THE

RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

VOL. I,

London :

Printed bv Spottiswoode <& Co..

I^ew-stveet Squave,

EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST

ON THE

COASTS OF FRANCE, SPAIN, AND SICILY.

A. DE QUATEEFAGES,

MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE,

PROFESSOR OF ETHNOLOGY AT THE MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

AT THE JARDIN DES PLANTES,

ETC. ETC.

TRAN SLATED

(with the Author^s sanction and co-operation)

E. C. OTTE,

HONORARY MEMBER OF THE LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL
SOCIETY OF ST. ANDREWS.

IN TWO VOLUMES.

YOL. I.

LONDON:

LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, & ROBERTS.

1857.

TO

SIR DAVID BREWSTEE, K.H.

D.C.L., F.E.S.

ONE OF THE EIGHT ASSOCIATES OF THE IMPERIAL INSTITUTE OF FRANCE,

CHEVALIER OF THE PRUSSIAN ORDER OF MERIT OF

FREDERICK THE GREAT,

PRINCIPAL OF THE UNITED COLLEGES OF ST. SALVATOR AND

ST. LEONARD'S, ST. ANDREWS,

ETC. ETC. ETC.

Deae Sie David,

I VBNTUEE to associate your name with the present
volumes on the double ground that the learned Author is one of
the most active members of the time-honoured Institute of France,
which, by electing you one of its Eight Foreign Associates, has
conferred upon you the highest honour that can be attained in the
world of Science ; and that M. de Quatrefages, like yourself, com-
bines the faculty of abstruse research with the felicitous gift of
popularising science in a spirit at once earnest and genial.

Hoping that you may be spared for many years to continue
your important labours in those fields of science in which you have
already reaped so rich a harvest,

I remain,

Dear Sir David,

Yours very truly,

E. C. OTTE.

St. Andrews :
October 1857.

INTRODUCTION.

In writing for the Revue des deux mondes the articles
which I now reprint with several modifications, I
have to some degree been influenced by the wish of
placing zoology in a more just and favourable light.
Most persons form a very false idea of the natural
sciences generally, and of zoology more particularly :
indeed, by many persons the zoologist is looked upon
merely as a man who can repeat by rote a more or
less considerable number of barbarous names, and who
is acquainted with a certain number of anecdotes in
relation to the habits of animals — a species of infor-
mation which, although it is no doubt very interesting
in its way, is alike useless in a practical point of
view and unworthy of occupying the serious atten-
tion of a cultivated mind.

This is a singular error, but it is one which readily
admits of an explanation. There are few children
into whose hands some little book on natural history
has not fallen, but unfortunately most of these works
are very ill adapted to give exact ideas of the dif-

Vlll INTRODUCTION.

ferent branches of this science. Erroneous impres-
sions which are not corrected by any ulterior teaching
must necessarily become thoroughly confirmed. And
yet to judge of zoology by the collections of stories
which amused our childish years, is very much the
same thing as if we were to form a judgment of phy-
sical science from the tricks of a juggler, or of astro-
nomy from what we learn by pointing a telescope
in the open air at Saturn's ring or the mountains in
the moon.

I have thought that the best means of bringing
the educated classes to adopt more correct ideas was
to leave zoology to defend itself by showing the
great truths which it has discovered and the nume-
rous facts which it comprises, and by indicating the
problems of general physiology which it has solved
and the profound questions of natural philosophy
which no other science can so well enter upon. By
this course I hoped to bring over to the ranks of its
defenders a band of intellectual supporters, and I
think I may venture to assert that experience has
shown that my hopes were not unfounded.

Many utilitarians, while they admit the interest
which is awakened by this order of facts and ideas,
inquire, Cui bono ? — This discouraging question,
which was formerly addressed to all sciences, is now
limited to zoology. It is admitted that mathematics
are of some use ; physics and chemistry have long
since given proof of their utility by the deduction

INTRODUCTION. IX

of practical facts from abstruse theories. The cul-
tivation of fruits and the sale of flowers, by giving
a profitable occupation to thousands of persons, have
popularised the study of botany, that elder sister of
the other natural sciences which perhaps owes its
first popularity to its early association with medicine ;
while mineralogy and geology, after having been
long studied in consideration of the light which they
might throw upon the pi^actical working of mines,
have of late been also applied to agriculture.

It is only within the last few years that zoology
has been directly applied to any objects capable of
yielding a profitable return. The light which this
science was able to throw on the phenomena of life
was not sufficient to attach to it the attention of the
general public, who number among their body men
of distinguished eminence in special departments, but
who too often do not esteem any science but the one
to which they are exclusively devoted. Many of
our most distinguished savants are often as blind as
the most illiterate of their fellow-citizens to the direct
applications of any department of knowledge of
which they are themselves ignorant. Thus, for ex-
ample, they cannot comprehend that the breeding of
agricultural stock and the cultivation of domestic
animals — two most important problems regarding
which our knowledge has hitherto been merely
empirical — are only definitely based upon the science
of zoology.

X INTRODUCTION.

But zoology has not been behindhand in satisfying
the requirements of our age. Recent experiments
on artificial fecundation have drawn attention to long
forgotten facts and have shown that the waters may
yield as rich a harvest as the land. Notwithstanding
some of those failures which are inseparably associated
with first attempts, the future success of pisciculture
as an industrial art is established beyond all question;
and here we do not simply allude to the propagation
of fish, but to that of all the aquatic animals which
are useful to man. Without going beyond France,
we shall find many results in proof of this success.
Thus, for instance, M. Coste has acclimatised river
fish in a pond at the College de France. MM.
Gehin and Remy have re-stocked several rivers from
which the fish had long disappeared. M. Millet has
this year thrown into the Levriere more than two
thousand trout of a year's growth, weighing collec-
tively nearly 450 pounds, and all of them the produce
of one well managed fish-preserve. The artificial
rearing of leeches at Bordeaux has for years been a
source of wealth to the proprietors ; and owing to the
exertions of these and other enterprising men
France will soon cease to be dependent on foreigners
for these useful Annelids. The town of La Rochelle
possesses reservoirs for the breeding of shrimps and
oysters, where the former are sheltered from the mud
which would destroy them, and where the latter ac-
quire from their first appearance the green colour which

INTRODUCTION. XI

characterises the celebrated Marennes oysters. We
may next refer to the artificial oyster beds, which are
readily constructed, and might indeed be planned, on
the model of the mussel beds of Esnandes. Nor
must we pass over in silence the introduction into
Europe of new species of domestic animals — a subject
to which the Societd (Tacclimatation is especially de-
voted. Next there is the artificial fattening of stock
and the extraction of fatty matters, the first sugges-
tion of which is due to zoologists; and, lastly, we must
remind our readers of the immense development
which the various artificial means of rearing animals
will probably attain in the course of time. With
such considerations before us, it surely can no longer
be asked of zoology, Cui bono ?

Thus much for utilitarianism. Man, if he were
a mere material organism, only a little superior to
the inert bodies in nature, would still owe some debt
of gratitude to zoology. JMan, however, combines
with his material nature an intelligence and a soul.
Every man worthy of the name has intellectual and
moral wants as imperative as his physical necessities ;
and we may unhesitatingly venture to assert that
no science satisfies in so high a degree as zoology
the noble instincts which constitute the human
species a kingdom apart in the realm of nature. Is
there not then some degree of utility in such a result
as this ?

In the course of the present work I have fre-

Xll INTRODUCTION.

quently referred to considerations of this kind. I
have endeavoured to show how well adapted is the
science of living creation to elevate the mind, at the
same time that it brings back our thoughts towards
Him who has created all things. I will not, there-
fore, here revert to this subject; but there is still
another useful consequence to be deduced from
zoological studies, to which I would now draw
attention.

The number of animals known to us at the present
day may be counted by hundreds of thousands, and
the most retentive memory would be unable to grasp
even the mere names of all the species. To guide
us through this labyrinth, zoologists have devised
systematic methods of classification which are based
upon the very nature of the animals themselves.
The animal kingdom has been distributed over a
sort of framework, whose divisions correspond with
so many groups of facts and ideas which rise gra-
dually from isolated details to the most extended
generalisations. It is impossible to occupy oneself
assiduously with studies of this kind without becoming
in some degree imbued with their spirit. If it is
useful to learn from mathematics how to reason in a
logical manner on purely abstract questions, and if it
is useful to acquire by means of physics and chemistry
a spirit of experimenting, would it not be still more
interesting to the minds of youth if they were taught
to observe, to classify, and to co-ordinate masses of

INTRODUCTION. XUl

precise facts and ideas, based upon realities in such
a manner as to enable them to seize upon their true
relations and their most general consequences ?

Would not the habits thus based upon a metho-
dical system find constant application even in our
daily lives ? Considered from this point of view,
there is no science that can replace the natural
sciences generally, and zoology more particularly.

I have thus endeavoured to indicate the ideas by
which I have been influenced in the composition of
the present work, and it now only remains for me
to say a few words regarding the mode of its exe-
cution.

In addressing myself to the habitual readers of
the Revue des deux mondes I was speaking to an
educated and intelligent class, who, however, have
very little familiarity with the natural sciences. I
was, therefore, obliged to proceed with some reserve,
more especially at the beginning, and hence I almost
always avoided entering into technical details, limit-
ing myself almost exclusively to general questions.
In this manner I often sought to imitate the phy-
sician who envelopes in honey the unsavoury medi-
cine which might otherwise be repulsive to his
patient, and hence I have interwoven descriptive or
historical details in nearly all the chapters of the
work.

Having yielded thus far to the necessities of the
case, I devoted myself so much the more earnestly

XIV INTRODUCTION.

to the principal aim which I had in view. When-
ever I was speaking of scientific matters I never
allowed myself in the slightest degree to sacrifice
the substance to the form. Here I was anxious to
act the part of the zoologist as rigidly as if I had
been engaged in compiling a work for my brother
zoologists. The facts which I have brought forward
in these Rambles may be found either in my own
memoirs or in the scientific works of others, whilst
the ideas which I have here developed are precisely
the same as those which I have at all times advo-
cated. Considered in this respect, these volumes
might be entitled General Essays on Zoology and
Physiology. In the notes which I have added to the
present edition of these Rambles I have entered
somewhat more freely into the technical character
of some of the questions under consideration; I
have given references to a large number of dif-
ferent works and memoirs ; and, finally, I have ap-
pended notices, which are of necessity very short,
regarding the lives and the principal labours of the
authors whom I have had occasion to quote.

If I should be blamed for spending time upon this
attempt to popularise science which I might have
devoted to original researches, I would venture to
urge in extenuation that La Place wrote his Expo-
sition du Systeme du Monde, Cuvier his Discours sw
les Revolutions du Globe, Arago his Notices, Flourens
his Etudes and his Histoires, and Humboldt his

INTRODUCTIOX, XV

Views of Nature and his Cosmos. It has seemed to
me that I could scarcely be committing an error,
when I attempted to follow such examples as these,
by endeavouring in my turn to make others com-
prehend and appreciate a science to which I myself
owe very many hours of unalloyed happiness.

CONTENTS

OF

THE FIRST VOLUME.

CHAPTER I.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY.

Inferior animals in the neighbourhood of Paris. — Granville. — The
tides. — The Archipelago of Chausey ; Grand- He. — Former
connexion of Chausey \rith the continent; submarine forests. —
Local traditions. — The farm. — The natives of Blainville ;
Lobster and shrimp fishery. — The stone-cutters The barilla-
collectors ; fabrication of soda. — Importance of the study of the
more simply organised animals. — Zoological riches of Chausey.

— The errant Annelids; Eunice; Cirrhatula. — Their weapons
of offence and defence ; their enemies. — The Synapta of Duvernoy.

— Sentiments awakened by the study of animal life. — Departure
for St. Malo = - . - . Page l

CHAP. IL

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT.

Journey from Paris to Paimpol. — The Archipelago of Brehat. — Its
geological structure. — Ruins on some of the inhabited islands. —
Grand- He. — Le Paon. — Population ; probable admixture of
Basque and Breton blood. — Mildness of the climate. — The
terrestrial Fauna ; the Black Rat. — The maritime Fauna. — The

VOL. I. a

XVlll CONTENTS OF

animal series. — Ideal and derivative types. — Relations of or-
ganised beings to one another. — General ideal type of a perfect
animal. — Division of physiological labour. — Higher and lower
animals : organic permanence of the former ; organic variability
of the latter. — Subdivision of the Articulata. — True Annelids or
Worms. — Tubiculous Annelids ; Chlorcema; Amphicora; Tere-
bella ; Sabella. — Errant Annelids ; Chsetopterus ; Echiurus ;

Sipunculus ; Dujardinia. — Anatomy of Eunice sanguinea

Doyerina ; Aphlebina. — Organisation of Nemertes ; remarkable
simplification. — Excursion to the lighthouse of Hehaux. — Descrip-
tion of the tower. — Illuminating apparatus. — Historical Notices :
Borda, Lemoine, Bufibn, Arago, Fresnel, the younger Francois. —
Departure from Brehat - - - - Page 66

CHAP. III.

THE COASTS OF SICILY.
THE GROTTO OF SAN-CIRO. — TORRE DELL' ISOLA.

Departure for Naples with MM. Milne Edwards and Blanchard. —
Arrival in Sicily ; aspect of the Bay of Palermo. — Excursions to
the grotto of San-Ciro. — Osseous caverns ; osseous breccias. —
Installation on board the Santa Rosalie. — Departure from
Palermo. — The grottoes of Mont Pellegrino. — The Blatta
orientalis. — Arrival at Torre dell' Isola. — The Padre Antoniuo. —
Structure of the coast. — Our sailors. — Explorations. — Trans-
parence of the water in the bay. — Principal species belonging
to the littoral districts. — Causeways built by the Vermetus. —
Occupations ; mode of life. — Departure for Castellamare - 141

CHAP. IV.

THE COASTS OF SICILY.
THE GULF OF CASTELLAMARE — SANTO VITO,

General aspect of the Gulf. — Formation of clouds in a clear sky. —
Castellamare. — Excursion to the ruins of Segesta. — Departure

., for Santo- Vito. — Misadventures there. — Ants. — Researches of
M. Edwards on the Acalephse, Bero'idse, and Stephanomise. — My
observations on the mode of reproduction of the Syllis. — Repro-
duction of the Medusae. — Curious approximation between the

THE FIRST VOLUME. XIX

Animal and the Vegetable Kingdoms. — Medusas and Fungi. —
Studies of a diflferent kind, leading to the same result — General
consequences - - - - ■ - Page 190

CHAR V.

THE COASTS OiF SICILY.
TRAPANI. — THE ISLANDS OF FAVIGNANA.

Journey to Trapani. — The ancient splendour of that city. — The
doves of Venus Erycina ; the women of San-Juliano. — Departure
for the Islands of Favignana. — Cordial reception. — Geological
structure of the islands. — Cultivation of the land and sources of

industry Tunny fishery. — Researches on the circulation. —

Independence of functions. — Progressive perfection of organisms.
— Phlebenterism. — The labours of M. Edwards, and my own
researches. — The opposition which these labours at first expe-
rienced. — Applications. — General consequences - 234

Appendix ------ 279

RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

CHAPTER I.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSET.

Inferior animals in the neighbourhood of Paris. — Granville. — The
tides. — The Archipelago of Chausey ; Grande-Ile. — Former
connexion of Chausey with the continent ; submarine forests. —
Local traditions. — The farm. — The natives of Blainville ;
Lobster and shrimp fishery. — The stone-cutters, — The barilla-
collectors ; fabrication of soda. — Importance of the study of the
more simply organised animals. — Zoological riches of Chausey.

— The errant Annelids; Eunice; Cirrhatula. — Their weapons
of offence and defence ; their enemies. — The Synapta of Duvernoy.

— Sentiments awakened by the study of animal life. — Departure
for St. Malo.

I HAD spent the spring of 1841 in studying some of
the inferior forms of animal life which occur in the
environs of Paris.* In the course of these researches
I explored the ponds of Plessis-Piquet and Meudon,
the stagnant pools around Yincennes, the basins in
the gardens at Versailles, and even the ditches along

* [M. de Quatrefages here inserts a note on the classification of
the animal kingdom, which, in consequence of its length, we have
transferred to the Appendix. See Appendix, Note I,]
VOL. I. B

2 EAMBLES or A NATURALIST.

the high roads. My table was daily covered with
vessels containing the water which I had brought
home with me from these excursions ; and while the
aquatic plants that had been left undisturbed were
exhibiting an active state of vegetation, the delicate
filaments of their roots formed a place of retreat for
thousands of those minute beings whose existence
and marvellous organisation are only revealed to us
by the microscope. There was the Rotifer, whose
body, composed of rings fitting into one another like
the tubes of a telescope, is provided on its anterior
extremity with two wheel-like organs — a singular
creature, which, although it can only truly live in
water, inhabits the moss of our house-tops, dying
each time the sun dries up its place of retreat, to
revive as often as a shower of" rain supplies it with
the liquid necessary to its existence, and thus em-
ploying several years to exhaust the eighteen days
of life which nature has accorded to it.* There was
the Hydatina senta, an animalcule allied to the ro-
tifer, whose aquatic existence is often cut short by
drought, but whose ova, mingled with the dust of
our roads, and borne aloft by the winds, are carried
far from the place of their origin to some drop of
water, where they undergo further development and
secure the propagation of their species. The hy-
datina is an exquisite little creature of such pure
crystalline transparency that the microscope f — that

* [A sketch of the natural history of the Rotifers and their allies is
given in the Appendix, Note IL]

f [We have transferred to the Appendix, Note III., a short history
of the microscope, which the author had given as a foot note.]

THE AECHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 6

wonder-revealing instrument — can penetrate even to
the inmost recesses of its organisation.* Then there
was the Brachionus, another genus of the class of
rotifers, which, on the slightest indication of the ap-
proach of danger, covers its long tail and ciliated
head with its bristling cuirass. Next in order came
some of those Diatomacece] , whose infinitely minute
siliceous shields have offered a firmer resistance
against the revolutions of our globe than the gigan-
tic skeletons of the antediluvial monsters — organisms
so microscopically minute that the point of a needle
might at one touch crush hundreds of them, although
their remains have combined to form entire rocks
and extensive geological strata, known and worked
for ages under the name of tripoli. Lastly there
were Planarias J, and myriads of infusorial animal-

* Hydatina senta belongs to the class of the Rotifers. It was on
this species that Ehrenberg made his first observations on the com-
plicated organism of these little animals. The hydatina is of very
common occurrence in the neighbourhood of Paris, especially in the
spring, when it is to be met with in the little pools of stagnant
water on the road- side, and in the ruts made by carriage wheels.

f The Diatoms constitute one of those groups regarding the
position of which naturalists are still undecided ; some holding them
to be vegetables, while others regard them as animals. Some of
them, as the Naviculas, exhibit a slow and regular motion which
appears to be the result of spontaneity. Many present forms of
geometrical regularity, and their siliceous shields, transparent as the
purest crystal, are moreover, marked with tracings of such extreme
delicacy that every improvement in the microscope reveals to us
new and previously unobserved details.

X The Planarias belong to the great subdivision of the Vermes.

They are flat, slightly elongated animals in which the two sexes are

united ; they are provided with a digestive apparatus, which ramifies

over the whole bodj, and they move by the aid of vibratile cilia,

B 2

4 EAMBLES OP A NATURALIST.

cules*, of every form and name, which multiply by
self-division (fissiparous reproduction), so that it may
literally be said that the son is half of his parent, and
the grandson the quarter of his grandsire.

Such studies are highly attractive even when con-
sidered on the simple grounds of curiosity: this,
however, is not their only claim upon our attention,
for they possess another and a far greater source of
interest. In the higher forms of animal life, the size
and opacity of the organs do not allow of our study-
ins: the mechanism of their actions and functions
in the living state ; in their case we must content
ourselves with the mere study of their anatomy.
In the lower animals, on the other hand, we are
enabled to trace the operations of nature at the very
moment of their accomplishment : thus, for instance,
in the animalcule we can follow the alimentary
molecule from the very moment in which it is
swallowed until it is rejected by the animal, after
having yielded up all its nutritious matter. The
changes which this molecule undergoes in its passage
through the animalcule, and the successive action of
the animal organs and fluids, are all displayed before

■with which the entire surface of the body is covered. These
■worms, whose anatomical structure presents many singularities,
have been carefully studied by many naturalists, amongst whom
may be especially mentioned Von Baer, Duges and De Quatrefages,
CErsted, Von Siebold and Dalyell.

* We have shown (see Appendix, Note I.) that the Infusoria must
be provisionally regarded as forming a class of the subdivision of
the globular Zoophytes. Amongst the principal writers on this
group of animals we may especially mention O. F. Miiller, Ehren-
berg, and Dujardin.

THE ARCniPELAGO OF CHAUSET. 5

our eyes, so that these ciystalline organisms seem
almost to invite science to raise a corner of the veil
which conceals from us the mysteries of that which
we term life.

In the midst of these attractive studies I found
that the field of my researches was continually gain-
ing in extent and beauty. But I was desirous, before
I advanced further on my present path of inquiry,
to obtain new materials for comparison, and to in-
vestigate, in a similar manner, those larger types of
the inferior forms of animal life which are only to
be found on the sea-shore. The ocean, to which I
was still a stranger, attracted me in its varied coast
lines, its innumerable zoological races, and its tides,
which serve alternately to conceal and to reveal its
treasures. These I resolved to explore ; but the
difficulty was to make a selection among the many
different points of our western shores. At last,
however, I was led to decide in favour of a group of
islands situated to the north-west of the Bay of
St. Michael's Mount, and designated by the pompous
title of the Archipelago of Cliausey. About the
middle of June I packed up my dissecting instru-
ments, a few books, numerous glass bottles and
basins, my excellent Oberhauser microscope, my
study lamp, maps of the islands of Chausey and of
the Bay of St. jNlichael's Mount, and thus equipped
I set forth on my scientific campaign. I will spare
my readers the details of my journey, as nothing
could be more thoroughly commonplace. I passed
through Normandy under a cold and foggy sky;

B 3

6 RAMBLES OF A NATUEALIST.

stopped one day at Caen, and then, without further
delay, pursued my way to Granville.*

Here I made my first acquaintance with the ocean,
and first learnt to understand the difference between
the ebbing and flowing of the tides. How vastly
different are the impressions produced by direct
observation from those which we derive through
books ! The gradual disappearance of the beautiful
beach, which I had just trodden ; the sight of the
waves dashing into foam as^ainst the rocks, which
had only lately seemed so far removed from them ;
the gentle lifting up of the ships, fishing-smacks and
boats from the bed of black mud, in which they had
been securely moored ; their successive rise, as each
in its turn floated into deep water, — all these sights,
everything around, filled me with sensations of Avonder
and admiration.

The tides are very strong at Granville and through
the Channel generally ; the difference between high
and low water being sometimes as much as forty feet.
At some points, as, for instance, round Mount St.
Michael f , the space which is alternately covered and

* Granville is a little town in the department of La Manche. It
is built on an elevated promontory which is almost entirely separated
from the continent by a deep cutting. Its commodious and safe
harbour was constructed in 1784, eight years after which the town
made an honourable defence against the English. Its coasting trade,
its oyster beds, and its cod fishery, render Granville one of the
most busy of our smaller commercial sea-ports.

f The space surrounding Mount St. Michael which is alternately
covered and left bare by the tide amounts to 80 or 100 square
miles. This low and nearly level beach is intersected by sevei'al
streams, which frequently change their course, and thus render this

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 7

exposed forms a zone of several leagues in extent.
The imagination stands appalled at the idea of the
fluid masses which are thus swayed from shore to
shore by the attraction of the sun and moon; and
although a four months' sojourn on the sea-coast
familiarised me with this phenomenon, it in no
degree tended to diminish the admiration which
it awakened in my mind on the first day of my
arrival.

The ancients characterised the land as their Alma
parens ; yet how much more worthy does the ocean
seem of this title ! The dweller on the earth must
sow the seed, plant trees, or turn the soil with his
plough before he can gather in the grain that is to
nourish him, or pluck the fruit that is to quench his
thirst. ^lonths, nay years, may pass before his
labours Avill be recompensed, and perhaps at the
very moment when he is about to reap the reward
of his toil, a blast of w^ind, or a hail-storm, comes
utterly to destroy his hopes. The ocean demands no
such protracted waiting, and gives birth to no such
painful disappointments. The tide falls ! — to work !
to work ! both young and old ! there is room for all,
and labour proportioned to every age and to every
degree of strength. The men and their sturdy help-
mates, spade in hand, turn up the sand, which has

coast extremely dangerous by tending to the formation of shifting
sands. The mountain itself is merely a large graaite rock measuring
about 1600 yards in circumference at the base, and which rises to
a height of between 400 and 500 feet. The summit is entirely
covered with the castle which once played a prominent part in the
wars of the Middle Ages ; but is now merely employed as a state
prison.

B 4

» RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

been covered by the sea for some hours, and soon
their baskets are filled with cockles, razor-fishes, and
venuses, which although less delicate, are more nou-
rishing than oysters ; besides these, there is also the
sand-eel (^Ammodytes tohianus et A. lancea), a little
fish which is held in high esteem, but which is not as
easily captured as the shell-fish, for it loves to hide
itself under the sand, where it moves about with
marvellous agility. During this time the young girls
are dropping their pocket-like nets into the pools,
which have been left by the retiring tide, busily em-
l^loyed in collecting shrimps, or in catching some
lobster or crab, or perchance, even some stray shore-
fish, which has been arrested before it could regain
its distant place of retreat. Others, armed with a
stick, terminating in a strong hook, scrape the sand
below the stones and hollows of the rock, and from
time to time draw forth a conger -eel with glistening
skin, or some cuttle-fish or calamary, which vainly
attempts to escape by shrouding itself in a .cloud
of ink. The children in the meantime gather from
the rocks limpets, periwinkles, whelks, roaring
buckles, ormers, or mussels, which hang clustering
together like bunches of grapes, suspended by the
threads of the byssus, which the animal weaves for
itself. For two or three hours the beach is full of
life and activity, whilst a whole population pours
forth to seek its daily food ; but soon the waves
return towards the shore, the tide rises, and all
hasten homeward, certain that the sea will rej^lace
the bounteous o-ifts which it is takino; from them,
and that in a few hours they may come forth again

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. \)

to reap a harvest which has needed no season of
planting or of sowing.

1 was the bearer of a letter of introduction to M.
Beautemps, the nephew of the celebrated engineer
and hydrographer, to whom we are indebted for the
magnificent hydrogra'phical Atlas of the Coasts of
France. I took the earliest occasion of presenting
this letter, and, thanks to M. Beautemps, I made the
acquaintance of M. Harasse, the proprietor of the
islands of Chausey, and of M. Dubreuil, who was
then in command of the coast-guard vessel, the
Moustique. The former of these gentlemen gave me
permission to establish myself on his property, and
even accorded me the use of a room in one of the
buildings set apart for the managers and for the pre-
servation of the farm stores, whilst the latter under-
took to convey me to my new residence.

At six o'clock the next morning I embarked on
board the Moustique, which at once heaved its anchor
and left the harbour of Granville. The sea was
running very high, and the wind being against us,
we were obliged to tack. To confess the truth, this
voyage proved a severe trial to me, for after having
earned the congratulations of the commander for my
good sailorship, I was compelled to retreat to the
cabin, where for three hours I remained a victim to
all the horrors of sea-sickness. But at length these
miseries were terminated by the Moustique gliding
into the smoother water of the Chausey harbour,
where the fresh north-west breeze soon restored my
wonted courage.

In the course of a few minutes I had landed and

10 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

taken possession of my domicile. It was a large
room, whose walls, blackened by damp, showed only
here and there some problematical traces of former
painting. On an uneven floor stood a large square
table, another and smaller table, a few chairs, and a
cupboard. A bed-frame, suspended from the ceiling
by four ropes, and furnished with a few handfuls of
straw and a mattress two inches thick, w^as to serve
me in the place of a hammock. The apartment had
one narrow and low window looking northward upon
a small arm of the sea. It must be confessed that
there was nothing very cheering in this tout- en-
semble ; but the attraction of novelty and the hope
of future discoveries gave brightness to my walls
and furniture, and diffused an air of comfort over
everything ; so that I was soon contentedly installed
in my new quarters. The large table, firmly propped
up against the wall, was converted into a working
place, my microscope and lenses were arranged on
the best lighted angle, some of my bottles stood near
them, and the rest of the space was occupied by my
forceps, scalpels, and crayons. I placed my books
and the surplus of my bottles and jars on the
chimney-piece. Large earthenware pans were ranged
around the room. Everything, indeed, was disposed
of in the best possible manner ; but this admirable
arrangement soon gave place to the disorder which
so speedily takes possession of the quarters of a hard-
working naturalist. The little table, which had at
first been reserved for my meals, was speedily covered
with my objects of research, and I was very often

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 11

compelled to substitute for it a chair, which required
to be cleared for the purpose.

As soon as my preliminary arrangements were
completed, I set forth to reconnoitre the territory
which I intended to explore in the cause of zoology.
The farm-house in which I was domiciled was built
on the side of a small arm of the sea, called the
Sound of Chausey. It consisted of two wings, one of
which contained the stables, and apartments for the
servants and men on the farm ; the other was occu-
pied by the baking-house, the manager's room, and
the apartments reserved for the use of the proprietor.
This double house was built of native granite, and
constituted the capital of the archipelago; and the
employes, Avho represented the aristocracy of the
community, were so thoroughly sensible of their own
importance that they had very little intercourse
with the rest of the inhabitants.

Leaving the farm- buildings, I took the first path
which presented itself, and crossed a marshy common,
the favourite resort of the wild geese and ducks,
which come in winter to breed on these inaccessible
shores. A few paces further on a narrow and sandy
isthmus led me to the foot of Gros Mont, the highest
mountain of the archipelago, and from its elevated
summit I could embrace in one glance all that the
horizon encompassed. On every side of me was
spread the ocean, which in the west was bounded
only by the sky. To the south tlie view terminated
with the coasts of Brittany, which scarcely rose
above the line of the waves. Towards the east I
could clearly distinguish the rugged shores of Nor-

12 RAMBLES or A NATURALIST.

mandy and the towers of Coutances, which may be
seen, it is said, from a distance of thirty miles.* To
the north I could discern Jersey, an island which,
to the shame of our successive governments, still
belongs to the English, and where the ancient cus-
toms of France and our beautiful langue cVoil have
been preserved to the present day. At my feet the
archipelago seemed to form a semicircle, intersected
by channels, which were traversed from time to time
by square-sailed boats, and studded over with its
hundred of rocks and strangely- shaped islets, whose
sides were either hollowed by deep creeks and bays,
or flanked by bristling promontories.

Grande-Ile, on which I had taken up my abode,
is about a quarter of a league in length, but of
much less considerable breadth; indeed, its area
scarcely equals that of the Jardin des Plantes. It
descends in the east by a gentle slope to the Sound,
whose narrow and deep channel is always open, and
affords at all times perfectly safe anchorage. To the
north rises Gros Mont, on which I was standing.
Towards the south the island terminates in an elevated
cape, called Pointe-Marie. The western coast is
formed by a succession of hills, one of which, known
as the Mont de Bretagne, is surmounted by the
ruins of an ancient fort, commanding the beautiful
beach of Port Homard. On the inner slope of these

* Coutances, -which was formerly called Cosedia and subsequently
Constantia Castra, is one of the most ancient towns of the depart-
ment of La Manche. It has given its name to the territory known
as Le Cotentin. Its cathedral is one of the roost remarkable
monuments of the ancient province of Normandy.

THE AKCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 13

miniature mountains are several cultivated fields and
two meadows, which extend as far as the farm
buildino;s.

The rest of the island is uncultivated, and covered
with that fine and close o;rass which o-rows on hio^h
mountains. The graminese enter largely into the
composition of this herbage, but it is also intermingled
with some pretty violet-coloured bulbous roots, and
a large number of papilionaceous plants with golden-
coloured corollas. The wild thyme was conspicuous
everywhere, with its dark green patches, dotted over
with little tufts of purple blossoms. Here and
there a trailing rose-bush threw up small shoots of
one or two inches in height, crowned with a delicate
pink flower, or a berry as bright and as red as the
finest coral. On the side of the rocks, which every-
where pierce the thin layer of vegetable mould, are
thick bramble bushes, whilst the sheltered spots
abound with peppermint, borage, and wild mustard.
The portion of Mont de Bretagne which formerly
served as a burying-ground has been planted with
broom, which has thriven admirably, and now
furnishes fuel for the ovens. To the north-west of
Grande-Ile lies a group of smaller islands which
present some slight vegetation. These are La
Genetaie, Houssaie, La Meule, and Ile-aux-Oiseaux.
To the north and west lie Enseigne, Plate-lie, Deux
Romonts, and Longue-Ile. Here the velvet-like
sward, of which we have already spoken, is replaced
by a high and mixed grass, which is cut every year.

During the revolutionary wars, Chausey remained
uninhabited, owing to its exposure to the inroads of

14 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

the Jersey pirates. Two mammifers, — both belong-
ing to the order of the Rodents, and both remarkable
for their fecundity, — the rat and the rabbit, profited
by the absence of human inhabitants, and disputed
the possession of these deserted rocks. When France,
yielding to her destiny, was compelled to submit to
the Treaties of 1815, Chausey began to be re-peopled,
and French and Englishmen, after their long contests
on the fields of battle, combined together against the
usurping quadrupeds. Guns, dogs, and traps Avere
all brought into requisition ; and to escape this war
of extermination, the rats took refuge in the western
islands, where they are suffered to remain unmolested
excepting at the time of the hay harvest. Not even
the remotest rocks, however, could serve as an
asylum for the unfortunate rabbits, for the Jerseymen
pursued them with their ferrets ; and now, the last
descendants of this once numerous population are
disappearing, one by one, before the attacks of these
formidable accents of destruction.

The only representative of the class of reptiles
which I met with at Chausey was a pretty variety of
the grey lizard*, remarkable for the brightness of
its colours. Of birds, on the contrary, there were
numerous species. The sparrows, those never-falling
attendants on the footsteps of man, have estab-
lished tlielr general quarters in the ruins of the
old castle. t Troops of linnets and goldfinches pass

* We have in France, according to Duges, five species of lizards :
(^Lacerta ocellata, L. viridis, L. velox, L. edwardsiana, L. stirpium,
and L. muralis.) The last of these, the grey lizard, that frequents
old -svalls, is the most common of all.

f The Fringilla domestica, or common sparrow, is one of the most

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 15

incessantly from one little hillock to another, whilst
the plaintive cry of the wheat-eater is heard at every
instant, as he flits from rock to rock. In crossing the
sands, which had been left dry by the last tide,
I encountered a considerable number of shore birds,
which had come thither in search of food. The sea-
pies (Hcamato-pus), and sand-pipers ( Tringa) picked
their way along every indentation of the shore ; the
god-wits {Limosa), and the curlews {Numeniiis\ with

universally distributed species of birds. It is of European origin,
but it has accompanied many of our navigators, penetrating even as
far as New Holland. Every one is well acquainted with the
effrontery, voracity, and fecundity of these common birds, and con-
sequently it is easy to comprehend how much injury they must
commit. M. Rouyer de la Bergerie estimates the amount of corn
eaten by every sparrow annually to be about one bushel. From
this we may judge of the immense quantity of grain which is
annually lost through the depredations of these birds. It must,
however, be admitted that these voracious thieves render a real
service to agriculture. When first the young sparrow breaks
through the eg^, it requires to be fed with some substance more
tender and soft than the ordinary cereals, and on this account the
parent birds supply it with grubs. Bradley has calculated, from
repeated observations, that a couple of old sparrows will convey to
their nest no less than 40 grubs every hour, which would give 480
grubs for the twelve hours of the day, and 3360 for each week's
consumption. These numbers will explain a circumstance which
occurred thirty years ago. With a view of protecting the neigh-
bourhood of Vienna from the voracity of these birds, an order was
published that every cultivator of the ground should, in addition to
his other contributions, furnish the heads of two sparrows. This
regulation was faithfully obeyed, and the sparrows rapidly disap-
peared, bvit on the other hand, all the trees in the neighbourhood
were being devoured by caterpillars. It was therefore found
necessary to repeal the decree, and for a time at least to encourage
by every means the multiplication of the same birds which had
been so ruthlessly destroyed.

16 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

their long, slender, and curved beaks, swarmed in
every muddy creek ; the solitary heron sat mournful
and motionless upon a stone by the water's edge,
waiting, with its proverbial patience, until some im-
prudent prey should pass within reach of its beak,
whilst above his head the sea swallows {Sterna), and
gulls (Larus), described a thousand circles in their
rapid flight as they uttered their discordant cries;
and then, after gently sinking to the surface of the
water, rose by a sudden movement of their wings,
after having seized the fish, Avhich their piercing
sio'ht had detected below the waves.

On returning from my first excursion, I skirted
along the garden of the farm, — a badly kept plot of
ground, in w^hich grew a few dwarf apple-trees, and
two poor fig-trees. Here, at the foot of a small
hollow, and near a clump of young willows, I dis-
covered the spring, whose existence has alone been
able to render Chausey habitable. The presence of
a spring upon this block of granite, at several leagues
from the coast of the main land, is a very curious
circumstance, and somewhat difficult of explanation.
The neighbouring land is not sufficiently extensive,
and is, moreover, too shallow to allow of the sup-
position that its infiltrations are adequate for the
supply of this spring. On the other hand, it is not
easy to suppose that it should owe its origin to the
continent across the twisted strata of those is^neous
rocks ; yet this latter hypothesis is the less improbable
of the two. However this may be, the water of this
spring, which never dries, is excellent, and the coast-
guard vessels always resort to it for their own use, as

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 17

they find it far preferable to any which they can
procure at the adjoining ports.

The Archipelago of Chausey is essentially formed
of a bluisli-grey granite, separated into more or
less extensive strata, whose regular and uniform
disposition is easily recognised to the south and
south-west of Grande-Ile, as well as all round En-
seigne. These strata, which are almost horizontal
in the centre of the islands, incline towards the
shore, and sink into the sea at an acute angle. Fis-
sures, pe^endicular to the plane of the strata, inter-
secting ^^^h other at various angles, divide the rock
still more, and facilitate its working.* A red friable
stone, known in the country as rotten stone, fills these
interstices. Veins of pegmatite, which when de-
composed forms the kaolin used in the manufacture
of porcelain, intersect these granitic masses, which
are also interspersed with detached portions of quartz

* There is a very curious circumstance connected with the work-
ing of the granite at Chausey which, however, is often observed in
other rocks of a compact structure. Before any considerable mass
of the stone is detached, a narrow line of about an inch in depth is
traced along the rock, and into this groove wedges of soft iron are
placed side by side. These wedges are then alternately struck with
a moderate degree of force, when, after a certain time, a sort of
musical sound is heard to proceed from thq stone, which indicates
that it has been split through the entire mass. Nothing now remains
to be done but to detach the fragment which has been thus obtained.
"When the rock is very homogeneous, the fracture is prolonged with
much regularity, until it meets the adjoining grooves, excepting in
case of its coming in contact with rotten stone. I have seen this
method employed to detach blocks of granite which were fully a foot
in thickness and more than fifty feet square, and in all cases the
sides of the mass were perfectly parallel and smooth.
VOL. I. C

18 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

and veins of mica. No part exhibits the slightest
trace of the pudding-stone and rose granite of
Jersey, or of the schist, trap, or quartz rocks so
common at St. Malo. The rock of Chausey does
not, either, resemble that of Granville ; hence every-
thing disposes us to regard this district as being
merely indirectly connected with the neighbouring
formations.

During high tide, an observer standing on Gros
Mont sees only fifteen islands around him, and
these are almost on a level with the surrounding
liquid plain. One by one some isolated rock de-
taches itself from the green bed of the ocean, and
arrests the waves as they break in white foam against
its blackened summit. But soon the tide is seen to
ebb; the sea, after some oscillation, begins to fall.
The islands gradually become larger, girding them-
selves with a broad belt of moss-covered and black-
ened rocks, festooned by long pendants of brown
fucus, which hang from their sides like the marble
reeds with which sculptors adorn their statues of
river gods. Numerous rocks, covered with the same
vegetation, seem to emerge on every side and rapidly
multiplying, end by mingling together into one
mass. At length, long banks of yellow sands come
to view, vast prairies of the zostera* rise from be-
neath the waves, and, uniting the points which had
before been severed, convert the archipelago into

* Zostera constitutes a genus of marine plants which grow sub-
merged in almost all seas, being usually found near the coast ; the
species to which we here refer (Z. marina) is remarkable for the
length of its leaves, which look like long, narrow, and thin green
ribbons.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 19

one large island, whose circuit, which is about
twenty-one miles, is broken here and there by the
indentation of some few and narrow channels.

It is difficult to conceive anything more desolate
than the appearance of certain parts of Chausey,
more especially the north-west angle, at low tide.
One might also fancy that the islands were the mere
debris of some mountain hurled pell-mell into the
middle of the ocean. Blocks of every variety of
form and size are grouped together in a thousand
different ways, some rising into pyramids, others
graduated and cut into irregular tiers of steps, others
again heaped together into confused masses like the
ruins of some giant structure, at one place up-
heaved like colossal Druidical stones, at another
entangled together like the rude materials of some
Cyclopean edifice, or else suspended and so slightly
poised, that a breath of air seems sufficient to over-
throw them. The first appearance of this frightful
picture of chaos leads one to refer the disorder to
one of those o-reat convulsions of nature which have
upheaved mountain chains and excavated ocean
beds. But this conjecture is incorrect ; for the slow
but incessant action of atmospheric agents, joined to
the reiterated shock of the waves, has sufficed to
produce this disarrangement, which moreover exists
only on the surface. With a little attention, one
may easily discover the regular stratification of the
islands below these powerfully-shaken blocks, and
we may thus the more readily explain a phenomenon
which is of daily recurrence.

We have seen that tlie geological framework of
c 2

20 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Cliausey is entirely granitic, and very probably
owed its existence to a special ebullition of that
o^reat central fire whose fluid lava has contributed
to the formation of the thin crust which we in-
habit. When this incandescent mass issued from
the interior of the earth, it rapidly cooled. This
cooling process was followed by the sudden retreat
of the fluid masses, and this gave rise to intersecting
fissures which were soon filled with debris that have
produced the rotten stone. The latter is unable to
offer any prolonged resistance to the shock of the
waves ; and, by its disintegration, it isolates the
more compact blocks, which, notwithstanding their
enormous weight, are often transported to consider-
able distances by the force of the sea. During my
stay in the archipelago a section of rock, nearly
1000 tons in weight, was detached from the main
mass, and hurled to a distance of several yards
by the action of the waves, at a time when the
fishermen were able to pursue - their ordinary daily
avocations.

It Avould appear that the Chausey islands have
not always been as far removed from the continent
as they are at the present time. According to a
tradition wdiich is universally diffused over the dis-
trict, this granitic mass once formed the head of a
dyke of rocks, protecting vast morasses and a con-
siderable forest, wdiich is now submerged beneath
the waters. Some writers have even thought that
they were justified by ancient documents in referring
the probable date of this catastrophe to the year 709
of our era. Geological facts give a certain degree

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 21

of value to this popular belief; and the vegetable
strata, known under the name of submarine forests,
which occur in the vicinity of Mount St. Michael,
appear to afford it full confirmation. When a violent
tempest breaks upon the shore and upheaves the sur-
face these ancient deposits, which are habitually
covered with mud or white sand, sometimes come to
view. Whenever this occurs the fine sands dis-
appear beneath a blackish earth, which encloses
entire trees, ranged in a uniform direction, in strata,
above one another. The various species are easily
distinguished ; of these the oak, the yew, and the
birch are the most common. The trunks of these
trees seem first to have been reduced to a state of
mould, and subsequently, on exposure to the air, to
have regained consistency of texture and to have
acquired a darker shade of colour. The oak espe-
cially exhibits the hardness and shining black tinge
of ebony ; and hence it is employed for the same
purposes and used in the manufacture of ornamental
furniture. These trees rest upon a soil which appears
to have been meadow-land. We find among them
reeds, grasses, ferns, &c. All these plants are in
their natural positions, and have preserved all their
most delicate parts ; the reeds still contain a light
medullary pith, and the roots of the ferns exhibit the
delicate loose ' downy hairs with which they are
covered during the period of their vegetation.

Whatever may have been the ancient relations
subsisting between the Chausey isles and the main-
land, the archipelago certainly, at one time, enjoyed
a \erj different degree of importance from that which

C 3

22 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

it at present possesses. This little corner of tlie earth
has its history no less than the greatest empires.
There existed here in ancient days an abbey, which
after having been originally independent became
tributary to the monastery of Mount St. Michael, in
conformity with a decree of Kichard I. Duke of
Normandy. It was originally held by the Bene-
dictines ; but towards the year 1343, Philip of Valois
bestowed it upon the Cordeliers. The numbers of
the religious community were very considerable at
that time, as is proved by the registers of the
Bishopric of Coutances, and as we find attested by
the tombs, discovered some years ago when a part of
Grande-Ile was laid down in pasturage land.

If we are to believe the current tradition, these
early proprietors of Chausey were far from leading
lives in conformity with their sacred character. Ship-
wrecks formed the principal branch of their revenues,
and not contented with pillaging the wrecks, which
chance or storms threw upon the coast, they kindled
beacon-lights on the points of greatest danger in
order to allure the trusting mariners to certain de-
struction. It is added that those poor wretches who
escaped from shipwreck met with a speedy death on
these inhospitable shores. The women alone were
spared, and, when they refused to yield to the desires
of the monks, they were precipitated into a cavern
communicating with the sea, where the next tide
must have terminated their troubles. I was shown
in one corner of the ruins of the old fort a square
ditch, half filled with stones, which I was assured
had served as the opening to these terrible oubliettes.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 23

It will readily be supposed that superstitious fears
have become intimately associated with these lus^u-
brious memorials of former times. When the ruins
are shrouded in night, and when a sudden squall
from the west throws over them the light spray of
the waves, there is not an inhabitant of Chausey who
would venture to approach them, or who would dare
to expose himself to the risk of seeing the red flames
which flicker round the court of the old castle, or of
hearino; the o-roans which, issuins; from the sides of
the rock, are lost amid the crash of the storm.

Chausey has, however, more modern and more
cheerful traditions. I heard much of M. Beautemps-
Beaupre and of his labours ; and I was also informed
that several years before two gentlemen had come to
instal themselves on the island, accompanied by their
young wives. For four months they had explored
the shore, ransacked the sands, and examined the
ledges of rocks. Besides this they had established,
in the neighbourhood of the farm, tanks filled with
sea-water, communicating with tubes, and in these
portable pools and artificial rivers they had kept all
kinds of marine animals. These practices had given
rise to a very large consumption of lobsters and
crabs, not that the gentlemen devoured them, but
they cut them up, dismembered them, syringed them,
and examined them with strano-e-lookino; instruments.
When the husbands went out fishing their wives
accompanied them, and in all respects led an equally
exposed life. When they were not engaged in these
excursions the latter devoted their time to household
duties and to drawing. At this time an epidemic

c 4

24 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

form of fever was rcwino; on the island. The two
young couj)les visited the sick, and cured them with
a marvellous plant, whose name no one knew. I
had no difficulty in interpreting this legend, for I
knew all the actors. The fact is, that it was at
Chausey that MM. Milne Edwards and Audouin*
commenced those inquiries which subsequently led
to their introduction to the Academy. It was here
that they entered upon those splendid researches on the
circulation and the nervous system of the crustaceans,
which, although they furnished a refutation of the
opinions of Cuvier, were frankly recognised by that
great man, whose heart was too noble to harbour
any paltry feeling of jealousy. And it was Milne
Edwards and Audouin who, through their medical
knowledge, had been able to cure many sufferers by
the aid of some hygienic precautions and a few cups
of tea !

Towards the beginning of the sixteenth century,
Chausey, having been abandoned by the monks,
was transformed into a military post, and subse-
quently, a short time before the revolution, it fell
into the hands of a private individual. During our
maritime wars, a poor woman, the widow of a sea-
faring man, remained alone in the farm buildings ;
and her presence seems to have protected them'
from the attacks of the Jersey freebooters, who were
then the only persons that frequented this little
archipelago, their personal interest leading them, no

* [A sketch of the chief natural-history labours of Milne Edwards
and Audouin is given in the Appendix, Note IV. ]

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSET. 25

doubt, to preserve a thrifty housewife, who was
often called upon to prepare their scanty meals and
perform other useful services for them. After the
peace. Mere Lehuffe, as she was generally called,
retained the management of the farm until her age
and infirmities rendered it impossible for her to fulfil
the duties of this office. At the time of my voyage
she was still living at Granville, in the enjoyment of
a pension which her old master had settled upon her
in acknowledgment of her long and arduous services.
At the present time, in consequence of the impor-
tance which Chausey has acquired, a special manager
is appointed to take charge of the supplies of food.
He has also under his orders a farmer, a baker, two
farm-boys, and two women, who attend more par-
ticularly to the care of the cattle and to the indoors
work.

"The post of Manager of Chausey is in great
request, and gives rise to as many intrigues as the
portfolio of minister under a constitutional king
could possibly excite. Thus revolutions are not of
rare occurrence in this little government, and I had
the pleasure of watching one through all its various
phases. I had been received on my arrival by an old
man, who had foi^merly acted as master of a coasting-
trader, but who for a number of years had performed
the important duties of vicegerent to M. Harasse.
A few days afterwards vague rumours informed me
that he was going to be superseded, and, accordingly,
one fine morning, the Utile, a small coasting vessel
which was constantly engaged in the service of the
island, set sail with our great official and all his

26 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

family, and on its return to the archipelago brought
us another manager. Those of the islanders who
had been the promoters of this measure gave them-
selves an incredible amount of trouble to make a
noise in honour of the new-comer. They lighted
fires around the flagstaff, fired guns and pistols, and
cried till they were hoarse, Vive le Gouverneur !
There were only two or three of these enthusiasts,
and during their demonstrations the rest of the
population quietly pursued their labours, and did
not even for a moment suspend any of their ordinary
avocations. Was not this a miniature representation
of the history of our great revolutions ?

In addition to the persons who are employed upon
the farm, and who form a special body, Chausey
maintains three totally distinct classes of inhabitants ;
the stone-cutters, fishermen, and barilla-collectors.
The highest of these three classes is, undoubtedly,
the fishing community, whose seven or eight families
inhabit a small cape on the opposite side of the port
of Chausey. An old boat, turned on end at the foot
of some rock, forms the roof of their cabins, and is
kept in its place by stones cemented together with
the argillaceous mud of the Sound. One of these
huts, from ten to twelve feet square, and three to
four feet high, serves as a sleeping-place for a whole
family, including the father, mother, sons, daughters,
nephews, and nieces, and often various friends who
have been attracted by the prospect of a day's fishing
at spring tide. These fisher families are natives of
Blainville, a little port situated on the coast of Nor-
mandy, who resort year by year to Chausey to catch

THE ARCHIPELAGO OE CHAUSEY. 27

the lobsters which supply the Paris market. They
employ for this purpose baskets or creels in the form
of a truncated cone, surmounted by an opening
which is so adjusted that the lobster cannot escape
after having once passed through the aperture.
Every fortnight at neap-tide the produce of the
fishing is carried to Coutances, where it is bought
up in the gross and despatched to the capital.

The number of lobsters which each family takes
during the season may be estimated at about a
thousand or twelve hundred. Chausey, therefore,
exports annually from eight to nine thousand of
these crustaceans, the returns for which, paid at
Coutances, amount to ten or twelve thousand francs.
It would thus appear that each master-fisherman
realises rather less than thirteen or fourteen hundred
francs for his arduous labours, which are continued
for nearly nine months.

The shrimp-fishing is left entirely to the women,
nine or ten of whom carry on this humble branch of
business. Supporting their nets upon their shoulders
they follow every indentation of the shore, carefully
searching the under surfaces of stones and the pools
in which these little crustaceans lie concealed ; with
care they may collect as many as four and a half
pounds weight in the course of the day : but this
branch of fishing is impracticable excepting when
the tides are low. The total produce cannot be
estimated at more than from four to six hundred-
weight for each person ; this, therefore, would give
about two and a half tons weight of shrimps for the
annual supply of Chausey, the greater part of which

28 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

is also disposed of at Paris. This branch of com-
merce brings in about eight hundred francs a head
to the Blainville women, or nearly eight thousand
francs in all.

I should have found considerable difficulty in
exploring the extreme points of the archipelago had
I not met with one of the Blainville fishermen, who
undertook to serve as my gondolier. This man.
Master Hyacinthe Forcel, was a very worthy person,
and under his guidance I was enabled safely to ex-
plore all the lagoons of my rocky Venice. Tall of
stature and of athletic strength, he joined to these
advantages, which are so invaluable in his profession,
an amount of intelligence very rare in one of his
class, while his courage was equal to any emergency.
Always ready to expose his life to save that of others,
he ' had rescued a number of persons from certain
death, without having ever claimed the recompense
which the State awards in these cases ; but at length
one of these acts of devoted heroism was witnessed
by a Commissioner of Marine, who took care that
this brave mariner should receive the medal to which
he had so many claims.

