it is daily becoming more difficult to distin-
guish the plants which were aboriginally introduced. And observa-
tions, therefore, which at the present day seem trivial, may prove of

‘importance hereafter.

Notwithstanding many doubtful points, that remain to be settled
through the etymology of the native names, it is sufficiently clear:
That in the aboriginal condition of the islands of the Pacific, the
foreign animals and plants, were invariably derived from the West.

a. Animals and Plants of Aboriginal Introduction.

Three of our own familiar domestic animals, were known through-
out Tropical Polynesia prior to the visits of Europeans; and they will
be first enumerated :

The pig, thriving amid the rank vegetation of the rocky groups;

The dog, frequent; though the rearing on vegetable food, of a parti-
cular breed for culinary purposes, seems peculiar to the Hawaiian
Islands ;

And the domestic fowl, likewise abundant in the rocky groups.—
The above three animals, are absent from the more secluded coral
islands; but they are known at the extensive Tarawan or Kingsmill
Group, where they are regarded in a somewhat peculiar light.
According to Mr. Rich, the T'arawan Islanders, “have dogs; but
will not eat fowls, which they keep in cages for fighting; neither
will they raise pigs, on account of the dirt; and they killed the
goats landed from a whale ship.”

79

314 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN,

There are, however, uninvited attendants on human migrations; such
as, a small species of rat, whose presence throughout Tropical Poly-
nesia, seems nearly universal. On some of the more remote coral
islets, the presence of this animal, proved to be the only remaining
evidence of the visits of man.

On the other hand, the house fly, which so abounds at certain coral
islands, was uniformly absent from the uninhabited ones. Various
other zmsects, have doubtless been transferred from island to island
by human means.

This, too, was probably the case with the dzards (Scincide); for the
agency of drift-wood, seems insufficient to account for their uni-
versal presence. .

With regard to the plants, I have already noticed the few species
introduced into the CORAL ISLANDS; but as the same, are equally
found on the rocky groups, the following arrangement would be in-
complete, without repeating the enumeration :

Thespesia populnea, was seen by Mr. Rich at the Tarawan Group.

Morinda citrifolia, growing on most of the coral islands visited.

Gardenia Tattensis, a beautiful tree, the flowers of which are used by
the 'Taheitians for decorating their hair. It was seen by Mr. Rich,
at the Union Group.

Cordia sebestena, observed at Wake’s Island, and at the Phoenix
Group; and to all appearance, spontaneously disseminated. Mr.
Rich, found the tree at the Union and the Tarawan Groups.

Hernandia sonora, was seen by Mr. Rich at the Union Group; raised
by the natives from. a drifted seed.

Borassus flabeliformis ?, the Fan palm, was seen by Mr. Rich at the
Union Group.

Cocos nucifera, the cocoa palm. Notwithstanding that the fruit is
well-adapted for floating uninjured over a wide expanse, I have
never met with an instance of the cocoa palm having sponta-
neously extended itself from island to island —Two distinct va-
rieties, are recognised at the Ieejee Islands.

Pandanus utils, abundant, and perhaps spontaneously disseminated
on the coral islands: but it was seen planted, and also naturalized
or native, on the rocky groups.—A species apparently different,
and unquestionably native, grows on the mountain-tops of Tutuila,
in the Samoan Group.

Colocasia esculenta, the taro, was found by Messrs. Rich and Hale, at

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 315

the Vaitupan and the Tarawan Groups.—The taro, is an important
esculent throughout the rocky groups, and particularly so, at the
Hawaiian Islands. In the dry method of culture, practised on the
mountains of Hawaii; the roots, were observed by Mr. Rich, to be
protected by a covering of fern-leaves. ‘The cultivation of taro, is
hardly a process of multiplication; for the crown of the root, is
perpetually replanted.

Colocasia macrorhiza, was found by Messrs. Rich and Hale, at the
Vaitupan and the Tarawan Groups.—As the plant endures for
a series of years, the roots serve at some of the rocky groups as a
security against famine.

Proceeding now to the rocky groups; I shall commence, at the fur-
thest remove from the source of the introduced plants: the number
of which, will be found to increase regularly on advancing south and
west. A similar increase, takes place in the number of cultivated va-
rieties; and even to some extent, in the good quality of the product.
With the exception of the Gardenia, Hernandia, and Borassus, the
plants above enumerated, were all observed at the Hawatan IsLanps;
together with the following, in addition:

Gossypium religiosum? A shrub, naturalized around the cabins of
the natives.—At Taheiti, the cotton is made into wicks, for burning
cocoa-nut oil.

Sida, a double-flowered variety of an indigenous species, cultivated
for decorating the hair.

Cardiospermum helicacabum, a weed in cultivated ground and aban-
doned clearings: as also, at the central groups.

Ozals repens, a weed, growing around the native cabins: as also, at
the central groups.

Tephrosia ptscatoria, commonly naturalized in dry open grounds: as
also, throughout the central groups.

Lablab vulgaris, the white-flowered species, naturalized in one or two
localities —It was seen growing around the native houses, at the
Feejee Islands.

Phaseolus amenus, growing in abandoned clearings.

Agati, a species apparently indigenous; the flowers smaller than in
A. grandiflora, and varying from scarlet to yellow.

Jussiza angustifolia ’?, growing in wet grounds, and apparently indi-
genous; but possibly introduced with taro culture.

Jambosa Malaccensis, the red-fruited species, abundantly naturalized
in elevated situations.

316 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Lagenaria vulgaris, the gourd: the large-fruited variety, was not met
with at the other groups.

Hydrocotyle, perhaps introduced with taro culture; and possibly dis-
tinct from the species growing around habitations at the central
groups.

Geophila reniformis, in pathways, and in woods devoid of underbrush,
not far from clearings. It grows in similar situations, at the cen-
tral groups.

Ageratum conyzordes, abundantly naturalized in open grounds: as also,
at the central groups.

Adenostema viscosum, a weed in abandoned clearings: as also, at the
central groups. :
Convolvulus batatas, forming in some districts, the principal object of
cultivation.—By an exception to the general rule, the sweet potato
is rare at the Feejee Islands: where it was said to occur on one
of the outer islets; and it seems probable, that it was introduced
there by Polynesians. Several marked varieties, are cultivated in

the Polynesian groups.

Ocymum, a small species, naturalized in abandoned clearings, and in
dry open grounds.

Physahs angulata’, a smooth, low, and inconspicuous species, natu-
ralized in waste grounds.

Physalis edulis, abundantly naturalized ; as also, at the other groups;
and having a Polynesian narne, which is nearly identical at Ta-
heiti and at the Hawaiian Islands. The genus Physalis, moreover,
seems foreign to the natural vegetation.

Capsicum frutescens, cultivated: as also, at the central groups.

Solanum nigrum, abundantly naturalized: as also, throughout the cen-
tral groups.

Pisonia, a small tree, rather reserved than planted; and which was
not seen at the other groups. ‘The Hawaiian bird-lime, was said to
be obtained from it.

Polygonum, a species (near P. persicaria), growing in wet grounds,
and perhaps introduced; for it does not seem to accord with the
natural vegetation.

Carica papaya, cultivated. The fruit, is a favourite esculent with
the Polynesians and Feejeeans.

Ricinus communis, abundantly naturalized: as also, at the central
groups.—At the Feejee Islands, the seeds strung together, are used
for candles.

Aleurites triloba, abundantly naturalized ; and the seeds used for can-

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. Siz

dles by the Hawaiians; being substituted, for the seeds of the Ri-
cinus. ‘The tree, grows less luxuriantly than at the central groups;
where it seems to be indigenous.

Piper methysticum, the kava pepper, was seen clandestinely cultivated.
At Taheiti, a native species of pepper, was said to be substituted
for making kava.

Broussonetia, the paper mulberry, was seen cultivated—At the cen-
tral groups, the bark of some indigenous woody Urticee, was found
to be used for making ‘tapa,’ or native cloth.

Artocarpus incisa, the bread-fruit.—A second variety (or possibly spe-
cies, having the leaves more entire and producing seeds), occurs at
the Samoa and Feejee Islands; and at the latter group, numerous
secondary varieties, are distinguished. ‘The Samoan mode of pre-
paring bread-fruit for storing in the ground, is said to differ from
the Taheitian.

Zingiber zerumbet, growing, seemingly wild, on the lower portion of
the mountains: as also, at the Samoa and the Feejee Islands.

Curcuma longa, the turmeric. The powdered root, said to have been
formerly used as an unguent; according to the custom which still
prevails at the central groups.—At the Feejee Islands, I met with
the living plant, in wild situations.

Musa sapientum, the banana, abundantly cultivated as well as natu-
ralized, on the lower portion of the mountains. But extending to the
coast, in the central groups.—The Philippines being excepted, we
met with the greatest number of varieties of the banana, at Samoa ;
and among them, one whose small fruit uniformly contained seeds.

Dioscorea pentaphylla, the kidney-rooted yam, growing in wild situa-
tions; and the root, reported to be eaten in.times of scarcity.—D.,
pentaphylla, was seen likewise at the central groups; and at the
Feejee Islands, it is called ‘ kawai,’ and is sometimes cultivated.

Dioscorea bulbifera, abundantly naturalized in neglected clearings: as
also, at the central groups. ‘The root, was not considered edible.

Tacca pinnatifida, abundantly naturalized; as also, at the central
groups; and at Samoa, it is, besides, regularly cultivated. ‘The art
of preparing arrow-root from it, is aboriginal with the Polynesians
and Feejeeans.—The Tacca, was seen in a seemingly wild state, at
the Mangsi Islands; and again, at Zanzibar.

Dracena terminalis, the ‘Ty plant. ‘The sweet-rooted variety, is the
only one known at the Hawaiian Islands; where, it is abundantly
naturalized on the inferior portion of the mountains.—At 'Taheiti,

80

318 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

I met with only the farinaceous-rooted and edible variety. But
some twenty varieties, are regularly cultivated at the Samoan Isl-
ands; where also, use is made of the leaves for dress.

Commelina, one or more species, growing in cultivated ground ; appa-
rently the same that were seen at the central groups.

Panicum, a species (near P. colonum), that did not appear to be truly
indigenous: but it was not met with at the other groups.

Rhapts acicularis, abundant in the vicinity of habitations: as also, at
the central groups. The plant, in all probability, had been trans-
ported by the natives, through the adhering of the seeds.

Cenchrus calyculatus, frequent; as also, at the central groups; and
probably transported, like the preceding plant, through the adher-
ing of the seeds.

Digitaria sanguinale, frequent in cultivated ground: as also, at the
other groups.

Saccharum officinale, the sugar-cane, aboriginally cultivated for the
sake of the crude stems; but not seen naturalized.—It is, however,
abundantly naturalized on the mountains of Taheiti; where it has
become so diminutive, that it was not at first recognised; until occa-
sional larger stems, were found to possess a distinct saccharine fla-
vour.—At the Feejee Islands, the small type, has overrun extensive
unwooded districts; and the stems, (here uniform in size,) are used
for architectural purposes: while the large-stemmed cultivated va-
riety, seems to excel in sweetness.—In the humid climate of the Sa-
moan Islands, the sugar-cane is principally cultivated for thatching.

Bambos arundinacea, the bamboo, as throughout the Pacific islands,
was seen only in wild situations. The general use of the stems for
water-buckets, suggests the probable mode of its introduction.

Kyllingia monocephala, frequent in wet places; as also, at the central
groups; and probably introduced with taro culture.

Marsilea, growing likewise in wet places; and perhaps introduced
with taro culture.

All the plants thus far enumerated, were equally found at 'Tanerrt;
with the exception of, the Thespesia, Hernandia, Borassus, Sida,
Lablab vulgaris, Agati, Jussiea, Hydrocotyle, Ocymum, Pisonia,
Piper methysticum, Zingiber zerumbet, and Panicum; together
with Commelina, and Ricinus, two plants, whose presence may have
been simply overlooked. On the other hand, the following additional
plants, made their appearance at Taheiti :

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 319

Cardamine sarmentosa, a weed in pathways: as also, at the more
western groups.

Urena lobata, a weed in cultivated ground and neglected clearings:
as also, at the more western groups.

Mbiscus rosa-Sinensis, a small and beautiful tree, sometimes seen in
wild situations; where, however, it had been evidently planted.

Mibiscus abelmoschus, growing as a weed in neglected clearings.

Sida, one or more humble and inconspicuous species, naturalized in
cultivated ground.

Colubrina Asiatica, growing on the borders of clearings, and perhaps
really native.

Inocarpus edulis, in all probability an indigenous tree; but in some in-
stances, it appeared to have been planted.

Spondias dulcis, the vi-apple, frequent; as likewise at Samoa; while
at the Feejee Islands, I heard of it in but one locality —The Spon-
dias and the Erythrina, were the only deciduous trees observed in
central Polynesia.

Desmodium purpureum, a weed in neglected clearings: as also, at the
more western groups.

Pachyrhizus ?, a sort of bean, cultivated (for the sake of the edible
yam-like roots), at the island of Metia near Taheiti—I heard of
the same plant, at ‘Tongataboo.

Erythrina, a fine tree, naturalized. I did not learn, whether the wood
is used for the outriggers; like that of the EZ. monosperma at the
Hawatian Islands.

Poinciana, a favourite ornamental shrub, growing around the cabins
of the natives.—At Samoa, it was called ‘meleke;’ but it was not
seen at the Feejee Islands.

Abrus precatorius, confined chiefly to the sea-coast, and perhaps
really native-—The seeds, are used at the Feejee Islands for cover-
ing oracles, and other sacred objects.

Acacia, a tree somewhat resembling the Tamarind, seen in one or two
instances; and apparently, planted.—At the Feejee Islands, it is
clearly indigenous.

Mimosa pudica, the sensitive plant, abundantly naturalized: as also,
at the more western groups.

Velastoma Malabathrica, growing in natural openings and in neglected
clearings; and perhaps really native.—Al|so, in similar situations, at
the more western groups.

Barringtonia speciosa, clearly indigenous.—But at the Feejee Islands,

320 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

sometimes reserved, if not actually planted; for the sake of the
fruit, which is used for seine-corks. The same use of the fruit,
was observed at Sooloo.

Cucurbita aurantiaca, growing on the borders of the mountain-forest ;
and apparently indigenous. It was not seen at the other groups.
Conyza, one or more species common in open ground; and appa-

rently introduced.

Myriogyne minuta, an inconspicuous weed, growing around the cabins
of the natives.

Bidens odorata? Frequent in all open ground.

Siegesbeckia ortentals, a frequent weed in all open ground: as also,
at the more western groups. :

Cerbera, a species having white bracts, planted for ornament.

Ocymum sanctum? Planted around the cabins of the natives; and
observed in one instance, on a grave.

Leucas decem-dentatus, a common weed in cultivated ground : as also,
at the more western groups.

Iindernia? A frequent weed in pathways: as also, at the more west-
ern groups.

Solanum repandum, occasionally met with; though its use, had become
obsolete, both here and at Samoa.—At the Feejee Islands, this plant
is regularly cultivated; and the fruit, when divested of its hairy
covering, has a sprightly agreeable flavour.

Boerhaavia procumbens, an herbaceous species, having capillary
branches; naturalized in cultivated ground.

Desmocheta, in woods not far from clearings ; but to all appearance,
really indigenous.

Achyranthes aspera, a common weed in cultivated ground: as also, at
the more western groups.

Amaranthus cruentus ?, a weed in cultivated ground.

Ficus tinctoria, a tree, planted near the cabins of the natives.—A
species of Ficus, perhaps the same, was found by Mr. Rich at the
Union and 'T'arawan coral groups.

Casuarina equisetifolia, the club-wood; one or two groves met with;
but in all probability, the tree had been introduced from the west-
ward.

Canna Indica, cultivated for ornament.—According to Mr. Rich, this
plant is naturalized at the Samoan Islands.

Musa, a species distinguished by its simple floral spike, is abundantly
naturalized in the mountain woods; and in one remote situation, L

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 821
found it accompanied by the common banana: (and it should be
observed, that the Taheitians, unlike the other islanders, have been
in the habit of disseminating useful plants through the forest.) ‘The
‘fehi,’ or the Taheitian variety of the above Musa, was found to be
replaced at the Samoan Islands by the ‘puputa;’ and this second
variety, did not extend beyond the borders of clearings. ‘The ‘ pu-
puta,’ was also seen by Mr. Brackenridge at Ovolau, in the Feejee
Islands.

Dioscorea alata, the common yam, rarely seen.—It is more frequent
at Samoa: and at the Feejee Islands, it forms the main support of
the population.

Digitaria ciliaris, a hairy species, frequent in cultivated ground: as
also, at the western groups.

Paspalum, one or more species, growing in open ground; and per-
haps introduced.

Eleusine Indica, a frequent weed in cultivated ground: as also, at the
more western groups.

Mariscus paniceus, growing in cultivated ground ; and apparently, in-
troduced.

All the plants thus far enumerated, were seen at the Samoan
IsLaNpDs, with the exception of the following: the Jussiza, Pisonia,
Panicum, Sida, Phaseolus amcenus, Lablab, Pachyrhizus?, Agati,
Acacia, Cucurbita aurantiaca, Ficus tinctoria?, and Dioscorea penta-
phylla; together with the eight following plants, whose presence I
may have simply omitted to record: the Lagenaria, Ageratum, Co-
nyza, Siegesbeckia, Polygonum, Ricinus, Cenchrus, and Marsilea.—
On the other hand, the following additional plants, made their ap-
pearance at the Samoan Islands:

Mallea Rohru, a small tree, planted near habitations; but somewhat
rare. It was seen also at ‘Tongataboo, but not elsewhere.

Citrus torosa, a species naturalized, having the petiole as broad as
the leaf, and the fruit outwardly resembling the Orange, but ex-
cessively acid and two-thirds rind. According to Mr. Rich, the
natives make use of the fruit in washing their hair.—At the Feejee
Islands, the tree in some instances had been evidently planted.
The species, is probably identical with the “wild orange suitable
for making lemonade,” found by Larbillardiere at Waygiou: and
it agrees with the description of the C. torosa of Blanco’s Flora of
the Philippines.

81

322 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Evodia hortensis, a favourite plant in the gardens of the natives. It
was said to be used for scenting cocoa-nut oil.

Mimosa scandens, in woods near the coast, and to all appearance,
really native. Growing also in similar situations, at the Feejee
Islands.

Portulaca, a species, (near P. oleracea, but smaller,) naturalized around
the cabins of the natives.

Mussenda frondosa, naturalized ; or perhaps, really native. —'This
shrub, was seen, growing by the roadside, in the Interior of Luzon.

Hedyotis paniculata, an herbaceous weed, growing in cultivated
sround. Also, in similar situations, at the Feejee Islands.

Verbesina biflora, growing along the coast, and apparently indigenous.
As also, at the Feejee Islands.—And observed in one instance, in
the environs of Manila.

Cotula coronopifolia, a weed growing around the cabins of the natives;
but somewhat rare.

Justicia purpurea?, a purple-flowered species, naturalized around
the cabins of the natives. At the Feejee Islands, it was seen cul-
tivated.

Gratiola? A purple-flowered plant, growing in wet places, and ap-
parently indigenous; but possibly introduced with taro culture.
Ricinus? Tanarius, growing in rich soil, on the borders of clearings,

and not far from the coast; and perhaps really indigenous.

Sapium sebiferum? Growing in similar situations with the preced-
ing plant; and apparently indigenous.

Codieum variegatum, cultivated as an ornamental plant, in the gar-
dens of the natives.—A variety, having the leaves narrow and in-
terrupted, was seen at the Feejee Islands.

Acalypha Caroinana? A weed in cultivated ground.

Euphorbia, a species near K.. lathyris, was found growing in cultivated
ground.

Ficus, an ornamental tree, (having dark foliage and orange-coloured
pea-like fruit,) planted near the cabins of the natives.

Urticac. incert. ‘The Stinging-tree, (which is entirely smooth,) is
clearly indigenous in the deep woods of Savaii.i—But one of these
trees, was seen at the Feejee Islands, planted near the Levuka
mbure-house.

Crinum Asiaticum, naturalized ; and according to Mr. Brackenridge,
regularly cultivated in the gardens of the natives.

Arum Rumphiu, frequent in cultivated ground. According to Mr.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 323

Rich, farina is obtained from the root.—Mr. Brackenridge, once
‘met with the plant at the Feejee Islands.
Flagellaria, clearly indigenous, both here, and at the Feejee Islands.
A species, perhaps the same, was seen at Zanzibar.
Panicum, a species having minute florets, frequent in cultivated
ground.
Coz lachryma, naturalized in cultivated ground.
Pappophorum alopecuroideum? Growing in neglected clearings; but
somewhat rare.
Rhynchospora, a species, growing in wet places, and possibly intro-
duced with taro culture.

All the plants thus far enumerated, were equally seen at the FEEJEE
IsLANDS, with the exception of the following: the Jussiea angusti-
folia?, Pisonia, Panicum, Sida, Pachyrhizus?, Agati, Poinciana,
Mimosa pudica, Cucurbita aurantiaca, Siegesbeckia, Convolvulus
batatas, Amaranthus cruentus?, Euphorbia, and Ficus tinctoria? ;
together with Lagenaria, and Dioscorea bulbifera; two plants, which
may have been overlooked.—On the other hand, the following addi-
tional plants, made their appearance at the [eejee Islands:

Urena, a second species; growing in cultivated ground, but rare.

Hibiscus, a species, (near H. esculentus,) cultivated; but according
to Mr. Brackenridge, for the sake of the leaves only.

Citrus decumana, the shaddock; abundantly cultivated. ‘The tree,
was seen also at T’ongataboo.

Euphoria? A tree, planted around houses. The ripe fruit, reported
to be sugary and agreeable.

Canarium? Another tree, likewise planted around houses. The
unripe fruit is very acid; but it is sometimes eaten by the natives.
Crotalaria quinquefoha? An annual weed, found in a pathway, and
in but a single instance. Its coarse herbaceous habit, is clearly

at variance with the natural vegetation.

Terminalia catappa, a tree planted around the cabins of the natives ;
it was said, for the sake of the nut.

Caryophyllus, a small tree, planted around habitations. I did not
meet with it in wild situations; but the species, is probably indi-
genous.

Pharnaceum? A weed, growing in the cultivated ground, but rare.

Panaz fruticosum, planted in a native garden, near the town of Rewa.

324. PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Echpta, growing in wet ground, but rare: probably, introduced with
taro culture.

Villarsia, a species common in taro ponds; and possibly introduced.

Lahat. incert. A weed in the cultivated ground.

Solanum, a species cultivated, having edible fruit, which somewhat
resembles an Orange in form and colour. The plant was doubtless
introduced from the westward; for its herbaceous habit, does not
accord with the natural vegetation.

Amaranthus tricolor, cultivated and naturalized.

Urticac. incert. A thick-stemmed low tree, growing along the coast,
and clearly indigenous. It had been introduced into Tongataboo ;
where it was seen, planted. ;

Cycas circinalis, growing in wild situations on the mountains of Ovo-
lau. And seen, regularly planted at Tongataboo.

Lemna, a species abounding in the taro-ponds; and possibly intro-
duced.

Dioscorea aculeata, abundantly cultivated. The root, has a tenacious
bark ; and differs in consistence from the Common Yam.—Roots
of the D. aculeata, were seen in the market at Sooloo.

Panicum, a third species ; naturalized in the cultivated ground.

Andropogon schananthus, the Lemon-grass; planted around the cabins
of the natives.

Eleocharis, a species near KE. capitatus, frequent in wet places; and
possibly introduced with taro culture.*

* A more full account of the localities of the above-mentioned plants, will be found in
the annexed Table. And in place of adding thereto a column, I will here specify such
ol the domestic animals and plants of Polynesia, as appear to have been known in Eeyrr
prior to the voyage of Columbus. I can enumerate only :

The house fly, Solanum nigrum,

The domestic fowl, Ricinus communis,

The pig, Colocasia esculenta, (?)
The domestic dog, Musa sapientum,
Cardiospermum helicacabum, Cocos nucifera, the fruit,
Abrus precatorius, the seeds, Digitaria sanguinale, (?)
Lagenaria vulgaris, Eleusine Indica,
Eclipta, Coix lachryma,

Capsicum frutescens, Saccharum officinale.

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‘SHILTTIVOOT GHANHSAO AO ATAVE

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5326

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328

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329

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA.

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331

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA.

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j Slsuolleueg sieyeyg

332 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Some of the plants enumerated in the New Zeauanpd column, are
not Tropical productions (like those generally accompanying the
Polynesians), but they seem rather to belong to Northern climates;
and yet, they were found already in New Zealand, by Cook and
Forster. A careful examination into the facts, and a comparison of
specimens, will doubtless explain the seeming discrepancy with the
laws of botanical geography. ‘The plants referred to, are:

Sonchus oleraceus, observed to be disseminated throughout the Inte-
rior. I have had occasion to remark, both within and without the
Tropics, that this plant is one of the first to extend itself over the
new countries in which it obtains foothold.

Sicyos angulata, frequent around the native villages. The leaves,
are sometimes boiled for greens; but I am not sure that this custom
is aboriginal.

Calystegia sepium, growing apparently wild on the borders of open-
ings, and observed to be disseminated throughout the Interior.

Phalaris Canariensis, likewise observed to be disseminated through-
out the open country.

The natives of AusTRALiA, being for the most part devoid of cloth-
ing, and possessing very few manufactures, have contributed perhaps
less than any other branch of the human family, to the dispersion of
seeds and plants.——Moreover, if plants have been aboriginally intro-
duced into Australia; this has been done in all probability, by visiters.
Indeed, the Northern coast, is known to have been frequented for
many centuries, by Malay tribes, and even by Chinese; and it does
not seem probable, that the Hastern coast, has altogether escaped acci-
dental visits from Papuans and Polynesians.—In the above Table of
localities, the Australian column will be found nearly blank ; and the
species most deserving of inquiry, are reduced to the following:
Stegesbeckia, observed growing on the flats of the Hunter River. The

specimens, have not been compared with Polynesian.

Saptum, found by Mr. Rich in the agricultural district of Illawara.

The specimens, have not been compared with Polynesian.
Calystegia sepium, observed only in wild situations: as in New Zea-

land.

Sicyos angulata, growing in wild situations on the Upper Hunter:
and as already mentioned, in New Zealand.

Solanum aviculare, Forst. A naturalized weed, observed in the envi-
rons of Sydney, and also on the Upper Hunter. At New Zealand,

oy

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 333

it becomes a tall shrub, and forms submaritime thickets, which har-
monize with the natural vegetation; and although the only known
example of the family in the New Zealand flora, it appears to be
really indigenous.

b. Animals and Plants of European Introduction.

Within the past century, and for the most part within the memory
of persons now living, a variety of animals and plants, have been in-
troduced into the islands of the Pacific in European and American
vessels :

The bullock, was carried from Taheiti to the Samoan and Feejee
Groups, a short time prior to our visit. At the Hawaiian Islands,
the animal has run wild for many years on the upper portion of
Mauna Kea.

The horse, has been introduced into Taheiti, Samoa, and the Hawa-
ian Islands: but at the time of our visit, it had not reached the
Feejee Group.

The goat, has run wild at Taheiti, at the Hawaiian Islands, and at
Ovolau in the Feejee Group; and it has recently been carried to
Samoa.

The sheep, seems to have become permanently established at the Ha-
waiian Islands: but at none of the other Tropical groups.

The cat, was seen at Taheiti, and at Tongataboo. It has run wild
on Hawaii; and lkewise, according to Mr. Rich, at Samoa, in
the highlands of Upolu; “where it has nearly exterminated a re-
markable bird, allied to the ground-dove.”

The mouse, occurs on those islands which have been most frequented
by Europeans; and it has run wild at the Hawaiian Group.

The turkey, is now abundant at the Hawaiian Islands.

The Guinea-fonl, was seen at the Hawaiian Islands.

The common duck, has been introduced into Samoa; and likewise,
into the Hawaiian Islands.

The musk duck, was seen at the Hawaiian Islands.

The domestic pigeon, has been introduced into Taheiti, and into the
Feejee Group.

We were informed at the Hawaiian Islands, that the centipede, was
“introduced five years previously from Mazatlan.” It has greatly

84

334 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

multiplied at Honolulu; and during our visit, it made its first ap-
pearance on Maui.

The house scorpion, likewise abounds at Honolulu; and its introduc-
tion was equally attributed to vessels from Mazatlan. The other
Polynesian groups, remain free from the above two pests.

The natives of the Hawaiian Islands, attributed the introduction of
the mosquito to the same quarter; and we obtained evidence of the
possibility of such an occurrence, in the larva continuing on ship-
board for many days after we left Honolulu. One or more native
species of mosquito, were observed at the other Polynesian groups.

In the following list of the plants, I have omitted those introduced
direct from Europe into Australia and New Zealand: and in other
respects, the enumeration, is by no means complete:

Anona squamosa, cultivated by the missionaries, at Taheiti, Samoa,
and Tongataboo. It was also seen at Sydney: where, however, it
had not produced fruit.

Brassica rapa, the turnip, naturalized at Taheiti, at Tongataboo, at
the Feejee Islands, and in New Zealand. It was seen under culti-
vation, in Australia, and in Peru.

Brassica oleracea, the cabbage, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands,
at Taheiti, at 'Tongataboo, and at New Zealand: and at the latter
place, it grows tall and suffruticose, with scattered coriaceous
leaves, as if partaking of the surrounding perennial vegetation.
The cabbage was found by Dr. Holmes at the Auckland Islands.
And it was also seen naturalized, in Peru, and in Australia.

Senebiera didyma, a weed in the outskirts of the Hawaiian towns; and
probably introduced by the way of Mexico.

Cleome pentaphylla, a weed at 'Taheiti; and probably derived from
Tropical America.

Cleome spinosa, a weed at the Hawaiian Islands; and likewise, in all
probability, derived from Tropical America.

Argemone Mexicana, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands.

Oxahs Dieppe, a weed from the Mexican coast, naturalized at Hilo, on
Hawaii.

Gossypium herbaceum, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands.

Urena lobata, already noticed, as of aboriginal introduction in Poly-
nesia.—A species, perhaps the same, has become a weed in the
environs of Rio Janeiro.

ram ce OF

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 335

Biza orellana, the Arnotto, is now cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands;
and, according to Mr. Rich, at Tongataboo. The Arnotto, was also
seen in the East Indies, at Zanzibar, at Rio Janeiro, and in Peru.

Tribulus, a species, perhaps from Mexico, growing in arid situations,
in the vicinity of the Hawaiian towns.

Meha azederach, said to have been “brought by the Vincennes on a
former cruise, from the East Indies to the Hawaiian Islands.”’ The
tree was also seen at Taheitt.

Citrus aurantium, the orange, is now cultivated at the Hawaiian
Islands, at T'aheiti, and at Samoa; and the fruit was seen in one
instance, at the Feejee Islands.

Citrus, the lemon, is now cultivated at Taheiti and at Samoa. And
the rough-skinned variety, is so abundant at the Feejee Islands,
that I have had doubts as to its alleged European introduction ;
the question, may probably be decided by the etymology of the
name given to the plant by the natives.

Citrus imonum, the lime, was seen cultivated at the Hawaiian Isl-
ands, at Taheiti, and at Tongataboo; and a single tree, was re-
ported to exist at Samoa, the time and mode of its introduction
being uncertain.

Mangifera Indica, the mango, planted at the Hawaiian Islands; but
at the time of our visit, the trees were not full grown.

Cassia occidentahs, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti,
and at Samoa ; and it was seen, regularly planted, at Tongataboo.

Cassia tora, naturalized at Taheiti.

Cassia scandens, cultivated at Oahu, in the gardens of the resident
Whites.

Vachelha, apparently the Chilian species, introduced into Taheiti.

Indigofera, a shrubby species, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands and
at Taheiti; and planted by the missionaries at Samoa. The same
species, perhaps, was seen in Peru, and in the East Indies.

Inga Sinemariensis? ‘The pacai bean of Peru; some stocks were
seen growing at Taheitt.

Cajanus Indicus, cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands. And also, in
the East Indies, and at Zanzibar.

Desmodium, a low herbaceous species, said to have been brought from
the Mexican coast, is naturalized in the environs of Honolulu.

Crotalaria, a species, abundantly naturalized at 'Taheiti.

Poinciana, already noticed, as apparently of aboriginal introduction in
the central groups.—But at the Hawaiian Islands, the plant was

336 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

seen only in the gardens of the resident Whites. It was also seen,
cultivated for ornament, at Rio Janeiro.

Agati grandiflora, in the gardens of the resident Whites at the Ha-
waiian Islands. And also in gardens, at Manila.

Lablab, the purple-flowered variety or species, was seen, cultivated
by the resident Whites at the Hawaiian Islands.

Inocarpus edulis, already noticed, as apparently indigenous in the
central groups.—A few stocks, brought from Taheiti, were seen
in the gardens of a resident White at the Hawaiian Islands.

Spondias dulcis, also noticed, as a tree of aboriginal introduction in
the central groups.—A few stocks, brought from Taheiti, were
seen in the garden of a resident White, at the Hawaiian Islands.

Amygdalus Persica, the peach. At the Hawaiian Islands, the “ fruit
has not been known to ripen, and the tree becomes evergreen, and
will not flower unless artificially stripped of its leaves.” The
peach, succeeds in Australia; and somewhat unexpectedly, in
New Zealand.

Psidium, the guava, at the Hawaiian Islands, is hardly cultivated
with success in more than one district: while, of late years, it has
overrun the more fertile portion of Taheiti, and is commonly spoken
of, as “ having ruined the island.” The introduction of this plant,
was dreaded by the residents at Samoa; but at the Feejee Islands,
Mr. Brackenridge saw some stocks under cultivation. ‘The guava,
was seen, abundantly naturalized in Brazil; and I met with it also,
in Peru, and in the East Indies.

Cucurbita pepo. The Peruvian variety, was seen cultivated at Ta-
heiti; and the North American variety, in New Zealand, and at the
Feejee Islands.

Cucurbita citrullus, the water-melon, has been introduced into the Ha-
waiian Islands, Samoa, 'Tongataboo, the Feejee Islands, and New
Zealand. And also, into Australia.

Sicyos angulata, already noticed, as an aboriginal weed in New Zea-
land: and perhaps even, in Australia—The plant was also seen
naturalized, at the Hawaiian Islands.

Opuntia Dilleni? A species of Cactus, has been naturalized for
many years on Oahu.

Portulaca oleracea, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti,
and at Tongataboo. And likewise, in Peru.

Tahnum patens, an American plant, was seen, naturalized, at Taheiti.
I met with it, likewise growing as a weed, in the environs of Rio
Janeiro.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 337

_Feniculum vulgare, naturalized on the Hawaiian Islands: and pro-

bably introduced by the route of Spanish America.

Daucus carota, the carrot, naturalized at the Hawaian Islands, and in
New Zealand. And likewise, in Australia, in Chili, and in North
Patagonia.

Gardenia florida, in the gardens of the resident Whites, at the Ha-
wauan Islands.

Coffea Arabica, the coffee-plant, has been introduced into the Ha-
waiian Islands, and into Taheiti. And it was likewise seen, culti-
vated in the East Indies.

Ageratum conyzotdes, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in Poly-
nesia.—It has been introduced into Madeira, probably with taro
culture. And it was also seen, at St. Helena, and at Rio Janeiro.

Echpta, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in the Feejee Islands.
—Growing also as a weed, at Rio Janeiro, and in Peru.

Sonchus oleraceus, already noticed, as an aboriginal weed in New
Zealand.—The plant was found by Dr. Holmes at the Auckland
Islands. And it was also seen, naturalized, in Peru, and in North
Patagonia.

Sonchus, a more prickly species, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands,
and in New Zealand. And apparently the same species, in the
United States.

Xanthium strumarium, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands. And
also, in North Patagonia.

Datura stramonium, introduced, probably from the United States, into
the Hawaiian Islands.

Solanum, a prickly species, having orange-coloured fruit, naturalized
at the Hawaiian Islands.

Solanum nigrum, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in Polynesia.
—The plant was seen, naturalized, in Australia, in St. Helena, in
Chili, and on the upper Sacramento in California.

Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco, cultivated by the natives in a small way,
at the Hawaiian Islands, at Taheiti, at Samoa, at Tongataboo, and
even at the Feejee Islands. ‘Tobacco, was seen cultivated on a
more extended scale, in the East Indies, in Australia, in Peru, and
in Brazil.

Capsicum frutescens, already noticed as apparently of aboriginal in-
troduction in Polynesia.—The plant was seen under cultivation, in
Australia, and in Peru.

Physalis edulis, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in Poly-

85

338 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

nesia.—The plant, was also seen, naturalized, in Australia, in Peru,
at St. Helena, and at Madeira.

Lycium barbarum, growing in the mission garden at Tongataboo.

Stachytarpheta, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands; and seen,
planted, at Tongataboo. It is, perhaps, the species, which has
become an abundant weed in the environs of Rio Janeiro.

Priva lappulacea, naturalized at Taheiti. And also seen, growing as
a weed, in Peru and in Brazil.

Cuscuta, a species, seen at the Hawaiian Islands; which, however,
was considered by the natives as indigenous.

Urtica urens ?, seen naturalized, at the Hawaiian Islands.

Morus alba, cultivated at Taheiti, and at the Hawaiian Islands.

Euphoria hyperictfoha?, naturalized at Taheiti. And also in the
East Indies.

Amaranthus, a species, derived perhaps from the United States, was
seen naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.

Aleurites triloba, already noticed as indigenous in Polynesia, or at
least, of aboriginal introduction.—The tree, is now common in the
environs of Rio Janeiro.

Casuarina equisetifolia, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction
in Polynesia.—The tree, within a few years, has become common in
the environs of Rio Janeiro.

Canna Indica, in the gardens of the resident Whites, at the Ha-
waiian Islands.—Also seen, in gardens, at Manila; and natural-
ized, around Rio Janeiro.

Canna, a yellow-flowered species, naturalized at the Hawaiian
Islands.

Musa sapientum, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in
Polynesia.—A Chinese variety, has been introduced by the mis-
sionaries into Samoa.

Musa, the fehi, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in Cen-
tral Polynesia.—A few stocks, brought from Taheiti, were seen in
the garden of a resident White, on Hawaii.

Cocos nucifera, already noticed as of aboriginal introduction in Poly-
nesia.—The cocoa-palm was seen at the Cape Verd Islands; but
neither in Brazil, nor in Peru.

Alhum cepa, the onion, is now cultivated at the Hawaiian Islands,
at the Feejee Islands, and in New Zealand. It was seen also, in
Australia, and in Peru.

Amaryllis aulca, has been introduced from Brazil into the Hawaiian
Islands.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF POLYNESIA. 339

Bromela ananas, the pine-apple, is now cultivated at Taheiti, at
Samoa, and at the Feejee Islands. The plant was also seen, cul-
tivated, at Sydney.

Furcrea gigantea, has been introduced from Brazil into the Hawaiian
Islands.

Commelina.—A species, has been introduced into Madeira; and appa-
rently, with taro culture. I have not compared the specimens with
Polynesian.

Colocasia esculenta, the taro, already noticed as of aboriginal introduc-
tion in Polynesia.—It is now extensively cultivated at Madeira.

Typha, a species, growing in one locality on Taheiti; and I am in-
clined to suspect that it was introduced; either from Peru, or from
New Zealand. The question, may probably be decided by a com-
parison of specimens.

Poa annua, was seen, naturalized, at the Hawaiian Islands, and in
New Zealand.

Digitaria sanguinale, already noticed as apparently an aboriginal weed
in Polynesia.—The plant has been introduced into St. Helena.

Pamcum capillare, a grass well known in the United States, has been
introduced into the Hawaiian Islands.

Eleusine Indica, already noticed as apparently an aboriginal weed, at
the central groups.—But at the Hawaiian Islands, the plant, ac-
cording to some, had been introduced by the Whites; and resi-
dents further assured me, that it had increased within a few years.

Eragrostis capillaris ? naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands.

Briza media, naturalized at the Hawaiian Islands. And also, in Aus-
tralia.

Kylingia monocephala, already noticed as an aboriginal weed in Poly-
nesia.—The plant has been introduced into St. Helena; and it was
seen also, at Rio Janeiro, and in Peru.

CHAPTER XXIII.

INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF EQUATORIAL
AFRICA.

CERTAIN domestic animals, appear to have been introduced into
Equatorial Africa at a very ancient period ; and in all probability,
either by the way of Egypt and the river Nile, or by the nearer and
more accessible route of SourHERN ARraABiA. ‘To this class, belong:
The dullock, universally in the possession of the tribes of Eastern and

Southern Africa, when these countries first became known to Eu-

ropeans.

The sheep, found in like manner, universally in the possession of the
same tribes. Some remarkable varieties of the sheep, have sprung
up, subsequently, to all appearance, to the original introduction.

The domestic dog, which at the present day, seems to be universally
known in Equatorial and Southern Africa; the animal being kept,
as I was informed, by the Ethiopian tribes——A trader at Zanzibar,
pointed out to me a dog, (like the common Arab variety, but parti-
coloured,) as a specimen, or rather, as “altogether resembling the
breed which prevails in Western Africa; where also, he had seen
a variety that does not bark, though in other respects not materially
differing.”

The goat, which has reached the Comoro Islands; and is known
to all the tribes of East Africa, as far in the Interior as the Mono-
moisy country.

The donkey, which has not yet reached the Negro tribes of the In-
terior ; although it is well known to their Ethiopian neighbours on
the North.

The horse, which has a yet more limited diffusion; for although the
animal has reached some of the Galla tribes, their Ethiopian
brethren on the South, the M’Kuafi and Mussai, have hitherto
rejected its use.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF AFRICA. 34]

And the camel, which is well known in the Somali country; and
which has also reached the Galla tribes.

On the other hand, the more anciently cultivated plants of Equato-
rial Africa, appear to have been derived from a widely different quar-
ter; and to have been introduced, together with the very art of cul-
tivation, from the Matay countries. But at present, I will not
undertake to distinguish in all instances, the plants of ancient intro-
duction.

The domestic fori, a bird well known among the Negro tribes of East
Africa to the Monomoisy inclusive, may have been in like manner
introduced by the East Indians:

Together with the pzg, an animal known at least to the Comoro Island-
ers.—But to proceed with the plants :

Citrus aurantium, the orange, abundantly cultivated at Zanzibar ;
and the fruit, (which is more acid than usual,) forming an article
of export to Bombay.—I would observe, however, that I did not meet
with the true orange, either in Hindoostan, or in the East Indies.

Tephrosia piscatoria, abundantly naturalized in open ground, on the
island of Zanzibar.

Abrus precatorius, growing in wild situations on the island of Zanzi-
bar.—Cademosto (a. D. 1454), met with this plant at the Senegal
river.

Lagenaria vulgaris, the gourd, cultivated by the Negro tribes of East
Africa; and well known to the Monomoisy of the Interior.

Terminalia catappa, planted around houses on the island of Zanzibar.

Ageratum conyzoides, a common weed on the island of Zanzibar.

Echpta, also, a weed on the island of Zanzibar.

Convolvulus batatas, the sweet-potato; cultivated on the island of Zan-
zibar, and as far in the Interior as the Monomoisy country.

Ocymum, three or four species, cultivated at Zanzibar; including per-
haps, the one seen among the Pacific islands.

Capsicum frutescens, cultivated on the island of Zanzibar.

Carica papaya, planted around houses on the island of Zanzibar.

Ricinus communis, naturalized on the island of Zanzibar.

Piper betel, the plant seen at Zanzibar. Where the use of betel pre-
vails, as it does at the Comoro Islands, and at Bombay ; but the
custom, is not in vogue in Arabia.

Artocarpus integrifola, the jack-tree; frequently planted around
houses, on the island of Zanzibar.

86

342 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Cycas circinalis, was seen naturalized along the sea-coast. ‘The plant,
was said to abound at the Comoro Islands, and to be used by the
inhabitants as an esculent.

Cocos nucifera, the cocoa palm, abounding on the island of Zanzibar,
and on the coast of the main land opposite; but it was said not to
extend into the Interior of the continent.

Areca catechu, the betel palm: several stocks, were seen growing on
the island of Zanzibar. ,

Zingiber officinale, the ginger. ‘The roots offered for sale at Zanzibar,
were said to be brought from the Comoro Islands.

Musa sapientum, the banana, cultivated on the island of Zanzibar ;
and by the Negro tribes of Kast Africa, to a considerable distance
in the Interior.

Dioscorea alata. Yams, were seen on the island of Zanzibar.

Tacca pinnatifida, growing in wild situations, on the island of Zan-
zibar.

Flagellaria, a species, apparently indigenous ; and possibly different
from the Polynesian.

Colocasia esculenta, cultivated sparingly on the island of Zanzibar ;
and according to the native account, originally introduced from the
Comoro Islands.

Oryza sativa, rice, said to be unknown in the country around Brava:
but it is cultivated abundantly by the Negro tribes of East Africa,
to the Monomoisy inclusive; bearing everywhere its Malay name,
of ‘ padi.’—Cademosto, met with rice on the Gambia. And Lopes,
(a. D. 1588,) speaks of “a grain brought to Congo not long since
from the river Nilus, and called ‘luco:’” in which word, we readily
recognise the Egyptian name of rice.

Saccharum officinale, the sugar-cane; cultivated abundantly by the
Negro tribes of Kast Africa; and as far in the Interior as the Mo-
nomoisy country.

Many of the plants above-enumerated, are equally cultivated in
Hindoostan; though this circumstance, does not invalidate an origi-
nal Kast Indian derivation—The following plants, however, seem to
have had their source in Hinpoostan ; and coming probably from the
vicinity of the Persian Gulf, the navigation of the Ancient Arabs, in
some instances perhaps, furnished the means of conveyance:
Raphanus sativus. Radishes, were seen in the market at Zanzibar.

And the plant is perhaps, of ancient introduction.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF AFRICA. 3438

Bombaz anfractuosum, a beautiful tree; planted in the town of Zan-
zibar ; and perhaps introduced by the Banians.

Zizyphus, the Indian glaucous-leaved lote-tree ; a single stock, planted
near the town of Zanzibar.

Mangifera Indica, abundantly planted on the island of Zanzibar.

Arachis hypogea, the pea-nut; enumerated by the Monomoisy visiters,
among the plants cultivated in their own country.

Cajanus Indicus, also enumerated by the Monomoisy visiters, among
the plants cultivated in their own country. It was perhaps intro-
duced into Kast Africa by the Banians.

Phaseolus? Beans, also enumerated by the Monomoisy visiters. And
others stated, that beans are cultivated in the vicinity of Brava.

Cesalpinia sappan, naturalized on the island of Zanzibar.

Punica granatum, planted at Zanzibar; but perhaps, only in the
gardens of the Arabs.

Jambosa vulgaris, the white-fruited rose-apple, was seen at Zanzibar.

Sesamum Orientale, simsim, said to be cultivated in the vicinity of
Brava, and of Mombas.

Solanum melongena, cultivated, and also naturalized, on the island of
Zanzibar.

Datura metel, a weed in waste places, on the island of Zanzibar.

Ficus retigiosa, the pipul-tree; stocks, planted by the Banians in the
town of Zanzibar.

Phenix dactylifera, the Date palm. T'wo or three stocks, planted on
the island of Zanzibar, and having the foliage fresher and more
flourishing than I have seen it elsewhere; but they “had never
produced fruit.”

Sorghum vulgare, juari, abundant in the market at Zanzibar ; and said
to be also cultivated in the vicinity of Brava.—Cademosto, met
with this plant in Senegal.

Eleusine corocana, weemby, cultivated sparingly on the island of Zan-
zibar; but more frequently, it was said, in the environs of Brava.
This is the grain, said to be “cultivated by the slaves of the Galla.”’

The following animals and plants, appear to have been introduced
into East Africa by the PortucuEse; and to have been derived, with
one or two possible exceptions, from America:

The turkey, now abundant on the island of Zanzibar.
The Musk or Muscovy duck (Anas moschata), abundant on the island

344 ' PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

of Zanzibar.—According to the received opinion, the bird is a native
of Equatorial America.

Biza orellana, the Arnotto; the capsules seen in the market at Zan-
zibar.

Anacardium occidentale, abundantly planted on the island of Zanzi-
bar; and well known also, on the main land opposite.

Psidium, the guava, naturalized on the island of Zanzibar; and in
one instance, | met with the fruit.

Janipha manihot, the cassada; now forming one of the principal ob-
jects of cultivation on the island of Zanzibar; and among the Negro
tribes of Kast Africa, to the Monomoisy inclusive.

Bromelia ananas, the pine-apple, abundantly naturalized on the island
of Zanzibar ; and said to be cultivated by the Negro tribes of the
main land opposite.

Zea mays, cultivated by the Negro tribes of East Africa; and as far
in the Interior as the Monomoisy country.

Subsequently to the departure of the Portuguese, a variety of ani-
mals and plants, have been introduced into Zanzibar and the neigh-
bouring parts of Africa; and chiefly by the Muscat ARaBs:

The domestic cat, was perhaps introduced at an earlier period. But
the Monomoisy, continue to carry cats from the coast; and the ani-
mal was said to be unknown among the Ethiopian tribes.

Anona squamosa, was seen at Zanzibar, where it is called ‘java.’
From which circumstance, it may be inferred, that the plant was
probably introduced from the East Indies.

Argemone Mexicana, the yellow-flowered variety, was seen, natural-
ized in the cemetery at Zanzibar.

Brassica rapa, the turnip, naturalized in waste grounds.

Gossypium herbaceum, the cotton. ‘The cultivation, does not succeed
at Zanzibar; where I saw a few stocks growing.—It is said to fail
in like manner, at Liberia, on the Western Coast.

Citrus Sinensis ?, the Mandarin orange, cultivated on the Imaum’s
plantation.

Citrus decumana, the shaddock, also seen, cultivated, on the Imaum’s
plantation.

Nephelium lappaceum, bearing fruit at Zanzibar. ‘The original stock,
reported to have been brought from Sumatra in an American
vessel.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF AFRICA 345

Vitis vinifera, the grape; the fruit produced at Zanzibar, was said to
be of inferior quality.

Amygdalus Persica, the peach. A single tree, which was “ brought
from America,” seemed to be in a thriving condition; but it had
not produced fruit.

Jambosa Malaccensis, was seen growing on the Imaum’s plantation.

Caryophyllus aromaticus, cloves; are now extensively cultivated, and
form an important article of export from Zanzibar.

Lactuca sativa, lettuce, according to the traders, had been introduced
from America; but I did not meet with the plant.

Durio zibethinus, several trees, were seen on the Imaum’s plantation.

Solanum tuberosum. Potatoes, are well known at Zanzibar; and are
principally imported from India; but I once saw the plant under
cultivation.

Myristica moschata, the nutmeg: trees, in a thriving condition, were
seen on the Imaum’s plantation.

Ficus carica, the fig. A single tree, having unripe fruit and unu-
sually large leaves, was seen in a garden at Zanzibar.

In conclusion, it should be observed; That domestic animals and
plants of ArrRIcAN origin, are not altogether wanting on the island
of Zanzibar. Such as:

The domesticated guenea fon, abounding.

Adansonia, perhaps, originally introduced; although young stocks
were seen, that had been spontaneously disseminated. The shell
of the fruit, is used by the Soahili as a substitute for water-buckets.

Erythrina. <A large and magnificent tree, perhaps of African origin,
growing on a plantation on the island of Zanzibar.

Momordica balsamina, the fruit, brought to the market at Zanzibar.
This plant also, is possibly of African origin.

Jatropha curcas, naturalized around houses at Zanzibar: as likewise
at Bombay.—I first met with the Jatropha curcas at the Cape Verd
{slands; where it had the appearance of being indigenous. And I
observed a corresponding species, truly wild, in Yemen.

87

CHAPTER XXIV.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF SOUTHERN ARABIA.

Ir the Interior mountains of Yemen be excepted, agriculture, is
very sparingly carried on in Arabia; and only, by means of irrigation
from wells. In the details of this process, maintained with great
labour in the midst of a Desert, weeds, which in other countries
accompany the footsteps of man, rarely obtain foothold.

Rhaphanus sativus. Radishes, were seen in market, both at Mocha,
and at Muscat.

Gossypium herbaceum, a few stocks, observed growing in a court-yard
in the outskirts of Mocha.

Mibiscus esculentus, the fruit, abundant in the market at Mocha.

Thespesia populnea, a single tree, planted in a court-yard, in the out-
skirts of Mocha. The leaves were in demand, as an external ap-
plication to wounds.

Citrus Medica, the Sweet Lemon, cultivated in the environs of Mus-
cat; and I have never seen it elsewhere. It is an insipid fruit.

Citrus limonum, the lime, was seen at Muscat.

Citrus, the lemon; the fruit, seen in the market at Mocha.

Citrus aurantium. did not meet with oranges; but I was informed,
that they are sometimes imported into Mocha, from Egypt.

Vitis vinifera. Grapes of excellent quality, were unexpectedly met
with, both at Aden and at Muscat.

Zizyphus, a species of lote-tree, planted in gardens at Muscat.

Pistacia vera. Pistachio nuts, were said to be sometimes brought to
the market at Mocha.

Mangifera Indica. ‘The mangoes brought to the market at Mocha,
are small, and of inferior quality.

Parkinsonia aculeata, planted for ornament, in the vicinity of Mocha.

According to the Arabs, the tree was brought from India.

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t
:

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF ARABIA. 347

Parkinsonia?, a graceful tree, having the habit of Casuarina, and de-
void of leaflets; a single stock, observed in a garden, at Muscat.

Acacia Nilotica, planted in the environs of Muscat.

Amygdalus Persica, peaches; said to be brought to the market at
Mocha; but at a later season, than the time of my visit.

Prunus domestica. Plums of good quality, were found to be abun-
dant in the market at Mocha.

Prunus Armeniaca. Apricots, called ‘bertood’ and also ‘ mishmish,’
abound in the market at Mocha; but those seen, were in all in-
stances small.

Pyrus malus. Apples of good quality, “imported from Persia,’’ were
seen at Muscat. The apples brought to Mocha, are very small,
scarcely edible, and are chiefly worn for ornament.

Pyrus communis. A quantity of pears, “brought from Bunder-
Abbas,” was sent on board our vessel at Muscat.

Pyrus cydonia. Quinces of fine quality, were seen at Mocha.

Punica granatum. ‘The Muscat pomegranates, are of superior quality.
Pomegranates, were said to be brought to the market at Mocha; but
at a different season from the time of my visit.

Terminaha catappa, planted in gardens at Muscat: and perhaps in-
troduced by the Banians. ,

Lansona alba, henna; which forms an important article of commerce,
in all the Arabian towns.

Portulaca oleracea, the purslane, naturalized in gardens at Muscat :
and also seen, offered for sale in bundles, in the market at Mocha.

Lagenaria vulgaris. Gourds, were seen at Muscat.

Luffu, apparently the species cultivated in Egypt: the fruit was seen,
in the market at Mocha.

Cucumis sativus, the common cucumber, was seen at Muscat.

Cucumis melo. 'The musk-melons at Muscat, are large, but of inferior
quality : and those brought to Mocha, are hkewise inferior.

Cucurbita citrullus, water-melons, were seen, both at Mocha and at
Muscat; but they were invariably small.

Convolvulus batatas, sweet potatoes; abundant, both at Mocha and
at Muscat.

Solanum melongena. TYige-plants, are abundant at Mocha; where they
bear their Egyptian name, ‘bedingan.’

Solanum tuberosum. 'The potatoes seen at Mocha and at Muscat, had
been imported from Bombay.

348 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Ocymum. Bundles of this, and of various other odorous Labiate plants,
are offered for sale in the market at Mocha.

Ficus carica, the fig; the dried fruit, imported into Mocha from the
Persian Gulf.

Ficus religiosa, the pipul tree ; in the Banian garden at Muscat.

Cocos nucifera, is said to be cultivated “in the Interior country, back
of Muscat.” Some young stocks, were seen at Mocha.

Phenix dactylfera. ‘The Muscat Dates, are of superior quality ; and
form an article of export, to the United States; and also, through
the Banians, into East Africa.

Hyphene coriacea, the Doum palm; planted in the vicinity of Mocha,
for the sake of the leaves, which are used for making mats.

Pandanus odoratissimus, cultivated in the environs of Mocha, for the
sake of the odorous flowers, which are regularly sold in the market.

Musa sapientum, bananas; common in the market at Mocha; but they
seemed to be rare at Muscat.

Allium cepa, onions, common in the market at Mocha; and I saw
some under cultivation.

Polyanthes tuberosa. 'The flowers strung together, and also those of
some allied plants, are sold in the market at Mocha.

Saccharum officinale, sugar-cane, (the stems rather small,) observed in
the market at Muscat.

Hordeum vulgare, barley, (a young crop,) was seen under cultivation
in the environs of Mocha.

Sorghum vulgare, is the principal grain of Southern Arabia; and the
stems also, are used extensively for feeding cattle. The plant,
bears its Indian name, ‘juari.’

Hleusine Indica, together with

Pennisetum, and other coarse grasses; are regularly cultivated at
Muscat, for feeding cattle.

Further details might be given, from a new source of information
which now begins to be available; from the direct evidence of an-
cient writings and monuments. But I shall remark only, that the
Himyaritic relics discovered in Yemen, contain representations of the
camel, and of a tame dard (possibly intended for the pigeon); and that
the mere presence of figures of living objects, indicates a date ante-
rior to the Muslim conversion.

CHAPTER XXV.

ANTIQUITIES, AND INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS
OF HINDOOSTAN.

Tue only monuments hitherto discovered in India that can be re-
garded as fairly ancient, are, the Caves, the hill-forts, and the Dowlu-
tabad fortification : situated, all of them, in the Western districts.

My acquaintance with the Indian monuments, commenced at the
Caves of Elephanta. And I wondered at the presence of so much
architectural beauty, with nothing borrowed from Greece or Egypt;
and at the simplicity and grandeur of design, clearly, as in the last-
named instances, surpassing the conceptions of the present day.

With regard, however, to the peculiar style of architecture, I have
thought to discover traces of the same, in drawings of the ancient
monuments of Cabul and Persepolis.

a. The Budhist Caves.

Two classes of caves, are recognised in India; the Budhist, being
the most ancient. And the principal Budhist caves hitherto disco-
vered, are, the two series at Karli, the series at Adjunta, and the
Kenneri Caves; all which, I visited.

One of the caves at Karli, is of somewhat imposing dimensions :
and I could only compare it to a mould, formed in the rock, of a
fretted and vaulted palace. Among the columns, some are simple
and octagonal, like the proto-Doric columns of Egypt, (and in other
Budhist caves, I have even seen fluted columns); but this, was the
only semblance of a connexion in the architecture.

Similar vaulted caves, but of smaller dimensions, occur in each

88

350 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Budhist series; and they usually contain a ‘deghop,’ or large solid
dome. While the flat-roofed caves, adjoining, have often a sitting
statue of Budha; which receives the light from the narrow entrance.

The features of these statues of Budha, partake strongly of the
Malayan character; the beard too, is invariably wanting: but the
nose, in some instances, is too prominent for the Malayan race; and
the hair, is always curled in knobs, (as in the Persepolitan bass-
reliefs.) And after giving much attention to the subject, I arrived
at the conclusion: That the Indian caves, were constructed by men
of the White race.

The Apsunta Caves, contain paintings that are superior in order
of merit, over all elsewhere known in India. They are now reduced
to a few remnants; which yet afford an insight into the manners,
arts, costume, and physical character of the population at a remote
period of time; and portray a surprisingly high state of civilization.—
The attention of government, has been directed to the importance of
preserving these records; but the artist appointed to copy them, had
not arrived at the time of my visit. As therefore, the Adjunta caves,
are of recent discovery, and from their remote situation continue to be
very little known, I will subjoin the substance of some notes taken on
the spot:

The pathway, leading to and in front of the caves, is paved with burnt
bricks of large dimensions.

Several of the caves, have been left unfinished; but in the whole
series, | could detect no interruption to unity in design; although
so great an amount of excavation, could scarcely have been accom-
plished within one generation.

Cells or dormitories, for ascetics, are numerous: as at the other Bud-
hist caves.

Series of saints, or holy men, sculptured in bass-relief, repeatedly
occur; each individual, having a circle round the head, and hold-
ing the hands in the attitude of prayer.

The stairways, according to the universal plan with the Ancient Hin-
doos, are internal passages in the rock.

Budha, as in the usual representations, is in all instances supported
by the flower of the Neluwmbium.

Lions, are sculptured at several of the caves; both at the entrance,
and in the interior.

Elephants, are frequently represented in the bass-reliefs; in one in-

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 351

stance, piercing a é¢ger on the ground; in another, fighting among
themselves; and they sometimes carry a rider, but are devoid of
saddle and other accoutrements :

Buffaloes, occur in the bass-reliefs; and in some instances, fighting.

Also, a man riding an imaginary animal; which is formed of a combi-
nation of the horse, ram, and lion:

An imaginary bird; taken chiefly from the peacock :

And chowries; which, I believe, are made of the tail of the Yak, or
mountain bullock of Thibet.

The cobra, or hooded snake, is repeatedly sculptured: an animal still
worshipped in India; on account, it was said, of some supposed con-
nexion with the febrile influence of the sun.

The paintings, are on a thin layer of plaster or chunam; a material,
well known to the ancient Egyptians; and which, at the present
day, is applied to a great variety of purposes in Arabia and India.

The colours employed, were observed to be: pale blue, and deep-
ultramarine blue; dull red, and pale orange-red; pale green, and
dark green; white; black; light rose or flesh colour; and deep
brown.

Among the objects represented in these paintings, are :—

Clouds, together with various trees and flowers; in some instances,
having a rich and landscape-like effect :

A man accompanied by a woman (the latter wearing anklets); the
same personages, make their appearance in several of the caves:

A fine female figure, with drooping eyelids, brunette complexion, and
abundant curling hair; having a large roll in the lobe of the ear,
beads round the neck, armlets, and a fillet encircling the head :

Another woman; having her long straight hair arranged so as to form
a head dress:

A third woman; having, however, the complexion dark brown, and
wearing large ear-rings:

Men, wearing a cincture, very similar to that still used in India:

Other men, wearing, in place of the cincture, a belt or sash, the ends
of which hang loose in front:

Also, a man, armed with a club, and an incurved or bent shield :

A king or chief, wearing a profusely ornamented head dress :—further,
the complexion of most of the above human figures, was observed
to be, deep brunette, or about the same as in the Mongolian race:

352 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Two persons seated; each having an ornamented head-dress, tiara-
like, and resembling some at Elephanta :

Geese, swimming among aquatic plants (the Nymphea and the Ne-
lumbium):

The Nymphea stellata, repeatedly and distinctly represented ; the
margin of the leaves not crenulate, and the flowers bright blue :—
one of these lotus flowers, is held out by a man having a fillet tied
around his arm:

The danana plant; distinctly, and repeatedly represented :

A tree with pinnate leaves, like an Acacia; but apparently, not in-
tended for the Tamarind :

Birds, green above and white beneath; and in form, resembling some
of the species of cuckoo:

Whitish monkeys (Entellus?); and a baboon (Papio?): also, antelopes,
apparently of three distinct species; one, having knotted horns; a
larger kind, with straight horns; and a third kind, with low hind-
quarters :—these five animals, might probably be identified by a
person conversant with Indian zoology :

A horse, and rider :—and also, a two-wheeled cart (the wheels with
eleven spokes), drawn by a pair of horses; a circumstance deserv-
ing of attention, since horses, at the present day, are rare, and are
not used for draught in the Interior of India.

The most interesting cave, contains the painting of a large wheel;
between the spokes of which, are seen, a multitude of human
figures; various in complexion, from the fair European to blackish-
brown; but all, much alike in feature, and having long straight

hair. Umbrellas, make their appearance, some of

them square-topped ; and others, resembling the

modern Chinese, except in being destitute of a

projection above, (as is shown in the annexed

wood-cut): also, depressed water-jars, similar in
shape to those now used (but perhaps earthen) ;
together with various other implements and manufactured arti-
cles.—In the same cave, are represented: horses saddled and _bri-
dled, and a huntsman attended by hounds: two human faces, look-
ing out of a window: two men, with mustaches, having beads
round the neck, and each holding out an article like a small
flower-pot: a woman of rank, attended by a female umbrella-
bearer, and dressed according to European fashion, in a petticoat
(which is short-sleeved): a pinnate-leaved palm, intended appa-

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 353

rently either for the Date or the cocoa; and in consideration of the
distance from the sea, probably for the Date: also, a plant in many
respects resembling the Pandanus.

Series of saints, are equally represented in the vaulted caves; where,
however, there is a manifest change in style in the paintings. The
figures of men, are numerous, and they have the hair and beard
straight, and the brunette complexion; and some individuals, wear
a striped garment hanging over one shoulder; while others, are
clothed in white, and others again, in long red robes.—One of
these vaulted caves, contains remnants of inscriptions; the charac-
ters, (some of which are partially obliterated,) being, in one instance,

UY
rd) By

traced with black paint, and in another, with white. These in-
scriptions appeared interesting, from being possibly coeval with
the original construction: and I have therefore inserted copies.
Inscriptions in the ‘cave character,’ are peculiar to the Budhist
caves; but the above being excepted, all that are known, are sculp-
tured. A sculptured inscription in the ‘cave character,’ occurs on
the outside of one of the caves at Adjunta: and a copy of a portion
of-it, is inserted below.

g3Q5 YR HX win

209 - Sis PREF

b. The Braminical Caves.

The Braminicat Caves, may be readily distinguished, by the evi-
dences of Polytheism; and by the presence of many-handed and
many-headed personages; Budha himself, being represented in the
Braminical pantheon, as having three pairs of hands.

Certain representations, are common to both classes of the Indian
caves; such as, those of the Nelumbium; the Nymphea; the cobra;
chowries; lions; monkeys; buffaloes; elephants, (which in all in-
stances are ridden without howdah or saddle); the goose; perhaps
one of the antelopes; umbrella-bearers; women wearing armlets and
anklets; and men wearing the belt or sash.

On the other hand, the following particulars, seemed to be peculiar

89

354 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

to the Braminical caves: and they were noted principally, in the most

extensive of the two series hitherto discovered, in the caves at Ellora:

Representations of the Mango, and of

A Sacred Fig, (neither of which trees, were distinctly made out at
Adjunta). The Fig, seemed to be the species devoid of an invo-
lucre; notwithstanding that it was called the ‘ wurr tree,’ by some
Hindoos in attendance.

Peacocks, separately and unequivocally represented ;

Scorpions, also represented ; together with

Bullocks ; which are caparisoned, and altogether resemble those of
Modern India.

Elephants, having, like the bullocks, bells round the neck. Also, the
elephant-headed god.

A goddess, seated on a galloping Lon, and bearing on one arm a par-
rying-shield. Also, a man riding a lion.

Large shields, which are provided with a distinct handle ;

Clubs, somewhat resembling the short Feejee club, but more sculp-
tured and ornamented ;

Straight swords, which are rounded at the end ;

And battle-axes.

Men wearing caps; some of which, are like the modern Afghan, and
others, like the modern Turcoman caps.

The god holding a trident;

And in reference to Feejee customs, it was observed; that the male
figures, often have armlets; and that in one or more instances, a
boy is represented as wearing a neck-plate.

Further, some of the male figures have anklets.

The ¢zger-headed god, in the act of devouring a human victim.

And among the numerous deities; ‘Juggernaut,’ was pointed out to
me by some Hindoos in attendance.

Ram-headed personages, are occasionally represented ;

And also, doar-beaded men and children.

Winged personages, or angels.

Bratna; represented as usual, as having three faces.

A dragon, vomiting forth a ram-horned lion or griffin.

Mermaids, but without the terminal fin: and other imaginary animals.

A woman, holding a flag-shaped fan; which is very similar to those
now used in Nubia and Yemen.

A man, having a short ‘kris;’ which is less curved than that worn
by the modern Arabs.

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 355

Skeleton figures, resembling the popular representation of Death.

In one instance, a woman holding a small quadrangular box ; perhaps
for containing ointment:

In another instance, a man holding a flagon or bottle.

Pigmies, are repeatedly represented ;

Together with cornucopias ;

And a man holding a roll, or a cylindrical implement resembling one.

Some of the angles of the door-ways, were observed to have oblique
perforations; perhaps not coeval with the original construction; but
entirely similar to those seen at Hadjerkim, in Malta.

In the finest of the Ellora caves, I observed some remains of orna-
mental painting; the colours employed, being dull red, light blue,

tee)

light green, and yellow.

The goddess having (like the Amazons of old) a single breast, or
the combined personage, female on one side, and called “ Parbutee
and Mardao,” was seen only at Elephanta.

Where too, representations occur of the Hindoo Triad; or of “the
creating, the preserving, and the destroying power.”

The floor of some of the Elephanta caves, is made to contain a thin
stratum of water: and indeed, I remarked no provision for drainage,
in the other Indian caves.

The Elephanta Caves, regarded as a work of art, always pleased
me; and even in the sculptured figures, I found something to admire,
in the grouping and in the boldness of the relief.

On the other hand, the style of the immense excavations at Ellora,
is corrupt; and the general effect, is not altogether agreeable. Some
of the details, however, are worth the attention of artists. And the
excavated building, is interesting as a specimen of the style of temple-
architecture at an ancient period. It should be observed, that there
is a seeming mixture of class at Ellora; in the presence of caves of
the usual Budhist character: these, however, have every appearance
of being coeval with the rest of the series; and I was unable to dis-
cover about them, any inscriptions in the ‘cave character.’

There are no naked figures, in the Budhist caves; neither could
I find anything of an indecent tendency; a striking point of diffe-
rence, from the Pharaonic and from the Roman antiquities.

The same remark, may indeed be extended to the Braminical
caves; for the emblems of Siva, which occur in some of them, have

356 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

clearly nothing to do with the original construction. It may be in-
ferred, however, from various circumstances, that the introduction of
these emblems, was anterior to the Muslim Conquest: a recently dis-
covered cave at Elephanta, was found, on removing the earth, to
contain one of them.—The Guzerati Bramins, continue to make pil-
grimages to Elephanta; “arriving annually at Bombay, in April and
May.”

The excavated temple at Ellora, is called the ‘kylas.’ The name,
brought to mind a possible reference to the caves of India, by Hero-
dotus; in his account of the “ Ethiopians bordering on Egypt, who
use the same grain* as the Calantian Indians, and their dwellings
are subterraneous.”’

We have, however, notices of India of a much earlier date than the
time of Herodotus. Homer, besides mentioning Bacchus and Nysa,
seems to allude to India, in the expression, ‘“ Ethiopia which sees the
rising and the setting sun.” I may refer also, to what I have already
stated in another chapter, respecting the importation of cinnamon.

The Pharaonic Monuments, contain representations of certain
foreiguers, who are perhaps people of India. One of the nations
defeated by Rhamses Sethos, makes use of cars drawn by bullocks,
(according to the present custom of Hindoostan); and the animals,
moreover, have the peculiar form of the Indian bullock.t In the
tomb of the same Pharaoh, one of the “four geographical divisions
of the world,” is represented, by men wearing the hemispherical cap
(similar to that of modern Cabul), and a long richly ornamented scarf,
winding repeatedly round the body.{ ‘The winding scarf, is strictly
an Indian dress; though so far as my own observation extends, I
have seen it worn by females only.

The conquests of the immediate predecessors of Rhamses Sethos,
appear, in general, to have been more limited; yet the walls of Kar-
nac, offer representations of the Indian bullock, and of a fortress
defended by men clad in the winding scarf.}—It may further be
inferred from the above representations: that in the direction of the

* Herodotus, Thalia 88 and 97. It may be observed in reference to the Greek word
grépuoct: that the same kinds of grain, are actually cultivated in Nubia and in the
Dekkan ; as Sorghum, Pennisetum, and Milium.

t Rosselini, Monumen., Stor., pl. 128.

1 Loewgit., pl los. § Rosselini, Monumen. Stor., pl. 80.

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 357

Indus, the people were already, at that early day, distinguished for
their skill in manufactures.

Karlier, however, than the Pharaonic Ages, we have the religious
symbol of the water-lily (Nymphea) at the very commencement of the
monumental history of Egypt. ‘The presence of the same symbol,
on the earliest Indian monuments, plainly indicates actual intercom-
munication.

The asp or cobra, is another religious symbol common to the mo-
numents of India and Egypt. I have not found representations suffi-
ciently exact, to determine the species figured on the Indian monu-
ments: and it should be observed; that of the two known species
of cobra, one, is indigenous in India; and the other, in Northern
Africa.

c. Domestic Animals and Plants of Ancient India.

In enumerating the domestic animals and plants of India, I shall
begin in chronological order, with the earliest monuments. The
Bupuist Caves, as already stated, contain representations of the fol-
lowing animals and plants:

The goose, the species undetermined.

The dog.—Not observed in the Braminical caves.

The sheep; the head forming part of an imaginary animal.—Repre-
sented also in the Braminical caves, but only in the ram-headed
personages.

The horse ; an animal that does not thrive in Southern India.

The elephant.— Represented also, in the Braminical caves.—'The
above five animals, are all mentioned, according to Stevenson, in
the Sama Veda;* and according to the modern Bramins, in the
Institutes of Menu.

The buffalo; an animal, apparently indigenous either to India or to
the Indo-Chinese countries —The buffalo, is likewise figured in
the Braminical caves.—And is mentioned, according to Stevenson,
in the Sama Veda; and according to Deslongchamps, in the Insti-
tutes of Menu.

The banana, a plant, probably derived from the Malay countries.

* Stevenson’s Sanhita of the Sama Veda. London, 1842.
90

358 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Possibly the Pandanus ; which plant, it should be observed, is con-
fined to the coast.

A pinnate-leaved palm; apparently, intended for the Date palm.

Nymphea stellata ; a plant, to all appearance, indigenous to India.

And the Nelumbiuwm ; which plant is likewise apparently indigenous
to India.—The Nelumbium, is besides, commonly figured in the
Braminical caves.

Representations of the following additional animals and plants,
make their appearance in the BRaMINICAL CAVES:

The bullock ; agreeing altogether with the breed used in India at the
present day.—The bullock, is mentioned, according to Stevenson, in
the Sama Veda; and according to the modern Bramins, in the In-
stitutes of Menu.

The pig; in the figures of boar-headed personages.—According to
the published Versions, the pig is mentioned, both in the Sama
Veda and in the Institutes of Menu.

The peacock ; perhaps represented on the Budhist monuments.—The
bird, according to Stevenson, is mentioned in the Sama Veda.

The mango; possibly represented on the Budhist monuments. The
tree, is apparently indigenous in India; though at the same time,
it is abundantly planted.

And a species of Sacred Fig; the same apparently, which I saw
planted around the temple of Krishna.

Leaving now monumental evidence; The following additional ani-
mals and plants, are mentioned by ANCIENT WRITERS as existing in
India. I have had, however, but little opportunity of consulting
the works of these writers; and the subjoined list, is far from being
complete.

The honey bee, according to the published Versions, is mentioned in
the Sama Veda, in the Institutes of Menu, and in the Mahavansi
of the Ceylon Budhists.

The domestic pigeon, according to Stevenson, is mentioned in the
Sama Veda.

The domestic fowl, according to Deslongchamps, is mentioned in the
Institutes of Menu.

The goat is mentioned, according to Stevenson, in the Sama Veda;
aud according to the modern Bramins, in the Institutes of Menn.

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 359

The donkey, according to the published Versions, is mentioned in the
Institutes of Menu; and even, as used for riding by Bramins.
Arrian, too, speaks of the donkey being used for riding in India.

The camel, according to the published Versions, is mentioned in the
Institutes of Menu; and likewise, as used for riding by Bramins.
Herodotus and Arrian, both speak of Indians riding on camels.

The domestic cat, according to Deslongchamps, is mentioned in the
Institutes of Menu.

The gigantic reeds of India, mentioned by Herodotus, can only be
referred to the bamboo.—This plant, at the present day, is cultiva-
ted, although rather sparingly, in Western India.

Rice, according to the published Versions, is mentioned, in the Sama
Veda and in the Institutes of Menu. Theophrastus, speaks of rice
being found by Alexander in India.