The stone-cutters form the second caste, and com-
pose the most considerable portion of the inhabitants
of Chausey. The great works which, for the last
few years, have been in the course of erection at
Granville and St. Malo, have brought the granite
of the archipelago into great demand ; indeed, the
paving-stones of the trottoirs of Paris have chiefly
been obtained of late years from the same locality.
During my stay the numbers of these quarry men

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 29

amounted to one hundred and twenty or thirty :
almost all the men were Bretons from St. Malo and
its immediate vicinity. They lived in wooden bar-
racks or huts, about ten of which, grouped around
Port Marie, composed the hamlet known as the St.
Malo village. Tv^^o of their huts were used as can-
teens, in which tobacco, cider, and brandy were sold ;
a third was employed as a smithy : each of the other
huts served as a sleeping place for some dozen work-
men, Avhose beds were ranged in tiers above each
other. In almost every case the wife of one of the
men was charged with the duty of cooking for the
community, and in that case she shared the room
with the rest, from whom she was only separated
by a coarse canvas curtain.

Finally, Ave come to the barilla-collectors, who
constitute the lowest class among the population.
These workmen come, year by year, from the neigh-
bourhood of Brest and Cherbourg, to collect the
wrack, or seaweed, from the submerged rocks of
Chausey, and convert it into soda by burning. The
men disperse themselves in parties of six over the
archipelago, and construct a sort of shed in the centre
of the circuit they intend to explore, and here they
take shelter for the night. At low tide they strip
the fucus from the rocks*, and collect it into large
masses, which are sustained upon the surface of the

* The diflferent kiuds of fucus employed in the fabrication of
soda or for manuring the land on our western sea-coasts are the
Fucus nodosus, commonly called in England, knobbed wrack, or
sea-whistle, F. vesiculosus, known as bladder fucus, and F. serratus,
known as black wrack, or prickly tang.

30 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

water by the numerous air-vessels with which these
marine plants are provided. These raft-like floating
masses are then directed towards the spot which has
been selected for the scene of operation, and after
beino; broug;ht out of reach of the waves, are scat-
tered over the sands. When the fucus is thoroughly
dried it is raked together and burnt, and the ashes
are then collected in a small kiln, and melted, form-
ing the substance known in commerce as barilla.
The red light given forth at night, and the long
columns of smoke which issue by day from these
smouldering heaps, produce a very picturesque effect
from the midst of the rocks, but the odour emitted
from the smoke is extremely offensive ; and on the
islands it is considered, although certainly most un-
justly, that it may engender every kind of disease.

One occasionally meets, upon the most isolated
points of the archipelago, with families of Jersey-
men who have come either for the purpose of fishing
or of collecting the Avrack Avhich serves to manure
their land. Woe betide these poor fellows if they
are detected by the coast-guard ; no mercy is shown
them ; their lines and nets are unceremoniously taken
from them and their boats put into pound. The
islanders, moreover, frequently take upon themselves
to inflict summary punishment on the marauders.
During my stay a circumstance of this kind occurred
which nearly brought about serious disturbances.
Some fishermen had come over from Jersey at the
time of spring-tide, and had actually begun to block
up Port Homard at a few paces from the dwelling-
houses. A party of stone-cutters hastened to the

THE AECHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 31

spot, took possession of all the fish which the men
had caught, and cut up their nets. This act was
loudly blamed by several of their companions ; and
as the expedition occurred in the night of Saturday
and Sunday, the discussions to which it gave rise at
the canteen soon terminated in quarrelling. The
opposing parties came to blows, and on the following
day two of the men were laid up from the effects of
the fight.

Scenes of this kind were by no means of rare
occurrence in this remote region, where policemen
are unknown, and where a half-civilised class of men
are left to appeal, whenever it pleases them, to the
rio:ht of the stronsfer. Dissensions would have been
still more frequent bad it not been for the presence
of an old theological student of the name of Lecam,
who, from some inaptitude for his calling, had been
led to forsake his studies and enrol himself among
the stone-cutters. This man, after having nearly
completed his theological education, visited many
large cities, where he so assiduously frequented
theatres and other similar places of resort that he
exhibited some slisfht de2;ree of confusion in his
recollections, and nothing was more amusing than to
see him between two adversaries endeavouring to
reconcile them, quoting a verse from the Proverbs
or Ecclesiastes to one, and a passage from a modern
drama or a couplet from a vaudeville to another, but
ending almost always by re-establishing a good un-
derstanding between the opponents. His jovial
humour, and his insatiable powers of eating and
drinking, made him popular amongst all his com-

32 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

panlons, with whom he was accustomed to start
some philosophical discussion whenever he happened
to be tired of singing. I used to hear these singular
debates from my room, and I was frequently amused
at the ingenuity and good sense shown by these
simple workmen in the course of their arguments.

Thus the Norman and Breton races meet at
Chausey, displaying a peculiarity of disposition and
manners which separates them quite as thoroughly
as the difference in their occupations. The stone-
cutters lead nearly the same kind of life as the day-
labourers of our large towns ; almost all of them
spend Sunday in drinking and keep Monday as a
holiday. The fishermen are alike sober and indus-
trious, whilst the barilla-collectors seem, by their
coarse and brutal habits, to justify the proverbial
expression, " hete comme un harilleurP While the
summer lasts, the narrow and sloping surface of
Grrande-Ile is enlivened by the presence of nearly two
hundred persons. Night and morning the Blalnville
women resort to the sands of the archipelago, whilst
the men, detaching their boats from the shore, row
off in different directions to examine their lobster
pots. The fires of the barilla-burners throw up their
Ions: columns of whitish smoke, or orleam throuoh the
darkness of night like so many beacon-lights. From
morning till evening the noise of the pickaxe and
hammer resounds from the depths of the quarries
and the sides of the hills, while, from time to time,
the banks re-echo with the rumbling crash produced
by the blasting of the rock. But on the first ap-
pearance of the equinoctial rains of autumn, at the

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 33

first touch of coldj these nomadic populations dis-
perse. The barilla-collectors are the first to take
their departure, soon afterwards the numbers of the
quarrymen diminish, and, last of all, the fishermen
return to the sandy harbour of Blainville, when the
islands are again left to the exclusive possession of
the farming community, and of two or three families
of stone-cutters.

My arrival in the island produced quite a sensa-
tion. On the very first day the whole of the little
republic knew that a doctor had come to spend some
time amongst them, and before three days had passed
my talents had been brought into requisition. Being
anxious to visit the western group of islands, I had
just crossed to Genetaie, when I heard some one
calling to me in a loud voice. I was soon joined by
a young man, who, breathless and with tears in his
eyes, implored me to come to the aid of his father.
I returned in haste, and found that it was quite time
that I should do so. Not being sufficiently acquainted
with the course of the tides, I had set out too late,
and the tide having turned, the sea had already
covered the sand-banks which a short time before
1 had crossed without wetting my feet. Ten minutes
more would have sufficed to shut off" all means of re-
turn, and I should have been obliged to sleep in the
open air, if it had not been for the accident which
had happened to the poor bargeman. The serious
nature of the occurrence had not been exaggerated.
His finger had been caught by the rope of the cap-
stan, whilst he was shipping a piece of stone of several
thousand pounds' weight, and the joint was exposed

VOL. I. D

34 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

to a considerable extent. I at first thought that
amputation would be inevitable, but to mutilate a
workman's right hand is much the same as to deprive
him of his daily bread. Everything ought to be
risked in order to avoid such a fearful calamity.
Although I needed the most indispensable objects
for regularly dressing a finger in this state, I did my
best, and my attempts were crowned with unexpected
success. At the end of three weeks the wound had
cicatrised, and Master Balue preserved the use of his
finger.

Certes ! this was a case in which I might have
exclaimed with our great Ambrose Pare, *^ I treated
him, God healed him." The case nevertheless won
for me a prodigious reputation on the island. As,
moreover, my advice was given gratuitously, it was
not long before I was assailed with consultations.
One might almost have thought that the good people
of Chausey availed themselves of the opportunity to
be ill. It was not enough, however, to prescribe for
them, it was equally necessary to make up my pre-
scriptions ; and this embarrassed me not a little at first,
for, although tavern-keepers are to be met with at
Chausey, the islands cannot yet boast of a druggist.
Happily for me, the flora of the island came to my
aid, by furnishing me with the principal elements of
my materia medica. With the help of mallow,
which grows abundantly over all the archipelago, I
was at no loss to prepare cataplasms and emollient
tisanes ; docks, borage, peppermint and wild-thyme
served me in the place of other tonic, sudorific, and
stimulant agents. Whenever any more decidedly

THE AKCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 35

pharmaceutical remedies were needed, I procured
them from the main-land. By these means I was
enabled to be of real use to these worthy people
during my stay amongst them, and my attempts to
serve them were rewarded by their unbounded affec-
tion. It would have been hardly safe for any one to
enter into a quarrel with me, when, on a Sunday
evening, their sentiments of regard for my person
were warmed by generous libations, for at such a
time the whole island would have risen as a single
man to defend Monsieur le docteur.

I had not come to Chausey, however, to study
statistics or practise medicine. The sole object of
my travels was the sea ; the sole aim of my inquiries
was to unravel some of the many mysteries which
lie buried beneath its sands or hidden below its
waves. The oceanic world with its marine creation
in no way resembles the world revealed to us in the
interior of continents, nor can our streams, ponds, or
rivers, however large, afford us any idea of it. Side
by side with those colossal monsters which man learns
to overcome within the dreary depths of ocean ; side
by side with innumerable productions that minister
to our wants or our luxuries, and whose history is
familiar to very children ; side by side with these
dwell widely differing and strangely organised races,
whose very existence is known only to a few. To
observe these creatures we need enter upon no
perilous enterprise such as the capture of the whale
demands ; we require no immense nets such as are
used in catching the tunny, herring, or mackerel ; we
need no heavy dredge to scrape the bottom of the sea

36 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

and detach from its rocky sides the millions of oysters
which daily load our tables : none of these are re-
quired; we need only walk along the shores from
which the sea has just retreated. An indifferent or
careless observer might, indeed, perceive nothing
more than sand, mud, and stones. But pause a
a moment, stoop, and look down at your feet, and
everywhere you will see life teeming around you in
the form of myriads of strangely shaped and mar-
vellously organised beings. First there are bodies
formed like stones, then there are stones which have
been in turn transferred from the animal to the
vegetable kingdom*; here we meet with plants so
nearly allied to animals that they have long been
classed amongst them f ; next we encounter animals,
which so closely resemble plants in respect to their
stems, branches, and buds, that naturalists for ages
believed in their vegetable nature. J On every side
the sands and mud have been disturbed, tracked,
burrowed, and pierced by marine worms ; the stones
are covered with molluscs, polypes, and zoophytes of
every kind, and even the very rocks seem rent

* The greater part of the Nullipores, which were at one time
ranked amongst plants, and subsequently among the Polypes, by the
side of the Millepores, have been found by M. Decaisne to be mere
stony concretions.

f The Corallina, which has successively been placed in the three
kingdoms of nature, is decidedly an alga, and consequently a plant,
as M. Decaisne has shown by his researches. These plants, how-
ever, become very rapidly encrusted with calcareous salts, a circum-
stance which explains the difficulties attending their examination,
and the errors to which it has given rise.

"^ [A brief notice of the history of this controversy is given in the
Appendix, Note V.] ,

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 37

asunder to furnish a retreat within their narrow
crevices for entire families of living beings.

In physical science man controls, to a certain
extent, the object of his investigations. Thus, for
instance, in the examination of a machine he may
successively study each of the parts, consider their
respective actions, and judge of the effect of the whole.
It is very different, however, in the case of the
natural sciences generally, and especially of zoology.
Here we must wait and watch. The multiplicity of
vital acts in animals which occupy the highest places
in the scale of being too frequently conceals the truth
from us, while it is impossible for us to imitate the
physicist in isolating a single phenomenon ; for when
we do this, the whole is lost to our inquiry, and the
animal ceases to exist. But in proportion as we
descend the scale of being, we find that organisation
is simplified, and that life, without being altered in
its essential nature, is to a certain degree modified in
its manifestations. The animal machine, if we may
use the expression, is shown to us piece by piece, as
if to reveal the action of its several parts, and to de-
monstrate to us the great laws of physiology apart
from all accessory phenomena. These laws are the
same for the highest mammal and the lowest zoo-
phyte ; the same for man, whose complicated anatomy
has been studied for ages past, and for the sponge,
whose organs appear to be blended into one sole
living homogeneous mass, the smallest particle of
which participates in all the properties accorded to
the entire organism. It will be readily conceived
how much interest attaches to observations such as

D 3

38 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

thesGj which nature itself seems to have prepared for
us, and how much science may be advanced by the
profound study of beings so insignificant in appear-
ance. I was most anxious to commence my observa-
tions, and I, therefore, lost no time after I was once
domiciled in setting to work with hearty good will.

I was especially impatient to explore the Saca-
viron, a narrow channel which separates Meule
from Ile-aux-Oiseaux, whose zoological treasures
have been made known by MM. Audouin and Milne
Edwards. After having been disappointed, on ac-
count of the prevalence of storms, 1 was at length
enabled to visit it during the magnificent weather of
our July spring tide. Imagine a narrow and deep
valley, with precipitous rocks on either side, shining
brightly in the sun wherever the granite had been
denuded of its covering of fucus by the knife of the
barilla-collector. At the bottom of this wild ravine,
from which the ocean retreats only three or four
times a year, a small stream of clear and limpid sea-
water flows over pebbles which have been dyed
every shade of colour by different kinds of Fucus,
Coralline, Spongodium*, and other species of Algae.
In this spot, where every stone is a world within
itself, I was able to contemplate in its incredible
variety the domain of the lower marine animals;
here I could admire in all their glory those unknown
wonders of the deep of which even our best museums
afford not the least idea; for these animal forms
droop and, as it were, fade from view whenever

* The Spongodium is a plant belonging to the family of the
Algse, looking very much like a green sponge.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 39

they are removed from their native element. The
Turbo, the Buccinum, with its brown and white
markings, the Rissoa, with its small, closely-twisted
shell, and the Acorn shell*, with its pyramidal test,
covered every stone and rock. In sheltered nooks I
found the pretty little rose-coloured Cowrie, and
large Chitons f, animals in which the back is covered
by a solid cuirass composed of moveable pieces like
the olden greaves. Then there was the Thetys|, a
kind of sea slug; of a fine orang^e colour, which bears
its tuft of branchife on the hindermost part of the
back, and the Haliotis, with its nacreous shell, sur-
rounded by a triple row of fringes. The vaulted
roof of the little caverns, which had been formed by
the crumbling away of the rocks, was clothed with a
mammillated stratum of Simple Ascidians, a species of
molluscs which live and die without ever having
moved from the same spot ; while from this bright red
ceiling there hung, like so many girandoles, trans-
parent crystal-like Clavellinge, and the bright Botrylli,

* The acorn shells {Balanus) constitute a genus of the class of
the Cirripedes — animals allied in many respects to the Crustacea,
but which undergo certain metamorphoses, which led Cuvier, even
after he had studied their anatomy, to place them amongst the
Mollusca. The discovery of their true nature is due to the Irish
naturalist, J. W. Thomson (see his Zoological Researches and
Illustrations).

f The Cowries (Q/j3r«a), which are well known to all conchologists
and amateur shell collectors, are molluscs belonging to the class of
the Gasteropods. Chitons belong to the same class of molluscs, and
are remarkable for the division of their test, or shell, which exhibits
a series of imbricated semicircular rings placed along the back.

J The Thetys belongs to the same class, but it has no trace of a
test.

D 4

40 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

whose conglomerated masses exhibit the colours and
translucence of the as^ate. The smoother stones
were all covered with Compound Ascidians, which
were spread over the surface in shining green, brown,
red, or violet patches, interspersed with markings
of geometrical regularity, which severally indicated
the different family groups of these singular beings.
Among these animals, all of which belong to the
great division of the mollusca, appeared thousands
of zoophytes, while Star-fishes of the finest carmine,
and grayish-brown Ophiuras, with their five long and
slender arms, lay hidden beneath the stones. Above
them the Flustra spread out its little stony weft,
Sertularias and Campanularias raised aloft their ar-
borescent polyparies, resembling miniature shrubs;
while the Eschara threw its microscopic cellules over
the stems and fronds of the marine plants.* Sponges
of every form and colour were intertwined among
the branches of the fucus and attached to the sides
of the rocks, either in thick masses or in interlacing
meshes of delicate network. Here and there the
Thetyaf might be seen, with its rounded lobes brist-
ling with little spicula, side by side with the finger-
like masses of the Alcyonium and the Lobulariaif ;

* The Flustrce and Escharce, whicli were long regarded as
zoophytes, are now considered as Polyzoa, belonging to the class of
the Bryozoa. The Sertulariae and the Campanularise are zoophytes.

f The Thetya is a kind of sponge having a globular form and a
compact structure. This group, which is very imperfectly under-
stood, has been made the subject of profound investigation by
M. Valenciennes, who, however, has not yet published the result of
his observationg.

\ The Alcyonium and Lobular ia are polypes living in colonies
upon one common mass.

THE ARCHIFELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 41

sometimes too a Holothuria*, with its long, polygonal,
whitish body, would slowly move across this living
carpet by means of its sucker-like feet, spreading
abroad its coronet of arborescent tentacles. How
rapidly the hours passed, amid this profusion of life,
while I was filling my boxes and bottles ! How
gladly would I have admired, examined, and carried
off all that I saw! But I was soon forced to think
of returnino;. The lono; riband-like fronds of the
laminarias or oarweeds, which hitherto had been in-
clined towards the sea, wavered for a moment, and
bending gently backward, they soon turned land-
ward, their plaited bands undulating more and more
rapidly as they yielded to the swell of the flowing
current. The ocean was resuming its sway, and I
was compelled to have recourse to my boat, not,
however, until I had promised myself the pleasure
of speedily returning to the same rich field of dis-
covery.

The wandering annelids {anndlides errantes) oc-
cupied my special attention during my earliest
explorations.! Hitherto I had only known this
numerous family of animals (commonly designated
sea-worms) through engravings ; but, although I had

* The family of the Holothurias belongs to the class of the
Echinoderms.

f The Annelids constitute a very remarkable class of animals, to
which I have devoted special attention, and many of my results will
be referred to in the following pages. (We may refer on this
subject to the works of Savigny and of M, Edwards, as well as to
the joint Memoirs of MM. Edwards and Quatrefages, in the Annales
des Sciences Naturelles.)

42 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

formed a tolerably exact idea of tlieir organisation, I
had not the slightest conception how many points of
interest attached themselves to a study of these forms.
When I had once surprised within their obscure
retreats the Polynoa, with its broad brown scales ;
the Phyllodoce, with its hundred bright green rings ;
the Eunice, with its purple crest ; the Terebella, sur-
rounded by a cloud of innumerable living cables,
which serve it in the place of arms ; and when I had
seen displayed before my eyes the rich fan of the
Sabella, and the enamelled collar of the Serpula, I no
longer smiled, as I had formerly done, at the thought
of a naturalist having endowed two of these creatures
with the charming names of Matilda and Herminia.
These despised creatures seemed to me now no less
worthy of a naturalist's homage than the most bril-
liant insect or the fairest flower. Let no one cite
the violet as a pattern of modesty I the coquette !
See how she shows from afar her fresh tuft of green
leaves, and scatters abroad the sweet perfume which
invites you to gather her ! More skilful than her
rivals, she knows that mystery is the greatest of all
attractions, and that the rose itself loses by displaying
her charms in broad day-light ; therefore it is that she
seeks the obscurity of our woods and the friendly
shelter of the hedge-sides, but, like Virgil's shep-
herdess, she only conceals herself for the sake of
being sought for. Now turn to the annelids I What
do they lack when compared with the most splendid
inhabitants of earth or air ? yet they shun the light^
they withdraw themselves from our view, but with
no design to attract ; and the naturalist alone knows

THE AKCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 43

where to seek the strange wonders, which are hidden
within the recesses of the rock and beneath the sandy
beds of the ocean.

You may smile at my enthusiasm if you will, but
come and judge for yourself. All is prepared ! Our
firmly adjusted microscope is furnished with its lenses,
which magnify thirty diameters. Our lamp gives
a light almost as white as that of a jet of gas, while
a large lens, mounted upon a moveable foot, re-
ceives the rays of light and concentrates them upon
our field of view. We have just placed upon the
stage of our instrument a little trough filled with
sea-water, in which an Eunice is disporting itself.
See how indignant it is at its captivity ; how its
numerous rings contract, elongate, twist into a spiral
coil, and at every movement emit flashes of light, in
which all the tints of the prism are blended in the
brightest metallic reflections. It is impossible in the
midst of this tumultuous agitation to distinguish any-
thing definitely. But it is more quiet now ; lose no
time, therefore, in examining it ; see how it crawls
along the bottom of the vessel, with its thousand
feet moving rapidly forward and emitting bundles of
darts from the broad knobs with which they are fur-
nished. See what beautiful plumes adorn the sides
of the body ; these are the branchiae, or organs of
respiration, which become vermilion as they are
swelled by the blood, whose course you may trace
along the whole length of the great dorsal vessel.
Look at that head enamelled with the brightest
colours ; here are the five antennae, delicate organs
of touch, and here in the midst of them is the mouth.

44 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

which, at first sight, seems merely like an irregularly-
puckered opening. But watch it for a few moments,
see how it opens and protrudes a large proboscis,
furnished with three pairs of jaws, and possessing a
diameter which equals that of the body, within which
it is enclosed as in a living sheath. Well ! is it not
wonderful ? Is there any animal which can contend
with it for the prize of decoration ? the corslet of the
brightest beetle, the speckled wings of the butterfly,
the sparkling throat of the humming bird, would all
look pale when compared with the play of light
flashing in large patches over the rings of its
body, glowing in its golden threads and sparkling
over its amber and coral fringes.

Let us next examine these two Cirrhatulas which
belong to one and the same species, although they
differ so much in colour. The one which was cap-
tured under a stone that had been washed several
times daily by a rapid current, is of a dull red,
relieved by golden markings. The other, found in
the slimy mud that formed the bed from which a
meadow of Zostera seemed to derive its rank luxu-
riance, had borrowed from the soil which it inhabited
a deep and velvet-like blackness, over which there
played a bright bluish iridescence. In this animal
the branchial plumes give place to long filaments,
which move in all directions around it, and extend
afar as if they were so many living cables. They
are at once its arms and branchise, and the blood, as
by turns it ebbs and flows, dyes them of the richest
shade of carmine, or leaves them of a faint amber -
coloured yellow. See how they lengthen their

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 45

pointed snouts, surmounted by a double crescent-
formed eye ; how they gather themselves together to
escape from the gleam of light which has fallen upon
them. Look at the tangled skein which they have
formed, it is a hundred times more inextricable than
the knot which Alexander cut. But here the coils
are living, and as they glide through and into one
another, they incessantly bind and loosen the glisten-
ing knots, amid the sparkling play of their luminous
reflections. During this time the animated threads,
as they detach themselves from the glowing mass,
catch up grains of sand and particles of slime, and in
a few minutes, before you can distinguish the me-
chanism by which all this is effected, the annelids
are sheltered under a flexible and plaited envelope,
formed of fragments, which, thickening more and more
as they cluster together, become at length converted
into a kind of case, which encloses the Cirrhatula as
the shell encloses the nut.

Now let us take a lens of higher power, move the
lamp in such a manner as to let its rays fall upon
the reflector of our microscope, and let us examine
a few of the hairs taken from the animals which
we have been describing. Every annelid has two
bundles of hairs on the outer edge of its feet, and
these threads, which, notwithstanding their extreme
delicacy, are far stiffer than an ordinary hair, appear
to be placed on either side of the animal to protect it
against its enemies. A moment's consideration will
suffice to confirm this view, for there is scarcely
perhaps a single weapon invented by the murderous
genius of man whose counterpart and model could

46 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

not be found amongst this class of animals. Here
are those curved blades whose point presents a
double and prolonged cutting surface, sometimes
on the concave edge, as in the yatagan of the Arabs,
sometimes on the convex border, as in the Oriental
scimitar. Next we meet with weapons of offence
and defence which remind us of the broadsword of
our cuirassiers, the sabre-poignard of the artillery-
man, and the sabre-bdionnette of the Yincennes
chasseur. Then again we have harpoons, fish-hooks,
and cutting-blades of every form, loosely attached to
the extremity of a sharp handle. These moveable
pieces are intended to remain in the body of the
enemy, whilst the handle which supported them
becomes a long spike as sharp as it was before.
Here we have straight or curved poignards, cutting
hooks, arrows, with the barbs curved backwards in
order the better to tear the wound, but carefully
provided with a sheath to protect the fine indenta-
tions from being blunted by friction or broken by
any unforeseen shock. Finally, if the enemy should
disregard his first wounds and the weapons which
have struck him from afar, there darts from every
foot a shorter but stronger spear, which is brought
into play by a special set of muscles as soon as the
combatants are sufficiently near to grapple in close

fight._

It is not without reason that nature has endowed
these amazons with more finely polished and sharply
pointed weapons than any wielded by paladins of
old. Destined to live by rapine, and exposed to the
attacks of a thousand enemies, they need them both

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 47

as means of attack and defence. Almost all are
nourished with living victims. Some wait in ambush
for the passing of small Crustaceans, Planarias, or
other minute animals, and seize their prey with their
proboscis, or entwine them in the folds of their thou-
sand arms. Others again, more active than the rest,
pursue their victims over the sand or through thick
tufts of Corallines, Nullipores, and various marine
plants. Some attach themselves to shells, and after
perforating them devour the inhabitant. The Her-
mella, a species of the tubicolous annelids, thus com-
mits great havoc amongst oyster beds, destroying
numerous colonies of this much cherished mollusc.
The annelids are in their turn pursued by a multi-
tude of carnivorous animals. Fishes wage a rude
war against them, and if one more imprudent than
the rest should abandon its retreat, or be exposed
to view by the movement of the waves, it rarely
escapes the murderous teeth of some whiting, eel,
sole, or plaice. It it asserted that the latter kind of
fish are well acquainted with the mode of drawing
them from the sand ; the same is the case with the
Turbo and the Buccinum ; but crabs, lobsters, and a
great number of other crustaceans, constitute their
most formidable enemies, for the solid carapace by
which these animals are covered protects them
entirely from the formidable arms of the annelids.

It was with a keen feeling of curiosity that, in the
course of my excursions, I studied the manners of
these bellicose races, and watched the skirmishes
which terminated almost invariably in a feast, for
which the vanquished supplied the viands in person.

48 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

I often amused myself by provoking these assaults.
One day, for instance, I threw a large Arenicola*
into a pool of several feet in extent. A troop of
little shrimps, who were sedately enjoying them-
selves in the clear element, dispersed in alarm,
startled by the noise made by the fall of this strange
body, but, recovering themselves in a moment, they
rallied, and whilst the annelid was endeavouring to
bury itself in the sand, one of the youngest, and,
consequently, also the most venturous of the party,
seized the creature by the middle of its body. Em-
boldened by this example the others lost no time in
imitating it, and the poor Arenicola was pulled about
in all directions until a full-grown shrimp, darting
from behind a tuft of Corallines, dispersed his feebler
comrades and appropriated the booty to himself. I
soon saw, however, that he would be compelled to
divide the spoils, for at that very instant there
poured forth from the moving sand some score of
small Turbos and Buccinums, who, conscious that a
victim was at hand, wished to participate in the
feast. Without any sign of uncertainty or hesitation
they moved straight forward towards the Arenicola,
whose body was covered in the twinkling of an eye
with these voracious molluscs. I thought his fate
definitively settled, when a small shore-crab (Cancer
Moenas) issued from beneath a stone, put to flight

* The common fisherman's worm (Arenicola piscatorum) is one
of the commonest annelids on our coast, where it is used for bait.
It is moreover one of the most curious in reference to its organisa-
tion, as M. Milne Edwards has well shown in his Memoirs on the
Circulation of the Annelids.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 49

the shrimp, and by dragging off the Arenlcola very
nearly npset all the Turbos, who forthwith hurried
back to their sandy haunts. Then, however, a large
edible C^rab (Cancer Pagurus) appeared upon the scene,
and the poor little Moenas was obliged in his turn to
beat a retreat in order to escape out of reach of the
formidable pincers of his stronger kinsman. But he
still kept a watchful eye over the dainty morsel
which he had once tasted, and taking advantage of a
moment when the larger crab was withdrawing from
the field from some temporary emotion of alarm, he
rapidly seized the long disputed Arenicola, and
carried it for safety to some distance from the water's
edge, where he might devour it at his ease on dry
ground.

During the early period of my sojourn at Chausey,
I was employed in acquiring a general idea of the
fauna of the district, and I found among the different
species which it possessed that there were many
hitherto und escribed forms. If I had felt any desire
for this kind of inquiry, I might undoubtedly have
reaped a rich harvest, but I confess I have never had
the slightest taste for that modification of science,
which rests satisfied with examining the exterior of an
animal, and then pinning it on a cork or putting it
into a bottle, with its name duly inscribed on a
label.

There can be no doubt that the preliminary labour
of compiling systematic lists was indispensably
necessary, and I am far from wishing to detract from
the debt of gratitude which we owe to the patient
and laborious observers who have drawn up classified

VOL. I. E

50 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

catalogues of living species, or to those who are
adding to them daily. We ought, however, strenu-
ously to avoid the grave error of reducing zoology to
the standard of a mere appraiser's craft. He who
knows nothing of an animal beyond the name and
place apportioned to it in a more or less well devised
system of nomenclature, no more deserves the title of
a naturalist than a librarian's assistant deserves the
name of savant, because he knows by heart the titles
of all his books, and their local and numerical
arrangement in the press in which they are kept.
No ! in the case either of a book or of an animal we
must go deeper than the binding, we must penetrate
below the skin. True zoology, or that form of it
towards which all other branches of natural science
ought to converge, consists in studying the relations
of oro-anised beino;s and their connexion with the in-
organic world, in investigating the play of the organs
as animated instruments of these mysterious affinities ;
in penetrating into their mechanism; in following
them in their modifications, in order to distinguish,
if possible, between what is essential and what is
incidental ; in ascending from all these effects to the
cause, and thus perhaps penetrating at some future
day into the arcana of life ; this is the end and aim
of true zoology, the rest merely constitute the means.
Without, therefore, neglecting new species be-
longing to known genera, I was far from seeking for
them. My principal object was to make anatomical
and physiological observations ; and investigations of
this nature certainly do not lose any of their value
by being pursued in reference to some already named

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 51

species. But even in this respect I was favoured
beyond my expectations, for I discovered entirely
new types or species belonging to genera hitherto
unknown in our seas, and whose organisation it had
therefore been impossible to study.

The human mind is so constituted that it appears
to abhor all that is easy of acquisition. We see this
exemplified both in the arts and sciences. Thus,
whenever a new problem is started, you will have
twenty solutions before you meet with the simplest
explanation.

Naturalists seem carefully to obey this law of our
nature. The Desman of Siberia was known more
than half a century before that of the Pyrenees *,
and whilst naturalists have cast their dredge into
the waters of the seas which wash the Moluccas,
Philippines and Antilles, we scarcely know anything
of the marine productions of the Channel, the Bay of
Biscay, or the Gulf of Lyons. Yet new species are
to be found within a few leagues of us, and there is
scarcely a naturalist who has gone to spend a few
days on our sea coasts without having had the grati-
fication of making some such discovery.

Let me speak to you for a moment or two of one

* The genus Desman (Mtjgale), includes only two living species,
one of which was discovered in Siberia by Pallas, whilst the other
was found in France at a much later period. It would appear that
this latter species is limited to the small rivers that flow from the
Pyrenees. The Diesman is a small insectivorous mammal, exhaling
a powerful odour of musk, which is produced by a special liquid
secreted by the glands which are situated near the base of the tail.
M. Lartet has discovered the remains of fossil Desmans in the rich
osseous deposits of Sansan.

E 2

52 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

of those zoophytes, which up to the present time
have remained hidden in the sand of Chausey.
Setting aside the self-love natural to a discoverer, I
venture to affirm that it merits the distinction on
more grounds than one. It is a species of Synapta*
belonging to a genus of the family of the Holo-
thurid^, whose representatives had hitherto been
met with only in the warmest seas of the old and
new world. Imagine to yourself a rose-coloured
crystal cylinder, about eighteen inches in length and
one inch in diameter, marked along its whole length
by five minute bands of white silk, and surmounted
by a pale white living flower, whose twelve petals
are gracefully curved backwards. In the midst of
these tissues, whose delicate texture seems to surpass
the most exquisite products of our industry, you
must suppose an intestine of gauze-like tenuity, but
completely filled up with large grains of granite,
whose fine points and salient angles may be dis-
tinctly seen by the naked eye. It was this circum-
stance which especially struck me in the animal, for
it appeared literally to partake of no other nourish-
ment than the coarse sand surrounding it. But

* I have given to this curious species the name of Synapta Du-
vernaea, in honour of my former Professor and much esteemed
friend M. Duvernoy, who was a member of the Institute, and a
Professor at the Jardin des Plantes and the College de France, As the
compatriot of Cuvier, for he was born at Montbelliard, he early
attached himself to that illustrious Naturalist, and brought out, in
concert with Dumeril, the first edition of the Anatomic Comparec ; at
the death of Cuvier, M. Duvernoy succeeded him at the College de
France, while he afterwards succeeded M. de Blainville in the chair
of Comparative Anatomy at the Museum.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 53

what unexpected wonders were revealed to my sight,
when, by means of the scalpel and microscope, I
penetrated to its inmost organism ! In this animal,
the walls of whose body Avere scarcely one-fiftieth of
an inch in thickness, I could trace seven distinct
layers of tissue, a skin, muscles, and membranes. I
perceived that the petal-like tentacles were furnished
with cupping glasses, by which the Synapta was
enabled to ascend the polished surface of a glass ;
and finally I discovered that this animal, which
appeared destitute of every means of attack or
defence, was actually protected by a kind of mosaic,
formed of small calcareous shields, bristling with
double hooks, whose points, serrated like the arrows
of the Carib, had even penetrated the skin of my
hands.

After having preserved several living Synaptas
for some time in a vase of sea- water, I observed that
they underwent a process of self-consumption.
First they distended the posterior portion of their
bodies by suffering the fluid to accumulate there,
which incessantly circulates between the intestine
and the integuments; by this means a stricture was
speedily produced, and the final separation suddenly
effected. Scarcity of food seemed to be the sole
cause of these spontaneous amputations. It almost
appeared as if the animal, feeling that it could not
supply the whole of its body with nourishment,
suppressed those parts which it might cost the
entire organism too much to maintain ; somewhat on
the same principle as that by which all useless
mouths are banished from a besieged town. This

E 3

54 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

singular method of struggling against famine is
maintained to the last moment ; for at the end of a
few days there frequently remained nothing more of
the animal than a little spherical ball, crowned with
tentacles. The Synapta had by degrees cut away
the whole of its body in order to keep life in its
head.

In one of his inspired songs the prophet exclaims,
" The heavens declare thy glory, O Jehovah ! " and
assuredly there is no one who has not at times felt
his heart lifted above earthly things, when on a fine
summer's night he has watched the stars, as they
stood forth like so many diamonds upon the deep
azure of the celestial vault, shedding upon us from
afar their scintillating light. There is no one,
probably, who at the rising of the sun has not felt
something of the same emotion which the Philoso-
pher of Ferney experienced, when on the first
occasion of his witnessing this splendid spectacle, he
knelt in adoration before the majesty of the Creator,
exclaiming : " Mon Dieu ! vous etes grand ! qui
pourrait ne pas croire en vous." Yet we find that
the contemplation of celestial phenomena is capable
of associating sceptical ideas with the most exalted
sentiments of admiration. The immutable move-
ments of the stars seem at every turn to give
evidence of the control of fatality, and hence has
arisen that belief in astrology which has prevailed
so universally amongst enlightened nations. The
discoveries of modern science, by destroying what-
ever was superstitious in these applications of astro-
nomy, have perhaps rather tended to confirm this

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 55

general tendency. It might be argued that the
wonderful laws revealed by Kepler and Newton^*
have demonstrated, even more strongly than was
before conjectured, that necessity was the sole
determining cause of the movements of the planetary
worlds ; and what need, it is asked, can there be of
a superior intelligence to regulate that which is
necessary ? Thus we find some of the names which
have become glorious in astronomy, inscribed among
the ranks of atheism. On the other hand, those
who study living beings are every moment encoun-
tering such a vast accumulation of unexpected facts,
that they may perhaps at first sight be tempted to
believe in the absence of order. But the further
they advance on this path of inquiry, in which nature
so frequently presents herself under the aspect of
the marvellous, the less frequently these apparent
deviations from order will arrest their attention^
while mutual relations which before were not even
suspected will be ever presenting themselves to
view, and contrasts of the most striking character will
give way to harmony and obvious unity of purpose.
Although some facts may indeed seem to militate
against general opinion, and the most rational
theories may appear to crumble into dust before a
reality which the observer was unable to foresee, he
will not be the less ready to trace the touch of that
all-wise and all-powerful hand, which has every-
where diffused life over the surface of our o-lobe,

* [A brief sketch of the chief scientific discoveries of Kepler and
Newton is transferred to the Appendix, Note VI.]
£ 4

56 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

and regulated its development. We therefore see
nothing extraordinary in the cry of adoration which
escapes from Linn^us at the very introduction of
his immortal Sy sterna Natures *; while we can as
easily comprehend the .feeling which actuated an
illustrious naturalist, when he began and ended one
of his last works with the exclamation, " Glory be
to God!"

After spending the day in the toilsome labour of
digging up sand and rolling over large masses of rock,
I returned to the farm to recruit my strength with a
frugal meal, and then prepared for my night work
by ascending to Mont de Bretagne to watch the
evening mist gradually descend upon the neighbour-
ing islands. For some time after I had regained my
solitary den, I could hear Master Lecam's songs
repeated in full chorus by his companions ; on some
occasions too, sounds reached me which told of dis-
putes which were waxing high under the influence
of the cyder-cup ; but these noises soon died away in
the direction of the village of the St. Malo men,
leaving the silence of the night unbroken by any
sound save the crash of the waves as they beat
against the point of Port Marie, or the blast of the
west wind as it swept across the surf at Epails. My
table, whose area of four feet square was crowded
with the products of my explorations, now became a
source of enjoyment, far more attractive than any of
the numerous splendid spectacles which were being

* [A notice of the Life and Labours of Linnseus is transferred to
the Appendix, Note VII.]

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 57

presented at the same hour before the eyes of the
affluent idlers of our large towns. My forceps,
needles, and compressor * secured the objects of my
research ; my microscope and lenses revealed an infi-
nite world to my eyes, my pencils and brushes enabled
me to secure rough illustrations of these treasures to
be filled up at some future time with more care and
exactitude ; while my pen was employed in hastily
drawing up the notes necessary to give permanence
to my recollection of what I had seen. I saw one
fact linking itself to other facts, I felt one thought
awaken other thoughts, and this mutual reaction
between observation and intelligence was the source
of unspeakable enjoyment. Yes ! in this remote spot
of earth, whose desolate aspect could not fail to strike
the beholder with profoundly sombre impressions, in
this large room in which the cold and the dampness
seemed to struggle for preeminence, in the absence
of all material comforts, I can truly say that I
enjoyed the most unalloyed pleasure that has as yet

* The compressor is a small instrument which may be almost
termed the hand of the microscopist. It was invented in Germany by
Purkinje, and has been considerably improved by subsequent ob-
servers. The instrument consists essentially of a metallic plate,
pierced in the centre by an opening, which is covered by a glass
plate. A second glass plate worked by a moveable ring can be
applied with exactness to the former plate. The ring is attached to
one of the extremities of a stem, which turns upon two pivots, and is
provided at the opposite extremity with a vice, which enables the
observer gradually to draw together, or separate the glass plates.
In the compressor which I have invented, these plates are extremely
thin, and the instrument is arranged in such a manner that it may
be turned round to show successively the two opposite faces of the
object placed between the two glass plates.

58 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

fallen to my lot. When ascendins^ to the origin of
all these harmonies, I found that the Eternal PoAver
was the source from whence this admirable order
sprang ; when through marvel to marvel my thoughts
rose from creation to the Creator, it was from the
very depths of my soul that I adored Him in His
works, and united with GeofFroy de Saint-Hilaire *
in the cry of " Glory be to G od ! "

And now perhaps you may understand how it was
that I could so easily forget myself in the midst of
my occupations. Indeed it often happened that I
did not seek my hammock- bed until my fingers were
so stiffened with cold that I was unable to handle
my instruments with the necessary precision. The
Blainville fishermen, whose huts faced my window,
were often surprised to find at three o'clock in the
morning, that my lamp, whose light they had watched
before they went to rest, was still burning. I believe
this fact has left a more permanent impression than
any of the other circumstances connected with my
stay on the island. The good people thought that I
lived without sleep, and occasionally gave expression,
with the utmost naivete, to their extreme surprise.

It may perhaps excite astonishment to hear of cold
and dampness, considering that I was at Chausey
during the months of July and August. But this
surprise will vanish, if we call to mind the character
of the summer of 1841 even at Paris; and that I
was in the midst of the sea at three leas^ues' distance

* [A biographical sketch of Geoffroy de Saiut-Hilaire is given
in the Appendix, Note VIII.]

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 59

from that western coast of France, where a fine day,
even in ordinary seasons, is a thing of very rare oc-
currence. I scarcely saw the sun above half a dozen
times, during the three months of my sojourn. Either
rain or mist accompanied me on nearly all my rambles.
I often returned home so thoroughly drenched, that,
from want of a sufficient supply of clothing, I was
obliged to remain in bed while my clothes were
drying before the fire of the farm-house kitchen.
The south-west wind, which beat full upon my door,
had so completely loosened all the joints, that in the
slightest storm, I was inundated. A few days after
my arrival, I awoke one morning with six inches of
water under my bed : in order to avoid being entirely
surrounded, I was obliged to cut a hole in the most
sloping part of the floor, and by means of this pre-
caution I had for the future a river instead of a lake
in my room. All my steel instruments were covered
with rust ; the metallic mirror of my camera lucida
was entirely ruined, and I had some difficulty in
protecting the brass work of my microscope. The
salt melted in my salt-cellar ; and a pound of sugar,
which had been forgotten for a fortnight at the
bottom of my cupboard, was converted into syrup.

But these disagreeables were soon forgotten, if
I were able, at the spring-tide of new or full moon,
to proceed in Master Hyacinthe's boat to the islands
of Enseigne or Corbieres, or to Ile-aux-Oiseaux.
The low ledges of rock which I wished to explore
could only be reached by long and often most tedious
detours, in which I was obliged to cross banks of
slimy mud, at the risk of sinking knee-deep, or

60 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

to scramble across broken and fucus-covered rocks.
I found my early habits of sure-footed mountain
climbing of the greatest service to me on these oc-
casions. I generally achieved the most glorious
success in these awkward emergencies, and my
humble companions appeared not a little surprised
to see a gentleman cross their sharp-pointed rocks
and slippery inclines with the quickness and security
that I displayed. As soon as I reached the water's
edge, I began to roll away the stones ; and as it was
generally the largest which served as lurking places
for the more curious animals, I had to employ all
my strength in this work. The epidermis of my
hands was very soon Avorn off against the small
Balani, which covered the rocks, and converted them
into living rasps. After two days' work it had be-
come so exceedingly thin, that the slightest contact
was productive of pain. I then directed my eiforts
to the sand, of which I am sure I must have turned
up some hundred cartloads. Two iron shovels, made
by the island smiths, were twisted and broken in
these explorations. The third stood the test, but
then about ten pounds of iron had been employed in
fabricating its broad spatula, terminating in a steel
point, and attached to a handle half an inch in thick-
ness. Although this instrument is rather heavy, it
has been of great use to me, and I recommend it to
all naturalists who purpose exploring the coast.

Violent exercise on the sea-side is probably fully
as bracing and conducive to the acquisition of
strength as the games of the Circus or a dip in the
Eurotas ; at all events I returned from these excur-

THE AECHIPELAGO OF CHAUSET. 61

sions wltli true Spartan appetite. As may readily
be supposed, my bill of dinner fare was a very li-
mited one. A lobster constituted almost always the
main dish of the repast, taking the place of the
classic bouilli of our humbler households. The Nor-
man dairy-woman, who was serving her apprentice-
ship in the art of cooking at my expense, generally
added a whiting or a plaice caught the same morning.
Every ten or twelve days, I received a piece of fresh
meat from the main land ; and I feel confident that
the frequenters of Very's or Les Freres Proven9aux
never promised themselves a greater gastronomic
treat than I did when I beheld a piece of boiled beef
or mutton smoking before me. Sometimes a grate-
ful fisherman presented me, by way of fee, with a
plate of shrimps, or Master Balue would bring me a
dish of artichokes from the continent in token of his
gratitude to me for saving his finger. The sour
home-made cider of the farm formed my beverage,
although I generally tempered this debilitating
drink with a few glasses of the wine which was sold
on the island under the pompous title of Bordeaux.

This kind of life, so varied in its uniformity, was
interrupted from time to time by the visits of coasting
vessels. Their arrival was a regular holiday for me,
and I was not sorry, by joining the mess on board, to
return for a few hours to the civilised world. Some-
times they brought with them a party of gay pas-
sengers, who had been induced by the prospect of a
day's fishing to brave the horrors of sea- sickness.
One day even the Espiegle touched at Chausey
with a party on board, consisting of several worthy

62 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

mothers of families and a whole swarm of joyous
laughing young girls, who were not a little proud of
the charming and untroubled passage which they had
made. It would be difficult to describe all I felt in
assisting them to scramble up the rocky landing-
place from their boat. To a poor recluse like me,
Avho for three months had seen no one more attrac-
tive than the sturdy w^omen of Blainville and the
wives of the quarrymen, these young girls appeared
alike charming and beautiful ; but whether or not,
they really were so, I do not know. I never saw
them again !

My active and solitary life had made me accessible
to a crowd of impressions which easily become
effiiced when brought in contact with the world. I
had regained the superabundant activity of youth
both in respect to my physical and moral nature. I
experienced all the pleasure of a child in leaping
over barriers, climbing sharp and high rocks, and
crossing the most difficult chasms. When I gazed
upon the boundless horizon of the sea from the sum-
mit of some lofty hill, or on the wide expanse of
beach ; when I listened to the thousand sounds
around me, which seemed like so many voices
speaking in an unknown tongue, I felt my heart
beat beneath the impression of those vague and
ardent thoughts which seem to be the heritage of
almost all in youth, linked as they are with the
recollections of the happiest period of our early
years.

But time passed on : my note books were filled, my
portfolios stored with drawings and sketches. I had

THE AKCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 63

completed that portion of my Inquiries which pre-
sented the greatest interest, and at the very moment
when I ought to have entered upon another series of
investigations, I felt in its full force the painful
sense of solitude. A feeling of home- sickness seized
upon me ; I did not long struggle against it, but
packing up my books, instruments and collections, I
at once engaged my passage on board the Delia, a
small vessel which was employed in transporting to
St. Malo the produce of the quarries of Chausey.

It was one of those lovely days, which occasionally
visit us at the approach of the equinox, and which
seem to belong alike to the summer which is passing
away and the autumn which is already beginning.
The sun w^as shining in a deep blue sky, interspersed
with a few light clouds. The sea was beautiful, and
its long lines of waves were breaking into sparkling
foam, as they moved in the bright sunbeams before
a gentle breeze from the north-east. Notwithstanding
the heavy cargo which filled her hold, the Delia
made rapid way, and we had soon left the shore far
enough behind us to enable me to embrace in one
glance the whole of the archipelago, whose remotest
recesses had now become so familiar to me. Before
me lay Grande-Ile, with its ancient castle command-
ing Port Homard, and flanked on either side by the
Great and Small Epail, which advanced into the sea
like gigantic sword-blades. On my right, Ile-Longue
and the two Romonts were half hidden in the clouds
of smoke which rose from the barilla fires. To the
left lay the chain of larger islands. La Genetaie,
with its high upheaved rocks, La Houssaie, and the

64 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Corbieres encircled by a belt of rocks rising little higher
than the water's edge. By degrees these various
objects grew confused, and blended into one another ;
the sun set, casting a last rosy tint over the evening
mist as it descended upon Chausey, enveloping
islands and rocks within its gauze-like tissue. Soon
all objects had passed out of sight ; the sky, sea, and
land were blended into one horizon, and Chausey had
disappeared, perhaps for ever, from my view. The
thought awakened a deep feeling of sadness. I had
passed many happy hours on those desolate rocks,
and who could tell what the world, to which I was
returning, had yet in store for me !

The wind had fallen, not a breeze remained to
swell the sails, and we cast anchor till the next
morning, when the Delia resumed her course, run-
ning at a mile's distance from the coast of Cancale,
whose hills, dotted with tufts of trees and country
houses, were glowing in the purple tints of the rising
sun. We soon doubled the desolate point of Petit
Be, where the waves are always breaking against the
last resting-place of an illustrious writer, who caused
hisgrave to be hollowed out on the summit of thisrock,
as if the agitations of his well spent life had not suf-
ficed him, and as if even after death he yearned to
linger among the storms of this world.* We were
at St. Malo f, whose dark granite houses, rising in

* Chateaubriand caused his tomb to be erected during his lifetime
on the rocky platform of Petit Be. where a simple cross of granite
serves as a signal to ships arriving from a distance.

f The St. Malo men have always been known as skilful traders
and adventurous sailors. Their renown in the days of Louis XIV.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF CHAUSEY. 65

tiers a hundred feet above the waves, looked like so
many beacon-towers, keeping watch for the coming
of an English flag, and ready to raise the cry to
summon her brave St. Malouins to the scene of
action. A few moments more, and the Delia cast
her anchor, and I was again on terra firma.

was so well established, that the vessel which bore the Lord High
Admiral's flag was, according to custom, to carry a crew which,
including officers, marines, and sailors, were all to be natives of St.
Malo.

VOL. I.

66 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

CHAP. II.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT.

Journey from Paris to Paimpol. — The Archipelago of Brchat. — Its
geological structure. — Ruins on some of the inhabited islands. —
Grande- He. — Le Paon. — Population ; probable admixture of
Basque and Breton blood. — Mildness of the climate. — The
terrestrial Fauna ; the Black Rat. — The maritime Fauna. — The
animal series. — Ideal and derivative types. — Relations of or-
ganised beings to one another. — General ideal type of a perfect
animal. — Division of physiological labour. — Higher and lower
animals : organic permanence of the former ; organic variability
of the latter. — Subdivision of the Articulata. — True Annelids or
Worms. — Tubicolous Annelids ; Chloroema ; Amphicora ; Tere-
bella ; Sabella. — Errant Annelids ; Chsetopterus ; Echiurus ;
Sipunculus ; Dujardinia. — Anatomy of Eunice sanguinea. —
Doyerina ; Aphlebina. — Organisation of Nemertes ; remarkable
simplification. — Excursion to the lighthouse of Hehaux, — Descrip-
tion of the tower. — Illuminating apparatus. — Historical notices :
Borda, Lemoine, Buffon, Arago, Fresnel, the younger Fran§ois. —
Departure from Brehat.

I HAD left the Archipelago of Chausey and the
harbour of St. Malo, firmly resolved, some day or
other, to revisit the shores of Brittany. The four
months which I had spent in earnest research had
indeed familiarised me with the zoological riches
of its sandy coast, and its granite-guarded creeks
and bays ; but the profound study of even the
smallest animal demands prolonged and assiduous
investigation. Much had been left undone on my

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 67

first excursion. My portfolios were full of imperfect
notes ; my sketches were many of them unfinished,
being, in fact, mere outlines, hastily drawn, and
serving more as guides to my memory than as faith-
ful representations of the objects I had seen. I
determined therefore to supply the many deficiencies
which seemed either to suggest the existence of some
mystery to be revealed or of some truth to be de-
monstrated. Having taken this resolution, it only
remained for me to make choice of my future station.
The magnificent atlas of the Hydrographie franqaise,
enabled me to trace on paper the entire reefs of
rocks, which appear to be thrown around ancient
Armorica as if to defend it alike from the fury of the
waves and the assaults of hostile fleets. In the
midst of the innumerable small islands which have
been so minutely represented by the skilful en-
gineers who worked under the direction of M.
Beautemps-Beaupre, the little Archipelago of Brehat,
lying to the north-west of Saint-Brieuc, attracted my
attention by the resemblance it appeared to present
to that of Chausey. This resemblance seemed indi-
cative of future success, and without further hesita-
tion I took my departure for the department of
Cotes du Nord.

My journey from Paris to Saint-Brieuc presented
nothing worthy of notice. On leaving the dili-
gence, I was obliged to go in search of some kind of
conveyance, to transport myself and my various items
of luggage to Paimpol, the small seaport town from
whence I was to embark for the Island of Brehat.
After many inquiries and much searching, I at

F 2

68 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

length discovered a crazy sort of vehicle, which, even
before it was loaded, seemed too heavy for the half-
starved white pony which was to draw it. I hesi-
tated for some time whether or not I should trust
myself in this sorry equipage, which would, I feared,
break down on the road. The owner declared, how-
ever, in the strongest and most impressive manner,
that his conveyance would carry me to my destina-
tion as fast as any diligence : therefore, as I had no
other alternative, I resigned myself to the conviction
he endeavoured to force upon me, and I am bound
to say that the event justified his assertions. My
little horse was of the true Breton breed, and there-
fore had descended in a direct line from those ancient
Gallic steeds which, even before the conquests of
Caesar, were known to the Romans, and esteemed by
them as highly as the celebrated racers of Crete.
On the first touch of the whip, he started oif on a
fast trot, and on the second application he broke
into a gallop. The driver, who was as lithe and
talkative as a Spanish muleteer, kept up this ardour
on the part of his steed by a multitude of en-
couraging epithets, half French, half low Breton,
while he took good care at the same time to season
his remarks with repeated strokes of the whip. The
same rapid pace was maintained the whole way, ex-
cepting when we ascended or descended the precipi-
tous hills by which the road is broken at every turn,
yet notwithstanding these interruptions, we passed
over the thirty miles, which separate Saint-Brieuc
from Paimpol, almost as rapidly as the messageries
royales would have done.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 69

On leaving Salnt-Brieuc, the road descends into a
narrow and deep gnlly. The schistous character
of its mountain sides was at once discernible by the
irregularity of their profile, which differs so essen-
tially from the sharply-cut outline of granite for-
mations or the rounded forms characterising sand-
stone and limestone districts. But, notwithstanding
the abrupt and wild appearance of the country through
which we passed, it presented the greatest possible
attractions to me, from the recollections it awakened
in my mind of the valleys of the Cevennes, amongst
which I spent my early childhood. There were the
same sharply defined mountains, with their acutely
cut angles and salient lines, the same stunted but
hardy vegetation, drawing a scanty subsistence from
among the debris of rocks, which rise on every side
in slender pyramids, wreathed with long spine-clad
festoons of brambles interspersed with tufts of
waving furze. Here, near every brightly gushing
mountain rivulet, were the same patches of verdure,
clothing the steep hill -side with a soft velvety carpet
of grass, where even the cattle could scarcely keep
their footing on their steep and slippery pasture
ground. By the way-side, in the hollows of the
rocks, at the foot of the trees, I saw tlie same plants
and flowers which I had so often gathered when
a child. To complete the resemblance, a winding
brook pursued its course through the valley. The
clear waters leapt over the pebbles, broke in foam
against the larger stones, and fell in bright cascades
from the embankments which had been thrown up
to collect a larger body of water to turn some huge

F 3

70 EAMBLES OF A NATUEALIST.

wheel or impel some system of machinery, the noise
of which resounded from afar. However much the
inhabitant of a level country may boast of the fer-
tility of his plains, the majesty of his rivers, or the
wealth of his cities, he can never comprehend the
sentiments of tender affection with Avhich a moun-
taineer looks at any spot which recalls to him the
image of his native district.

The road wound gradually upwards from this
valley until we reached a steep ascent, which brought
us to a gently sloping plain, which we did not again
leave ; and here in an instant was displayed before
our eyes a landscape, diifering in all respects from
the country which we had traversed. We had
emero'ed from one of those fissures in the earth's
crust which owe their origin to the upheaval of
granitic masses and which still preserve traces of
their violent origin. In another moment w^e found
ourselves on a soil which had been deposited by the
action of water — a mode of formation of which
everything around bore evidence. The surface of
the soil was undulatino- and rounded : the sides of
the road exhibited, below a vegetable soil, parallel
strata of pebbles, wdnch had obviously once formed
a part of the neighbouring rocks. The solitude of a
wild mountain gorge was succeeded by the cheerful
brightness of a softer, although not less picturesque,
landscape. The road wound among hills covered
with rich harvests, or crossed tracts of fallow land
broken up into patches by hawthorn hedges and long
rows of oak trees. The sturdy trunks of the trees
rose from a narrow band of grass, bright with w^ild

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 71

flowers, among which the birds were chirping and
incessantly flitting about. The noise made by
my clattering vehicle created an immense panic
amongst the feathered throng: the sparrows took
suddenly to flight in large troops ; the robin-red-
breast fled to its coverts ; the greenfinch hopped to a
high branch, where, encouraged by distance, he
warbled forth a joyous song as we passed ; whilst the
large crested lark, waiting till w^e were close to him,
would suddenly rise, and, remaining suspended in
the air for an instant, would again alight at a stone's
throw from us upon some elevated mound of earth,
from whence he watched us, shaking the while his
little crest of grey feathers. The sky itself lent
variety to the scene, as at every moment the tints of
the landscape changed from the bright hues of a
golden sunlight to the sombre colouring imparted
by some heavy cloud, as it was driven across the
heavens before a keen breeze from the west. This
wind, which at first was very supportable, gradually
became sharper and sharper, penetrating through
my clothing with a peculiarly searching intensity,
which made me suspect that w^e were approaching
the ocean. I looked around to catch a glimpse of
the Atlantic ; and, on turning a hill, at the extremity
of a short valley covered with meadows and inter-
spersed with clumps of trees, the boundless expanse
of waters lay spread before me like some immense
green plain, seamed and veined with the white lines
of its foaming waves.

Another half-hour brought us to Paimpol, and the
next day I embarked for Brehat. My first care on

F 4

72 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

arriving was to secure food and lodging ; and in this
I was essentially successful, although I experienced
some difficulty in regard to the latter point, for I
was compelled to content myself with an unfurnished
lodging, and to hire a bed from one person, a table
from another, and a bench and shelves from a third.
At length my arrangements were sufficiently com-
pleted to admit of my unpacking my books, instru-
ments, and bottles. These preliminaries so com-
pletely occupied the whole day, that I had to defer
the commencement of my explorations till the
following morning. By break of day I was on foot,
searching for some elevated point, from whence I
might survey at a glance the whole extent of my
island. This I found to be impossible, for Brehat
is a perfect little continent, with plains, elevated
table-land, and chains of mountains which effectually
mask one another, all of course in the miniature
style, and on a scale proportioned to the size of the
island, which measures about two miles from north
to south. I was obliged therefore to examine the
wdiole in detail ; and after briefly consulting the map,
I began my excursions.

Brehat, taken as a whole, may be said to present
very nearly the form of the figure eight, deeply
indented by innumerable little bays and bristling
with a multitude of small capes. It was formerly
divided into two distinct islands, which were sepa-
rated during high tide by an arm of the sea about
twenty yards in width. At the period when Yauban
was examining our coast-line with a view of organ-
isins: the best means of defence ao;ainst maritime

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 73

attacks, a broad causeway was thrown up between
the ishxnds under his directions, and a communica-
tion thus secured between the two during all con-
ditions of the tide. The bay which separates these
two northern and southern portions is a muddy
basin tolerably well sheltered from the north wind,
and called La Corderie. The sailors however ap-
pear with good reason to prefer Port Clos, a little
bay entering the most southern shore of the island
and flicing the coast of Brittany. Here the land,
after rising in a gradual slope towards the sea, appears
suddenly to open and separate into two rugged pro-
montories, which, curving inwards at their extreme
points, serve as a protecting breastwork to the
circular basin enclosed within their area. So
sheltered is this bay, that during the high tides of
the equinoxes, and in heavy gales, when the whole
ocean seems to be raging against the island, which
it encircles in one belt of white foam, the middle of
Port Clos is scarcely rippled by the waves which its
natural dykes throw back on either side of it.

With the exception of these and a few other spots,
where small craft might find safe anchorage, the
entire circuit of the island presented nothing but a
steep rocky coast, where it was difficult even for
mere sloops to make a landing. Granite occurs here
in every kind of form and variety, associated with
several species of the neighbouring rocks. Pegmatite,
which by its decomposition yields kaolin, occurs
either in sli2;ht veins intersectins; each other in all
directions, or in masses of a beautiful red colour and
crystallised in large grains. Other veins of syenite

74 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

of tolerable thickness run through the general mass
in an almost constant direction from north-east to
south-west. Here and there quartz occurs in de-
tached masses of a dull white colour, or in veins as
transparent as the purest crystal; Avhilst grains of
iron in the state of peroxide are occasionally met
with in these rocky formations. I could nowhere
observe the homogeneous and compact structure
which has made the granite of Chausey so deservedly
celebrated ; indeed the rock of Brehat appears, from
the numerous veins which intersect it, and from the
diversity of its character at every few feet, to be
utterly valueless in a commercial point of view.

This difference of structure in the rocks of Brehat
and Chausey explains the difference observable in
the general aspect of the coasts of the two islands.
At Chausey, the massive strata of granite, after un-
dersioino; a slow disinteo-ration under the action of the
currents and waves, leave enormous blocks standing
isolated from the general mass, which, from the very
disorder of the formations around them, present a
certain appearance of imposing grandeur. There is
nothincy of this kind to be seen at Brehat, where the
isolated rocks are little more than large detached
stones. There are many points along the coasts of
Chausey where the sea breaks against the rocks with
a violence that gives the observer the idea of some
vast convulsion of nature; for the scene around seems
to suggest an analogy with the fragments of an up-
heaved and broken world. Now, althouo;h there are
such fragments at Brehat, they have nothing striking
in their character, and I have seen many a feudal

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 75

tower in Alsatia and Germany whose rums might be
advantageously compared in point of grandeur with
the rocks and boulders of this coast.

Several islands and an infinite number of rocks
grouped around Brehat, combine to form a little ar-
chipelago, which extends in a south-westerly direction
towards the mouth of the River Pontrieux, and is
longitudinally divided by the principal island into two
unequal parts. To the east lie Logodec, Lavrec,
and Raguenez-Meur, which are separated from
Brehat by a tortuous arm of the sea, named La
Chambre ; to the west Beniguet, Raguenez-Bras and
Grouezen extend in a straight line along: the shore of
a second channel, called Le Kerpont, which is cele-
brated in the district for the violence of its currents.
None of these islands equal Brehat in extent or im-
portance. Beniguet, indeed, can boast of a few
farm-houses and about thirty inhabitants, but the
others are deserted. They are not, however, the less
carefully cultivated on that account, for every rock,
whose summit is covered by a few square feet of
mould, is strictly appropriated and used as pasture
ground for cattle or sheep ; or, Avhere the proprietor is
not possessed of any of these animals, the grass is
given up to a few goats, who here find ample
scope for the indulgence of their instinctive love of
climbing.

It would seem that at some remote period the in-
habitants were more equably scattered over the
islands of the archipelago. Several of these isolated
masses of rock still exhibit the remains of former
buildings, which were probably occupied by fisher-

76 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

men or smiio-o-lers. L'lle Verte, situated on the
eastern margin of the archipelago, even possessed at
one time a monastery, which was dependent upon the
rich Abbey of Beaa})ort. Without being able to define
the precise period when this religious asylum was
founded, it is easy to see from the mere appearance
of the rains that it must have been erected, probably
in times of trouble, to serve the purpose of a citadel
quite as much as of a convent. The buildings
occupy the entire surface of the island, and look
down from every side upon a deep precipice. Even
at low tide, the rocks on which they are placed are
almost entirely encompassed by the waves and
washed by impetuous currents. The only point of
approach is guarded by two large isolated rocks,
which serve the purpose of a breakwater ; and here
the remains of two parallel dykes formed by enormous
blocks of unhewn stone still mark the position of the
landing place. A steep ascent led from the shore to
a narrow and arched postern door cut in a wall, nearly
ten feet in thickness.

This solitary means of entrance was guarded on
either side by two towers, whose foundations may
still be traced among broken stones and rampant
weeds. A straight path leading directly from the
door divided the extensive range of buildings into
two nearly equal parts. No portion of this ancient
edifice is standing : the path of which I have spoken
is choked with brambles and fennel ; while waving
corn and straggling peas and beans have usurped the
place of vast halls, whose site may still be traced by
the pieces of wall which yet remain. At the ex-

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 77

tremity of the edifice, which faced the open sea, the
walls of a narrow donjon or keep surmount a preci-
pitous rock. I asked myself whether it had been
intended as a place of refuge, or as a beacon tower,
and whether the light which gleamed from its
summit was reared on high to announce to the
storm-tossed mariner that friendly aid was near to
succour him, or whether it was planted there by
pirates thirsting for their bloody waifs, like the
monks of Chausey. In vain did I interrogate the
oldest of the fishermen who frequented L'lle Verte :
none could explain the mystery ; for tradition does
not inform us whether the dwellers of this rocky
fastness were pious cenobites or wily brigands, nor
does it even reveal to us the cause or the period of
the destruction of the monastery.

Concealed as it were behind a belt of granite, and
exhibiting nothing to the eye of the distant ob-
server but rock-capped hills, Brehat appears to pre-
sent the aspect of an inhospitable soil, incapable of
maintaining life. A cursory view of the interior of
the island at once proves the fallacy of this appear-
ance, for a closer examination of the ground shows
that the whole of this rocky base is covered with a
stratum of vegetable soil, whose extreme fertility has
been improved by careful industry. I have seen very
few parts of France in which the land was so com-
pletely and usefully employed. There are many
points, indeed, at which the rocky skeleton of the
island may be seen projecting upwards, in the form
of heavy masses or sharp needles ; but the base of
these rocks is covered with crops of grain and ve-

78 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

getables, whose abundance affords ample testimony
of the richness of the soil. Communication between
the different parts of the island is maintained by
means of roads traversing each other in all directions,
and whose proportions are strictly calculated to
meet the wants of a locality, in which not a cart or
horse is to be seen. Very few of these paths admit
of more than two men walking abreast, and the
broadest of all, extending from one end of the island
to the other, which may be regarded as a sort of first-
class line, scarcely allows of two cows passing each
other. All these roads, however, are carefully
marked along the fields which they cross, and tended
and trimmed like garden walks, — a circumstance
which contributes in a great degree to give the
country a general air of order and plenty, very
different from the misery and want of cleanliness
which have usually been regarded as the inseparable
companions of the peasantry of Lower Brittany.

This rich and smiling district is interspersed here
and there with small groups of habitations, dis-
tinguished by the title of villages, and all bearing
names in which the concurrence of the sounds ker
and ec produce words which seem rather inharmo-
nious to French ears. The chief of these settlements
is known as the Bourg ; and here stand the town-
house and the church, — buildings in which the most
momentous events of human life are transacted, alike
in the humblest village and the proudest city. There
are moreover two schools in the place, kept by pious
brothers and sisters of the Church. Three or four
taverns in great request on Sundays, and a reading

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 79

room where two newspapers are taken, combine to
secure supremacy to the Bourg, and to constitute it
the true capital of the island. For the rest, here as
in all the other villages, the country maintains its
characteristic physiognomy. The streets, although
narrow and irregular, are always clean. The houses
are generally surrounded by small gardens, planted
with flowers and fruit-trees, and resemble in many
respects the rural habitations of Alsatia, which is
perhaps the most genuinely rich province of France.
These remarks apply more especially to the
southern half of the island. Immediately after cross-
ing Vauban's causeway and passing the neighbouring
houses, the character of the country changes suddenly,
everything bearing a wild and rugged aspect. The
rocks are more numerous and more elevated, and in
proportion as they encroach upon the soil they
render It less fertile. Vegetation is less active ; the
crops are less luxuriant, wheat being here replaced
by oats ; while in many parts nothing is to be seen
but broom and ferns. The habitations seem to have
succumbed to the same laws of decadence, for they
gradually become lower and more squalid, courts and
gardens disappear, and finally, on reaching Kerwa-
reva, the last village which we pass in going north-
ward, nothing is to be seen but huts built of rough
stone, imperfectly cemented with the mud from the
shore, and covered with sods. The inhabitants even
exhibit an air of rouo-hness and almost wildness in
their persons, which contrasts with the greater polish
of their more southern neighbours. In the south
every one speaks French, or at all events under-

80 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

stands the language when others speak it; but in the
north I rarely succeeded in making myself under-
stood when I wished to obtain the simplest informa-
tion. I learnt subsequently that wholly local cus-
toms prevail in the north, and that Breton words are
in use there which are not heard in the other parts
of the island ; indeed the inhabitants of the north of
Brehat are distinguished, even by their accent, from
those of the south.

At some distance from Kerwareva rises the Pointe
du Paon, forming the northern extremity of the
island, which alone presents any of that character
of wild beauty so common at Chausey. The very
rarity of these features tends perhaps to augment
their charm by imparting to them an air of grand
sublimity. Beyond the last houses of the village, the
empire of man seems to give place to the elements of
air and water, which here dispute the supremacy
over this desolate res-ion. A barren heath lies before
us, where stunted ferns divide the thin crust of vege-
table soil with the straggling plants which spring up
from a layer of bog, rendered brackish by being con-
stantly sprinkled by the foam of the waves. Soon the
ferns even cease to appear. Lowly as they are, they
are ever being bent and broken beneath the lash of the
storms, which pour with full force upon this exposed
slope. Here and there fine soft grass as smooth as
velvet replaces the ruder vegetation, but it is unable
to extend to the extreme point, for there the sea
reigns supreme, or rather it may be said to carry on
a never-ceasing warfare with the giant rocks, w^hich

THE AECHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 81

alone protect this part of the island from its en-
croacliments.

The Paon is composed of two enormous banks of
granite, which, upheaved from the sea's bottom,
rise far above the contiguous land, inclining towards
one another as if for mutual protection. The sea has
opened for itself a narrow passage between the per-
pendicular rocks, which reminds us of Roland's Pass.
The traveller at first advances between these two
walls on a level with the beach, without encounterino;
any obstacle beyond a few large stones rubbed
smooth by the friction of the waters, but at the end
of a few paces a subterranean rumbling of waters
warns him to retrace his steps. Before him yawns
a chasm Avhich is scarcely three feet across at its
mouth, but which widens towards high- water mark,
until it expands into a colossal funnel. A block of
granite, weighing many hundreds of tons, which must
have been detached by some storm from the rocks
above, rests like a massive bridge upon the two oppo-
site banks of the gulf which it spans. When the
heavy sea strikes the shore, the waves rush with
accelerated force through the narrow enclosure of
these rocks, and in striving to force their way below
the bridge exert an incalculable amount of force,
which enables them to raise the enormous mass.
When this obstacle is passed, the waves break into
foam and mist, which are projected vertically up-
wards in a huge white column, and the bridge falls
back to its unshaken supports, to be again and again
upheaved as the rushing waters rise beneath it. This
struggle, which has probably endured for ages, will

VOL. I. G

82 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

only terminate with the rupture of this transverse
rocky mass, unless the overhanging walls, shaken by
their incessant warfare with the ocean, should suc-
cumb, and in their fall bury the huge bridge and
the Pass of the Paon in one common wreck.

This remarkable spot enjoys an immense reputa-
tion both at Brehat and on the neighbouring coasts
as a place of divination. The young girl, who
wishes to know how long she has yet to wait before
she can exchange the circlet of betrothal for the
marriage ring, goes unaccompanied to the point of
the Paon at the time of low water during the spring-
tide. She picks up a pebble on a particular part of
the beach, and advancing to the entrance of the
passage throws the stone into the yawning chasm.
If the stone falls to the very bottom of the abyss
without rebounding against the rock, the maiden
returns to her home with a lightsome step, for she
knows to a certainty that she will marry before the
year is closed. Woe be to the poor thing if the
stone has swerved from its course^ for every rebound
of the pebble against the rock, adds a year of weary
waiting ; and thus the maidens who consult the
oracles too often return with saddened hearts. The
chasm of the Paon which has been hollowed out by
the constant rushinjr of the waters between the two
banks of rocks is by no means perpendicular ; hence
it requires a certain address, which few women
possess, to throw a stone with unerring aim to the
bottom without touching the sides ; indeed the main
essential to the success of the charm is that the stone
should be thrown at random.

THE AKClIirELAGO OF BREHAT. 83

The island of Brehat forms a separate commune,
and numbers about fifteen hundred inhabitants. The
population, isolated in its own remote corner of the
world, combines the niggardly and prying spirit of
the inhabitants of small towns with the egotistical
and exclusive character of islanders. The Brehatain
does not consider himself a Frenchman ; he scarcely
regards himself as a Breton ; and every stranger is
looked upon as a sort of Pariah, whose society is
sedulously shunned alike by the richest proprietor
and the poorest day-labourer.

The country people extend this kind of interdict
to their compatriots of the opposite coast, notwith-
standing the community of manners, and more
especially of language, by which they are associated.
During my stay a young girl from the Continent,
who had been engaged as a servant by one of the
islanders, refused to remain in service in Brehat,
because, according to her statement, there was not
a woman who would speak to her wdien they met
at the well, or in coming out of church. This
strongly marked spirit of local attachment may
perhaps be explained by tracing the origin of the
population amongst whom it is so strikingly mani-
fested. The Brehatains constitute a perfectly dis-
tinct variety of the Breton race. They very rarely
exhibit the round head, full face, blue eyes and
light or reddish hair, which appear to constitute the
characteristic traits of the Breton type. Among
the Brehatains, on the contrary, one meets frequently
with long and delicately chiselled oval faces, asso-
ciated with large expressive black eyes and fine soft

G 2

84 BAMBLES OF A XATUKALIST.

black or chestnut hair. These characteristics seem
to betray a southern origin. It is highly probable
indeed that the daring Basque seamen of the middle
ao^es should have amalo^amated with the natives of
Bretagne on their annual visits to its shores in search
of cod and mackerel, or when engaged in the pursuit
of the whale, and that the Brehatain race should
have sprung from the fusion of the Yascon and
Armorican blood.

I ought to observe, however, that my remarks are
of necessity limited to the women of the island.
Every Brehatain seems born a sailor, and as soon as
he is old enough to serve as a cabin boy he leaves
the island ; after a time he returns to take a wife
from among his compatriots, but marriage does not
bind him more closely to terra firma. It is only
when the weight of years compels him to relinquish
the dangers and exposure of a sailor's life that he
permanently settles on shore. In consequence of
these habits, the indigenous population of the island
is composed almost exclusively of women, children,
and old men, the latter of whom are all superannuated
seamen. In 1832 Brehat contained one vice-
admiral, six commanders of vessels, and several
lieutenants. At this period the cholera cut off
almost the whole generation of old seamen, who had
survived the storms and troubles of the long wars of
the Republic and the Empire. At the present day
there only remain some few lieutenants and one
captain, the grandson of the brave Cornic, who was
alike celebrated for his courage and for the perse-
cutions which his merit brought upon him at the

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 85

hands of those holding higher command than him-
self.

The emigration of the male population leaves in
the charge of the women the entire superintendence
of all field labours, in addition to the care of their
households. They are also obliged to combine with
the culture of the fields the labour of procuring the
fuel necessary for the long and tempestuous season
of winter, and to prepare the food required for home
consumption. On an island like Brehat, the land is
too fully occupied to leave space for the growing of
trees; which, moreover, could not be made available
till after the lapse of many years. Fruit trees are
the only trees to be seen in the island. All the
wood used for firing comes from the main land ; but
as it is very expensive, it is reserved for the liouses
of the rich, while the poorer people burn the broom
and ferns, which they collect from the less fertile
parts of the island. They also use the Fucus detached
from the rocks, and even strips of turf, which they
dry with all the roots attached to the mould. Un-
fortunately, however, both these kinds of fuel have
the inconvenience of emitting a great deal of smoke
and a very unpleasant odour; on this account a sub-
stance, known as bois dlierbes, is generally preferred.
It will be necessary, however, to explain the mean-
ins; of the term.

I had been struck from my first arrival with the
circumstance, that although there were a large
number of cows on the island, I had not met with
any of those unpleasant traces of their presence
which they generally leave on their track. I very

G 3

86 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

soon discovered that these unsightly remains of
digestion were carefully collected by the islanders,
who pounded them together with chopped straw,
and employed the compound as a substitute for
wood or other fuel. The method of drying this
substance consists in spreading large masses of it
against the sides of a rock or wall, and leaving it
exposed to the action of the sun and air until it is
thoroughly dried and can be detached in large flat
cakes. I have often seen otherwise well kept
houses covered with this singular tapestry, which
certainly would seem more in harmony with the re-
ligious ideas of the Hindoos than with those which we
entertain in France in relation to cleanliness. I have
been informed that the hois (Tlierhes gives a clear and
bright flame free from smoke or from any oflensive
smell.

In addition to the native Brehatains, the island
contains an isolated colony of strangers. Brehat
serves as one of the principal stations for the coast-
guard, and there is generally a large number of these
officers on the island, who are constantly engaged in
trying to overcome the artifices and incessant activity
of the smugglers. On account of the importance of
the island in the event of a maritime war, several of-
ficials connected with the war administration are
always quartered at Brehat. Like a true fortress,
the place has its commandant, who, however, is only
a non-commissioned officer ; its garrison, which con-
sists of seventeen men, including the sergeant and
corporal in command ; its second in command, who is
no less a personage than the mayor, and the master

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 87

of the fortifications, a worthy citizen, who has the
charge of the coast-guard ammunition. There is not
any very great harmony among these petty military
authorities, who all advance pretensions to supremacy,
and whose quarrels would be even more vindictive if
it were not for the calm and pacifying spirit of the
keeper of the ammunition, who alone, from the nature
and extent of the materials entrusted to his care, is
invested with any real importance.

The climate of Brehat is remarkably mild ; snow
rarely falls, and it is only in extremely severe seasons
that the earth retains the white coating of winter for
more than a day or two. Owing to this circumstance
many plants thrive on the island which are com-
monly regarded as peculiar to southern climates.
The myrtle, amongst others, grows freely in the open
air, and attains a considerable size, contributing
greatly to the adornment of the better class of houses,
which are frequently covered with the shining green
foliage of these beautiful shrubs, interspersed with
which are festoons of roses trained on trellis work; and
yet Brehat is situated very nearly in the same latitude
as Alsace, and Strasburg lies about half a degree fur-
ther south, notwithstanding which the river on which
this city is built freezes every year to such a thickness
that the inhabitants are able with safety to skate
upon its surface. Now in order to obtain ice thick
enough for this purpose, we must assume that the
temperature has remained far below the freezing point
for some days. This difference of temperature be-
tween two localities placed at the same distance
from the pole, is explained by one of those great

G 4

88 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

phenomena which modern science has been able to
elucidate in regard to the surface of the earth. It is
to the Gulf Stream that Bretagne generally, and
Brehat in particular, owes these climatic relations
which at first sight seem so extraordinary. This
great current of waters, after being warmed by the
heat of the equator and of the tropics, emerges from
the Gulf of Mexico, and taking the direction of
Europe, separates into different branches, one of
which, driven northward by the Spanish peninsula,
strikes upon the shores of Bretagne. Here it pene-
trates into the channel, and surrounds Brehat with
its still tepid waves. While, however, it protects
this little island from the rigour of winter, it entails
upon it an extreme degree of humidity, to which
medical men refer the rheumatic affections, and more
especially the stubborn forms of ophthalmia, which
afflict a large proportion of the population.

Although Brehat presents considerable resem-
blance to the largest island of Chausey in respect to
the nature of its soil, climate and vegetation, it differs
in having an area eight or ten times larger. If we
bring this circumstance to bear in examining the
animals which inhabit this island, we shall find that
we may aptly apply to these two islands that beau-
tiful law of general zoology, which was propounded
by the genius of our great Buffon, and after having
been long denied by naturalists, is now daily ac-
quiring additional confirmation in proportion to the
constant advances made in science. Buffon laid it
down as a principle, that the numbers and size of the
different species of animals living upon a continent

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 89

or an island, correspond with the extent of land ap-
propriated to them, so that they diminish in number
and size in proportion to the diminution of the ha-
bitable space around them. This proposition is true
with regard to the case in point. We find at Brehat
ail the species of mammals, birds and reptiles be-
longing to Chausey, while each of these classes is
represented by several additional forms ; in the first
division, we have the ermine and polecat, in the
second the linnet and blackbird, and in the third the
common adder and the newt. The aquatic birds
seem, however, to present an exception to the rule,
for there are fewer species than at Chausey, and
those which are met with are of a smaller size ; this
apparent contradiction may, however, be explained
by the fact that the channels of Brehat are not so
well stocked with fish as those in the Chausey ar-
chipelago, and that consequently there is nothing to
attract these birds, which, moreover, are distinguished
by their wandering habits from the true representa-
tives of the native fauna.

It is worthy of notice that the Mammals of Brehat
number amongst their representatives two species
of the genus Mus, namely, the mouse and the black
rat. The black rat, which has become more and
more rare, is disappearing daily from the continent of
Europe in consequence of a revolution, not less
bloody, though less generally known than those which
the barbarians of the north brought in former times
upon the empires of the more civilised world. For
ages, the mouse, which was the only representative
of this family known to the ancients, lived at our ex-

90 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

pense with no enemy to fear in its quasi-domestic
state save man, whom it pillaged, and the cat, which
the lords of creation had called to their aid against
an adversary which had been rendered formidable
by its very diminutiveness and timidity. Daring
the middle ages, the black rat, coming no one knew
from whence, spread itself over Europe and attacked
the mouse, who, too feeble to resist his ferocious
antagonist, was obliged to share with him his old
haunts, only escaping complete destruction by re-
tiring within his narrow galleries, whither the enemy
could not pursue him. At the beginning of the last
century, the Norway, or brown rat, brought by mer-
chant vessels from India, appeared in Europe, and at
once began to wage an exterminating war against
the black rat. Its greater strength, ferocity, and
fecundity enabled it rapidly to gain ground. This
rat first appeared in England in 1730; twenty years
later it was observed in France ; but at the period
when BufFon wrote his immortal work, it was only
met with in the environs of Paris, and had not yet
penetrated to the city. At the present day it is the
only rat met with in the capital and in the greater
part of the provinces. Its partiality for the water
and the readiness with which it swims have enabled
it to follow the courses of rivers, and by ascending
the smallest affluents it has contrived to diffuse itself
over the whole country. It has driven the black
rat before it, exterminating it in many of our pro-
vinces, and forcing it to take refuge in mills, or
isolated farms. At Chausey I could not see a single
specimen of the black rat, whilst its formidable

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 91

enemy abounds everywhere, and will most probably
soon traverse the narrow arm of the sea, which se-
parates Brehat from the continent, so that the last
of the black rats will without doubt, in the course of
a few years, fall a victim to the fury of Its voracious
congener.

The interest which appertains to these terrestrial
and aerial populations had not, however, been the at-
traction which drew me to Brehat, and I therefore
prepared, the day after my arrival, to explore my
domain. As soon as the sea had retired from the
shore, I set forth with a tin box suspended from
a leather belt which was strapped across my shoulders,
my pockets well filled with tubes and bottles, and my
broad iron spud In my hand. The first few hours of
this exploration were painfully unsatisfactory. Full
of the recollections of the zoological treasures which
the Sacaviron of Chausey so bountifully displays, it
was long before I could discover anything worthy of
notice in the midst of the desolate barrenness which
surrounded me on all sides. The channels of Brehat
present a singular appearance, owing to the violent
currents by which they are constantly traversed.
Wherever the force of the waves finds free scope, it
undermines and disintegrates the rocks, which crumble
into fragments too small and unstable to afford
shelter to any large number of animals, whilst the
sands are too well washed to furnish an adequate
supply of food. The few sheltered points which the
coast presents are generally encumbered with detri-
tus, reduced to the condition of semi-fluid mud, and
covered with immense tracts of Zostera, forming a

92 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

treacherous bottom, which gives way beneath the feet
of those who unwarily trust in its seeming security.

I could not see any of that muddy sand which
seems so favourite a place of resort for Annelids, nor
did I discover any of those picturesque grottoes, in
which simple and compound Ascidians, Sponges and
Alcyons clothe the roof, from which they hang sus-
pended like living stalactites. My courage sank, I
confess, but still I persevered, investigating every-
thing that fell in my way. By degrees my hopes re-
vived, until at length my discouragement entirely
gave place to the most gratifying assurance of success.
I found that there were certain points where the
sand and mud were blended together in proportions
which seemed to promise a rich harvest, and I dis-
covered that entire populations were sheltered be-
neath the very rocks which I had so heartily con-
demned. Tn truth, it required the skill and hard
blows of a true quarryman to dislodge these animals
from their retreats. I saw that I had hard work
before me, but I thought only of the recompense by
which my labours would assuredly be rewarded, and
the difficulties of the search did not appal me.
Without further consideration, I set to work, and
from the first day my expeditions were crowned with
success, for I always returned home laden with
treasures which afforded ample materials for work.

In the present state of modern science, the inferior
animals present a very great degree of interest. In
the former chapter, while describing my mode of life at
Chausey, I endeavoured to show how the anatomist,
who reveals the material instruments of life, and

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 93

the physiologist, who attempts to penetrate into the
inmost recesses of their structure for the purpose of
studying their modes of action, will often find that
the simpler types of animal life furnish us with
numerous data for the elucidation of many of
the problems which nature has presented to us^
although these data may have been unsuccessfully
sought for in beings of higher development. An in-
timate acquaintance with these classes, which have
hitherto been too much neglected, is equally necessary
to the zoologist who, with a just appreciation of what
is due to the character of his science, avails himself
of the light afforded by anatomy and physiology,
while he does not neglect the study of the relations
by which living beings are connected together. I
will, however, somewhat more fully develop my
views of this subject.

When, after the first attempts to classify animal
species, naturalists arrived at some general ideas, the
fact of the relative superiority and inferiority of the
animals which they studied must have been one of
the first thino;s which struck them. At the one ex-
tremity of the chain of comparison stood a portion of
the Mammalia, at the other appeared the Worms and
Zoophytes. The numerous intermediate forms pre-
sentinsj themselves between these extreme limits save
rise to the idea of an uninterrupted animal series, ex-
tending through a succession of progressive degrada-
tions, from man, who comprehends and controls
nature by his intelligence and perfect organisation,
down to the sponge, which appears from its am-
biguous structure to be equally referrible to either

94 KAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

of the three kingdoms of nature.* This doctrine,
which was generally adopted, was simple, and ap-

* Bonnet, who was one of the principal supporters in Natural
History of this doctrine of continuity, which Leibnitz employed to a
certain extent as the basis of his philosophy, was born at Geneva, in
1720, and died in the same town in 1793. This natural philosopher
devoted himself with much ardour to microscopical studies, and his
researches on the reproduction of the Aphides, on Fission, and on
Vegetation proved that he possessed, to a high degree, a talent for
observation. In consequence of partial loss of sight, he abstained
from scientific pursuits, and devoted himself to those philosophical
and religious meditations which the contemplation of nature
inspires. Cuvier justly and forcibly denounced the false and dan-
gerous views which Bonnet had endeavoured to introduce into
science by this doctrine of continuity, and although this hypothesis
is generally abandoned at the present day it was also maintained by
Bucrotay de Blainville, who was born at Arques, in 1778, and who
died in Paris in 1850, after having attained to the dignity of a seat
in the Institute, and to a Professor's chair at the Jardin des Plantes
and the Faculty of Sciences at Paris. In his youth he was exposed to
many vicissitudes, for while a student at the Military School at
Beaumont, he escaped from the establishment and concealed himself
on board a vessel of war, from whence he came to Paris, and was
successively a pupil at the Conservatoire of Music, and a student in
a painter's atelier. Up to the age of twenty-seven he had not
directed his attention to science, when a lecture, which he acciden-
tally heard from Cuvier, decided his vocation. Two years after-
wards he took the degree of Doctor of Medicine, and had become
the intimate friend of Cuvier ; but his irritable and captious temper
did not allow him to maintain these friendly relations. He was no
sooner nominated Professor by concours to the Faculty of Sciences
than he began to wage war against the labours of the man who had
been the first to give him a helping hand. This opposition, which
often warped his judgment and made him unjust, continued to the
end of his life. Blainville's reputation was due in a great measure
to this determined opposition to Cuvier, although he undoubtedly
possessed a keen and vigorous intellect. He lectured exceedingly
well, and he has left several important works, anion 2st others the

THE ARCHirELAGO OF BREHAT. 95

peared to be logical. But nature, who is alwa3's
simple in the laws by which she is regulated, is very
rarely simple in the manifestation of those laws. In
the production of living beings as well as in the
creation of organic bodies, nature in her ascending
progress has followed no mathematical straight line ;
her creations are developed in all directions. Science
in its unceasing progress has elucidated this truth^
and in the present day the words zoological series and
animal scale are employed by the great majority
of naturalists merely in a figurative and relative
sense.

But if the unity of the animal series is a chimera,
what general idea can we substitute for this con-
ception of our predecessors ? On the first exami-
nation of a species we perceive that it possesses two
kinds of characters. The first kind isolates it from
contiguous species, and individualises it in space
and time; the second connects together a certain
number of these individualities, and associates them
in more or less strictly defined groups. What we
have just said of species may be equally well ob-
served in respect to elementary groups ; and it is by
the appreciation of more or less general characters,
that the naturalist, passing on through ascending
groups, reaches the kingdom^ which embraces all the
secondary divisions known as sub-kingdoms, di-
visions and sub-divisions, classes, orders, families,
tribes, and genera. To ascertain the subordination

Manuel de Malacologie, Manuel d'Actinologie, Histoire des Sciences
de r Organisation, and a host of memoirs. It is to be regretted
that his magnificent Osteographie remained unfinished at his death.

96 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

of these different groups, to recognise their true
relations by an exact appreciation of their resem-
blances and differences, and to calculate to a certain
extent their proximity or divergence, this is the
problem which modern science proposes to solve,
— a problem of immense difficulty, towards the
solution of which we are undoubtedly advancing,
although it must be admitted that our progress is
effected with a tardiness necessitated by the cha-
racter of the inquiry.

Many centuries will probably elapse before na-
turalists will acquire sufficient knowledge of animals
definitely to establish primary, secondary, and ter-
tiary groups. There are some groups, however,
wdiich may be regarded as thoroughly fixed, even in
the present day. Whenever we study one of these
truly natural groups, wdienever we weigh and ap-
preciate all its characters, we are led almost invo-
luntarily to conceive some ideal or virtual type
which mio^ht reunite these characters in the hio^hest
possible degree. But there will always be a discre-
pancy between this type and its manifestation in
existing species. It is thus that Man and Woman
have never hitherto presented a complete realisation
of the beauty which painters and sculptors have
dreamed of, and which a few of them have imper-
fectly succeeded in tracing on canvass or in chisel-
ling from the rock.

In all natural groups, we encounter a certain
number of species which present, in a high degree,
the characteristic impress of their type. There are
others, on the contrary, in which this impression

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 97

seems to have become indistinct. Now, these modi-
fications of type may be the result of three different
causes, acting either conjointly or separately. The
distinctive characters may have been partly or
wholly obliterated ; they may be intensified, or lastly
they may be complicated with extraneous charac-
teristics, whose tendency is either to destroy existing
relations or to establish new affinities. As Ions* as
these alterations do not pass beyond certain limits,
the animal, although he has to some extent departed
from his ideal type, still bears some affinity to it ;
but once pass these limits, and we have a new type.
When the changes to which we refer result from
the suppression of characters which are essential to
the first group, or when different or even opposite
characters are manifested, the types can obviously
exhibit only very slight affinity with one another.
Such is not the case, however, when the modifications
arise solely from the exaggeration or diminution
of an existing character. Then the new type will
be merely a derivative of the former: and however
great the apparent diversities by which it is dis-
tinguished may be, the source from which it has
emanated will always admit of being traced. Thus,
by way of illustration, we may instance Mammals,
Birds and Fishes, which all belong to one primitive
type, that of the Vertebrata, although they form three
well marked and distinct types. On the other hand,
we may cite the bat, which moves through the air,
and the whale, which pursues its course through the
waves of the sea : yet the first is not on this account
a bird, nor is the second a fish, but both are mammalcJ

VOL. I. H

98 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

modified for flying or for swimming ; they are deri-
vatives of the great types of the Mammalia. It will
be readily understood that there is no fixed limit to
the number of these derivatives, and that every
primitive type may engender several, whose diver-
gences will vary in accordance with the intensity
and diversity of the modifications from which they
have orio-inated.

At this point of our inquiries, the entire mass of
beings which we have been studying will appear to
us to be decomposed into a somewhat limited number
of primitive types, around which their immediate
derivative types are disposed at various distances,
and in accordance with a certain order. These are
in their turn surrounded by secondary derivatives,
and so on in a consecutive series. Existing species
may all be classified within this theoretical animal
kino-dom, being distributed in accordance w^ith the
degree of resemblance which they present to their
ideal types. It is thus that the celestial bodies,
grouped together in a thousand diflerent ways,
gravitate around one another, with their planetary
attendants circling round them either isolated or
accompanied by satellites. On our earth, no less
than in celestial space, we find that nature faithfully
adheres to those wondrous laws of analogy which she
observes in all her grander manifestations, and thus
we behold on the surface of our globe the same
spectacle of unity and harmony which, in the im-
mensity of space, strikes the senses with the pro-
foundest impressions of wonder and admiration.
The absolute ideal type of the animal has never

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 99

been realised. The perfect animal, if it could exist
on the earth, should combine within itself the rarest
qualities which are now disseminated over a great
number of different species. It should move with
the sure-footedness and velocity of the Dziggeta,
that wild species of the genus horse which, according
to the traditions of the Mongols, serves as the steed
of the god of fire ; it should pass through the air
with the rapidity of the swift, and sustain its flight
like the frigate bird, which is met with six hundred
miles from land, and which can therefore traverse a
space of more than twelve hundred miles without for
an instant stopping the play of its wings, the length
of which precludes the possibility of its pausing to
rest on the surface of the waves. This perfect
animal should be able to plunge to the depths of
the sea, and cleave the tempestuous waves with
the rapidity of the dolphin and the persistence
of the shark, which follows in the wake of a vessel
from America to Europe, and thus, without pausing,
accomplishes a voyage of some three thousand miles,
whose extent may be said to be tripled or quadrupled
by the thousand detours which intervene along the
route. To these faculties, which appertain to the
province of locomotion, he should join the strength
of the elephant or whale, and the unerring scent of
the hound, the delicate touch of the bat, the acute
hearing of the mole, and the piercing sight of the con-
dor, which, soaring above the Cordilleras, detects the
smallest prey browsing in the plain more than four
thousand yards below him. He should combine, for
means of attack and defence, the formidable claws

100 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

and terrible jaws of the tiger, with the impenetrable
cuirass of the crocodile, and the envenomed tooth of
the rattlesnake. Finally, all these different attri-
butes should be united in a body, combining the
grace of the kitten with the majestic calmness of tiie
lion in repose, and adorned with the dazzling colours
of the humming bird and the bird of paradise.

Existing animals exhibit only partial analogies
with the imaginary creature, whose principal charac-
teristics we have endeavoured to trace. The types
of existing species fall far short of this standard of
perfection, although some approach it more nearly
than others. Hence arise superior and inferior typesy
and hence also we have widely differing, although not
less equally perfect, types. The study of these dif-
ferent degrees of perfection of type, and of the
subordination to which they give rise, probably
presents a greater difficulty than any other branch of
zoological research. The success of such inquiries
will be greatly influenced by the naturalist bearing
in mind the principle of the division of labour which
the following comparison may tend to illustrate and
explain.

In the early infancy of human industry, the tiller
of the ground turns up the earth with the spade
which he has himself forged ; he reaps the flax he
has sowed, and cleans, combs and spins it himself.
Next he constructs a rude loom, fabricates a rough
spindle, and proceeds to weave according to his best
ability the fabric which is to serve for his clothing.
As time passes he is enabled to provide himself with
more perfect tools from some neighbour, who passes

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 101

his life in manufacturing farming utensils, looms or
spindles. Still later, lie sells his yarn to a weaver,
who has never handled a blacksmith's hammer, a
woodsman's axe, or a carpenter's saw. In proportion
as each department of labour is left in the hands of
persons who devote themselves exclusively to its ex-
ecution, or, in other words, in proportion as labour is
subdivided, the final result is rendered more and more
perfect.

It is the same with animals. In order to insure
the accomplishment of nutrition and reproduction,
that is to say, the preservation of the individual and
of the species, many secondary functions are neces-
sarily brought into play. Again, in order that these
processes may be performed with readiness and com-
pleteness, it is necessary that each should be
performed by some special organ or physiological in-
strument. In other words, it is essential to subdivide
tlie functionallabour as far as possible. Such is the
general character of the highest types, as, for instance,
of the majority of the Mammalia. In the lower
types, on the contrary, two or more functions are ap-
portioned to the same organ, until as we descend to
the Sponge and the Ama3ba, which constitute the
last representatives of the animal kingdom, we find
that all the functions are confounded in one organised
living mass, exhibiting nothing more than a homoge-
neous pulp, the result of the entire fusion of all the
orojanic elements.

It follows from this, that an animal, or an or-
ganism, becomes degraded whenever the functional
labour exhibits a diminished tendejicy towards subdivi-

H 3

102 RAMBLES OF A NATUEALIST.

sion. This second principle, which is in some degree
the counterpart of the former, is not the less impor-
tant in zooloo-ical investio;ation. It is essential to
understand in what manner certain progressively
lower types may approximate towards some one
other type, since it is only by an inquiry of this kind
that we shall be enabled to attach any precise signi-
fication to the epithet inferior, which is often
employed in the vaguest manner. For example,
the mammals are unquestionably more perfect than
the fishes. These two types are, however, each de-
graded in their respective directions ; thus we have
higher mammals and higher Jishes as well as loioer
mammals and loicer jishes, and the same difference
of perfection is manifested in all the great divisions
of the animal kingdom.

It is from a misconception of the principles which
we have here briefly touched upon that most of our
illustrious masters have fallen into grave errors. It
is true that we occasionally meet with expressions in
some of their writings which seem to imply that
they had confused notions of these facts ; still no one
had clearly demonstrated or applied them before
M. Milne Edwards, who has expressed himself in the
most explicit manner in reference to this subject
both in his lectures and his published works, more
especially in the introduction to his great work on
the history of the Crustaceans, If on my part
I have arrived at analogous results, it is certainly
entirely owing to the fact of my having followed the
example set more than twenty years ago by that
naturalist, and devoting myself, with the same per-

THE AKCHIPELAGO OP BREHAT. 103

severance wliicli he had shown, to the study of the
lower animals on the borders of the sea.

In fine, types are the more fixed in proportion as
they are more perfect. In those animals which
approximate the most closely to this standard, the
organism is extremely complicated, and it would
seem that nature does not necessarily interfere with
essential characters in producing a large number of
derivatives. In the Yertebrata, for instance, whose
primordial type gives origin to four classes, viz.,
mammals, birds, reptiles, and fishes, the general
plan merely undergoes different secondary modifica-
tions. The external forms are changed to facilitate
some special mode of locomotion ; the lungs become
metamorphosed into branchias, in order to allow of
respiration in the water, but yet we find, in passing
from the ape, which by its organisation approximates
most closely to man, and descending to the lowest
type of fishes, that nearly the same functions are
fulfilled by a nearly equal number of organs disposed
in an analogous if not an identical manner.* Those
whose attention has been mainly directed towards
the higher animals can form no idea of the extent to
which organic degradation is carried; and hence,
whenever their inquiries happen to lead them to

* The AwpJiioxus forms one of the most remarkable exceptions to
this general rule. This fish, if we may call it by that name, exhibits, in
the Vertebrata, an example of extreme degradation, which we should
not have expected to meet with in any but the Invertebrata. It
ought therefore to be formed into a special class, if it did not appear
strange to constitute so important a subdivision for one or at most
only two species.

H 4

104 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

inferior types, they are naturally induced to reject
as foreign to their primitive types the greater number
of the lower derivatives presented to their notice.
This fact explains how Cuvier*, notwithstanding his
marvellous genius, should so completely have mis-
understood certain relations, as to incorporate certain
Mollusca and Articulata among the Zoophytes, with-
out perceiving the incongruity of such an association.
The case is different with the groups which belong
to the primordial type of the Invertebrata. For the
three great divisions of the Mollusca, Articulata, and
Radiata present in each of their classes fundamental
differences, and characters which occasionally present
considerable opposition to one another. At the head
of each of these series we find animals in which the
division of labour is carried quite as far perhaps as
in the Vertebrata themselves.! In proportion, how-
ever, as we deviate from these culminating points,
the functions become more circumscribed, or merge

* [A sketcli of the Life and Labours of Cuvier is given in the
Appendix, Note IX.]

f We may cite the Insects as an illustration. To form an
adequate idea of the complicated organism of these animals, we
need only examine Lyonnet's plates on the Anatomy of the
Caterpillar of the Goat Moth (the Cossus Ugniperda), and those by
M. Strauss-Durckheim, on the Anatomy of the Cockchafer. It
is sufficient to remark that the former of these observers has
counted 1647 muscles in the body and 228 in the head of the
caterpillar, which would give a total of 1875 distinct muscles serving
for the voluntary movements of the caterpillar, whilst in man there
are not more than 529. To these 1875 voluntary muscles we must
add, according to Lyonnet, 2186 muscles belonging to the digestive
apparatus, which will give us a total of 4061 for the entire number
of muscles in the body of a caterpillar.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 105

into one another, the mechanism becomes simplified,
and the entire organism is degraded, until at length on
reachino* the extreme limits we discover a multitude
of ambiguous creatures, whose true relations it is
extremely difficult to determine. One might almost
fancy that nature was proposing to herself apparently
insoluble problems for the mere pleasure of sporting
with the difficulties which she sometimes surmounts
in the most direct manner, while at other times she
eludes them by the most unexpected contrivances
and the most marvellous combinations. Each type,
although remaining fundamentally the same, clothes
itself as it were in a thousand different forms, leading
the naturalist astray at every step he takes in his
encounter with this veritable Proteus. Let him not
lose courage, but pursue the god under all his
metamorphoses, and sooner or later he will assuredly
compel him to reveal his secrets. Then, if, strength-
ened by the knowledge of these revelations, he
should return to the study of higher animals, he will
see the darkness vanish, and a way opened across
many of the barriers which he had before regarded
as impassable.

Let us take by way of illustration one of those
principal groups termed by Cuvier embranchements ;
for instance, the group of the Articulata. The essen-
tial character of this group consists in the tendency
of the organism to divide into rings, arranged like
strings of beads, each ring presenting an exact repe-
tition of the same forms and orsfans as the other
rings. In the Articulata all the organs are in pairs,
so that a longitudinal section of one of these animals

106 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

exhibits two exactly symmetrical lateral halves of
the body. We will now proceed to consider the
limits within which these conditions of the ideal
type are either modified or fully accomplished.

The first glance we take at this group of the
Articulata shows that it is separated into two great
divisions. In the former, namely, that of true Arti-
culata with jointed limbs, the rings instead of forming
a string of separate segments are united and soldered
together, to form groups of organs. The body of
the animal is thus divided into three parts, repre-
senting the three great regions of the body in the
Mammalia, that is to say, the head, thorax, and
abdomen. These three parts of the body, which are
always very distinct in insects, may to some extent
blend into one another. Thus, in the Myriapods or
Millepedes, the thorax and abdomen can no longer
be severally distinguished ; whilst in the case of the
Arachnidans, which include all the spiders and the
scorpions, it is the head which is amalgamated with
the thorax. These three classes respire atmospheric
air, while Crustaceans (lobsters, crabs, &c.) are
essentially aquatic. We refer here only to a very
small number of characters, but how different would
the case be, if, penetrating into the interior, we could
comprehend the whole of these organisms ! We
should find that in one case air, that fluid without
which no living being can exist, is diffused through-
out the entire body by means of an admirable net-
work of trachece, or canals, whose structure is
almost exactly similar to that of an elastic webbing*,

* True TrachecE are only to be met with in Insects, Myriapods,
and one section of Arachnidans.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 107

whilst in another case it can only act upon the mass
of the blood, which it is to vivify, by the inter-
vention of a single organ called a branchia or a lung,
according to its external or internal position.* We
should find that the blood was either enclosed in
vessels f, or diffused over the entire body, bathing
every part of the organs which it was destined to
nourish.! We should discover wants of every kind
giving rise to a multitude of instincts, and necessi-
tating a hundred differently varied forms of organic
apparatus, whilst each of the classes to which we
have already referred, Avould appear to be surrounded
by a system of groups, depending upon different
types, whose final representatives would merge
into one another, on the confines of these little
worlds.