Barley, is mentioned, according to Stevenson, in the Sama Veda; and
according to Deslongchamps, in the Institutes of Menu. Theo-
phrastus, speaks of barley being found by Alexander in India.

Wheat, according to Theophrastus, was found by Alexander in India.

Gardens of myrtle trees, according to Arrian, were seen by Nearchus
in India.—I met with some stocks of the myrtle, in a European
garden in the Dekkan.

The Banian Fig (Ficus Indica), is distinctly described by Theo-
phrastus ; who states, that it was found by Alexander on the river
Acesines.— The tree, only in rare instances acquires numerous
trunks.

The sugar cane, or rather its manufactured product, is mentioned,
according to the published Versions, both in the Sama Veda and
in the Institutes of Menu.

The hemp, with the cloth made from it, is mentioned according to
the published Versions, in the Institutes of Menu.

The flax, with the cloth made from it, is mentioned, according to
the published Versions, in the Institutes of Menu.—I met with the
flax under cultivation, in the Dekkan.

The /entil (Ervum lens), according to Theophrastus, was found by
Alexander in India.—At the present day, the lentil is abundantly
cultivated in India; and its native name, ‘ mussoor,’ seems to indi-
cate, that the plant was received from Egypt.

According to Deslongchamps, the Institutes of Menu, prohibit the
higher Castes “ from eating the onion, (Allium cepa,) the garlic (A.
sativum), and the deek (A. porrum).”—These three plants, are cul-

360 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tivated in India at the present day; and the leek, it may be ob-
served, bears its Kgyptian name, ‘ khorat’.

The cotton plant, is mentioned as existing in India, by both Herodo-
tus and Theophrastus. Cotton thread, according to the modern
Bramins, is mentioned in the Institutes of Menu.

The henna (Lawsonia), appears to have been known in India in the
time of Arrian; as may be inferred from his statement, “That the
people of India, daub their beards white, red, purple, and green.”
I observed the use of henna by the Western Hindoos; and the plant
is abundantly cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay.—

Various other plants and vegetable products of India, that were com-
municated to Egypt in ancient times, will be found enumerated in
another chapter.

d. Introduced Plants of Modern India.

I will insert, however, in this place, a list of the additional intro-
duced and cultivated plants, which fell under my personal observa-
tion in Western Hindoostan :

Anona squamosa, cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay. And accord-
ing to Graham,* the plant has a native name.

Argemone Mexicana, the yellow-flowered variety; abundantly natu-
ralized in the Dekkan; where also, I observed fields of it under
cultivation.

Raphanus sativus, the radish; abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan.

Biza orellana, the arnotto; cultivated in the vicinity of Bombay.

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis ; the flowers, frequent among the temple-offer-
ings. I observed a stock, which had evidently been planted, grow-
ing in front of the lesser caves at Karh.

Thespesia populnea, planted in the environs of Bombay.

Adansonia, trees were occasionally met with, in the vicinity of Bom-
bay. But differing somewhat in aspect, from those seen on the
island of Zanzibar.

Bombax anfractuosum, planted in gardens, at Bombay.

Citrus sinensis ?, the Mandarin orange; cultivated in the vicinity of
Bombay, and also at Aurungabad.

* Catalogue of the Plants growing in Bombay and its vicinity; by John Graham.
Bombay, 1839.

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 361

Citrus decumana, the shaddock; the fruit observed at Bombay.

Meha azedarach, planted around villages, throughout Western Hin-
doostan ; but it appeared to have been recently introduced; and I
found it commonly called, the ‘“ English tree.”

Azadiracta Indica, a large tree, planted around the villages of the
Dekkan.

Cissus quadrangularis, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Vitis vinifera, the grape; observed under cultivation. The plant
was perhaps introduced by the Muslims; I do not find that it has
a native name.

Averhoa biimhi, observed in gardens at Bombay.

Zizyphus lotus, the lote-tree; planted around the villages of the
Dekkan.

Zizyphus, the glaucous-leaved species; planted with the preceding,
around the villages of the Dekkan.

Anacardium occidentale, planted in the vicinity of Bombay. Probably
introduced by the Portuguese: and the nuts are, besides, imported
from Goa.

Boswellia thurtfera, observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Moringa pterygosperma, planted around villages.

Sophora tomentosa, in gardens at Bombay.

Parkia biglandulosa, also in gardens at Bombay.

Trigonella fenum-grecum, abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan.

Sesbania Atgyptiaca, growing abundantly in cultivated ground, in
the environs of Bombay.

Agati grandiflora, planted in gardens, and around villages.

Cicer arietinum, the chick-pea; abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan.

Abrus precatorius, possibly indigenous.

Cajanus flavus, the pigeon-pea; abundantly cultivated.

Ceratonia sthqua, observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay. Ac-
cording to Graham, the plant is of recent introduction.

Vachelha Farnesiana, planted, and also naturalized.

Acacia Nilotica, planted within a few years, along roadsides in the
Dekkan; the trees appeared to be in a thriving condition.

Arachis hypogea, abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan.

Cesalpinia sappan, planted in gardens at Bombay.

Poinciana pulcherrima, in gardens at Bombay. Apparently, a diffe-
rent species from the one seen in Polynesia. According to Graham,
it has a native name.

Parkinsonia aculeata, planted for ornament in the environs of Bombay.

91

362 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Tamarindus Indica, the tamarind tree; planted and naturalized
throughout Western Hindoostan.

Cassia alata, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Cassia fistula, appeared to be really indigenous on the mountain
slopes. According to Graham, it has a native name.

Cassia tora, observed in the Concan, naturalized in waste grounds.

Cassia Occidentalis, also naturalized in waste grounds.

Terminaha catappa, planted around Bombay. The tree was probably
derived from the Kast India islands.

Punica granatum, cultivated in gardens; but the fruit produced, is of
inferior quality.

Psidiwm, the guava; only seen cultivated ; and I do not find, that it
has a native name.

Lagenaria vulgaris, the fruit offered for sale in the market at Bombay.

Cucumis sativus, the common cucumber; cultivated; and perhaps the
same species, indigenous.

Cucurbita citrullus, the water-melon; the fruit, offered for sale in the
market at Bombay.

Carica papaya, planted around villages.

Bryophyllum calycinum, in gardens, in the vicinity of Bombay.

Opuntia Dillenii ?, a red-fruited species, abundantly naturalized in the
Dekkan; where, by an adventitious adaptation, its thickets furnish
a congenial retreat for the porcupine.

Panazx? fruticosum, a shrub, frequent in gardens. I do not find, that
it has a native name.

Panaz ? cochleatum, a shrub, frequent in gardens at Bombay.

Mussenda frondosa, observed only in the Botanic Garden at Bombay ;
but according to Graham, the plant has a native name.

Coffea Arabica, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Carthamus tinctorius, abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan.

Ageratum conyzoides, naturalized in waste places.

Cacaha sonchifolia, a weed, observed, growing around one of the vil-
lages in the Dekkan.

Tagetes erecta, the flowers, were observed to be among the most com-
mon offerings in the temples. This plant, is regarded by botanists,
as a native of America; and indeed, according to Hernandez, it has
a Mexican name.

Echpta, common in rice grounds.

Helianthus annuus, the sun-flower ; observed in gardens at Bombay.

Coreopsis tinctoria, also observed in gardens at Bombay.

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 363

Chrysanthemum Indicum, the flowers, were occasionally observed in
the Dekkan, among the temple offerings.

Mimusops hexandra, several trees observed, planted around a Muslim
musjeed, at Imaumpore, in the Dekkan.

Olea sativa, the common olive; in gardens at Bombay. According to
Graham, it was introduced from Egypt, in 1837.

Jasminum, a single stock observed; which was climbing around a
pipul tree (Ficus religiosa), near one of the villages of the Dekkan.

Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, in gardens; and to all appearance, really in-
digenous in the vicinity of the Adjunta Caves.

Plumeria acuminata, planted around villages, throughout Western
Hindoostan.

Cerbera Thevetia, in gardens at Bombay.

Allamanda Aubleti, planted in gardens, in the environs of Bombay.

Hoya carnosa, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Asclepias Curassavica, observed only in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Bignonia stans, planted in gardens at Bombay.

Sesamum Orientale, abundantly cultivated in Western Hindoostan.

Ipomea phenicea, in gardens at Bombay. I do not find, that the plant
has a native name.

Ipomea quamocht, in gardens. And likewise, apparently devoid of a
native name.

Convolvulus batatas, the roots observed in the market at Bombay.

Convolvulus arvensis, naturalized in the Dekkan.

Solanum tuberosum. Potatoes of good quality, are abundant in the
market at Bombay.

Solanum melongena, the Kgeg-plant; abundantly cultivated. And I ob-
served the large blue-fruited variety, which is now well known in
the United States.

Solanum, possibly the smooth-fruited esculent species of the Feejee
Islands. Some stocks, planted in pots, were observed at Bombay.

Capsicum frutescens, the fruit observed, in the market at Bombay.

Datura fastuosa, the flowers, were occasionally observed in the Dek-
kan, among the temple offerings.

Maurandya semper florens, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Herpestis Monniera, observed in the Dekkan; growing in wet ground,
and possibly indigenous.

Ocymum sanctum, observed, planted on the top of a brick column, at
one of the temples in the Dekkan.

Leonotis leonurus, growing in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

5364 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Stachytarpheta, observed in gardens, in the vicinity of Bombay.

Lantana, two species, observed in gardens.

Gmelina Asiatica, planted in gardens at Bombay.

Tectona grandis, the 'Teak tree; indigenous, and also seen in gardens.

Plumbago rosea, in gardens at Bombay. According to Graham, it
has a native name.

Plumbago Capensis, also in gardens at Bombay.

Boerhaavia procumbens, the annual minute-flowered species, frequent
in the Dekkan. It appeared to be identical with the one seen in
cultivated ground at the Polynesian islands.

Achyranthes aspera, abundant, and possibly native.

Gomphrena globosa, cultivated for ornament in gardens.

Aerva lanata, abundantly naturalized in the environs of Bombay.

Salvadora Persica, a tree, planted around villages in the Dekkan.

Santalum album, in gardens at Bombay.

Euphorlia terucalh, abundantly planted and naturalized in the environs
of Bombay. In the East Indies, I met with the plant, growing in
wild situations, and apparently indigenous.

Euphorbia tithymaloides, in gardens at Bombay. According to Gra-
ham, it has a native name.

Sapium sebiferum, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Ricinus communis, naturalized in waste grounds; and in the Dekkan,
sometimes regularly cultivated.

Jatropha curcas, naturalized in the environs of Bombay.

Janipha manchot, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Codiaum variegatum, cultivated for ornament, at Bombay.

Croton tinctorium, growing in the environs of Bombay, and perhaps
native. It appeared to be the species which I saw in Hieypt.

Aleurites triloba, planted in gardens at Bombay. According to Gra-
ham, it has a native name.

Ficus religiosa, the ‘ pipul’ tree; planted around temples and villages.

Ficus carica, the common fig; cultivated in gardens.

Artocarpus incisa, the bread-fruit ; in gardens at Bombay.

Artocarpus integrifolia, the jack-tree; in the Botanic Garden at
Bombay.

Morus alba ; some stocks, observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay ;
but the cultivation, does not succeed.

Casuarina equisetifolia, planted in the environs of Bombay.

Cupressus sempervirens, the cypress; occasionally seen in the Dekkan.
The tree, was perhaps introduced by the Muslims.

.
:

ANTIQUITIES AND PLANTS OF INDIA. 365

Piper nigrum, the plant observed in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Piper betel, the leaves often seen in the market at Bombay.

Aloe, a species, naturalized in the Dekkan.

Dioscorea aculeata, probably introduced from the East Indies by the
Portuguese. The roots, “brought from Goa,” common in the mar-
ket at Bombay.

Dracena terminalis, var. ferrea; observed in gardens at Bombay.

Asparagus officinalis, in the Botanic Garden at Bombay.

Furcrea gigantea, in the gardens of Kuropean residents.

Bromelia ananas, the pine-apple; sometimes seen in gardens; but the
cultivation as a fruit, does not succeed.

Phenix dactylifera, the Date palm; cultivated solely for the sake of
the sap, for making ‘toddy.’

Areca catechu, the betel-nut palm ; planted in the environs of Bombay.

Cocos nucifera, planted in the environs of Bombay.

Caryota urens, in gardens at Bombay; and besides, indigenous on
the mountain slopes.

Borassus flabeliformis, planted in the environs of Bombay.

Pandanus odoratissimus, maritime, and to all appearance, indigenous.

Colocasia: a species, was said to be “cultivated in the Dekkan, for
the sake of the leaves, which form a substitute for spinach.”

Colocasia grandifola, observed in gardens at Bombay.

Cynodon dactylon, abundant; and according to Graham, much esteem-
ed for feeding cattle. This use of the plant, as I formerly found, had
attracted the attention of colonists in Australia.

Dactyloctenium Avgyptiacum, frequent in the environs of Bombay.

Setaria, a species seen under cultivation in the Dekkan.

Pennisetum typhodeum, abundantly cultivated in the Dekkan.

Sorghum vulgare, abundantly cultivated throughout Western Hin-
doostan.

CHAPTER XXVI.
INTRODUCED ANIMALS AND PLANTS OF EGYPT.

In their original condition, the alluvial flats of the Nile, appear to
have been a pastoral tract; devoid of trees, and in all probability,
abounding in game. In proportion as the soil became occupied for
irrigation and cultivation, game doubtless became rare; and some of
the larger kinds, disappeared from the valley. ‘There is, perhaps, no
reason to suppose the extinction of species; for as the Nile, on the
one hand, opened a path to Northern Climates for the lion; so, other
animals inhabiting its banks, appear to have been originally Asiatic.

The natural vegetation of these river-flats, is extremely simple;
and consists of grasses, and other herbaceous and humble plants.
The species, are few in number; and at least in affinity, are Euro-
pean. ‘Tropical forms, are rare, even in the Thebaid; and do not
modify the general aspect of the vegetable growth.

It is no new remark, that the cultivated plants of Egypt, have been
all derived from abroad. Prior, then, to their introduction, agriculture
was unknown on the banks of the Nile; and the art, accompanied the
objects, from some foreign and distant country.

I shall proceed to enumerate the domestic animals and plants of
Eeypt, in chronological order; beginning with those figured on the
earliest monuments.

1. The Primitive Monarchy, or the Time of the Pyramids.
Some of the tombs immediately around the Great Pyramid, have

been ascertained to be coeval with it in their construction. These,
were first pointed out to me by Mr. Bonomi; and, together with a

»"

* 2

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 367

tomb of the Sixth Dynasty at Saccara, they contain representations
of the following animals and plants:

The domestic goose.—The bird, is likewise figured on all the subse-
quent monuments.

The dog ; in one or two instances; and having the tail.curling, but
the muzzle pointed like that of the jackal.—In the grottoes at Ben1-
Hassan, (belonging to the succeeding period,) numerous varieties
of the dog are figured; and among them, the greyhound, em-
ployed, as in modern times, for its superior swiftness in the chase.
This kind of sport, moreover, is said to be well known in Nubia.

The bullock ; a long-horned variety.—Which oceurs on the monu-
ments of the succeeding period, but hardly on those of a later date.
Additional varieties of the bullock, first make their appearance at
Beni-Hassan; where, too, the animal is represented in the state of
secondary wildness; particoloured individuals, being associated
with other game in the hunting scenes.

The goat ; a variety or breed, presenting nothing unusual in the form
of body.—The goat, is figured on all the subsequent monuments.
The sheep, a remarkable variety, with spreading horns.—And which
appears, soon to have become extinct. But the figure of the pecu-
lar head, continued in later times to form a hieroglyphic character.

The donkey ; kept in droves. And in the Saccara tomb, some are
caparisoned as beasts of burden.

Associated with the above, are certain other animals, represented in
the reclaimed state. 'These were, perhaps, considered sacred, or were
kept for sacrificing ; though some of them, seem well adapted for eco-
nomical purposes. ‘To this class, belong :

The large undetermined species of crane, (Grus.)—At Beni-Hassan,
the bird is represented as kept in flocks. And [ met with a single
figure of this crane, on an early Pharaonic monument.

The oryz, or the large straight-horned African antelope: in some in-
stances, represented as kept in herds.

On the other hand, the ibex or capricorn, is represented single, and 1s,
perhaps, not to be regarded as fairly domesticated.—At all events,
the two animals next in order, are merely kept in captivity :

The hedge-hog, (Krinaceus auritus,) carried in cages; but from the
frequent figures, the animal seems to have been regarded as sacred.

368 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN,

And a species of monkey, (Cercopithecus) ; doubtless brought down
the Nile, either from Abyssinia or from Central Africa.

The ibis, is also figured; but without any accompanying evidence,
that the bird was kept in captivity.

The habits of the primitive Egyptians, appear to have been in great
part pastoral; but agricultural operations, are equally represented on
the earliest monuments; together with the following plants:

The grape; and further, the process of making wine.—This art, is
likewise represented on the Pharaonic monuments.

Grain, in standing crops; with the regular process of reaping. The
species, is, perhaps rye; but possibly, wheat, (‘Triticum hibernum.)
—TI would observe, however, that the history of this latter grain,
is by no means clear. The ow of Homer and Herodotus, accord-
ing to the use of the term by the Modern Greeks,* is the Wheat.

There is yet a third species of grain, which is possibly the one figured ;
the spelt, (Triticum spelta.)—According to the received opinion, the
spelt, is the ‘far’ of the Romans; and the Latin word, may proba-
bly be identified with the sup of Homer, and the ‘var’ of Genesis.
Herodotus states, that the presents sent by the Hyperboreans to
Delos, were wrapped in the straw of the «vpos—Belon, among other
modern writers, speaks of seeing the spelt in Egypt.

The paper-reed, (Papyrus); and also, the process of writing; together
with rolls, or books. This point, moreover, is in accordance with
Manetho; who expressly mentions books that were written during
this early period —At the present day, the paper-reed, has nearly,
if not altogether, disappeared from Egypt; a circumstance, that
may be cited among the proofs of a foreign origin.

The writing-pens, were probably made from the true reed, (Arundo
donax.)—And likewise, the arrows figured at Beni-Hassan and on
the Pharaonic monuments. In the time of Pliny, the reed appears
to have been regularly cultivated in Egypt; and its rarity at the
present day, may be attributed in part to the change in the mode
of warfare. |

The sacred water-lly, or lotus, (Nymphea cerulea.)—Figured also,
on the subsequent monuments. ‘The flowers indeed, are rarely

* Wherever, as in this instance, I have referred to the modern Greek usage without
specifying the authority, I have been guided by the Lexicon of Zalikoglous. Printed
at Venice, a. pb. 1815. ;

’

ee oe le

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 369

painted blue; but the margin of the leaves, even in the most care-
ful representations, is invariably entire. The N. cerulea, is proba-
bly indigenous, or spontaneously disseminated in Kgypt: for plants
that are strictly fluviatile, agree in their geographical distribution
with fluviatile animals.—I met with the dried flowers of a blue
Nymphea, (probably N. stellata,) in the Indian drug-shops at
Mocha. And also, with a third species of blue Nymphea, (distin-
guished by its dentate leaves,) growing on the island of Zanzibar.

Large river-barges, propelled by numerous oars, are represented in
the Saccara tomb: and the timber for their construction, if not im-
ported from abroad, or from the Upper Nile, must have been de-
rived from cultivated groves.

The fruit of the common fig, (Ficus carica.)—Figures of the entire
tree, occur on the Pharaonic monuments.

The fruit of the pomegranate, (Punica granatum.)—Figures of the
entire tree, occur on the Pharaonic monuments.

The fruit of the water-melon, (Citrullus.)—Figured also, on the Pha-
raonic monuments. Water-melons, are mentioned in the Books of
Moses; and under the name still given to this fruit in Egypt.

The fruit of the hairy cucumber, (Cucumis chate.)—Figured also, on
the Pharaonic monuments. ‘This species of cucumber, is cylin-
drical, and devoid of papille ; and if I understood aright, is called
‘outteh’ at Cairo. It seems, therefore, to be one of the plants men-
tioned in Exodus, 1x. 32.

Some figures, among the offerings of fruits, are possibly intended for
heads of the artichoke, (Cynara scolymus.)—This plant, is com-
monly cultivated in Egypt at the present day; and, according to
the received opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the «apa of
Sophocles and Ptolemy Evergetes.

Other figures, among the offerings, correspond very well with the
shallot, (Allium Askalonicum.)—This plant, according to the mo-
dern Greek usage, is the yx3uwv of Theophrastus. Alpinus, is the
only author I have met with, who mentions the shallot in con-
nexion with Hey pt.

Herodotus mentions, seeing an inscription having reference to the
construction of the Great Pyramid; and as interpreted to him, con-
taining notices of the three following plants :

The xpoyyue; according to the received opinion and the modern Greek
usage, the onion (Allium cepa).—This plant, is unequivocally re-
93

wes, oe ai, a

370 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

presented on the Pharaonic monuments. And is mentioned in the
Books of Moses, under its current Egyptian name. And by Homer,
under its Greek name.

The oxopoda ; according to the received opinion and the modern Greek
usage, the garlic, (Allium sativum.)—At the present day, according
to Clot-Bey and Figari, this plant “is very sparingly cultivated in
Eeypt:” and indeed, Hasselquist, expressly mentions the importa-
tion of garlic.

And the cupyuan; usually considered to be the radish, (Raphanus
sativus): and if so, the pedavooupyaov of Aristophanes, (Thesmoph.
857,) may refer to the black-skinned variety.—Some figures on the
Pharaonic monuments, seem intended either for the radish, or for
the beet. At the present day, the radish, is abundantly cultivated
throughout the Arab countries.

On referring now the above-mentioned plants and animals to their
several places of origin, it will be perceived, that nearly all, are
Northern and Asiatic. Five, however, of the plants, are decidedly
Tropical (the Papyrus, Fig, Pomegranate, Hairy Cucumber, and
Water-melon); some of these, are possibly from Abyssinia; but all,
are of a sufficiently hardy constitution, to bear transportation by land
by an extra-Tropical route. [am not aware of any positive evidence,
that the communication with India by the way of Meroe and by sea,
existed at this early day.

Monumental History, in many countries, commences with the
relics of a barbarous age; not so, in Egypt; but the first colonists
who settled on the Lower Nile, appear to have been already in a
high state of civilization.

2. The Period of the Hyksos ; or the Pah-Egyptian Period.

The Second Period in the history of Egypt, commences with the
accession of the ‘'welfth Dynasty: and likewise, with the earliest
unequivocal representations of the White man, hitherto discovered.
The date accompanying these representations, has been astronomi-
cally determined, at about B. c. 2200.*

The principal monuments belonging to the period under considera-

* See, Ezypte Ancienne, by M. Champollion-Figeac. Paris, a. p. 1840.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 371

tion, are, so far as at present known; the Obelisk at Heliopolis; the
Labyrinth, (which I did not visit); the grottoes at Beni-Hassan ; some
sanctuaries at Thebes, and others in Nubia; together with the entire
temple of Semné.

An immense variety of objects, are represented in the paintings at
Beni-Hassan ; including, perhaps all the animals and plants that
occur on the anterior monuments, (together with the same peculiar
varieties ;) and in addition, the following :

Various species of ducks ; mostly wild; but in one instance, a flock,
possibly of the domesticated bird—In some Pharaonic plans of
gardens, ducks are swimming in artificial ponds. Moreover, tame
ducks, are mentioned by Varro, and by other ancient writers.

The Indian bullock.*—This variety, occurs also on the Pharaonic
monuments; though always, I believe, as inhabiting the Enemy’s
country.

Albino rabdits, carried in cages; and seemingly regarded as sacred.—
I am not aware, that the animal in its domesticated state, is repre-
sented on the Egyptian monuments; but tame rabbits, are men-
tioned by Varro, Martial, and other ancient writers. According to
Leo Africanus, the rabbit is indigenous in Mauritania.

The ape, (Cynocephalus) ; and various other kinds of monkeys; all,
however, doubtless brought from the Upper Nile-—I am not aware,
that any Indian species of monkey, is figured on the Egyptian
monuments.

The chittah, or hunting leopard, (Felis jubata); brought doubtless
from Nubia.—The animal, is likewise figured in the Pharaonic
‘Tribute-processions.

Among the plants, the most important novelty, is the Date-palm.—
Figured likewise on the Pharaonic monuments. The introduction
of the living plant, must have produced a change in human affairs,
throughout Northern Africa.

The representations of clothing, imply the cultivation of faz (Linum);
although there is some ambiguity, on account of the early use of
leather. However, a portion of a mummy case composed of layers
of linen, is now in Washington; and, from the finished workman-
ship, and the primitive forms of the hieroglyphic characters, the

* Rosselini, Monum, Civil., Pl. 20.

372 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

relic seems referable to the period under consideration —At the
present day, the flax, although a Northern plant, is cultivated
throughout the Arab countries, to the Dekkan inclusive.
Checkered baskets, and flag-shaped fans, are figured on this mummy
case; and it may therefore be inferred, that the Douwm-palm (Hy-
phene crinita), was already known in Kgypt.—This tree, is repre-
sented as regularly planted, in some Pharaonic plans of gardens.

3. The Pharaonic Ages.

The Third Period in the history of Egypt, commences with the
expulsion of the Hyksos or Shepherds; and with the accession of
the Dynasty, usually termed the Eighteenth. The temples at
Thebes, were chiefly reared by the princes of this, and the next
succeeding Dynasty; and indeed, constructions of this same date, are
the most numerous everywhere in Egypt and Nubia.

On the earhest Keyptian monuments, representations of gods, are
rare; unless perhaps, as a hieroglyphic character: but manifestations
of idolatry and polytheism, abundantly distinguish the Pharaonic
constructions. Were, however, all other marks wanting, these con-
structions might readily be recognised,

By the representation of the horse. Sieges and military expeditions,
(conducted on foot,) are indeed represented at Beni-Hassan: but
with the acquisition of the horse, a marked change appears to have
taken place in the national character; and the Egyptians, became
a warlike and conquering people. Leaving on their monuments,
ample illustration of the “Heroic Ages” of ancient writers.

The earliest figure of the pzg hitherto discovered, occurs in a tomb
at Kl Kab, (belonging to the commencement of the Eighteenth
Dynasty.) A drove, is here made to subserve agricultural pur-
poses, in the peculiar manner described by Herodotus. Goats,
had been previously employed, as appears from the anterior monu-
ments.

In the procession of foreign nations bearing tribute to Thouthmosis
III., a young elephant is led by men of the White Race; and it
may be inferred, from the latter circumstance, that the animal was
not derived from Africa. Indian elephants could have been conve-
niently transported to Egypt, either by the Persian Gulf, or alto-

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 373

gether by sea; and indeed, there are grounds for suspecting, that
the latter route, was actually used by the Ptolemies.

The large tusks, carried by some of the same delegates, are of course,
those of the African elephant: and they indicate, the existence of
commercial intercourse between India and Equatorial Africa.

According to published copies, the head and neck of the domestic
fon, is also figured in this Tribute-procession ; brought, however,
in the prepared state, as a curiosity. The inference is, that the
living bird, was at the time unknown in Egypt: that it inhabited
a distant land, even beyond Hindoostan, and perhaps, as the com-
panion of man.—This, is the only known representation of the do-
mestic fowl on the Egyptian monuments; and I do not find the bird
mentioned in the Old Testament; nor by Homer, Hesiod, Herodo-
tus; nor by any writers prior to Ctesias and Aristophanes.

I have not found the domestic pzgeon, unequivocally represented on
the Egyptian monuments; but a figure occurs at Medinet Abou,
which, from some attendant circumstances, has been referred to
the carrier-pigeon.—Homer and Herodotus, both speak of the com-

mon domestic pigeon; and carrier-pigeons, are expressly mentioned
by Anacreon.

Living plants in pots, (possibly the Crocus,) are carried by the dele-
gates of a second foreign nation, in the above-mentioned Tribute-
procession.

With regard to the living exotic tree, carried by a third set of dele-
gates; the checkered receptacle, denotes a Nubian or Arabian
origin. ‘The same species of tree, is figured on other Pharaonic
monuments; and appears to have been regarded as sacred.—The
account of the sepcca by Theophrastus and Pliny, may be com-
pared. Delile, refers the pseu, to the Balanites ; and the place of
origin corresponds; for according to Cailliaud, the Balanites, ‘is
found on the shore of the Red Sea, as well as along the Upper
Nile from Sennaar to Fazoglo.”

The sticks of ebony, figured in the same Tribute-procession, were de-
rived in all probability, either from India or from Madagascar ;
it may be, from Madagascar by the route of the Upper Nile.—
This at least, was the probable source of the ebony, brought down
the Nile in the time of Herodotus.

Baskets containing tndigo, are figured in the same 'Tribute-proces-
sion; and the manufactured substance, was probably imported by

94

374 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

sea, along the coast of Yemen, from India.—The indigo-plant, does
not appear to have been cultivated in Egypt, prior to the time of
the Muslims.

The sycamore fig-tree, is figured on various Pharaonic monuments.
Moreover, I have seen a wooden mummy-case of the time of the
first king of the Kighteenth Dynasty ; and these cases, are usually
considered to be made of sycamore-wood.

However, it has recently been asserted, That the mummy-cases, are
made of the wood of the Cordia myza ; a point, in regard to which,
I'am unprepared to offer an opinion.—Birdlime, (a substance said
to be procured from the Cordia myxa,) is mentioned in the book
of Amos.

Tufts of fern, and a forest of fir-trees (Abies picea), growing in a
foreign country, are figured on the walls of Karnac. The tall flag-
staffs, placed on the Pharaonic temples, were doubtless spars (either
of fir or pine), imported by sea; and probably from Syria.

A red fruit, agreeing in many respects with that of the dote-tree (Zizi-
phus lotus), is figured in a tomb at E] Kab.—'The lote-tree, appears
to be mentioned by Theophrastus, under the name, Awrog raAroupos.
I frequently observed the Z. lotus planted around the Egyptian
villages; the natives persisting in the assertion, that it bears “the
finest of all known fruits.”

Branches of myrtle (Myrtus communis), carried by females, are
figured on the Pharaonic monuments.—The myrtle, is clearly a
Tropical plant, foreign originally to the Mediterranean countries.
Indeed, Pliny, speaks of the myrtle as a stranger to Italy; mention-
ing, however, that a stock was found growing on the site selected
for the foundation of Rome. Theophrastus and Pliny, both speak
of the myrtle as existing in Egypt. And it is commonly planted
there, in gardens, at the present day.

From the representations of the practice of anointing, the olve (Olea
sativa), appears to have been known in Egypt during the Pha-
raonic Ages. I did not, however, meet with figures of the tree or
the fruit.—The olive, is mentioned in the Books of Moses, as well
as in Judges (ix. 9); and under the name still current in Egypt.
Homer, too, mentions the olive. And Pliny, speaks of trees grow-
ing at Thebes; and quotes Fenestella, as stating; That in the
reign of Tarquinius Priscus (B. c. 578), there were “no olives
in Italy, Spain, or Africa.”

The pear, (Pyrus communis,) seems to be figured in the Pharaonic

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 3°75

plans of gardens.—Homer and Virgil, both speak of this fruit.
And it is commonly cultivated in Egypt, at the present day.

The flower of the Nelumbium, does not occur on the Egyptian mo-
numents; but I have thought, in various instances, to distinguish
the fruit. And according to this conjecture, it is the emblem desig-
nating Asiatic prisoners.—Herodotus, distinctly describes the Ne-
lumbium; and as growing in Egypt. But at the present day, the
plant is known there, I believe, in but one or two gardens. Delile’s
figure, does not altogether agree with the Indian species.

The Cucurbitaceous plant with deeply-lobed leaves, figured on a
Pharaonic monument as growing over framework, is perhaps, the
Luffa ; but possibly, the Momordica balsamina.—Both these plants,
are commonly cultivated in Egypt at the present day.

The Cucurbitaceous plant with serrated cordate leaves, twice figured
(though without fruit) in the ‘Tombs of the Pharaohs, is perhaps
the Gourd, (Lagenaria.)—F rom the epithet given to a particular
variety of pear, it may be inferred, that the ‘cucurbita’ of Cato
and Pliny, is the Gourd. This plant, is figured by Matthioli (a. p.
1573); and, at the present day, is abundantly cultivated in Egypt
and in the other Mediterranean countries.

The round-headed grain, figured in the tomb of Rhamses Sethos and
also at El Kab, and which is pulled while the stems are yet green,
corresponds in many respects with the Panicum Itahcum.—l re-
peatedly met with this plant under cultivation in Egypt; where it
is called ‘dokn’: the word, occurs in Genesis, and in other portions
of the Scriptures.

Pennisetum typhoideum, (its spike being always erect, and in some
varieties ovoid,) is possibly the figured plant.—The ern of He-
rodotus and Theophrastus, and the ‘milium’ of Pliny (xviii. 7),
may also be compared. ‘The Pennisetum, is figured by Dodonzus
(aA. D. 1569): and I repeatedly met with the plant in Kgypt.

Barley (Hordeum), is figured on the Pharaonic, if not on the anterior
monuments.—F urther, the manufacture from barley of ‘booza’ (a
kind of beer), appears to have been practised in Egypt, as early as
the time of Herodotus.

We next arrive at the commencement of Written History; or the
lifetime of the earliest authors whose works are extant; and from this
epoch, the testimony of eye-witnesses, In successive generations, ex-
tends down to the present day.

376 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The terms in which the Exodus is narrated, convey a date by the
Egyptian Cycle. But the time of the completion of the cycle then
pending, is an undetermined point in Chronology. Some remarks on
the subject, may therefore be deemed not out of place.

Syncellus, makes the following statement; the substance of which, is
supposed to have been derived from Manetho: Toirw 6 ¢ tra roi x¢ Baa
Asigavros Koyyxapews 7s Aiyinrou ai chs is Ovuvadréias tol Kuvixod dey opevou xdxdov mapa ra)
Mavedo, dard rol wparov Sacirdws xal oixitrod Mecrpaiy sys Aiyumrov, rAnpoivros ery YL,
Baciréov x¢: “In the fifth year of Concharis, the twenty-fifth king of
Egypt during the sixteenth dynasty, of the cycle called cynic by
Manetho, from the first king and colonist of Egypt, Mestraim, were
completed seven hundred years, twenty-five reigns.” ‘Turning now
to the fragments of Manetho preserved by Josephus; and adding to
the “five hundred and eleven years of Shepberd rule” the succeed-
ing reigns; seven hundred and eleven years, will bring us to the fifth
year of the first Acencheres. Again, a seeming record of the com-
pletion of the cycle, occurs (at Thebes) on the walls of the Rames-
seum; and is repeated in the tomb of the builder’s father, Menepthah ;
a king, who holds the same relative position on the monuments, as the
three Acencheres do, in Manetho’s list.

The length of the Egyptian Cycle, is the time in which a measure
of three hundred and sixty-five days, will traverse all the Seasons.
And on this point, Pliny quotes a statement of Manilius: “ ‘That the
phoenix, lives six hundred and sixty years, and that the revolutions
of the Great Year correspond.”—Now, various reasons lead us to
suppose, that the Egyptian Cycle is a multiple of seven; and it will
be observed, that two phoenixes and a third, make fifteen hundred
and forty years; and that these divided by seven, give one-third of a
phoenix. The quoted statement, will then, I think, be found to agree
with modern estimates of the length of the year; after making allow-
ance in these estimates, for the velocity of light—In Egypt, however,
the years of the cycle, had been actually counted; and, as pointed
out to me by Mr. Gliddon, the Egyptians have a palpable mark of the
true length of the year, in the singular constancy of the initial day
of the inundation of the Nile: coincident, moreover, now as in the
time of Herodotus,* with the Summer Solstice.

Most of the animals and plants above enumerated as figured on the
Egyptian monuments, are mentioned in the earlier portions of the
Scriptures ; together with the following in addition :

* See Herodotus, Euterpe, 19.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 377

The honey-bee, is mentioned in the history of Samson. And also, by
Hesiod, and other ancient Greek writers.

Peacocks, according to the English Version, were brought in the ships
of Solomon. The bird, is mentioned by Aristophanes; and accord-
ing to Atheneus, by more ancient poets, such as Kupolis. In its
wild state, the peacock, is peculiar to Hindoostan.

The camel, is mentioned in the books of Moses. And also, by Hero-
dotus, and other ancient Greek writers. The figure of the camel,
occurs on the Himyaritic monuments of Yemen; but (as remarked
by Bonom1), is absent from the Egyptian monuments. There are
indeed grounds for supposing, that for some centuries, the Keyp-
tians actually shut out the camel from the West of Africa. Ido
not remember, that the animal is noticed in the Roman accounts
of Numidia: and its final introduction into that region, must have
produced a revolution in society, by carrying population into dis-
tricts previously uninhabitable.

The dented (Ervum lens), is mentioned in the history of Esau; and
under the name still given to the plant in Egypt.—The lentil, con-
tinues to be a favourite article of diet with the Egyptians.

According to the received opinion, the terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus),
is mentioned in the books of Moses; particular trees in Palestine,
being already noted on account of their extraordinary age.—Va-
rious modern travellers, speak of the import of terebinth seeds into
Egypt; and Belon, mentions a tradition; That the Persians lived
on these seeds, before becoming acquainted with bread. I have not
met with evidence, that the terebinth tree, is truly wild in the Me-
diterranean countries.

The almond (Amygdalus communis), is mentioned in Genesis xxx.
37; and under the name still given to the plant in Egypt. The
almond, is also mentioned by Ctesias, Xenophon, and other ancient
Greek writers.

The ‘libneh’ of Genesis xxx. 37, may be compared with the rosemary,
(Rosmarinus officinalis.)—At the present day, the rosemary, is a
favourite garden plant in Egypt.

The leek, (Allium porrum,) according to the English and the Septua-
gint Versions, is mentioned in the books of Moses. A Greek word
used by Homer, is considered to have reference to the leek; and
Pliny, expressly mentions the presence of this plant in Eeypt.—
Where at the present day, it is commonly cultivated.

95

378 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

According to the English and the Septuagint Versions, frankincense,
(the product of the Boswellia,) is mentioned in the books of Moses.
This substance, was doubtless imported through the medium of the
Arabs; as is intimated in Jeremiah vi. 20; and as is expressly stated
by Herodotus.

Some remarks respecting cénnamon, another article of traffic men-
tioned in the books of Moses, have been already given in a pre-
ceding chapter.

Balm, (the product of the Amyris opobalsamum,) is mentioned in the
books of Moses; and is known to have formed at a later period, an
object of cultivation in Palestine. Josephus, mentions a tradition,
that “the balm-tree was introduced into Palestine by the Queen of
Sheba ;” and so far as the place of origin is concerned, this account
may be compared with the statement of Strabo.

The myrrh, mentioned in the books of Moses, was perhaps, trans-
ported by land from Yemen. ‘The Somali country, is the princi-
pal source of the myrrh of commerce; but I learned at Mocha, that
a portion, is actually produced in Yemen. Herodotus, speaks of
myrrh; and the myrrh tree, is distinctly described by Theo-
phrastus.

The ‘shittim wood’ of the books of Moses, is supposed to be the
wood of an Acacia; and it has been ascertained, that two species,
(A. seyal and A. gummifera,) in some instances becoming arbores-
cent, grow wild in the Sinai Peninsula. It appears, moreover,
that gum-arabic, is actually collected there; though the principal
source of this article of commerce, is the Somali country. Gum-
arabic, is mentioned, by both Herodotus and Pliny.

I did not, while in Egypt, distinguish the above two species of Acacia;
but I met with no wild plant, attaining the dimensions of a tree. I
frequently observed the ‘sont’ (A. Ne/otica), planted around villages
on the margin of the desert; and as mentioned by Herodotus, the
timber is used in the construction of river-barges.

The dean (Vicia faba), is mentioned in Samuel and in Ezekiel; and
under the name still current in Egypt.—At the present day, this
plant, forms one of the principal objects of cultivation in Egypt;
for the sake of both the seeds and stems.

In reference to the almug-trees brought in the ships of Solomon, I
would observe; that at the present day, the joists used to support
the floors and flat roofs at Mocha, are imported ready-made from
Zanzibar.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 379

The musk-melon (Cucumis melo), isin Egypt called ‘kauun.’ The
‘kikayon’ of Jonah, may be compared. As well as, the xuos of some
early Greeks, and the cvs of Aristophanes and Theophrastus.

According to the received opinion, the Nigella sativa, is mentioned in
Isaiah xxvill. 25 and 27.—Belon states, that this plant, furnishes
the black seeds so generally sprinkled on bread in Egypt.

The cummin (Cuminum cyminum), is mentioned in Isaiah; and by
the name still given to the plant in Egypt. The cummin, is also
noticed by Aristophanes, Hippocrates, and other Greek writers.

The Sueda hortensis, isin Egypt called ‘mullah.’ The ‘malluach’
of Job xxx. 4, may be compared. And in reference to the asso-
ciated plant, it may be observed, That ‘retem,’ according to Fors-
kal, is the Egyptian name of a species of Atriplex.

With respect to the ‘nard’ or ‘spikenard’ of Solomon’s Song; the
modern Arabic name, seems to indicate the rose. Indeed, the
notice of the ‘nard’ in Mark, is sufficiently descriptive of the
essential oil (or attar) of roses. ‘This substance, is perhaps men-
tioned by Homer and Pliny; and Celsus (about a. p. 27), expressly
speaks of the distillation of roses. ‘Theophrastus and Pliny, both
allude to the presence of the rose in Egypt.—The plant, is foreign
to the natural vegetation of Egypt; but is extensively cultivated
in that country, for commercial purposes.

It appears, however, that the vapds of the modern Greeks, is the
lavender, (Lavandula.) I have met with indigenous species of La-
vandula, both in Yemen and in Hindoostan. Though, according
to Clot-Bey and Figari, the L. stechas, has been but recently intro-
duced into Egypt.

Two of the ancient Greek writers, lived before the conclusion of
the Pharaonic Ages; Homer, and Hesiod. And according to astro-
nomers, the remark of Hesiod respecting the rising of the Pleiades,
involves the date of ‘B. c. 958.’

From the examples already given, it will be perceived, that the
Scriptural names of plants, are still in use in Eeypt. Further, in
many instances, the current Egyptian name furnishes a clue to the
plants mentioned by Greek writers: and the correspondence, will
even be found closer, the further we recede into antiquity.

The white poplar (Populus alba), is in Keypt called ‘hour.’ The
axepors Of Homer and Hesiod, is but the same word softened into the

Greek idiom: and in later times, we find a different one substi-

380 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

tuted. ‘Theophrastus, expressly mentions the presence of the white
poplar in Egypt.

The paxedvng cury E4040 of Homer (Od. Vil. 106), may be compared with the
aspen, (Populus tremula.)—Belon, met with the aspen at Constan-
tinople: and according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the tree is culti-
vated in the gardens of Cairo.

The ayepos of Homer, Hesiod, and Theophrastus, according to the re-
ceived opinion, is the Populus nigra.—This tree, has a native name
in Egypt; according to Forskal and others.

The chick-pea (Cicer arietinum), is in Eeypt called ‘hommos.’ The
xuaos Of Homer, can be readily identified. Moreover, the singular
resemblance in the seed to the head of a ram, may account for the
xvapos, being “regarded unclean,” by the Egyptians of the time of
Herodotus.

The edible wpine, is in Egypt called ‘termes.’ The <p:Swéos of Homer,
can be readily identified. ‘The statement of Theophrastus respect-
ing the ‘woody stem’ of the epe6wdos, may also be compared. In
later times, however, we find the Greek name transferred to a diffe-
rent plant.

It would appear, from the modern Greek usage, that the %:« of Homer,
is possibly the vetch: though there is some confusion, perhaps aris-
ing from the practice of sowing mixed crops, fer feeding cattle.—
According to Forskal, the Vecea sativa, is in Egypt called ‘faurum;’
in which word, we readily distinguish the Latin ‘far’. The V.
sativa, however, is not enumerated among the culiivated plants of
Egypt.

With regard to the wxrwv of Homer and Hesiod, it will be observed ;
that the plant, in all probability, was not received from HKeypt; and
that the circumstance of the Greek word equally signifying a sheep,
seems to cover an allusion to the downy coating of the quince, (Cy-
donia vulgaris.) The ‘malum’ of Virgil, seems also to be the
quince.—I have had occasion to remark, that the quince, succeeds
better than the apple in the Arab countries.

The Awzos of Homer, referred by Pliny to the ‘ melilotus,’ is usually
considered to be the Medlotus officinals.—Clot-Bey and Figari,
enumerate the M. officinalis, among the plants long known in
Egypt.

Homer’s account of the Lotophagi, may have some connexion with the
coincidence between the Arabic name of the fenugreek (Trigonella

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 381

foenum-grecum), and that of a peculiar conserve; and with the
practice, of using this conserve, for enticing children away from
their parents.—The fenugreek, is a favourite article of diet with
the Parsees of India; and the account by Herodotus, of the spipudrov
of their forefathers, may be compared. ‘Theophrastus, however,
(according to the received opinion,) mentions the fenugreek under
a different name.

Homer’s account of the verevées drug of Egypt, is sufficiently descrip-
tive of opium. Pliny, not only mentions opium, and the fact of
its being adulterated at Alexandria; but he speaks of its use being
condemned by Diagoras and Hrasistratus, (who are supposed to
have lived respectively B. c. 416 and B.-c. 257.) Pliny, mentions
also, the ‘garden white poppy’ (Papaver somniferum), from which
the drug is obtained.—Opium, is still one of the staple productions
of Eeypt.

Saffron-coloured garments, are mentioned by Homer; thus implying,
the use of the safflower, or Dyer’s saffron, (Carthamus tinctorius. )—
At the present day, this plant, is very generally cultivated through-
out the Arab countries; from Egypt to the Dekkan inclusive.

The rresa of Homer and Hesiod, according to the received opinion
and the modern Greek usage, is the e/m, (Ulmus campestris. )—The
elm, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants long
known in Egypt.

The pera of Homer, Hesiod, and Aristophanes, according to the re-
ceived opinion, is the ash, (Fraxinus.) ‘Theophrastus, mentions the
presence of the pzaa in Keypt—Where, according to Clot-Bey and
Figari, I. excelsior is planted at the present day.

The dps of Homer, Hesiod, and others, according to the received
opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the oak, (Quercus.) The-
ophrastus, speaks of oaks growing around Thebes; from which
vicinity, they had already disappeared in the time of Pliny.—I
have not found the oak mentioned by modern writers as existing
in Egypt; but I met with the tree, under cultivation, in the Bo-
tanic Garden at Cairo.

The xpavsa of Homer and Theophrastus, according to the received
opinion, is the corne/, (Cornus.) ‘Two species, are mentioned by
Theophrastus; and these, are usually referred to the C. mascula,
and the C. sanguinea.—Belon, met with the C. sanguinea in
Greece: and according to Clot-Bey and Figari, both species, have
been recently introduced from Greece into Key pt.

96

382 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The xAndpn of Homer and Theophrastus, according to the received
opinion, is the European alder, (Alnus. )—Hasselquist, met with the
alder in Egypt.

The xapicos of Homer and Herodotus, according to the received
opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the cypress, (Cupressus
sempervirens.)—This tree, is at the present day, planted in all
Muslim cemeteries.

The So of Homer, Theophrastus and Pliny, according to the received
opinion, is the Thuya Orientals. Theophrastus, moreover, speaks
of the tree as growing at the oasis of Ammon, and in Cyrene;
localities, in which it must have been planted.—The Thuya, con-
tinues to be a favourite ornamental tree in Heypt: and Belon,
found if growing wild on the mountains of Asia Minor.

The sraravoros of Homer and Herodotus, translated ‘ platanus’ by
Cicero, is according to the received opinion, the Oriental plane,
(Platanus Orientalis.) Pliny states, that “the ‘platanus,’ was first
brought over the Ionian Sea, to adorn the tomb of Diomedes.”—
I frequently met with the P. Orientalis, planted around villages
in veypt.

However, from Forskal’s account of the modern usage at Constanti-
nople, the Acer platanus, would seem to be the plant alluded to by
the ancient writers. And it will be observed, that Aristophanes
speaks of the raasaws, as a wild tree of Greece. Theophrastus,
mentions the presence of the rdaros, in Egypt.—And the A. pla-
tanus and A. platanoides, are enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari,
among the trees planted at the present day in the gardens of Cairo.

The wv of Homer and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion,
is the Viola odorata—At the present day, the V. odorata, is a
favourite garden plant in Egypt.

With respect to the vaxdos, of Homer, inscribed, according to Theocri-
tus and Ovid, with alphabetical characters; something of this sort,
may be found on the calyx scales of certain Composite; such as
the Chrysanthemum.—Linneus, however, refers the vaxdos to the
Delphinium qacis: and the current Egyptian name of this plant,
‘ayakbouh,’ seems to favour the reference.

The xurepos of Homer and Herodotus, according to the received opinion
and the modern Greek usage, is the genus Cyperus. Wilkinson
states, that seeds of the C. esculentus, have been found in the an-
cient Egyptian tombs.—The living plant was seen in EKeypt by
Forskal, and also by Delile.

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INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 383

In reference, however, to the Greek word wrspos, it should be ob-
served; that Inula Arabica and I. undulata, (two indigenous
plants,) together with Croton tinctorium, are in Egypt called
‘ohobbeyreh.’

From Belon’s account of the modern usage at Constantinople, it
would appear, that the ceAw.v of Homer, Aristophanes, and Plutarch,
is the smallage, (Apium graveolens.) The ‘apium amarum’ of Vir-
oil, may also be compared.—Alpinus, speaks of the cultivation of
the A. graveolens in Egypt.

The rye (Secale cereale), has been already noticed, as possibly figured
on the earliest Egyptian monuments. From the modern usage in
certain parts of Italy, the orvpa of Homer and Herodotus, is supposed
to be the rye: and, according to the received opinion and the mo-
dern Greek usage, the ‘sekale’ of Pliny, is the same plant.—Al-
pinus, appears to be the only modern writer who has seen rye in
Kgypt.

The xyxpos of Hesiod, Dioscorides, and others, is referred by Mathioli
to the Panicum miliaceum. Herodotus, speaks of the xeyxpos being
cultivated both at Babylon and on the Borysthenes; and the geo-
graphical range, agrees only with that of P. miliaceum and P. Ita-
licurin.—Forskal and other modern writers, speak of the presence
of the P. miliaceum in Egypt: and Hasselquist, found the plant
under cultivation in Palestine.

The poraxn of Hesiod, Theophrastus, and others, according to the re-
ceived opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the madlom, (Malva.)
Two species, M. verticillata and M. sylvestris, are regularly culti-
vated as esculents, in Keypt.

4. The Greek-Eigyptian Period.

The Fourth Period in the history of Egypt, commences with Psam-
meticus; or with the first introduction of a body of Greeks, about
B.c. 650. In reference generally to the affairs of nations, the Period
under consideration, might be termed, “the Time of the Greeks and
Romans.”

The Egyptian constructions of the Greek Period, can be readily
recognised ; by a difference in the style of art, by the increased
number of hieroglyphic characters, by the reduplication of the dei-

=~”

384 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

ties, and by the absence of all details relating to manners and to the
Mechanic arts. The Ptolemaic temples, are comparatively uninte-
resting ; yet, they are not devoid of architectural taste; and their
walls, though chiefly devoted to mythological subjects and ostenta-
tious enumerations of conquests, contain genealogical tables, dates,
and astronomical records, that might be consulted to advantage.

Few of the mummies hitherto discovered, are older than the Greek-
Egyptian Period. But the cases containing them, often belong to
the Pharaonic Ages. I have seen a Pharaonic inner mummy-case,
that remained unopened.

One of the new deities, is figured as having the head of the cat. And
in regard to the anterior ambiguous representations at Beni-Hassan ;
they appeared to me, on a careful examination, to be intended for
varieties of the dog. Herodotus, seems to be the earliest writer who
mentions the cat; at least, | have found no notice of this animal, by
Homer or Hesiod, or in the Old Testament.

According to Forskal, the Narcissus tazetta, is found in the gardens of
Egypt; where it is called ‘nardjis.”. The vapuccos of the Cyprian
Verses and of ‘Theophrastus, may be compared. The description
of Pliny, however, seems to refer to the N. poeticus; which species,
I have not found mentioned as existing in Keypt.

Pythagoras, is said to have written on the medical properties of the
squill (Scilla maritima); a plant, mentioned also by Theophrastus.
and Dioscorides.—The squill, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and F'1-
vari, among the plants indigenous to, or at least, long known in
Egy pt.

The ‘brassica,’ celebrated according to Pliny by Pythagoras, is consi-
dered to be the cabbage, (Brassica oleracea.) And according to the
modern Greek usage, the xpauS, of Nicander and of the Batracho-
myomachia, is the same plant. In Egypt, the cabbage, is called
‘koroumb:’ and an etymological interference, will here be per-
ceived, with the Greek words, xpauén, xpoyyva, and cupyom— Karna-
bid,’ the current Egyptian name of the cauliflower, may also be
compared with the xapva&aduv of the Lexicons, and with the xsd
of the modern Greeks.

The xoxoundro of Hipponax (‘born B. c. 540’), Aristophanes, and 'Theo-
phrastus, according to the received opinion, is the plum (Prunus

‘ “

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 385

domestica): possibly, the wild kind (P. insititia): but the xpow, of
Theophrastus, or the ‘prunus’ of Pliny, is considered to be the
garden plum.—Several varieties of the plum, are cultivated in
Kigypt; but the fruit, is said to be of inferior quality.

The cvy (Hedera), is mentioned by Anacreon and Pindar; and as a
plant connected with the worship of Bacchus. Alexander, accord-
ing to Arrian, met with priests of Bacchus on the upper Indus;
who asserted, that the ivy in that quarter, grew only upon Mount
Meros. ‘The plant, is usually considered to be a native of Europe;
but this, is not altogether certain.—I have been informed, of some
recent unsuccessful attempts to cultivate the ivy in Egypt.

The xpwv of Anacreon, Herodotus, and Theophrastus, according to
the received opinion, is the white lily of the gardens, Lelum can-
didum.—According to Clot-Bey and Figari, the cultivation of this
plant in Egypt, hardly extends beyond the Pasha’s garden.

The Sesamum and its oil, are mentioned by Herodotus (‘born B. c.
484’), in his account of the Euphrates. Pliny, moreover, speaks
of the Sesamum as existing in EKeypt.—And the plant is well
known there, at the present day.

Herodotus, had heard of a kind of “ plant growing in India, which,
instead of fruit, produces wool; out of which the inhabitants make
their clothes.” In this description, we readily recognise cotton :
and some centuries later, as appears from Pliny and others, the
cotton plant, was introduced into Eeypt.

Herodotus, describes the edible Nymphea lotus ; and as abounding in
Egypt: where, however, the plant is possibly indigenous. Theo-
phrastus, also mentions the white-flowered lotus.

The épidag of Herodotus, Dioscorides, and Athenzus, according to the
received opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the J/ettuce, (Lac-
tuca sativa). The lettuce, is very generally cultivated in the Arab
countries at the present day.

Hemp, xowo8s, is mentioned by Herodotus; and as a plant, used by
the Scythians for making cloth—According to Lane, hemp was
not used in Egypt to produce intoxication, until about a. p. 1240.

Herodotus, speaks of the use in Egypt, of the timber of the ‘ Lotus
of Cyrene;’ and this corresponds, with the account by Clot-Bey
and Figari, of the jajube, (Zizyphus vulgaris). According to the
modern Greek usage, the jujube, is the ‘zizyphus’ of Pliny.

The Pimpinella anisum, is in egypt called ‘ yansoun.’ The awzgo of
Herodotus, and of some of the writings attributed to Hippocrates,

97

326 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

and also the avcw of Dioscorides, may be compared. Pliny, ex-
pressly mentions the anise as existing in Egypt.

The ciAdvwxpia of Herodotus, may be compared with the Eleagnus an-
gustifolia ; which plant, is said to yield the ‘zakkoum’ oil of modern
Palestine.—The E. angustifolia, is enumerated by Delile and others,
among the garden plants of Egypt.

According to Forskal’s account of the modern usage at Constanti-
nople, the xapva Movrix« of Ctesias, Dioscorides, and Athenzus, is the
jfilbert, (Corylus avellana). Virgil, enumerates the filbert among
cultivated plants; and Pliny expressly states, that it “was brought
from Pontus into Natolia and Greece.’’ I do not find, that the
filbert, has been seen growing in Keypt.

The field-pea (Pisum arvense), is in Egypt called ‘besilleh;’ in which
word, we readily recognise, the 2a: of the modern Greeks. The
gaonros Of Aristophanes (‘B.c. 400’), and also the ‘vilem faselum’
of Virgil, may be compared.—Clot-Bey and Figari, speak of the
seeds of the field-pea being given to cattle in Eeypt.

The sow of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, and Pliny, according to the

received opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the garden-pea,

(P. sativum).—Alpinus, met with this plant in Kgypt.

The rrr of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, and Palladius, according
to the received opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the Ama-
ranthus blitwm.—This plant, is still cultivated as an esculent in
Hurope ; and according to Alpinus, also in Keypt.

The pagaus of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, and Cato, may be com-
pared with the coleseed, (Brassica napus). At all events, the
“ Weyptian raphaninum oleum,” mentioned by Pliny, was pro-
bably obtained from this plant.—The manufacture of oil from the
B. napus, is at the present day, well known in Egypt.

The yoyywus of Aristophanes, Theophrastus, Columella, and Aretzus,
may be compared with the colewort, or the turnip-rooted cabbage,
(Brassica campestris).—This plant, seems to be “ brassica raposa,”’
found by Alpinus in Eeypt.

The xageyo of Aristophanes, and of some of the writings attributed to
Hippocrates, according to the modern Greek usage, is the Lepidium
sativum, or pepper-grass.—The L. sativum, is enumerated among
the plants cultivated in Keypt.

The varv of Aristophanes and Theophrastus, is usually referred to the
mustard, (Sinapis). Pliny, enumerates the mustard, among the

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 387

plants of Egypt.—And one species, 8S. nigra, has been found in the
gardens of Egypt, by Forskal and others.

The deet (Beta vulgaris), is in Egypt called ‘selk.’ The ceuraw of
Aristophanes and Dioscorides, may be compared. The beet, under
its Latin name, is mentioned by Plautus and Martial.

The «nyavw of Aristophanes and Dioscorides, according to the received
opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the rue, (Ruta graveolens.)
—The rue, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants long known in Keypt.

The garden basil (Ocymum basilicum), is in Egypt called ‘ryhan.’
The opiyavy of Aristophanes and the modern Greeks, may be com-
pared.—Belon, mentions the field-culture of this plant in Egypt.
And the O. ignosum, also occurs in that country, according to
Clot-Bey and Figari. The genus Ocymum, seems to be strictly
Tropical, and of course, foreign originally to the Mediterranean
countries.

The awry of Aristophanes and ‘Theophrastus, according to the re-
ceived opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the Anethum gra-
veolens.—This plant, according to Forskal, Delile, and others, is
at the present day cultivated in Egypt.

The cvxouwov of Auschylus and Atheneus, according to the received
opinion, is the black mulberry (Morus nigra). Virgil and Diosco-
rides, both speak of the black mulberry.—And it is enumerated,
by Forskal and others, among the trees planted at the present day
in the gardens of Keypt.

The papodpv of Demosthenes and ‘Theophrastus, according to the
received opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the fennel, (Fa-
niculum vulgare).—The fennel, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and
Figari, among the plants long known in Egypt.*

The earliest works extant, that are expressly devoted to the subject
of Natural History, are those of Aristotle (who died ‘B. c. 322’), and
of his pupil, Theophrastus. ‘The writings of Theophrastus on plants,
contain much that is of importance, in the present inquiry; and I regret
that my opportunities of consulting them, have been limited.

* The ¢yiwos of Herodotus and Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the mastech-tree, (Pistacia lentiscus).—I have not found the
P, lentiscus mentioned as existing in Egypt.

388 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN,

The two-humped, or the Bactrian camel, is figured on the ruins of
Persepolis; and is mentioned, by Aristotle-—This species of camel,
is used in the Crimea and the Caucasian countries; but it appears
to have always remained unknown in Arabia and Egypt.

The pheasant (Phasianus Colchicus), is mentioned by Aristotle, Pliny,
and Atheneus.—I have not found the bird referred to by modern
writers, as existing in Keypt.

The Guinea-fonl (Numida meleagris), is mentioned by Aristotle,
Pliny, and Atheneus.—According to Browne, the living bird, is
still imported in numbers into Eeypt, by the Darfour caravans.

The parrot (Psittacus), is mentioned by Aristotle, Ovid, and Pliny.
Ctesias, had previously described the parrot as existing in India;
and in terms showing, that the bird, was at the time unknown in
Greece.

The vosumos of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Hyssopus officinalis —This plant, was
seen by Belon at Constantinople; and according to Clot-Bey and
Figari, it has been recently introduced into Egy pt.

The ndvocwos and wivdy of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion
and the modern Greek usage, are species of mnt, (Mentha).—M.
aquatica, M. crispa, and M. pulegium, are severally enumerated by
Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants long known in EKeypt.

According to Forskal, the Or7ganum marjorana, is in Egypt called
‘mardakusj.’—The epapoxs of Theophrastus and Atheneus, may be
compared.

The pydmy Boravy of Aristotle, according to the received opinion and
modern Greek usage, is the /ucerne (Medicago sativa). ‘This plant,
is also mentioned by Virgil; and Pliny states, that “it was brought
from Media into Greece during the wars of Darius.””—The lucerne,
is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants cultivated
in Keypt for feeding cattle.

According to a passage in Areteus, taken in connexion with the mo-
dern Egyptian usage, the doy of Theophrastus, would seem to be
the Dolichos lubia.—This plant, is commonly cultivated in Egypt at
the present day.

According to the modern Greek usage, the Aaéupss of Theophrastus,
would seem to be the Lathyrus sativus. —This plaut, according to
Clot-Bey and Figari, is cultivated in Upper Egypt; and for the
sake of the seeds, which are given to cattle.

i

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 889

According to Forskal, the Vicza lutea, is in Egypt called ‘bachra.’
The aypos of Theophrastus, may be compared.

The Trzfolium Alexandrinum, is extensively cultivated in Egypt;
where it is called ‘bersym.’ The epuoov of Theophrastus, may be
compared.

The opoSos of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Ervum erviia.—Alpinus, speaks of the
cultivation of this plant in EKeypt.

The wyaAv) of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the cultivated oat, (Avena sativa).
Pliny, speaks of the oat being used for food by the people of the
North.—And this use of the plant, is also mentioned by Mathioli.
The oat, has a native name in Egypt; where it is occasionally cul-
tivated for feeding cattle.

The igs, mentioned by Theophrastus, as “the only spice which Europe
produces,” may be compared with the Irzs Ilorentina, or orris-root.
—I have not found this plant mentioned as existing in Egypt;
where, however, other species of Iris occur, both wild and culti-
vated, according to Alpinus and Forskal.

The «lwo of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the Artemisia absinthium. And in-
deed, Pliny speaks of this plant, as known to the Romans from
the earliest times.—The A. absinthium, is enumerated by Clot-Bey
and Figari, among the plants long known in Egypt.

The a&porevev of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, according to the
received opinion, is the southern-wood, Artemisia abrotanum.—De-
lile, met with this plant, in the gardens at Alexandria.

The <pvdpedavw of ‘Theophrastus and Dioscorides, according to the use
of the term by the modern Greeks, is the madder, (Rubia tincto-
rum.) ‘This plant is mentioned by Pliny. And it is said, that
some of the mummy-cloths, are dyed with madder.—Delile and
others, enumerate the R. tinctoram, among the plants cultivated at
the present day in Keypt.

The «dua of Theophrastus and Paulus Avgineta, from the use of the
term by the modern Greeks, would seem to be the Althea officinahs.
—This plant, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently
introduced into Hey pt.

The xopiawnrw of ‘Vheophrastus, may be compared with the cortander,
(Coriandrum sativum). Pliny states, that “the best coriander

98

390 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

comes from EKeypt.”—Where, at the present day, the C. sativum is
abundantly cultivated.

The davxes of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, is usually consi-
dered to be the carrot, (Daucus carota.) The craguams of Diosco-
rides, may also be compared.—At the present day, the carrot, is
abundantly cultivated in Egypt.

The «yap of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, according to the received
opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the endive, (Chichorium.)
The statement of Pliny, that this plant “is called ‘chichorium’ in
Egypt;” is found to be true at the present day.

The acrapayos of ‘Theophrastus and Dioscorides, according to the re-
ceived opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the garden aspara-
gus, (A. officinalis.) Pliny, quotes Cato, as giving directions about
the culture of ‘asparagus.’—And Alpinus, enumerates the A. offi-
cinalis, among the esculent plants of Egypt.

The azpaopazs of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the garden orache, (Atriplex hortensis.)
—Alpinus, enumerates the orache, among the cultivated and escu-
lent plants of Keypt.

The avayarns of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, is usually referred to
the genus Anagallis—The A. arvensis, is enumerated by Delile,
among the weeds of Egypt.

The prxw pows of Theophrastus, is usually referred to the common red
poppy, Papaver rhaas.—The P. rhoeas, is enumerated by Clot-Bey
and Figari, among the plants long known in Keypt.

The xevxy quepos of ‘Theophrastus, is usually referred to the stone pine
of the Mediterranean, Pinus pinea. Nicander and Virgil, likewise
mention the stone pine; and Atheneus, speaks of the import of the
nuts into Eeypt.—I have found no reference to the presence of the
living plant, in either Syria or Egypt.

The ¢nywo of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the derch, (Betula alba.)—Clot-Bey and
Figari, enumerate the birch, among the trees planted in the gar-
dens of Cairo,

The ogevdauws of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the maple, (Acer campestre.)—The A.
campestre, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the trees
planted in the gardens of Cairo.

The xapva Mzpt%, of Theophrastus, appears to be the walnut, (Juglans
regia): and indeed, Pliny refers to the Greek name of the walnut,

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 391

for proof, that the tree was originally brought from Persia—The
plant, is regarded as of recent introduction in Keypt; but its name
‘gios,’ indicates a knowledge of at least the fruit. Walnut trees,
were seen by Hasselquist at Jerusalem.

The xasavanov xapuov of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion
and the modern Greek usage, is the chestnut, (Castanea vulgaris) :
a tree, originally foreign to Europe, as appears from the testimony
of Pliny and others: and expressly enumerated among objects of
cultivation, by Virgil. Chestnuts, are mentioned by Atheneus;
who, I believe, wrote in Egypt; but I am not aware that the living
plant, has been seen in that country.

The «pasos of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the cherry. Pliny states, that the
cherry, “was first brought from Pontus into Italy in the 680th
year of Rome;” and he also alludes to the fact, (confirmed abun-
dantly at the present day,) that the culture of the cherry, does not
succeed in Egypt.

The Bosra of Theophrastus, mentioned as occurring in Egypt, may
be compared with the Frazinus ornus.—A tree, having a native
name, and well known in Egypt at the present day. Delile, met
with seeds, in the shops at Cairo.

The gAdvpca of Theophrastus and Dioscorides, according to the re-_
ceived opinion and the modern Greek usage, is the Phyllirea. The
xumpos Of Pliny and of the modern Greeks, may also be compared.—
The P. latifolia, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
foreign plants cultivated in the gardens of Cairo.

The oxry of ‘Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Sambucus nigra,—The 8. nigra, is
enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants long known
in Egypt.

The Arzgavdpsa dagvn of Theophrastus, or the ‘carpophyllon’ of Pliny,
is referred by Parkinson, to the Ruscus hypophyllum—This plant,
was found by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

The «x«us, mentioned by Theophrastus as a Leguminous tree, may be
compared with the Cerczs stiquastrum.—This plant, according to
Clot-Bey and Figari, is cultivated in the gardens at Cairo.

The edible caper, is in Egypt called ‘kabbar.’ The xarmaps of ‘Theo-
phrastus, Pliny, and Martial, may be compared.

The ayws of Theophrastus and Pliny, according to the received opi-
nion and the modern Greek usage, is the Velex agnus-castus.—The

392 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

genus Vitex, appears to be properly Tropical, and of course, foreign
originally to the Mediterranean countries. ‘The V. agnus-castus,
is enumerated by Forskal and others, among the garden plants of
Key pt.

The poduua of Theophrastus, is referred by Fee, to the Nerzum olean-
der: and according to the received opinion, and the modern Greek
usage, the podcdagvn of Dioscorides and Pliny, is the same plant.—
The oleander, is enumerated among the garden plants of Egypt;
and is said to abound in Syria in a seemingly wild state. The
plant, however, does not accord with the natural vegetation of the
Mediterranean countries: and I have seen it truly indigenous, on
the banks of the Godaveri, in the Dekkan.

The prrov Mydmov and Megs, described by Theophrastus as “having
thorns, and bearing at all seasons a fruit which is not eaten,” seems
to correspond with the sweet lemon, (Citrus Medica.) Dioscorides,
moreover, expressly states, that the fruit is oblong—That the sweet
lemon, preceded the other species of Citrus in the Mediterranean
countries, may even be inferred, from the cultivation of the plant
along the Persian Gulf.

According to the received opinion, the xpawa, mentioned by Theo-
phrastus as existing in Egypt, is the carob tree, (Ceratonia siliqua. )
Phiuy, states that this tree, is “found in Ionia and Syria, but not in
Iigypt.”’—And indeed, it is rare in the latter country at the present
day. The Ceratonia, has appeared to me, to be foreign to the
natural vegetation of the Mediterranean countries.

Pepper, (Piper nigrum,) is mentioned by ‘Theophrastus, and by
Pliny; the dried berry, being imported from India, or perhaps
originally, from the Malay countries.—I saw in the Thebaid, a
quantity of black pepper, that had been imported by the way of
Mecca.

Cardamum seeds, (Amomum cardamomum,) are mentioned by Theo-
phrastus, and by Pliny.—This spice, at the present day, is very
generally used in the Arab countries; and I met with a quantity,
that had been imported from India by the route of the Thebaid.
The avdpayvn of Theophrastus, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the purslazn, (Portulaca oleracea.) This
plant, is mentioned also by Pliny.—And is regularly cultivated in
Keypt at the present day. The genus Portulaca, has appeared to
me to be properly Tropical; and foreign to the natural vegetation
of the Mediterranean countries.

The “ black-fruited <puxvs,” of “Theophrastus, may be compared with

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 393

the Solanum nigrum.—This plant, has been found in EKeypt, by
Forskal, Delile, and others.*

The pera of Theocritus, according to Fee, is the wericropuaraw of Dios-
corides, the ‘apiastrum’ of Varro and Pliny, and the Melssa offici-
nalis.—Hasselquist, met with this plant, both in Palestine and in
Kgypt.

The ‘pomum’ of Cato (who ‘died B. c. 149’), and of Virgil, accord-
ing to the received opinion, is the apple, (Pyrus malus).—The
apple, appears to be a native of Europe: but it is commonly cul-
tivated in the Arab countries; notwithstanding the inferior quality
of the product.

The ‘rapum’ of Cato and Pliny, according to the received opinion, is
the durnip, (Brassica rapa): and according to the modern Greek
usage, the ‘bunias’ of Columella and Dioscorides, is the same
plant.—Various modern writers, speak of the cultivation of the
turnip, in Syria and Egypt.

The ‘scamoneum’ of Cato and Vegetius, according to the received
opinion, is the scammony.— Convolvulus scammonia, the plant
which affords this drug, was seen in Egypt by Hasselquist.

* The “red-fruited spuyvos” of Theophrastus, may be compared with the Solanum
dulcamara.—This plant, is figured by Mathioli; but I have not found it mentioned as
existing in Egypt.

The roswvia of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, according to the received opinion
and the modern Greek usage, is the garden peony.—I have not found this plant mentioned
as existing in Egypt.

Theophrastus, had heard of ‘red lilies;? and this, appears to be the earliest notice of
the Leium martagon.—Belon, met with the L. martagon at Constantinople. I have not
found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt.

The rapSeviov, enumerated among edible plants by Theophrastus, may be compared
with the Mercurialis ; a reference, favoured by the modern Greek usage ; as well as by
a statement of Cato,—Hasselquist, met with the M. annua, in Palestine: but I have found
no species of Mercurialis mentioned as existing in Egypt.

The pa or pyov, mentioned by ‘Theophrastus as brought from beyond the Bosphorus, is
by some writers, considered to be garden rhubarb, (Rheum raponticum).—The garden
rhubarb, is figured by Parkinson (a. p. 1640); but I have not found the plant mentioned
as existing in Egypt.

The AaraSov of ‘Theophrastus and Pliny, may be compared with the Rumez patientia.
—This plant, is still cultivated as an esculent in Europe; but I have not found it men-
tioned as existing in Egypt.

The tpayoroyuv of ‘Theophrastus and Pliny, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the salsif/y, (T. porrifolius).—I have not found this plant men-
tioned as existing in Egypt.

99

304 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Nicander (‘B. c. 137’), describes the pzstachto-nut, (Pistacia vera): and
Pliny states; That the plant, was brought from Syria into Italy a
little before the death of Tiberius, (‘4. p. 37’).—According to
Clot-Bey and Figari, the P. vera, is now commonly cultivated in
Egypt.

The ‘nasturtium’ of Varro and Columella, is usually referred to the
water-cress, (Nasturtium officinale). And according to the modern
Greek usage, the ciuySpiov erepov of Dioscorides, is the same plant.—
The water-cress, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants recently introduced into Keypt.

The ‘lutum’ of Virgil, (who died ‘B. c. 19’) is referred by Fee, to the
Reseda luteola—TVhe R. luteola, is enumerated by Forskal and
others, among the plants regularly cultivated, and used for dyeing
in Eeypt.

The Celtis australis, according to Fee, is mentioned by Virgil, Dios-
corides, Pliny, and Galen.—-Belon, met with the C. australis in
Syria; and according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the tree has been
recently introduced into the gardens of Cairo.

The ‘fraga’ of Virgil, according to the received opinion, is the stram-
berry, (Fragaria vesca). ‘The I*. vesca, is said to be mentioned by
Nicolas Myrepsicus (who lived in ‘the 13th century’), and under
the name now given to the plant in Greece.—The introduction of
the strawberry into Egypt, will be noticed hereafter.

The ‘eruca’ of Ovid, Columella, and Pliny, according to the received
opinion, is the Brassica eruca.—Alpinus and Forskal, enumerate
the B. eruca, among the cultivated plants of Keypt.

Rice (Oryza sativa), as a production of India, is mentioned by The-
ophrastus; and some centuries later, as appears from Horace,
Strabo, Dioscorides, and from the Jewish Mishna, the plant was
introduced into Syria and Egypt.

Certain Indian weeds, appear to have accompanied the culture of rice
into Ikeypt; and being inconspicuous plants, they may have been
overlooked by ancient writers. The plants alluded to, are, the
Sphenoclea; the Spheranthus ; a species of Grangea; the Eclpta
erecta; the Ethulia conyzoides ; the Jussiea diffusa; the Elatine

verticillata ; the Ammania auriculata and A. Avgyptiaca ; the Cy-
perus articulatus, C. alopecurus, and C. dives; and the Panicum ;

colonum ; all, found by Delile in the rice-grounds of Egypt.
Croton tinctorium, (a plant used for dyeing,) was possibly introduced
in like manner, with the culture of rice.—I met with the C. tincto-

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT 395

rium in the Thebaid, growing as a weed in cultivated ground; and
it occurs on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, as appears
from Camerarius and Forskal.

Dioscorides and Pliny, both mention the Prstza stratiotes ; an aquatic
plant, possibly introduced into Egypt with the culture of rice;
though more probably, derived without human intervention from
Equatorial Africa. The Pistia, was found in Sennaar by Cail-
haud.

‘Kolgas,’ is the current name of the Arum cultivated in Egypt, (C.
antiquorum). The ‘colocasia’ of Columella and Pliny, may be
compared. I did not meet with this plant; but it is considered
to be distinct from the C. esculenta.