The Insects, Myriapods, Arachnid ans and Crus-

* Some Arachnidans respire by means of sacs enclosing lamellae,
-which constitute the respiratory organs. This apparatus, which is
commonly designated by the term lungs, differs considerably from
the true lung of the Vertebrata. All the Crustacea, on the contrary,
including even those which live in the air, as the Oniscus, respire
by means of branchise.

f We find that Crustaceans, Arachnidans, &c., possess a heart and
a distinct vascular system.

J In Insects the heart is prolonged into a dorsal vessel, and in
most cases the blood on issuing from this organ is immediately
diffused in the lacunce, or intercellular spaces. There is sometimes,
however, a rudimentary vascular system (Duges, Blanchard), but
in all the Articulata, properly so called, there is always a more or
less considerable interruption in the vascular circle, so that the
blood is finally poured into the lacunae. In the Crustaceans, for
example, the arterial apparatus is well developed, bui there are no
veins. (See the Memoirs of MM. Audouin and Milne Edwards,
of which we have already spoken.)

108 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

taceans constitute the most perfect Articulata. The
Worms, which compose the second great division of
this group, that of Annelids properly so called, belong
to a very inferior type. They also vary still further
in their external figure, as well as in their organisa-
tion. In describing my sojourn at Chausey, I
endeavoured to give an idea of the group of
wandering Annelids, those bellicose Amazons, with
their roving dispositions and independent mode of
life ; but I have not said anything of their sisters,
the tubicolous Annelids, those modest recluses, who
as soon as they emerge from the egg begin to con-
struct for themselves a habitation, from which they
never again depart. This habitation, which is
lengthened and widened according to the increasing
bulk of the proprietor, is a tube, either calcareous or
composed of a substance somewhat similar to leather
or to wetted parchment. It completely envelopes
the Annelid, which ascends and descends in the
interior without the necessity of rolling back its
body, for its feet are constructed in such a manner
that they can move backwards or forwards with
equal ease and facility. These animals therefore
pass their lives in a position somewhat similar to that
of a child in swaddling-clothes. The tube, which is
closed at the posterior extremity, exhibits a circular
opening in front, which serves as a kind of window
through which these hermits are enabled to take a
view of the world around them, to seize upon any
prey which may happen to pass in their way, and to
expose their blood to the vivifying action of the
water, which serves them in tlie place of the air

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 109

%vhicli we breathe. Do not therefore accuse them
of curiosity or coquetry, because you see them so
constantly display their richly ornamented heads.
But rather take advantas^e of this habit eno*endered
by necessity, and carefully examine these marvellous
forms. 'No microscope or lens can aid us here. Do
but drop into a basin of sea-water this fragment of
rock and this old shell, whose surface is covered
with Serpulas, Vermilias, and Cymospires. Observe
the prudent caution with which that little round
plate rises above each tube, which it is designed to
close hermetically so that your eyes cannot penetrate
to the interior. This is the shutter of the house ;
see, it is moving, the animal will soon show himself.
Look, and you will see below that operculum bud-
like patches of dark violet or rich carmine in one
part, and of a blue or orange tint in another, while
still further on appear tufts of every hue. See them
expand little by little until they have displayed the
whole of their thousand coloured branches, similar
in form to a plume of ostrich or marabout feathers.
You are a witness of the evolution of veritable
flowers, more beautiful by far than the blossoms of
our gardens, for these are living flowers. On the
least shock, on the slightest shaking of the fluid, these
brilliant petals close, and disappearing with the
rapidity of lightning, they retire within their stony
tubes, whence they may defy their enemies from
beneath the shelter of their operculum.

Here we have the Chtetopteri, allies of the errant
Annelids, which look as if the middle of their bodies
had been crushed, while they carry their intestine

110 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

exposed to view within three of their segments ; next
come the Echiurida3, whose zoological affinities with
this class are merely shown by the external indica-
tions afforded by the presence of several exsertile
and retractile hooks ; here too we have the Sipuncu-
lidas, whose cylindrical bodies exhibit neither mem-
bers nor the slightest trace of division into rings * ;
the Dujardiniaa, which possess no apparent res-
piratory organs, and whose feet, furnished with long
silken threads, do not serve the purpose of locomo-
tion, animals which move through the water by
means of little tufts of vibratile cilia, arranged on
each side of the body like the paddles of a steam-
boat. To the tubicolous Annelids belong the Chlo-
remae, which have green blood, circulating through a
body surrounded by velvety hairs, embedded in a
sort of transparent jelly, and which can conceal their
heads and branchiae in a kind of box, formed of in-
tertwined silken threads. Here, too, we find the
Amphicoras, animals which are provided with eyes at
the extremity of their tails as well as in their heads ;
the Terebellas, which, realising the fable of Briareus,
extend their hundreds of arms to a distance of nearly
a yard in search of the grains of sand and broken
shells, with which their temporary abodes arc con-
structed ; and, lastly, there are the Sabellce, whose
fan-like branchife often measure upwards of a foot in
diameter when fully expanded ; besides these there
are hundreds of other equally curious species, of

* The Echiurus and the Sipunculus were placed by Cuvier
amongst the Radiata, by the side of the Holothurise.

THE AECHIPELAGO OP BREHAT. Ill

which the painter's art alone could convey even a
feeble idea.

We have hitherto examined only the exterior of
our Annelids. Let us now proceed to consider their
organisation. Look at this Eunice sanguinea, a
magnificent creature of common occurrence at
Brehat, where it may sometimes be found measuring
more than two feet and a half in length.* You
might suppose perhaps that in consequence of its
size, very little difficulty would be experienced in
making a detailed dissection of this animal. But if
you make the attempt you will soon perceive your
error. The body is divided into rings, which are
not above a line and a half in length, although they
measure from eight to ten lines in width. It is no
easy task, I can assure you, to seek within this limited
space the muscles which move the animal, the intes-
tine which receives its food, the vessels which nou-
rish it, and the nerves which animate it : while, to add
to the difficulty, you will find that all these tissues
bear the closest resemblance to each other. But do
not be discouraged ; fix your Annelid upon a piece
of black wax, cover it with a shallow layer of water,
take a simple lens, and provide yourself with a de-
licate pair of pincers and cataract needles to serve the
purpose of the scalpel. Remove the richly iridescent
skin, whose intertwined net-work, as you will

* Eunice sanguinea belongs to the group of the errant Annelids.
This is the largest species of our coast. I have frequently met with
specimens two feet in length, but in the Indian Seas they are often
five or six feet long, on which account the Indian species is known
as the Eunice gigantea.

112 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

see by the microscope*, imparts to it its brilliant
colours, lift up layer after layer, and when the
organs are gradually exposed to view, I promise
you that all your labours will be more than repaid.

You must begin with the nervous system, which
is an apparatus of such predominating influence that
it has been termed the impersonation of the animal
itself. Observe, first, how the brain is situated
within the head on the dorsal surface of the body ;
from whence it gives off nerves to the eyes and an-
tenna, the organs of sight and touch. In the rear it
gives origin to a secondary nervous system, which is
entirely distributed through the proboscis and oeso-
phagus ; in the front another special system supplies
the lips, and no doubt communicates to them the pro-
perty of taste. On the sides two bands are given
off, which form a ring round the buccal cavity and
are again joined together on the ventral surface
below the digestive apparatus. At this point there
is a kind of ladder-like structure, composed of two
cords, stretched from f)ne extremity of the body to
the other, and connected together in each ring by an
oblong mass, called a ganglion. These ganglia are
the nervous centres which animate the rings, any
one of which may be at once destroyed by the
removal or destruction of the ganglion belonging to
it. From each of these centres, five nervous trunks
are given off on each side, which distribute their
branches to the intestine, and to the muscles of the

* The brilliant colours of the Eunice and other Annelids are due
to a phenomenon of polarization caused by the interlaced arrange-
ment of the very delicate fibres of the epidermis.

THE AECHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 113

body and of tlie feet. As there are about 300
rings, it follows that this Annelid must have one brain
or chief nervous centre, 300 secondary centres,
and 3000 nervous trunks, without counting those of
the lips and the proboscis.

Let us next consider the apparatus destined to
accomplish the process of alimentation. At the
bottom of this funnel-like mouth, there is a large
proboscis furnished with powerful muscles, and
armed with eight horny jaws. Take care of your
fingers ! these sharp and curved teeth might very
easily penetrate through the epidermis, and draw
blood. Beyond this tube you will perceive an
oesophagus, and furthci on a series of large sacs, each
of which corresponds to one of the rings, and is
separated from the two contiguous sacs or pouches
by a strong constriction. You see that the animal
which we are dissecting has not less than 280
stomachs.

Between the muscles and the intestines, on the
dorsal surface of the body, you will admire those
two sinuous vessels, filled with bright red blood.
These two large veins receive the blood which has
served for the nutrition of the body, and which
therefore requires to be subjected to the action of
the air. A venous trunk conveys this blood to the
branchiae, beginning at the twenty-fifth ring, where
you will see that it forms, on either side of the body,
a double series of tufts, which are alternately of an
amber or scarlet tint, as the blood enters or flows
from them. A second vessel passes from the branchiae,
and opens into a large artery, placed on the median

VOL. I. I

114 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

line, below the intestine. This artery gives off on
either side, and in each ring, a large trunk, whose
base expands and swells into a sac, which, by its
contractions, propels the blood into the branches,
which distribute it to all the organs. Passing over
numerous details, we will merely observe that our
Eunice possesses, independently of the great canals
which run from one extremity of the body to the
other, 550 branchise, 600 hearts, and a similar number
of primary arteries and veins.

Now we have need of great patience, as we
endeavour to disentangle those interlaced muscular
bundles which form the flesh of the rings and give
motion to the feet, to their two bundles of sharp and
cutting setas, and to the four acicul^ which are as
conical and strong as a huntsman's spear. There
are no less than thirty distinct muscles in the fleshy
part of each ring, whilst each inter-annular par-
tition exhibits as many as ten. On either side, two
large muscles are attached to the centre of the ring,
and the base of the feet, which they move either
forward or backward. A sac, composed of about
ten muscular bundles, surrounds each tuft of setae,
as well as the aciculse, which it serves to extrude ;
on either side, eight muscles serve to retract these
tufts, and to give motion to the difl'erent parts
of the foot. Thus, each ring is supplied by about
120 muscles; and if we take into account those
of the proboscis and head, we shall find that the
entire animal moves by the action of more than
30,000 muscles.*

* 1 have not yet been able to complete my observations on the

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 115

This, truly, is an instance of complicated anatomy.
We must observe, however, that we have been exa-
mining one of the species which approach most
nearly to the ideal type of the Annelid. It furnishes
a very high term of comparison in the group, and
exhibits a very strongly manifested example of the
division of labour. Let us now take the Doyerina,
which recalls to me the rocks of Chausey. Al-
though it is only a few lines in length, our micro-
scope will magnify it to several feet, and we shall
readily be able to distinguish its organs when en-
larged in the same proportion. Well ! here we have
a manifest proof of simplification ; the skin is here
converted Into a diaphanous covering, the muscles of
the trunk are blended into two or three scarcely
distinguishable layers ; those of the inter-annular
partitions have vanished, and their place is supplied
by a simple membrane ; and those of the feet are
nothing more than homogeneous cords composed
of contractile substance. The dlo-estlve and nervous
centres are nearly the same, but their accessory
parts have undergone obvious reductions. Then,
moreover, the circulatory organs have been reduced
to a single dorsal trunk, while the organs of respi-
ration have disappeared. Let us next examine this
Aphleblna, which was captured amongst the Coral-
linas of Brehat. Here the des-radation is still more

anatomy of the Eunice as perfectly as I could have wished ; the
numbers therefore which I have given may vary within certain
limits, but they may at all events be regarded as approximating
very closely to the truth.

I 2

116 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

manifest. The body Is a mere sac, in which there
lies immersed a nearly straight intestine ; here are
no internal partitions and no circulatory organs, the
liquid, which represents the blood being moved only
by bands of vibratlle cilia, which are placed in a
slanting position upon the base of each foot.

But if we would observe the extreme limit to
which degradation of type may attain in the Articu-
lata, we must descend to the class of Worms, properly
so-called. Here great size Is often associated with
extreme simplicity of organisation ; a circumstance
which is nowhere else exhibited in so high a degree,
not excepting even the Radiata. The Nemertes
Borlasii presents a remarkable instance of this.*
Figure to yourself an animal from thirty to forty feet
in length, and only five or six lines in width, flat as
a riband, of a brown or violet colour, and smooth
and shining as varnished leather. Such is the
Nemertes, whose anatomy had never before been
studied, although the animal had been long known.
This gigantic worm lurks under stones and in the
hollows of rocks, where it may be met with rolled
into a ball and colled into a thousand seemingly in-
extricable knots, which it is incessantly loosening and
tightening by the contraction of its muscles. This
animal is nourished by sucking the Anomla, a kind

* The Nemertes constitute a numerous and interesting group ;
and I have devoted considerable time and attention to their study.
The species referred to in the text is the Borlasia Anglice. Fisher-
men state that they have seen these animals more than a hundred
feet long.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 117

of small oyster, which attaches itself to various sub-
stances under water. When it has exhausted the
food around it, or when it wishes to change its posi-
tion, it extends its long, dark-coloured, riband-like
body, which is terminated by a head, bearing some
resemblance to that of a serpent, although it has
neither the large mouth nor the formidable teeth of
the latter animal. In observing it in motion, the eye
is unable to detect any contraction, or any apparent
cause by which it is enabled to move, and it is only
by the aid of the microscope that we learn that the
Nemertes glides through the water by means of ex-
cessively fine vibratile cilia, Avhich are protruded
from every part of the surface of the body. It
pauses, gently moves from side to side, as if endea-
vouring to investigate the ground, until it at length
succeeds in finding a stone to suit its purpose, lying
perhaps some fifteen or twenty feet from its former
retreat. It then begins to unwind its coils, in order
to arrange itself in its new domicile, and in proportion
as one knot is loosened another forms at the op-
posite extremity. We may remark that the con-
tractility of the tissues of this animal is so great,
that a Nemertes thirty feet long scarcely exhibits
one tenth of this lens^th after beins: immersed
in alcohol, when it will be found to measure no more
than two and a half or three feet.

All the great apparatus of life is represented in the
organisation of the Nemertes, although it is here
reduced to its simplest expression. The nervous
system does not form that oesophageal ring, which

I 3

118 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

has long been regarded as characteristic of the type.
Here it is composed simply of two lateral ganglia,
from whence proceed two cords, which extend to the
extremity of the body, and give off merely very small
threads. Two large vessels, placed on either side,
accompany these nervous trunks, a third winds
along the median line ; all three are simple, without
ramifications of any kind. The mouth consists of a
circular orifice, which is scarcely visible, and opens
into a long tube, separated by a constriction from the
intestine, which terminates in a cul-de-sac. Thus
the same opening serves for the introduction of the
food, and for the rejection of the undigested residua.
As if to compensate for the low degree of develop-
ment in these organs, the ovaries, which are placed
on either side of the body, are of very considerable
dimensions. This very circumstance, however, is in
itself an indication of the inferiority of the animal.
These degraded species are besides exposed to a
thousand chances of destruction in the earlier period
of their existence; at a more advanced age, they
usually serve for the food of higher forms of animals.
Hence nature has provided largely for their multi-
plication. Many of them literally become trans-
formed into ovigerous sacs. Thus, for instance, in
the case of a Nemertes, measurins^ from eio^ht to ten
feet in length, we cannot estimate the number of
ova at less than four or five hundred thousand.

It may be readily believed that I devoted myself
with no common ardour to these attractive studies,
the pursuit of which was almost hourly attended
with renewed successes. At Brehat, moreover, I

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 119

was able to study with more steadiness and good-will
than I had done at Chausey. I had secured a
lodging at the house of the keeper of the artillery
stores of the island, and by having some one at
hand with whom I could enter into friendly inter-
change of thoughts, I escaped from that sense of
isolation which is one of the most enervating im-
pressions that the heart of man is capable of feeling.
I took pleasure in studying in the person of my
host that class of subaltern officers who daily render
to the state services as obscure as they are laborious,
with no prospect before them but that of obtaining a
trifling pension, or, in the case of a few amongst
them, the cross of the Legion of Honour. Detz was
one of this favoured number, and his thirty years'
service had certainly thoroughly earned for him the
bit of red riband which decorated his button-hole.
When I resided with him, his time was divided
between the performance of his modest military
duties and the cultivation of his garden. It was a
real pleasure to me to hear his long stories of the
service he had seen, and, like all old soldiers, he w^as
always ready to relate his past experience. I
often sought relaxation from my labours by pacing
up and down his little domain wdth him, while he
narrated the events of his campaigns in Germany,
and detailed all his sufferings in the English prisons
and his adventures at the taking of Algiers, pausing
from time to time to show me, with well-founded
pride, some fine specimens of his horticultural skill.

Sometimes, too, when my body and mind, over-
fatigued by too long a walk, or by too protracted at-

I 4

120 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

tention to the labours of my anatomical investiga-
tions, made me feel the need of complete repose, I
would betake myself to the beach, where, stretched
full length on the grassy slope of some hill, I gave
the rein to my thoughts. If you still preserve any
of those illusions which, day by day, are vanishing
amid the turmoils of life, if you regret the dreams
that have fled never to return, go to the ocean side,
and there on its sonorous banks you will assuredly
recall some of the golden fancies that shed their
radiance over the hours of your youth. If your
heart have been struck by any of those poignant
griefs which darken a whole life, go to the borders
of the sea, seek out some lonely beach, an Archipelago
of Chausey, or an Isle of Brehat, beyond reach of the
exacting conventionalities of society ; and when your
spirit is well-nigh broken with anguish, seek some
elevated rock, where your eye may at once scan the
heaving ocean and the firmament above ; listen to the
grand harmonious voices of the winds and waves, as
at one moment they seem to murmur gentle melodies,
and at another to swell in the thundering crash of
their majesty; mark the capricious undulations of
the waves, as far as the bounds of the horizon, where
they merge into the fantastic figures of the clouds,
and seem to rise before your eyes into the liquid sky
above. Give yourself up to the sense of infinitude,
which is stealing over your mind, and soon the tears
you shed will have lost their bitterness; you will
feel ere long that there is nothing in this world
which can so thoroughly alleviate the sorrows of the
heart as the contemplation of nature, and of the

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 121

sublime spectacle of creation, which leads us back
to God.

Twilight often surprised me in the midst of my
reveries, and often, too, the shades of night fell
around me, while I lay stretched beneath the star-
bespangled deep azure canopy of heaven. I could
then see another star shining in the far distance,
which had been lighted by the hand of man. From
the position I had chosen I could recognise the
beacon towers of Hehaux, of which the seamen of
the islands had spoken to me with the liveliest ex-
pressions of enthusiasm, and which I had frequently
watched by day, as it stood out like a black line
drawn along the whitis^h background of the sky. I
would not leave Brehat without visiting it. A
few slight services had secured me the good-will of
the officer of customs, who willingly consented to
take me to Hehaux. Accordingly, one splendid
day in October, we left the harbour of La Corderie
in a pinnace manned by six sturdy seamen. The
weather was splendid ; not a cloud obscured the sky,
which was reflected on the mirror-like surface of the
ocean, whose depths it seemed to double. Impelled
by the combined action of a light wind, which swelled
our two small square sails, and of the rapid current im-
parted to the waters of Kerpont by the force of the
tide, our pinnace shot across the waves as a sledge
glides over the snow. Sometimes, indeed, we passed
through a whirling eddy, which shook every part of
our frail craft, and betrayed the vicinity of some
submarine rock ; but we soon regained the unruffled
sea, and without having taken cognisance of the

122 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

rapid rate at which we were moving, we saw Brehat
sink below the distant horizon behind us, whilst rock
after rock, and islet after islet, seemed at every
moment to emero;e from the waves towards which
we were advancing.

After havino^ first directed our course towards the
north, we passed the island of Saint-Mode to our
left, and looked with interest at its batteries, where,
almost buried in the grass, lie heavy pieces of cannon,
ready to peal forth their hoarse thunders at the first
sio^nal of war, and to defend the entrance of the roads
of Pontrieux. Here too is the chapel with its holy
relics, which, if we may trust the testimony of those
wdio live in the vicinity, possess the virtue of ex-
pelling from the island every kind of parasitical
insect. We passed rapidly between Pen-ar-rest and
the plateau of the Sirlots, whose hidden rocks prove
a dangerous obstacle to the course of vessels passing
from Brest to Pontrieux. Steering towards the
north-east, we coasted along Roch Louet and its
shelving rocks, which although at a distance of more
than two miles from the shore are united Avith it by
means of a natural dyke of boulders, called the
Sillon, w^iich has been formed by the two opposite
currents which ebb and flow twice each day within
the basins of Pontrieux and Treguier. Here the
tide left us, the wind fell, and our sails flapped
loosely against the masts. The sailors now began
to pull with vigour, and soon the pinnace resumed
its former course beneath the measured strokes of
the long oars, leaving a white line of foam behind
it. The nearer we drew to Hehaux, the taller

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 123

seemed the beacon tower, which stood forth from
the sky with its lofty granite column and glass
lantern, protected by that magical rod which is able
to attract and safely conduct to earth the destructive
force of the thunderbolt. We landed, and at once
began our inspection of this colossal rock, which has
been upreared by the hand of man on the Epees de
Treguier, which, once the dread of the seaman, have
become his protecting guides through the storms
and darkness of night.

The Hehaux lighthouse would be regarded as a
most remarkable monument, even in our principal
towns, but standing, as it does, alone in the midst of
the ocean, it acquires by its very isolation a character
of severe grandeur, which impresses the mind most
powerfully. Figure to yourself a wall of granite,
where the current and the storm do not even permit
the hardiest Fucus to take root, with here and
there a twisted and deeply wave-worn mass project-
ing beyond the rest of the rocky ledge. It is here
that the architect has laid the foundation of the
tower. The base, which is of a conical form, is
surmounted by a circular gallery. The lower
portion curves gracefully outwards, spreading over
the ground like the root of some colossal marine
plant springing up from the foundation stones which
have been inserted far within the rock. On this
base, Avhich measures about twenty yards across,
rises a column, twenty-six feet in diameter, sur-
mounted by a second gallery, whose supports and
stone balustrades c:dl to mind the portcullis and
battlements of some feudal donjon. From the

124 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

summit to the base, this part of the edifice is com-
posed of large blocks of whitish granite arranged in
regular strata, and carefully dovetailed into one
another. As far as a third of the height of the
building the rows of stones are bound together by
granite joggles, which at the same time penetrate
into the two superposed stones. The stones have
been cut and arranged with such precision that there
has hardly been any necessity for using cement,
which has only been employed in filling up a few
imperceptible voids, and hence the lighthouse, from
the base to the summit, seems to form one solid block,
which is more homogeneous and probably more
compact than the rocks which support it. The
platform which crowns this magnificent column at
an elevation of more than 140 feet above high-tide
water-mark, is surmounted by a stone cupola, at
once solid and graceful, supported by pillars which
are separated by large panes of glass. It is within
this frame of glass that the beacon is lighted, which
may be distinctly seen from every direction at a
distance of twenty-seven miles.

At low tide the sea leaves a space of several hun-
dred square yards uncovered round the base of the
edifice ; at high tide it entirely surrounds it. It is
then that the tower of Hehaux rises in its solemn
isolation from the midst of the waves, as if it were a
standard of defiance upraised by the genius of man
against the demon of the tempest. At times one
might almost fancy that the heavens and the sea,
conscious of the outrage offered to them, were
leagued together against the enemy which seems to

THE AECHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 125

brave them by its impassibility. The north-west
wind roars round the towers, darkening its thick
glass windows with torrents of rain and drifts of
snow and haih These impetuous blasts bear along
with them from the far-spread ocean colossal waves,
whose crests not unfrequently reach the first gallery,
but these fluid masses slide away from the round and
polished surfaces of the granite, which leave tliem no
points of adhesion, and darting their long lines of
foam above the cupola, they break with thundering
roar against the rocks of Stallio-Bras, or the boulders
of Sillon. The tower supports these terrific assaults
without injury, although it bends, as if in homage,
before the might of its foes. I was assured by the
keepers, that during a violent storm, the oil in the
lamps of the highest rooms, presents a variation of
level exceeding an inch, which would lead us to
assume that the summit of the tower describes an
arc of about a yard in extent. This very flexibility
seems, however, in itself to be a proof of durability.
At all events we meet with similar conditions in
several monuments which for ages have braved the
inclemency of recurring seasons. The spire of
Strasburg Cathedral, in particular, bends its long
ogives and slender pinnacles beneath the force of the
winds, while the cross on its summit gently oscillates
at an elevation of more than 450 feet above the
ground.

To construct a monument on these rocks, which
seemed the very focus of all the storms which raged
on that part of our coasts, was like building an edifice
in the open sea. Such a project must indeed have

126 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

appeared at first sight to be almost impracticable.
After their third season of labour, the workmen com-
pleted the foundations of the tower and fixed the
key-stone of the cupola. In vain did difficulties of
every kind combine with the winds and waves to
oppose the work ; human industry has come forth
victorious from the struggle, and although a thousand
difficulties and dangers beset the labourers, no serious
accident to them or their work troubled the joy of
their triumph. Only on one occasion was science at
fault. In order to facilitate the arrival of the stones,
which had to be brought from a distance of several
leagues and cut at Brehat, the skilful engineer, who
had furnished all the plans and superintended their
execution, wished to construct a wooden pier for the
disembarkation of the stones at the spot where they
were required. Several of the older seamen objected
to the plan as impracticable, but M. Reynaud, who
was not familiar with the sea, and who, moreover,
was proud of having stemmed the current of rapid
rivers, trusted to the stability of his massive piles,
clamped together with iron and bronze. But he was
soon compelled to admit his mistake. The first
storm sufficed to scatter over the waters the whole
of these ponderous and solid materials, like so many
pieces of straw. The learned pupil of our scientific
schools could no longer refuse to adopt the advice of
the humble workmen of Brehat. A crane was
attached to the summit of a rock, to which boats
could be moored, and the materials for building were
then drawn up to a railway which had been thrown

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BEEHAT. 127

over the precipice that separated this natural landing-
place from the site of the tower.

Now that we have admired the exterior of the
lighthouse, follow me into the interior by the help of
these steps which have been formed by the insertion
of bars of copper into the stone. Let us pause for a
moment to admire the ponderous bronze doors which
hermetically seal the entrance, before we plunge into
those vaults which look as if they had been cut out
of the solid rock. We are in the first story, sur-
rounded by stores of wood and ropes and workmen's
tools. Above, we perceive cases of zinc, which we
are told contain oil to feed the lamps and water for
the use of the men employed in the building. In
the third story is the kitchen, with its pantry and
larder on a level with the first gallery. We need
not enter the three apartments appropriated to the
use of the men, for, beyond being very simple and
clean, there is nothiug to record concerning them.
But we have now reached the seventh story, and we
must rest for a few moments in this little octagonal
saloon, with its bright wainscoted walls and polished
floor. It is set apart for the use of the engineers,
when they come to inspect the condition of the
lighthouse. Here, in the midst of the ocean, at an
elevation of more than a hundred feet above the
level of the sea, you will find the comfort and almost
the elegance of a Parisian apartment. Here are
commodious berths, mahogany furniture, and a fire-
place ornamented with bronze and surmounted by
a marble slab. You will discover in the most trifling
arrangements the same intelligent economy that

128 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

presides over the fitting up of our ships, in which
the space seems doubled by the judicious use which
is made of the smallest corner of available room.

Let us now return to the spiral staircase which
has brought us thus far, and which will carry us at
once to the portion of the edifice which is more
particularly destined to fulfil the special purpose for
which the tower is designed. The eighth story
contains vessels of oil, glasses, revolving lamps, some
admirable instruments intended for meteorological
observations, a thermometer, barometer, and chrono-
meter. Here the spiral staircase terminates in a
flattened arch which supports a slender pillar, cut
into steps, which are the only means of communica-
tion with the watch-tower above, in which the men
take it by turns to keep guard every night. You
will be surprised on looking round to perceive that
the apartment is coated with differently coloured
marbles, which line the walls and vaulted roof and
even cover the floor. But this luxury, which may
appear to you to be so much out of place, has been
introduced from necessity. The apparatus for light-
ing the building enters the room through a circular
aperture in the ceiling, and hence the most extreme
cleanliness became necessary, which could alone be
obtained by the aid of perfectly polished surfaces.

Let us now ascend the tenth and last flight of
steps. Here we are beneath the cupola, and look
upon one of those magnificent gifts by which science
from time to time enriches mankind, as if to refute
the discouraging question that is often asked, Cui
bono? You see before you the machinery by which

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 129

a fixed light is maintained in a lisilithouse of the first
order. I think some explanation will be necessary
here to make you understand the destination and
effect of the different parts of an instrument, in
which, at first sight, you perceive nothing more than
a kind of huge glass barrel, whose hoops are repre-
sented by prisms of the same substance, and which
is furnished, both above and below, with a row
of shades or screens, composed of several series of
inclined mirrors.

The ancients, who were much more addicted to
navigation than is usually supposed to have been the
case, seem to have recognised from the remotest
antiquity the necessity of maintaining signals, which
might indicate to the navigator the dangers to be
avoided in his course, and the channels by which
he might safely steer his small craft, which was
adapted only for coasting voyages. From the Black
Sea to the Ocean, almost every promontory was sur-
mounted by an altar, column, or tower, from whence
clouds of smoke issued by day, while its fires guided
the seamen during the darkness of night. Almost
all these ancient Phari were at the same time temples
consecrated to some divinity, whose name they bore.
The priests who tended them, were the astronomers
of those remote ages, who instructed the seaman how
to steer his way along the neighbouring shores. Some
antiquarians of our own day have believed that this
circumstance furnished an explanation of many
mythological fables. Thus in their eyes, the god
Proteus, who was consulted by Menelaus on his
return from the Trojan war, is only one of these

VOL. I. K

130 RAMBLES OP A NATURALIST.

beacon heights discovered by the Greek prince when
he had wandered from his right course, and at which
he received the necessary instructions for finding his
way to his native country. According to the same
authorities, the solitary eyes of the Cyclops betoken
the fires lighted on the promontories of Sicily, while
the tradition which records that these giants expired
beneath the darts of Apollo, signifies merely that
these beacon lights, which were comparatively useless
through the day, were extinguished on the rising of
the sun. These buildings were frequently of very
considerable size ; indeed, the height of the Pliaros
erected by Sostratus of Cnidos, on the low coast
of Alexandria, about 300 years before the Christian
era, very greatly exceeded that of any modern
lighthouse.

This excessive elevation is, however, quite unne-
cessary for the attainment of the object proposed.
The diflSculty in making a beacon-light visible from
a very remote distance does not consist in obtaining
any great degree of altitude, but in giving to the
light such an intensity as will enable it to traverse
a considerable space without being materially di-
minished. It was in this respect that the ancient
Phari, which were lighted by ordinary fires, were
especially defective, although they may perhaps have
been sufficiently powerful to aid the timorous sailors
of that age. When men acquired a profounder
knowledge of astronomy, and when the invention of
the mariner's compass opened all seas to navigation,
a number of the old beacons might perhaps be safely
dispensed with, although it would, at the same time.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 131

be necessary to augment the intensity and pene-
trating power of the light employed. The problem
became from that time a more complex one. It was
necessary to augment the intensity of the light, and
still more necessary to collect and bring horizontally
back to the sea the rays which, escaping in all
directions, were lost in space, either by falling at the
foot of the light-house, or by uselessly diffusing them-
selves over the neighbouring land.

Many attempts have been made to effect this
double object. The substitution, by Argand, of
lamps with a double current of air was the first
step in advance. An Englishman, named Hutchin-
son, towards the close of the eighteenth century,
first conceived the idea of placing behind these lamps
a metallic mirror, which projected forward a part
of the scattered rays. A Frenchman, the Chevalier
de Borda, carried this mode of lighting to the highest
degree of perfection, by employing as a reflector a
parabolic mirror which owes to the particular cur-
vature of its walls, the property of transmitting, in
the same direction, all the rays emanating from a
luminous centre placed in its focus ; and of thus
projecting forwards a sort of cylinder, composed
of all the rays emitted from this centre.* But this
advantage involved in itself a very serious incon-
venience, for the cylinder of light presented very

* The invention of the parabolic mirror is not the only service
that Borda has rendered to navigation. He was the founder of
the schools of naval architecture, and he has left several works,
amongst others, a Voyage en diverses parties de VEurope et en
Amerique. Borda died in 1799.

K 2

132 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

nearly the same diameter as the mirror itself. Com-
pared with the area of the sea, it was like one simple
ray of light, which could only render the light-
house visible to a spectator standing in a direct line
before it.

Borda's invention would therefore have proved of
no use if it had not been for a very ingenious idea
suggested by a person named Lemoine, who had
formerly been Mayor of Calais. His plan consisted
in placing Borda's apparatus on a moveable axis,
which, by its rotatory movement, presented the
mirror to every part of the horizon in succession.
The observer, who is placed at a great distance from
the lighthouse perceives it only during the time
required for the cylinder of reflected light to pass
before his eyes, the building at other times seeming
to him to be shrouded in complete darkness. This
latter circumstance, far from injuring the eifect pro-
posed, presents, on the contrary, great advantages.
By arranging round one and the same axis a certain
number of reflectors, which are all provided with
their respective lamps, each revolution of the ma-
chine will present as many luminous flashes as there
are mirrors, while a certain time will elapse between
their successive occurrences, during which the spec-
tator is plunged in obscurity. By varying the
number and duration of these intervals, one may
give a special character of individuality to a certain
number of lighthouses, which is in itself a very
essential condition, since it is only by this means
that vessels arriving from a distance are able to
recognise the precise point of the shore in sight, and

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 133

to steer their course with safety. Where the light
alternately appears and disappears in the manner we
have described, the apparatus for lighting is said to
be on the principle of a revolving light.

Borda's mode of lighting can, unfortunately, only
be applied to lighthouses of this kind ; and is in-
applicable for buildings which are illumined by a
Jixed light, that is to say, where the light must be
visible from every point of the horizon at one and
the same time. This method of illumination must,
however, necessarily be adopted, since it is impos-
sible to vary the lights and obscurations in such a
manner as to impart to each lighthouse sufficient indi-
viduality of character to distinguish it from all others.
Much, therefore, remained to be done. There had
existed in France for many years a lighthouse-
commission, the members of which, occupied with a
hundred other duties, had scarcely done anything
towards the solution of this problem, when M. Arago*
proposed to undertake a series of experiments,
on condition that he might receive as his coadjutors
in the work MM. Mathieu and Frestielf, whose ad-

* [A short biographical sketch of Arago is given in the Ap-
pendix, Note X.]

f Fresnel, who was a Member of the Institute, ranks amongst the
most illustrious cultivators of physical science. He especially
devoted himself to the study of the most delicate phenomena of
light. " Among the great observers, who have preceded him," says
M. Pouillet, " we can mention no one who has exhibited more
inventive power in his experiments, more precision in his measure-
ments, or greater depth of thought in his deductions." It is to
Fresnel that we are indebted for that solid basis on which the now
generally accepted undulatory theory rests, which consists in regarding
K 3

134 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

mlrable discoveries on the properties of light had
pre-eminently fitted him to grapple with this subject.
The disinterested zeal of these three men led to
the rapid attainment of numerous valuable results.
MM. Arago and Fresnel, by following the plan
suggested by Rumford, gave a most unexpected
degree of perfection to the lamp with a double
current of air. They constructed an apparatus
having four concentric wicks, which were supplied
with oil by clockwork, and whose illuminating power
was so great that a single wick was equivalent to
twenty-two of the best Carcel lamps. Fresnel re-
placed Borda's mirrors, in which the light is concen-
trated by reflection, by lenses which the rays traverse,
and which throw them by refraction into the desired
direction.

The best polished surface absorbs very nearly half
the quantity of light which strikes it. The other
half alone is reflected, and is therefore the only part
that can be made available. In traversino; a o^lass of
moderate thickness, the same quantity of light is
only diminished" by about one twentieth of its ori-
ginal amount. These well-known facts led in Eng-
land to the employment of glasses resembling those
which are used for ordinary lenses. The adoption
of this form rendered it necessary to use glasses of
considerable thickness, in consequence of which the
light experienced even more diminution in traversing

light, not as an emission from luminous bodies, but as produced by
the vibration of an universally diffused agent, which we designate
under the name of ether. According to this theory, the phenomena
of light and of sound closely resemble one another.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 135

these lenses than in the case of the metallic reflectors.
This mode of lighting was not therefore attended by
any practical results, while even the name of the
person with whom the arrangement originated is
now forgotten.

With the view of overcoming the difficulty to
which we have referred, Fresnel conceived the idea of
decomposing his lenses into several elements. The
central glass was an ordinary lens of small dia-
meter and consequently of inconsiderable thickness.
He formed the others of prisms, which were ar-
ranged round the centre in concentric circles, whose
curvatures were so calculated that their focus co-
incided with that of the lens itself. It would have
been impossible to cut and polish such large
glass circles; Fresnel therefore constructed them of
separate pieces which he cemented together with isin-
glass. Thus was realised one of the conceptions of
our illustrious BufFon *, whose genius seems to have
comprehended all departments of science. He, too,
had conceived the idea of constructing poly zonal lenses,
but supposing it necessary that the different parts of
the series should all be formed of one piece, he had
regarded this plan as impracticable. The merit of the
invention, belongs therefore, exclusively to Fresnelf,
who was ignorant of Buffon's suggested plan till he
had himself realised his own theoretical conceptions.

* [A notice of the life and works of Buffon is given in the
Appendix, Note XL]

f [M. de Quatrefages is probably not aware that Sir David
Brewster described a method of constructing large lenses of several
pieces in 1812, ten years before the publication of Fresnel's cele-
brated memoir,]

K 4

136 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

The following numbers will at once show the
superiority possessed by the new mode of lighting
when compared with that yielded by Borda's mirrors.
A polyzonal lens having a diameter of thirty inches,
and illumined by a single lamp with four wicks,
transmits the rays to a distance of thirty-six miles ;
it projects eight times more light towards the horizon
than the best reflector, and the effect which it pro-
duces in the direction of its axis is equal to that
which would be emitted from 4000 combined jets of
gas.

The lenses which we have described are alone
applicable to lighthouses having revolving lights,
and in this respect they resemble parabolic mirrors ;
but a great advantage of the new system is that it
may be equally well used for fixed lights. To
adapt it to the latter mode of illumination, all that
has to be done is to metamorphose the lens into a
ring dilated in the middle, and to arrange above and
below it a sufficient number of prisms analogous to
those of which we have already spoken. In this
manner the light is thrown simultaneously to all
points of the horizon, only, instead of being united
into a cylinder, it forms a kind of horizontal sheet.
It will therefore be readily understood that light-
houses with fixed lights cannot present the same
area of illumination as those which are provided with
revolving lights. In both cases the lamp is sur-
rounded by a ring of glass of the same height, which
receives nearly the same quantity of light in either
case. But while in a revolving light the entire

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 137

illuminating power is concentrated by lenses in
either eight or sixteen directions only, in a fixed
light it spreads over all points of the circle, dimi-
nishing in intensity in proportion to the greater
extent of surface over which it is diffused.

A lamp which is placed in the centre of a fixed or
moveable apparatus emits its rays in all directions,
and consequently a large number pass above and
below the lenses. To avoid this loss, Fresnel pro-
posed to re-collect these rays upon reflecting prisms,
which have the property of destroying only a small
quantity of the light which traverses them. This
idea was actually applied to lighthouses of small
dimensions, but it had hitherto been regarded as im-
possible to construct curved prisms of a size suitable
for buildings on a large scale. These prisms were
replaced by a system of concave mirrors covered
with tinfoil, and arranged in horizontal zones above
and beloAV the apparatus. Now we have already
seen that half the light is destroyed by this mode of
reflection ; hence it was most desirable that the
prismatic rings should be formed on a large scale.
The problem which had hitherto been regarded
as insoluble was successfully solved by a Parisian
artisan, M. Fran9ois who, in 1844, presented to the
Academy of Sciences one of the eight staves, which
when combined form the reflecting cupola, as ex-
emplified in the lighthouse of Skerryvore in Scot-
land, the construction of which is in exact accord-
ance with Fresnel's plans. The importance of this
improvement will be best understood when we con-
sider that the light reflected by the tinned mirrors is

138 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

equal to that of 133 combined jets of gas, whilst
the light transmitted by M. Fran9ois' cupola is equal
to that of 214 jets, which would give an augmen-
tation of 81 jets of gas for the available light.

MM. Arago and Fresnel commenced their obser-
vations in 1819 ; four years later the lamp with con-
centric wicks was invented, the polyzonal lenses
were tested, and the new mode of lighting tried in
the Corduan lighthouse at the mouth of the
Gironde, where, a century before, the first trial was
made of illuminating by revolving lights and by
parabolic mirrors. The result fully realised all the
hopes that had been entertained of this method, and
in 1825, in consequence of a remarkable report
drawn up by Vice- Admiral de Rossel, one general
plan was adopted for the lighting of the coasts of
France. Twenty-seven lighthouses of the first
order were distributed along a coast-line of about
1200 miles. These edifices stand forth like so many
advanced guards to signalise to the sailor, returning
from the open sea, the name of the shore he is
approaching. With this view these buildings have
been so arranged that a tower with a fixed light
invariably intervenes between two towers carrying
revolving lights, diff'ering most distinctly from one
another. Five lighthouses of the second order and
seventeen of the third, together with thirty-five port-
lights intervene between every two first-class light-
houses, to point out the dangers which are always mul-
tiplied in i)roportion to the increasing vicinity of land,
and to indicate the safe channels. Everywhere reflect-
ing mirrors are being replaced by this system of lenses.

THE ARCHIPELAGO OF BREHAT. 139

Other nations are following the example of France.
As they formerly copied the revolving apparatus
invented by Lemoine and the reflectors suggested
by Borda, they now borrow Fresnel's lenses and the
lamp devised by Fresnel and Arago, whilst they
resort to Paris for nearly all the apparatus employed
in lio'htino^ their own coast-lines. We have therefore
some right to declare with just pride, that it is to
France that mankind owes all the essential progress
which has been made in reference to a question so
vastly important to the security of navigation, and
consequently so intimately associated with the in-
terests of commerce and humanity.

After having carefully examined and admired
every portion of the magnificent lighthouse of Hehaux
I returned to my daily avocations at Brehat. But
the bad weather was setting in ; I often came home
from my excursions wet through and shivering with
cold, so that I felt it was time to think of taking my
departure. My good friend the custom-house officer
once more lent me his pinnace, and I left Brehat
enriched with numerous drawings, notes, and collec-
tions of animals, many of which were carefully
preserved in spirits.* My passage was alike rapid and
agreeable, and with scarcely a stoppage I returned
to Saint Brieuc by the same road which I had pur-
sued three months before. The country was still
looking beautiful, although the decline of the year

* All the objects which I collected in this and the following
expeditions have been deposited in the Museum, and now form a
portion of the collection connected with the chair held by M.
Valenciennes.

140 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

had shed a certain tone of quiet melancholy over the
face of the landscape. The thousand varied tints of
autumn had replaced the bright, but uniform verdure
of spring ; the oaks were scattering their dried and
yellow leaves before the wind, and the birds had
departed with the flowers of summer. Scarce a
blossom remained but the golden rods of the broom,
which, interspersed among the purple tufts of the
heather, gave to the distant hills a rich tinge of
ochre which was rendered still brighter beneath the
rays of the setting sun.

141

CHAP. III.

THE COASTS OF SICILY.
THE GROTTO OF SAN-CIRO. — TOKRE DELL' ISOLA.

Departure for Naples -with MM. Milne Edwards and Blanchard. —
Arrival in Sicily ; aspect of the Bay of Palermo. — Excursions to
the grotto of San- Giro. — Osseous caverns ; osseous breccias. —
Installation on board the Santa Rosalie. — Departure from
Palermo. — The grottoes of Mont Pellegrino. — The Blatta
orientalis. — Arrival at Torre dell' Isola.— The Padre Antonino. — ■
Structure of the coast. — Our sailors. — Explorations. — Trans-
parence of the water in the bay. — Principal species belonging
to the littoral districts. — Causeways built by the Vermetus. —
Occupations ; mode of life. — Departure for Castellamare.

A SCIENTIFIC commission, consisting of M. Milne
Edwards, M. Blanchard, and myself, was appointed,
in the Autumn of 1843, to visit the coasts of Sicily
by the Minister for Public Instruction, the Jardin
des Plantes, and the Academy of Sciences.* In ac-
cordance with our plan of travelling together, we all
left Paris on the 20th of March, 1844, and on the
28th of the same month we reached Naples. In
eight days we had traversed the whole of France ;
we had taken a glance at Lyons and Marseilles,

* [A sketch of the history and constitution of the Jardin des
Plantes, and of the Academy of Sciences is given in the Appendix,
Note XIL]

142 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

slept at Genoa, and visited its palaces ; anchored at
Livorna; admired the baptistery, and the leaning
tower of the Campo Santo at Pisa; and yawned
with ennui within the narrow precincts of Civita-
Vecchia, until at length we beheld the sun emerging
from behind Castellamare, striking the profile of
Vesuvius, gilding Pausilippus and Cape Miseno,
empurpling the waters of the bay, and flashing from
the white houses of that city, of which, it has been
said, nothing is left to those who have seen it but
to die.

But Naples, notwithstanding its many seductions,
was unable lons^ to detain us. We were all anxious
to reach Sicily, and as soon as we were enabled, by
the friendly aid of our ambassador, M. de Montebello,
to obtain the papers which it was indispensably
necessary for us to procure, we embarked in the
Palermo^ the first of a new line of steam packets
which has now established a regular communi-
cation between the island and the continent. The
passage, which was even then so tedious and un-
certain, is now effected in eighteen, or at most
twenty hours. We left Naples at four o'clock, and
before long we had passed Capri, which rose to our
left, with its rugged rocks — the silent witnesses of
the crimes of Tiberius and of the darino; valour of our
soldiers. We watched the setting sun, as it gilded
with its last rays the serrated peaks of the Calabrian
shores, until its fires were extinguished in the limpid
waters of the bay, giving place to one of those nights
of the south, when all thini^s around are bathed in
transparent shadows, which throw a veil of beauty

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 143

over sky and earth unknown in northern latitudes.
When we came on deck at break of day, the last of
the Calabrian heights was disappearing on the
horizon, whilst before us Sicily was growing more
and more distinct, as it gradually rose to view from
the blue waters of the sea. Before noon we had
doubled Cape di Gallo, and were gazing with ad-
miration on that lovely valley so justly termed the
Conca d'' Oro.

It cannot be denied that the Bay of Xaples presents
a strikingly beautiful appearance, as it breaks upon
the sight of the traveller entering it from the open
sea. For myself, however, I must admit that I
prefer the aspect of the Bay of Palermo. At Naples
the landscape is deficient in harmony. As the spec-
tator looks towards the steep incline on which the
city is built, he finds nothing on which his eyes can
rest between the sky and the water's edge but the
crowded buildino;s of Monte-Falcone and the bastions
of Saint Elmo. The low shore of Portici, covered
with its white villas, seems nothing more than a pro-
longed suburb, stretching as far as Castellamare.
There is no intermediate object to attract the eye
before it rests upon the gracefully rounded outline
of this shore ; beyond it there is no distant back-
ground. Man predominates too much in this land-
scape, in which nature is only seen in the isolated
mass and smoking cone of Vesuvius. This magni-
ficent object, rising detached from the midst of the
picture, produces by its very isolation a more striking
effect ; devoid of harmony with all around, it stands
forth like some ever present impending evil, throwing

144 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

a tinge of gloom over the brightest features of the
scene.

At Palermo we have nothing of this kind. Every-
where around discordant contrasts are brought into
harmony with the general character of the landscape.
Man and nature meet here, not as antagonists, but
simply as rivals : and both everywhere present, have
combined to produce a scene which seems to have
been planned by some artist of consummate skill.
From the deck of our steamer we could trace the bay
as it penetrated inland, following a slightly easterly
direction, and bounded on either side by verdant banks
exposed to the cool north-east breeze, and sheltered
from the force of the rous^h sea winds. At the
extremity of this gulf, between the leafy heights
of Olivezza and La Flora, rose Palermo with its
crowded shipping, and those rounded domes, and
slender spires, which give it something of the cha-
racter of an eastern city.

The sombre masses of green in the more distant
parts of the landscape, indicated the site of groves of
orange *, lemon, and carob trees which terminate the

* The Orange and the Citron are two different species of the
genus Citrus, which also include the Lemon (C. Umonvm), the
Seville Orange (C vulgaris), &c. These two trees which in the
present day are so widely distributed over the southern parts of
Europe are natives of Asia, and it may not be unwelcome to our
readers if we extract from M. Duchartre a few historical details in
reference to their acclimatation.

The Citron-tree ( C. medica) grows spontaneously in Media, from
whence it was no doubt originally introduced into Persia. It is
difficult to determine the period of its introduction into Europe.
Theophrastus, Virgil, and Pliny mention the tree, and the last of

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 145

Conca d'Oro.* Glancing upward along the mountain
slopes, which were beginning to exhibit the first ap-
pearance of spring vegetation, we descried Morreale f

these informs us that its fruit was brought from Persia to Rome,
where it was employed as a medicine, and more especially as an
antidote against poison. Attempts seem to have been made at that
time, but unsuccessfully, to acclimatize it in Italy, and it was not
till two centuries later that it was introduced into Sicily and Naples.
In the tenth century it had extended over the whole of Liguria.
Towards the twelfth century it, reached Menton and Hyeres, but it
was not until the fifteenth century that the Citron-tree reached the
colder countries of Europe. The Orange-tree ( C. aurantium) did
not reach Europe till long after the Citron. It seems to have
originated in India beyond the Ganges, and it did not reach Malta
till towards the end of the tenth century. During the Crusades in
the thirteenth century it was carried into Italy, from which it
spread as far as Hyeres. Before this time, however, the Arabs
had introduced it into Spain. In 1336, the Dauphin Humbert
bought at Nice twenty Orange plants, which he carried into
Dauphine. At the beginning of the sixteenth century there was
only a single tree of this kind in the north of France. It had been
planted at Pampeluna in 1412, and bought by the Constable de
Bourbon ; it was however confiscated with all other property
belonging to the Constable in 1523, and transported to Fontaine-
bleau. This tree which is consequently, now in 1854, 442 years
old. may still be seen at the orangery of Versailles, where it is shown
to visitors under the name of Francois I., the Grand Connetahle,
or the Grand Bourbon.

* The Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is a fine tree, growing to a medium
height. The fruit is a large flattened pod, enclosing a sweet and
pleasantly flavoured pulp. In the south of Europe, and more
especially in the East, where the Cai'ob grows spontaneously, this
pulp is used for preserves, essences, &c., while a species of syrup is
extracted from it in Egypt, in which difi"erent kinds of fruit are
preserved.

f Montreal or Morreale is a town containing about 7000 or 8000
inhabitants, and has been gradually formed around the cathedral.
This edifice, which was founded in 1174, by William the Good, is
VOL. I. L

146 Kx\MBLES or A NATURALIST.

Avitli its ancient cathedral, founded by the early
Norman kings ; while high above, in the distant
background, rose the magnificent mountain range?
which encircles this rich landscape as in a frame^
stretching for many miles into the interior of the
island. Rising In six distinct slopes, these mountain
chains exhibit, at an altitude of more than 4000
feet above the sea, their rugged sides and sharply
defined peaks, still covered, when we first saw them,
with the winter's snow. Sloping downward in a
semicircle, as if to embrace and defend the open
valley at their base, these Alpine ranges project on
either side, at ten miles' distance from one another,
far into the sea, terminating on the left in Cape
Zafarano, which protects with its compact masses the
palaces of Bagaria, and on the right in the Capo
di Gallo, whose bright limestone summit glittered
in the light more than 1800 feet above our heads,
while adjoining it rises Mount Pellegrino among
whose precipices winds the steep road leading to
Saint Rosalia's cave. * Sheltered by these colossal

situated upon a projecting spur of the mountain, overlooking a
magnificent valley, and is one of the most beautiful and curious
architectural monuments of Sicily. Its bronze gates, covered with
bas-reliefs, are justly celebrated. The interior is almost entirely
lined with mosaics, while the pavement is formed of porphyries,
and many-coloured marbles. The church contains several mauso-
leums, amongst others those of William the Good, and of his father
William the Bad, and here also is preserved the heart of St. Louis.
The convent of the Benedictines, which is annexed to the church,
possesses the best painting by Pietro Novelli, the Raphael of Sicily.
It represents St. Benedict, the founder of the Order, distributing
bread to his disciples.