The ‘caltha’ of Columella and Pliny, is referred by Fee, to the Calen-
dula officinahs.—This plant, according to Forskal and others, is
indigenous in Egypt; but Delile, met with it in gardens, at Alex-
andria,

The ‘cherophyllum’ of Columella, according to the received opinion,
is the Cherophyllum sativuum.—Forskal, met with this plant, in the
gardens of Cairo.

It has been suggested, that the ‘mustard-tree’ of the New Testament,
is the Salvadora Persica.—And there are reasons for suspecting, that
this Tropical tree, has been actually introduced into Egypt and Pa-
lestine; though there is some confusion respecting it, in the accounts
of writers.

We next arrive, at the writings of Dioscorides and of Pliny. And
the death of Pliny, on the occasion of the destruction of Herculaneum
and Pompeii, (‘A. D. 79,’) forms a convenient epoch, on account of the
direct evidence of seeds and fruits exhumed at those places. ‘These
seeds and fruits, are now in the Museum at Naples: but I have not
met with any published list of them.

The apvoyrs¢eov of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the Plantago major.—The P. major, is
enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of
Kigypt.

The soyyxos of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Sonchus oleraceus—The S. oleraceus,
is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of
Kigy pt.

The xamws of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the

396 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

modern Greek usage, is the Fumarva officnalis.—The F-. officinalis,
is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of
Egypt.

The adrxa of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion, is the
Malva alcea.—The M. alcea, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari,
among the plants indigenous to, or at least, long known in Egypt.

The Asxcgaxs of Dioscorides, and of writings attributed to Hippo-
crates, according to the received opinion and the modern Greek
usage, is the Sage, (Salvia).—The 8. officinalis, is enumerated by
Clot-Bey and I*igari, among the plants recently introduced into
Kigy pt.

The gxopdiov of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Tewcriwm scordium.—This plant, ac-
cording to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into
igypt.

The pogo of Dioscorides, is usually considered to be the Teucriwm ma-
rum.—According to Clot-Bey and Figari, this plant has been re-
cently introduced into Egypt.

The gdovsos of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion, is the
genus Verbascum.—The V. sinuatum, is enumerated by Clot-Bey
and Figari, among the plants imdigenous to, or at least, long known
in Egypt.

The rorvyoww of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Polygonum aviculare—This plant, was
found in Egypt by Delile.

The irmorarasov and ogAara3v of Dioscorides, according to the received
opinion and the modern Greek usage, are species of Dock, (Rumex).
—According to Forskal, the R. obtusifolius, has a native name in
Keypt.

The cas of Dioscorides, according to the modern Greek usage, is the
cultivated sorre/, (Rumex acetosa).—This plant, according to Clot-
Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into Eeypt.—The R.
acetosella, however, was found by Hasselquist at Damietta.

The «agwn of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Partetaria officinalis.—The P. offici-
nalis, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants indi-
genous to, or at least, long known in Egypt.

The ergy xcauecrcos of Dioscorides, according to the use of the term by
the modern Greeks, is the Convolvulus arvensis ——The C. arvensis,
is enumerated by Delile, among the weeds of Egypt.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 397

The serd0¢ of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Luphorbia peplus—The KE. peplus, is
enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of
Eeypt.

The dadvps of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Luphorbia lathyris.—This plant, ac-
cording to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently introduced into
Rigypt.

The aziZv usxpv of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion, is the
genus Seduwm.—Forskal, met with a species of Sedum, in the gar-
dens of Cairo.

The Bovgdaryos of Dioscorides, is usually referred to the Chrysanthemum
segetum.—F orskal, met with this plant in Egypt.

The rapéeviov of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and the
modern Greek usage, is the Matricaria chamomilla.—This plant,
was found by Hasselquist, both in Palestine and in Egypt.

The rg8or0s of Dioscorides, according to the use of the term by the
modern Greeks, is the Centaurea calcitrapa.—F orskal and others,
have met with this plant in Egypt; where, however, it is possibly
indigenous.

The Bowyrucov of Dioscorides, according to the received opinion and
the modern Greek usage, is the Anchusa officinats.—The A. offici-
nalis, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants re-
cently introduced into Egypt.

The ayxouce of Dioscorides, described as “staining the hands,” may
be compared with the Echtum rubrum.—A plant, found by Forskal
at Alexandria; but which, is possibly indigenous.

The erposzaAwov of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the received opi-
nion and the modern Greek usage, is the parsley, (Petroselinum
sativum).—The parsley, is enumerated by Forskal and_ others,
among the plants cultivated at the present day in Egypt.

The x«pss of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the received opinion,
is the caraway, (Carum carvi).—A plant, at the present day, com-
monly cultivated in Egypt.

The owiraé xnroia of Dioscorides, is usually considered to be the Azdney-
bean, (Phaseolus vulgaris).—This plant is figured, by both Ma-
thioli and Dodoneus. And De Soto, (a. dD. 1542), in speaking of
the “kidney-beans cultivated by the aboriginals of Florida,” alludes
to those of Spain. Forskal, is the only writer I have met with,
who mentions the presence of the P. vulgaris in Egypt.

100

398 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The yavxuppZa of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the received
opinion, 1s the “guorice, (Glycyrhiza glabra).—Forskal and other
modern travellers, have met with this plant under cultivation in
Eeypt.

The xoAx«v of Dioscorides, is usually considered to be the Colchicum
autumnale.—The C. autumnale, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and
Figari, among the plants indigenous to, or at least, long known in
Kigypt.

The «pos of the modern Greeks, appears to be either the Phyllirea or
the Ligustrum vulgare: and I have been unable to trace the latter
plant to Egypt. On the other hand, the account by Dioscorides of
the Egyptian «=p, the “ bruised leaves of which redden the hair,”
corresponds in many respects with the henna, (Lawsonia). I have
not found the use of henna, represented on the Kgyptian monu-
ments: but some of the mummies, are said to have their nails
stained with this substance.

The Ricinus, or castor-oil plant, is distinctly described by Dioscorides;
and is spoken of by Pliny, as a plant not long known in Egypt.
It was doubtless brought from India, or perhaps, originally, from
the Malay countries.

The adrmaxaSos of Dioscorides and Pliny, according to the received
opinion and the modern Greek usage, is a species of Physals.
Pliny moreover, mentions the plant as existing in Egypt.—The P.
somnifera, bas been found in Egypt, by Forskal, Delile, and other
modern travellers.

The «07 of Dioscorides and Pliny, is evidently the aloe plant. The
drug obtained from this plant, is also mentioned; and as “impor-
ted from India ;” though doubtless, originally derived from Socotra
and the Somali country.—Forskal, Delile, and others, have seen
living plants of the A. vulgaris, in the gardens of Cairo.

Dioscorides and Pliny, both mention the ginger; referring to the dried
root, imported from India, or possibly from the Comoro Islands.—
In reference to the latter place of origin, the following statement of
Cailliaud, may be compared: That ginger, “is rare at Quamamil
(on the Bahr el Abaid), is called by the Negroes ‘zymbane,’ and
comes principally from Abyssinia.”

Pliny, speaks of a sensitive plant, as existing in Egypt: doubtless,
exotic, and probably derived from India.

The ‘sebesten’ of Pliny, is usually considered to be the Cordia cre-

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 399

nata.—This is another Tropical plant, introduced into, and still cul-
tivated, in Syria and Egypt.

The peach, (Amygdalus Persica,) is not mentioned by Vireil; but a
century later, we find this fruit well known in Italy; and it is
figured, in the Herculaneum paintings. Pliny, mentions the peach
as existing in Hgeypt.—Where, at the present day, it is commonly
cultivated.

The apricot, (Prunus Armeniaca,) is at the present day, a favourite
object of cultivation in the Arab countries; and is called ‘ mish-
mish.’ ‘The myxa of Pliny, may be compared.

The ‘gariophyllon’ of Pliny, according to the use of the term by the
modern Greeks, is the Carnation, Dianthus caryophyllus.—A favour-
ite ornamental plant, and frequently kept in pots, by the Arabs at
the present day.

Sugar, is mentioned by Pliny and Galen; but only as “a production
of Arabia and India.” ‘The living plant, or the Swgar-cane, does
not appear to have been introduced into Egypt, until a more recent
period.*

5. The Time of the Karly Christians ; or the Coptic Period.

Eeypt, seems to have been the first country, that embraced Chris-
tianity ; but even here, the progress of the new religion was gradual ;
and the converts, had not acquired much influence by their numbers,
prior to a.p. 100. A date, which may be conveniently assumed, as
the commencement of the period under consideration.

Egypt, now no longer offers temples reared by princes: yet some
constructions of the early Christians, abundantly prove, that architec-
tural taste had not become extinct. While remains of their villages
in the Thebaid, show more refinement in the style of living, than

* The ‘siser’ of Varro and Columella, is usually considered to be the skirret, (Sium
sisarum).—This plant, is abundantly cultivated in Europe at the present day; but I have
not found it mentioned as existing in Egypt.

The ‘inula’ of Pliny, (the art of cooking which, is said to have been taught by Horace,)
is considered to be the e/ecampane, (Inula helenium).—Belon, speaks of the root of the I.
helenium, being prepared for the table at Constantinople, [ have not found the plant
mentioned as existing in Egypt.

The ‘amarantus’ of Pliny, is referred by some writers, to the Ce/osia cristata.—I have
not found this plant mentioned, as existing in Heypt.

400 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

exists among the present occupants of the country. Another point
of interest, is found in the fact; that the early Christians, did not
destroy the antiquities.

Both Virgil and Pliny, speak of silk; and thus reveal, the dawn-
ing of intercourse with China. A little later, (‘a. p. 130’), Ptolemy
the geographer, gives a distinct notice of the Chinese, under the
name of Seres. ‘The deposit of articles of Chinese manufacture in
the Egyptian tombs, is probably not more ancient: and the same may
be said, of the accompanying eye-paint bottles, manufactured on the
Persian Gulf.

The Emperor Heliogabalus (‘a. D. 229’), is said to have been “the
first Roman who wore a dress of silk.’? And it is also on record,
that the sek-worm, was introduced into the Mediterranean coun-
tries, in ‘A. D. 551.’

The silk-worm, was of course, accompanied by the white mulberry,
(Morus alba). Indeed, Pliny, when remarking, “that all berries
in the end turn black,” would not have instanced the mulberry,
had he been acquainted with the M. alba.—The white mulberry, is
now common in Heypt.

Cocculus Indicus, the imported article, seems to be mentioned by
Areteus, (who is supposed to have lived prior to a. D. 420).

Cloves, are mentioned by Paulus Avgineta; brought of course, in the
dried state, from the Molucca Islands.—I saw, in Egypt, a quan-
tity of cloves, that had been imported by the way of Mecca and
the ‘Thebaid.

Nutmegs, vooxoxapva, another production of the Moluccas; were proba-
bly imported into the Mediterranean countries, as early as the
Coptic Period.

The ove of Actuarius, is doubtless the senna of commerce. According
to Wilkinson, leaves and fragments of senna, have been found in
ancient Keyptian tombs. ‘The species, is not mentioned; but
Cassia lanceolata, furnished all the senna I saw in the warehouses
of Mocha and Muscat.

The Cassia obovata, which furnishes a portion of the senna of com-
merce, is figured by Mathioli. I saw this plant in the Botanic
Garden at Cairo, and also seemingly indigenous near Suez; which
place, however, is on a caravan route. Forskal, met with the C.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. AO1

obovata in the desert near Cairo, and gives ‘senna of the Hedjaz’
as its Egyptian name.

The medicinal rhubarb, seems to be mentioned by Paulus Aigineta ;
the drug, being probably imported by the caravans through the
interior of Asia. Barthema, or Vertoman, (a. D. 1503,) speaks of
rhubarb being sold at Korasan.

I have not found figures of the dowrra (Sorghum vulgare), on the
Egyptian monuments; but I have seen dourra stems, intermingled
with those of the Papyrus, in a parcel exhumed at Saccara; possi-
bly as ancient as the time of the Romans. According to Delile,
the dourra, is mentioned by Heliodorus, in his account of Meroe.

Dodoneus, figures the Cotz lachryma. Forskal, found this plant in
Egypt; where it bears a Coptic name having a Scriptural allusion,
(‘dima ayoub’); and this circumstance, seems to indicate, that the
plant was known to the early Christians. The Coix lachryma, is
a Tropical production, derived from India; or perhaps, originally
from the Malay countries.

The banana (Musa sapientum), is mentioned by Serapio, Avicenna,
Leo Africanus, and according to Kasimirski, in the Koran. In the
Voyage of a Portuguese pilot (who set out a. D. 1520), the banana
is inentioned, as occurring both at Alexandria and at St. Thomas in
the Gulf of Guinea. ‘The banana, ripens its fruit freely at Alexan-
dria; and I am informed, that it does so, in certain situations, even
in the Azores. I have seen the plant growing in the open air, both
at Madeira and at Malta.

According to Kasimirski, the tamarind, is mentioned in the Koran,
(xxxiv, 15). Cailliaud states, that tamarind pods, are imported in
quantities by the Darfour caravans. And it appears from various
authorities, that the tree itself, has been repeatedly introduced into
Egypt.

6. The Early Mushm Period.

The Muslims, obtained possession of Alexandria, in A. D. 641 ;
and for nearly a thousand years Eeypt, was in a good measure
withdrawn from the knowledge of Huropeans. Indeed, Europe,
during the greater part of this same period, does not afford us much
light respecting her own condition. While amid the general dearth

101

402 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

of writers, an occasional picture of the times, may be gathered from
the works of Arab-Keyptians.

The origin of the so-called ‘Gothic style of architecture,’ is rather
suspiciously connected with the entrance of the Arabs into Spain.
But leaving this question, the proper Muslim constructions, are
everywhere of one character; and may be recognised, by the dome
and the pointed arch. Muslim constructions, some of them very
early, are numerous in Egypt; but owing to the absence of repre-
sentations of living objects, they hardly afford aid in our present in-
quiry.

The establishment of the pilgrimage to Mecca, doubtless tended to
draw closer the commercial relations between India and Europe;
and these relations, it should be observed, were entirely ia the hands
of the Muslims. Indeed, after allowing for some slight divergence
on account of Palestine and the route of the Euphrates; all the Tro-
pical plants, which reached the Mediterranean prior to the discovery
of America, appear to have arrived by the way of HKeypt.

The duffalo of India, is the most important domestic animal, intro-
duced during the early Muslim Period. ‘The buffalo, is mentioned
by Allatafet (a. p. 1453); and the animal, is at the present day
extremely common in Egypt.

Avicenna (about a. p. 1050), speaks of ‘Makassar,’ on the island of
Celebes; and likewise of camphor ; an article of commerce, princi-
pally derived from China. According to Clot-Bey and Figari, the
camphor-tree, (Laurus camphora,) has been recently introduced
into Egypt.

The common cucumber (Cucumis sativus), 1s in Egypt called ‘khyar;’
and under this name, is mentioned by Avicenna. The plant, ap-
pears to have been derived from Hindoostan.

The sandalwood (Santalum album) is mentioned by Arab-Egyptian
writers. And the living plant, according to Clot-Bey and Figari,
has been recently introduced into Egypt.

Turmeric (Curcuma), was probably known in Egypt as an article of
commerce, during the early Muslim Period.

Gum-lac, from Pegu; seems likewise to have been known in Heypt
during the early Muslim Period.

Uvaria aromatica. ‘he dried fruit, is mentioned by Lobel, Mathiolli,
and Delile, as brought down the Nile from the Interior of Africa.

|

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 403

The Coffea, or coffee-plant, (which grows wild in the region south-
west of Abyssinia,) is said to have been introduced into Yemen
during the thirteenth century. According to Lane, coffee, did not
form an article of import into Egypt, until about a. p. 1500. Alpi-
nus, met with the coffee-plant in the gardens of Egypt; and re-
cently, it has been again introduced, as appears from a statement
of Clot-Bey and Figari.

Cocoa-nuts, are mentioned by Serapio and Avicenna. I saw in Egypt,
a quantity of cocoa-nuts, that had been imported by the route of the
Thebaid.

The pea-nut (Arachis hypogea), was probably known in Egypt during
the time of the early Muslims. ‘The plant, is mentioned in the work
of Purchas (A. D. 1620), as cultivated in Equatorial Africa.

The Spinach (Spinacia oleracea), is figured by Mathioli; and is said
to be mentioned by Serapio. Alpinus, Forskal, and others, enu-
merate the spinach among the esculent plants of Egypt.

Chenopodium. C. album, C. rubrum, and C. flavum, were found in
Egypt, by Forskal.

Corchorus olitorius, is mentioned by Allatafet (a. p. 1453); and at the
present day, is a favourite esculent in Eeypt.

The ochra (Hibiscus esculentus), was probably cultivated in Keypt
during the early Muslim Period. ‘The plant, is mentioned by Ma-
thiol; and under its Egyptian name, ‘ bamia.’

The egg-plant (Solanum melongena), is mentioned by Avicenna; and
under its current Egyptian name. It is besides enumerated by
Makrizi (in the beginning of the fifteenth century), among the
plants cultivated in Nubia.

The ime (Citrus limonium), was probably introduced into Egypt
during the early Muslim Period. Belon (a. p. 1553), met with
the plant at Cairo; and it is figured, by Parkinson.

The lemon, is enumerated by Makrizi, among the plants cultivated in
Nubia. Lemons, are mentioned among the productions of Abys-
sinia, by Alvarez, who visited that country in a. p. 1520. And
Barthema or Vertoman, (A. D. 1503), found lemons in Yemen.

The orange (Citrus aurantium), is said to have been made known to
Europeans by the Crusaders. Cademosto, in his Voyage to Ma-
deira, (A. D. 1454,) mentions oranges; and Vertoman, found them in
Yemen. According to Abd Allatif, “seeds of the orange and lemon,
were brought from India in the three hundredth year of the Hegira,
and were sown in Oman.”

404 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

The Mela azedarach, is figured by Mathioli. And according to Clot-
Bey and Figari, the tree has been long known in Egypt.

The Acacia lebbek, so abundant in the gardens at Cairo, was perhaps
introduced during the early Muslim Period. The plant, is men-
tioned by Forskal (a. D. 1762).

The weeping-millow (Salix Babylonica), likewise common in the gar-
dens at Cairo, was perhaps introduced during the early Muslim
Period. 'The tree, was seen in Egypt by Forskal; and in Pales-
tine, by Rauwolf.

The yrvxoxorapos of Nicolaus Myrepsicus, according to the use of the
term by the modern Greeks, is Cassza fistula. 'This tree, is figured
by Belon; and it is now common in the gardens of Cairo. The
pods, besides, form an article of import by way of Yemen.

Tamariz? Orientals, is mentioned by Forskal; and I repeatedly met
with it planted around the Egyptian villages. It is a large tree,
resembling a Casuarina.

Pinus Halepensis, was seen by Delile in a garden at Cairo; and ac-
cording to Clot-Bey and Figari, the tree has been long known in
Egy pt.

Cucurlita polymorpha, the cymling or squash, was perhaps known in
the Mediterranean countries, during the early Muslim Period.
Clot-Bey and Figari, mention the cultivation of the C. polymorpha
in Keypt.

Cucurbita pepo, the pumpkin, was probably known in Egypt during
the early Muslim Period. ‘The plant, is figured by Mathioli. And
De Soto (a. p. 1542), states, that the pumpkins and kidney beans
cultivated by the aboriginals of Florida, “are larger and better than
those of Spain.”

Adansoma digitata; the fruit, according to Alpinus and others, is
brought into Keypt from the Interior of Africa.

Althea ficifolia, was seen by Delile in the gardens of Cairo.

Lavatera arborea, was seen by Delile in the gardens of Alexandria.

Hibiscus Syriacus, is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others,
among the garden plants of Keypt.

Mibiscus trionum, a Tropical weed, was found in Egypt by Forskal,
and also by Delile. The plant, is figured, by both Mathioli and
Parkinson.

Mathioli, figures the Cardiospermum helicacabum. 'This plant, was
found by Delile in the gardens of Cairo; and by Cailliaud, in
Dongola.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 405

Seeds of the Croton tigltum, according to Delile, are sold in the shops
of Cairo.

Seeds of the Sapindus ryteh, according to Delile, are sold in the shops
of Cairo.

Seeds of a species of Chameriphis, according to Delile, are sold in the
shops of Cairo.

Seeds of the Datisca cannabina, according to Delile, are sold in the
shops of Cairo.

Seeds of the Plantago psyllium, according to Delile, are sold in the
shops of Cairo.

Seeds of the Rhus coriaria, according to Delile, are sold in the shops
of Cairo.

Seeds of the Amomum grana-paradist, according to Delile, are sold in
the shops of Cairo.

Seeds of the Abrus precatorius, according to Alpinus and Hasselquist,
have been sometimes planted in Egypt.

The balsam-apple, Momordica balsamina, to all appearance, is men-
tioned by Avicenna and Abd Allatif. The plant, was seen by Delile,
in the gardens of Cairo.

Momordica pedata, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

The introduction of the Sesbania, into Egypt, probably took place
during the time of the early Muslims. The plant, is mentioned
by Alpinus, Forskal, and others.

Solanum pseudocapsicum, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

Capsicum annuum, is figured by Mathioli; and is enumerated by
Forskal and others, among the plants cultivated in Egypt.

Datura metel, was seen in Crete, by Belon (a. p. 1553). The plant,
is figured by Mathioli; and its introduction into Egypt, is probably
as ancient as the time of the early Muslims—D. fastwosa, by
some writers considered as only a variety, was seen in Egypt by
Delile.

Canna Indica, is figured by Camerarius (a. D. 1586); and is enume-
rated by Iorskal, Delile, and others, among the garden plants of
Egypt.

Narcissus jonquilla, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
garden plants of Egypt.

A species of Pancratium, was seen by Hasselquist, and also by For-
skal, in the gardens of Egypt.

Polyanthes tuberosa, according to Forskal and others, has a native
name, and is a common garden plant in Keypt.

102

A06 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Muscart comosum, was observed by Delile, growing seemingly wild in
Egy pt.

Cynodon dactylon, occurs in Egypt, according to Forskal, Delile and
others; and if not regularly cultivated, it is at least, used to some
extent, for feeding cattle.

Dactyloctenium Atgyptiacum, is figured by Parkinson; and is men-
tioned by Alpinus and others, as existing in Egypt. This grass,
together with the preceding, was probably derived from India.

Crypsis schenoides, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Crypsis aculeata, is figured by Mathioli: and Delile, met with the
plant in Egypt. |

Crypsis alopecuroides, was seen in Egypt, by Delile. |

Setaria viridis, is enumerated by Delile, among the weeds of Egypt.

Setaria verticillata, is enumerated by Delile, among the weeds of
Heypt.

LEchinocloa crus-gall, is figured by Mathioli: and the plant occurs in
Egypt, according to Forskal, Delile, and others.

Digitaria sanguinale, was seen in Egypt by Hasselquist, and also by
Delile.

Phalaris Canariensis, occurs in Egypt, according to Hasselquist,
Forskal, and others.

Lolium perenne, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Lolium temulentum, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Hordeum murinum, was seen in Keypt, by Hasselquist.

Impatiens balsamina, is figured by Mathioli; and is enumerated by
Clot-Bey and Figari, among the garden plants of Egypt.

Euphorbia tirucalh, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

Euphoria calendulifolia (of Delile), according to Clot-Bey and Figari,
occurs only in the Pasha’s gardens.

Mogorium sambac, is figured by Parkinson; and is enumerated by
Forskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt.

Jasminum officinale, has a native name, and is enumerated by Forskal
and others, among the garden plants of Egypt. The genus Jas-
minum, appears to be properly Tropical; and of course, foreign
originally to the Mediterranean countries.

Kalanchoe Aigyptiaca, has a native name, and is enumerated by For-
skal and others, among the garden plants of Hgypt.

Convolvulus Catrius, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the garden plants of Egypt. .

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. AO7

Cuscuta Europea, is enumerated by Delile, among the weeds of
Egypt.

Cynanchum viminale, was seen in Egypt, by Alpinus.

Vinca rosea, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the garden
plants of Egypt.

Lepidium latifolium, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants long known in Egypt.

Cheiranthus annuus, has a native name, and is enumerated by Forskal
and others, among the garden plants of Egypt.

Ranunculus Asiaticus, has a native name, and is enumerated by Clot-
Bey and Figari, among the garden plants of Egypt.

Ranunculus sceleratus, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Nigella damascena, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and I"igari, among the
plants long known in Egypt.

Adonis estivalis, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Ruta Halepensis, is enumerated by Delile and others, among the gar-
den plants of Egypt.

Ammi majus, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants
indigenous to, or at least, long known in EKeypt.

Ammi visnaga, is enumerated by Alpimus and others, among the
plants of Egypt.

Artemisia dracunculus, the taragon, was seen growing in Egypt, by
Hasselquist.

Artemisia arborescens, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Egypt.

Artemisia Judaica, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants indigenous to, or at least, long known in Egypt.

Balsamita vulgaris, is enumerated by Forskal and others, among the
garden plants of Kgypt.

Conyza odora, according to Forskal and others, occurs in the gardens
of Eeypt.

Cnicus benedictus, is figured by Mathioli: and the plant was seen in
Keypt, by Hasselquist.

Carduus marianus, was seen by Belon, at Constantinople: and For-
skal and others, have met with the plant in Egypt.

Centaurea moschata, was seen by Forskal, in the gardens of Cairo.

Anthemis grandiflora, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the garden plants of Keypt.

Senecio vulgaris, according to Delile, has been observed in the vicinity
of Damietta.

408 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Xanthium strumarium, is figured by Mathioli; and is enumerated by
Forskal, Delile, and others, among the plants of Egypt.

Psoralea Palestina, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

Phaseolus mungo, according to Delile and others, is cultivated in
Upper Egypt and Nubia.

Dolichos lablab, according to Alpinus, Forskal and others, is cultivated
for ornament in Egypt and Nubia.

Trifolium procumbens, was seen in Egypt, by Hasselquist.

Cassia Occidentalis, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

Cassia absus, 1s enumerated by Alpinus, Hasselquist, Delile, and
others, among the plants cultivated in Egypt.

Cassia sophera, according to Delile, has a native name, and is culti-
vated in the gardens of Cairo.

Rubus fructicosus, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Potentilla supina, was seen in Keypt, by Delile.

Urtica dioica, is enumerated by Hasselquist, and also by Clot-Bey
and Figari, among the plants of Egypt.

Urtica urens, is enumerated by Delile and others, among the weeds of
Hieypt.

Urtica pilulifera, occurs in Kgypt, according to Delile and others.

Veronica beccabunga, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the plants indigenous to, or at least, long known in Egypt.

Veronica anagallis, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Lamium amplexicaule, according to Delile, occurs in the cultivated
grounds of Egypt.

Teucrium Iva, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Verbena officinalis, is mentioned by Belon, and is figured by Mathiol1.
The plant, is common in the waste grounds of Egypt; but the
genus, does not well accord with the natural vegetation of the
Mediterranean countries.

Verbena supina, occurs in Eeypt, according to Forskal, and Delile.

Zapania nodiflora, occurs in Egypt, according to Delile and others.

Arenaria rubra, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Stellaria media, is enumerated by Hasselquist, Forskal, Delile, and
others, among the weeds of Egypt.

Oxalhs corniculata, is figured by Mathioli; and is enumerated by For-
skal, Delile, and others, among the weeds of Egypt.

Hibiscus abelmoschus, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.

Sida spinosa, was seen in Keypt, by Delile.

Sida mutica, was observed by Delile, in the gardens of Egypt.

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 409

Polygonum persicaria, is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others,
among the plants of Egypt.

Polygonum orientale, was seen in Egypt, by Delile.

Cissus rotundifolia, was seen by Delile, in the gardens of Cairo.
Achyranthes argentea, was seen by Hasselquist, in Palestine; and the
plant, according to Forskal, Delile, and others, occurs in Egypt.
Aerva tomentosa, was seen by Delile, in Upper Egypt, and also in the

gardens of Cairo.

Gomphrena globosa, is enumerated by Forskal and others, among the
garden plants of Egypt.

Syringa vulgaris, the lilac, according to Mathioli, was brought into
Italy, from Constantinople. Parkinson, supposes the ‘blue jas-
mine’ of Serapio, to be the lilac; and quotes Alpinus; but I do
not find the plant otherwise mentioned as existing in Egypt.

The hop (Humulus lupulus), is said to have been cultivated in Ger-
many during the Ninth Century. Belon, met with the hop, at
Constantinople; and according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the plant,
has been recently introduced into Egypt.*

7. The Modern Muslim Period.

The Voyage of Columbus, took place in a. p. 1492; and from this
date, Egypt ceased to be the main or only route, through which foreign

* Diospyrus lotus, is figured by Mathioli. The plant, perhaps reached Europe during
the early Muslim Period: but I do not find it mentioned as existing in Egypt.

Calystegia sepium, is figured by Mathioli. I have not found the plant mentioned as
existing in Egypt.

Ribes. 1 do not find currants, nor gooseberries, mentioned as existing in Egypt.

Polygonum fagopyrum. Mathioli, speaks of the cultivation of buckwheat in Italy. I
have not found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt.

Pastinaca sativa, the parsnip, is figured by Mathioli. I have not found the plant
mentioned as existing in Egypt.

Cochlearia armoracia, the horse-radish, is figured by Mathioli. This, too, is a North-
ern plant; which I have not found mentioned as existing in Syria or Egypt. Belon,
however, met with it at Constantinople.

Tulipa Gesneriana, the tulip of the gardens, is figured by Camerarius. I have not
found the plant mentioned as existing in Egypt.

Althea rosea, is figured by Mathioli. I have not found the plant mentioned as exist-
ing in Egypt.

Sida abutilon, is figured by Camerarius. I do not find the plant mentioned as exist-
ing in Mgypt.

103

eh i te
.

410 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

animals and plants were transmitted to Europe. In the midst, how-
ever, of the general change, the influence of the new order of things,
appears to have very slowly affected the valley of the Nile.

Among domestic animals, the most important modern acquisition, is
that of the turkey. In Egypt, the turkey is sometimes called, the
‘Maltese fowl;’ a circumstance, indicating, that the bird was re-
ceived by the way of Malta.

Anona squamosa, according to Forskal, Delile, and Clot-Bey and
Figari, is successfully cultivated in Keypt.*

Vachelha Farnesiana, is figured by Parkinson ; and is enumerated by
Clot-Bey and Figari, among the plants long known in Heypt.

Thuya Occidentalis, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now culti-
vated in Egypt.

Celtis Occidentalis, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now culti-
vated in Egypt.

Terminala ; two species, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, have been
recently introduced, and are successfully cultivated in Egypt.

Sterculia platantfola, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now culti-
vated in Kigypt.

Acer negundo, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now cultivated in
Kgypt.

Robinia pseudacacia, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now culti-
vated in Egypt.

Gleditschia triacantha, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now cul-
tivated in Kigypt.

Bignonia catalpa, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now cultivated
in the gardens of Egypt.

Opuntia. Mathioli expressly states, That the cactus, was brought in
his time from the West Indies. The plant, is now common in
Kigypt.

Bromelia ananas, the pine-apple, according to Hasselquist, formerly
existed at Damietta. And Clot-Bey and Figari state, that the cul-
tivation of this fruit, does not succeed in Egypt.

Fragaria. The strawberry, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has
been recently introduced into Egypt. The species, is probably

* Aasculus hippocastanum, the horse-chestnut, was brought to Mathioli from Constan-
tinople ; and Clusius also, speaks of the plant, a novelty in Europe. I have not found
the horse-chestnut mentioned as existing in Egypt.

——_

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. All

the North American; which, I believe, furnishes the most ap-
proved garden varieties.

Psidium. The guava, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been
recently introduced, and is successfully cultivated in Egypt.

Carica papaya, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently
introduced, and is successfully cultivated in Egypt. The plant, is
figured by Parkinson; who received it from Brazil.

Bambusa arundinacea, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been
introduced, and is successfully cultivated in Egypt. Herodotus,
mentions the bamboo; but only as a production of India.

Strychnos nuz-vomica. The living plant, according to Clot-Bey and
Figari, has been recently introduced into Egypt. Delile, met with
seeds, in the shops of Cairo.

Vanilla aromatica. ‘The living plant, according to Clot-Bey and Fi--
garil, has been recently introduced, and has been found to thrive in
Egypt.

Thaha dealbata, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently
introduced into Egypt from the Montpellier Garden.

Phytolacca decandra, was found naturalized in Egypt, by Forskal.
Delile also, met with the plant in the gardens of Cairo.

Phytolacca dioica, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently
introduced into Keypt.

Zea mays. Whether the maize, was introduced into Egypt from the
East or from the West, I have met with no evidence, that the
plant existed in that country prior to the discovery of America.
And indeed, Rhamnusis (a. p. 1532), expressly states; that the
‘maize, was first seen in Italy in his time.”

Apium dulce. I have met with no evidence, that the true celery of
the gardens, was known in Europe prior to the discovery of Ame-
rica. ‘The plant, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is cultivated
in the Pasha’s gardens at Cairo.

Convolvulus batatas, the sweet-potato, was seen by Hasselquist, in
Palestine: and according to Clot-Bey and Figari, the plant has
been recently introduced into Egypt.

Solanum tuberosum, the common potato, according to Clot-Bey and
Figari, is sometimes cultivated in Higypt.

Lycopersicum esculentum, the tomato of Peru, is figured by Camera-
rius; and the plant, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is now abun-
dantly cultivated in Ligypt.

412 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Physalis alkekengi, is figured by Mathioli. And according to Clot-
Bey and Figari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt.

Cleome pentaphylla, according to Cailliaud, is cultivated as an escu-
lent in Dongola. Clot-Bey and Figari, enumerate the C. penta-
phylla, among the plants employed in Egypt for feeding cattle.

Urtica nivea, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been recently in-
troduced from the Montpellier Garden, and is successfully culti-
vated in Egypt.

Phormium tenax, the New Zealand flax, according to Clot-Bey and
Figari, has been recently introduced into Egypt from the Montpel-
lier Garden.

Polygonum bistorta, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Polygonum tinctorium, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has been
recently introduced into Heypt from the Montpellier Garden.

Helianthus annuus, is figured by Mathioli; and is enumerated by
Forskal and others, among the garden plants of Egypt.

Nicotiana tabacum, is figured by Camerarius. ‘Tobacco, according to
Lane, was introduced into the East, about a.p. 1600. Itis a re-
markable circumstance, that the peculiarity in the customs of society
which more than any other marks the present age, should have been
taught by the aboriginals of America.

Nicotiana rustica, is figured by Mathioli. According to Delile and
others, this and the preceding species of Nicotiana, are cultivated
in Keypt.

Lantana camara, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is cultivated in
the gardens of Egypt.

Aloysia citriodora, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is cultivated in
the gardens of Egypt.

Tropeolum majus, according to Delile and others, is cultivated in the
gardens of Kgypt.

Dahlia pinnata, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, was introduced
by the French into Egypt.

Pelargonium zonale, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the garden plants of Egypt.

Pelargonium capitatum, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the garden plants of Egypt.

Passiflora cerulea, is enumerated by Forskal, Delile, and others,
among the garden plants of Egypt.

Poinciana pulcherrima, is now frequent in the gardens of Cairo. The

.
7
.
(
A

INTRODUCED PLANTS OF EGYPT. 413

plant, is mentioned by Clot-Bey and Figari: and it was probably
derived from India.

Mirabilis Jalapa, is enumerated by Hasselquist, Forskal, and others,
among the garden plants of Egypt. The name ‘yimani,’ indi-
cates, that the plant was received by the way of Yemen.

Yucca aloifolia, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, is cultivated by
the European residents in Egypt.

Acanthus mollis, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Asclepias procera (Calotropis). I met with this plant, in the Botanic
Garden at Cairo; and also wild, in the desert of the Thebaid.

Asclepias fruticosa (Gomphocarpus), is enumerated by Delile, and
also by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the garden plants of Keypt.

Saponaria officinalis, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Spilanthes acmella, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Tanacetum vulgare, the tansy, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari,
among the plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Cacalia Kleini, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
garden plants of Egypt.

Tagetes erecta, is figured by both Dodonzus and Mathioli; and is enu-
merated by Forskal, Delile, and others, among the garden plants of
Kigy pt.

Achillea millefohum, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Anthemis nobilis, the chamomile, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Fi-
gari, among the plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Centaurea cyanus, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Cochlearia officinahs, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the plants recently introduced into Keypt.

Cynoglossum officinale, was found in Palestine by Hasselquist. Ac-
cording to Clot-Bey and Figari, the plant has been recently intro-
duced into Egypt.

Borago officinalis, according to Forskal and others, occurs in the gar-
dens of Cairo.

Ligusticum Peloponense, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the plants recently introduced into Evypt.

104

414 PHYSICAL HISTORY OF MAN.

Galega officinalis, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among the
plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Melilotus caerulea, is figured by Mathioli; and according to Clot-Bey
and Figari, the plant has been recently introduced into Egypt.

Onobrychis sativa, the sainfoin, according to Clot-Bey and Figari, has
been recently introduced into Egypt.

Dracocephalum Moldavicum, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari,
among the plants recently introduced into Egypt.

Mentha rotundifoha, is enumerated by Clot-Bey and Figari, among
the plants recently introduced into Keypt.

Plectranthus crassifolia, was observed by Delile, in a green-house at
Cairo.

Dioscorea sativa? The yam, according to Alpinus, Hasselquist, and
others, has been sometimes planted in Egypt.

Brugmansia candida, according to Graham, was introduced by the
way of Egypt into Bombay, in a. p. 18387.

INDEX.

Ababdeh, of the Desert of the Thebaid, 205,

Abd Allatif, quoted, 403.

Abies picea, 374.

Aboriginals of Zanzibar, 191.

Abrus precatorius, 319, 324, 326, 341, 361,
405.

Absinth, see Artemisia absinthium.

Abutilon, see Sida.

Abyssinia, account of, by a native of East
Africa, 214.—Table-land of Abyssinia,
301.

Abyssinian race, 221.—Figured on the
Egyptian monuments, 224.

Abyssinians, at Singapore, 180, 221.—
Rarely seen in Egypt, 204, 221.—Abys-
sinians at Zanzibar, 222.—Abyssinians
at Mocha, 222.

Acacia, 319, 326.

Nilotica, 378, 347, 361.
seyal, and A. gummifera, 378.
lebbek, 404.

Acacia? 352.

Acalypha Caroliniana, 322, 329,

Acanthus mollis, 413.

Acapulco, natives of the vicinity, 112.

Acer campestre, 390.

platanus, and A, platanoides, 382,
negundo, 410,
Achillea millefolium, 413.
Achyranthes aspera, 320, 328, 364,
argentea, 409.

Acorns, used for food by the Californian
tribes, 103, 108, 109, 110.

Adansonia, 345, 360, 404,

Aden, visited, 208, 284, 241, 251, 255.—
Diversity of races at, 275, 278.

Adenostemma viscosum, 316, 326.

Adjunta, a city in the Dekkan, 266.—The
Caves in the vicinity, 266, 350.

Admiralty Group, natives of, 115, 168.

Adobes, or sun-dried brick; use of, re-
cently introduced into the Hawaiian Isl-
ands, 88.—Used by the settlers in North
California, 102.—Used in the Dekkan,
267.

Adonis estivalis, 407.

Aerva, 364, 409,

/Mgineta, quoted, 389, 400.

Aschylus, quoted, 387.

AKsculus hippocastanum, the horse-chest-
nut, 410.

fEsop, 282.

Afghans, 240.

Africa: agriculture did not originate in this
continent, 301.

African tribes, their fixed habits, 306.

Agati, 315, 326, 336, 361.

Agave, 308.

Ageratum conyzoides, 809, 316, 327, 337,
341, 362.

Agricultural nations, 14, 306.

Agriculture: the art, imparted to the abo-
riginal tribes of Oregon, 24, 32, 36, 258,
300, 307,—The art practised, in the ab-
sence of soil, on the bare rock, 97.—
Remarks, respecting the introduction of
the art into Aboriginal America, 113.—
Agriculture among the Fecjeeans, 160,

416

162, 279.—In Arabia, 253.—In Western
Hindoostan, 261, 265.—Origin of agri-
culture, 299. — Agriculture introduced
from abroad into Africa, 301.

Ahii, in the Coral Archipelago, visited, 62.

Ahmednuggur, a city in the Dekkan, 265,

Aimeo, an island near Taheiti, visited, 73.

Alabastron, 284.

Albinoes, in Aboriginal Mexico, 42.—At
the Vaitupan coral group, 66.—At Ta-
heiti, 72.—Among the Feejeeans, 166.—
Albino Negroes, 182.

Alder, see Alnus.

Aleurites triloba, the Tutui-nut, 88, 316,
328, 338, 364.

Aleutian Islands, 287.

Allamanda Aubletii, 363.

Allatafet, quoted, 402, 403.

Allium porrum, the leek, 377, 359.

cepa, the onion, 311, 338, 348,
359, 369.

sativum, the garlic, 859, 370.

Askalonicum, the shallot, 369,

Almond, see Amygdalus.

Almug-trees, 378.

Alnus, the European alder, 382.

Aloe, 214, 365, 398.

Aloysia citriodora, 412.

Alpamarca, mine of, 21.

Alphabet of the Tagala of Luzon, 122.—
Alphabets of Hindoostan, 277.—Of the
East Indies, 283.—Of the Battas of Su-
matra, 293.

Altars and sacrifices, extant in the East
Indies, 282.

Althea officinalis, 389.

ficifolia, 404.
rosea, 409.
Amaranthus, 310, 338.
blitum, 386.
cruentus, 320, 328.
tricolor, 824, 328.

Amaryllis aulica, 338.

Ambolambo of Madagascar, 135.

Amboyna, natives of, 179.

America, Aboriginal, state of knowledge in,
285.—Origin of the population, 287.

INDEX.

Ammania, two species of, 394,

Ammi, 407.

Amomum cardamomum, 392,

grana-paradisi, 405,

Amulets, extant at Zanzibar, 189.

Amygdalus persica, the peach, 82, 311,
336, 345, 347, 399.

Amygdalus communis, the almond, 377.

Amyris opobalsamum, 378.

Anaa, or Chain Island; the centre of Navi-
gation in Eastern Polynesia, 62.

Anaans, 61.

Anacardium, 344, 361.

Anacreon, quoted, 385,

Anagallis arvensis, 312, 390.

Anchovy, a species taken in quantities at
Mocha, 209.

Anchusa officinalis, 397.

Andaman Islands, natives of, 174.

Andes, the Northern and Southern termi-
nations, 17.—The Chilian Andes, visited,
20.—The Peruvian Andes, visited, 20,
231, 273.—The Vegetation on the Andes
of Peru, 299.

Andropogon scheenanthus, 324, 330.

Anethum graveolens, 387.

Anguilla, a species, at Taheiti, 72.

Anise, 385.

Anointing, the practice of, 284, 855, 374.

Anona squamosa, 334, 344, 360, 410.

Antelope, the American, in California, 108.

Anoa, of Celebes, 304.

Antelopes, figured on the Indian monu-
ments, 3852,— On the Egyptian monu-
ments, 367.

Anthemis cotula, 310.

grandiflora, 407.
nobilis, 413.

Antiquities, of Peru, 21.—Of Oregon, 41.
—Of Yucatan, 43.—Ancient relics, disco-
vered by Davis and Squier, in the Valley
of the Ohio, 44.—Antiquities of China,
49.—Of East Africa, 189.—Of Malta,
186, 246.—Of Egypt, 247.—Of Arabia,
348.—Of Cabul, and of Persepolis, 349.

Ape, the Cynocephalus, 371.

the long-nosed, of Borneo, 304.

a 2.2 ee

INDEX.

Apium graveolens, 383.
dulce, the celery, 311, 411.

Apocynum, or California flax, 108.

Apple, see Pyrus malus.

Apricot, see Prunus Armeniaca.

Arabian Race, 225.

Seas, 291.

Arab colonists, at Sooloo, 128, 244.—At
Singapore, 180, 239, 244.—At the Co-
moro Islands and Madagascar, 191.—
Arabs, sometimes visit the Monomoisy
Lake, 194.—Arabs, of the Mediterranean,
245,—Of the Hedjaz, 251.—Of Southern
Arabia, 251.— Of Socotra, 257.— Of
Northwestern India, 257.—Arab visiters
at Zanzibar, 255.—Arab residents in
Hindoostan, 257.—Geographical position
of the Arab tribes, 306, 402.

Arachis, the pea-nut, cultivated in the Mo-
nomoisy Country, 196, 343.—In Hin-
doostan, 861.—In Egypt, 403.

Aramanga, in the New Hebrides, natives
of, 170.

Aratika, in the Coral Archipelago, 62.

Araucanians, have no communication with
South Patagonia, 17.

Arbutus procera, the bark used by the na-
tives of Southwestern Oregon, 40.

Arbutus tomentosa, the berries eaten in
North California, 110.

Architecture, of the Chinese, 48.—Of the
East Indians, 119, 127.—Of the Fee-
jeeans, 150, 154.—Of the Eastern Hin-
doos, 178.—Of the Arabian Jews, 237.
—Of Armenian emigrants, 238.—Archi-
tecture at Mocha, 258.—Among the So-
mali, 209.—Of the Ancient Hindoos,
349, 355, 356.—The Gothic style, 402.

Areca, the betel palm, 342, 365,

Arenaria rubra, 408.

Aretus, quoted, 388, 400.

Argemone Mexicana, 334, 344, 360.

Argus pheasant, 304.

Aristophanes, plants mentioned by, 386.

Aristotle, quoted, 387, 338.

Armenians, 238.

Armeniaca, see Prunus.

105

417

Armour, worn by the Klamet Tribe of
Southwestern Oregon, 40.

Arnotto, see Bixa.

Artemisia dracunculus, 407.

arborescens, 407.

Judaica, 407.

species of, in Interior Oregon, 38.
absinthium, 389.

abrotanum, 389.

Artichoke, see Cynara.

Artocarpus incisa, the bread-fruit, 317, 329,
364.—Grows only in certain districts, at
the Hawaiian Islands, 88, 95.—Consti-
tutes the chief support of the Marquesas
Islanders, 100.

Artocarpus integrifolia, the jack-tree, 341,
364.

Arts, some in Oregon, that seem to have
been derived from California, 25,—Seat
of the arts, on the Indus, 258, 357.—
Origin of the Polynesian arts, 279, 284.

Arum esculentum, see Colocasia.

Rumphii, 322, 330.

Arundo donax, the reed, 368.

Asaua Islands, in the Feejee Group, 157.

Ascension, or Banabe, in the Caroline
Group, 67, 115.

Ascetics, among the Ancient Hindoos,
350.

Asclepias Curassavica, 363.

procera, 413.
fruticosa, 413.

Ash, see Fraxinus.

Asp, or Cobra, 351, 357.

Asparagus, 365, 390.

Aspen, see Populus tremula.

Assyrians, 239,

Astrology, the aboriginal profession of, at
the Hawaiian Islands, 98.

Astronomical knowledge, of the Taheitians,
69, 72.—Of the New Zealanders, 81.—
Of the Hawaiians, 93, 289.—Among the
Hindoos, 268.—Of the Feejeeans, 284,

Atheneeus, quoted, 387, 390, 391.

Atriplex, 390.

Aubergine, or Ege-plant, see Solanum me-
longena, 311.

418

Auguries and omens, in the modern East
Indies, 282. .

Aurungabad, a city in the Dekkan, 266.

Australia, visited, 78.—The European re-
sidents, 139, 233.—Character of the zoo-
logical productions of Australia, 303.

Australian Race, 78, 137, 269.

Australian woods, have some analogy in In-
terior Oregon, 33.

Avena sativa, the oat, 311, 312, 389.

Averhoa bilimbi, 361.

Avicenna, quoted, 401, 402, 403.

Azadirachta Indica, 361.

Azederach, see Melia,

Aztecas, 41, 113.

Babylonian District, 239.

Babyrussa, 304.

Bacasias, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Balabac Passage, in the East Indies, 130.

Balanites, 373.

Baldness, instances of, among the Somali,
210.

Balm, 378.

Balsamita vulgaris, 407,

Bamboo, 318, 331, 359, 411.—At the Ta-
rawan Coral Group, 67.—In Luzon, 121.
—At the Murray Islands, in Torres
Straits, 142.

Bamia, see Hibiscus esculentus.

Banabe, or Ascension, in the Caroline
Group, 67, 115.

Banana, see Musa.

Banian Fig, see Ficus Indica.

Banians of Cutch, 177, 241, 259, 270.

Barabra of Egypt and Nubia, 204.

Bararata, or the Galla Country, 212,

Barbary Arabs, 239, 244, 245,

Barley, see Hordeum.

Barriers of races and nations, 298,

Barringtonia speciosa, 319, 326,

Basalt, blocks of, on a coral island, 64.

Basella tuberosa, 231, 301.

Bashee Islands, in the East Indies, 118.

Basilan, island of, in the Sooloo Sea, 126.

Battas of Sumatra, 293,

Beans, see Vicia, Phaseolus, and Dolichos.

INDEX.

aT a

—Beans, cultivated in the Monomoisy
Country, 196.

Bears, in California, 105, 107.

Beasts of burden, unknown in the Mono-
moisy Country, 195.—Beasts of burden,
among the Brinjarry, 269.—In the vici-
nity of Behring Straits, 307.

Beaver, said to have been formerly nume-
rous in Interior Oregon, 35.

Bedouins, of the vicinity of Mocha, 136,
252, 254.—Of the valley of the Eu-
phrates, 239,—Of Northwestern India,
240, 257.—Of Palestine, 251.—Bedouin
visiters, at Zanzibar, 255.—Bedouins of
Oman, or of the vicinity of Muscat, 256.

Bees, 377.

Beet, 311, 387.

Behring Straits, the tribes around, 288, 307.

Bellinghausen Island, visited, 63,

Belooches, 259.

Bengal Sea, 290.

Benguela Tribe, of Western Africa, 200.

Beni-Israel, 236.

Berbers, or Lybians, 250.

Beta vulgaris, the beet, 311, 387.

Betel, used at the Caroline Islands, 115.—
In the East Indies, 119.—In the New
Hebrides, and in the Nitendi Group, 289.
—In East Africa, 341.

Betula alba, 390.

Bhills, 269.

Biche-le-mar, see Holothuria.

Bidens trifida, 312.

odorata, 320, 327.

Bignonia stans, 863.

catalpa, 410.

Bima, a river of Hindoostan, 265.

Birch, see Betula.

Birdlime, see Cordia myxa.

Birmese, 135,

Bishareen, of the Nubian Desert, 205, 206.

Bixa Orellana, 335, 344, 360.

Blackfeet Tribe, inhabiting the Rocky Moun-
tains, 43.

Blankets, of Northwest America, 26, 307.

Blitum of the Romans, 386.

Blue Mountains of Interior Oregon, 34.

INDEX. A419

Boerhaavia procumbens, 320, 328, 364.
Boerhaavias, of the Andes of Peru, 300.
Bombax anfractuosum, 343, 360.

Bombay, visited, 180, 184, 236, 240, 241.
Diversity of races, at, 275.

Borago officinalis, 413.

Borassus, a flabellate-leaved palm, 61, 66,
314, 329, 365.—Fans, made of, at Ton-
gataboo, 86.

Borneo, Idan of, 50, 125.—Dayaks, 125,
297.—Wild people of Borneo, 296.

Bornou, 202. ‘

Boswellia, 378, 361.

Bougainville Island, 168.

Bows, used by the natives of Good-success
Bay, in Terra del Fuego, 19.—Used in
some instances, at the Samoa Islands, 77,
78.—Not used by the New Zealanders,
80. — Used by the Californian Tribes,
105, 109.—Used by the Shasty Tribe,
111.—Used in the vicinity of Torres
Straits, 141.— Sometimes used by the
Feejeeans, 149. — Used in East Africa,
192, 211.—Used by the Bhills, and by
the ancient Hindoos, 269.

Brama, representations of, 354,

Braminical Caves, 353.

Bramins, interview with one at Singapore,
177.—No true Bramins, in the East In-
dies, 178.—Two Bramins, apparently of
the Telingan Race, seen at Bombay, 180.
—Mahratta Bramins, 180, 262, 263, 265,
267, 270.

Brass, highly valued by the tribes of East
Africa, 195, 199.

Brassica rapa, the turnip, 334, 344, 393.

eruca, 394.

oleracea, 384, 312 334.
napus, 386,

campestris, 386.

Brava, a town in Hast Africa, 187.

Brazil, aboriginals of, 16.

Bread-fruit, see Artocarpus incisa.

Brinjarry, of Hindoostan, 143, 269.

Briza media, 339.

Bromelia ananas, 330, 344, 365, 410.

Broussonetia, the paper-mulberry, 317, 329.

Brugmansia, 414,

Bruguiera, the fruit eaten at the Feejee
Islands, 151.

Bryophyllum calycinum, 362.

Buckwheat, see Polygonum fagopyrum.

Budhism, noticed, 178.

Budhist Caves, 349.

Buffalo, the American, unknown in Oregon,
except along the skirts of the Rocky
Mountains, 34.

Buffalo, the East Indian, 120, 265, 351,
357, 402.

Bugis of Celebes, 132, 178, 283, 290.

Bullocks, at the Hawaiian Group, 95.—Their
introduction at the Feejee Islands, 160,
333. — Bullocks, known in the Mono-
moisy Country, 197, 337.—Among the
Galla and M’Kuafi, 212, 215.—The cow,
venerated by the Hindoos, ancient Egyp-
tians, and early Romans, 260, 271.—
The Indian bullock, 265, 269, 356, 371.
—Bullocks, figured on the Egyptian monu-
ments, 305, 367.—Introduced into North-
west America, 810.— Figured in the
Braminical Caves, 354, 358.

Burdens, mode of carrying in Oregon, 30.
—Among the Polynesians and Ancient
Egyptians, 90.—In New Zealand and at
the Feejee Islands, 90.—Among the Ca-
lifornian Tribes, 102.—Among the East
Indians, 119.—Among the Feejeeans,
149.—Among the Mahratta Hindoos, 261.

Burial, mode of, on the north branch of the
Columbia River, 32.—And further north,
with the Tahkali Tribe, 33.—Among the
Chinese, 45.— Among the Californian
Tribes, 104.—Among the Wakamba and
M’Kuafi of East Africa, 194, 215.—
Among the Parsees, 241, 242,

Butirinus, a species kept in artificial ponds
at the Hawaiian Islands, 91.

Cabbage, 384,
Cabul, people of, 240, 356,—Antiquities of,
349,
Cacalia sonchifolia, 362.
Kleinii, 413.

420

Cacti, of New Mexico, 112.—Of the Andes |
of Peru, 299.—Species of Opuntia, natu-
ralized at the Hawaiian Islands, 336.—
In Hindoostan, 362.—In Egypt, 410.

Cademosto, quoted, 403.

Ceesalpinia sappan, 343, 361.

Cairo, visited, 248.

Cajanus, the pigeon-pea, 335, 343, 361.—
Cultivated in the Monomoisy Country,
196.—And at Zanzibar, 260.

Calabrians, 271.

Caladium, see Colocasia.

Calceolarias, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Calendar of the aheitians, 72.—Of the
Hawaiians, 93.—Of the Soahili, 188.—
Of the Parsees and Abyssinians, 188.—
Of the Feejeeans, 284,

Calendula officinalis, 395.

California, visited, 100, 281, 273.—Geo-
graphical position of, 288.

Californian tribes, use water-proof baskets,
25, 103.— Account of these tribes, 100.—
The men devoid of clothing, 103, 108,
—The Southern Californians, 112.

Calophyllum, observed at the Tarawan coral
group, 67.

Calotropis procera, 413.

Calystegia, see Convolvulus,

Cameleopard, 216, 224.

Camels, 377, 298.—Used by the Southern
Galla, 212, 341.—In India, 264, 359.—
Figured on the Himyaritic monuments,
348, — The two-humped, or Bactrian
camel, 388.

Campanula amplexicaulis, 312,

Camphor, 402.

Canadians, residing in Oregon, 29, 32, 39,

Canara language, of India, 263.

Canarium, 323, 326.

Canes, those used in Eastern and Western
Arabia, 254.

Canna, 320, 329, 338, 405.

Cannabis sativa, hemp, 359, 385,

Cannibalism, 161, 162, 166, 167, 169, 196,
214, 234, 296.— Cannibalism of the
Battas, 294.

INDEX.

Canoes, of the Fuegians, 18.—Of the Chi-
nooks, 25, 287.—On the Upper Colum-
bia, 32, 37.—Of the Klamet tribe, in South-
western Oregon, 40.—None seen among
the Eastern Paumotuans, 55.—Canoes of
the Disappointment Islands, 56.—Of the
Anaans, or Western Paumotuans, 62.—
The paddle of the Tarawan coral group,
resembles that of the Persian Gulf, 67.—
Canoes, of Pleasant Island, 68.—Of the
Samoans, 73.—Of New Zealand, 78, 80.
—Of the Tonga Islanders, 84, 86.—Of
the Hawaiians, 89.—Of the Californian
Tribes, 103,111.—Of Luzon, 120, 122.—
Of Sooloo, 126.—Sampans of the Straits
of Malacca, 131.—Canoes, of the Austra-
lians, 138.—Of the Feejeeans, 146, 150,
151.—Of the Monomoisy Lake, 195,.—
River-boats in the Godaveri, 266.—
Canoes of Vanikoro, 279.—Of the North
Pacific, and of the Greenland Seas, 287.
—Of the Comoro Islands, 291.

Cape Gooseberry, see Physalis.

Cape of Good Hope, Malayans at, 1384.—
Negroes at, 184.—Diversity of races at,
274,

Cape Verd Islands visited, 188, 228, 272.

Caper-bush, see Capparis.

Capparis, 391.

Capra Americana, the wool used by the
Chinooks, 26.

Capra hircus, the common goat, 358, 367.
—Known in the Monomoisy Country,
197, 337.—Known to the M’Kuafi, 215.
—Landed from a whale ship on the Ta-
rawan coral group, 313.—Introduction of
the goat into the islands of the Pacific,
BIB ISB)

Capra ibex, 367.

Capricorn, see Capra ibex.

Capsella bursa-pastoris, 310.

Capsicum, 809, 316, 324, 328, 337, 341,
363, 405.

Caravan routes, 298.

Caraway, see Carum.

Cardamine sarmentosa, 319, 325.

be
oan

INDEX. A421

Cardamum, see Amomum.

Cardiospermum helicacabum, 315, 325,
324, 404,

Carduus, 407.

Caribs, 118, 114, 279.

Carica papaya, 309, 316, 328, 341, 362,
4ll.

Carob tree, see Ceratonia.

Caroline Islands, 115, 289.

Carrot, see Daucus carota.

Cars of antique pattern, in Hindoostan, 267.

Carthamus tinctorius, or Dyer’s saffron,
381, 362.

Carum carvi, 397.

Caryophyllus, 323, 326,

Caryophyllus, see Cloves.

Caryota urens, 365,

Cassada, see Jatropha.

Cassia sophera, 408.

Occidentalis, 335, 362, 408.
tora, 335, 362.

scandens, 335,

alata, 362.

fistula, 362, 404.
lanceolata, 400.

obovata, 400.

absus, 408.

Castanea, the chestnut, 391.

Castes of India, 177, 181, 258, 263, 268.

Castor bean, see Ricinus.

Casuarina equisetifolia, 88, 130, 320, 329,

-338, 364.

Catacombs of Naples, 271.

Catalpa, see Bignonia.

Cato, quoted, 393.

Cats, 333, 359, 384.—Carried from the
coast to the Monomoisy Country, 197,
344.—None among the M’Kuafi, 215,—
Cats, among the Arabs, 254.

Cattle, see Bullocks.

Cauliflower, 384.

Caves of India, 349.

Celebes, 132, 178, 282, 290, 402.

Celery, sce Apium dulce,

Celosia cristata, 399.

Celtis Australis, 394,

Occidentalis, 409.
106

Cenchrus calyculatus, 318, 330.
Centaurea calcitrapa, 397.
moschata, 407.
cyanus, 413.
Centipede, introduced into the Hawaiian
Islands, 333.
Ceram, wild people of, 295,
Cerasus, see Prunus cerasus, 311.
Ceratonia siliqua, 861, 392.
Cerbera, 320, 327.
Thevetia, 363.
Cercis siliquastrum, 391.
Cercopithecus, 368.
Cervus wapiti, the American elk, in Cali-
fornia, 105.
Ceylon, notice of, 136.
Cherophyllum sativum, 395.
Chaga Tribe, of East Africa, 193, 214, 215,
216.
Chameeriphis, 405.
Charity, among the Parsees, 242.
Checkered baskets of Yemen, 253, 372.
Cheiranthus annuus, 407.
Chenopodium album, 307, 310, 403.
rubrum, and C, flavum, 403.
Cherokees, 114.
Cherry, see Prunus cerasus, 311.
Chestnut, see Castanea.
Chicorium, the endive, 390.
Chick-pea, or Cicer, 380.
Chief’s language, among the Polynesians,
92.—Among aboriginal Americans, 114.
Chili, visited, 20, 183, 229, 272.
Chimikaine, a Mission Station in Interior
Oregon, 33,
Chinese, 45, 117, 143, 272, 275, 290.
Chinooks, compared with the Fuegians, 19.
—Described, 23.—Their mode of flatten-
ing the head, 24.—Of the Lower.Columbia,
25.—Their mats, have some analogy with
those of the Chinese, 26.—The Chinooks,
are more advanced in the arts, than the
Hunting Tribes of Northwest America,
26.—Capture whales, 26.
Chittah, or hunting leopard, 371.
Chory, of East Africa, 212,
Chrysanthemum, 382,

422 INDEX.

Chrysanthemum Indicum, 363.
segetum, 397.

Cicer arietinum, or chick-pea, 380, 361.

Cicero, quoted, 382.

Cimmerian darkness, 298.

Cingalese, 136,

Cinnamon, 178, 356, 378.

Circumcision, among the Feejeeans and
Polynesians, 150.— Among the East
African Tribes, 192, 198, 212, 214,
216.

Cissus quadrangularis, 361.

rotundifolia, 409.

Citrullus, the water-melon, 336, 347, 362,
369, 370.

Citrus aurantium, the orange, 335, 341,
346, 403.—Local at the Hawaiian Islands,
88.—This fruit, not eaten by the Banians
of Cutch, 260.

Citrus Sinensis, the Mandarin Orange, 266,

344, 360.
torosa, 321, 325.
decumana, the shaddock, 323, 325,
344, 361.
the lemon, 335, 346, 403.
limonum, the lime, 3385, 346, 403.
Medica, the sweet lemon, 346, 392.

Civilization, traditions respecting its origin
in America, 113.—Four natural centres
of Civilization, 301.

Civita Vecchia, 271.

Classet, visited, 25,

Cleome pentaphylla, 384, 412.

spinosa, 334.

Clermont Tonnerre, a coral island, visited,
54,

Climate of the Southern Hemisphere, 18,—
Of Interior Oregon, 31, 33, 834.—Of New
Zealand, 79.—Of the Hawaiian Islands,
88, 94, 95.—OFf North California, 103.—
Of New Mexico, 112.—O: Australia, 140.
—Of Western Peru, 230.—Of the Peru-
vian Andes, 231.—Of the Valley of the
Nile; the only portion of the Tropics
known to the ancient Greeks and Romans,
248, 249.—Climate of Southern Arabia,
210, 253.—Of Western Hindoostan, 261,

264, 265, 267.—Great variety of climate,
in Tropical America, 303.—Climate of
the Equatorial Countries, 304.

Clothing in Tropical Climates, remarks on
the subject, 69.

Cloves, 178, 304, 345, 400.

Clubs, of the New Zealanders, 80.—The
club, is the favourite weapon of the Tonga
Islanders, 83.—And of the Feejeeans,
149,—Clubs, used by the Nubians of the
Desert, 206.—By the Mussai, 217.—By
the ancient Hindoos, 351, 354.

Cnicus benedictus, 407.

Coasts, three kinds of, 13.

Cobra, or asp, 351, 353, 357.

Coca, the leaves used by the natives of the
Peruvian Andes, 21.

Cocculus Indicus, 400.

Cochin, in Southern Hindoostan, 290.

Cochin-Chinese, 134.

Cochineal, 308.

Cochlearia, 409, 413.

Cock-fighting, at the Tarawan coral group,
67.—At Taheiti, 70.—In the East Indies,
119.

Cocoa palm, 314, 324, 329, 338, 342, 348,
365, 403.—Absent from unvisited islands,
55.—Is the principal useful plant of the
coral islands, 60.—Neglected at the Ha-
waiian Islands, 95.—Extensively culti-
vated in Luzon, 121.—Cultivated at the
Murray Islands, in Torres Straits, 142.
—On the coast of East Africa, 192.—
And in the West Indies, 309.

Codizeum variegatum, 322, 329, 364.

Coffee, 337, 362, 403.—Wild in the Mono-
moisy country, 196.

Coix lachryma, 323, 324, 331, 401.

Colaris, 124.

Colchicum, 398.

Colocasia antiquorum, 395,

Colocasia esculenta, 60, 314, 324, 330, 339,
342, 365, 395.—In New Zealand, 79.—
Constitutes the chief article of food, at the
Hawaiian Islands, 90.—Terraces for cul-
tivating taro, at the Feejee Islands, 153,
158.

ae
N

.

a Paws SS

INDEX. A423

Colocasia macrorhiza, 60, 315, 330.—A
safeguard against famine, 91, 151.

Colocasia grandifolia, 365.

Colours, these used by the Chinooks, 26.

Colubrina Asiatica, 319, 325.

Columba ; a species of pigeon, kept in cap-
tivity at a Polynesian spirit-house, 66.
Columba, the domestic pigeon, 186, 267,

333, 348, 358, 373.

Columbia River, 31, 37.

Columella, quoted, 393, 395,

Commelina, 318, 330, 339.

Colville, in Interior Oregon, 33, 310.

Commerce, Aboriginal, among the Chinocks, |
25.—At Taheiti, 72.—None aimong the
Australians, 189.—Aboriginal commerce
at Tongataboo, 289.

Comoro Islands, population of, 190,—Co-
moro men, make trading excursions into
the interior of Africa, 191, 193.—The
languages, at the Comoro Islands, 279.

Composite, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Concan, 264.

Conferva, an esculent species, at the Ha-
waiian Islands, 94.

Congo tribe, of Western Africa, 200.

Convolvulus batatas, the sweet potato, in
New Zealand, and in the other islands of
the Pacific, 79, 316, 327.—Cultivated
without soil, in some parts of the Ha-
waiian Islands, 97.—Rare at the Feejee
Islands, 150.—Cultivated in the Mono-
moisy country, 196, 341.—In Aboriginal
America, 809.—In Western Africa, 309.
—In Yemen, 347.—In India, 363.—In
Keypt, 411.

Conyolvulus sepium, 328, 332, 409.

arvensis, 363, 396.
scammonia, 393.
Cairius, 406.

Conyza, 320, 327.

odora, 407.

Cooking, among the Polynesians, 69, 151.
—Among the Californian Tribes, 108,
109.—Among the Feejeeans, 151.—
Among the Galla, 213.

Copal, 199.

Copper, obtained by the natives of East
Africa, 199.

Copts, 185, 250.

Coral islands, account of them, 53.—A
mode of procuring water at, 66.—Fire,
not seen at certain islands, 66.—Tonga-
taboo, is a coral island, 83.—Elevated
coral islands, Metia, and Vatu-lele, 63,
157.—European residents, 65, 68, 232,
273.

Coral shores, yield more food to man, than
the ordinary sea coast, 286.

Corchorus olitorius, 403.

Cordia crenata, 399.

myxa, 374.
sebestena, 314, 327.

Coreopsis tinctoria, 362.

Coriander, 389.

Cornel, see Cornus.

Cornucopias, figured on the Indian monu-
ments, 355.

Cornus, the berries, eaten by the tribes of
Interior Oregon, 37.

Cornus mascula, and C. sanguinea, 381.

Corylus avellana, the filbert, 386.

Costume, of the women of Interior Oregon,
31.—Of the Kalapuya Tribe, 39.—Of
the Eastern Paumotuans, 54.—Of the
natives of Pleasant Island, 68.—Of the
Samoans, 73.—Of the New Zealanders,
81.—Of the Californian women, 108.—
Two styles of costume, in Aboriginal
America, 113.—Costume of the Fee-
jeeans, 148.—Of the M’Kuafi, 215.—
Of Chili and Peru, 230.—Of the Parsees,
242.—Of Oriental women, 243.—Of the
modern Greeks, 246.—Of various nations
of antiquity, figured on the Egyptian
monuments, 249.—Costume of the Arabs,
251, 252, 255.—And of the inhabitants
of the Dekkan, 265.—Costume of the
Brinjarry, 269,—Of the ancient Hindoos,
351, 352, 354, 356.

Cotton, 334, 346, 360, 385.—Among an-
clent Peruvian relics, 21, 308.—<A tradi-
tion respecting the culture of cotton in
Mexico, 113,.—Introduction of cotton into

424. INDEX.
the Mediterranean countries, 385.—Gos- | Currency, at Mocha, 254, 255.
sypium religiosum, 315, 325.—The cul- | Cuscuta, 338, 407,
ture of cotton, does not succeed in Equa- Customs, some introduced from the Missouri
torial Africa, 344, into Oregon, 34.—Some, common to
Cotula coronopifolia, 322, 327. Oregon, Mexico, and South America, 41.
Couriers, in Southern Arabia, 254. —Some, common to the Chinese and
Cowries, see Cyprea. aboriginal Americans, 47, 48.—Customs,
Cows, see Bullock. of the Tarawan Islanders, 67.—Of Plea-
Coyota, see Wolf. sant Island, 68.—Of the Taheitians, 69,
Crane, the species figured on the Egyptian 72.—Of the Samoans, 75.—Of the New
monuments, 367. Zealanders, 80.—Of the Tonga Islanders,
Cree Tribe, 43. 85.—Of the Hawaiians, 90.—Customs,
Creek Tribe, 44, 114, 278. common to the Californians and the
Cress, 394. Polynesians, 109.— To the Polyne-
Crinum Asiaticum, 322, 330. sians and the aboriginals of the West
Crocodiles, at some of the western groups Indies, 113.—Customs, of the Tagala of
in the Pacific, 74. Luzon, 118.—Of the Feejeeans, com-
Crocus, 373. pared with those of the Polynesians, Hin-
Crotalaria, 335, doos, and Arabs, 87, 149, 150, 156,
quinquefolia, 323, 326, 284, 354.—And with those of Eastern
Croton tiglium, 405. Africa, 169, 206, 208, 210.—The custom
tinctorium, 364, 383, 394, 405. of perforating the lobe of the ear, 177.—
variegatum, see Codizeum. Customs and penances of the Hindoos,
Crypsis, 406. 177.—Various ancient Egyptian customs,
Ctesias, quoted, 388. extant at Zanzibar and Mocha, 189, 253.
Cucumber, see Cucumis. —Customs of the East African Tribes,
Cucumis melo, the musk-melon, 311, 347, 192, 195.—Of the tribes of Central
379. Africa, 201.—Of the Kenoos of Upper
sativus, the cucumber, 311, 347, Egypt, 205.—Of the M’Kuafi, 215.—
362, 402. Some aboriginal customs, among the pre-
chate, 369, 370. sent inhabitants of Peru and Chili, 230.
Cucurbita, of Pliny, 375. —Customs of the Arabian Jews, 237.
foetidissima, 307. —Of the Parsees, 241.—Various cus-
polymorpha, the squash, 311, 404. toms, common to the Hindoos and an-
aurantiaca, 320, 327. cient Egyptians, 261.—Muslim customs
pepo, 336, 404. in Central India, 266, 267.—Arab cus-
Cuirass of the Klamet Tribe of Northwest} toms, in Malta and in Italy, 245, 271.—
America, 40.—Of the Tarawan coral Customs of the ancient Hindoos, 350.
group, and of Ombay, 67. Cutch Banians, 177, 241, 259.
Cuminum cyminum, the cummin, 379. Cycle, the Egyptian or Cynic, 376.
Cupressus sempervirens, 364, 382, Cydonia vulgaris, the quince, 347, 380. |
Cupro of Pliny, 398. Cycas circinalis, 324, 329, 342, |
Curcuma, the turmeric, 317, 329, 402. Cynanchum viminale, 407. 4
Cured meats, aboriginal at the Hawaiian | Cynara, the artichoke, 369. i
Islands, 91, 94.—At the Feejee Islands, | Cynocephalus, 371.
151. Cynoglossum, 413.
Currant, sce Ribes, Cynodon dactylon, 330, 365, 406.

INDEX.

Cyperus, a species, 331.
esculentus, 382,
articulatus, C. alopecurus, and C,
dives, 394.

Cyprea monetas, a yellow variety, extrava-
gantly valued in former times at the Ha-
waiian Islands, 91.—Cowries, used for
money in the Thebaid, 205.—And at
Poona, in the Dekkan; the species being
the C. annulus, 264,

Cypress, see Cupressus.

Cyprian verses, quoted, 384.

Dactyloctenium, 365, 406.

Dahlia, 412.

Dammara, the resin used for glazing pot-
tery at the Feejee Islands, 160.

Dampier’s Straits, 142.

Danakil, or Denkali Tribes, 211.

Darfour, 201, 202.

Date palm, see Pheenix.

Datisca cannabina, 405.

Datura fastuosa, 363, 405.

metel, 343, 405.
stramonium, 3387.

Daucus carota, the carrot, 312, 327, 390.

Dayaks of Borneo, 125, 297.

Dean’s Island, in the Coral Archipelago,
visited, 62.

Defensive armour, used by the Klamet
Tribe of Northwest America, 40.—Used
in the Tarawan coral group, 67.—Used
by the Australians, 140.—Used by the
ancient Hindoos, 351.

De Fuca, Straits of, visited, 23.

Deghop, 350.

Dekkan, or the Table-land of Southern
India, 264.

Delaware Tribe, 43.

Delphinium ajacis, 382,

Demosthenes, quoted, 387.

Denkali, or Danakil Tribe, 211.

Denkawi language of Central Africa, 201.

Dentalium shells, used for ornament in
Northwest America, 22, 26.

Desert Tribes, 14, 205, 298, 306.

Desmodium, 335.

107

425

Desmodium purpureum, 319, 326.

Desmocheeta, 320, 328.

De Soto, quoted, 397, 404.

Dewlap, an appendage acquired by domestic
animals, 301.

Dianthus caryophyllus, the Carnation, 399.

Digitaria sanguinale, 318, 324, 330, 339,
406.

Digitaria ciliaris, 321, 330.

Dioscorea alata, the yam, 83, 151, 321,
330.—Yams, in East Africa, 193, 342.

Dioscorea pentaphylla, 317, 330.

bulbifera, 317, 330,
aculeata, 324, 330, 365.
sativa? 414,

Dioscorides, plants mentioned by, 395.

Diospyrus lotus, 409.

Disappointment Islands, visited, 56.

Diseases, of the natives of the Coral Islands,
57, 67.—Of the Taheitians, 72.—Of the
Samoans, 77.—Of the New Zealanders,
82.—At Tongataboo, 85.—Of the Ha-
wailans, 98.—Of the Californian Tribes,
109.—Of the East Indies, 183.—Of the
Feejeeans, 165.—Of Western Peru, 230.

Diversity of physiognomy, at Cairo, 250.

Diversity of races, at Cairo, Singapore, and
the other places visited, 250, 272, 274, 275.

Dodona, Oracle of, 186.

Dogs, of the Chinooks, 26.—Of the Tarawan
coral group, 67.—Dogs, perhaps absent
in Aboriginal New Zealand, 79.—Dogs,
at the Hawaiian Islands, 91, 94.—Not
seen among the Californian Tribes, 108.—
Known in the Monomoisy Country, 197,
337.—Known to the M’Kuafi, 215.—Kept
by the Brinjarry, 269.—Figured on the
Egyptian monuments, 305, 324, 367.—
The only quadruped, aboriginally intro-
duced into America, 307, 308.—Dogs,
aboriginally introduced into the Poly-
nesian Groups, 313.—Figured on the
Indian monuments, 357.