* This holy patroness of Sicily, for whom every good Sicilian

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 147

bulwarks, the surface of the bay, which was scarcely
ruffled, reflected as in a mirror this glorious spectacle,

professes the most profound devotion, lived, according to the
legend, in the twelfth century, and died on the 4th of September,
1160. The family traced their origin to Charlemagne, and her
father, Sinibald, was lord of Mont Quisquina and Delle Rose. At
the age of fifteen, Rosalia escaped from the house of her parents and
concealed herself in a dark cavern on Mont Quisquina, where she
continued to live for a long time alone and unknown. Urged by
unknown motives she abandoned her first retreat, and retired to
Mont Pellegrino, taking up her abode in a grotto, where the
absence of light and constant humidity maintained a perpetual
winter. It was here that she died, and here her bones were found,
in 1625, in consequence of information given by the saint herself,
who appeared to several persons. These relics are still preserved
in the Cathedral of Palermo.

The fete of Saint Rosalia, which is celebrated in the month of
September, is kept as a national holiday throughout the entire
country. The preparations begin many months in advance, and
at Palermo the festival lasts for a whole week, each day having its
special ceremonies and diversions. This festival has been too often
described to require that T should enter into any details concerning
it, but yet I cannot abstain from alluding to the magnificent
spectacle presented in the interior of the cathedral during the general
illuminations. The entire body of the church, the walls, pillars
and vaulted roof are thrown into a perfect blaze of light by
thousands of small wax tapers, suspended by threads, which are so
fine as to be quite invisible from a short distance. This mode of
arranging the lights produces the effect of innumerable stars bx'oad-
cast over every portion of the edifice. The fireworks, moreover,
deserve special notice, for I have never seen any in Paris which
could be compared to them. Our rockets may indeed be better
directed, and our fireballs may rise higher, but the profusion and
the disorder in which the former are employed at Palermo during
an illumination produce a most striking effect ; in watching them
you might almost suppose that you were following the movements of
living beings urged by some capricious impulse to meet, chase, and
encounter one another in all directions. The fireballs as they
burst fall in a gold or silver shower upon the surface of the sea,
L 2

148 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

displaying before us the image of Palermo la felice,
which seemed slumbering in a balmy atmosphere
amid the gentle murmurs of the waves, as they
flowed softly back from its shores.

How painful, when the thoughts are elevated by
the contemplation of scenery at once sublime and
beautiful, to be abruptly recalled to earth by some
importunate and trivial consideration. Almost before
our vessel had reached the harbour it was literally
stormed by a crowd of seamen closely akin to the
native lazzaroni, and in an instant Ave were plunged
into all the miseries of landing, which in our case
were of more serious moment than they might have
been to travellers in general, as our trunks and boxes
were filled with instruments, bottles, and glass
vessels of different kinds ; no wonder then, that we
dreaded the prospect of encountering the delays,
risks, and difficulties appertaining to a search by
custom-house officers. Fortunately for us our own
apprehensions were the only evils we experienced on

where their brightness is gradually extinguished amid the gentle
undulations of the waves. Besides these we saw some fireworks
which were perfectly unique of their kind. Some of these appeared
like large banana trees, blazing from the base to the summit in a
rich deep green fire, which is probably produced by means of
alcohol and a salt of copper. The crowning piece of this pyro-
technical exhibition was a representation of a castle in a state of
siege, which was being bombarded and burnt in the midst of a
thunderstorm, and the combined effects of the thunder, fireballs and
the conflagration were most admirably given. The castle, moreover,
was 200 feet in length, and of a proportional height, while the line
of fireworks directed against it measured more than 500 feet in
length, and was arranged in several successive rows.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 149

this occasion. The Duke of Serra di Falco *, the
director general of this department, having been ap-
prised of our arrival had given orders that we should
be exempted from all investigation, and thus, to the
great surprise of the sailors who transported our
baggage, we were permitted to proceed without any
delay to the Hotel de France.

Without loss of time we set forth to explore the
city, for in our uncertainty in reference to our future
destination we were unwilling to leave Palermo
without having examined the principal objects of
interest which it contains. Under the guidance of
able ciceroni, whose hospitable zeal was unwearied,
we visited those ancient buildings which once were
used as mosques, and where verses of the Koran
may still be read upon the pillars and walls which
have now for so many years past been consecrated
to Christian worship. It was with feelings of
intense astonishment that we traversed palaces,
churches, and cloisters carved and encrusted like
buhl cabinets, where the most precious marbles,
enamels, malachite, and lapis-lazuli were blended
and grouped together in a thousand different devices,
rising in one place in columns chiseled by the hands
of Greek or Arab workmen, clothing elsewhere the
walls and ceiling with the most delicately coloured
tracery, or forming deeply fluted masses, which hang
suspended like softly tinted drapery fresh from the

* The Duke of Serra di Falco, Corresponding Member of the
Institute, is the author of a large work entitled, Le antichita del/a
Sicilia, and of several other works treating of the history of his
native country.

L 3

150 KAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

loom of the skilful weaver, everywhere exhibiting the
most fantastic lines and the most brilliant arabesques,
the whole combining to produce an effect of incon-
ceivable richness, which certainly in some respects
merited the judgment passed upon it by the severe
and classic taste of our guides. " C'est le delire de
I'art," exclaimed the archaeologist Don Antonio
Gallo, a sentiment which the Canon Piccolo endorsed
by a meaning and contemptuous smile. Perhaps
they were right ; be that as it may, we protested
against the severity of their criticism. After duly
appreciating the imposing character which appertains
to the nude simplicity of the high and sombre aisles
of our northern cathedrals, one may well be per-
mitted to regard with admiration those chiese, in
which the glorious light of a southern sun heightens
the splendour of the profusely magnificent ornaments,
and seems to aid the labour of the artist by clothing
the exterior of the edifice in' inimitable tints of red
and golden amber.

Everything around Palermo thoroughly accorded
with the character of novelty which had so power-
fully impressed us on first examining the exterior of
its monuments. In the Conca d'Oro the vegeta-
tion, which is entirely southern and almost African
in its character, exhibits the most marvellous activity.
Rendered fruitful by the heat and by the abundant
supply of water, which has been artificially conveyed
from inexhaustible sources and distributed throujrh
innumerable aqueducts, the land scarcely lies fallow
one month in the twelve. Hence those of our
northern trees which we saw intermixed amonor the

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 151

date and carob trees of the gardens of Olivezza or
La Flora were of gigantic dimensions. On this
prolific soil the olive grows to be a high and leafy
tree, while the cypress is as tall as our poplars. The
public walks are planted with citron and orange
trees : these trees too. form a forest extending from
three to four miles, between Palermo and Morreale,
and risino- alonn^ the first declivities of Mont Cucchio
and Mont Griffone, only cease where vegetable
mould has almost wholly disappeared, giving place
to the cactus and aloe, which in these climates may
be said to represent our brushwood and brambles.

One of our first excursions in the environs of the
town was to visit the Grotto of San-Ciro, which
enjoys a certain amount of" reputation in the scientific
world, in consequence of having furnished palaeon-
tologists with some curious fossil bones. We left
Palermo by the Termini Gate, and following a road
which ran in the midst of rich gardens we passed
the Constable's Bridge, whose foundation is referred
to the reign of the sons of Tancred, and soon
found ourselves skirting the mountains which con-
stitute the eastern limits of the Conca d'Oro. While
we were pausing at the foot of Mont Griffone,
Prince Gragnatelli, one of the most distinguished
chiefs of the Sicilian opposition, who had served as
our guide in this short expedition, drew our atten-
tion to a vast and ponderous square building standing
in the midst of the plain. The windows were
narrow, like mere loopholes, and the doors low and
arched, and if it had not been for the thickness of
the walls, the building might have been taken for a

L 4

152 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

large farm-house in ruins. Yet this edifice, which
the humblest citizen of our own day would have
despised as a country house, was, nevertheless, the
favourite sojourn of the Norman kings, who repaired
to it to recruit from the fatis^ues of war. It still
bears its original significant name of Delizie. A very
cursory examination of this building shows that if
the rude warriors who inhabited it knew how to
secure the aid of the fine arts to do honour to a
religion whose indulgence they were often obliged
to invoke, they gave themselves very little trouble
about decoration when their personal comforts alone
were concerned. Facing this ancient palace is a
low opening in the side of the mountain, supported
by a double arch, which forms the entrance into a
grotto enclosing a large basin, from whence there
flows a brook of fresh water. This limpid stream,
which fertilises all the adjoining district, is named, in
accordance with a genuine Sicilian hyperbole, the
Mare dolce. This grotto was formerly enclosed in
the limits of the palace grounds, and no doubt served
as a bathing hall for the valiant conquerors of
Sicily.

We were obliged to leave our carriage soon after
we had passed this fresh-water sea, and to climb the
mound of debris which is deposited at the base of
Mont Griffon e. An enclosed path led us between
fields of cactus to the entrance of the grotto of San-
Ciro, an irregular excavation, forty or fifty feet in
depth, and from twenty to thirty feet in height,
whose naked walls still show traces of the tools
employed by the workmen who first excavated it.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 153

There is nothiiio: in this cavern meritino; the atten-
tion of the ordinary tourist, but it possessed a decided
interest in our eyes, since it presented a fine example
of an ossemis cavern or rather breccia, showing us at a
glance how some of those osseous deposits have been
formed in which modern science has succeeded in
reading the history of a world unseen by human eye.
It is well known what importance has been
assigned to fossil remains since Cuvier first opened
to geologists a new path of inquiry, and established
the science of paljBontology. These remains of an
extinct fauna are r-^nerally distributed through the
interior of different strata ; but in some localities we
find them collected in masses. It had already long
been known that the caverns of the Hartz mountains
and of Franconia contained masses of fossil bones ;
but it was shown by Dr. Buckland, one of the most
celebrated jxeoloofists of England, that these countries
were by no means peculiar in this respect. By break-
ing up the calcareous crust, which forms the lower
surface of many of the caverns, and removing the
pebbles and sand, which were concealed below the
stalagmites*, he laid bare palaeontological treasures

* The name of Stalactites has been given to those calcareous
(deposits shaped like elongated cones, which are often attached to the
roofs of caverns, whilst the deposits of the same nature which
cover the soil are known by the name of stalagmites. Both these
deposits are formed by the water which filters from the rock, and
which dissolves a certain quantity of calcareous salts, which it
leaves as it flows off drop by drop, and evaporates on coming in
contact with the air. Every stalactite must therefore have its cor-
responding stalagmite, but while the former increases inccessantly
from above doAvnwards, the latter increases from below upwards,

154 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

whose existence had never before been suspected.
He found that the mud, forming the lowest stratum,
and which is almost always black and fetid, was
often interspersed with numerous skeletons of bears,
hyenas, and sometimes even of dogs, wolves, and
jaguars, belonging to species of much larger size than
their existino; congeners. The bones of Ruminants
and Rodents, and often too, those of Birds and large
Pachyderms were blended with the bones of these
carnivorous forms, and we can still trace the marks
on their surfaces of the terrible teeth by which
they were broken. These circumstances led Dr.
Buckland to the conclusion that caverns of this kind
had probably been used as places of resort both by
the carnivorous animals, whose remains have been
preserved in them, and by the victims which once
served to appease their hunger. This very plausible
explanation was generally received, and did not for a
long time meet with any decided contradiction.

Science, however, speedily recorded other facts,
which could not be made to harmonise with the
theory of the English geologist. It was discovered
that rocks of compact limestone, whose mass presented
no trace of fossils, w^ere yet traversed by veins which
were entirely filled with bones, impacted in a
matrix differing entirely from the rock itself. These
veins very frequently presented no appearance of
any lateral aperture, while the debris contained
within them in some instances completely filled

and on meeting they become joined together. It is this mode of
deposition which gives rise to those beautiful colonnades which are
found in certain grottoes.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 155

them up. They could not, therefore, possibly have
served as a retreat for the animals whose remains
they contained. The bones, moreover, which were
found under these conditions, exhibited, almost
always, traces of having been fractured, while they
frequently also were polished as if by continued fric-
tion. In order to explain these different circum-
stances, it was conjectured that such veins were
ancient fissures which had become filled up with
skeletons, which were washed into them from the
surrounding soil by currents of water.

This theory, which was specially maintained by
several French geologists, received a most striking
confirmation in the year 1842. MM. Constant
Prevost* and Desnoyers discovered in the environs of
Paris, but more especially at Montmorency and
Fontainebleau, a large number of ancient fissures,
similar to those which are of such frequent occurrence
on the shores of the Mediterranean, where some of
them are still in the act of formation. In the former
they met with the characteristic remains of palaeonto-
logical faunas, while in the latter they found only the
remains of existing animals, and they w^ere able to

* M. Constant Prevost, who is a Member of the Institute, and
Professor of the Faculty of Sciences at Paris, is more especially
known for the extreme perseverance with which he has always
opposed the ideas that have been admitted by most modern
geologists regarding the cataclysms to which our globe owes its
present configuration. In the opinion of M. Constant Prevost the
phenomena which are daily being enacted before our eyes, and the
forces which we see in action, suffice to explain all the facts of
geology, and to account for all the modifications which have been
experienced by the crust of our planet.

156 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

convince thmselves that the latter are daily being
augmented in proportion as new deposits are accu-
mulated by the action of currents of water. These
observations which complete, without controverting,
the researches of Dr. Buckland, have led to the dis-
tinction which is now made between osseous caverns
and osseous breccias, of which we have just spoken.

We must class amon2:st the latter the sfrotto of
San-Ciro. Before it was dismantled it presented
the appearance of a slope of about twenty feet in
height, abutting against the side of the mountain, and
composed almost entirely of bones agglutinated by
calcareous infiltrations or cemented by a small
quantity of quartzose sand and indurated clay. It
seemed as if the entrance of the cavern had been
closed in and the interior almost entirely filled up by
a rock of a particular composition. There were
the remains of elephants, hippopotami, deer, stags,
and several kinds of doo;s intermingled with sea
shells. This latter circumstance, added to the traces
of perforations in the walls of the cavern, which may
be attributed to certain marine molluscs, led Dr.
Christie to conjecture that this fissure must have
been formed below the waters of the ocean, and that
it must have been subsequently upheaved by some
of those convulsions of nature of which Sicily every-
where affords undoubted evidence.

Whatever the true explanation of its occurrence
may be, the mass of organic remains accumulated in
this spot was at all events so considerable that it
awakened the speculative genius of certain English
travellers. The cavern of San-Ciro was converted into

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 157

a regular source of export, and the fossils were shipped
to London where they were converted into animal
Mack! At the time of our visit the devastation was
complete,' and we had some difficulty in detaching
from the vaulted roof a few broken fragments which
appeared to us to have belonged to an elephant.

In the mean time we did not lose sight of the
principal object of our mission. M. Blanchard,
whose duty it was to collect Insects to complete the
collections of the Museum, had already ex[)lored the
environs of Palermo and the Conca d'Oro. M.
Milne Edwards and myself had, in the meanwhile,
been equally busy in examining the neighbouring
sea shore, breaking up the rocks by the water's edge,
and turning over the stones on our path. All that
we had hitherto seen of the marine tribes of animals
redoubled our anxiety to begin our work in earnest.
We tried as far as lay in our power to hasten the
preparations for our departure, but it was no trifling
business to complete our equipment. We desired to
explore the coast line of Sicily step by step, as it
were, with entire liberty to arrange and alter our
plans as we might deem desirable ; we Avished to be
able to pass rapidly along any sandy shore which we
knew would present nothing of interest, and again
to stop wherever weed-covered rocks announced
that our researches would probably be attended with
success. To do this, it was indispensable that we
should be so amply supplied with the necessaries of
life that we need not diverge from our course in
search of provisions. It would have been impossible
to effect a journey by land with an independence of

158 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

this kind ; it was only by sea that we could fully
carry out our plans, and we resolved to circum-
na\ngate the island in a boat of our own.

There were, how^ever, many difficulties in the
w^ay. We carried with us, amongst other apparatus,
a double forcing-pump, intended to aid in the
submarine explorations which ]\I. Milne Edwards
purposed conducting. This pump could not be
properly worked without being securely fixed with
sufficient space around it to move a balance beam
resemblins: those used in fire eno;ines. The common
fishing boats of the country were too small and
fragile for this purpose, Avhile a speronare w^as, on
the other hand, too large to suit our views, as it
would have been unable to enter shallow bays, or to
follow all the irregularities of the rocky coasts ; and,
lastly, it was indispensably necessary that we should
procure the services of sailors who could speak
Italian, for the Sicilian idiom, which is an incoherent
mixture of all the various tongues spoken by the
numerous powers who have in turn ruled Sicily, w^as
wholly unintelligible to us.

After many fruitless visits to the harbour, w^e at
length discovered the kind of boat we wanted. It
was thirty feet long and six feet across, and carried
fore and aft a sort of false deck about a yard square.
Along either side there ran a board about a foot
across, to which the seats of the rowers were secured.
This boat had made several trials of her speed and
strength in the passage from Naples to Palermo.
Finally, her name possessed a certain local charm,
which was quite irresistible, for she bore the graceftd

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 159

appellation of La Santa Rosalia. Being intended
for fishing operations on a large scale, she had a
crew of seven men, five of whom certainly seemed
active and strong fellows, and of these, two spoke
Italian after a certain fashion of their own. M.
Milne Edwards, who was the natural leader of our
expedition, lost no time in entering into treaty with
the master ; and, by the useful intervention of our
friend M. Pierrugues, whose obliging and active
zeal in our service was indefatigable, a bargain was
soon struck. For the sum of thirty-six tari or sixteen
francs a day, the Santa Rosalia and her crew were
placed at our entire disposal.

Without further delay we began the stowage of
our vessel. Our packing cases, which were installed
under the hindmost oarsman's seat, established a
separation, rather moral than real, between the
portion of the boat which was set apart for the men
and our special quarters in the stern. We were
enabled, by means of moveable stancheons, to spread
an awning across our domain by way of shelter
against the sun or rain. A few shelves, nailed
against the sides and protected by the upper board-
ing, served as the depository of our boxes, glass
bottles, tubes, and instruments. The bunker below
the helmsman's bench was made to contain the three
cushions, which we dignified with the name of mat-
tresses, together with the large sailors' capes which
were intended to take the place of sheets and blan-
kets. Our pump, which was securely fixed in the
bows, contributed not a little towards the peculiar
aspect presented by our vessel, which excited the

160 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

strangest commentaries among the numerous groups
of lazzaroni, which were watching these incompre-
hensible preparations. As soon as our arrangements
were completed, we said a last farewell to the newly
found friends, who by their kind attentions had made
our stay at Palermo appear so short, and hastened to
take our places in the boat w^hich, at the captain's
command of Voga I glided rapidly through the water
that broke into foam beneath the strokes of our
six oarsmen. The captain, wdio sat crouched upon
our miniature quarter-deck, which was exclusively
devoted to him, guided the helm and directed our
course. We soon passed the entrance of the harbour,
which is protected by the Castello di Molo, and,
turnino^ the boat's head to the left, we advanced
towards the west.

Our voyage commenced under favourable auspices.
The sky was clear, the sea calm, and our boat coasted
along one of the most enchantingly picturesque parts
of these lovely shores. Above us, conspicuous in
its wild grandeur, rose Mont Pellegrino, whose per-
pendicular sides descend abruptly to the very
water's edge. Half way up its inclined slope, the
Villa Belmonte proudly displays the somewhat fan-
tastic graces of its castellated gateways, its pavilions,
and its kiosques, loaded with ornaments in the
Sicilian style of architecture, and surrounded by
plantations of elegant shrubs, which overhang the
sea- washed rocks. Below, as if to contrast with
the works of art on the heights above, nature had
produced one of those beautiftd eifects which would
be a study to the painter. The porosity and unequal

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 161

density of the calcareous stone of which the beach is
formed, have made it yield in every direction to
the force of the waves, which have entered every
crevice and washed over every point, until the entire
mass has been undermined and broken up on all sides.
These semi-arches, which are crowned and garlanded
by the cactus and other shrubs, give rise to a perfect
labyrinth of grottoes, which defies all description.
It would require the skill of the most accomplished
artist to give an idea of the marvellous admixture of
forms, colours, and effects produced by the vast halls, in
which a far larger pinnace than ours might have found
shelter; where irregular porticoes, with strangely
contorted pillars, seemed cut out of colossal agates ;
and where all the most widely differing colours,
from milky white to blood red or raven black, were
blended to^^ether, varied and contrasted in the most
striking manner. But no artist's touch could convey
an idea of those submarine grottoes, those narrow
and deep fissures in which the waves which had only
just rippled over the arches at the water's edge,
Avere engulfed and swallowed up amid the strangest
and wildest sounds. The slight ripple raised by our
small bark sufficed to awaken these singular voices
of the shore, which fell upon the ear like the
prolonged cry of some colossal monster whose rest
had been abruptly disturbed. What then must be
the awful rush of sounds given forth from these
thousand mouthed openings when they meet the
shock of the high waves as they are driven onwards
by the blast of the tempest !

However, Ave had already doubled the Capo di
yOL. I. M

162 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Gallo, and were running against a stiff breeze, when
the increased motion which had been imparted to our
boat by the change in our course, warned MM.
Edwards and myself that we had still something to
learn in our sea apprenticeship. We at once fell
victims to all the horrors of sea-sickness. Yielding
to our misery, we threw ourselves upon our mat-
tresses, and were content to cast a glance from time
to time at the shore which flitted past as we lay
stretched full length at the bottom of the boat. M.
Blanchard had long since passed through the ordeal,
and it cost us many a sigh of envy to find that the
most violent rolling and pitching produced no other
effect upon him than to increase his appetite. It
w^as, however, very fortunate for the whole party
that our companion did not share our weakness, for
M. Edwards and myself, although lying close
together, completely occupied the space allotted for
our reserved quarters. Our shoulders pressed against
the sides of the boat, while our feet rested below the
first bench, against which two of the men had braced
their legs and bare feet. If, therefore, M. Blanchard
had also been compelled to betake himself to the
bottom of the boat, he would have been reduced to
the extremity of stretching himself under these living
arches of the rowers' legs and arms, in an atmosphere
which was the very reverse of agreeable.

We had left Palermo somewhat late in the day,
and night surprised us when we were opposite to a
little sandy bay, commanded by the dismantled
tower of Sferacavallo. We were oblis^ed to inaus^u-
rate our expedition by passing our first night on

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 163

board. The men ran the boat close into land, and
made her fast by a grappling iron. Having arranged
two oars crossways at each extremity of the bark,
they rested the mast of our latteen sail upon this
rude framework and covered the whole with tarpaulin.
We opened our box of provisions by the light of a
smoky lamp, and made our first bivouaclng meal on
rancid sausage and the cacio cavallo of the district,
the taste of which bears some resemblance to
old Gruyere cheese. Having re-arranged our mat-
tresses and put on our weather-proof capes, M.
Edwards and myself stretched ourselves at full
length, while M. Blanchard took up his quarters
for the night at our feet ; our men, in the meanwhile,
had stowed themselves away as best they could, some
betAveen the benches, others on the sails and ropes,
and soon the gentle rocking of the boat, as it was
moved by the feeble oscillations of the waves, had
buried alike naturalists and seamen in profound
sleep.

There was an unforeseen circumstance, however,
which unfortunately soon came to destroy any ro-
mantic sentiments that the strange nature of our
position might otherwise have tended to encourage-
Seven Sicilian sailors, whose ordinary fare is garlic
and onions, sleeping in clothes which have probably
served them well for many long years, did not
conduce to the purity of the atmosphere of a narrow
and low tent, which the keenness of the night air
had compelled us to keep perfectly closed. These
exhalations were, moreover, blended with a far worse
odour, some whiffs of which had already several times

M 2

164 KAMBLES OP A NATURALIST.

in the day affected us most disagreeably. We were
not Ions: in discoverlnsi: the cause. While we were
at supper, we had noticed in the half light around
us, several insects, somewhat like bugs, of an inch in
length, which we kncAV to be the cockroach (Blatta
orientalis). These insects, which were formerly un-
known in Europe, have been carried by commerce to
all our larger towns, and are well known to the
bakers of Paris under the name of Noirot or Can-
qnerlin* Theu' long oval body, which is brown above
and yellowish-brown below, is as flat as that of a
bug ; but the odour which they exhale is far stronger
and more nauseating than that given off by the

* The genus Blatta, belonging to the order of the Orthoptera,
comprises a large number of species, several of which are found in
France, -without on that account being indigenous in the country.
One of our indigenous species was known to the ancients, who
called it lucifuga, in consequence of its aversion to light. All
these insects appear, however, to be similar in this respect.

Among all the Blatter which have been imported, and which are
unfortunately too well acclimatised amongst us, I will instance
our common kitchen Cockroach, Blatta orientalis, which is the one
referred to in the text, and the American Cockroach, Blatta
americana. The former of these appears to have been brought to
Europe in trading vessels from the Levant. This species is partial
to heat, and generally takes up its abode near bakers' ovens or
furnaces. It is said that the Cricket pursues and destroys it. The
American Cockroach was not introduced into Paris until the
beginning of the present century, when, as we learn from M.
Dumeril, it was imported in 1802 into the hothouses at the Museum,
from packing cases which had been used in the transport of plants.
This species is much larger than the preceding one, measuring
three inches in length, inclusive of the antennae. It is said to do
much damage in the sugar plantations in America, but we do not
think that it has been found very destructive in the Jardin des
Plantes.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 165

smaller vermin. Like the latter, however, they are
nocturnal in their habits. Concealed all day in
some dark retreat, they emerge at night from their
hiding places, and wander forth in search of food.
Sugar, broken pieces of bread or meat, all seem
alike acceptable to them, and even if nothing better
is to be had, they will attack old leather. Their
fecundity fully equals their voracity, and they oc-
casionally swarm in such myriads on board trading
vessels, that they will sometimes destroy the entire
cargo and render the vessel unfit for further service.
Such were the tenants which the Santa Rosalia
harboured in every crevice of her timbers, and which
as soon as night approached, came forth by thousands,
diffusing around and over us a pestiferous stench.
The most energetic means that we could devise,
proved inadequate for their destruction. During
the course of our voyage we frequently caused the
men to haul the boat ashore, and wash it thoroughly
with sea-water, while we even attempted to plug up
every hole and crevice in her sides ; but it was all
labour lost, for the cockroaches speedily re-appeared
as numerous and as pestiferous as ever. We were
compelled to resign ourselves to the evil, in the hope
that habit might diminish the disgust which these
unbidden guests occasioned us.

Yet, notwithstanding the disagreeable discovery
which it brought us, our first night's bivouac passed
off most admirably. At break of day the next
morning, we awoke our crew, and got speedily under
weigh, being extremely impatient to reach some
station which might prove more favourable for our

M 3

166 KAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

researches. Fortune befriended us ; for in doubling
a small promontory we perceived an islet whose
contour was broken in all directions by the projection
of sharp rocks along the water's edge, which, no
doubt, afforded numerous and snus; retreats for
those Molluscs, Annelids, and other marine popula-
tions, which we were desirous of studying. On
consulting our map, we found that this was the
Isola delle Femine, situated opposite to the tongue
of land and rocky ledge, on Avhich stands the village
of Torre dell' Isola di Terra, inhabited by a population
of fishermen. We at once landed, and while one
of the sailors was boilino; some eofo-s for our breakfast,
by aid of a fire of sticks, we examined the beach, and
soon saw enouo;h to convince ourselves that we could
not select a more promising spot for our first halting
place.

Elated at the discovery we had made, we proceeded
with much satisfaction to despatch our breakfast of
hard boiled eggs, deliberating the while upon the
chances of meeting with anything like available
accommodation among the fishing population of the
place. While we were thus engaged, a superannuated
custom-house officer approached, and with great de-
monstrations of respect, implored our Excellencies to
proceed to the village, where we would, he assured
us, find no difficulty in meeting with suitable accom-
modation. This mark of attention surprised us not
a little ; but we soon discovered the source to which
we owed it. It appeared that, independently of the
letters with which we had been furnished, and which
were all potent against the supervisions and exactions

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 167

of the customs and the quarantine, the Duke of
Serra cli Falco and the Duke of Cacamo, Director
General of the Sanitary Commission, had also sent
a circular to all their subordinates, Informing them
of our arrival, and instructing them to afford us all
the assistance in their power. We were expected
at all the stations along the coast, and from the very
outset we exj^erienced the favourable effects of these
powerful recommendations. Following our aged
guide, we therefore at once proceeded towards the
village, wdiere we were met by the cure of this little
congregation, who eagerly pressed us to take up our
abode in his house, an offer which we gratefully
accepted.

The villao;e of Torre dell' Isola is a sort of fief
appertaining to the Count of Capaci. The houses,
of which there are about a hundred, are low and small,
but outwardly clean. They have almost all been
built at the expense of the proprietor, who lets them
to his tenantry for a trifling rent. The village num-
bers about 1200 inhabitants. Living upon a tongue
of land, covered with sand and rocks, among w hich
nothing but the wild cactus can take root and thrive,
the population Is of necessity entirely devoted to
fishing. At the time of our arrival, almost all the
men w^ere absent, and were not expected to return
until after the season of the Sardine fishery, for the
sea like the land, has its harvest seasons, which
come almost on a fixed day, with this advantage,
however, Avhlch is entirely in the favour of the
maritime harvests, that they require no preliminary
expenditure of labour in sowing or planting.

M 4

168 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

The manor house overlooks the little harbour of
this maritime community. It had been orii^inally
constructed t-o serve the double purpose of affording
accommodation to the lord of the manor and to pre-
pare the tunnies which were taken in the neighbour-
hood of the island ; but for many years past the
fish have forsaken their old haunts, and the pro-
prietors have become absentees. The building is
therefore now appropriated to the cure of the village,
who, at the time of our visit, was a poor Dominican,
who, for forty -one tari, or less than twenty francs a
month, celebrated mass every Sunday, confessed the
dying, performed the service of marriage, and bap-«
tized the newly born. Notwithstanding his poverty,
this good pastor, who loved animals of every kind,
managed to keep five or six cage birds, a few
chickens, three cats, and two dogs. I asked li^yself
whether it were possible that he could feed the poor
creatures ; their starved appearance certainly war-
ranted a doubt on the subject. The dogs, especially,
were in an inconceivably meagre condition, and looked
like animal machines reduced to their simplest forms.-
It seemed as if the poor wretches had grown up in a
state of continual starvation.

The Padre Antonino, who, with the exception of
his pets, Avas the sole occupant of the ancient resi-
dence of the counts of Capaci, was able, without
ncommoding himself, to give up to our use three
large apartments, in which every thing betokened
the most complete neglect. It was only with ex-
treme difficulty that one could still trace the outlines
of ancient frescoes which had once covered the naked

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 169

"walls and adorned the cracked ceilings, but which
had long since crumbled into dust from the corrosive
action of the damp sea air. The lofty windows, with
their rotten frames, seemed as if they would break
into fragments in our hands when we tried to open
them. Time had coated the fcAV panes which still
remained with so thick a layer of dust, that they had
lost all transparency and seemed to be converted into
plates of ground glass. It need scarcely be observed
that there was nowhere a vestige of furniture, but
yet we were only too happy to meet w^ith a lodging
of this kind, which afforded us shelter and ample
space for our investigations, within a few paces of
the sea. We lost no time in taking possession of
our new quarters. The panes of glass were washed,
and where they had been broken in the lower frames
their place was supplied by sheets of paper, to pro-
tect our w^orking tables from the draughts which
might otherwise have interfered with our observa-
tions. Long planks, ranged side by side, and sup-
ported by firm wooden props, afforded admirable
standing room for the basins of sea-water destined
to receive our various animal treasures. The bed-
steads, on which we placed our mattresses, w^ere con-
structed on similar principles, and our microscopes
were carefully placed in front of the windows.
Before the close of the day everything was ready,
and after partaking of a meal very similar to our
last night's supper, we tried to get rest and sleep
upon our planks, which were only softened by the
addition of the inch and a half of wool and cotton
which constituted our entire bedding.

170 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

One feels a very slight degree of reluctance to
leave a bed of this kind, and we consequently found
no difficulty in beginning our labours by break of
day. M. Blanchard betook himself, well provided
with nets and other apparatus for hunting insects,
to the landward side of the peninsula; while M.
Edwards, embarking on board the Santa Rosalia,
proceeded in search of marine animals ; and I under-
took to explore the beach of the peninsula. My
task was not an easy one, for the village was entirely
surrounded by a broad margin of strangely dislocated
calcareous rock. At some j)oints the stone resembled
an enormous sjDonge, torn and cracked into fissures
and irregular cavities, and studded with bristling
points. At other parts of the beach, the rock seemed
to be split into thin laminas, regularly separated by
long and deep fissures. There was no alternative
but to move incessantly up and down, like a man
alternately ascending and descending a height of two
or three feet, or to stride over chasms while you
maintained your equilibrium upon some needle-like
projection, or upon a rocky ledge as sharp as the
blade of a knife. Although accustomed from child-
hood to climb rocks, I was not prepared for such
unusual difficulties, and I found that it required the
utmost care to avoid meeting with some dangerous
accident.

Yet this peculiarity in the character of the rock
was in itself a guarantee of its riches. In proportion
as these fissures penetrated further into the sea they
became converted into so many small basins, while
the sharp edged rocks which rose around them served

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 171

as sheltering walls, within which the Molluscs, An-
nelids, and Crustaceans, whose habits lead them to
resort to the sea-washed beach, find commodious
retreats, that are impenetrable to all enemies save
naturalists. Indeed, I soon found reason to rejoice
at those inequalities of the ground which a few mo-
ments before I had so heartily denounced. My tin
boxes, tubes, and bottles, were soon filled to over-
flowing, and I hurried back to our common quarters,
where I was speedily joined by M. Edwards, who
had also returned laden with treasures. Poor M.
Blanchard alone came back empty-handed and in no
very good humour. Trusting to his geographical
charts and to the statements of travellers, he had
believed that there exists no real winter in these
favoured climes ; but in Sicily, as in France, nature
has her times of rest, and the insects which were
destined in a few weeks to fill the air with their
swarming myriads, were still slumbering within their
subterranean galleries, or in their silky wrappers,
in the larval and chrysalis state.

Our companion was, however, soon consoled for
his own disappointment when he saw our well filled
bottles and basins. What mattered it, that one of
the three was unsuccessful, when the other two were
laden with booty ? Although we had come to Sicily
with very distinct plans of work, each one had it in
his power to double his time and his resources by
availing hmiself of the labours of his companions.
On our table lay side by side large specimens of the
Buccinum, which were peculiarly well adapted to
furnish materials for the researches which M. Blan-

172 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

cliard intended making in reference to the nervous
system of the jNIollusca ; Beroid^, radiate gelatinous
animals belonging to the Acalephas, creatures as trans-
parent as glass, and which had already formed the
subject of several important works by M. Edwards,
but whose singular organisation still presents innu-
merable problems for future solution ; and Annelids,
together with phlebenterous Gasteropods*, the study
of which had been the special object of my voyage.
We had, therefore, each a rich and noble field of in-
quiry opened to us, and, like industrious workmen,
we lost no time in bringing forth the tools which
were to aid us in our scientific labours; thus, in a
few moments, our forceps, scalpels, compressors, and
microscopes were in full operation.

I must not forget to mention that we were careful
before we set to work in good earnest, to partition
to each of the crew his special duties, and to arrange
our household in a systematic manner. The master,
Perone, who, as Captain, was necessarily associated
with his boat, became the leader of our fishing
excursions ; and his dexterity, keen sight, and
athletic strength, fully justified the confidence we
had placed in him in this capacity. The two sailors
who spoke Italian were appointed to perform any
special personal services that we might require.
Carmel was a fine fellow, about five and twenty years
old, whose quickness, intelligence, and willingness
to oblige, seemed to adapt him most thoroughly to
be our valet de chambre; his comrade, Juseppe

* I shall explain the meaning of the word Phlehenterata and
Pklebenterism in Chapter V., on Trapani.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 173

Artese, combined the double functions of steward
and cook. It must be confessed, however, that few
persons had less claim to be regarded as a cook than
this unfortunate individual, who never could be
taught how to salt a dish of macaroni, or how to
stew a fowl in rice, without converting the materials
into a dish of hot water and sodden meat. He scarcely
had managed to learn how to boil our eggs at the
end of the season. Still, poor as his culinary talents
most undoubtedly were, we were obliged to content
ourselves with them. For the rest, he was honest
enough in his way, for, as far as we could discover,
he contented himself with a profit of cent, per cent.
upon all the purchases which he made on our
account.

The duties confided to Carmel and Artese, gave
them a wonderful degree of importance in their own
eyes, and this superiority was admitted without much
hesitation by their comrades. There was even a
certain distinction established between the two, and
we were amused at the manifestations of the different
grades which existed amons* the members of this
hierarchy. Thus, for instance, if we asked Carmel
to bring us some sea-water, he would, without
vouchsafing a word, take the bucket, and in a
minute or two we would hear him call to his
companion, '^ O Pepe ! II Signor Grande," a title
by wdiich the men designated M. Edwards, *^ il
Signor Grande, boF agua di mar ! " " Bene," was
the reply of Artese, who, taking the bucket, went
downstairs as far as the outer door, from whence he
hailed the captain, giving his orders in the same

174 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

form in which he had received them. Perone re-
peated them to his men, who, carrying out the same
principle, passed the orders on, until it almost in-
variably happened that the bucket was brought
back to us by Rapbaele, the slave and drudge of the
crew. This fellow, although strong and robust, was
lazy to excess, and always tried to do as little as
possible of any labour that had to be done ; but then
he was a Neapolitan, and on account of this alone,
he had to endure ridicule of every kind, and was
constantly exposed to the jibes of the other sailors,
who were proud of being Sicilians and natives of
Palermo, and hence, whenever there was any extra
job to be done, it was invariably thrown upon this
poor wretch, notwithstanding the innumerable arti-
fices to which he had recourse to avoid the threatened
imposition.

When these arrangements were completed, no
further delay interfered with the prosecution of our
studies. Every morning when the weather was
good, one of ns went out in the boat with Perone —
an opportunity which was not neglected for laying in
a supply of fish for the day's consumption. The
boat was generally brought close to the Isola delle
Femine, on account of the excellent fishing; ofround
in the vicinity. I saw the sea here under an aspect
entirely new to me. The ocean does not exhibit
those absolute and profound calms which are ob-
served in inland seas where the surface of the water
is often as smooth as a mirror, permitting the eye to
distinguish the minutest details at an incredible
depth. I was at first often deceived by this

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 175

marvellous transparency into the belief that I could
grasp some Annelid or Medusa, which seemed to be
swimming at only a few inches distance from me.
Our patrone watched the proceeding with a sarcastic
smile, and taking a long pole with a small net
attached to one of its extremities, he, to my intense
astonishment, plunged it many feet below the surface
before it came in contact with the objects which I
had imagined I could grasp in my hand.

This marvellously limpid condition of the water
produced another charming illusion. Leaning over
the side of the boat, we could see flitting beneath
our eyes a vision of plains, valleys, and hills, in one
place with bare and rugged sides, in another, clothed
with verdant herbage, or dotted over with tufts of
brownish shrubs, and in all respects calling to mind
the distant view of a passing landscape. But it was
not the varied outlines of a terrestrial scene on which
our eyes were riveted, for we were scanning the
ruijsfed contour of rocks, more than a hundred feet
below us, amid submarine precipices, along which
the undulating sands, the sharply cut angles of
the stone, and the rich tufts of brightly coloured
red weeds and glossy fucus fronds, lay revealed
to sight with such incredible preciseness and clear-
ness, as completely to deprive us of the power of
separating the real from the ideal. After gazing
intently for a while at the picturesque scene beneath
our eyes, we scarcely perceived the intervening
liquid element which served for its atmosphere
and bore us on its clear surface. We seemed to be
suspended in empty space, or, rather, realising one

176 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

of those dreams in which the imagination often
indulges, we appeared to be soaring like a bird, and
to contemplate from some aerial height the thousand
varied features of hill and dale.

Strangely formed beings were harbouring within
these submarine retreats, and imparted to them a
most characteristic physiognomy. Here and there
a solitary fish darted forth like a lonely sparrow
issuing from its covert: next, a crowded shoal
came forth like a flock of pigeons or swallows,
and winding their way along the large stones,
would search the tufts of waving Algae, until the
sight of our boat passing above their heads would
put the entire band to flight with every de-
monstration of fear. The Gorgonidae*, Caryophyl-
lid^ef , and a hundred different kinds of Polyzoaries

* The Gorgonia is a genus of polypes, belonging to the order
of the Alcyonidae. Their polyparies, which are horny, widely
ramified, and often expanded like a broad fan, are very common in
Natural History museums.

f The CaryophyUia belongs to the order of the Zoanthoid Polypes,
so called from their resemblance to certain flowers. We may
consider, as the type of this order, the common Actinias, which are
very abundant on every sea-shore, but here the individuals are
isolated. In a large number of the Zoanthoid Polypes, however, and
more especially in the CaryophyUia, the individuals are aggregated,
and in general their integuments and the reflected folds of the
membrane lining the visceral cavity, are incrusted with calcareous
salts, so as to form solid polyparies. (On the Polypes, we may
refer to the difl'erent works of Milne Edwards, and especially to
that which he is now publishing in conjunction with M. Haime.)

These Zoanthoid Polypes ai-e the principal agents in the formation
of those Coral islands and Madrepore reefs, which render the navi-
gation of the Indian Seas so dangerous. In these latitudes every iso-
lated rock, if it be only covered with from thirty to forty feet of water,
becomes the seat of a colony of these Polypes, which multiply with

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 177

were blooming in tufts of living flowers, or ramified
into little shrubs, every spur and bud of which was

a most incredible rapidity. One generation builds its superstructure
on the stony beds formed by preceding polypes, until the entire
mass, increasing both in extent and thickness, finally reaches the
surface of the ocean. In the tropics most of these islands are sur-
rounded by a sort of rampart or breakwater, whose external walls,
which are almost always perpendicular, inevitably break in pieces
every vessel that strikes upon them. It is by a similar process that
the different seas of these regions are studded with rocks nearly
reaching to the surface of the water, and which are the more
dangerous to the navigator, in consequence of their escaping his
observation, while the depth of the sea surrounding them lulls him
into a state of deceptive security even in cases where constant
soundings are made.

Coral islands consist of a narrow margin of slightly elevated
land, which in some cases circumscribes a very extended space.
Thds ring is either entirely formed by the coral structure, or by the
association of it with other rocks. The lake or lagoon which is
enclosed by this ring is sometimes very deep in all parts, at other
times it declines into a funnel- like excavation, while in some cases
it is interspersed with submerged rocks. There are, in general,
several narrow passages which communicate between the ocean
and the lagoon. In some cases, however, the ring is incomplete,
and is only represented by a large number of individual segments,
while, on the other hand, it is not unfrequently complete in every
part, forming a garland of verdure round a calm and motionless
lake, whilst the sea beyond breaks with violence against its coral
walls. The greater portion of these strange formations is neces-
sarily composed of the inner lake ; thus, for instance, the island of
Taritari presents a surface of 110 square miles, of which only four
belong to the land, the remaining 106 being composed of the
lagoon.

Several theories have been advanced to explain the formation of
coral islands, and one of the most generally received opinions
consists in admitting the existence of numerous submarine craters,
the margins of which are at a depth suitable to the life and labours
of the polypes ; whilst the centre of the crater, and the sides of the
mountain from which it originates, have been suddenly engulfed in
VOL. I. N

178 RAMBLES OF A I^ATURALIST.

an animal, and which, by their interlacing stems, their
variegated branches and budding shoots, can scarcely
be distino;uished from true vegetables. Enormous
dark brown Holothurias were creeping over the sand
or climbing slowly up the rocks, waving their crown
of tentacles, while beside them lay Star-fishes of
bright pomegranate hues, motionless with their ra-
diating arms extended around them. Molluscs, resem-
bling in form a snail or a slug, although different in size
and colour, were dragging themselves slowly onwards
like their terrestrial brethren ; while crabs, having
the form of enormous spiders, were striding over
them in their rapid and sideway course, pausing
only from time to time to seize them with their
formidable pincers. Other crustaceans, allied to our
shrimps and lobsters, sported among the tufted algje,

the sea, and thus become uninhabitable to these minute beings. It
will readily be understood that in such a case, the mass of the
poly paries, on reaching the level of the waves, will, in fact, exhibit
a band of reefs surrounding a free space. The debris accumulated
on these ridges forms a stratum of mould on their surface, which is
soon covered with the rich vegetation of the tropics that grows up
from the seeds which the sea or the winds have scattered over this
recent soil,

Mr. Dana, who is one of the most eminent among the American
naturalists, has recently offered an explanation of these formations,
which at once accounts for the facts, while it explains several
objections that present themselves to the preceding theory. This
naturalist is of opinion that islands which have been slowly en-
gulfed in the sea, actually existed formerly at the same spots
where we now find coral islands. The present ring would, there-
fore, in this case, mark the limits of the ancient shore. On this
hypothesis we can conceive the formation of lagoons thirty miles in
diameter, although such a diameter would be remarkable in the
case of a crater. (See the works of [Darwin and] Dana on Coral
Beefs and Islands. )

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 179

coming forth only for a moment into the pure light of
the sky, and then, at the least indication of danger,
boundino; with a vio-orous stroke of their tail back
to the shelter of their sombre retreats. Amongst
these animals, whose forms were more or less familiar
to us, were other species, belonging to types wliich
rarely or never reach our northern latitudes. There
was the Comatula*, a near ally of the Asteridae, and
which, to a certain extent, represents in existing
creation the Crinoidae, which, although nearly extinct
in our own day, are very common in a fossil state. f
There were strings of crystal-clear Salpas, paradoxical
molluscs, which are alternately oviparous and vivipa-
rous, and whose successive generations are alternately

* The Comatula is an Echinoderm, whose arms, instead of being
simple like those of the Ophiura, or ramified like those of the
Euryale, are furnished with a double series of pinnae, which give
them the appearance of the leafy stems of certain plants. The
organisation of the Comatulas has been studied by several natu-
ralists, and amongst others by M. Dujardin.

f The Crinoids, Stone Lilies, or Encrinites (Encrinus), form a re-
markable group among the Echinoderms. Their body resembles in
many respects that of the Comatula, but instead of being free like the
latter, the Encrinites are affixed to the extremity of a long peduncle,
which is itself composed of solid pieces, which are articulated, or,
more correctly speaking, superposed upon one another and con-
nected by soft parts. These small discs often exhibit the form of a
star, composed of five regularly arranged points. The Encrinites
constitute one of our commonest forms of fossils, and it was long
supposed that the type had entirely disappeared from our existing
Fauna, but in the last century the Academician Guettard discovered
in the collection of M. Boisjourdain, a specimen of a living Encrinite
which he described, and which is now in the Museum. Living
Encrinites are, however, of very rare occurrence near our shores,
although they are said to be very common in the seas washing the
coast of Florida and the island of Barbadoes.
N 2

180 RAMBLES OF A NATUEALIST.

isolated and joined together Infloating colonies.* Here,
too, we beheld enormous swarms of those large spheri-
cal Beroesf, whose singular organisation has been
made known by M. Edwards, countless Medusae J,

* These strange facts in reference to the reproduction of the
Salpae were discovered by Chamisso, the witty author of Peter
Schlemil. He was the first who discovered that these Molluscs
live alternately isolated and in chains, and that these two modes of
existence recur in regular succession, and moreover, that the
aggregated individuals are always oviparous, whilst the isolated
individuals are always viviparous. These facts, which were
published in 1819, were for a long time discredited; but phenomena
of a similar nature which had not been previously observed have
been discovered in other groups of animals, and the researches of
Krohn have thoroughly demonstrated the accuracy of Chamisso's
observations. This subject is further noticed in Chapter IV., on
the Gulf of Castellamare. Krohn's memoir may be referred to in
the Annales des Sciences Naturelles.

f The family of the Bero'idae belongs to the class of the Acalephse.
(See the researches of M. Edwards in the Annales des Sciences
Naturelles.^

X The Medusse constitute another family in the class of the
Acalephse. This group has been made the subject of a great
number of speculations, and has led to numerous researches which
have thrown much light on several very important questions.
Reaumur, trusting too much to first impressions, considered that
the greater number of the Medusae were simj^le masses of living
jelly. M. Dumeril, a member of the Institute, and the early friend
of Cuvier, injected the cavity of these animals with milk, when he
saw the fluid diffuse itself into a multitude of canals, which were
all arranged with the greatest regularity. This fact we believe first
revealed the existence of a true organisation in these singular
animals. Long after the observations of M. Dumeril, Ehrenberg
published a memoir on the Aurelia {Medusa Auriia), in which he
showed that this species possesses a remarkably complicated organi-
sation. The researches of Will, Agassiz, Huxley, and others,
although differing in reference to some points from the results
which had been obtained by the learned Berlin observer, have fully

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 181

whose extraordinary metamorphoses have already
modified in so many respects the views which were
formerly entertained in reference to the propagation
of animal species, the Firolie*, and the Diphyes f,

confirmed the general conclusions to be deduced from his work, viz.
that these pretended masses of living jelly are by no means homo-
geneous, as some naturalists still suppose, and that the transparency
of their tissues was the only reason which could have led observers
into this error. The reproduction of the Medusae which has been
studied in more recent times by MM. Sars, Siebold, Van Beneden,
Dujardin, &c., exhibits the most marvellous phenomena, to which
we shall have occasion to refer in our next chapter on the Gulf of
Castellamare. [The Medusae had been long previously injected by
John Hunter.]

♦ The Firolae (Pto-o<rac/i«a) are Gasteropodous Molluscs. This
genus consists exclusively of marine species, all of which swim in
the open sea instead of creeping over a solid surface. It will readj^]y
be understood that the mode of life which differs so essentially froln
that of most other gasteropods must have induced great modifica-
tions in the organisation of the Firolse. Their external forms are,
indeed, very singular, for in these animals we find that the fleshy
disc, which serves as a foot in Snails and Slugs has been changed
into a broad and vertical swimming organ, the extremity of the body
being, moreover, lengthened and flattened to fulfil analogous func-
tions. The whole body is perfectly transparent, excepting only the
mass of the liver, which possesses a certain degree of opacity, and
thus constitutes a sort of coloured nucleus. The Firolse have no
shells, in which respect they differ from the Carinarise, which,
although they resemble them in most particulars, possess a shell
which, however, only covers the mass of the liver, and which in the
Mediterranean species ( C. Cymbium) constitutes a beautiful object
much prized in our Conchological collections on account of its trans-
parency and extreme delicacy.

f The Diphyes, which are placed by Cuvier in the class of
Acalephse, approach very nearly to the Stephanomias, to which we
shall presently refer. The organisation of these animals, which
for a long time continued to be very imperfectly understood, has
lately been made the object of two very important memoirs by
Kolliker and Vogt.

N 3

182 RAMBLES or A NATUEALIST.

which are so diaphanous that they can scarcely be
distinguished from the water in which they move,
and finally the graceful Stephanomiae, whose living
garlands of crystals and blossoms, more delicate than
the preceding species, disappear on drying, and in
the morning leave not even a cloud to mark their
presence in the goblet which they had adorned the
previous evening.*

In our anxiety to study these derivatives of rare.

The former of these observers :s Professor of Anatomy and
Physiology at Wurzburg, and is well known to all naturalists for
his numerous works, most of which are devoted to histology and
the anatomy of the lower animals. Few German naturalists have
better understood the advantages to be derived from a study of the
marine species, and Professor KoUiker has already made several
expeditions to the shores of the Mediterranean for the purpose of
carrying out his various researches.

Vogt, who had formerly been a Professor at Giessen, and in
1848 was nominated Deputy to the Parliament at Frankfort, where
he distinguished himself by his advocacy of ultra-liberal opinions,
is at the present time Professor at the University of Geneva. This
naturalist began his labours in conjunction with M. Agassiz, and
amongst other memoirs he supplied a treatise on the embryology
of the Salmon in the Histoire des Poissons cfeau douce, which is
still the chief authority on the development of animals of this class.
Professor Vogt has published a great number of memoirs, both in
the French and German scientific journals. After having remained
for nearly two years at Nice, in order the better to study marine
animals, he commenced the publication of his researches by a most
interesting memoir on tlie Siphonophora, a group established by
Eschscholz, which corresponds very nearly to the Acalephes
Hydrostatiques of Cuvier, and which includes the Diphyes, the
Stephanomias, &c., of which we have already spoken.