Dolichos lubia, 388.

lablab, see Lablab.

Domestic animals, a tendency in them to

become particoloured, 265, 301.

426 INDEX.

Domestic animals and plants, of the Mono-
moisy Country, 196.—Of the Ethiopian
Tribes of East Africa, 213, 215.—Of
Aboriginal America, 301, 307.—Of the
islands of the Pacific, 313.—Of Equato-
rial Africa, 841.—Of Southern Arabia,
346.—Of India, 349.—Of Egypt, 324,
366.—Of New Zealand, 332.—Of Aus-
tralia, 332,

Domestic fowl, 858.—At the Tarawan coral
group, 67.—At Pleasant Island, 63.—
Absent in Aboriginal New Zealand, 79.—
Introduction of the domestic fowl, into the
Mediterranean Countries, 324, 373.—Do-
mestic fowls, known in the Monomoisy
Country, 197, 341.—And in the islands
of the Pacific, 313.

Dongola, natives of, 204, 206.

Donkeys, 358, 367.—None in the Mono-
moisy Country, 197.—Known to the
Galla and M’Kuafi, 213, 215, 216, 337.

Doum-palm, see Hypheene.

Dourra, see Sorghum.

Dowlutabad fortification, 267, 349.

Dracena terminalis, 78, 317, 330, 365.

Dracocephalum Moldavicum, 414.

Dragons, figured on the Indian monuments,
354,

Drays, of the Dungur, 270.

Drift-wood, at some coral islands, 65.

Drummond Island, in the Tarawan coral
group, 67.

Dryobalanops, or precious camphor tree,
304,

Ducks, 333, 343, 371.—Rearing of, in the
East Indies, 120.—No tame ducks in the
Monomoisy Country, 197,

Dules, a species kept in artificial ponds, at
the Hawaiian Islands, 91.

Dungur, 270.

Durio zibethinus, 345.

Ear, the custom of perforating the lobe, 177.
Earthquakes, 231.

races, in, 274.—Advancement of know-
ledge, among the inhabitants, 282.

Ebony, 373.

Echinochloa crus galli, 406.

Echium rubrum, 397.

Eclipta, 324, 327, 337, 341, 362, 394.

Education, universal among the Southern
Arabs, and the Arabian Jews, 237, 253.

Eel, see Anguilla.

Egg-plant, or Aubergine, see Solanum me-
longena.

Egypt, visited, 185, 236, 247, 270.—Di-
versity of races, in, 250, 275.

Egyptian cycle, 376.

emigrants, 256.

Eleagnus angustifolia, 386.

Elatine verticillata, 394.

Elder, see Sambucus.

Elecampane, see Inula helenium.

Eleocharis, 324.

Elephant, 214, 215, 266, 350, 358, 354,
357, 372, 373.

Elephanta, Caves at, 349, 355.

Eleusine coracana, 213, 348.

Indica, 321, 324, 331, 339, 348.

Elk, see Cervus.

Ellice, or Vaitupan coral group, noticed, 66.

Ellora, caves at, 267, 354.

Elm, see Ulmus.

Emigration, from various quarters directed
towards the Straits of Malacca, 274.—
Emigration, from Africa, 306.

Ende or Floris, natives of, 169.

Enderby’s Island, in the Phcenix coral
group, visited, 65,

Endive, see Chichorium.

Engraulis, anchovy, 209.

Engraving, the art introduced among the
Polynesians, 88.

Entada, see Mimosa scandens.

Entellus, 352.

Eoa, in the Tonga Group, 83.

Equatorial countries, productions of, 304.

Eragrostis capillaris, 339,

Erinaceus auritus, 367.

East Indies, visited, 118.—European resi- | Erodium, 312.
dents, 118, 127, 234, 274.—Diversity of | Erromango, see Aramanga.

lethal

INDEX.

Ervum lens, the lentil, 8377, 359.
ervilia, 389.

Erythrina, 319, 326, 345.

Erythroxylon, see Coca.

Esquimaux, portraits of, resembling the
Chinooks, 27.—The Esquimaux, again
noticed, 50.—Canoes of the Esquimaux,
287.

Ethiopian race, 203.—Ethiopian tribes, of
East Africa, 192, 198, 204.—Some of
the ancient kings of Egypt, Ethiopians,
207.—Eunuchs, 223.

Ethulia conyzoides, 394.

Etiquette among the Feejecans, 151.

Eunuchs, 223.

Euphorbia calendulifolia, 406.

tirucalli, 364, 406.
tithymaloides, 364.
peplus, 397.
hypericifolia, 338.

Euphorbia, 322, 329.

lathyris, 397.

Euphoria, 3238, 325.

Euphrates, inhabitants of the valley, 239,
298,

Europe, visited, 245, 271.—Diversity of
races in Europe, 275.

European colonists, 227.—Among the Poly-
nesian Islands, 68, 232.—At the Feejee
Islands, 233.—In the East Indies, 234.
—In Hindoostan, 234.

Europeans, 271.

Evil eye, superstition of, 271.

Evodia hortensis, 322, 325,

Faba, 378.

Fa-hian, a Chinese traveller, of the Fourth
Century, 178.

Fakaafo, in the Union coral group, 66.

Falkland Islands, not reached by aborigi-
nals, 18.

Fanning’s Island, a detached coral island,
noticed, 65.

Fans, used at Tongataboo, 86.—And at the
Feejee Islands. —The flag-shaped fans, of
Yemen, 253, 354,

427

Far, of the Romans, 368, 380.

Faselum, of the Romans, 386.

Fazoglo, natives of, 201.

Feejee Islands, visited, 146.—Conversational
powers of the Feejeeans, 168.—European
residents, 146, 233.—Diversity of races,
at, 273.—State of knowledge, at the Fee-
jee Islands, 284.—The Feejeeans, hold no
intercourse with the neighbouring groups,
289.

Fehi banana, of Taheiti, see Musa.

Fellahs, or cultivating Arabs, 209, 250.

Fellata, of Central Africa, 218.

Fennel, see Foeniculum.

Fenugreek, or Trigonella, 380.

Fern, tufts of, figured on the Pharaonic
monuments, 374.

Ficus Indica, the Banian fig, 359.

a second species of sacred fig, 268,
354, 358.

tinctoria, 320, 329.

Ficus, 322, 329.

religiosa, the pipul tree, 343, 348,
364,

carica, the common fig, 345, 348,
364, 369, 370.

Fig, see Ficus,

Filbert, 386.

Fillet, worn by Bedouins, 256.

Fine-arts, among the Chinooks: the style,
corresponding in some respects, with that
of the sculptures of Mexico and Yucatan,
27, 41.—Fine-arts, among the Chinese,
48.—Among the Feejeeans, 150.—The
Decline of Art, in Egypt, 248.

Fir-trees, see Abies.

Fire: prairies burned over, in Western Ore-
gon, 39.—Fire, not seen at certain coral
islands, 66.—Known among the wildest
tribes of Borneo, 297.

Fire-worshippers, 241, 243.

Fishing tribes of Terra del Fuego, 17,—Of
Northwest America, 23, 307.

Fish-ponds, at the Tarawan coral group,
67.—At the Hawaiian Islands, 90.

Flagellaria, 323, 330, 342,

Flax, see Linum.

428

Flight of birds, omens drawn from, in the
East Indies, 282.

Floris, or Ende, natives of, 169.

Fly, 314, 324.—The house-fly, absent from
the uninhabited coral islands, 55, 64,
314,

Feeniculum vulgare, 337, 387.

Food, of the East Indians, consists chiefly of
rice, 53.—Of the islanders of the Pacific,
consists chiefly of farinaceous roots, 53.
—Of the natives of Pleasant Island, 68.
—Of the New Zealanders, 78.—Of the
Hawaiians, consists chiefly of taro, 90.
—Of the Marquesas Islanders, 100.—Of
the Californian Tribes, 103, 300.—Of
the Feejeeans, consists chiefly of yams,
151.— Of the Southern Galla, and
M‘Kuafi, 213, 214, 216.—Of the Mussai,
217.—Of the Cutch Banians, 260.—Of
a Calcutta Hindoo, 260.—The quantity
of food afforded by coral shores, 386,.—
And by the natural vegetation of different
countries, 299.

Fortified villages of New Zealand, 80.—Of
Tongataboo, 84.—Of the Feejeeans, 158.

Foula, of Western Africa, 218.

Fowler, the profession, aboriginal at the
Hawaiian Islands, 91.

Fowls, at the Tarawan coral group, 67.—
At Pleasant Island, 68.—At the Feejee
Islands, 151.—Absent in aboriginal New
Zealand, 79.—Their introduction into the
Mediterranean Countries, 373.—See Do-
mestic fowl.

Foxes, in California, 105.

Fragaria, the strawberry, 311, 394, 410.

France, visited, 271.

Frankincense, 378.

Franks, or Europeans, 226, 246.

Fraxinus excelsior, 381.

ornus, 391.

Frigate-bird, see Tachypetes.

Fuci, esculent species, at the Hawaiian
Islands, 94.—And likewise a poisonous
species, 94,

Fuegians, account of, 17.— Devoid of cloth-
ing, 18.—Their implements, analogous

INDEX.

to those of Northwest America, 19.—
The Fuegians, compared with other tribes
of the Southern Hemisphere, 79.
Fumaria officinalis, 396.
Furcrea gigantea, 339, 365.

Galapagos Islands, character of the zoologi-
cal productions, 304,

Galega officinalis, 414.

Galen, quoted, 394, 399.

Galeopithecus, 304.

Galla Tribes, 192, 204.

Gambling, among the tribes of Interior Ore-
gon, 37.—Among the Chinese, 47.—
Among the Californian Tribes, 103.

Game, rare in Interior Oregon, 35.—Abun-
dant in North California, 105.

Gardenia Taitensis, 61, 66, 314, 327.

Gardenia florida, 387.

Gardner’s Island, in the Phenix coral
group, visited, 64.

Geese, see Goose.

Gems, do not appear to have been valued
in Aboriginal America, 22.—Among the
articles of commerce, which in ancient
times were transported from the greatest
distances, 22.—JIndian Muslims, their
trafic in gems, 257,

Genoa, 271.

Geological structure of the Dekkan, and of
the Table-land of Oregon, 67.

Geophila reniformis, 316, 327.

Gibraltar, visited, 245.

Ginger, see Zingiber.

in the Monomoisy Country, 196.

Gipsies, 270, 278.

Gleditschia triacanthus, 410.

Glycine, a species, used for poisoning fish at
the Feejee Islands, 161.

Glycyrhiza, liquorice, 398.

Gmelina Asiatica, 364.

Goat, see Capra hircus,

Godaveri, a river of Hindoostan, 265, 268.

Gomphocarpus fruticosa, 412.

Gomphrena globosa, 364, 409.

Goose, 352, 357, 367.—A species, inhabit-
ing the crest of the Peruvian Andes, 21,

INDEX.

— Another species, on the high mountains
of the Hawaiian Islands, 95.—No tame
geese, in the Monomoisy Country, 197.

Gooseberry, see Ribes.

Gorputi, or Seroor, a town in the Dekkan,
265, 268.

Gossypium, see Cotton.

religiosum, 315, 325.

Gourd, a species, known to the Ancient Pe-
ruvians, 21,—See, also, Lagenaria.

Grain, unknown among the islanders of the
Pacific, 53, 285.

Grande Coulée, in Interior Oregon, 33.

Grangea, 394.

Granite, of Northwest America, 33.

Grape, see Vitis.

Grass-seed, used for food by the Californian
Tribes, 1038, 108.

Gratiola ?, 322, 328.

Greece, visited, 246.

Greyhound, 305, 367.

Grus, or crane; a species figured on the
Egyptian monuments, 367.

Guachos of Patagonia, 228, 231.

Guava, see Psidium.

Guinea, natives of, 200.

Guinea-fowl, see Numida.

Guinea-pig, 301.

Gum-arabic, 214, 378.

Gum-lac, 402.

Guzerati Banians, 261.—Bramins, 356.

Guzerati language, 243,

Hadem, of Southern Arabia, 186.—Of the
island of Zanzibar, 191.—Of the delta of
the Juba, 193.

Hadjerkim in Malta, ruins of, 186, 355.

Halyotis shell, used for ornament, in the
Straits of De Fuca, and also in California,
28.

Hamajauwi of Central Africa, 201.

Hameer Arabs, 256,

Harafora Tribes, 125, 295.

Hats, worn in wet weather by the Maritime
Tribes of Northwest America, 28.—The
like conical form of hat, occurs on the
opposite coast of Asia; and in the East

108

429

Indies, 23.—Also, at the Tarawan coral
group, 67.—A hemispherical hat or cap,
worn in the Shasty Tribe, 110.

Hawaii, the island visited, 94.

Hawaiian Islands, visited, 87.—Chinese, at,
45,—Climate of, 88.—The natives, have
shown a remarkable fondness for mathe-
matics, 88.— European residents, 87,
232.—Diversity of races, at, 273.

Hayti, 278.

Hazaeen, or the Somali Country, 214.

Health in Tropical Climates, a remark re-
specting, 70.

Hebrew language, 236, 237, 278.

Hebrews, 2384.

Hedera, ivy, 385.

Hedge-hog, see Erinaceus,

Hedjaz Arabs, 251.

Hedyotis paniculata, 322, 327.

Helianthus, a weed in Oregon, 309.

annuus, 362, 412.

Hemp, 385.

Henna, see Lawsonia.

Herculaneum and Pompeii, 271, 395.

Hernandia sonora, 61, 314, 329.

Herodotus, his account of the Ethiopians,
quoted, 203, 204, 213, 356.—His ac-
count, of a maritime expedition sent by
Darius, 238.—Of the Ancient Persians,
241, 381.—Of the complexion of the
Egyptians, 247.—Of the Indian bows,
269.—Of the practice of scalping, 285.—
Of the Calantian Indians, 356.—Plants
mentioned by Herodotus, 369, 385.

Herpestis monniera, 363.

Hervey, or Raratonga Group, natives of, 100.

Hesiod, quoted, 379, 383.

Heteropogon, 331.

Hibiscus, 328, 325.

trionum, 404,

abelmoschus, 408,

Syriacus, 404.

tiliaceus, (Paritium,) 72.

rosa-sinensis, 319, 325, 360.

manihot, 319, 325.

esculentus, the ochra, 346, 408.
Hill-forts of India, 268, 349,

430

Hilo, on Hawaii, visited, 94.

Himalaya range of mountains, a natural
barrier of races and nations, 298.

Ilimyaritic monuments, 348.

Hindoo customs, in North America, 33.

Hindoos, 176, 259.—The Ancient Hindoos,
349.

Hindoostan, Eastern, natives of, 175.—
Kuropean residents in Hindoostan, 234,
277.—Western Hindoostan, 259.—For-
merly, four nations in Hindoostan, 263.

Hipponax, quoted, 384.

History and Literature, among the Poly-
nesians, how preserved, 98.

Holothuria, esculent species, at the Feejee
Islands, 150.—The biche-le-mar, 159.
Homer, the mode of warfare described by
him, illustrated, 249.—Homer, seems to
allude to India, 356.—Plants mentioned

by Homer, 370, 379.

Honden Island, in the Coral Archipelago,
visited, 55.

Honey-bee, 358, 377.—Honey, in the Mo-
nomoisy Country, 196.

Hoorn Island, sighted, 99.

Hop, see Humulus.

Hordeum, barley, 311, 359, 375.

murinum, 406.

Hornbills, in the East Indies, 124.

Horse, among the tribes of Oregon, 30, 33,
36, 41.—The small breed of the East
Indies, 121.—No horses, in the Mono-
moisy Country, 197.—None, among the
M’Kuafi, 215, 217, 337.—Introduction
of horses, into Northwest America, 309.
—Into the Polynesian Islands, 333.—The
horse, figured on the Indian monuments,
352, 357.—And on the Egyptian monu-
ments, 372.

Horse-chestnut, see AXsculus.

Horse-radish, see Cochlearia.

Hotlentot Race, 78, 219.

House-fly, see Fly.

Household gods of the Hindoos, 265.

Hoya carnosa, 363.

Hull’s Island, in the Phoenix Group, 65.

Humulus, the hop, 409.

INDEX.

Hunter’s Island, near New Caledonia,
visited, 168.

Hunter River, in New South Wales, 138.

Hunting Tribes, of Terra del Fuego, 19.—
Of Oregon, 29.—Of Northwest America,
43.—Of ancient America, 44.—The
Hunter State, does not exist in New
Zealand, 78.—It exists in Australia, 140.
—And in some of the East India Islands,
292, 296.

Hyacinthus, 382.

Hydrocotyle, 316, 327.

Hydrophytes, rare at the coral islands, 54.

Hyksos, Period of the, 207, 370.

Hyphene, the doum-palm, 209, 348, 372.

Hyssopus officinalis, 388.

Ibex, or capricorn, 367.

Ibis, 368.

Idan, of Borneo, 50, 125.

Idolatry, 241, 248, 261, 259, 353.

Igorote, see Y gorotes,

Impatiens balsamina, 406.

Implements, of the Patagonians, 17.—Of
the Feejeeans, 19.—Of the natives of
Good Success Bay, 19.—Of the ancient
Peruvians, 22.—Of the Chinooks, 25.—
Of the tribes north of the Chinooks, 28.
—Of the Spokane Tribe of Interior
Oregon, 34.—Of the natives of Serle
Island, 55.—Of the natives of the Dis-
appointment Islands, 59.—Of the Pen-
rhyn Islanders, 59.—Of the Vaitupan
Islanders, 59, 66.—Of the Tarawan
Islanders, 67.—Of the Samoans, 77.—
Of the New Zealanders, 81.—Of the
Tonga Islanders, 86.—Of the Hawaiians,
91.—Of Hoorn Island, 99.—Of the
Raratonga Group, 100.—Of the Cali-
fornian Tribes, 109.—Of the Shasty
Tribe, 110.—Of the Australians, 140.—
Of the Feejeeans, 149.—Of New Georgia
or the Solomon Islands, 172.—Of the
Soahili, 189.—Of the ancient Hindoos,
350, 352.

India, visited, 261.—The Antiquities, and
the domestic animals and plants, 349.

INDEX.

Indian, or Telingan Race, 175.

Indigo, 308, 373.

Indigofera, 335.

of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Indo-Chinese Countries, 134.

Indus River, 258, 298, 357.

Inga, 335.

Innovation, among the Taheitans, 70.—
Among the Samoans, 76.—Among the
New Zealanders, 81, 82.—At Tonga-
taboo, 84.—At the Hawaiian Islands, 88.
—Rejected by the Australian Tribes, 139.
—JInnovations at Cairo and Alexandria,
270.—The slow progress of innovation,
in mountain fastnesses, and in other se-
cluded situations, 298.

Inoearpus edulis, 319, 325, 336.

Inscriptions, ancient, in the caves of India,
353, 355.

Introduced animals and plants, of the coral
islands, 59.—Of the Tarawan coral
group, 67.—Of New Zealand, 79.—Of
Luzon, 121.—None among the Austra-
lian Tribes, 139, 141.

Inula Arabica, and I. undulata, 383.

helenium, the elecampane, 399.

Iowa Tribe, 43.

Ipomea quamoclit, 363.

pheenicea, 363.

Iraun, 258.

Iris Florentina, 389.

Iron, obtained and manufactured by the
East African tribes, 192, 199, 217.—
Manufactured by the Borneo tribes, 297.

Iroquois Tribe, 43.

Irrigation, aboriginal in Peru, 20.—And in
the Hawaiian Islands, 90.

Italy, visited, 271.

Ivory, trade in, 193, 195, 199, 214, 373.

Ivy, Hedera, 385.

Jack-tree, see Artocarpus.
Jair Caste, of India, 266.
Jambosa vulgaris, 343.

Malaccensis, 315, 326, 345.
Janga Tribe, of Central Africa, 201.
Japanese, 116, 288,

431

Jasminum, 363, 406.
sambac, or Mogorium, 406.

Jatropha curcas, 345, 364.

Jatropha manihot, the cassada, 364.—Cullti-
vated by the Monomoisy, 196, 344.—
And in aboriginal America, 301.

Java, 133.

Javelin, the favourite weapon of most of
the Polynesian Tribes, 54.—Not used by
the New Zealanders, 80.—Some inferior
javelins, among the Californians, 105,
109.—Javelins, of the Australians, 140.
—Of the Feejeeans, 149.—Of the Somali,
210.

Jellab of Egypt, 204.

Jervis Island, a detached coral island, 65.

Jews, 234, 252.—The Beni-Israel, 236.

Juari, see Sorghum.

Juba River, in East Africa, 198, 199, 208.

Juggernaut, 354.

Juglans regia, the walnut, 390.

Jussizea diffusa, 394.

angustifolia, 315, 326.

Justicia purpurea, 322, 328,

Kabyles, 250,

Kaffers of South Africa, 199.

Kagayan Sooloo, an island in the Sooloo
Sea, 129.

Kahtan, or Yoktan Arabs, 254, 256.

Kalanchoe ASgyptiaca, 306.

Kalapuya Tribe of Western Oregon, 39.

Kamas root, 34.

Kambinda Tribe, of West Africa, 200.

Karens of Birmah, 135, 270.

Karli, the caves at, 264, 268, 349.

Kasangi Tribe, of Western Africa, 200.

Kauai, or Tauai, in the Hawaiian Group,
visited, 93.

Kauri, see Dammara.

Kava, see Piper methysticum.

Kawaki, in the Coral Archipelago, 62.

Kenneri Caves, 349,

Kenoos, of Upper Egypt, 205.

Kidney bean, see Phaseolus.

Kingsmill, or Tarawan coral group, 66.

Klamet Tribe, of Western Oregon, 40.

432

Klickatat Tribe, of Western Oregon, 39.

Klings, or Telinga people, 176.

Knowledge, the imparting and geographical
progress of, 277, 279, 281.

Kooskoosky, a tributary of the Columbia
River, 35.

Koran, quoted, 401.

Kordofan, natives of, 201, 202.

Kostan of Nubia, 206.

Kraals of Africa, 200, 270.

Kris, of the ancient Hindoos, and the modern
Arabs, 354,

Krishna, worship of, 268.

Kroo men, of Western Africa, 190.

Kshatrya Caste of Hindoos, 262.

Kylas, at Ellora, 356.

Kyllingia monocephala, 318, 331, 339.

Labiat incert., 324, 328.
Lablab, 336, 408.
vulgaris, 315, 326.

Lactuca sativa, the lettuce, 345, 385.

Ladrone, or Marian Islands, 116.

Lagenaria, the gourd ; in New Zealand, and
in the other islands of the Pacific, 79,
316, 326.—In Egypt, 324, 375.—In the
Monomoisy Country, 196, 341.—Among
the M‘Kuafi, 215.—In Aboriginal Ameri-
ca, 308.—In Yemen, 347.—In India, 362.

Lama of Peru, 301.

Lamium amplexicaule, 408.

Lampong, of Sumatra, 133,

Languages, multiplicity of, in Oregon, 31,
37.—The analogy with the Mexican, 41.
—Languages of the Californian Tribes,
106.—Two divisions of American lan-
guages, 114.—Language of the Japanese,
117.—Of the Tagala of Luzon, 122.—
Of the proper Malays, 131.—A word,
common to the natives of Australia and
New Britain, 142.—The Soahili lan-
guage, 187.—Language of the aborigi-
nals of Zanzibar, 191.—Of the Desert
Tribes of Nubia, 205.—Of the Somali,
211.—Of the M‘Kuafi, 215.—A ffiliation
of languages, 226.—English language,
increasing in Chili, 229.—Hebrew lan-

INDEX.

guage, 236, 237.—Language of the Par-
sees, 241, 243.—Languages of Hindoo-
stan, 263.—Succession of languages, in
the environs of Naples, 271.—Extension
or imparting of languages, 277.—The
language used in Hayti, 278.—A language
of words, hardly needed by certain East
Indian tribes, 296, 297.

Lantana, 364, 412.

Lanun of Mindanao, 129.

Lapa, or Oparo, natives of, 100.

Laplanders, 50.

Lapwai, a Mission Station in Interior Ore-
gon, 35.

Lascars, two seen at Sooloo, 127, 176.—
Lascars, at Manila, 176.—At Singapore,
176.

Lathyrus sativus, 388.

Laurus camphora, 402.

Lava, blocks of, on Rose Island, 64.—
Lava-streams, on Savaii, in the Samoa
Group, 74.—On Hawaii, 95.—Of Vesu-
vius, 270.

Lavandula, lavender, 379.

Lavatera arborea, 404.

Lavender, 379.

Lawsonia, the henna, 347, 360, 398.

Leather, not seen among the Fuegians, 19.
—Manufactured by the Chinooks, 26.—
Another kind, manufactured by the more
Northern tribes, 28.—Manufactured by
the Klamet Tribe, 40.—By the Shasty
Tribe, 110.

Leeks, 877.

Legends of the Feejeeans, 284.

Leghorn, 270.

Lemna, 324, 329.

Lemon, see Citrus.

Lemon grass, see Andropogon.

Lentil, 377.

Leonotis leonurus, 363.

Leopard of East Africa, 215.—The
ing leopard, 371.

Leopard of India, 266.

Lepidium sativum, 386.

latifolium, 407.

Lettuce, see Lactuca.

hunt-

INDEX.

Leucas decem-dentatus, 320, 328.

Lichen, an edible species, in Interior Ore-
gon, 34.

Ligusticum Peloponense, 413.

Ligustrum vulgare, the privet, 398,

Lilac, see Syringa.

Lilium candidum, 385.

martagon, 393.

Lima, visited, 20, 183, 230, 273.

Lime, see Citrus limonum.

Lindernia, 320, 328.

Linnzus, quoted, 382,

Linum, flax, 359, 371.

Lions, sculptured in the ancient Indian
caves, 390, 354,

Liquorice, see Glycyrhiza.

Literature, of the Polynesians, 92, 284.—
Of the Somali, 211.—Of the Bugis, 133,
282.—Of the Parsees, 248.—Of Mada-
gascar, 282.—No literature in Aboriginal
America, 285.

Lizards, at the Coral Islands, 65, 314.

Loasas, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Lobelia, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Lolium, 406.

Looggoon, a town in the Interior of East
Africa, 214.

Lote-tree, see Ziziphus.

Lousiade, natives of the, 142.

Lovuma River, of East Africa, 198.

Lubia, see Dolichos.

Lucerne, see Medicago.

Luffa, 375, 347.

Lufijy River, of East Africa, 198.

Lupalaconga Tribe, of East Africa, 216.

Lupine, the edible species, 380.

Lupines, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Luzon, Igorote of, 50.—The island, visited,
118.—Negrilloes of Luzon, 173.—Di-
versity of races, 274.

Lybians, or Berbers, 250.

Lycopersicum esculentum, the common to-
mato, 312, 411.

Lycium, 338.

Lynxes, in California, 105.

Macassar, mentioned by Avicenna, 402.
109

433

Madagascar, Malayans of, 135, 190.—Te-
lingans of, 181.—The Vazimba of, 181,
279.—Negroes of, 183, 184, 190.—Lan-
guages of Madagascar, 279.—Character
of the zoological productions, 303.

Madder, see Rubia.

Madeira, visited, 183, 227, 272.

Magellanic Archipelago, 17, 288.

Mahars, 269.

Mahrattas, 250, 261.

Maize, see Zea.

Makamba, or Wakamba Tribe, of East Af-
rica, 193.

Makrizi, quoted, 403.

Makua Tribe, of East Africa, 196, 198, 199.

Malacca, Straits of, emigration towards,
274,

Malayan Race, 51, 279.—A trace of, among
the people of Hindoostan, 136.

Malay class of languages, 190, 279.

Muslims, 124, 131. — Sometimes

visit Mocha, 136,

Peninsula, a wild tribe of the, 295.
Malikolo, in the New Hebrides Group, 172.
Maldive Islanders, 136, 290, 291.

Mallea Rohrii, 321, 325.

Mallow, cultivated in Egypt, 383.

Malta, visited, 185, 186, 245, 275.—The
language of the Maltese, 278.

Malum of the Romans, 380.

Malva alcea, 396.

sylvestris, and M. verticillata, 383.
Man in a state of nature, does not exist at

the present day, 293.—Various approxi-
mations, 296.

Manabhawa Caste of Hindoos, 268.

Manetho, quoted, 249, 368, 376.

Manilius, quoted, 376.

Mangifera Indica, the mango, 335, 348, 346,

354, 358.

Mango, see Mangifera.

Mangroves, at the Tarawan coral group,
67.—The fruit of the Bruguiera, eaten at
the Feejee Islands, 151.

Manhii in the Coral Archipelago, 62.

Manila, visited, 118.

Mangsi Islands, in the East Indies, 130.

434

Manua, in the Samoa Group, visited, 73,

Manufactures, see Implements.

Map, explanation of the accompanying, 13.

Marian or Ladrone Islanders, 116.

Mariscus paniceus, 321, 331.

Maritime intercourse, in the Pacific and In-
dian Oceans, 286, 292.

Maritime Tribes of Terra del Fuego, 17.—
Of Northwest America, 23.—They are
more advanced in the arts than the Hunt-
ing Tribes, 26, 28.—And more populous,
28.—The tribes north of the Chinooks,
28, 307.

Marquesas Islands, natives of, 100.—Bread-
fruit, forms the chief support of the inhabi-
tants, 100.

Marriage. — Child marriages, among the
Parsees and Indian Muslins, 243, 258.—
Second Marriages among Hindoos, 263.—
Marriage, prohibited in the Manabhawa
Caste, 268.

Marseilles, 185, 271.

Marsilea, 318, 331.

Martial, quoted, 371, 391.

Masks, used by the maritime tribes of
Northwest America, 26, 28.— By the
ancient Mexicans, 41.—And by the Chi-
nese, 48.—Masks, were formerly, in some
instances, used by the Hawaiians, 91.

Mastick-tree, 387.

Matricaria chamomilla, 397.

Mats of the Vaitupan coral group, chequered,
like some made in the East Indies, 66.—
Mats, of the Chinooks, 25, 26.—Of the
Dungur, 270.

Maui, in the Hawaiian Group, visited, 97.

Mauna Kea and Mauna Roa, in the Ha-

waiian Group, 95,

Maurandya, 363.

Maviha Tribe, of East Africa, 198.

Mbua, or Sandalwood Bay, in the Feejee

Group, 158, 162.

Medicago sativa, 388.

Mediterranean countries, visited, 185, 201,
204, 236, 245.

Melastoma malabathrica, 319, 326.

Melia azederach, 335, 361, 404.

INDEX.

Melilotus officinalis, 380.
ceerulea, 414.

Melissa officinalis, 393.

Melolo, in the Feejee Group, 157.

Melons, see Cucumis, and Citrullus.

Menomeni Tribe, 43.

Mentha rotundifolia, 414.

Mentha crispa, and M., pulegium, 388.

Mercurialis, 393.

Mermaids, represented on the Indian monu-
ments, 354,

Merops, 124.

Merremengo, see Wakamba.

Metals, known to the ancient Peruvians and
Mexicans, 22, 113.—The countries enu-
merated, in which metals were aborigi-
nally unknown, 22,

Metia, an elevated coral island, 68, 319.

Mexicans, 41.—Some of their customs, com-
mon to the Chinese, 48.—The Mexicans,
again noticed, 112.

M’Hiao Tribe, of Hast Africa, 198, 199.

Miami Tribe, 43.

Micronesians, 115, 289.

Migrations of the human family, indicated
on the map by a dotted line, 18. —Waves
of migration, 281, 284, 298.—Migrations
by sea, 286.—Two routes of migration
in the Main Pacific, 290.—Migrations by
land, 293, 307.

Mille, in the Radack coral group, 67.

Millet, see Panicum.

Mimosa pudica, 319, 326.

scandens, 322, 326,

Mimusops hexandra, 363.

Mina, in Western Africa, 200.

Mindanao, in the East Indies, 123, 274.

Mindoro, island of, in the East Indies,
123.

Mineral Kingdom, absent from the coral
islands, 54.

Mining Stations of Peru, 231.

Mint, see Mentha.

Mirabilis Jalapa, 312, 413.

Mission-natives, among the islands of the
Pacific, 61, 73.

Missouri Tribes, 34, 43.

INDEX.

Mistletoe, a species, abounding in South-
western Oregon, 41,

M’Kean’s Island, in the Pheenix coral group,
visited, 64,

M’Kenzie’s Island, in the Caroline Group,
noticed, 115.

M’Kindo Tribe, of East Africa, 198.

M’Kuafi Tribe, of East Africa, 193, 214.

Mocha, visited, 49, 136, 186, 209, 252.—
Diversity of races at, 275,

Mode of carrying burdens, see Burdens,

Mogorium sambac, 406,

Moguls, or modern Persians, 240.

Molasses, made from the cocoa palm, at
the ‘Tarawan coral group, 67.

Mollugo verticillata, 312,

Molucca Islands, ancient intercourse with,
169, 178, 400.

Momordica balsamina, 345, 375, 405.

‘pedata, 405.

Money, unknown at the Samoan Islands,
77, 285.—Aboriginal, at the Hawaiian
Islands, 91.

Mongolian Race, 15.—Distribution of, 16.
—Possesses three, of the four natural
centres of civilization, 310.

Monkeys, in the wild state, 124,—Different
species, figured on the Indian monuments,
352.—And on the Egyptian monuments,
368, 371.

Monomoisy of East Africa, 194.—They
have no beasts of burden, 195.—Incur-
sions of the M’Kuafi, 216.

Monomoisy Lake, 194, 197, 199.

Monsoons, 116, 255, 261, 267, 289.

Morinda citrifolia, 60, 61, 64, 314, 327,

Moringa, 361.

Morus alba, 338, 364, 400.

nigra, 387.

Moruts, see Y gorotes.

Mosquito, introduction of, into the Hawaiian
Islands, 334.

Mountaineers, of the Feejee Islands, 147,
160, 169.—Of Arabia, 255.

Mouse, 333.

Movisa, or Wabiza Tribe, of East Africa,
196, 197.

435

M’Sambara Tribe, of East Africa, 197.

M’Sigua Tribe, of East Africa, 192, 197,
198, 214, 216.

Mugil, mullet, kept in ponds at the Tara-
wan and Hawaiian Groups, 67, 90.

Mulberry, see Morus.

Mullet-ponds, at the Tarawan coral group,
67.—At the Hawaiian Islands, 90.

Mummies, the antiquity of, 384, 389.

Mundjola Tribe, of Western Africa, 200.

Murray Islands, in Torres Straits, 142.

Musa, the fehi banana of Taheiti, 70, 71,
73, 320, 329, 338.

Musa sapientum, 84, 115, 317, 324, 330,
338, 342, 348, 352, 357, 401.—At the
Murray Islands, in Torres Straits, 142.
—At the Feejee Islands, 150, 162.—In
East Africa, 193.—In aboriginal Ame-
rica, 309,

Muscari comosum, 406.

Muscat, visited, 255.—Diversity of races
at, 275.

Music, of the tribes of Interior Africa, 197.

Musk duck, 333.

Musk-melon, see Cucumis.

Muslim annual festival, 179, 180.

Muslims, Malay, 124, 131, 136, 291.—
Muslims of Hindoostan, 179, 257, 264.
—Muslim Negroes, 185.

Mussai Tribe, of Eastern Africa, 193, 215,
217.

Musseenda frondosa, 322, 327, 362.

Mustard, 386.

Mutisias, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Myriogyne minuta, 320, 327.

Myristica moschata, see Nutmeg.

Myrrh, 214, 378.

Myrtle, 359, 374,

Mythology of the Otuans, 57.—Of the Ta-
rawan Islanders, 67.—Of the natives of
Pleasant Island, 68.—Of the Samoans,
74.—Of the Hawaiians, 92, 95, 96.—
Of the Feejeeans, 152.—Of the M’Kuafi,
215, 217.—Of the Parsees, 241.—Of a
wild tribe, in the Malay Peninsula, 296.
—Of the ancient Hindoos, 350.

Myxa, of Pliny, 399,

436

Naples, visited, 271.
Narcissus tazetta, and N. poeticus, 384.
jonguilla, 405.

Nard, 379.

Nasturtium officinale, 394.

Natick Tribe, 44.

Natural History, knowledge of, among the
Polynesians, 72, 81.

Navigation, origin of, 279, 286, 291.—
Advanced knowledge of the art, among
the Polynesians, 289.—Navigation of the
Arabian Seas, 291.

Navigator Islands, see Samoa.

Near-sighted individuals, among the island-
ers of the Pacific, 67, 166.

Negrillo Race, 170.—Negrilloes of the East
Indies, 173, 174.—Inventions of the Ne-
grillo Race, 279.

Negro languages, 187, 191, 196, 200, 226,
278.

Negro Race, 182.—Europeanized Negroes,
182.—Arabized Negroes, 185.—Malay-
ized Negroes, 190.—Negyro residents, at
the Polynesian, the Feejee, and the East
India islands, 184.—Negroes, figured on
the Egyptian monuments, 185.—Negroes,
residing in Arabia, 186, 251,

Nelumbium, 850, 358, 358, 375.

Nepaul, people of, 270.

Nephelium lappaceum, 344.

Nerium Oleander, 392.

Nets of the ancient Peruvians, compared
with those of the modern Polynesians and
Europeans, 22.

Nettle, see Urtica.

New Britain, island of, 142.

New Caledonia, island of, 142, 145, 148,
168.—Hunter Island, visited, 168.

New Caledonia of Northwest America, 33.

New Georgia, or the Solomon Islands, 172.

New Guinea, natives of, 115, 142, 168,
173.—The character of the zoological
productions, 303,

New Hebrides, natives of, 170.

New Mexico, 112.

New South Wales, visited, 138.

New Zealand, 78.—Contains neither quad-

INDEX.

rupeds nor pasturage, 78.—An approxi-
mation to aboriginal writing, 81.—Eu-
ropean residents, 81, 82, 233, 273.

New Zealanders, one among the crew of
the Vincennes, 63.—One in the Samoa
Group, 73.—Others, at Sydney, 80.

New Zealand flax, see Phormium.

Nicander, quoted, 384, 390, 394.

Nicolaus Myrepsicus, quoted, 394,

Nicotiana rustica, 412.

tabacum, tobacco, 44, 308, 387,412.