* The Stephanomias, even to unscientific persons, are amongst
the most curious objects that we meet with in the marine world.
I shall have occasion to revert at a future page to these singular
creatures.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 183

or imperfectly known types, we waged a ruthless
war against them. A drag made in the form of a
bao^, was fixed to the stern of our boat to collect the
smallest of these animal forms. Nets made in the
shape of pockets and attached to long rods, still
further lengthened by Master Perone's method of
making the rod tight to a line, were lowered to
a depth of twenty feet or more below the surface,
from whence they brought up the animals, which
they had thus arrested in the midst of their course
throu2;h the water. Laro;e tin vessels, not unlike a
deep skimmer, captured them as they floated to
the surface. A dredge, provided with a heavy cut-
ting edge, scraped along the muddy or weed-grown
bottom, carrying away immense bunches of the
large oar-weeds, which supplied us with numerous
colonies of animals that had taken refuge within
their tangled branches. When the bottom was too
uneven or stony to admit of the employment of
this method, one of the sailors would immediately
strip, and, plunging head foremost, soon reappeared
with his trophy, which he deposited at our feet,
quite satisfied and proud at receiving our approving
bene! in return for his services. Occasionally,
when our success at sea did not equal our expec-
tations, we ran into shore, and, landing on the nearest
accessible point, we devoted our attention to the
littoral species. Here our tactics were of a totally
different nature, for the exigencies of the case
demanded great expenditure of strength in turning
up huge stones, or in breaking away the rocks, and
in these excursions hammers and heavy levers

N 4.

184 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

worked by our men, replaced our hempen nets and
silk bags.

Our labours among; the rocks were rendered both
easier and more successful, owing to a remarkable
circumstance, of which I do not remember to have
seen any notice. Whenever calcareous rocks, like
those of Torre dell' Isola projected into the sea, we
found that they were surrounded by a kind of cause-
way, almost exactly on a level with the surface of
the water, and which, without varying very much in
width, yet followed all the sinuosities of the shore,
filling up the shallow cavities in some places, and
forming solid archways in others, and thus affording
a smooth and easy path to all those who might not
object to have their legs splashed by the waves, no
very formidable evil in pleasant weather. At the
first glance, one would suppose that this white and
compact cement must have been consolidated by the
hand of man ; it is, however, only the work of one
or two species of small Molluscs, belonging to the
genus Vermetus.* Like certain Annelids, these

* The Vermeti ( Vermetus) are Molluscs belonging to the class of
the Gasteropods which live attached to rocks, and construct a
tortuous tube, somewhat similar to those of certain tubiculous
Annelids. On this account they were placed by Linnaeus and his
successors near the Serpulae. A French naturalist, Adanson, was
the first to recognise the true zoological position of this genus, which
is represented by several living, and by many fossil species.
Adanson, who made these animals the subject of his researches, had,
at the early age of fourteen, cherished the idea of establishing a new
classification to supersede the Linnaean system. In 1748, when he
was twenty-one years of age, he undertook at his own expense a
•voyage to Senegal, where he spent five years in studying the
natural history of that country. He returned to France with

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 185

Molluscs live united tos-ether in almost incredible

CD

numbers, and their interlaced tubes almost exclu-
sively combine to form this kind of causeway, which
encircles a considerable part of the rocky coasts of
Sicily.

Thousands of animals had found shelter within
the irregular cavities produced by this agglomera-
tion. Here were Spheromae*, small crustaceans re-
sembling our woodlice, and which, like them, roll
themselves into a ball to escape the pursuit of their
enemies. Near them might be seen numerous
Ophiurje, radiated animals allied to the Asteridtef,
whose long and slender arms exhibit the singular
property of emitting bright sparks almost every time
the animal moves. Here too, were the Syllis and
the Polynoe, small Annelids even more phospho-
rescent than the Ophiurae, the Nemertes, those
worms of w^hose marvellously simple organisation
I have already spoken in the preceding chapter,
and a multitude of Planari^e, a group nearly allied
to the Nemertes, whose anatomy when compared

immense collections, and with the materials for his great work, the
Hisioire de Senegal, which, together with his valuable observations
on the Baobab and the Gum-bearing trees, procured him a seat in
the Academy of Sciences.

* The Sphceroma belongs, like the Oniscus, to the order of the
Isopods-

f Between these two genera, which at first sight present a great
resemblance to one another, there exist very considerable differences.
The arms of the Asterias or Star-fishes are furnished on their lower
surfaces with pedunculated suckers, which enable them to crawl along
the smoothest rocks. These suckers are wanting in the Ophiurse.
In the Star-fishes the stomach throws out prolongations as far as
the extremity of the arms, but this is not the case with the Ophiurse.

186 KAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

with that of the latter tribes is found to exhibit a
most remarkable kind of compensation.* All these
species proved real treasures to us, and it was with
no common eagerness that, armed with hammers,
we pursued them to the inmost recesses of their
narrow caverns, where we rapidly contrived to fill
our vials and boxes with a rich supply of specimens.
When the object of our researches was thus success-
fully achieved, we hurried back to the village, and
at once immersed our captives in large glass vessels,
filled with clear sea-water, in which we were able
to trace their slightest movements ; and selecting
those individuals which were doomed to be the first
victims to science, we entered enthusiastically into
the enjoyments yielded by unchecked indulgence in
our favourite studies.

How rapidly the hours passed, as each, following
some clue, opened by former studies or presented
by the suggestion of the moment, contributed his
share towards the thorough elaboration of the rich
mine that had been thrown open to us, while his
personal gain seemed tripled by the labours and dis-
coveries of his companions, added to his own ! To
me especially this companionship added an inex-
pressible charm to my studies, from the contrast it
presented to my former experience of solitude at
Chausey, St. Malo, Brehat, and St. Vast la Hougue.
To understand what solitude really is, one must be

* In the Nemertes the intestine is simple and only slightly-
developed, whilst in the Planarias, on the contrary, it ramifies
throughout the entire body, and is moreover highly complicated.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 187

thrown, as I had been, amongst the marvels of living
creation, separated from all friends, and far from
any human being capable of understanding or shar-
ing^ one's delio^ht : one must have felt the want of
sympatliy in the midst of one's own genuine enthu- .
siasm, and known what it was to pine for com-
munion with other minds susceptible of intelligence,
a feeling which after a time takes complete posses-
sion of the isolated observer of nature. How dif-
ferent was my present position when I was one of
three zealous labourers ! One or other of our party
was constantly calling upon his companions to ex-
amine some curious detail, or some unlooked-for
marvel, and thus our knowledge and our enjoyments
were continually multiplied by this active inter-
change of the facta, reflections, and ideas, suggested
by a constant supply of fresh objects of observation.
Wherever a shadow of doubt impaired the exactness
of any observation, the grounds on which it was
based were at once tested with the most perfect
good humour, but at the same time with scrutinising
severity ; and this perpetual control added very con-
siderably to our enjoyment by impressing a character
of certainty on each individual result.

As may readily be conceived, our time was com-
pletely absorbed by these attractive occupations. In
the evenings when our eyes and hands imperatively
demanded some rest from their prolonged occupation
by the microscope and scalpel, we would sally forth,
and, leaving the village, proceed to a wood of the
Cactus Opuntia, where, stretched at full length
beneath .the trees, whose summits rose to a heio-ht of

188 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

fifteen or twenty feet, we watched the setting of the
sun. From the middle of an isolated hillock, crowned
by a ruined tower, and situated almost in the centre
of our peninsula, we could see the glorious orb of day
descend towards the sea, whose waves seemed to
kindle into flame as they came in contact with it, until
it finally disappeared behind Cape Santo Vito, bath-
ing the rocky beach and neighbouring valley of
Capaci in those marvellous violet tints which shed
an aerial transparency over the heaviest outlines of
mountain scenery. We then returned to our quar-
ters, to partake of the meagre dinner, prepared for us
by Artese ; but if on any occasion, deceived by the
short twilight of tliese southern latitudes, we had been
surprised by the rapid approach of night, we were sure
on our way homewards to meet our sailors, armed
to the teeth and ready at the slightest hint of danger
to draw in our defence. In the eyes of our honest
tars, every landsman they met was an object of sus-
picion, perhaps a brigand, incessantly on the watch
to waylay unwary travellers. The mountaineers in
our neighbourhood were especially shunned by all
our crew as persons of the most detestable reputa-
tion; and during the first few days of our arrival
we had some diflficulty in persuading our men not
to follow us on every occasion. Their fears may
not, however, have been entirely unfounded, for
Padre Antonino admitted that the natives of the
neighbouring mountain district were scarcely among
the best of mankind, while at the same time he
showed us his well-loaded carbine, and the other arms
which he invariably kept at hand in case of, need.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 189

For twenty days we had a constant calm, which
proved most favourable to our researches, and cer-
tainly was not suiFered to pass unprofitably by.
Our portfolios and note-books were already well
filled, although the observations which we had un-
dertaken were still very incomplete, when one
morning we perceived, on awakening, that there
was a heavy sea running, and that the waves
were breaking noisily upon the beach. Our yester-
day's stores had been all exhausted before night ;
we had therefore only to look forward to a lost day,
with a prospect of bad weather continuing for some
time to come. We at once saw that the only way
of profiting by this forced state of inactivity would
be to continue our voyage. Acting upon the spur of
the moment, we instantly gave our orders, and in
less than an hour, our instruments, jars, and bottles
were safely stowed away in their former places on
board the Santa Rosalia, and our bedding and
wrappers put out of sight under the poop. Before
we took our leave of Padre Antonino, we gave him,
at his request, a certificate attesting our sense of his
hospitality, which, however, we were careful not to
accept as a gratuitous attention, and once more
pressing his hand, and wishing him a hQ^vty farewell^,
we took our old places on the deck of the Santa
Rosalia, and, unfurling our large latteen sail, shot
rapidly towards Castellamare.

190 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

CHAP. IV.

THE COASTS OF SICILY.
THE GULF OF CASTELLAMARE— SANTO VITO.

General aspect of the Gulf. — Formation- of clouds in a clear sky. —
Castellaraare. — Excursion to the ruins of Segesta. - Departure
for Santo- Vito. — Misadventures there. — Ants. — Researches of
M. Edwards on the Acalephse, Beroidge, and Stephanomiae. — My
observations on the mode of reprodaction of the Syllis. — Repro-
duction of the Medusae. — Curious approximation between the
Animal and the Vegetable Kingdoms. — Medusae and Fungi. —
Studies of a different kind, leading to the same result. — General
consequences.

On leaving Torre dell' Isola we steered westward,
passing on the left Capaci and Carini, with their
rich valleys, which terminate in a low and sandy-
beach. Impelled by a fair wind, we had soon
passed Point Omo Morto, when taking a sharp turn
towards the south, we speedily made the Gulf of
Castellamare, the largest of the numerous bays
which intersect the coast-line of Sicily. The mar-
vellous clearness of the air, of which our foggy at-
mosphere cannot give the most distant idea, enabled
us to embrace in one glance this magnificent bay
of water, which penetrates nearly fifteen miles into
the interior, forming a well defined semicircle, whose
opposite banks present the most marked contrast.
To the east, the distant summits of Belvedere,
Montelepre, Montemitro, Firicino, and Mount Boni-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 191

fato, merged by gradually decreasing slopes into the
plains of Partinico, whose fields, covered with rich
harvests and dense woods of olive trees, extended to
the very edge of the water. To the west the eye
rested on Mont Baida, which rose abruptly from the
shore, extending its chain of arid rocks as far as
Cape Santo Vito, whilst at the extremity of the gulf.
Mount Inici seemed to rise in sullen grandeur from
the bosom of the waves, scarcely leaving a strip of
land broad enough to support the little town, which
is crowded together at the foot of its grey uncovered
sides.

The wind had fallen, and, with a less rapid but
more regular motion, we were borne onwards by
the measured strokes of our oarsmen. The slow rate
at which we were approaching Castellamare enabled
us at our leisure to observe the curious spectacle
which had struck us on our first arrival in Sicily.
To the verge of the horizon the sky was intensely
clear, not even a streak of mist being visible in the
deep azure vault on which we gazed : yet around
Mount Inici, about a third of the way from its
summit, fleecy masses of ever changing clouds were
resting on the sides of the mountain, some disappear-
ing for an instant only to be re-formed at an-
other point; while others again, rising like some aerial
veil from the rocks below, which seemed to have
created them, floated away in circling wreaths, and
soon vanished from view.

The general laws of physics aflbrd a ready solu-
tion of this phenomenon, which certainly seems, at
first sight, somewhat difficult of comprehension.

192 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Water, that element which is almost as necessary as
air to the existence of organised beings, enters into
the composition of our atmosphere in two different
ways. It sometimes becomes entirely invisible, in
consequence of actual dissolution, in which case we
must have recourse to the instruments known as
hygrometers, to reveal its existence ; under other
circumstances, its molecules, re-united into small
hollow spheres, float in the air in the form of infi-
nitely minute vesicles which, by their union, produce
those visible vapours which we term mist or clouds.
The mere process of cooling is sufficient to cause
the invisible vapour to pass suddenly into the latter
condition ; for, as in the case of all other gases, the
air when cold cannot dissolve as much water as
when it is warm. Now when the rays of the sun
strike upon the exposed sides of a rugged mountain,
the strata of air, wdiich are in immediate contact
with this surface, become rapidly heated, and at the
same time become blended with a certain quantity
of invisible vapour which has been drawn from the
soil by the action of heat. Having become at once
lighter and more humid, they rise along this inclined
plane, forming ascending currents. They cool on
reaching a certain altitude, when the invisible vapour,
assuming the form of vesicles, becomes suddenly
apparent to the eyes of the observer; but new
quantities of heated air, being continually added,
mix with the cold strata of these elevated regions,
and warm them ; and thus vapour, which alternately
appears and disappears under the action of these
diverse influences, presents all those movements and

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 193

irregular transformations which so faithfully reveal
to the eyes of the observer the struggle which is
going on in the atmosphere between heat and cold.

We entered the little port of Castellamare about
three o'clock in the afternoon, when, in faithful
obedience to Sicilian habits, the chiefs of the De-
partments of Customs and Quarantine were taking
their siesta. Their subordinates, acting upon their
general orders, made some show of preventing our
disembarkation, but despotism, where it does prevail,
is a very convenient institution for those whom
it favours ; and, in a country like Sicily, where
officials are the living impersonations of the law,
our letters of recommendation were all-potent in
placing us above ordinary regulations. With the
mao^ical names of Serra di Falco and Cacamo on
our lips, we stepped on shore without further inter-
ruption ; and, in the course of a few minutes, we
saw a party of Dofjanelli and Sanitarii hastening
towards us, eager to entreat our Excellencies to
fora;ive them for not havinsi: been in waitingr to re-
ceive us ; and we, after the fashion of good princes,
generously extended to them our gracious pardon.

But a more serious difficulty soon presented itself,
when we began to make inquiries concerning
lodgings ; for although Castellamare is a tolerably-
well frequented sea-port, and numbers from ten to
twelve thousand inhabitants, it does not contain
the humblest inn or tavern in which a traveller can
hire a night's lodgings. Fortunately for us, Artese,
who had made numerous coasting voyages, had
generally some friend in every port who was ready

VOL. I. O

194 KAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

to offer his services to the travellers for the honour
of the thing, as he expressed it, and probably also
a little in consideration of the recompense which our
cook did not fail to promise in our names. After a
considerable amount of talking, gesticulating, and
bargaining, we were installed in a room, which was
cleared for our accommodation of a pile of half-rotten
onions, which had impregnated the air with such
a sharp and nauseating smell, that we would almost
have preferred the dreadful nuisance of the cock-
roaches. I need scarcely observe that we were left
to furnish our apartment as we could. As at our
preceding halting place, we were readily supplied
with planks and tressles, while our mattresses and
capes, brought from the Santa Kosalia, supplied us
with all we needed for beds and bedding.

Castellamare is the only point along the whole
extent of the gulf which bears its name in which
ships can find a safe haven in case of storms;
a circumstance which readily explains the degree
of importance attached to this little port. Every
precaution had indeed been taken, in past ages,
for the defence of the place, and the old town was
originally built upon a promontory of calcareous
rock, which projects far into the sea. A broad and
deep trench was interposed between it and the main
land ; high walls, which were in part cut out of the
solid rock, surrounded it on every side ; whilst, at its
extremest seaward point, a formidable donjon rose
threatening on high, upreared on foundations which
had been laid far below the level of the waves. A
low vaulted chapel, decorated with the Cross of the

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 195

Templars, leads to the inference that these warrior-
monks may have presided over the erection of the
fortifications, which, although they may once have
been regarded as impregnable, notwithstanding their
low position, have lost all their value as means
of defence since the invention of artillery. For this
reason, the works were long since entirely abandoned.
The castle has fallen into ruins, and its crumbling
remains are given up to a population of beggars,
whom we saw lounging in rags upon the broken
steps of doors, still surmounted by proud armorial
devices. A stone bridge of two arches has replaced
the ancient drawbridge ; and the town, escaping from
its turreted enclosure, has spread in all directions
round the harbour, and even crept up the lower
heights of the mountain side, from whence, year by
year, straight and wide streets, bordered by two-
storied houses, are extending further and further
into the neighbouring fields.

We had flattered ourselves that we should find
ample materials for observation and study at Castella-
mare, but from the very first day of our arrival
we discovered our mistake. In one direction we
found a long stretch of sand and boulders, while on
the opposite side of the gulf huge rocks descended
precipitously into the sea, exhibiting no trace of life
beyond a few isolated tufts of Fucus and an oc-
casional branch of Gorgonia and Caryophyllia. We
w^ere therefore under the necessity of planning a
speedy retreat before we were thoroughly settled in
our new quarters ; we resolved, however, first to

O 2

196 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

visit the Temple of Segesta*, which is situated about
six miles from Castellamare in a desolate region,
known in the present day as the Contrada Bar-
bara,

The following day we set forth, accompanied by
Carmel, and guided by the Deputato Sanitario in
person, who had politely volunteered to serve us in
the capacity of cicerone. For some time we fol-
lowed a road which, here and there, afforded evidence
of having been worked by the hand of man ; but
after leaving this beaten track, we entered a veritable
Sicilian path. Here it needed a vast amount of
faith to trust to our mules' legs rather than to our
own, but in a little while we were re-assured by the
steady carriage and the marvellous instinct of these
animals, which seemed to guide them securely in the
midst of rolling stones, holes, and sharp-edged rocks,
and we soon gained sufficient confidence in their
safe-footedness to direct our whole attention to the
surrounding landscape. The path gradually wound
upwards round the mountain above Castellamare,
carrying us at first through a country rich in
vineyards, and groves of olive, orange, and citron
trees, and interspersed with farms and cottages, but
the character of the scenery gradually changed,
growing more picturesque and wild at every step we
took. Half-way up this elevation, every trace of
culture had disappeared, and nothing was to be seen

* The ruins of Segesta, one of the most important cities of ancient
Sicily, are enclosed between the mountains which, rising at the foot
of the Bay of Castellamare, are continued throughout the whole
distance between Alcamo and Trapani.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 197

before us but vast arid plains, abutting to the right
on the rugo-ed and barren side of Mount Inici. In
the midst of this desolation, a sudden turn in the
road brought us to a point of view which made us
pause with wonder and admiration. At about three
quarters of a mile from us, in the midst of a desert,
which looked as if it had hitherto escaped from all
contact with human industry, and placed upon a high
hill as upon a pedestal, rose one of the most magni-
ficent monuments of ancient art. The Temple of
Segesta stood before us, marvellous in its perfect
preservation. Not one of its thirty-six columns,
nearly thirty feet in height, and more than six feet
in diameter, has tottered on its pedestal. Not a
stone is detached from the simple cornice which
crowns the edifice with its severe lines. Only here
and there a few slender grasses, some bunches of
fennel or the fan-like leaves of the Chamasrops have
attached their roots to the smooth pediment or within
the narrow chinks which separate the solid blocks
of stone, whose sharply cut angles look as if they
were fresh from the hand of the workman. The
only sign of decadence consists in the general tint of
the whole edifice, which could only be reproduced
by the deepest tones of burnt sienna or oxide of
iron.

What feelings of painful indignation must affect
the artist on discovering, as he looks upon this
august monument of a past age, that it has been
wantonly disfigured through the vanity of a modern
prince. The base of the edifice having been con-
cealed beneath vast accumulations of earth. King

o 3

198 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Ferdinand caused the soil to be removed which
covered the sub-basements and floor, and, wishing to
immortalise this act of royal munificence, caused a
long slab of not very white marble to be inserted,
like some huge stain, on the noble front of the
edifice, displaying in large letters, whose gilding is
already half worn off, the pompous inscription,
Ferdinandi I. Regis Augustissimi Providentia Re-
stituit, Anno 1781. Let us further add that this
very august monarch had neither the merit of
suggesting nor of completely carrying out this
measure. The honour of the undertakino; is for the
most part due to the Duke of Serra di Falco, who
here, as in a hundred other places, has left traces of
his intelligent and generous activity.

From the temple we proceeded to the theatre, the
stage of which is in perfect preservation ; the lower
tiers of seats are also in a tolerable condition, in
consequence of their having been cleared from the
ruins, with which they had been encumbered, by
the orders of the Duke of Serra di Falco and King
Ferdinand. This theatre, with the temple, are the
sole remains of that proud and opulent Segesta,
which was once the formidable rival of Ao^riorentum
and Syracuse. Of the city and its palaces not a
fragment of wall remains. Nature herself seems to
have succumbed to this inexplicable devastation.
Around this miraculously preserved temple, around
this theatre which, by an equally singular fate, has
escaped the universal ruin, the same magnificent
scene still meets the eye which once entranced the
gaze of -<3Eneas and his companions. From the

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 199

summit of tlie hill, on which the spectators watched
the mimic scene, the eye glances from the abrupt
declivities of Mount Inici to the waters of the gulf
and Point Omo-Morto^ rendered blue by distance,
until, ascending to the peaks of Bonifato, it loses
itself in a labyrinth of mountains, whose graduated
summits, compressed together like so many solid
waves, blend into one mass, which skirts the horizon
from Mount Eryx to Corleone. But throughout
this vast amphitheatre, by which the spectator is
surrounded, the silence and stillness of the tomb
reign supreme, without any manifestation of active
life. Concealed by its rocks, Calatafimi scarcely
reveals the presence of its ruined Saracenic fortress,
while Alcamo is completely hidden behind an
undulation of the ground. Built upon the bare
and rugged sides of a mountain, which appears ex-
clusively to belong to it, the feudal stronghold of
the Marquises of Cardillo seems to dominate in
solitary grandeur over this desert region, heighten-
ing the general character of this strange scene by
calling to mind the sombre conceptions of some of
our novelists.

Yet, notwithstanding the profound emotions ex-
cited by this grand scene, we did not forget that we
were naturalists. There were a few insects buzzing
among the wild grass and tall fennel, which here
grows to be more than six feet high ; and M.
Blanchard, who was not slow in availing himself of
the opportunity thus afforded him of beginning his
collection, was fortunate enough, amongst other
captures, to possess himself of a splendid butterfly,
o 4

200 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

the sole European representative of a genus which
belongs essentially to Africa. This prize was
Syntomis phegeenis, which at first sight looks more
like a large fly than a butterfly, for its body is long,
the wings are narrow and thrown backwards, whilst
in colour it is steel gray or blue, spotted with yellow-
ish white. In the meanwhile M. Edwards and
myself were trying to capture some reptiles, destined
for the curious menagerie which had been opened
at the Jardin des Plantes by M.M. Dumeril and
Bibron. After lifting a great number of stones with
an immense expenditure of labour, we succeeded in
entrapping in our boxes some pretty varieties of
lizards and a very fine skink. This animal, w^hich
very much resembles a lizard, presents no well
marked line of demarcation between the head, neck,
body, and tail, and is covered with smooth scales, as
glossy as if they had been varnished. This little
creature has long enjoyed an immense reputation in
medicine. Pliny extolled its flesh as a certain
specific against poisoned wounds ; and ancient for-
mularies attribute to it every kind of property,
whether depurative, stimulative, anthelmintic, ana-
leptic, aphrodisiac, anticancerous, &c. Even at the
present day Orientals regard it as a sort of universal
panacea. It is not surprising that in lands where
people still believe in these imaginary virtues, the
skink should be hunted with the most indefatio-able
zeal. In the deserts of Lower Egypt the natives
wage a ruthlessly exterminating w^ar against these
unfortunate lizards ; and, after having killed and
dried them, send them in sacks to Cairo and Alex-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 201

andria, where they constitute an important article of
commerce.

The day after our excursion to Segesta, we left
the little harbour of Castellamare, which had proved
so unpropitious for our researches; and scudding
rapidly along the western shore of the gulf, directed
our course to Santo- Vito. The aspect of this shore
presented very little to attract our attention. A
compact calcareous rock advanced its sharply-pointed
ledges to the water's edge, or raised its rugged sides
above the waves. Here and there we could discern
a deep grotto or cave, but we could see nothing
within, save some fine groups of orange-coloured
Caryophylliae ; and this sight, far from attracting us,
invariably led to the reiteration of the order to
advance, for experience had taught us that the pre-
sence of these lovely polypes proclaimed the most
complete sterility in all other respects. Occasionally
the wall of rocks, along which the Santa Kosalia
was slowly making her way, disclosed an irregular
fissure, which served as the entrance to some little
cale, with a sandy or shingle bottom. These in-
dentations, however insecure they seemed against
the effect of storms, were always commanded by one
or more towers erected upon some rugged eminence.
The number of these edifices, which we had first
regarded as lighthouses, excited our curiosity. On
questioning our men, we learnt that they were
works of defence erected to protect the neighbour-
hood from the attack of pirates from the African
coast, who, stimulated by the vicinity of the shore,
or influenced perhaps by the traditions of the past

202 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

rule of their predecessors, still ventured on these
veritable razzias on the soil of Sicily, which had
been rescued from their ancestors by the sons of
Tancred. There are nearly 200 of these towers,
which were, until lately, incessantly guarded by an
army of 10,000 men, who were distributed among
these garrisons, where they were ever on the watch
to sound an alarm at the first appearance of any
suspicious-looking felucca or brigantine. Since the
conquest of Algiers these precautions have been no
longer needed. The soldiers have returned to the
towns ; and the towers, which now stand deserted on
these desolate shores, afford a striking proof, by
their neglected condition, of the importance of the
services which France has rendered to humanity and
civilisation.

In the meantime we were approaching the Cape
of Santo-Vito, where, according to the assurance of
our men, we should find, in the Santuario, as good ac-
commodation as we could desire, together with abun-
dance of provisions — a luxury w^hich we had only
enjoyed in retrospect since our departure from Pa-
lermo. We were the more impatient to reach this
promised land in consequence of the cold rain and
stormy wind which had begun to chill and stiffen
our limbs beneath the insufficient shelter of our
slight tent. At last we reached the object of our
desires, and the first glance sufficed to show that the
architect who had erected this edifice had thought
more of insuring the safety of the inhabitants than of
displaying any elegance of structure. The church
of Santo-Vito looks precisely like some strong tower

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 203

of the middle ages. A large and lofty square tower
pierced with narrow loop-holes, serves as a belfry;
the walls of this inaccessible donjon are so enormously
thick, that they look as if they would prove quite
strong enough to resist heavy artillery ; indeed they
seem as if it would need a regular siege to master
the building, however feeble the garrison might be
by which it was manned. At the foot of the tower
stand a few houses of recent date, whose numbers
are increasing rapidly now that there is nothing more
to fear from Algerine pirates. The relics of Santo-
Vito enjoy a vast reputation all along the coast, and
a great number of pilgrims come year by year to
seek relief from bodily and mental ills through their
miraculous virtues, giving their offerings in return
for these benefits, by which means the sanctuary
in which the treasures are preserved secures a con-
siderable annual revenue.

The incumbent of this rich cure has the title of
Canon, and has his residence at the upper part of the
belfry. The remainder of the platform is occupied
by tolerably spacious rooms, destined for the accom-
modation of the pilgrims. We had reckoned upon
being able to install ourselves in these comfortable
quarters, but the lord of the mansion did not seem
at all disposed to share with us his aerial lodging.
He received us with a dry suspicious manner, and
did not even deem it necessary to employ any de-
monstrations of politeness in recommending us to
seek some better lodging than the small room which,
as he stated, was the only one he had to offer us.
This seemed scarcely to be the opinion of the house-

204 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

keeper of the Padre, a handsome Sicilian brunette,
with a well-rounded figure and sparkling black eyes,
who examined us with ill-disguised inquisitiveness.
Unfortunately, however, she was not consulted on
this occasion, and we Avere compelled to go elsewhere
for a lodging. After much useless searching, Artese
at length discovered two rooms, lighted by un-
glazed casements, and having a perfectly dark closet
adjoining to them, which could only be reached by
ascending a ladder which was suspended from a trap
door. After brins-ins^ all the available furniture of
the village into requisition, he contrived to secure
three chairs and two tables, but not a pair of tressles
or a single plank could we procure, and on this oc-
casion our mattresses were simply spread upon the
bare floor. These first difficulties once overcome,
our factotum re-assumed his former functions of
cook, and devoted his attention to the matter of pro-
visions. Here, however, he was scarcely more for-
tunate than in respect to the lodging ; for during the
whole time of our stay at Santo- Vito, with the
exception of one old hen, which was scarcely rendered
eatable by a very prolonged course of boiling, our
fare consisted exclusively of eggs and cacio cavallo.
It will, therefore, readily be seen that our expe-
dition was not one of unalloyed enjoyment. There
certainly was no great merit on the part of M.
Blanchard and myself in cheerfully supporting the
disagreeables inseparable from our mode of life, for
we were young and had to win a reputation. But
when a man of M. Milne Edwards's asre, who has
devoted twenty years of his life to the prosecution

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 205

of labours of the most incontestable importance, and
'who has thus attained a distinguished place in the
foremost rank of science, renounces the comfort
and quiet of his own home for the sake of prose-
cuting new researches, exposing himself cheerfully
to all the privations and fatigues which we endured,
with no other hope of reward but the success of the
inquiries he was prosecuting, it must be admitted
that he gives the strongest proof of devotion to
science, and acquires by the very act an influence
and authority which no one will dispute who can
appreciate the honourable manner in which they
have been won.

It must be admitted, however, that all these minor
miseries were very quickly forgotten when they
were accompanied by the acquisition of ample
materials for study ; but, at Santo- Yito this just
compensation was not always awarded us in return
for our many privations. The same wind which
drove an icy rain through the casements to our
working tables threw the angry waves upon the
exposed beach, and either carried away the little
marine animals, of which we were in search, or
compelled them to take shelter in the depths of the
sea, far beyond the reach of all our means of
capture. It thus happened that we frequently
returned empty-handed from our excursions. M.
Blanchard, however, was enabled to carry on some
very curious observations. The rocks were covered,
with numbers of the Vermetus, which, protected by
their solid and interlaced tubes, can brave with
impunity the shocks of the tempest. The abun-

206 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

dance in which these annelids occur upon the beach
of Santo-Yito enabled our companion to examine
them in detail; whilst the frequent occurrence of
large Tritons (a gasteropodous mollusc) afforded
him the means of prosecuting his observations on
the nerves of these animals with equal zeal and
success. On land he collected several fine specimens
of insects, belonging to the family of the Melasoma,
which are indiscenous in the sand of this beach. He
convinced himself that zoologists, deceived by trifling
external diiferences, have multiplied species beyond
measure by mistaking for them simple varieties ;
while he was enabled, at the same time, to rectify a
more serious error in relation to the sexual differences
which had led to a similar result ; as, for instance, in
the case of the genera Erodias, Tentyria, and several
others, in which the male and female of the same
species had often been separated on the supposition
that they were specifically different.

Among the insects which attracted the attention
of our travelling companion, we ought specially to
mention Ants, sirce the coast of Sicily abounds in
several of those species which appertain to warm
climates. The history of Bees* owes perhaps a
portion of its popularity to the pleasant fictions of
mythology with which it has been associated, but

* It is well known that the economy of Bees has been made the
subject of numerous researches. M. Dujardin has recently published
in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles, an exceedingly curious
memoir on the mixture of intelligence and instinct which we observe
in these insects. The most complete work, however, on the
subject is that by the elder Huber, which he entitles Histoire des
Abeilles.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 207

the history of Ants is not the less marvellous, although
it has not hitherto been made the theme of a poet's
song. In the ant, even more than in the bee, the
observer may note a strange blending of instinct and
reason manifested in extremely complex acts. Their
different families, which are all subjected to the rule
of a purely republican form of government, exhibit
the most complete differences in their habits. Be-
sides some species, whose colonies Invariably inhabit
only trees, where they can find both nourishment
and shelter, there are others, which live exclusively
in dark underground excavations, where the light of
day never penetrates. Some of these curious Insects,
meriting to a certain extent the reputation with
which the imaginative faculties of some writers have
endowed them, toil to gather together the food
required for the day's and the morrow's consump-
tion. Others again, wdio understand how to procure
the necessaries, and, perhaps, even the superfluities
of life, without giving themselves so much trouble,
imitate the habits of pastoral nations, and rear actual
herds and flocks of plant-lice (Aphides), watch over
their young charges during their Infimcy, construct
places of shelter for them, or put them out to
pasture within the ants' nest, repaying themselves for
all these cares by drawing abundant nourishment
from the saccharine fluid which these little creatures
secrete. Finally, there are some ant-communities
which, despising all domestic cares, emulate the
warlike tribes of old in their overbearino^ hauo^h-
tiness and contempt for labour, and contrive to
secure to themselves the services of slaves. One of

208 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

the species which we found at Cape Santo-Yito
seems to have belonged to these tribes of Amazons,
and if chance had favoured us we should no
doubt have witnessed some of those razzias, which
Huber * has compared to expeditions for kidnapping
negroes ; for we mi^ht have seen, as that naturalist
did, how the soldier ants marched forth in serried
columns to lay siege to the ant-nest, and, after
carrying it by assault, notwithstanding a desperate
resistance, returned triumphant, bringing with them
eggs or young larvae, which, in the course of time,
become developed, and are brought up as slaves,
having to perform all those services for their victors
which the Lacedaemonians were wont to exact from
their Helots. As want of time and opportunity
prevented us from witnessing in person any of those
curious scenes which ants have exhibited to more
fortunate observers, we determined at all events to
possess ourselves of a specimen of their industry.
One of their subterranean cities was, therefore,
most carefully removed by M. Blanchard, who was
anxious to present a specimen of this kind to the
museum. M. Edwards succeeded, in the mean time,
by a happy coincidence of circumstances, in com-
pleting at Santo- Vito two series of admirable obser-
vations in relation to the oro:anisation of the Beroidae

* The younger Huber devoted himself to the study of Ants,
with the same industry which his father exhibited in investigating
the habits and manners of Bees. The observations which he made
on these insects, have been fully confirmed in reference to many
curious points, which at first sight seemed almost incredible. (See his
work entitled Histoire des Fourmis.)

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 209

and Stephanomia3, whicli he had made the object of
careful study during our stay at Torre dell' Isola.
He was also enabled to extend to new species, and
completely to verify his previous observations on
the distinction of the sexes in the Medusae, and on
the organisation of the ^quoridae.

Naturalists have given the name of Medusa to
animals of an exclusively marine character, whose
bodies resemble an inverted bell, or rather, perhaps,
a mushroom, whose stem is replaced by more or less
numerous appendages. Sometimes this singular
creature is altogether colourless, and as transparent
as crystal. Sometimes, again, it is embellished by
the most vivid colours, presenting an opaline trans-
lucence, or looking as if it had been adorned with
the richest enamel. These singular animals con-
tinued for a long time to be despised by naturalists,
who, as was the case with Keaumur, looked upon
them merely as masses of living jelly. Modern sci-
ence, however, by its more searching mode of in-
quiry, has succeeded in penetrating into the mystery
of these organisms. M. Dumerll, one of the first
naturalists who directed his attention to the Medusae,
found on injecting the internal cavities with milk,
that the liquid was distributed through canals, ar-
ranged with almost mathematical regularity. His
researches were subsequently still further developed
by different observers, and it would almost appear,
that the more the organisation of these animals is
studied and comprehended, the more convinced have
naturalists become that, so far from being simple, it
is in the highest degree complicated. In animals of
VOL. I. P

210 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

the genera Aurelia, Chrysaora, and Rhlzostoma, di-
gestive cavities, systems of circulation, and repro-
ductive oro^ans of the most characteristic nature, have
been discovered; while Ehrenberg, the illustrious
microscopist of Berlin, penetrating still further, has
isolated the ultimate elements of the organism, and
detected the existence of a sensorial apparatus, which
he regarded — and very probably with justice — as
actual eyes.

However, among the Medusae as well as in almost
all the great animal families, the organic machine
presents very different degrees of complication and
perfection. Beside the genera to which we have
referred, there are others which, being of a much
more simple structure, and having no inferior ap-
pendages, appear to be in a condition of the most
marked degradation, and, therefore, would seem to
warrant the opinion advanced by some observers,
that they may, under certain restrictions, be cha-
racterised by Reaumur's designation of vivified jelly.
As no organs of reproduction had been discovered in
the Eudorea or ^quorea, Eschscholz, a German
naturalist, was of opinion that the Medusae might,
consequently, be divided into two groups, distin-
guished by the presence or absence of these organs.
M. Edwards has demonstrated that this distinction
was based upon incomplete observations ; he found
in the iEquorea nearly all the organs which had
been discovered in the Aureha; and he further
showed that the sexes were distinct and recognisable
by characteristic marks. It will readily be under-
stood that these results were of the utmost import-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 211

ance, since by establishing the presence of the most
fundamental functions of the living being, they
demonstrated the existence of uniformity in the
entire family of the Medusidse.

After discovering facts of this singular nature in
the study of the Medusae, this naturalist could
scarcely have failed to direct his attention to the
Beroid^, their near allies. The external characters
of these animals present a degree of variability
which would lead one to infer the existence of very
considerable organic modifications. Their bodies,
which are either of an enamel or crystal-like con-
sistence, assume the most diverse forms. First, we
have the Beroes, properly so called, some of which
resemble inverted cones ; next the Calllaniridi^, with
long festooned bodies, bearing on either side a kind
of broad wing; again, there are the Cydippes, perfect
spheres, which, like little balloons, trail after them
two long contractile cords; lastly, there is the Cestus,
looking like a smooth thick ribbon, several feet in
length, and more than three inches in width, which
bears the poetic name of Venus's girdle. If we have
reference to external forms alone, we shall find that
the members of this great family of the Beroidse
have scarcely any character in common, excepting
the form and mode of action of the oro-ans of motion.
These organs consist of small ciliated plates (or more
correctly speaking, vibratlle cilia, aggregated in
lamelliform groups), ranged above one another, and
disposed in rows on different points of the body.
These plates, which are almost microscopical, are
p 2

212 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

incessantly vibrating and striking the surrounding
liquid, through which, notwithstanding their minute
size, they enable the creature to move w^ith tolerable
rapidity, by means of the infinite number of their
impulsions, although these animals are often of com-
paratively large dimensions.

Yet notwithstanding this great diversity in their
external forms, the Beroidge present a remarkable
uniformity of organisation. The internal cavities
are more or less elongated, the circulatory canals
are more or less ramified, but we everywhere dis-
cover the same oro^anic arran Elements. Whether
they resemble the Cestus or the Cydippe, all these
genera, although differing so widely in appearance,
seem to have been cast in the same mould, if we
merely have regard to their anatomical characters,
which, moreover, are very remarkable. Con-
sidered in relation to these, the Beroidge approxi-
mate to the Medusae, and diverge most completely
from the Acephalous Molluscs, among which certain
modern authors have attempted to place them
next in order to the oyster and other kindred
bivalves.* We need only advance the following
fact in support of our statements. In the Ace-
phalous Molluscs the alimentary tube presents two.
openings, one of which serves for the admission of
the food, and the other for the ejection of the in-
digestible residue; whilst in the Beroidge, as in all the

* Amongst others De Blainville held this opinion ; hut we are
prohably doing him no injustice in inferring that he was chiefly led
to this view from the desire to differ from Cuvier. This naturalist,
however, also placed all the SipJ^nophora among the Mollusca.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 213

Medusidoe, there is only a single opening, which is
alternately employed for both purposes.

One of the most important results of M. Edwards's
researches on the Beroid^e has been the recognition
of their nervous system. The existence or absence
of this apparatus in the lower animals has always
been a much-disputed question. Some of the most
illustrious naturalists have wholly denied its pre-
sence ; and Cuvier, although he did not go quite so
far, undoubtedly inclined towards these views, as he
suffered them to influence him in the establishment
of his fourth division of the animal kingdom — that of
the Radiata. The admirable discoveries of Ehren-
berg have led, in our own day, to the correction of
these somewhat premature views ; and very probably
observers may sometimes have been led from a
natural reaction to admit rather more in theory than
the reality warranted them in concluding. The
importance of the question and the authority of the
illustrious men who profess such widely different
opinions in reference to this question, combine to
impart the highest value to every well-established
fact that bears upon the subject. Let us not omit
to mention, then, that M. Edwards has discovered
in the Beroidse a central nervous system, or a kind
of brain, from whence issue threads, which are
distributed over the Avhole body. These facts in
some respects confirm the less completely elaborated
results which Ehrenberg obtained from his observa-
tions on the Medusae. It would thus appear that
the Beroidas, and very probably also the Medusae,
actually possess that important organic system which

P 3

214 EAMBLES or A NATURALIST.

Cuvier thought we might regard as the represen-
tative of the enth-e animah*

Systematic naturalists have arranged, next to the
Medusae and Beroidas, the Stephanomite, which, to-
gether with other hydrostatic Acaleph^, must pro-
bably be ranked amongst the most extraordinary of
the animals which the marine world offers to our
notice. Imagine an axis of flexible crystal, some-
times more than a yard in length, around which are
attached by long and equally transparent peduncles,
hundreds of small bodies, either elongated in form,
or flattened, and looking like the buds of a flower ;
and then intersperse in this garland beads of the
most vivid red, blended among an infinite number of
variously-sized filaments. Add motion and life to
all these parts, bearing in mind that each one is an
organ possessed of special functions ; the one being
destined to seize the food, another to digest it, a third
to assure the propagation of the species, a fourth to
carry on the respiration, and a fifth perhaps to serve
as eyes; and after the consideration of all these
marvels, you will still have only a feeble idea of the
wonderful nature of this organisation. It constitutes
a kind of colony, not composed of distinct indi-
viduals, as in the case of Polypes, but of freely
floating organs. f It would be much the same as

* lu an important memoir on the organisation of the Medusae,
M. Agassiz has described a continuous and complicated nervous
system; while Ehrenberg had only detected the presence of isolated
ganglia. [The nervous system of the Beroe was first described by
Grant]

f Since the hydrostatic Acalephse or Siphonophora have been
better known, some naturalists have proposed a new point of view

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 215

if, in the Ccase of man, the hand, mouth, stomach,
intestine, and lungs, indefinitely multiplied, were
attached to as many threads, issuing from an isolated
vertebral column. All these organs intermix and
become incessantly blended together round the
slender axis which connects them. The organs of
locomotion are alone grouped into one mass, apart
from the rest, at the anterior extremity. They
consist of a considerable number of small bells sol-
dered together to the central stem, with the opening
directed backwards. These little bells are all inces-
santly dilating and contracting. By these alternate
movements the water contained within their cavities
is forcibly driven out, and the little bells being |)ushed
forward by the resistance of the liquid, draw after
them the other parts of the body. This peculiar
structure, which has no analogue in the animal king-
dom, places the Stephanomia3 apart from all other
animals ; hence it is only by a careful study of their
embryology, that we can hope, by the discovery of
their real affinities with other types, to ascertain
their correct place in our zoological system.

Of the three naturalists of our expedition, I was

from which to consider the structure of these singular beings.
According to them each of the Siphonophora is a colony of distinct,
but incomplete individuals, some of which are charged with the
functions of locomotion, others with those of nutrition, &c. Al-
though this method of considering these organisms may at first
surprise us, we must admit that recent facts have come to light in
reference to the lower animals, which seem to give it a certain
character of probability. At all events, new researches would
appear necessary to decide this question, which perhaps can only
be completely solved by the study of their embryology.

P 4

216 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

decidedly the most unsuccessful ; for during the
whole time of our sojourn at Santo-Yito, I did not
see a single phlebenterous mollusc, whilst even the
annelids were of rare occurrence. I had, however,
the opportunity of devoting my attention to a genus
belonging to this group, and although I did not
complete my observations until a later period, I was
enabled to lay before my companions the curious
facts which I had discovered on the coasts of the
Channel during my stay at Brehat, in reference to
the mode of propagation of the Syllis.

It was formerly believed, in accordance with the
observations of the old Danish zoologist, Miiller,
that these little errant annelids, which are only from
two to three inches long, v^erejissiparoiis; that is to
say, that one individual being first single and entire,
could separate into two halves, each of which ac-
quiring rapidly either a head or a tail, became a
perfect animal, destined to live precisely in the same
manner as the oriojinal beino; from which it had
sprung. This mode of generation, which is common
enough in simple animals, was very remarkable in
the case of the genus Syllis, in which the organi-
sation is of a somewhat complicated kind. It must
be remembered, however, that very different con-
ditions prevail among the animals of this genus.

When a Syllis is about to reproduce itself, a
number of rings become developed at its posterior
extremity, the first ring being soon organised into a
head, provided with eyes and antennae. The two
annelids, parent and offspring, continue, however,
to be united by the skin and the intestine, in such a

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 217

manner that the latter animal lives solely upon the
remains of the food swallowed by the former.
During this period of its existence the newly formed
Syllis betrays by its movements that it enjoys an
independent life and will ; for I have often been able
to detect a struggle between the two, each wishing
to go its own way. In these cases, the one which
had sprouted like a bud from the primary stock was
almost always vanquished, and finally compelled to
follow its parent, although on this younger animal
alone depend the preservation and continuance of
the species. After the lapse of a certain time, it
might be observed to become filled so rapidly with
ova that the diameter of its body was almost doubled,
whilst not a single egg could be detected in the
interior of the body of the primary animal.

When the eggs have attained a certain degree of
development, the division is completely effected, and
the new Syllis finally enjoys its liberty. Soon,
however, the eggs increase so much that they rup-
ture the body, and the animal dies; while the
germs which were contained within it escape, and
are diffused in all directions. All these phenomena
are accomplished precisely in the same manner
in the males. They also produce buds, which be-
come developed into perfect animals ; but here the
individuals of the secondary formation contain, in
the place of eggs, that mysterious liquid, whose
contact, like the torch of Prometheus, seems to
awaken life. Like their sisters, they live only a
few days, and perish in fulfilling the task assigned
to them by nature. This, I believe, is the first

218 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

known example of animals of independent life being
formed solely to serve as reproductive machines.

These facts, which were received with incredu-
lity by those naturalists who only see living nature
through the medium of their own collections, were
repeatedly verified by my two companions; and,
subsequently, M. Edwards discovered that these
phenomena were not without a parallel. In the
course of our voyage, he found another species of
marine annelid, a near ally of the genus Myriana,
which separates into as many as seven segments,
each havino; a distinct head, but all united toojether
by the skin and the alimentary canal into a wreath
or chaplet. Now here, as in the case of the Syllis,
the primary individual, which certainly deserved to
be regarded as the head of the family, did not con-
tain a single esrsCj whilst the six other individuals to
which it had given birth were gorged with ova.

A circumstance which is well deserving of notice is,
that in the case of the Syllis the young animals which
are formed by this mode of fission do not resemble
the primary animals. Even before they are separated
from the parent stock they differ in so marked a manner
from it with regard to their external characters, that
zoologists, who would judge solely from the exterior
appearance of animals, have thought themselves
obliged, in obedience to their principles, to establish
two distinct species, or, perhaps, even two genera of
these animals, of which one is merely a j^ortion of
the other. What is to be said of principles which
bring about such consequences as these, if it be not
that they must inevitably lead to errors, which are

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 219

not the less real because they are not always self-
evident ? Still more, what can we say of men who,
in the fice of these and a thousand other equally
significant facts which have been established by
modern science, still maintain that true zoology rests
exclusively on such principles ?

In reflecting on the singular mode of propagation
presented by the Syllis and the Myriana, one is led
to ask a question which, at first sight, may appear
sufficiently strange. Have the primary individuals
any distinct sex ? To this query we must reply.
Evidently not ; for they are neither males nor females,
none of them in reality playing the part either of
fathers or mothers ; they neither impregnate nor are
impregnated. Acting all in the same manner, and
as stems, giving off buds, they all equally give birth
to secondary individuals. It is only in the latter
that the sexual characteristics become apparent, and
that we are enabled to observe the development of
ova and of the liquid which is to fecundate these
germs of a new generation. The young which are
developed from these ova do not, however, exhibit the
characteristics of their immediate progenitors, but
they resemble the primary individuals. Thus, for
instance, in the animals of which we are speak-
ing, the offspring never presents the character-
istics of its father or mother.* But there are still

* The Danish naturalist, Steenstrup, has published a very in-
teresting -work on the Alternations of Generation. He has united
and grouped together all the facts -which present any analogy with
the one to which I have already referred, and from these he deduces a
general theory. According to him, the kind of alternation of which.

220 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

stranger facts than these. For a long time, zoolo-
gists, who were guided solely by external characters,
admitted into the great division of the Radiata two
distinct classes, one of wliich includes the Acalepha3,
and the other the Polypes. The former of these
embraces the extensive family of the Medusae, of
which we have already spoken. Among Polypes the
family of the Hydroida comprises animals which are
almost always fixed, grouped into colonies, united by
one common part ; in some cases like the stem of a
creeping plant; in others, ramified like little shrubs;
in others, again, expanded into a sort of plate or

we are speakino: consists in this, that in certain animals, neuter
individuals produce, by budding, sexual individuals, which in their
turn propagate by the ordinary methods; from whence it results that
in these animals the offspring, instead of resembling their parents,
resemble their grand-parents. Steenstrup has given the name of
Ammen (Nurses) to those neuter individuals which produce sexual
individuals. Although the work of Steenstrup is composed in a
spirit at once absolute and contracted, it is not the less valuable for
the great services which it has rendered to science, by showing
that a number of phenomena, which had previously been regarded
as isolated, are, in fact, connected together by the most unexpected
links. In a remarkable work, to which the prize of the Academj'^
of Sciences has been awarded. Van Beneden has made a broad and
most felicitous application of these views to the history of intestinal
worms, whilst he has at the same time developed and enlarged
Steenstrup's theory by regarding alternate generation as a special
case of a more general phenomenon, which he terms Digenesis, in
opposition to the phenomenon of Monogenesis. According to this
author we observe in nature two general modes of reproduction.
The one is effected by the intervention of sexual individuals, the
other without any such intervention. Every animal in which
these two methods occur, either simultaneously or successively, is
termed digenetic ; every animal in which one of these methods only
occurs is termed monogenetic-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 221

leaf, covered by Polypes crowded together like
the different blades of a tuft of grass. Yet it
would actually appear, from the discoveries of
MM. Siebold*^ Sarsf, Loven, Dujardin, Van

* Carl von Siebold, Professor at the University of Munich, has
contributed more perhaps than any other naturalist in Germany to
diffuse amongst his countrymen a taste for the study of the In\?er-
tebrata. He has not only published a series of excellent reports on
the progress of our knowledge of the lower animals, but has also
largely contributed numerous observations to this department of
science. He was the first who seems to have recognised the singular
metamorphoses of the Medusae, and the phenomena which accom-
pany the formation of the embryo in the Planarise. In the
admirable chapter on the development of intestinal worms which
he contributed to Burdach's great work on Physiology, he opened
a path of inquiry which has since ^een followed by many successive
investigators, and which has finally led to the solution of a problem
which had almost been regarded as insoluble. But of all his works
the most useful, and at the same time the one most generally
known, is the Manual of Comparative Anatomy, which he published
conjointly with Stannius, and in which he has incorporated all the
facts at present known in relation to the Invertebrata. It would be
impossible to condense a larger number of facts, and more valuable
data in a smaller number of pages, and hence this manual has been
regarded as a standard work from its first appearance. It has been
translated both into French and English.

f Sars, a clergyman at Bergen in Norway, has availed himself of
the advantages afforded by his vicinity to the sea for studying the
lower marine animals, to whose mode of development he has
devoted the most persevering attention, together with a remarkable
amount of learning and ingenuity. We owe to him some of the
most curious and unexpected discoveries by which this branch of
science has been enriched. Amongst these, we may mention the
facts which he has ascertained in reference to the metamorphoses of
the Nudibranchiate Gasteropods, and with regard to the early condi-
tion and subsequent metamorphoses of several of the Echinoderms —
a subject which has been subsequently investigated with special care
and ingenuity by the physiologist Miiller. Sars shares with
Siebold the honour of having discovered the remarkable mode of
propagation in the Medusae, which he followed through all its phases.

222 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Beneden*, and others, that some of the hydroid
Polypes are merely the transitory forms which certain
Medusee undergo before they arrive at their more
perfect state.

It must not be supposed that this metamorphosis
can be compared to that of insects. In the latter,
each germ or egg produces a larva, which maintains
its special individuality through all its changes into
the grub, caterpillar, chrysalis, or butterfly. But
in the Radiata, the phenomena are very much more
complicated. The egg of the Medusa first produces
an ovoid, ciliated larva, very similar to certain of
the Infusoria. After having enjoyed its liberty for
a time, this larva becomes'fixed, undergoes an altera-
tion of form, and gradually lengthening, is converted
into the stem of a hydroid polypary, from which
sprout, like so many leaves, an indefinite number
of well-characterised Polypes. After a time this
same stem produces new buds, which, instead of
presenting the form of Polypes, gradually assume
the characters of the Medusae. These buds or gem-
mules, which are at first adherent, become detached,
and finally appear as true Acalephae. Abandoning
their stationary brethren, they begin a wandering
life ; whilst the polypary from which they originated
continues to vegetate in its old place, and to throw
out new" Polypes. Thus in the Radiata which we
have been considering, one sole germ, after having

Amongst other works Sars is publishing a general treatise on the
Littoral Fauna of Norway, of which two parts have at present
appeared.

* [A sketch of the scientific labours of Van Beneden is given in
thfi Appendix, Note XIIL]

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 223

undergone the first modification, appears to generate
two entirely dissimilar sorts of animals — one group
of which, ever rooted to the stone where they were
first developed, make common property of a part
of their individuality, whilst the others, being free
and isolated, enjoy a completely independent exist-
ence. Who would not exclaim that a miracle had
come to pass if he saw a reptile emerge from the
egg dropped by the hen in his poultry yard, and
the reptile give birth at once to an indefinite number
of fishes and birds ? Yet the generation of the Me-
dusa is fully as marvellous as the apparently incre-
dible occurrence which we have been supposing.

Are these phenomena the less important because
they occur in inferior animals, which have not
hitherto been sufficiently observed? Most assuredly
not. To the zoologist who is truly worthy of the
name, and who, without dwelling upon the more or
less curious modifications of form, endeavours to
penetrate to the mysteries which they conceal —
to the inquirer who, in his desire to form a correct
idea of creation, endeavours to comprehend all the
relations established between the thousand elements
of this magnificent whole — these facts have as much
value as if they were manifested in man's nearest
analogue among the mammalia. M. Dujardin has
well observed that one of the first consequences to
be deduced from these facts, is to exhibit the in-
exactitude of the notions generally admitted in
zoology regarding the nature of species. All the
definitions hitherto given by the most distinguished
zoologists are principally based on resemblances

224 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

among individuals, and yet we have seen, both in the
Syllis and in the Medusae, that this supposed re-
semblance does not exist between the offspring and
the parents, or even between the former. The purely
bioloo-ical idea of the succession of beino-s must there-
fore in future be substituted for the wholly mor-
phological idea of identity of character among them.
With these results, which touch upon the funda-
mental questions of zoology, we must associate others
of a more general nature. For many ages the animal
and vegetable kingdoms were, in the eyes of the
learned as well as the unlearned, separated by definite
limits. At the present day, this is no longer the
case. In proportion as attempts were made to define
more exactly the pretended differences which, it was
conjectured, must, of necessity, exist between these
great divisions of animated creation, it was found
that one by one they gradually disappeared. At
the summit of either kingdom of nature, the na-
turalist cannot be deceived as to the animal or vege-
table nature of the object he is examining ; but in
proportion as he descends, and departs from this
highest point in the field of inquiry, new analogies
and resemblances are constantly presenting them-
selves to his notice, until the moment at length
arrives when the most scrupulous examination is
insufficient to afford complete certainty. At the
extremity of the two series, there exist entire
families, for the possession of which botanists and
zoologists have contended for ages, and whose am-
biguous nature has never yet been determined, not-
withstanding the combined efforts of these observers.

THE COASTS OP SICILY. 225

But it Is principally in the different modes of their
reproduction, and during the earliest periods of exist-
ence, that the most multiplied and intimate relations
manifest themselves.

Let us give a few examples the better to illustrate
these relations. It is well known that in animals
the concurrence of tAvo agents is necessary in the
greater number of cases to assure the perpetuity of
species. It is the same with plants. Among the
latter, flowers are generally both male and female,
thus realising one of the most graceful fictions of
pagan mythology. Around the pistil which encloses
the ovule are grouped the stamens, whose pollen is
destined to fecundate this germ and to determine its
development under the form of seed or fruit. In
many cases, however, the sexes are separated.
Growing sometimes on the same tree, and some-
times on different trees, the male and female flowers
require the aid of some intermediate agent to effect
their union, and tlius the female plant remains
barren until the winds convey to it the vivifying
emanations by which alone it can be fructified.
These diverse relations are all to be met with in
the animal kingdom. Here also the myth of the
son of Venus and Mercury becomes a reality, al-
though in the case of many species the realisation
is complicated by many peculiar conditions. Here
too the movement of the waves, or the current
of rivers, supplies the place of the winds of heaven,
and effects an union which Avould otherwise be Im-
possible between individuals which are fixed like
plants to the soil on which they originated.

VOL. I. Q

226 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

We may, however, instance a very remarkable
difference between animals and plants in respect
to the relations which we have been considering.
Among the former, the sexes may generally be
recognised throughout the whole of life, by ex-
ternal or internal characters. This is not tlie case
with plants. The male and the female date-tree
grow side by side, and exhibit no difference until
the moment when the appearance of the flowers
reveals their different characteristics. In the animal
kingdom, the Syllis presents us with a similar fact.
At ordinary times we find only individuals which
are in no w^ay distii guished from one another. But
no sooner has the season of reproduction arrived,
than like the palm-tree, which throws forth its
flower, the Annelid produces new parts, which are
added to the older organs, and which alone assume
the characters essential to the two sexes. Thus in
the case in point, the tree and the animal are alike
neuter up to a certain period. At a subsequent
epoch we find the tree manifesting its sex by the
appearance of flowers, the animal by the production
of a secondary individual, which may therefore be
regarded as a veritable animal flower, appearing on
the primary stock.

Let us pursue this curious parallel, and see what
mode of production already observed in the vegetable
kingdom may be compared to that which we have
found to exist in several of the Medusidas.

Every one is acquainted with the Agaricus cam-
pestris, that mushroom which is artificially propa-
gated to supply the great quantities which are

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 227

employed in Parisian cookery.* The entire vege-
table is not eaten, but simply that portion which

* The ancients were acquainted with several different processes
for artificially multiplying the edible Mushrooms. Menander tells
us that one of these methods consisted in covering a shoot from a
fig-tree with manure, and watering it frequently. According to
Tarentinus, the same result may be obtained by keeping the ashes
of vegetables in a constant state of humidity, at the same time that
they are exposed to the action of the air. Dioscorides assures us
that Mushrooms may be obtained by scattering the powdered bark
of the poplar-tree over a well manured soil, and Tarentinus informs
us that the poplar Mushroom (Agaricus umbelUcatus), which was
named iEgerita by the ancients, could be rapidly propagated by
watering offshoots of the black or white poplar with wine and hot
water. The ancients seem also to have been well acquainted with
the artificial Mushroom beds, such as are so extensively cultivated
in the neighbourhood of Paris.

The Mushroom which is chiefly propagated in France in these
artificial beds is the Agaricus edulis. but different species are
procured in other countries by somewhat similar means ; thus
Rumphius informs us that two kinds of edible Mushrooms, both
belonging to the genus Boletus, are procured at Amboyna by dif-
ferent artificial processes ; the former species {B. Moschocari/a7nis,)
sprouts from the decayed outer shells of the Nutmeg, and is so
scarce that it is only met with at the tables of the rich ; while the
other {B. Saguarius), which springs up from the decayed wood of
the Sago palm {Sagus farinaced), collected together for the purpose,
is so abundant, that it is employed for fattening pigs. A few years
ago, a new species, the Naples Mushroom {Agaricus Neapolitanus),
was accidentally discovered, and since then has spread rapidly over
different parts of Italy. It had been the habit with the nuns of a
convent in Naples to throw into the shady corner of their garden
the coffee grounds remaining after each day's meal. A new
Mushroom was observed to have shot up from these substances
while in a state of fermentation ; on tasting it, it was found to be
excellent, and from that period it has been customary in many
houses at Naples to cultivate this Mushroom by collecting coffee
grounds in an unvarnished flower pot, which is kept constantly
moist, and in the shade. It is found that the Mushrooms shoot up
from this soil in about six months.
Q 2

228 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

may in some degree be regarded as the flower of a
singular production, known in botany by the name
of Mycelium. This production is composed of a
number of very fine filaments forming a kind of net-
work, on which is developed the fleshy substance,
vulgarly known as the mushroom. Now the My-
celium of an isolated Agaricus bears considerable
resemblance to other vegetable productions, and to
those kinds of mould or mucor which are formed upon
decayed wood in damp and dark places. Botanists,
however, seeing that they were propagated without
any change of form, divided them into special groups,
one of which is named MucedincB. Some years ago,
however, it was discovered by M. Dutrochet*, who

* Dutrochet, a member of the Institute, was born in 1776, and
died at Paris in 1847. He did not devote himself to science until a
comparatively late period of his life, when happening by accident to
procure the works of Spallanzani, he was so deeply impressed by
the value of the labours of this illustrious physiologist, that be
resolved, if possible, to follow in his steps, a resolution which he
immediately put into practice by directing his attention to the
Rotifers, and to the singular faculties which we have already
described in them. He then successively investigated the different
membranes of the foetus, the development of birds, the formation
of bone, the regeneration of feathers, &c. In the midst of his
researches, he, for the first time, was led to consider phenomena,
which, although they had already been seen by others, had either
been neglected or forgotten. M. Dutrochet, fully comprehending
the importance of these phenomena, studied them with much
attention, and soon obtained general results, which led him to the
discovery of Endosmosis — a discovery which he made known in
1826, and which will immortalise his name.

Up to that period, the rising of the sap in the tree, as well as the
passage from one cavity into another, of the different liquids
contained in plants no less than in animals, had been attributed to

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 229

was especially distinguished for the success with which
he was enabled to arrive at great results through
the observation of minute phenomena, that under
the influence of certain circumstances, a well cha-
racterised mucedina may produce an agaricus, which
at first sight seems as remarkable as if we were to
see an oak sprouting from a bramble.

Here the resemblance to the Medusas is most
remarkable. From the bands, which are disposed
under the head of the mushroom, a spore or re-
productive body is discharged ; in the same manner
as in the Medusas, the ovary, which is placed below
the umbrella, throws off an ovum which becomes
converted into a ciliated larva. This larva, attaching
itself to some substance, produces a polypary, in the
same manner as the spore through its development
gives birth to a mycelium. This product, if sub-
jected to certain conditions, will maintain its original
form, and will merely thi'ow off branches in the same
manner as the polypary will produce polypes. Both
may, moreover, be reproduced under this form, either

capillary action, or to imbibition. Although these explanations
were found to be incomplete and vague, no better ones had as yet
been oflFered. M. Dutrochet now showed that when two liquids
differing in nature and in density are separated from one another
by a thin membrane, there is developed in this membrane a special
force, which causes one of the liquids to pass through it ; and he
further showed that this phenomenon continues until the equilibrium
is more or less completely reestablished between the liquids which
bathe the two sides of the membrane. He called this force
endosmose when it caused the liquid to flow into the apparatus which
served for his experiments, and exosmose when it tended to expel
it. Fundamentally, however, these forces are identical, and they
may both be designated under the ^ame of endosmose.
«3

230 EAMBLES OF A NATUPwALIST.

by adherent or free gemmules. Deceived by these
appearances, naturalists would lose the trace of their
origin, and isolate them from the Agaricae or the
Acalephie ; but let the conditions be changed, and
the mycelium ceasing to appertain to the Mucedinae
will produce an agaricus, and the polype will en-
gender a medusa.* Now, if the mushroom is
nothing more than the floral organ of the mycelium,
we are quite justified in concurring with the opinion
enounced by M. Dujardin, that a medusa is the
animal flower of a polype.

Nothing would be easier than to multiply these
examples, and to furnish additional proofs of the fact,
that in the different processes by which the duration

* The observation of this fact in reference to the Medusse is due
to M. Dujardin. For several years this observer had kept Algae
with several of the lower marine animals in vessels of sea-
water. In 1841 he observed a small Zoophyte attached to the walls
of one of his glasses. This beautiful polype, which I have several
times had the pleasure of observing, was allied to the Syncorina
and designated by M. Dujardin by the name oi Stauridia. It consists
of a transparent tube, adhering to the sides of the vessel, and
throwing out in different directions its branches, which terminate in
a polype-like body having four arms arranged crossways. For
fifteen months M. Dujardin had seen these Stauridias multiply by
budding, when he one day perceived that some of these buds pre-
sented an unusual appearance. He watched their development, and
had the pleasure of seeing them change into beautiful little Medusae,
which, after being detached from the common trunk, successively
acquired several organs, in which they had previously been
deficient, amongst others, those which were destined to serve for
the reproduction of the species. M. Dujardin has given to these
Medusae, the name of Cladonema, and he has since extended his
researches to other species. (See the Memoirs of M. Dujardin on
the Development of the Medusae and the Hydroid Polypes in the
Annales des Sciences Natnrelles.)

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 231

of species is secured, both iu the animal and vege-
table kingdom, nature, to a certain extent, recopies
herself. Following in the steps of all zoologists who
have studied polypes, we might instance those ani-
mals which are reproduced after the manner of
plants by gemmules, shoots, or bulbs. On the other
hand, we might learn from M. Adolphe Brongniart
how the granulations of the fovilla are agitated by
such violent movements as to deceive even the most
experienced observers. MM. Decaisne*, Thuretf,
and other botanists might show us how the fecun-
dating corpuscles of certain of the lower orders of
plants borrow one of the most essential characters of
animality, and move by the aid of vibratile cilia in

* M. Decaisne, a member of the Institute, and professor at the
Jardin des Plantes, has published, amongst other works, some very-
important researches on the reproductive organs of the Fuci. He
was the first to show the error of regarding as animals those
corpuscles provided with flagelliform filaments which in these plants
play the same part as the pollen in organisms of a higher class in
the vegetable kingdom.

f M. Thuret, who has made some extremely curious observations
on the reproduction of the Algaj, has discovered the existence of
vibratile cilia which give motion for several hours to the spores of
difi'erent Confervae. His later communications to the Academy on
the fecundation of the Fucaceae contain several important facts,
which led to the establishment of relations of affinity between the
two kingdoms of nature, even in respect to the mechanism of fecun-
dation. M. Thuret was the first who attempted to effect artificial
fecundation in these plants, from which he obtained several hybrids.
These labours, together with those of several German botanists, show
every day more and more how unfounded are the opinions that
have been frequently advanced, in reference to the transmutations
experienced by certain organisms, which, lying upon the confines of
the animal and vegetable kingdoms, have been supposed to pass
alternately from the one to the other.

Q 4

232 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

the same manner as Infusoria ; and finally we might
instance those spores of the freshwater Algse, true
vegetable larvae, which^ before they become finally
fixed^ move freely about in the glass in which we are
observing them ; thus appearing to reaHse the meta-
morphosis of an animal into a plant. We should
thus observe the gradual disappearance of all those
well-marked differential characters by which our
predecessors in their imperfect knowledge attempted
to fix the limits of the two kino^doms of nature,
and we should find that all such distinctions vanish,
not excepting even those derived from chemistry, as
has been proved by M. Payen's * curious analyses
of young tissue, and by the remarkable phenomena
which accompany the fecundation of the Arum, f

* M. Payen, a member of the Institute and professor at the
Comservatoire des Arts et Metiers, is one of our most distinguished
chemists, whose name has become popular in consequence of the
practical utility of the greater number of his works. In the
memoir to which we have referred, M. Payen shows that at the
moment of their first appearance, the young vegetable tissues are
fully as nitrogenous as the animal tissues, and that it is only in grow-
ing older that they become overcharged, so to speak, with carbon. It
had hitherto been supposed that one of the essential differences
between the two kingdoms consisted in this — that nitrogen pre-
dominated in the chemical composition of animals, as carbon does
in the chemical composition of vegetables ; it is obvious, however^
from M. Payen's researches, that this idea must now be abandoned.

f Lamarck and Bory de Saint-Vincent were the first who drew
the attention of naturalists to the development of heat which
accompanies fecundation in several species of the family of the
Aroidese, and this phenomenon has been studied with much care
by several observers, and amongst others by Beck and Bergman.
These experimentalists have observed in certain cases that the
temperature of the Spadix rose to 109° 4' Fahrenheit, whilst the
surrounding air stood at only 70°. In the Arum cordi/oUum, the

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 233

It is impossible not to recognise in this uniformity
of action the influence of one sole and constant
cause. Considered from this point of view, life, or
that mysterious force which alike animates the alga
and the oak, the infusorium and the elephant,
becomes manifest to us as a universal cause, ^vhose
intimate nature eludes our search and escapes our
grasp, but which, appreciable through its character-
istic phenomena, remains always and everywhere the
same in its essential nature, notwithstanding the
infinite variety of its manifestations.

temperature of the flower rose to 120°, -while that of the external
air was only 66°, and consequently the flower had a temperature of
its own of 54°. This phenomenon seems to be more especially
developed in the male flower. Whilst the temperature rises, we
also find that the respiratory process, which we observe in all flowers,
at the same time acquires an exceptional degree of energy. All
the difi'erent parts absorb large portions of oxygen, and exhale a
corresponding quantity of carbonic acid. The phenomena which
we have here indicated have been principally studied in the Arum
vulgare and cordi/olium, but they have also been noticed in
many species of the same family, and the reason of their not having
been elsewhere observed, may undoubtedly be owing to the fact,
that the heat thus produced is too feeble to be perceived by our
unaided organs.

We must further observe that several other equally remarkable
circumstances are often associated in vegetables with the important
act of fecundation. Such, for instance, are the spontaneous move-
ments which we observe at this time in the stamens of the Nettle,
the Pellitory, the Rue, and the Barberry-tree, and in the stigma of
the Cactus, Passion-flower, &c.

234 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

CHAP. V.

THE COASTS OF SICILY.
TRAPANI. — THE ISLANDS OF FAVIGNANA.

Journey to Trapani. — The ancient splendour of that city. — • The
doves of Venus Eryciua ; the women of San-Juliano. — Departure
for the Islands of Favignana. — Cordial reception. — Geological
structure of the islands. — • Cultivation of the land and sources of
industry. ■ — Tunny fishery. — Researches on the circulation. —
Independence of functions. — Progressive perfection of organisms.
— Phlebenterism. — The labours of M. Edwards, and my own
researches. — The opposition which these labours at first expe-
rienced.— Applications. — General consequences.

The rain, cold, and wind, which had met the Santa
Rosalia on her arrival at Santo- Vito, still con-
tinued. We found it almost impossible to pursue
our labours in our windowless rooms ; and our ex-
plorations among the rocks, which were incessantly
washed by the waves, became every day more diffi-
cult and less successful. We therefore found it ne-
cessary at once to seek new quarters. This time we
determined to proceed by land ; and whilst our boat
was contending, under the able command of Perone,
against the rough gales that continued to blow from
the west, we, in the prosecution of our land journey,
were following a mule track which, winding along
the extreme edge of the rugged mountain side, never
deviated far from the sea, excepting when the over-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 235

hanging rocks made it necessary to traverse the
barren heath which skirted alono- the beach. A few
hours' march enabled us to reach the sandy tongue
of land at the extreme point of which rises Trapani ;
but the rouo'h orait of our mules and the uncouth
apparatus which served us in the place of a saddle
seemed to double the distance. The feeling of in-
tense enjoyment with which we took possession of
the not over-soft beds of the Albergo di Napoli will
be readily understood by every one who, like our-
selves, had been shaken all dav lon^j on the back of
a Sicilian mule, or had slept, as we had done, for a
month past, between a plank and a sailor's cape.

Placed at the extreme western point of Sicily,
and possessing a tolerably good harbour, Trapani,
with its 30,000 inhabitants, still enjoys a certain
degree of importance. One may easily see that this
town has known better days. Here, as in all the
cities of the western part of Sicily which we had
already visited, there still remained mournful ves-
tiges of former splendour which had long since given
place to misery. Grass grew abundantly in the
broad straight streets ; on every side were palaces
now in ruins, scarcely able to afford shelter to the
few beggars who had appropriated them. Trapani
is rich in such contrasts between the past and the
present. We were especially struck by the remains
of a palace which had been erected by William de
Porcelets, the only one of all the French nobles
whose life was spared in the massacre of the Sicilian
Vespers.* The walls are covered, from the base-

* AYilliam de Porcelets -\A'as lord of Calatafimi and goveruor

236 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

ment to the cornices, with sculpture; everywhere
trophies and statues are interspersed amid the ar-
morial bearings of this proud family, whose cogni-
sance was a boar and an eagle. The only part of
this once princely residence which is still occupied
is the ground floor, now used as a stable.

Built upon the site of the ancient Drepanum
Trapani has not preserved any remains of Greek,
Carthaginian, or even Roman architecture ; the
Temple of Venus, which was situated at about three
miles from the town, on the summit of Mount Eryx,
has been successively replaced by a Saracenic for-
tress, and by the convent of San-Juliano ; but if
the works of man have disappeared from this corner
of the earth, where once the most powerful nations
of bygone times were brought in contact with one
another, nature has ever remained the same. Facing
the harbour, we still behold the same rock described
by Virgil, which served as the goal for the boat-
race Avhich formed part of the funereal games cele-
brated in honour of Anchises. This rock is called
la Colomhara, and, as in the time of Venus Erycina,
it still serves as a meeting-place for the doves of the
region at the periods of their annual migrations.

of the town and castle of Pouzzoles at the time of the massacre.
He owed his safety to the justice and loyalty with which he had
always treated the conquered Sicilians. These virtues, as well as
courage, were, moreover, hereditary among the Porcelets, for the
grandfather of William had saved the life of Richard Coeur de Lion,
and had inspired the Saracens with so much confidence, that they
refused to treat with the crusadmg princes until they had received
his guarantee of good faith, and we find in history frequent other
references to the chivalric character of this family.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 237

These birds, which the zeal of the Christian Neo-
phytes vainly attempted to banish from the country,
have maintained their old habitats, and defying in
the present day the shot of the sportsman, as in the
middle ages they defied the thunders of excommuni-
cation, they still come year by year to build their
nests among the grottoes and the rocky recesses
which abound along the shore.

For the rest it would almost seem, as if to spite
the saint who had thrown down her altars, the
Goddess of Beauty still continued to shed her favours
over the land which had once been consecrated to
her worship. The women of the village of San-
Juliano, which is built on the ancient Mount Eryx,
have the reputation of being the most beautiful in
the land of Sicily. Admitting that such is the fact,
we might perhaps discover a natural explanation
of this circumstance in that transmission of o-eneric
characteristics, to which man is no less subjected
than the lower animals. The priestesses of the
Erycinean Venus, who were no vestals, were selected
with much care from amonost the loveliest maidens
of Greece, Sicily, and Italy. This choice source of
origin would, most probcibly, in the course of ages,
diffuse some of its elements of beauty among the
neighbouring tribes ; and this circumstance can
hardly have failed to influence their physical de-
velopment. We are therefore probably not wrong
in conjecturing, that the superior charms of the
women of San-Juliano still aiFord evidence of this
origin, by an impress of beauty which has defied the
action of time.

238 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

We were doomed to experience at Trapani the
same disappointment which we had already felt at
Castellamare. A single glance sufficed to show us
that Ave had nothing to hope from the bare and
rugged rocks which bounded the town to the north ;
and still less, perhaps, from the immense salt marshes
situated to the souths which were then being Avorked
with extreme industry. We at once determined to
try our luck elsewhere. The ancient ^gades, now
known as the Islands of Favignana, were situated at
about nine miles distant ; and, owing to the trans-
parency of the atmosphere, we were actually enabled
with the naked eye to trace the rocks and the deep
indentations of the coast line which Avere indicated
on our charts. This little archipelago promised to
afford us all the conditions which Avere most favour-
able to the prosecution of our researches. A cursory
examination confirmed these conjectures ; and, as
soon as the Santa Rosalia joined us, we lost no
time in embarking, hopeful of better success in this
ncAV station.

Lying altogether out of the ordinary routes, and
possessing scarcely any sources of commerce, the
Islands of Favignana have very rarely been visited
by foreigners. From time to time they had been
visited by some Englishman Avho was engaged in
buying up Sicilian Avines, but no Frenchman had
landed upon any of the islands Avithin the memory
of the oldest inhabitant. It may, therefore, be
easily understood Avhat an immense sensation Avas
produced on the arrival of letters from the Dukes of
Serra di Falco and of Cacamo, Avhich announced the

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 239

speedy coming of three French naturalists, who
were specially recommended to the good offices of
those in authority. Even on the occasion of the
short excursion which I had made to the islands in
order to reconnoitre the locality, I had been received
with marked attention. Signor Gaspardo, chief of
the Quarantine, had come with great ceremony to
receive me. His father, Signor Bartholini, one of
the principal people on the island, had entertained us
most liberally at his house ; while Signor Georgio,
the Commander of Fort St. Catharine, had freely
placed his country house at the disposal of the
scienziati francesi, to whom it would naturally form
a most convenient abode, owing to its being situated
close to the sea side, at about three miles' distance
from the village.

We landed in a small bay facing our future
residence, where we found a crowd of workmen
busily employed in rendering it worthy of its expected
occupants. Some were rubbing down the walls,
whilst others were whitewashing the three apart-
ments which were destined for our use. The wife
of the Commander of the Fort, surrounded by three
or four maid-servants, was actually herself engaged
in the labour of pouring buckets-full of water over
the cracked bricks, which formed the flooring of the
rooms ; whilst her handmaidens were scrubbing
away with all their might. Our sudden arrival
produced very much the same effect that one might
suppose would follow on throwing a stone into an
ant-hill ; there was a perfect confusion of cries,
exclamations, and interjections, ending in a torrent

240 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

of excuses for not being ready to receive us on our
arrival. The signora left her pails in haste and
rode away upon a donkey, which^ after an absence
of two hours, returned laden with mattresses,
blankets, and pillow^s. A set of kitchen utensils
and a ready-cooked dinner also arrived by the same
mode of conveyance, and w^ere, as may easily be
conceived, not the least welcome part of the supplies.
We, in the meanwhile, had not been idle ; for we
had spent this two hours' interval in landing our
instruments and other apparatus. As a large piece
of enclosed land lay between us and the beach, we
had to make a considerable detour before we could
reach our boat. The Commander of the Fort at once
perceived the great inconvenience to which this
exposed us, and without a moment's delay he gave
orders for knocking down a portion of a wall, and
thus opened to us a direct passage across his vine-
yard. I am bound to admit that the w^all consisted
only of a heap of dry stones, which were generally
adjusted every evening ; still we may question
whether many proprietors in our own country would
have been equally ready to take measures for saving
a guest from any inconvenience of this kind.

It must not be supposed, how^ever, that this
liberal and magnificent way of treating strangers
was wholly disinterested. The Sicilians wuth whom
we were tlms brought in contact, while they placed
themselves unreservedly at our disposal, per Tonore^
as they themselves would express it, do nevertheless
count a little upon the complimento which they may
receive in return. In these districts, in which no

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 241

traces of the usas^es of modern civilisation seem as
yet to have penetrated, and where one does not even
meet with anything like the posadas of Spain, the
stranger receives, it is true, the hospitality of an
ancient form of manners, but it is with the under-
standing that it shall be acknowledged by some
equivalent or other. He who entertains looks for a
return for his hospitality, and he is apt to take it in
very bad part if his guest should in this particular
deviate from the ordinary usage. We had occasion
to appreciate this condition of things on our de-
parture from Favignana. Having set forth with
the idea that travelling in Sicily would be very
much the same thing as travelling in France, we
had neglected to provide ourselves with such articles
as might appropriately be offered as parting gifts.
At Torre dell' Isola and at Castellamare w^e had
managed very well in acquitting ourselves of all
obligation through the simple payment of money,
which had been received without the slightest
scruple both by Padre Antonino and by Artese's
friend, but we dared not attempt a similar mode of
acknowledgment in the case of the Signori of Favig-
nana. We left them, therefore, with purely verbal
thanks ; and, at the moment at which we were
bidding him adieu, the Signor Georgio found it
impossible to conceal the vexation he felt in per-
ceiving that our gratitude was expressed in mere
words. We took care, however, on a future occasion
to prove to him that his guests had neither been
forgetful nor ungrateful recipients of his attentions.
The obliging hospitality of our Favignana friends
VOL. I. R

242 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Speedily enabled us to commence our researches in
the little archipelago of the ^gades, which had
never yet been visited by any naturalist. The field
which was thus opened to our explorations consisted
of some naked rocks, forming so many islets, and
three principal islands, Favignana, Levanzo, and
Maritimo. We thouo-ht it would be of no use to
extend our excursions as far as the two latter of
these ; for Maritimo was too far distant, and Levanzo
was entirely formed of calcareous rock, which rose
in abrupt mountains, and was so completely devoid
of all vegetation that it could not support many ter-
restrial species. We were, moreover, well acquainted
with the nature of this rock ; for we had always found
it associated with Caryophyllia, the presence of which,
as I have already remarked, invariably indicates
great poverty, when considered from a zoological
point of view. We did not, therefore, waste any
time in examining the coasts of either of these
islands ; one of which is entirely deserted, while the
other has no inhabitants beyond the few men who
garrison the small fort, and work the telegraph
which is situated on the island.

Favignana, moreover, was in itself sufficient to
occupy the whole of our time. Larger than either
of its sister islands (for it measures about twenty
miles in circuit), it also presented a much greater
variety in its geological constitution. Its central
part is entirely occupied by a range of mountains,
similar to those of Levanzo, and about 1000 or 1200
feet in height. The highest point of the range is
occupied by Fort St. Catharine, a state prison, which

THE COASTS OP SICILY. ^ 243

during the different revolutions of Naples has
acquired a mournful celebrity. To the east and
west of the island, the calcareous rock underlies a
stone of a very different character and known to
geologists as Palermo limestone. This stone, which
is soft and friable, is almost entirely composed of the
fossil remains of the lower animals. On making an
examination with a microscope, or even with the naked
eye, we discover an incredible variety of zoophytes,
an infinite number of sponges, and many different
kinds of Polyparies. A cubic foot of this stone
would in itself afford materials for an entire collec-
tion, and if the sea with its living population had not
absorbed all our time, we should certainly have pos-
sessed ourselves of many highly interesting samples
of this rock. In the midst of these fossil remains,
which are very small and sometimes even microsco-
pical, belonging, as they do, to the lowest representa-
tives of animality, we find scattered here and there
the remains of sea-urchins and of star-fishes, and the
shells of oysters and pectens; but these animals, Avhich
were at once more elevated in the scale of beino; and
of much more considerable dimensions, constitute
only a very small part of the materials which enter
into the composition of the rock. In this respect
the limestone of Favignana affords another proof of
a very general but most remarkable fact. When we
examine the animal remains buried within the strata
of the earth's crust, in the hope of tracing the history
of the past, we cannot fail to recognise the important
part which has been played in the geology of our
globe by animals, whose significance in this respect

R 2

244 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

seems to bear an inverse proportion to their size and
the degree of development manifested in their or-
ganisation. The higher animals, or, in other words,
those in which the animal machine had arrived at
its highest degree of perfection, have left but fee-
ble traces of their existence. We know of only
three or four cases in which osseous debris have been
found to contain the remains of the Monkey tribe,
while in the case of Mastodons*, Elephants, and even
gigantic Reptiles f, very few perfect skeletons have
been found ; and science has therefore gratefully
treasured the isolated fragments of their remains
which from time to time have been brought to light.
The inferior animals, on the contrary, have con-
tributed most materially in forming the solid crust
which we inhabit. In the case of certain mountains,
more than half their structure consists of shells,
whilst some entire strata are exclusively composed
of infusoria, which are so infinitely small that
hundreds of their carapaces crumble into dust
beneath the point of a needle. The study of these
inferior beings, which is so important to the phy-

* [A note on the Fossil Remains of the Mastodon is transferred
to the Appendix, Note XIV.]

f The Reptiles preceded the Mammals on the surface of the
globe, and they were present in a highly developed state during
the secondary period. Among the species then existing, several
possessed very strange forms ; amongst others we may instance the
Plesiosauri, which lived in the water, and had the body of a lizard,
with a serpent's head on a very long neck ; and the Pterodactyli,
which flew like bats, by means of a membrane, supported by one
of the digits of their anterior members, &c. Many of these species
were of very large size ; some of them being, according to Cuvier,
upwards of fifty feet in length.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 245

siologist and the zoologist. Is not the less sugges-
tive to the geologist of the gravest subjects of medi-
tation.

The loose and porous structure of the Palermo
limestone permits rain-water to accumulate within
it, as in a sort of sponge, and thus provides the thin
stratum of earth coverinsj the rock with the humi-
dity necessary to counteract the effect of the longest
droughts. These waters, the further course of which
is stopped by the more dense limestone whose strata
form the basis of the whole island, combine to form
subterranean reservoirs, wdiich feed a large number
of wells and inexhaustible springs. On this account
the cultivation of the island is concentrated upon
the points occupied by this beneficent rock, which
alone prevents Favignana from becoming, like Le-
vanzo, a dreary and uninhabitable desert.

The capital of Favignana is situated nearly in
the centre of the island, on the side of a small
harbour, Avhich penetrates far inland. It contains
from 300 to 400 tolerably well-built houses, and
numbers about 3000 inhabitants, who appeared
to us to enjoy a degree of general prosperity
unknown in the villages of the coast. But al-
though a state of general competency seemed to
prevail amongst this isolated population, it appeared
to us to be very deficient in other respects; and
"we observed amongst the inhabitants, various cus-
toms which showed significantly enough that they
were still in the infancy of civilisation. One in-
stance will suffice by way of illustration. There is
no public clock at Favignana, and it seems that no

B 3

246 EAMBLES OP A NATURALIST.

better method had suggested itself for supplying this
deficiency than to charge a man with the accom-
plishment of its functions. This person, who took
up his abode in the keep of one of the fortresses
which defend the village, warned his fellow-citizens
of the march of time by striking the hours with a
hammer on a bell. A sand hour-glass served him
by way of indicator. As may readily be conceived,
this animal machine was very easily put out of order^
and we had more than one opportunity of convincing
ourselves that, in point of regularity, the man-clock
of Favignana was very inferior to one of Breguet's
chronometers.

The number of the population is almost doubled
by that of the garrisons of the three forts, by that
of the officials of the custom house and quarantine,
and above all by that of the convicts who are in-
carcerated within the prisons of Fort St. John —
those terrible dungeons, which, together with the
cells of the ordinary prisoners, are deep excavations
hollowed out of the rock, and from which escape is
almost impossible. The greater number of the un-
fortunate beings confined here were expiating the
crimes of murder, or of theft accompanied by vio-
lence ; their number during our stay amounted to
nearly 2000.

The products of Favignana are very limited,
and quite inadequate for the maintenance of the
inhabitants. The land immediately round the
town is more fertile than in any other part of the
island, and is generally enclosed in gardens, in which
grow excellent vegetables, together with magnificent

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 247

orange, lemon, and pomegranate trees.* In the
eastern part of the island we met with a few corn-
fields, but with that exception the soil seemed to
be abandoned to vineyards and some plantations
of cactus, a plant which may be said to mark the
limits of vegetation. There are only a very few
horned cattle to be seen on the island, and hence
Favignana is obliged to supply her population with
meat, oil, and cereals from abroad, in exchange for
which she gives her whines. Being entirely without
manufactures, she is obliged to obtain from foreigners,
not only articles of luxury, but even many of the
necessaries of life. To judge by the samples which
fell under our notice, France and England would
seem to share in the office of provisioning this
remote corner of the globe, where the two countries
are to a certain extent represented by their produc-
tions. Everything that relates to the material wants
of life is of English origin; knives, forks, dinner-
services, all bear, with few exceptions, the name of
London. Everything akin to elegance, everything
that can call up an idea, has come to Favignana
from the provinces of France, if not from Paris.
The chimney-pieces were adorned with our porcelain
vases, the walls were hung with our papers, and

* The pomegranate tree (Punica granatum) is a native of
Mauritania, from whence it was imported hy the Romans at the
time of their wars with Carthage. This tree was cultivated by
them with much care ; and while we are only acquainted with three
varieties, the Romans at the time of Pliny possessed as many as
six, one of which called Apyrenum, bore fruits containing seeds
without pips.

R 4

248 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

everywhere our eyes encountered engravings of the
Rue Saint-Jacques, of Napoleon, his marshals and
his battles.

The inhabitants of Favlgnana are not the pro-
prietors of the lands which they cultivate ; for the
entire archipelago is the property of a noble Genoese
family, the Palavicini, who rarely visit this maritime
fief, which they govern through the agency of a
steward. I do not know what the rents may be
which are derived from the cultivation of the soil;
but they cannot be very considerable, and the pro-
prietor, no doubt, derives the greatest part of his
revenues from the produce of the sea. The lords
of Favignana have the exclusive right of fishing
over a very large tract of water; while, of course,
they have the entire monopoly of the produce of the
archipelago, and these rights derive great value from
the vast shoals of the tunny which frequent these
seas. It is well known that this fish appears every
year in immense numbers in the neighbourhood of
Gibraltar, where they separate into two columns,
one following the shores of Africa, whilst the other
makes its way along the coasts of Europe. The
successive appearance of these shoals in different
localities, and their inexplicable disappearance on
the approach of cold weather, led for a long time
to the belief that they made actual migrations,
similar to those of birds. In this respect the tunny
resembled the herring and the mackerel, which had
at all times been regarded as migratory fish; but
M. Valenciennes having confirmed by personal ob-
servation the doubts which had already been ad-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 249

vanced in reference to this point by Lacepede and
Noel de la Moriniere, showed that these pretended
voyages had really no existence. Neither the tunny
nor the herring leaves its native country. The fact
is, however, that during winter, they seek shelter
from the cold at a depth to which no net can reach,
and when the sun has warmed the surface of the sea
and their season of reproduction has arrived, they
leave those abysses of the deep, and approach the
neighbouring shores, in order to deposit their eggs in
warm and shallow waters.

At all events the tunny is undoubtedly a source
of wealth to the shores which it frequents. Either
fresh, salted, or smoked, it is an object of commerce,
which annually leads to the circulation of thousands
of thousands, and hence this fish has at all times
been the object of remorseless pursuit. Aristotle,
Pliny, Athenasus, and Oppian, have all transmitted
to us details of the different methods employed
by the ancients for its capture. Since then, every
age and every people seem to have furnished their
contingent of murderous inventions. The most
formidable means devised for capturing this unfor-
tunate fish is undoubtedly the madrague, which is
said to have been first employed by the inhabitants
of Martigues. This apparatus is not merely the
libouret of the Bayonnese or the grand couple of the
Basque fishermen, which are gigantic lines carrying
many hundred baited hooks, and which are worked
by a boat's crew of eight or ten men ; nor is it like the
courantille of the Provence fishermen, for this con-
trivance is merely a kind of seine from 1500 to 2000

250 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

feet in length, which is often thrown over a space
measurino' more than six or eii^ht miles across. The
madrague is an actual park, with its walks and alleys
all terminating in a vast labyrinth, composed of
chambers, which open into one another, and all of
which lead to tlie chamber of death, or the corpou,
which is situated at the extremity of the structure.
This vast enclosure, the walls of which sometimes
extend upwards of three miles, is both secured and
raised by means of immense lines and nets weighted
with stones, supported by cork buoys, and secured
with anchors in such a manner as to resist the most
violent storms to which it would be exposed during
the usual fishing season. It may easily be con-
ceived that the materials constituting an apparatus
of this kind, are of enormous size and bulk ; on this
account a steam-boat is chartered every year to con-
vey the entire apparatus from Palermo to Favig-
nana. The arm of the sea which lies between this
island and Levanzo is peculiarly well adapted for
the establishment of a tonnara, as the Sicilians call it,
and the right of fishing in this locality alone is valued
at 60,000 francs.

When first we arrived at Torre dell' Isola, we saw
this steamer on her way to Favignana, and from that
time, till we landed on the island, men had been
continually at work in fixing the madrague ; it
was now completed, and some tunnies had already
been seen within the first compartments of the ap-
paratus. We had a great desire to witness one of
these fishings, of which Joseph Vernet's picture
gives a tolerably good idea. The reports of our

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 251

own sailors, whose eyes sparkled at the very mention
of the word tonnara, had increased our anxiety to
be present on one of these occasions, which are re-
garded by the inhabitants of the Sicilian islands
in the light of festivals. Signor Bartholini kindly un-
dertook to inform us of the time at which we were
to hold ourselves in readiness to join the other boats
engaged in the fishing, and w^e lost no time in obeying
his directions. One morning on looking out, we
saw that flags had been raised on every elevated
point of the island to serve as signals for calling
too-ether the fishermen of the nei^^hbourhood to take
part in the tonnara. Scarcely any, I believe, failed
to appear at the common rendezvous. Every bark
between Trapani and Mazara had hoisted her sails,
and by the break of day, far as the eye could reach,
the sea seemed to be covered Avith a moving fleet of
sailing boats, whose hundred broad lateen sails, con-
verging to one and the same point, presented the
most picturesque appearance. The Santa Rosalia
was soon in the midst of this numerous flotilla ;
and by the energetic efforts of our sailors, whose
strength and activity seemed to be doubled for the
occasion, we reached the madrague in good time to
follow all the scenes of the sanguinary drama which
was about to be enacted.

If any of our readers should deem these expressions
exaggerated, we would beg them to come and judge
for themselves, and embark with us on board one of
those large boats which, in the midst of the sea,
have combined to enclose a space of about one hun-
dred square feet. Between 500 and 600 tunnies.

252 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

impelled from chamber to chamber by the valves
which close behind them, have at length reached the
last compartment, or the chamber of death. This
enclosure is provided with a movable floor formed
of netting, which can be raised from the bottom to
the surface of the water by means of ropes. All
night long men have been labouring to lift the huge
apparatus, little by little, and now each of its margins
rests upon one of the sides formed by the boats.
Facing us is the proprietor of the fishery, surrounded
by his stafi^ and by a charming group of ladies, who
have come from Palermo to Avitness the spectacle
which is about to be exhibited. To the right and to
the left are stationed the two principal boats, which
convey the band of fishermen. These boats, which
are entirely empty, lie ready to receive their cargo,
the only thing that breaks the even line of their
decks being a long beam, which passes from one extre-
mity to the other, and leaves a narrow sort of gang-
way on the edge of the boat, where stand at least
two hundred fishermen, who have come, in some cases,
from a distance of more than fifty miles to take part
in this exciting sport. Half naked, with deeply-
bronzed limbs, these athletic men stand side by side,
all awaiting, with the same eager impatience, for
the moment of action. Their eyes are sparkling
beneath their scarlet Phrygian caps ; their hands are
grasping the instruments of death — broad, sharp, and
cutting hooks, which are either inserted into a long
pole, or fitted to the end of a short, massive handle,
which is deeply cut to enable the hand to obtain a
firmer hold of the weapon. In the midst of the

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 253

enclosure, a little black rowing boat manned by two
oarsmen contains the master-fisherman, from whom
emanate all orders, and who is ever at hand to
encourage and lead on the workmen, or to carry rein-
forcements from side to side, as they may be needed.
During all this time the capstans, which are fixed
at the extremities of the net, have never ceased
turning; and as the moving floor of the corpou
gradually rises, the tunnies begin to appear, and on
looking through the transparent water we see the fish
darting uneasily from one side to the other of the
vast enclosure in which they are imprisoned. Some
of them rise to the surface or even spring out of the
water ; but woe be to those who rise near one of the
boats, for no sooner does the fish appear than hands
of iron are stretched forth to bury their sharpened
points in its sides. Even though they may be
wounded, the fish generally escape from the first
attack ; for being full of life and strength, and in the
enjoyment of entire liberty of motion within the large
basin that encloses them, they tear themselves from
the hands of their enemies, leaving only a few bleed-
ing shreds of flesh attached to the hooks ; but still
the capstan turns remorselessly to the modulated
songs of the sailors, and the net rises higher and
higher. The master-fisherman is always at hand in
his little boat to drive the tunnies towards the edg^es of
the net : wounds are now dealt on every side ; and
soon some fish, more deeply struck than his com-
panions, slackens his course, showing from time to
time his broad silvery sides, along which the black
blood is streaming forth. At every new stroke his

254 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

resistance diminishes, and soon the yictini pauses for
an instant; but that instant is enough ; a dozen hooks
are at once burled in his flesh, a dozen arms are bent
to lift him to the surface of the water. In vain the
skin has given way ; each hook that loses its hold is
raised on high only to be buried still deeper in the
quivering flesh, and soon the unfortunate animal is
drawn to the side of the boat ; in another moment
he is seized by two men, who each grasping one of
his large pectoral fins lift him to the beam which is
placed behind them, and throw him into the hold.

But the net is always remorselessly rising, and
now the entire shoal of tunnies is exposed to view.
Pressed close to one another, these monster fishes
are throwing themselves in despair against the flex-
ible walls of the corpou, at one moment showing
their black yellow-spotted backs, at another moment
cleaving the surface of the water with their large
crescent-shaped fins. Here and there a few sword-
fish with their long pointed snouts may be seen
interspersed among the tunnies. Animated by the
sight of the victims which lie exposed to their attack,
the sailors strike with redoubled force, and the
fishing becomes a massacre. One can no longer
individualise the separate actors in this drama ; the
serried crowd seems to be composed of nothing but
violently moving heads, bleeding arms, which rise
and fall, and harpoons which flash and cross one
another as they are hurled against the victims. All
eyes are sparkling, all lips are uttering cries of tri-
umph, clamour, and encouragement. The waters of
the corpou are tinged with blood, and every moment

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 255

another fish has been hurled across the beam ; the
dead and the dying lie heaped together in such vast
multitudes, that the hulls of the boats are almost
hidden beneath the load of their half-livino- caro;oes.

After two hours of carnage symptoms of exhaus-
tion begin to appear, the tunnies come but rarely
to the surface, and at length their enemies begin to
lose patience. A boat is then loosened from either
side of the enclosure, and the two principal barks
are brought within half their former distance of one
another. The capstans are now again brought into
play, the impatient fishermen all lend a hand, and
now the hooks are inserted in the meshes of the net ;
but these efforts, which are somewhat irregular, do
not at first produce any great results. Soon, how-
ever, the master-fisherman's whistle is heard : at
once the men break into a song of measured rhythm,
their movements become more regular, and pulling
in unison with the words which they sing, the net is
made to rise higher and higher. Soon it is almost
on a level with the surface of the water, and now it
is time to resume the labour in orood earnest. The
master-fisherman's boat now, for the first time, takes
an active part in the labours of the day. Its crew
of picked men pursue the tunnies within the narrow
limits to which they are now circumscribed, and,
striking them with long harpoons, urge them forward
against the hooks which are projected from the
boats, and which speedily secure them.

I must confess that this spectacle, which we had
so anxiously desired to witness, left us melancholy
and discontented, for we had been most painfully

256 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

affected by the exhibition of such wholesale butchery.
Perhaps the impression produced on our minds
would have been different if the fishermen had had a
shadow of danger to encounter, or if the tunnies had
been able to offer the slightest resistance in their
struggles for freedom ; and it seemed to us impossible
to avoid feeling the deepest emotion in witnessing so
unequal a strife, and in observing the mute anguish in
which the convulsive movements of the victims were
the only indications of the agony which was so
wantonly inflicted upon them. It was quite dif-
ferent with our sailors, who were perfectly radiant
with delight. As fishermen, they could only see
and judge of things after the fashion of their
calling, and the fiehing had been superb. In
three hours 554 fish had been harpooned, weigh-
ing on an average 176 lbs. Besides this, the
chambers of the madrague still contained about
400 captives ; the proprietor might therefore count,
at the very beginning of the season, upon having
caught about seventy tons of the tunny fish, which
would, at the least, be equivalent to the sum of
43,000 francs (1720/.) Here then, in one fishing,
nearly enough had been gained to pay the whole
expenses of the fonnara.

A small island, in which every inch of productive
ground has to be wrested from the naked rock, is
necessarily not well adapted for the multiplication
of independent animal species. For this reason,
Favignana possesses hardly any animals beyond those
w^hich have been subjugated to the use of man, or
which live at his expense, or which, from their in-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 257

Significance, are not made the objects of his pursuit.
Here, as everywhere else, the dog and the cat share
his dwelling, which, at the same time, aiFords shelter
to the rat and the mouse. The ox, the horse, and
the ass, aid him in his labours, but beyond these
there are no mammals to be found on the island.
Some of the slender-billed Passerina3 (^Motacilla * ),
and a few little birds living upon grain, were hover-
inn^ about the fields and amono^st the orano-e o-roves ;
whilst magnificent falcons, which were formerly in
great request for the noble sport of falconry, soared
incessantly above the peaks of the most inaccessible
rocks. Lizards, skinks, and the black snake, are the
representatives of the class of reptiles, and lie con-
cealed beneath the stones upon the beach. Insects
buzz among the hedges or burrow round the roots of
shrubs ; but there are not many different species to
be met with, and M. Blanchard very soon collected
numerous representatives of each of them.

But while the air and the land were so deficient
in animals worthy of interest, the sea afforded us
ample compensation. In this respect Favignana
more than answered our expectations, for no place
could be better adapted for zoological investigations.
In several parts of the island the two kinds of rocks
of which we have already spoken, lay in juxtaposition
to one another, within a few inches below the level
of the sea, which, wearing away the limestone rock,
had laid bare a more compact stone, the inequalities
of which formed many recesses and small basins,

* [This family includes most of our smaller singing birds.]
VOL. I. S

258 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

which ahnost looked as if they had been hollowed
out by the hand of man. Besides this, the waves,
which had penetrated between the interstices of the
two ranges of rock, too hard to be entirely broken
through, opened a channel inland and gradually
formed small grottos, which were sometimes par-
tially vaulted over, and at other times wholly exposed
and uncovered. Many of these cavities gave a
miniature representation of the well-known pheno-
menon observed in the grotto of Capri. When our
boat, lying at the entrance of one of these caves,
intercepted the direct rays of light, they passed
below our keel, and, being refracted in the crystal
liquid, gave rise to the same effect as that produced
by a prism, and bathed the rocks and the foam-
crested waves in the richest azure tints.

We found at Favignana almost all the animals of
which we had lost sight ever since we left Torre
deir Isola. The Medusa? and their kindred allies
were, however, of much rarer occurrence, probably
in consequence of having been carried away by
some opposing currents. We met with only a few
Alcinoes*, some large Beroidse, and an infinite
number of Pelasgiae. The recesses and the basins
to which I have already referred were, how^ever,
unusually rich in all littoral species. The annelids
especially presented numerous varieties. It was at
Favignana that M. Milne Edwards found his My-
riana, which bears a chaplet of six individuals
united end to end in such a manner that the last
of all has no other nourishment but the food which

* The genus Alcinoe belongs to the family of the Beroidse, of
which I have already spoken.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 259

has been previously digested by its parent, and its
five brothers or sisters. It was also here that this
naturalist entered upon a series of observations on
the development of the annelids, to which we shall
refer in the sequel. M. Blanchard continued his
researches on the nervous system of the Mollusca,
and the result of each day's labour seemed to reveal
to him some new and unexpected complications. I. in
my department, was fortunate in obtaining a profu-
sion of Nemertes and of Phlebenterous Molluscs.
We had therefore ample materials for work, and
so thoroughly did we avail ourselves of our oppor-
tunities, that almost the only occasions in which
our labours were interrupted, were wdicn we chanced
to receive a visit from some one or other of the
islanders, who were desirous of verifying by their
own eyes the accuracy of the reports which had
been spread in reference to the marvellous powers of
pur instruments.

The researches on the circulation of the Mollusca
Avhich M. Milne Edwards began at Favignana, and
continued during all the rest of our voyage, and the
observations which I had been led to make on the
same subject during my renewed investigations re-
lative to the Phlebenterata, gave rise to very keen
discussions, the report of which has even penetrated
beyond the precincts of our academic circles. The
facts under consideration touched upon such general
questions and militated against such long-received
opinions, that we could not expect they would be
easily accepted. M. Milne Edwards in the introduc-
tory remarks at the head of the exposition of his

s 2

260 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

views, showed how certain results which at first
sight seemed to be inexplicable, become easy of
comprehension when they are judged by that prin-
ciple of the division of labour of which we have else-
where spoken.* I have also considered in many
memoirs the questions which refer to this order
of ideas. Numerous investigations were soon en-
tered upon, and pursued in the same direction,
both in France and in other countries, and the
results which have been arrived at seem daily to
confirm more and more the principles, or, to speak
more accurately, the tendencies of this school of phy-
siological zoology, which at its dawn met with so
violent an opposition. We will endeavour to give
a general and comprehensive idea of the facts esta-
blished by it, and the consequences to which they
lead.