Nigella sativa, 379.

Damascena, 407.

Nile, its unique geographical position, 298.

Nisqually Tribe, 29, 38,

Nitendi Group, 172, 289.

Nizam’s Dominions, 257, 264, 266.

Nootka, or Yookulty Tribe, 25, 28.

Nuba, of Central Africa, 186, 201.

Nubians, 204,

Numida, the Guinea-fowl, 333, 345, 388.

Nutmegs, 178, 304, 345, 400.

Nux-vomica, see Strychnos,

N’Yambana Tribe, of East Africa, 199.

N’Yasa Tribe, of East Africa, 197.

Nyctanthes, 363.

Nympheea lotus, 385,

"stellata, 352, 353, 357, 358, 369.
cerulea, 357, 369.
of Zanzibar, 369.

Oahu, in the Hawaiian Group, visited, 88,
94, 98,
Oak, 381.
Oases, four principal ones, in the Great
Desert of the Eastern Continent, 298.
Oat, see Avena.
Ochra, see Hibiscus esculentus.
Ocymum, 316, 328, 341, 348.
basilicum, and O. lignosum, 387.
sanctum, 320, 328, 363.
Offerings of flowers and fruits, in the Hindoo
temples, 268.
Oil, poured on wounds, by Bramins, 267.
Okonagan, in Interior Oregon, 32.
Olea sativa, the olive, 363, 374.

INDEX.

Oleander, see Nerium.

Olive, see Olea sativa.

Oman, or Eastern Arabia, visited, 255.

Ombay, cuirass of, 67.

Omens and auguries, not obsolete in the
East Indies, 282.

Onion, see Allium cepa.

Onobrychis sativa, the sainfoin, 414.

Oozy, a river of East Africa, 192, 193,

Ophir, of Solomon, 288,

Oparo, or Lapa, natives of, 100.

Opium, 381.

Opuntia, see Cactus.

Orache, see Atriplex, 390.

Oracles, at the Feejee Islands, 152,—Oracle
of Dodona, 186.

Orange, see Citrus aurantium.

Orange Harbour, near Cape Horn, 18.

Orangs, three species of, 304.

Oregon, journey into the Interior, 29.—
Sparseness of the population, 33.—Diver-
sity of races in, 273.

Origanum marjorana, 388.

Origin of Navigation, 279, 286, 291.—Of
agriculture, 299.—Of civilization, 280,
300.

Orris-root, see Iris.

Ornus, see Fraxinus.

Orthopogon, 331.

Oryx, 367.

Oryza, rice, 342, 359, 394,—Constitutes
the principal food of the East Indians, 53,
119.—Rice, recognised by some Japanese,
117.—Cultivated in the Monomoisy Coun-
try, 196.

Ostrich-eggs, obtained in Nubia, 205.—A
cap of ostrich feathers, worn by the
M‘Kuafi, 216.

Otafuan or Union Group, of coral islands,
visited, 66,

Otoe Tribe, 48.

Otuans, described, 56.

Oualan, island of, 115.

Ounce, or Leopard of India, 266.

Outriggers, the use of, 291.

Ovahs of Madagascar, 135.

Ovid, quoted, 388, 394,

110

437

Oviedo, quoted, 309.
Ovolau, in the Feejee Group, visited, 146.
Oxalis crenata, 231, 301.

repens, 315, 325.

Dieppe, 334.

corniculata, 408.

Pachicamac, in Peru, visited, 21.

Pachya, 21, 335.—The fruit, among ancient
Peruvian relics, 21.

Pachyrhizus ?, 319, 325,

Paddle, of the Disappointment Islands, has
the blade curved, 56.—The paddle of the
Tarawan Group, and of the Persian Gulf,
67, 291.

Paintings, at Thebes, 249.—In the Indian
Caves, 350.

Paints, those used by the Chinooks, 26.—
Those used by the Samoans, 76.—Those
used in the Indian Caves, 351, 355.

Palawan, Igorote of, 50.

Palmistry, 260.

Panay, island of, in the East Indies, 1238.

Panax cochleatum, 362,

Panax fruticosum, 323, 327, 362.

Pancratium, 405.

Pandanus odoratissimus, 348, 358, 358,
365.

Pandanus utilis, 60, 64.—Absent from some
coral islands, 65, 314, 330.

Panicum crus-galli, see Echinochloa.

Panicum, 318, 328, 324, 330.

Italicum, 375.
miliaceum, 383.
capillare, 339.
colonum, 394.

Papaver somniferum, 381.

Papaver rheeas, 390.

Papaya, see Carica.

Paper, manufactured in Central India, 267,

Paper-mulberry, see Broussonetia.

Paper-reed, or Papyrus, 368, 370.

Papio, the baboon, 352,

Pappophorum alopecuroideum, 324, 331.

Papuan Race, 144.—Known to the Ancient
Hindoos, 169, 178.—The Papuan Ar-
chipelagoes, 289,

438

Papyrus, or Paper-reed, 368, 370.

Paradise-birds, 304,

Parietaria officinalis, 396.

Paritium, see Hibiscus.

Parkia, 361.

Parkinsonia, 346, 347, 361.

Parricide, an established custom at the Fee-
jee Islands, 152, 162.

Parrot, sce Psittacus.

Parsees, 168, 241, 264, 266, 269.

Particoloured domestic animals, 265, 301.

Parsley, see Petroselinum.

Parsnip, see Pastinaca.

Paspalum, 321, 330.

Passiflora, 412.

Pastinaca, the parsnip, 409.

Pastoral nations, 14, 306.—The pastoral
state, unknown in the East Indies, 293,

Patagonia, visited, 17, 183, 228, 272.

Patera, 284.

Paumotuans, account of them, 53.

Pavo, the peacock, 351, 354, 356, 377.

Pawnee Tribe, 43.

Peach, see Amygdalus.

Peacocks, 351, 354, 356, 377.

Pear, see Pyrus.

Pea, see Pisum, and Cajanus.

Pectocarya penicillata, 310.

Pelargonium, 412.

Pelew Islanders, 116.

Pennisetum typhoideum, 348, 865, 375.

Penobscot Tribe, 44.

Penrhyn Island, noticed, 59,

Peony, 393.

Pepper, see Piper.

Persepolis, the antiquities at, 349.

Persians, the Modern, 240, 258.

Peru, visited, 30, 183, 230, 273.—Remarks
on the aboriginal civilization of Peru,
300.

Petroselinum, the parsley, 311, 397.

Phalaris Canariensis, 331, 332, 406.

Pharaonic Ages, 372,

Pharnaceum, 323, 327.

Phaseolus vulgaris, kidney beans, 311, 397,

amoenus, 315, 326.

Phaseolus ?, 348.

INDEX.

Phaseolus mungo, 408.

Phasianus, the pheasant, 388.

Pheasant, see Phasianus.

Philippine Islands, visited, 118.

Phoenix Group of coral islands, visited, 64.

Phoenix dactylifera, the Date palm, 248,
343, 348, 353, 358, 365, 371.

Phormium tenax, the New Zealand flax, 81,
412,

Phrenology, 260,

Phyllirea, 391, 398.

Physalis angulata ?, 316, 328.

edulis, 79, 309, 316, 328, 337.
somnifera, 398.
alkekengi, 412.

Physiognomy, diversity of, at Cairo, 250.

Phytolacca, 411.

Pig, figured on the Indian monuments, 354,
358.—Absent in aboriginal New Zea- 7
land, 79.—Abundant at the Feejee Isl-
ands, and in the Polynesian Groups, 151,
313.—Swine seen in Upper Egypt, 205.

—Regarded as unclean, by Parsees, Jews,
and Muslims, 243.—Common in the vil-
lages of the Dekkan, 264.—Introduction
of the pig, into the Mediterranean coun-
tries, 8324, 8372.—The pig known at the
Comoro Islands, 341. i
Pigeon, see Columba,
Pimpinella anisum, anise, 385.
Pine-apple, see Bromelia.
Pine-nuts, see Pinus pinea,
Pinus Coulteri, the seeds eaten in North
California, 110.
pinea, the stone-pine, 390,
Halepensis, 404.
Piper methysticum, or the Kava, 94, 152,
317, 329.
nigrum, the black pepper, 205, 365,
392.
betel, 341, 365.
Pipes, discovered by Davis and Squier, in
the ancient mounds of Ohio, 44.
Piscous, a tributary of the Columbia, 32.
Pisonia, 316, 328.
Pisonia ? of the coral islands, 64,

Pistacia lentiscus, 387.

INDEX.

Pistacia terebinthus, 377.
vera, the Pistachio nut, 346, 394,
Pistia stratiotes, 395.
Pisum arvense, 386.
sativum, 311, 386.
Plane-tree, or Platanus, 382.
Plantago psyllium, 405.
major, 807, 310, 395.
Platanus Orientalis, 382.
Pleasant Island, a detached coral island,
noticed, 68.
Plectranthus crassifolia, 414,
Pleiades, constellation of, 93, 379.
Pliny, plants mentioned by, 395.
Plum, Prunus, 305, 384.
Plumbago, a species, on the Andes of Peru,
300.
Capensis, 364.
rosea, 364,
Plumeria, 363.
Plutarch, quoted, 383.
Poa annua, 311, 339.
Poetry, aboriginal, of the Polynesians, 92.
— See Literature.
Poi, or prepared taro, 89.—Poi, sometimes
made of bread-fruit, 95,
Poinciana, 319, 326, 335, 361, 412.
Pokomo Tribe, of East Africa, 193,
Political institutions, of the natives of Plea-
sant Island, 68.—Of the Taheitians, 69.
—Of the New Zealanders, 80.—OfF the
Tonga Islanders, and other Polynesians,
87.—Of the Hawaiians, 92.—Of the Ca-
lifornian tribes, and other aboriginal
Americans, 108, 285.—Of the Austra-
lians, 141.—Of the Feejeeans, 153, 154,
162, 169.—Of the Monomoisy, 196.—
Of the Galla, 212.—Of the M‘Kuafi, 216.
—Of Hindoostan, 263.—Of the Battas of
Sumatra, 293.—Of a wild tribe in the
Malay Peninsula, 296.
Polyandry, 270.
Polyanthes, 348, 405.
Polygalea, of the Andes of Peru, 300.
Polygamy, at Rotuma, 99.—At the Feejee
Islands, 158, 166.—Among the Ethio-
pian tribes, 218, 215.—Among_ the

439

Arabs, 252.—Among the Indian Mus-
lims, 258.
Polygonum, 316, 328.
aviculare, 307, 310, 396.
nigrum, 310,
persicaria, 312, 409.
orientale, 409.
fagopyrum, the buckwheat, 409.
bistorta, 412.
tincterium, 412.

Polynesians, account of, 53.—Numbers of,
at the Feejee Islands, 86, 100.—Origin
of the Polynesian arts, 279.

Polytheism, 3538,

Pomegranate, see Punica.

Pompeii and Herculaneum, visited, 271.

Ponderey Tribe, of Interior Oregon, 34.

Poona, a city in the Dekkan, 264.

Poplar, see Populus.

Population of the globe, arranged by races,
276.—Of America, origin of the, 287.—
Emigration from Africa, 306.

Populus alba, 379.

tremula, 380.
nigra, 380.

Porpoises, around an uninhabited coral
island, 64,

Portulaca, 322, 327.

two species, wild on the coral
islands, 60, 64.
oleracea, 336, 347, 392.

Potato, cultivation of, communicated to the
maritime tribes of Northwest America,
24, 310—and also, to the New Zea-
landers, 83.—The potato, cultivated on
the Peruvian Andes, 231, 301.—Culti-
vated in India, and in Equatorial Africa,
345, 347, 363.—In Eeypt, 411.

Potentilla supina, 408,

Pottery, manufacture of, unknown among
the Polynesians, 98.—Practised by the
Feejeeans, 151, 154, 160.

Precious stones, see Gems.

Priva lappulacea, 338.

Privet, see Ligustrum.,

Proas, of the East Indies, 282, 290.

Property, among the Polynesians, 285.

440

Prunus domestica, and P. insititia, 305,
311, 347, 384.
Armeniaca, apricots, 311, 347, 899.
cerasus, the cherry, 311, 391.

Psidium, 344, 362, 411.—The Guava, has
overrun much of the productive soil at
Taheiti, 71, 336.—Local, at the Ha-
waiian Islands, 88.

Psittacus, the parrot, 388.

Psoralea Palestina, 408.

Pteropus, at the Samoa fslands, 78.

Ptolemaic constructions, 384,

Puget Sound, visited, 29.

Pulo Aor, and Pulo Pedang, 1380.

Mariere, natives of, 116.

Puna; an affection analogous to sea-sick-
ness, accompanying an introduction to
the higher region of the Andes, 21,

Punica granatum, the pomegranate, 343,
347, 362, 369, 370.

Purslain, see Portulaca.

Pyrus communis, pears, 305, 311, 347, 374.

malus, apples, 805, 311, 347, 393.

Pythagoras, 384.

Pythons, at Mindanao, 124,

Quercus, the oak, 381.
Quichua language, 277.
Quince, see Cydonia.

Rabbit, 371,

Races of men, enumerated, 9.——Distribu-
tion of, 14.—Diversity of, in the different
countries visited, 272.—Countries inha-
bited by several aboriginal races, 273,
274, 276.—Population of the globe, ar-
ranged by races, 276.—Relations be-
tween the races, 277.

Radack coral group, noticed, 67.

Radish, see Raphanus.

Rafflesias, 304.

Rairoa, or Dean’s Island, in the Coral
Archipelago, visited, 62.

Rajpoots, 259, 266.

Ranunculus Asiaticus, 407.

sceleratus, 407.
Raphanus, the radish, 342, 346, 360, 370.

INDEX.

Raraka, in the Coral Archipelago, 61.

Raratonga, or Hervey Group, several na-
tives of, 100.

Rat, a species, on most of the coral islands,
64, 65, 314.

Rattans, in the East Indies, 121.

Rebo, of the Pharaonic monuments, 255.

Red and white, the favourite colours with
the Feejeeans and Telingans, 148.

Reed, see Arundo.

Reseda luteola, 394.

Resin of a species of Dammara, used for
glazing pottery at the Feejee Islands, 160.

Rewa, town of, in the Feejee Group, 153.

Rhapis acicularis, 318, 330.

Rheum, rhubarb, 393, 401.

Rhinoceros, of Sumatra, 304.

Rhubarb, 3928, 401.

Rhus coriaria, 405.

Rhynchospora, 323, 331.

Ribes rubrum, the currant, 311, 409.

grossularia, the gooseberry, 311, 409.

Rice, see Oryza.

Ricinus communis, 91, 316, 324, 329, 341,
364, 398.

Ricinus? Tanarius, 322, 329.

Rio Janeiro, visited, 16, 188, 228, 272.

Rio Negro in Patagonia, visited, 17, 188,
298, 272.

River mussels, see Unio.

Robinia pseudacacia, 410.

Rosaries, 235.

Rose, 379.

Rose Island, visited, 64.—Its Flora consists
of but two species of plants, 64.

Rosemary, 377.

Rosmarinus officinalis, the rosemary, 377.

Rotuma, natives of, 99, 160.

Rubia tinctorum, madder, 389.

Rubus fruticosus, 408.

Rue, 387.

Rumex acetosa, and R. acetosella, 396.

obtusifolius, 396.
patientia, 393.

Ruscus, 391.

Rushes, see Scirpus lacustris.

Ruta graveolens, the rue, 387.

INDEX.

Ruta Halepensis, 407.
Rye, see Secale.

Sacalava, of Madagascar, 181, 190.

Saccharum officinale, the sugar-cane, 318,
324, 330, 342, 348, 359, 399.—Used
for building, at Tongataboo, 84.—And at
the Feejee Islands, 154.—Cultivated in
East Africa, 193, 196.

Sacramento River, in North California, 104,

Sacrifices of animals, in Hindoostan, 263,
—Offerings of flowers and fruits, 268.—
Altars and sacrifices, among the East In-
dians, 282.

Safflower, or Dyer’s saffron, Carthamus,
362, 381.

Saffron, see Crocus and Carthamus.

Sahara, Desert of, 14, 298.—Inhabitants of
its western portion, 298.

Sails, rarely seen among the tribes of North-
west America, 25,—Not seen at certain
coral islands, 59.

Sainfoin, see Onobrychis.

Saline efflorescences, in Northern Oregon,
and in New Caledonia, 33.—In North
California, 104, 111.

Salix Babylonica, the weeping willow, 404.

Salmon, in the Columbia River, 30.—In
the Sacramento River, 107.—JIn the
Shasty River, 110.

Salsify, see Tragopogon.

Salt, is now extensively manufactured at
the Hawaiian Islands, 88.—Little used
by the Feejeeans, 151.—Procured in the
Monomoisy Country, 196.

Salutation ; none, among the maritime tribes
of Northwest America, 23.

Salvadora Persica, 364, 395.

Salvia officinalis, 396.

Salvias, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Sambucus nigra, 391.

Samoa, or Navigator Islands, visited, 73.—
Samoans, at 'Tongataboo, 86.—European
residents, 76, 232, 273.

Samoiedes, 50.

Sanctuaries, common to various Oriental
and ancient forms of worship, 170.

111

4A}

Sandal-wood, see Santalum.

Sandalwood, or Mbua Bay, in the Feejee
Group, 158, 162.

Sandwich Islands, see Hawaiian Islands,

San Francisco, in North California, visited,
100, 231, 273.

Sanscrit Language and Literature, 179,
226, 250, 261, 263.

Santalum, sandal-wood, 364, 402.

Sapindus ryteh, 405,

Sapium sebiferum, 322, 829, 332, 364.

Saponaria officinalis, 413,

Sauk Tribe, 43.

Savaii, in the Samoan Group, visited, 74.

Sceevola lobelia, 67.

Scalping, not practised by the Californian
Tribes, 108.—The process described by
Herodotus, 285.

Scammony, 393.

Scilla maritima, 384.

Scincus, certain species, on the coral islands,
65, 314.

Scirpus lacustris, mats made of, in Oregon,
26.—And in California, 103.—Roots of,
eaten by the Californians, 103.—The
plant, covers extensive tracts along the
Sacramento River, 104,

Scolopendra, or centipede, 333.

Scorpion, 334, 354.

Sculptures, on the Columbia River, 41.

Scutellaria, of the Andes of Peru, 300.

Scythian tribes, 14.

Sea-birds, on Rose Island, and other coral
islands, 64,

Sea-weeds, various esculent species, at the
Hawaiian Islands, 94.—And also, a
poisonous species, 94.

Sebesten, see Cordia crenata.

Secale cereale, rye, 311, 368, 383.

Seclusion of women, 47, 180, 223, 228,

Sedum, 397.

Seheery Coast, of Arabia, 255,

Seminole Tribe, 44.

Senebiera didyma, 334,

Senecio vulgaris, 407.

Senecios, of the Andes of Peru, 300,

Senna, 400.

442

Serapio, quoted, 401, 403, 409.

Serle Island, in the Coral Archipelago,
visited, 54.

Seroor, or Gorputi, in the Dekkan, 265.

Sesamum, 343, 363, 385.

Sesbania /Mgyptiaca, 361, 405.

Setaria, 365.

viridis, 406.
verticillata, 406.

Seychelles, 304.

Shaddock, see Citrus decumana.

Shark-hooks, made of wood, at certain
coral islands, 66.

Shark-teeth saws, of the Tarawan coral
group, 67.

Sharks, at an uninhabited coral island, 55,

Shasty Tribe, of Western Oregon, 110.

Sheep, known in the Monomoisy Country,
197, 337.—The Somali variety, 208,
217.—Sheep, known to the M’Kuafi, 215.
—Sheep of the Dekkan, 265.—A pecu-
liar variety, figured on the most ancient
Egyptian monuments, 305, 8367.—Sheep,
introduced into Oregon, 310.—Into the
Polynesian Islands, 383.—Figured on the
Indian monuments, 351, 354, 357.

Shortsightedness, at. the Tarawan coral
group, 67.—At the Feejee Islands, 166.

Shoshonee, or Snake Tribe, 112.

Siamese, 135, 283.

Sicily, visited, 271.

Sicyos angulata, 326, 332, 336.

Sida, 319, 325.

a double-flowered variety, 315, 325,
abutilon, 409.

mutica, 408.

spinosa, 408,

Sikhs, 240.

Sikirwashi, of East Africa, 216.

Sikligur, 270.

Silk-worms, introduced into the Hawaiian
Islands, 98.—Into the
Countries, 400.

Siegesbeckia Orientalis, 320, 327, 332.

Simpson, T. Beckford, his account of Plea-
sant Island, quoted, 68.

Sinapis, mustard, 386,

Mediterranean

INDEX.

Sindians, 240, 257, 259.

Singapore, visited, 1380, 134, 173, 176,
180, 202, 203, 221, 235, 238, 240.—
Diversity of races at, 274.

Sioux Tribe, 43.

Siser of Varro, 399.

Sium sisarum, the skirret, 399.

Siva, worship of, 268, 271, 355.

Skin lodges, seen in Interior Oregon, 34.

Skirret, see Sium sisarum.

Slavery, among the Chinooks, 28.—Among
the Muslims, 185,190, 192,199, 204, 260.

Slings, used by the Fuegians, 19.—By the
ancient Peruvians, 22.,—Not used by the
New Zealanders, 80. _

Smallage, see Apium.

Smoking, practised, as shown by Davis and
Squier, by the ancient inhabitants of the
valley of the Ohio, 44.

Snake, or Shoshonce Tribe, 112.

Snowy Mountains of Northern Oregon, 29,
SI. 33. 33:

Soahili, a Muslim nation of East Africa,
186.—Their language, the medium of
commercial intercourse along the coast,
187, 278.—Their trading excursions into
the Interior, 191, 193, 195.

Socotra, natives of, 257.

Soil and territorial surface, of three prin-
cipal kinds, 13.

Soils, their different qualities, distinguished
by Polynesians, 84,

Solanum, 324, 3238, 337, 363.

pseudocapsicum, 405,

repandum, 320, 328.

aviculare, 328, 332.

dulcamara, 393.

tuberosum, see Potato.

nigrum, 308, 309, 316, 324, 328,
337, 393.

melongena, the egg plant, 311, 343,
347, 363, 403.

lycopersicum, the tomato, see Lyco-
persicum.

Solomon Islands, or New Georgia, 172.

Somali, 206, 208.—Writers and learned
men, among them, 211.

INDEX.

Sonchus, 337.
oleraceus, 310, 327, 332, 337, 395.

Sooloo, island of, in the East Indies, 126.
—Negrilloes of Sooloo, 174.—Diversity
of races at, 274.

Sophora, 361.

Sorghum, the dourra or juari, 343, 348,
365, 401.

Southern Hemisphere, the climate of, 18.
—Its aboriginal tribes, compared, 78.

Southern Ocean, tempestuous, 18, 80.

Spars, imported by sea, by the ancient
Egyptians, 374.

Spears, used at Zanzibar, 189.—And in the
Thebaid, 205.—Used by the Somali and
Galla, 211, 2138.—Used by the Mussai,
217.—Used by the Brinjarry, 269.—
Used in the East Indies, 282.

Species, among plants and animals, have a
certain geographical range, 303.

Spelt, see Triticum.

Spheranthus, 394.

Sphenoclea, 394.

Spikenard, 379.

Spilanthes acmella, 413,

Spinach, 403.

Spinacia, or spinach, 403.

Spipen River, of Interior Oregon, 30, 38.

Spirit-houses, of the Polynesians, 66, 77.

Spokane Tribe, of Interior Oregon, 34.

Spondias, the vi-apple, 150, 319, 326, 336.

Squash, see Cucurbita.

Squill, 384.

Stachytarpheta, 338, 364,

Steam, employed to induce perspiration, in
Interior Oregon, 32.

Stellaria media, 408.

Sterculia, 410.

St. Helena, visited, 181, 184, 275.

Stockaded villages, among the maritime
tribes of Northwest America, 24,—Of
the New Zealanders, 80.—Of the Fee-
jecans, 158.—Of the Monomoisy, 196,

Stone hatchets, found in Peru, 22.—Not
seen in Oregon, 26.—Stone hatchets of
Northeast America, 44.

Strawberry, see Fragaria.

443

Strychnos nux vomica, 411.

Sucda hortensis, 379.

Sudras, a Hindoo easte, 179, 260, 262.

Suez, visited, 186, 251, 254.

Sumatra, 133.

Sugar cane, see Saccharum.

Sunday Island, sighted, 83.

Supersutions, 282, 296.

Surat cloth, 258.

Surgery, among the Feejeeans, 165, —
Among the modern Persians, 258.

Swain’s Island, in the Union coral group,
noticed, 66.

Sweating-houses, of Interior Oregon, 32.

Sweet potatoes, see Convolvulus.

Swine, see Pig.

Sycamore, 374,

Sydney, in New South Wales, visited, 138,
184, 274,

Syrians, 251.

Syringa, the lilac, 409.

Syrinx, or Pipe of Pan, used by the Fee-
jeeans, 149, 284,

Table-land of Oregon, 31.—And of Southern
India, 264.—Their geological structure,
compared, 267.—Table-lands, are the
birthplaces of civilization, 300.

Taboo, instances of, 69, 81.—Among the
Feejeeans, 153.

Tacca pinnatifida, 61, 317, 380, 342.—
Arrow-root, obtained from, at the Ha-
waiian Islands, 33.—And at the Feejee
Islands, 161.

Tachypetes, frigate-bird, plumes of, 105.

Tagala of Luzon, 119, 277, 283.

Tagetes, 268, 362, 413.

Taheiti, visited, 68.—European residents,
70, 232, 273.

Taheitian visiters, 61, 73, 98.

Tahkali Tribe of Northwest America, burn
their dead, 33.

Takwani Tribe, of East Africa, 199.

Taiara, in the Coral Archipelago, 61.

Talinum patens, 336.

Tamarix? Orientalis, 404.

Tamarindus, 362, 401,

444

Tamul people, 136.—Tamul language and
literature, 263.

Tanacetum vulgare, the tansy, 413.

Tansy, 413.

Tanna, in the New Hebrides Group, 171.

Tapir of Sumatra, 304,

Tapti, a river of Hindoostan, 266.

Tarawan, or Kingsmill coral group, 69.

Taro, see Colocasia.

Tarsier, 304.

Tartar tribes, 14,

Tasmania, or Van Diemen’s Land, natives
of, 142,

Tattooing, not practised at certain coral
islands, 59.—The chequered pattern of
the Western Paumotuans, 62.— The
New Zealand pattern, 81.—The Samoa
and Tonga pattern, 85.—The Hawaiian
pattern, 92.—The practice of tattooing,
among the Californians and the maritime
tribes of Northwest America, 105,—Not
seen in the East Indies, 119.—Tattooing,
among the Feejeeans, and the modern
Arabs, 148, 253.—Among certain Ethio-
pian Tribes, 205.

Tauai, or Kauai, in the Hawaiian Group,
visited, 93.

Tavaita Tribe, of East Africa, 194.

Teak, see Tectona.

Tectona, the teak tree, 364.

Telingan, or Indian Race, 174.—Telingans,
two lascarsat Sooloo, 127, 176.—Lascars
at Manila and at Singapore, 176, 290.
—At Sydney, at Oahu, and in company
with European residents at the Feejee
Islands, 180.—Telingans of Western
Hindoostan, 180.—Of the Persian Gulf,
181.—-Of Madagascar, 181.— Mixed
Telingans, among the Jews, 235.

Tephrosia piscatoria, 315, 326, 341,

Terebinth tree, see Pistacia.

Terminalia, 410.

catappa, 323, 326, 341, 347, 362,

Teucrium scordium, 396.

maruim, 396.
iva, 408.
Tern, in a half-domesticated state, at a

INDEX.

coral island, 61.—Tern, and other sea-
birds, at Rose Island, and other coral
islands, 64.

Ternati, an island in the East Indies, natives
of, 129.

Terra del Fuego, visited, 18, 272.

Thalia dealbata, 411.

Theatrical performances, among the Chi-
nese, 47.—Among the Eastern Hindoos,
176,

Thebes, visited, 204, 249, 399.

Theocritus, quoted, 393,

Theophrastus, plants mentioned by, 387.

Thespesia populnea, 314, 325, 346, 360.

Thlaspi bursa-pastoris, 310.

Thuya Orientalis, 382.

Occidentalis, 410.

Tibboo, of the Sahara, 206.

Tidore, in the East Indies, 173.

Tigers at Singapore, 131.

Tikehau, in the Coral Archipelago, 62.

Tikopia, island of, 289.

Timber rafts, in the Feejee Islands, 154.

Ti-plant, see Draczena.

Tobacco, 308.—Pipes discovered by Davis
and Squier, in the ancient mounds of
Ohio, 44.

Tofooa, in the Tonga Group, contains an
active volcano, 83.

Toka, a town in the Dekkan, 265.

Toltecas, 113.

Tomahawk, not used by the California
Tribes, 108.

Tomato, see Lycopersicum, 312.

Tongataboo, the centre of Navigation in
Western Polynesia, 62.—The island
visited, 83.—Composed of coral, 83.—
Natives of, at the Feejee Islands, 86.—
Feejeean visiters, at ‘Tongataboo, 145.—
European residents, 84, 233, 2738.—
Diversity of races at, 273.

Torres Straits, 141.

Traditions, of the natives of the Tarawan
coral group, 67.—Of the natives of
Pleasant Island, 68.—Of New Zealand,
79.

Tragopogon, salsify, 393.

INDEX.

Tribulus, 335.

Tridents, figured in the Indian caves, 354,

Trifolium Alexandrinum, 389.

procumbens, 408,
Trigonella feenum-Grecum, 361, 381.
Triticum, wheat, 311, 359, 368.
spelta, 368.

Tritom variegatum, the war conch, 62.

Trogon, 124.

Tropeolum maius, 412.

tuberosum, 231, 301.

Tropzolums, of the Andes of Peru, 100.

Tropics; the valley of the Nile, the only
tropical country known to the ancient
Greeks and Romans, 248.

Tulipa, 409.

Turkey, the domesticated bird, 301, 333,
343, 410.

Turks, 246, 250.—Turkish power on the
Euphrates, 239.

Turmeric, see Curcuma.

Turnspit, 305.

Turtle, mutilated by sharks, at uninhabited
coral islands, 55.—Turtle-pens, at the
Feejee Islands, 160.

Turnip, see Brassica rapa, 334.

Tutui-nut, see Aleurites.

Tutuila, in the Samoan Group, visited, 77.

Typha, 339.—Used for building, by the
New Zealanders, 80.

Uea, or Wallis Island, visited, 99.

Ulmus campestris, the European elm, 381.

Umbrellas, Chinese, 46, 127.—Umbrellas,
are figured on the Indian monuments,
352, 353.

Umpqua Tribe, of Western Oregon, 39.

Unio; river-mussels, used for food by the
California tribes, 107, 108.

Union, or Otafuan Group of coral islands,
noticed, 66.

United States, diversity of races in, 9, 185,
272, 278.

Upolu, in the Samoan Group, visited, 74.

Upsaroka, or Crow Tribe, of the Rocky
Mountains, 43,

Urena, 323, 325.

112

445

Urena lobata, 319, 325, 334.
Urtica, a species ina Fuegian hut, 18.
urens, 338, 408.
dioica, 408.
pilulifera, 408.
nivea, 412.
Urticaceee, not seen in New Zealand, 81.
Urticac. incert., 322, 324, 329.
Uvaria aromatica, 402.

Vachellia, 335, 361, 410.

Vaitupan, or Ellice Coral Group, 66.

Valparaiso, visited, 20, 183, 229, 272.

Vancouver, in Northwest America, a gar-
den at, 310.

Van Diemen’s Land, or Tasmannia, na-
tives of, 142,

Vanikoro, in the Nitendi Group, 172, 279.

Vanilla, 411.

Vanua-levu, in the Feejee Group, 158.

Varieties, among animals and plants, 305.

Varro, quoted, 371, 394, 399.

Vatu-lele, in the Feejee Group, an eleva-
ted coral island, 157.

Vavao, natives of, 84.

Vazimba of Madagascar, 181.

Vegetation of different countries, 299,—Of
the Andes of Peru, 299.

Vegetius, quoted, 393.

Verbascum, 396.

Verbena citriodora, see Aloysia,

officinalis, 408.

supina, 408.
Verbesina’ biflora, 8322, 327.
Veronica anagallis, 408,

beccabunga, 408,

Vessels, of the Chinese, 48, 290.—Of the
Western Paumotuans, 62, 63, 288.—Of
the Eastern Polynesians, 84, 288.—Of
the Banians of Cutch, 260.—Proas of the
East Indies, 282, 290,—Of the Japanese,
288.—Of Southern Hindoostan, 290.—
Arab dows, 291.

Vesuvius, 271.

Vetch, see Vicia.

Vi-apple, see Spondias.

Vicia faba, 378.

446

Vicia sativa, 380.
lutea, 389.

Villarsia, 324, 327.

Vinca rosea, 407.

Viola odorata, 382.

Virgil, quoted, 380, 394.

Vitex agnus-castus, 391.

Viti-levu, in the Feejee Group, 153, 158.

Vitis vinifera, the grape, 311, 345, 346,
361, 368.

Volcano, on Savaii, in the Samoa Group,
74.—On Tofooa, in the Tonga Group,
83.—On Hawaii, 94, 95.—On Maui, in
the Hawaiian Group, 97.— Vesuvius,
visited, 271.

Wabiza, or Moviza Tribe, of East Africa,
196, 197.

Wahabi, 251.

Wakamba, Makamba, or Merremengo
Tribe, of East Africa, 193, 194, 216.
Wake’s Island, a detached coral island, vi-

sited, 65.

Wakondy Tribe, of East Africa, 198.

Wallawalla, in Interior Oregon, 37.

Wallis Island, or Uea, visited, 99.

Walnut, see Juglans,

Wamera Tribe, of East Africa, 198, 199.

Wainpugo Tribe, of Eastern Africa, 194,
215, 216.

Wampum, among the Chinooks, 26.—In
Interior Oregon, 84.—Among the Cali-
fornian Tribes, 109.

Wanika, or M’nika Tribe, of East Africa,
192, 194.

War-conch, Triton varicgatum, 62.

Wars, among the ‘Taheitans, 70.—Among
the Samoans, 73, 76.—Among the New
Zealanders, 80.—Of the Tonga Islanders,
83.—Of the Feejeeans, 155,—Of the an-
cient Egyptians, 249.—Wars unknown,
among certain East Indian tribes, 296.

Wataita Tribe, of Hast Africa, 194, 215,

Water, modes of procuring, at the coral
islands, 66.—And in lava districts, at
the Hawaiian Islands, 97.

Water-melon, see Citrullus.

INDEX.

Water-proof baskets, used in Oregon, 25,
31.—And by the Californian Tribes, 103.

Weapons, of the Patagonians, 17.—Of the
Fuegians, 19.—Of the natives of Good-
success Bay, 19.—Of the ancient Peru-
vians, 22.—Of the Samoans, 77.—Of
the New Zealanders, 80.—Of the Tonga
Islanders, 83.—Of the Hawaiians, 91.—
Of the Californian Tribes, 105.—Of the
natives of Sooloo, 126, 282.—Of the
Australians, 140.—Of the Feejeeans, 149,
—Of various East African tribes, 189,
192.—OF the inhabitants of the Thebaid,
205.—Of the Galla, 213.—Of the Mus-
sai, 217.—Of the Bhills and the Brin-
jarry, 269.—Of the ancient Hindoos,
351, 354.

Weeds, accompanying the Fuegians, 18.

Weembi, see Eleusine.

West Indies, aboriginals of, 118, 114, 288.

Whale-teeth, formerly prized by the Ha-
wailans, 91.—Extravagantly prized at
the Feejee Islands, 159.

Whales, captured by the Chinooks, 25, 26.
—But not by the islanders of the main
Pacific, 159.

Wheat, see Triticum.

White and red, the favourite colours with
the Feejeeans and Telingans, 148.

White Race, 225.—Its first appearance in
Egypt, 207.—Origin of, 270.

Winnebago Tribe, 43.

Wolf, the Coyota of California, 106, 308.
—The Australian wolf, 141.

Wool, of the guanaco, made into yarn by the
natives of Good-success Bay in Terra
del Fuego, 19.—Of the mountain goat,
woven into blankets by the Chinooks, 26.

Woven cloth, known to the ancient Peru-
vians, 21,—Blankets, manufactured by
the Chinooks, 26.

Wreaths, a favourite ornament with the
Malayan tribes, 53.—Sometimes worn
by the Californians, 109.

Writing, the nearest approach to, among
the Polynesians, 81.— Antiquity of the
art, 368.

INDEX.

Wyse, or mercantile caste of Hindoos, 263.

Xanthium strumarium, 387, 408.

Yak, or mountain bullock of Thibet, 351.

Yakima River, of Interior Oregon, 31, 37.

Yam, see Dioscorea.

Yellow, the favourite colour with the Ma-
layans, 52.

Yew, bows made of, in California, 109.

Ygorotes of Luzon and Palawan, 50, 126.

Yoktan, or Kahtan Arabs, 254, 256.

Yookulty, or Nootka Tribe, 25, 28.

Yucatan, antiquities of, 43.

Yucca, 413.

Yuchi language, 278.

Zakkoum oil, 386.
Zanzibar, a Chinese residing there, 49.—
American negroes residing there, 184,—

447

Zanzibar, visited, 187, 259.—The Abori-
ginals of Zanzibar, 191.—Diversity of
races at, 275.

| Zapania nodiflora, 408.

Zea mays, 411.—Among ancient Peru-
vian relics, 21.—Its cultivation, intro-
duced into New Zealand, 82.—A tradi-
tion, respecting its cultivation in Mexico,
113.—Maize, recognised by some Japa-
nese, 117.—Cultivation of, in the East
Indies, 124.—In East Africa, 198, 196,
344.—In Aboriginal America, 308.—By
the Oregon emigrants, 311.

Zingiber officinale, the ginger, 196, 342,
398.

Zingiber zerumbet, 317, 329.

Zizyphus, 343, 346, 361.

lotus, 361, 374.
vulgaris, 385.
Zoological considerations, 303.

THE END.

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