We know that one of the principal differences
which separates inorganic bodies from living beings,
consists in the necessity for nutrition in the case
of the latter. The mineral, when once formed, will,
if placed beyond the action of external influences,
endure for ever without suffering loss or gain. In
the plant and in the animal, an incessant circulation
of matter expels from the organism some of the
elements which previously had formed a part of it.
These elements require to be replaced by others,
and to effect this is the end and object of nutrition.
Four important functions, which are themselves ac-
complished by the aid of several secondary functions,
concur in the accomplishment of this fundamental

* See Chapter II. on the Archipelago of Brehat.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 261

act — viz., digestion, which prepares the food; absorp-
tion, Avhich separates the useless parts, isolates the
essential principles, and causes them to penetrate
into the organism ; circulation, which transports
these principles to all the points at which their
presence is necessary ; and, finally, respiration, which
restores to the nutrient liquids, after they have been
changed by their sojourn in the organs, the vivi-
fying action by which they are characterised.

In the superior animals — that is to say, those in
which the organisation acts in the highest degree of
perfection — each of these functions is accomplished
by the aid of special organs. The first naturalists
who endeavoured to penetrate into the mysteries of
the mechanism of life, directed their studies only to
these complicated organisms, and, being forcibly
struck by this fact, they declared that the function
was at all times and in all cases dependent on the
organ. In other words, that where no special in-
strument was present for the accomplishment of the
function, that function could not exist. However
rational this princi[jle may appear to be, it is not the
less a profound error ; for w^e find that among the
lower grades of the animal scale there are no distinct
organs, and yet these animals feed and are nourished
— that is to say, they digest, absorb, and respire, and
plastic fluids circulate through all their tissues.

We will take, by way of illustration, one of those
fresh-water Hydras so common in the neighbourhood
of Paris, which were first recognised by Trembley,
and to the study of which M. Laurent * has con-

* M. Laurent, formerly a Navy surgeon, who died recently
s 3

262 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

secrated two years of unremitting labour. This
animal resembles the finger of a glove with its
aperture surrounded by long, hollow, flexible, and
contractile prolongations. These organs serve the
polype like so many arms, enabling it to seize larvae
and other small aquatic animals, which are rapidly
digested after their introduction into the cavity of
the body. Let us take the moment in which it has
just swallowed one of these larv^, and, proceeding
with caution, let us try to tear it away. Rather than
relinquish its prey, the polype will suffer itself to be
turned inside out like the finger of a glove, to which
we have already compared it, when that which
formed the exterior skin will become a membrane
clothing the digestive cavity, and vice versa. Yet
the animal is none the worse for this ; it will remain
on the watch, seize and digest its prey precisely as
it did before. Let us go still farther ; let us cut this
Hydra into twenty or thirty pieces, and still each of
these fragments will continue to be nourished. They
will soon begin to grow, and in the course of a few
days we shall have twenty or thirty complete Hydras
obtained by this apparently barbarous process.

With these incontestable facts before us we must
admit, that in these simple beings the function is
independent of the organ — that is to say, that each
part of the body is equally adapted simultaneously
to perform all the physiological acts ; but it is at the

at Paris, devoted himself with much perseverance to the study of
the lower fresh-water animals. We are also indebted to him for
several curious observations on the embryology of some of the
terrestrial molluscs.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 263

same time evident that these different acts, being all
accomplished at the same point, cannot be executed
with the same degree of perfection as if each of them
resulted from the action of a special instrument.
We can, therefore, fully comprehend the full value
of the principle which was developed more than
twenty years ago by M. Milne Edwards, and Avhich
may be summed up in the following terms: — the suc-
cessive degrees of perfection attained by the different
organisms in the animal kingdom depend upon the
extent to which functional labour * is divided.

An attentive study of the circulation, when con-
sidered in all its bearings, is well adapted to demon-
strate the very suggestive nature of this principle ;
while at the same time it shows how it leads to the
coordination of facts, which at first sight appear to
be incongruous or even in direct antagonism. This
function is effected in the higher animals by the aid
of a very complicated apparatus, the principal parts
of which have received the names of heart, arteries,
veins, lymphatics, and lacteals. The heart sends the
blood through the arteries towards every part of the
body, from which this fluid is returned to it through
the veins. The lymphatics convey to the same cir-
culatory centre the lymph, which is a transparent
liquid, exuding, if we may use the expression, from
all the organs. The lacteals transport to the same
centre the chyle, which is the immediate product of
digestive absorption. These different liquids, which
are enclosed in veritable tubes, follow with admirable

* I have already referred to these views in Chapter IL, on the
Archipelago of Brehat.

s 4

26i EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

regularity one invariable and determinate direction,
during the whole life of the animal. It is not the
same with the lower animals. Here, as we have seen
in the instance of the Hydra, the circulation is often
confounded with the other functions of nutrition.
Between these two extremes, however, there must
necessarily be many intermediate connecting links.

Even the class of Polypes presents some instances
of progressive development. Let us open one of
those animals which, connected by hundreds upon
a sort of common stem, of which they represent the
flowers, produce the substance known as coral. In
these animals the mouth terminates in a sort of
pouch or bag, suspended in the cavity of the body,
and constituting an actual stomach, into which
the food penetrates. After the latter has been
sufficiently digested, the animal rejects by its mouth
the coarser residue, and opening an orifice which
is situated at the other extremity of the bag, it
only suffers the portions of food adapted for its
maintenance to penetrate into the interior. From
this special cavity within each animal are given
off canals, which, being prolonged into the common
part or the ])olypary, communicate freely with similar
canals coming from all the other polypes — an ar-
rangement by which the entire colony profits from
the nourishment taken separately by each indivi-
dual.

Something similar to this exists in the case of some
of the Medusiie, while in others the functional labour
begins to be more definitely characterised. These
animals, as we have already said, resemble an in-

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 265

verted bell, tlie place of the tongue being supplied
by the mouth which serves as an entrance to the
stomach ; in the Lesueuria this first cavity is followed
by a second, to which the coarser parts of the food
do not penetrate. The liquids which enter this
cavity are carried towards the circumference by
one system of canals, whilst other special vessels
carry them back to their starting point. This move-
ment reminds us to a certain degree of that of the
blood in the mammals ; but here it is the stomach
which fulfils the functions of the heart, whilst the
same canals serve the part of intestines, arteries,
and veins.

These vessels, moreover, do not convey any special
liquid meriting the name of hlood. It is not even
chyle, properly so called. The water in which the
animal lives penetrates — one might almost say acci-
dentally— into its interior. In its passage it takes
up the substances which have been digested by the
stomach, and conveys them into the cavity of the
body which they are to nourish. In passing away
again, this same water carries with it, indiscrimi-
nately, the remains of these substances, and the
elements of which the organism strives to free itself.
At the same time it also serves the purposes of
respiration, no less than those of digestion and cir-
culation. Here, as we see, all the organs are still
confounded ; and this very confusion explains the
evident imperfection of the animals which we have
been considerino-.

The isolation of these functions by the appear-
ance of organs specially appropriated to each of

266 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

them, is in itself a great step in advance ; but nature
never proceeds by sudden starts, and this perfection
is brought about by very gradual steps. When
once the digestive cavity is complete, we may
assume that there will also be present in the animal
some liquid specially designed for the maintenance
of the organs. Here, too, a preliminary absorption
is necessary to enable the materials furnished by
digestion to blend with this kind of blood, but still
respiration continues for some time to be effected by
the aid of already existing organs, or by the diges-
tive apparatus itself. A very large number of An-
nelids respire through the skin only, while many
Crustaceans have no other branchiae than their feet.
In the larvae of those large insects known as dragon
flies, we observe a still more curious phenomenon.
Here the intestine presents a considerable dilatation
at its posterior extremity. The water penetrates
into this cavity, from which it is propelled at the
will of the animal. Here, then, we have the respira-
tory apparatus. It is easy to ascertain this by hold-
ing one of these larvae out of the water, and then,
after a time, restoring it to its native element. We
shall find that it will draw in and eject the' liquid
with the same kind of anxious precipitation that is
exhibited by a half- suffocated mammal; but while
the latter breathes through a mouth, the larva of the
dragon-fly respires through the opposite extremity of
its alimentary canal.

The circulation presents an almost infinite variety
in the modes of its successive development. Very
often it is altogether wanting ; in the lower types

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 267

of the Artlculata and Mollusca, no trace of vessels
can be detected. The general movements of the
animal communicate motion to the liquid which is
enclosed between the walls of the body and the
intestine, and sometimes more or less irregular cur-
rents are produced by vibratile cilia, arranged in
bands or groups ; but there is no heart to give a
definite impulse, no arteries to distribute the nu-
trient fluid to the surface of the body, nor veins to
return it to the centre of the organism. In this
case there can be no distinction between arterial and
venous blood, or between lymph and chyle; and
here the liquid, which fills all the organic interstices,
receives the products of digestion directly and imme-
diately.

In some cases the intestinal apparatus compen-
sates by a very singular arrangement for this absence
of circulatory organs; for we find this apparatus
charged with the duty of distributing to all parts
of the body the nutrient elements, which it is
specially destined to prepare. In these cases, we
perceive that it is complicated by the presence of
prolongations or appendages which reach the most
distant points of the organism. In the Nymphon
and the Pycnogonum — crustaceans which bear con-
siderable resemblance to certain field spiders — the
intestine penetrates to the very extremities of the
feet and claws, very much in the same way as if,
in man, the stomach were to be prolonged across
the neck, arms, and legs, to the jaws, wrists, and
ancles.

Nature is much less economical of her forces than

268 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

we are apt to suppose, and often when two means
present themselves for attaining the same object,
she employs both at once. The arrangement to
which we have referred is to be met with in certain
Molluscs, of which some, at any rate, possess a heart.
Here, there are indeed no veins, but a more or less
complete arterial system conveys successively to all
the different parts of the body the liquid enclosed
in the general cavity ; nevertheless the stomach
sends forth prolongations to all the appendages,
including even the tentacles on the forepart of
the head, which, in the case of the snail, are im-
properly designated as horns. In obedience to the
simple laws of physics, the products of digestion
contained within these prolongations must neces-
sarily transude and mix with the liquid which fills the
body of the animal. These prolongations, therefore,
actually play the part of arteries by conveying
materials of nutrition to the points where they are
to be used. These same prolongations also fulfil
the functions of lacteals. The latter never convey
directly to the arteries the chyle which they have
collected from the surface of the intestine. In order
to render this liquid suitable to the maintenance of
the organism, it requires to be exposed to the modi-
fying action of the air in the lungs or branchiae
which it reaches in association with the venous
blood. In the Molluscs to which we refer there
exist no branchia? which admit of a comparison with
those of other animals of the same class ; but here
their functions are performed by the small richly
coloured papilla? which cover the bodies of these

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 269

animals. The prolongations of the stomach are all
carried into the interior of these small protuberances,
and consequently the chyle, on issuing from the
intestine, is at once brought into the midst of the
respiratory apparatus, where it cannot ftiil to un-
dergo immediately the vivifying influence which it
requires. Such are the facts which led me to that
theory of phlehenterism, which, after being violently
attacked by several French naturalists, has met with
a much more favourable reception amongst foreigners,
and more especially amongst German zoologists. In
the detailed examination of the remarkable group
w^hich furnished me with my facts, I was necessarily
led into some errors; but time and renewed re-
searches have only tended more and more to confirm
the essential and general results which I discovered.*
When considered from this point of view, the
class of the Mollusca is indeed very remarkable.
"Without departing from its limits, we find the cir-
culation exhibiting the most different degrees of
complication, and that even in animals often closely
allied to one another, and in which we might there-
fore have been led a priori to believe that the or-
ganisation was almost identical. Nevertheless, the
circulatory system still remains incomplete, there
being no perfect continuity between the venous and
the arterial apparatus. Consequently, the blood
which was propelled from the heart cannot return
to it until it has been diffused through all the inter-
organic spaces or lacunae, and hence it must neces-

* [An abstract of the discussions on the subject of Phlebenterisra
is given in the Appendix, Note XV.]

270 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

sarily fill the general cavity of the body. Here
it bathes the greater part of the viscera, and receives
without any intermediate aid the nutrient elements
which have been elaborated by the alimentary canal ;
hence it will be understood that if we must admit
the presence of venous and arterial blood in the
higher Molluscs, we are yet unable to distinguish
either lymph or chyle.

The Articulata furnish precisely similar facts.
Several of the results which have been obtained
from these animals had already long before been
9,dmitted into the science of zoology ; but in con-
sequence of not perceiving the relations which
connect them with what occurs in other groups,
physiologists had been led to regard them merely as
strange and characteristic exceptions. Thus, from
the time when the researches of MM. Audouin and
Milne Edwards received the prize of the French
Institute, in 1827, the absence of veins where the
heart and arterial system were both present, was
looked upon as exclusively characteristic of lobsters,
crabs, and other animals belonging to the class of the
Crustacea. The absence of any circulatory organ
was, they thought, limited to Insects and to a portion
of the Arachnlda, and they endeavoured to explain
this fact, which was the more striking from its pe-
culiar isolation, by the modification which the re-
spiratory apparatus presents in these cases.

Insects, indeed, have neither lungs nor branchiae ;
but in them the air passes through a variable number
of openings into a system of tubes, called tracheae,
whose singular structure bears the most striking

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 271

resemblance to an elastic webbing. These tracheae
ramify over the whole body, and, consequently, as
Cuvier remarked, the air seems in insects to go in
search of the blood, whilst the contrary is the case
in other animals. The explanation was logical, for
every movement of this liquid seemed as if it were
useless, since it could be incessantly revivified on the
spot. A more attentive observation has, however,
shown that insects possess a true circulation, for
a long contractile dorsal vessel here plays the part
of a heart. The blood moves freely through the
interstices of the organs, yet each one of its
portions circulates successively through every part
of the organism ; but then the circulation is per-
formed almost entirely in lacuncB, We may readily
observe, under the microscope, the existence and
direction of all these currents, which are made
apparent by the globules in the liquid. The cir-
culatory circle is therefore incomplete in all the In-
vertebrata of which we have spoken, and hence it is
the more remarkable that the class of the Annelids
should possess an uninterrupted circulation. We
undoubtedly meet among the lower forms of this
group of animals with many totally deficient in an
apparatus of circulation, while some species exhibit
a mere rude outline of such a system ; but the greater
number certainly possess a perfectly closed system
of sansfuiniferous vessels. Even in the Nemertes,
whose animal machine presents a most remarkable
degree of simplification, the blood pursues its course
without ever leaving the contractile tubes within
which it is contained. In these animals, however.

272 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

as in all the Annelids, properly so called, there is no
heart ; whilst the vessels, which are everywhere of
equal calibre, do not give origin to any secondary
branches. 'In respect to the circulation, the lower
Articulata present a much greater similarity to the
Vertebrata than to Insects or the higher Molluscs,
whose organisation is nevertheless very far superior
to their own.*

Even the Yertebrata obey the common law, and
in the lower representatives of this type — in the
fishes — we still meet with examples of this lacunary
circulation. This important fact, which could not
have been anticipated a few years ago, was discovered
at Paris simultaneously, although independently, by
two anatomists, MM. Natalis Guillotf and Robin,

* This is a very important result, which moreover derives con-
firmation from the comparative study of several other groups. We
still meet with some naturalists, who, guided solely by their pre-
conceived ideas, wish to insist that there must be not only necessary
physiological relations between each functional apparatus, but they
would make it appear that there is an anatomical dependence among
them, which is regulated by laws, which exist only in their own
imagination. In the eyes of these naturalists, no apparatus can be
simplified or degraded without inducing a corresponding simplifica-
tion and degradation in all the others. In refutation of such views,
it is sufficient to refer those who uphold them to the study of the
circulation in Insects and in Annelids.

t M. Natalis Guillot, who is physician to several of the Paris
hospitals, affords a happy illustration of the manner in which
scientific pursuits can be combined with the practice of a laborious
profession. His Exposition Anatomique de T Organisation des
Centres Nerveux, which gained for him the prize offered by the
Brussels Academy of Sciences, will ever remain one of the most
trustworthy works on this difficult subject. M. Guillot has pub-
lished numerous memoirs illustrative of various other points in
comparative anatomy and physiology.

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 273

who have shown that in the Rays there are certain
portions of the body in which the blood-vessels cease
all at once, and where the blood flows freely into
cavities, whose arrangement recalls to mind that
which exists in some of the lowest animals. M.
E-obin in following his first researches, has extended
these results to several species of the family of the
Squalidfe. We are convinced that the question will
not remain where it now is, and that in the course of
a few years we shall undoubtedly meet with facts in
the highest Mammals, and even in man himself,
which, if not entirely similar, are at least almost
analogous. The results at which MM. Dujardin
and Natalis Guillot have arrived by the study of
the minute structure of the liver, appear to offer a
certain guarantee of the success which will attend
the investigations undertaken in this direction.

The circulation, therefore, which is at first entirely
lacunary, is consequently reduced to a sort of vague
agitation, which, as it gradually becomes regulated,
assumes a more and more vascular character, in
proportion as we rise higher in the animal scale.
This is the general fact or tendency Avhich pre-
dominates in the progressive development of the
circulatory apparatus.

The same tendency is to be met with in organisms
in the act of formation, whether we examine the
development of a normal germ, or whether we study
the manner in which certain accidental tissues are
constituted. The area vasculosa, in which the
embryo of the bird seems to draw the first elements
necessary to its evolution, presents at first nothing

VOL. L T

274 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

more tlian a sort of membranous disc hollowed out Into
irregular lacuna. These may be regarded, according
to M. Milne Edwards, as so many small lakes commu-
nicating with one another by means of tortuous canals.
In proportion as the organisation of the embryo
advances, these canals become enlarged, the lakes
change into streams, and the canals which had at
first been simply hollowed out of the actual substance
of the tissues, becoming enclosed, are invested with
a tubular membrane, and thus pass into the condi-
tion of vessels properly so called. Precisely simi-
lar phenomena occur in the false membranes which
often supervene on an inflammatory affection of the
thoracic organs. Here also the plastic matter
becomino; oro;anised under the abnormal influence of
excessive vitality, gives rise to lacunae, which becom-
ing converted into vessels, are soon brought into
communication with some of the pre-existing branches
of the circulating system. In the presence of such
an array of facts, derived from wholly different
sources, it seems scarcely unreasonable to think that
the same order of things may be generally present,
and that usually, if not always, a lacuna has preceded
a vesseL

Such, indeed, was the conclusion at which M. Milne
Edwards arrived in opposition to the cellular theory
of Schwann, one of the most distinguished pupils of
the celebrated Miiller.* Accordino; to the German
physiologist, all parts of the animal body have been
primarily composed of simple cells. This universal

* [A sketch of the scientific labours of Professor Miiller is given
in the Appendix, Note XVL]

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 275

element, by its gradual development and modification,
would produce, according to circumstances, either
muscular fibres, the parenchyma of the glands, or the
matrix of the osseous tissue. According to the same
theory, the vessels are in like manner cells, which
being at first spherical, become gradually elongated,
until, combining together, they constitute by their
reunion the thousand vascular ramifications of the
body.

This theory numbers amongst its partisans many
distinguished physiologists. It is certainly highly
attractive from its simplicity, and from the manner
in which it enables us to embrace all the phenomena
of development, while it establishes the existence of
ultimate relations between the two great divisions
of organised creation. A similar theory has indeed
been long adopted by botanists, who regard it as the
expression of all the facts to be observed in plants.
We have seen, however, that the case is different
with respect to animals, although here we believe
that the cellular theory furnishes several useful
results. It may be well adapted to guide us in the
study of certain animal tissues which present remote
relations to those of plants ; but when applied to the
entire animal kingdom, it can no longer be accepted
as true.

We will add another example to those already
given. It had long been known that in the Ano-
donta — a species of fresh-water mussel, very common
in the neighbourhood of Paris — the heart is traversed
by the last portion of the intestine. M. Edwards,
moreover, in studying the organisation of the Pa-

T 2

276 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

iellse and the Haliotides, has recognised that in these
Molluscs, the aorta (or large artery given off directly
from the heart) encloses a portion of the buccal
apparatus. These curious facts cannot be explained
by the cellular theory. Indeed, we cannot under-
stand how a cell, in the course of its development,
could enclose, within its interior, organs which had
first been situated outside of it ; it would rather
tend to displace them in proportion as it increased
in volume. It is easy, on the contrary, to suppose
that these organs which have been formed in the
midst of a perfectly free space, must have been sur-
rounded by walls which, being subsequently formed,
convert the lacuna into a vessel or a heart.

The general ideas of which we have endeavoured
to give a brief abstract, met, as we have already
remarked, with a most violent opposition. They
were stigmatised with the epithets of incredible,
absurd, and ridiculous ; whilst many of the facts on
which they were based, were regarded as impossible.
It was at Paris, we regret to say, that this opposition
was most strongly manifested, which would have been
worthy of respect if it had always originated in
purely scientific and conscientious convictions ; but
it unfortunately was too often to be attributed to
motives of personal rivalry. Foreigners, in a more
disinterested spirit, comprehended the value of these
results, and promptly recognised and accepted them.
The most distinguished physiologists of England,
Belgium, Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, gave
these questions their most serious attention ; and
the greater number soon expressed their concurrence

THE COASTS OF SICILY. 277

in these newly enounced views. In France, even,
the importance of these ideas could not be wholly de-
nied, and they soon forced themselves on the attention
of the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, which certainly
cannot be accused of any inconsiderate love of scientific
innovation. In several of his public lectures, M.
Andral developed these new theories, exposed and
demonstrated the facts on which they were based,
and the important consequences which might result
from them by aiding us to arrive at a more exact
appreciation of many of the physiological and pa-
thological phenomena which are daily observed in
the human subject. We see, therefore, that a careful
study of the inferior animals is not to be regarded as
purely speculative — a view which is unfortunately
still too generally adopted.

T 3

APPENDIX

Note I.

Among those persons into whose hands these volumes
may fall, there will probably be some who are not well
acquainted with the different branches of natural history,
and who are most especially deficient in the knowledge
of the names and distribution of zoological groups. I
have, therefore, considered that it would be desirable to
furnish my readers with a brief synopsis of classification,
which might at the same time serve as a kind of
vocabulary. In order to avoid entering too much into
detail, I have limited myself to the enumeration of
classes (passing over the subordinate groups), orders,
families, and genera. Those readers who may desire to
advance further into this department of natural history,
and who may be anxious to examine plates of the animals
they are studying, will do well to consult, as works of
general reference, the elementary treatises of M. Milne
Edwards, more particularly his Elements de Zoolnaip^ in
2 vols., and the illustrated edition of Cuvier's Regne
Animal, published under the direction of his most distin-
guished pupils.

Adopting in this respect the ideas first enounced by
several German authors, we will admit the existence of
four kingdoms of nature — viz. the mineral, vegetable,
animal and hominal kingdoms. Man is the exclusive re-
presentative of the last of these kingdoms, which, there-

T 4

280

RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

fore, includes only one species ; this unity, apart from all
other considerations, having been demonstrated by
modern science.

ANIMAL
KINGDOM.

Two Sub'kingdo
r Vertebra ta.
\ Invertebrata.

Four Classes.

( Mammaha.
Sub-kingdom of the J Aves.

Vertebrata.

Sub-kingdom of the
Invertebrata.

I Reptilia.
|_ Pisces.

Thi-ee Divisions.

Articulata.

Molhisca.

Radiata.

Division of
Articulata.

Sub-division of

True
Articulata.

Two Sub-divisions.

("True Articulata.
\ Vermes.

Sub-division of
Vermes.*

Five Classes.

"Insecta
jVIyriapoda ■
Arachnida -
Crustacea
Cirrhopoda -

Seven Classes.
I'Annelida

Rotifera
j Gephyria
Lumbricini
Hirudinei
Turbellaria
l_Helrainthes

Examples.

Beetles, Butterflies, Flies.
Scolopendra, Centipede.
Spiders, Scorpions, Mites.
Crayfish, Crabs, Wood-lice.
Acorn-shells.

Sabella, Hermella, and al-
most all the Marine
Worms.

Rotifer, Hydatina.

Sipunculus, Echiurus.

Earth-worm, Nais.

Leeches, Branchellion.

Planaria, Nemertes.

Intestinal worms.

* In order not to complicate these essentially elementary tables, I
have not represented the collateral affinities or analogies, to which I
long ago drew attention, and which are now recognised by the most
distinguished naturalists. I would here observe that I subdivide
the Vermes into two series, characterised by the union of the two
sexes in one individual, or by their separation in two individuals.

APPENDIX.

281

Division of

MOLLUSCA.

Sub- division of the
Trde Mollusca.

Two Sub-divisions.

f True Mollusca.
\ MoUuscoida.

Five Classes.
Cephalopoda -

Pteropoda
Gasteropoda -

Acephala

Examples.

Cuttle-fish, Octopus, Cala-
mary.

Hyalea, Clio.

Snails, Slugs, Whelks, Cow-
ries,

Oysters, Mussels, Ship-

|_Brachiopoda - Terebratula, Lingula.

Two Classes.

fTuuicata
Sub-division of the!
MoLLuscoiDA. j Bryozoa

Biphora, Simple and Com-
pound Ascidians.

Plumatella, Alcyonella, Es-
chara, Flustra.

Division of the
Radiata or
Zoophytes.

Two Sub-divisions.

Radiated Zoophytes.
Globular Zoophytes.

From this distinction result corresponding terms or zoological ana-
logies^ of which I subjoin a table that has been drawn up in ac-
cordance with the present state of science.

Dioecious Vermes (sexes separate).
Annelida
Rotifera
Grephyria (?)
Malacobdellse
Miocoeles
Nematodes

Monoecious Vermes (sexes
united in the same individual).

- Lumbricini.

Hirudinei.
Turbellarise.

------ Cestoides.

For further information regarding the question of the two series
the reader may consult my memoirs on the Polyophthalmia, and on
the nervous system in the Leeches and Earth-worms {Ann. des Sc.
Naturelles, ^^ serie, t. xiii. et xviii.), as well as Van Beneden's
work, entitled Les Vers Cestoides ou Acotyles.

282 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Three Classes. Exaiuples.

'Echinodermata Sea-urchins, Star-fishes, Ho-
lothurias.
Sub-division of the Acalephse - Jelly-fishes, Beroes, Stepha-
Radiated <| nomias.

Zoophytes. I Polypi - Coral-animals, Sea Anemo-

nies. Fresh-water Hy-
1^ dras.

Two Classes.
Sub-division of the | p^^ .^^^.^ . r^^^ g^^^^^^^

ZooPHTTEr J Iiifiisoria.* - Monads, Volvoces, Amoeba.

Note II.

The Rotifers of which we have spoken were discovered
by Leuwenhoeck, who was the first to recognise the sin-
gular property which these animals possess of alternately
dying and being resuscitated, according as they are
dried or provided with the water necessary for the main-
tenance of their vitality. These Rotifers have become
the type of a class, which is already very numerous and
of which many species, undergoing the same conditions
of life, also possess the same faculties. Besides these
Rotifers, the Tardigrades, which belong to the Acari, and
are consequently included in the class of the Arachni-
dans, and certain Paste-eels, which belong to the Helmin-

* The place at present assigned by zoologists to the Infusoria
must be regarded merely as provisional. The extreme minuteness
of these animals renders their study very difficult, and it is daily
becoming more probable that this group is far from being homo-
geneous, and that it contains a great number of organisms (minute
vegetable forms, larval worms, &c.) which have nothing in common
except their smallness. The most important modern contributions
to the history of the Infusoria, are those of Ehrenberg and
Dujardin, especially Ehrenberg's splendid volume, entitled Die
Infusions-Thierchen, Berlin, 1838, and Dujardin's Histoire des
Infusoires, Paris, 1841, published in the Suites a Buffon.

APPENDIX. 283

thes, have all shown similar phenomena. These species
are all of very minute dimensions. It will probably
not be unwelcome to our readers if we give them some
of the principal results which have been obtained from
the study of these curious animals.

Leuwenhoeck *, Baker f , and Spallanzani J, made their

* Leuwenhoeck, who was born at Delft, in Holland, in 1 632, and
died in 1723, is justly regarded as the founder of micrography.
His long life was devoted to the study of the world of infinitesimal
beings, and to the improvement of the instruments adapted for
these observations. The compound microscopes known in his day
were very imperfect, and subject to many errors, which induced
Leuwenhoeck to employ only simple microscopes, that is to say, very
small lenses of short focal lengths, which he made himself, and
fixed between two plates of metal, that had been pierced with a
very narrow opening. Each instrument was only intended to serve
for a small number of objects, and Leuwenhoeck always kept a
great many of these glasses by him in readiness for use. The
collection of these microscopes, which he bequeathed to the Royal
Society of London, consists of twenty-six plates, all provided with
their several lenses. It was by means of these simple instruments,
that he made those numerous observations which have won for him
a European reputation. During his stay in Holland, Peter the
Great came to visit him, and by way of acknowledgment of the
honour done him, the micrographer showed the czar the circulation
of the blood in the tail of an eel. Notwithstanding his assiduous
labours Leuwenhoeck preserved excellent sight to the end of his
life — a blessing which has not been the lot of all his imitators.

f Henry Baker was born in London, and died in 1774. He was
one of the precursors of the Abbe de I'Epee, but while he devoted
his attention to the discovery of methods for teaching deaf mutes
the art of speaking, he also made many micrographical observations,
and Spallanzani speaks of him in terms of high commendation.

J The Abbe Spallanzani, who was one of the most remarkable
savants of the eighteenth century, was born at Scandiano, in 1729,
and in early life distinguished himself by his literary acquirements,
while he also held the chair of Logic, Metaphysics, and Greek
Philosophy at Reggio. He soon, however, devoted his attention

284 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

observations exclusively upon Rotifers which had been
taken from the dust that had collected round the gutters
on the tops of houses. These animals certainly occur in
such localities, but in much smaller quantities than in
the little tufts of moss which shoot up between the tiles
and slates on the house-tops, whilst very few are to be
met with among the moss that grows upon walls cemented
with lime. Our observations upon the Rotifers apply
equally to different species of Tardigrades, which are of
much more rare occurrence. They may be obtained by
moistening moss and then squeezing it as if it were
a sponge, when the water which flows from it will
dislodge both the sand and the animalcules which in-
habit it.

Although the different species that I have indicated
may die. and be resuscitated several times in succession,

exclusively to the natural sciences, which he was called upon to
teach at the University of Pavia, where he remained for the rest
of his life. He died in 1799. Spallanzani has left a large number
of memoirs and many works, the most important of which have
been translated into French by Sennebier, the librarian of Geneva.
Spallanzani may be regarded as one of the founders of experimental
physiology, and his researches on digestion and generation prove
that he possessed, in a most exceptional degree, a true genius for
experimentalising. Modern science has undoubtedly added to his
discoveries in reference to these difficult questions, but it has in no
respect changed the general results at which he arrived, and if he
was occasionally less happy in his microscopical observations, the
fault may be especially referred to the imperfect instruments then
in use. In his zeal for science he often made himself the subject of
his experiments, not unfrequently at the risk of his life. He
displayed a similar ardour in his scientific travels ; thus, when he
was anxious to confirm his observations on volcanoes for his work
on the Two Sicilies, he, although at the time more than sixty years
of age, approached the crater of Stromboli when it was in a state of
eruption, and ventured so near the burning lava of Vesuvius, that
he very nearly experienced the same fate as Pliny the Elder.

APPENDIX. 285

this faculty has its limits, and each experiment generally
proves fatal to one or more individuals. Thus in alter-
nately drying and moistening the same sand, we shall find
that on each repetition of the process a smaller number
of animalcules come to life. Spallanzani in his experi-
ments on the Rotifers did not find that any of them re-
vived after the sixteenth alternation of draught and
humidity; Paste-eels, however, bore seventeen of these
experiments.* This diminution of the singular faculties
possessed by these animals is equally apparent after they
have been kept for a long period of time. Spallanzani,
after having well dried some sand, which was very rich
in Rotifers, kept it for more than three years, merely
moistening some portions of it every five or six months.
He found that the number of individuals which were
thus resuscitated, continued to diminish progressively,
and it is much to be regretted that this able observer did
not continue his experiments somewhat longer. Baker,
however, who after Needham continued to observe Paste-
eels, went still farther ; for he kept the paste from which
they had been taken, without moistening it in any way,
for twenty-seven years, and at the end of that time he
found that the eels revived on being immersed in a drop of
water. If they had exhausted their life all at once, and
without any intermissions, these Rotifers and Paste-eels
would not have lived beyond sixteen or eighteen days.

* These Anguillulse, whose name alone is sufficient to indicate
their general form, were discovered by Needham, a distinguished
naturalist of the eighteenth centm-y. He was born in 1713, and
successively resided at Lisbon, London, and Paris, where he occu-
pied himself with microscopical investigations conducted under the
directions of Buffon. Having been called to Brussels to direct the
organisation of the Academy which had been founded by Maria
Theresa, he settled in that city, and remained there until his death
in 1781.

286 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

The Tardigrades, and those eel-like creatures which
are found in the same locality with the Kotifers, furnished
Spallanzani with phenomena entirely similar to those of
which I have been speaking.

These results, which were confirmed in the last
century, have been generally received as exact, and were
explained by the extreme simplicity of organisation,
which was supposed to be the attribute of all these
animals. But after Ehrenberg* showed that a rela-
tively high organisation was in no way incompatible
with microscopical dimensions, and when he published

* Ehrenberg, a German by birth, a corresponding member of our
Institute, and perpetual secretary to the Academy of Sciences at
Berlin, has perhaps exercised a greater and more useful influence
than any other living naturalist. He was probably the first in
Germany who attacked the basis of that obscure system of those
philosophers of nature, which had predominated so much amongst
Germans ; and he has great merit for having directed the zoological
and physiological sciences in the path of observation and experiment.
Ehrenberg is especially celebrated for his researches on the smallest
forms of organic life — observations which have justly placed him in
the first rank of modern micrographers. His discoveries on the
organisation of the Infusoria and Rotifera gave a new impulse to
this department of science, which had not advanced since the times
of Leuwenhoeck and O. F. Miiller. His researches on Fossil
Infusoria prove that these infinitely small beings have left much
more considerable traces in the geological strata of the globe than
even mastodons or elephants. Finally, his memoirs on the organic
structure of some of the lower animals of larger size, and amongst
others the Medusae, have served as the starting point from whence
have emanated numerous researches which are still being prose-
cuted, and which have completely changed the ideas that had been
entertained of fully the half of the animal creation. Among the
numerous writings of Ehrenberg, we may especially cite his great
works on the Infusoria, entitled Die Infusions- Thierchen als
volkommene Organismen and Mikroyeologie, as well as his memoirs
on the organisation of the Acalephse, and all his publications on
Fossil Infusoria.

APPENDIX. 287

his splendid researches on Hydatina senta, and demon-
strated that this near ally of the Rotifers possessed a
most unexpected complication of organs, some doubts
began to arise. It was then asked, whether desiccation
had been thorough and complete in the individuals ex-
perimented upon by Spallanzani, Baker, and their cotem-
poraries. A naturalist who had been led by his previous
researches to direct his attention to this question, pursued
the inquiry with the rigour which characterises modern
investigations.* Mosses filled with the different species
of which we have spoken were desiccated under the
receiver of the air-pump. They were left there for a
week, being placed by the side of vessels filled with
sulphuric acid, which would absorb every trace of
humidity. On being removed, the mosses were placed
in a stove, the temperature of which was raised as high
as 267° Fahr., and yet, when they were again immersed
in water, I am able to testify conjointly with MM.
Dumas, Edwards and De Jussieu, that a certain number
of individuals had resisted all these trials, and became
as lively as if nothing had happened. Not a doubt,
therefore, remained in our minds as to the exactness
of the facts announced by Spallanzani.

In order to conform to the expressions in common use I
adopt the words death and resuscitation, but a false idea
would be formed of my meaning were these words to be
taken in their rigorous and strict signification. When a
Rotifer is dried, withered, and loses its power of inotion, and
when it thus assumes the appearance of a shapeless grain
of dust, there is no actual death ; life is only suspended

* M. Doyere has published, in the Annates des Sciences Nat,
1841, an anatomical work of the highest interest on the anatomy
of the Tardigrades. His experiments on the revivification of the
Eotifers, Paste-eels, and Tardigrades, appeared in the same peri-
dical in 1842.

288 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

in it, or, to speak more exactly, has become latent. This
adult animal is thus brought into a condition, through
which a great number of germs have passed, as for
instance, almost all seeds, and even the bird's egg. The
eg^ in the body of the mother participates in the life
of the individual which gives it birth ; it then becomes
individualised, and life ceases to be manifested in it by
sensible phenomena, but it is not on that account to be
regarded as dead. Once laid, the Qgg may be preserved
for a very long time, provided it be placed in certain
circumstances of drying, cold, &c.

If, however, it be placed under a hen which is sitting,
or if even it be merely introduced into one of those
apparatuses which the ancient Egyptians knew so well
how to construct on a large scale, life will soon be
manifested within it, and the germ will revive from
its torpor and become developed. In this egg, therefore,
life must have been for a long time present, although in
the latent state. This explanation must not be regarded
as too rash; for the physical world presents us with many
very similar facts. The heat which is expended in melt-
ing ice, or in converting a liquid into vapour, disappears
so thoroughly, that the thermometer can no longer detect
its presence ; but it is not, therefore, destroyed, it is only
concealed ; that is to say, it has passed into the latent
state.

The phenomenon which we observe when Rotifers,
Paste-eels, and Tardigrades, are desiccated, is of a pre-
cisely similar character. In all living organisms a certain
quantity of water is necessary for the exercise of the
functions, that is to say, for the manifestations of life.
By removing this water, we suspend these manifestations.
In most animals, such suspensions cannot take place
without injuring the organism to so great a degree as to
prevent the accomplishment of its functions, in which

APPENDIX. 289

case real death is induced. That which is exceptional,
therefore, in these species is, that desiccation in their
case produces merely a sort of syncope from which they
recover on being supplied with water.

A certain number of the lower plants present pheno-
mena precisely similar to those which we have described
in the case of animals. We may here specially instance
the Nostoc, one species of which is not uncommon. This
Alga when well developed presents itself under the form
of brownish or dull green folded or even crumpled
patches, about one-fifth or one-sixth of an inch in thick-
ness, and sometimes as much as from two to three inches
in diameter. These patches shrivel up under the action
of dryness, until they are scarcely visible, but a shower
of rain is sufficient to restore them to their former
dimensions.* It follows from the experiments of Spallan-
zani and of Leman that when the Nostoc is dry, vegeta-
tion is arrested, and that it recommences as soon as the
organism is again furnished with water. We think,
however, that the observations which have been made
on this plant are scarcely so precise as those on the
Rotifers and Tardigrades.

Note in.

We draw a distinction in physics between the simple
microscope, and the compound microscope. The former is,
in fact, nothing more than a lens constructed of one or two
glasses. In this instrument the observer looks directly

* M. Dujardin has made us acquainted with the extremely
simple structure of the Nostocs. The entire plant is formed of
strings of greenish microscopical globules immersed in a trans-
parent mucilaginous substance. (See Memoire sur le Nostoc, and
le Manuel complet de V Observateur au Microscope, by M. F.
Dujardin.)

VOL. I. U

290 E AMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

at the object which he wishes to examine. The second
may be considered as a combination of two lenses, one of
which, the object-glass, serves to produce in the body of
the instrument an image which is received by the other
(the eye-piece), which transmits it to the eye. In the
compound microscope, the observer, properly speaking,
does not look at the object itself, but at the image of the
object.

Simj^le microscopes, or, to speak in more general terms,
magnifying glasses, appear to have been known to the
ancients ; at least, among the engraved stones which
have come down to us from Greek or Roman artists,
there are some in which the truly microscopical details
cannot be seen by the naked eye, and it is therefore very
difficult to suppose that they could have been executed
without the employment of some auxiliary agent. It
mio-ht, however, be suggested that the ancients made use,
for the purpose, of simple glass spheres, filled with water,
similar to the one which Seneca employed to read small
and indistinct written characters.

Soon after the invention of spectacles, that is to say,
towards the beginning of the fourteenth century, it would
at all events appear that lenses, properly so called, were
fabricated, and that attempts had been made to render
their mao-nifying powers more considerable. All the
early micrographers used simple lenses, which, as in
the case of Leuwenhoeck, they frequently fabricated for
themselves ; and the splendid discoveries of Malpighi *,

* Malpighi, a celebrated Italian physician and anatomist, was
born in the neighbourhood of Bologna in 1628 ; after having been
Professor of Anatomy at the University of that city, he successively
filled the same post at the Universities of Pisa and Messina'
Having been called to Rome as physician to Pope Innocent XII.,
he took up his abode in that city, where he died in 1 694. Mal-
pighi may be considered as one of the founders of Comparative
Anatomy and Experimental Physiology.

APPENDIX. 291

Swammerdam *, and Lyonnet f were made by instruments
such as these. The numerous difficulties which attended
the fabrication of such small lenses, induced several ob-
servers to endeavour to find some substitute for them.
In this manner successive trials were made with pure
water, sulphuric acid, and castor oil, which were used

* Swammerdam Avas born at Amsterdam in 1637, and died in
1680, from the effects of a hypochondriacal affection aggravated
by excessive devotion to study. In one of his fits of melancholy he
threw a great part of his manuscript into the fire, imagining that it
was an offence against God to attempt to unravel the anatomical
structure of insects ! On another occasion he sold for a paltry sum
a mass of his manuscripts, which were recovered at a great cost by
Boerhaave, and published under the title of Biblia Naturce. Swam-
merdam appears to have been one of the first who practised the art
of anatomical injections ; but his chief celebrity rests upon his
anatomical researches on Insects,

f Lyonnet, -who was born at Maestricht, and died at the Hague
in 1789, devoted himself for a time to the study of the bar, and
even pleaded several important causes. By way of relaxation he
employed himself in studying the natural sciences, and more
especially the history of Insects. He had originally intended to
publish a general -work on the subject, but having been annoyed to
find that several of his discoveries had already been published by
other naturalists, he resolved to undertake a work in which he
would not have to fear competition from any one. With this
object in view, he undertook to study the anatomy of an Insect
more thoroughly in detail than human anatomy had ever been
studied, and he chose a species of Phalena or Moth, whose larva
gnaws the bark of willow trees, elms, &c. (Cossus ligidperda).
Lyonnet had proposed to himself to study successively the larva or
caterpillar, the nympha or chrysalis, and the perfect insect ; but
in consequence of his public duties he was unable for several years
to do more than complete the first part of his work. This treatise,
which was entitled le Traite anatomique de la Chenille du Sauk,
appeared in 1762, in a large quarto volume, accompanied by eighteen
plates, which had been engraved by the author himself. " This
work," says Cuvier, " is the chef-d'oeuvre of anatomy and engrav-
ing " — a eulogy which it merits even at the present day.

u 2

292 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

by suffering a very small drop to fall upon an opening
cut in a metallic plate. The liquid, which of itself
assumed a somewhat spherical form, was thus, for a time
at least, able to serve in the place of a lens. Canada
balsam, turpentine, and several different varnishes were
also employed for the same purpose.

One of those chances of which superior minds alone
know how to avail themselves secured to the microgra-
phers of the day that of which they had so long been in
search. In 1665, a young Dutchman, named Hartsoeker,
when holding a glass thread in the flame of a candle,
perceived that the melted extremity assumed a spherical
form.* Hartsoeker who had seen Leuwenhoeck manufac-
ture lenses, now attempted to place his own little spheres
of glass between two pieces of lead, through which he
made an apei^ture with the point of a pin ; on observing a
hair with this instrument he discovered to his great joy
that he was the possessor of a capital microscope. From
that time microscopists very often employed Hartsoeker's
method, and Le Baillif, amongst others, enjoyed for a
long period of his life a great reputation for his skill
in arranging such glasses.

All the lenses of which we have spoken present great
inconveniences, for their use is fatiguing to the eye, the
field of view is very limited, and the magnification is
never very great. In 1813, the celebrated English

* Hartsoeker, who was born in 1647, and died in 1725, was only
eighteen years of age when he discovered the art of constructing
simple microscopes with a glass thread. This discovery has, how-
ever, been disputed, and some authors have ascribed it, perhaps
justly, to the celebrated English mathematician Hooke, to whom
we owe the invention of portable watches. Hartsoeker made use of
the globules to prosecute some very interesting inquiries, and he
contests with Leuwenhoeck the claim to the discovery of those
animalcules which since their time have been found to exist in the
generative fluid of all animals.

APPENDIX. 293

natural philosopher, Sir David Brewster, suggested that
diamonds should be used in the construction of simple
microscopes. Pritchard of London, and C. Chevalier
and Oberhaiiser of Paris, made several attempts to
carry this suggestion into eiFect, and they constructed
several lenses of precious stones. The results, however,
did not answ^er the expectations which had been enter-
tained, and it was soon found necessary to relinquish the
use of such costly materials. Opticians were then led to
reconsider an idea which had been repeatedly throwni out,
but which it remained for Wollaston to deveiope with his
usual talent. This idea consisted in the superposition of
several lenses, and at last, in 1829, C. Chevalier, follow-
ing the principle of the English philosopher, constructed
his doublet, which yields to the observer almost ail the
advantages that can be obtained from a simple microscope.
This instrument consists of a compound lens of two
plano-convex glasses separated by a diaphragm, and
whose plane sides are both directed towards the object.
This lens is supported by a small solidly fixed beam,
whose horizontal arm may be turned in every direction
above the object.

The history of the compound microscope exhibits
far less continuous progress than that of the simple
microscope. This instrument, which was, very pro-
bably, invented by Galileo *, in 1612, or perhaps by

* This illustrious astronomer, -whose name is one of the most
familiar in science, was born at Florence in 1564, and died in
1642. From his youth he had devoted himself to mathematics, and
he lectured on this science at the Universities of Pisa and Padua.
Having heard of the discovery of the telescope in Holland, Galileo
immediately tried to construct an instrument of the kind, and soon
invented the telescope which still bears his name. With this
instrument he discovered the phases of Venus, the Sun's spots, and
Jupiter's satellites. The result of his astronomical discoveries
u 3

294 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Drebbel* in 1619, was at first a kind of telescope six
feet in length, and sometimes from six to seven inches in
diameter. Although it was modified by different phy-
sicists, it remained until a comparatively recent date in
so imperfect a condition, that observers looked upon it
chiefly as a sort of experimental toy, and therefore con-
tented themselves with using a simple microscope.

The greatest defect of the compound microscope was
that the images were confused, and their outlines marked
with coloured fringes. This defect depends upon the
very nature of light, and for a long time it appeared
impossible to correct it. However, the attentive study
of the human eye led to the discovery of means
for making magnifying glasses achromatic. In 1757^
an English instrument maker, DoUond, constructed tele-
scopes which were perfectly achromatic.

Hence it seemed the simplest thing to apply the same
process to the microscope, but the difficulty increases so
much with the smallness of the glasses, that DoUond
himself does not appear to have made the attempt, for
we find that his microscopes remained unchanged.

confirmed him more and more in the ideas which he had already
entertained in relation to the movement of our globe, and from that
moment he maintained the system of Copernicus with a tenacity and
energy that drew upon him the rigours of the Inquisition. It is
well known that at the very moment in which, to escape from this
terrible tribunal he had abjured what were termed his errors, he
exclaimed in striking his foot on the ground, " and yet it moves."
Distinguished in physics no less than in astronomy, Galileo
discovered the laws of the pendulum and the weight of the
atmosphere, which his disciple Torricelli fully demonstrated by
inventing the barometer.

* Drebbel was a celebrated alchemist, who was born in Holland,
and died in London in 1634. To him is attributed the invention of
the thermometer and the discovery of the means of producing a
bright and permanent scarlet dye.

APPENDIX. 295

It was only at the beginning of the present century
that any serious attempts were made to solve this problem
of applied optics. In 1816, the distinguished optician
Frauenhofer, of Munich, constructed a tolerably perfect
microscope, although it had only a low magnifying
power. At the meeting of the Academy of Sciences,
April 5th, 1824, M. Selligue, one of our most ingenious
mechanicians, exhibited an achromatic microscope, con-
structed according to his own plan by MM. Yincent
and Charles Chevalier. From this moment the most
rapid progress was made in the construction of micro-
scopes. In 1825, the Chevaliers, and in 1827, M.
Amici *, constructed instruments very superior to those
of their predecessors. That constructed by M. Amici,
more especially, excited the warmest expressions of ad-
miration when it was brought to Paris; but it was
nevertheless excelled in 1834 by that of M. C. Cheva-
lier. About this time, MM. Oberhaiiser and Trecourt
devised their platine a tourbillon, while they also im-
proved their lenses. A systematic competition was now
established between them and the Chevaliers, by which
science profited very considerably. Subsequently to
this, M. Dujardinl invented his excellent illuminating

* M. Amici, ■who is a Professor of Physics at Modena, has
attached his name to several optical instruments. He has invented
a catoptric microscope, a new camera lucida, &c. M, Amici himself
constructs the glasses which he uses for his instruments, and he has
thus succeeded in obtaining more powerful and perfect object-
glasses than any of his competitors. His glasses, however, possess
the very serious defect of being easily affected by moisture ; and I
have heard of one instance in which an object-glass, that was
bought of the learned Professor for a thousand francs, was utterly
unfit for use after having been carried for some way by sea,
although it had actually never been employed by its owner.

f M. Dujardin, one of the most distinguished of our naturalists,
is now Professor of Zoology in the Faculty of Sciences at Eennes,
U 4

296 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

apparatus, M. Oberhaiiser devised his microscope pan-
cratique, while the Nachets added several ingenious ac-
cessories to their special movement. The impulse which
had been given to this branch of scientific invention
originated in France, but was soon followed in other
countries, and it may be said that the possible limits
which micrographers hoped to attain thirty years ago
have long since been exceeded.

The qualities which a good microscope ought to possess
are to give the image with distinctness. The observer
ought to be able to see as well in his instrument as
he sees on the table at the distance of distinct vision.
Our skilful workmen of the present day can fulfil these
requirements until they reach a magnification of 400 or
450 diameters.* Beyond that limit, the outlines become
less clear, and the images grow more and more confused.
However, it is sometimes of use to go higher than this,
and we may even, if we wish it, exceed a thousand

after having held the chair of Geology in the Faculty of Sciences at
Toulouse. This fact is in itself sufficient to indicate a variety of
acquisitions, whose extent can only be appreciated by those who
are personally acquainted with him. M. Dujardin has especially
devoted his attention to the lower organisms, and, in this respect, he
has enriched science with many extremely important discoveries.
"NVe may instance, amongst others, the fundamental fact which he
discovered in reference to the Rhizopoda, which, according to this
observer, can fabricate for themselves, as it were, the members
which may be momentarily necessary to them, this being effected
by means of the homogeneous substance of their body. Indepen-
dently of a very great number of special memoirs, which for the
most part have appeared in the Annales des Sciences Naturelles,
M. Dujardin has published, in the Suites a Buffon, works on the
Infusoria and on Intestinal Worms.

* The magnifying power of a microscope or lens is estimated in
diameters. To obtain the magnification of the entire surface, we
must square the given number ; thus, a magnifying power of 450
diameters will in reality enlarge the object 202,500 times. ^

APPENDIX. 297

diameters with a sufficiently strong light.* It is necessary
that the instrument should be solidly mounted, and should
admit of being easily worked. The more simple it is,
the less space will it occupy, and consequently it will be
the more readily adapted to the requirements of the ob-
server. Some of the arrangements adopted in our day
seem to be so perfect as to leave nothing to be desired. f

Note IV.

M. Milne Edwards, who is a member of the Institute
(Academy of Sciences), Professor at the Jardin des
Plantes, and in the Faculty of Sciences of Paris, is
incontestably one of the leaders of zoology in its present
state. His labours, which are as important as they are
numerous, have justly secured to him the high position
which he holds, whilst his elementary works have
rendered his name universally popular. M. Milne Ed-
wards, at an early age, made the Invertebrata the
objects of his scientific research, and he soon understood
that in order distinctly to comprehend the history
of these animals, it was necessary to study them in their
native habitats. In association with his friend and fellow-
labourer, M. Audouin, he was the first to set the ex-
ample of those prolonged sojourns on the sea coast which
are alone able to afford opportunities for the serious

* A magnifying power of a thousand diameters -vrill enlarge the
surface of the ohject 1,000,000 times. It will be readily understood
that the clearness of the images must of necessity diminish in
proportion to the height of the magnifying power, since the same
quantity of light has here to form a much larger image.

f See for farther details, M. Dujardin's Manual, and the work
of M. C. Chevalier, to which we are indebted for the principal
historical details already given. This treatise is entitled, Des
Microscopes et de leur xisage, [We may refer our English readers to
Quekett's Practical Treatise on the use of the Microscope.']

298 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

study of those animals to which at the present day so
much interest is attached, and their example has since
been often imitated. M. Edwards has published a very
considerable number of original memoirs in the Annales des
Sciences Naturelles, the zoological department of which .
has been under his direction for twenty years, and which
in his hands has become one of the most remarkable
scientific periodicals of the age.* Amongst the general
works of this naturalist we may instance, among others,
his Histoire des Crtistaces,^vhich. forms part of the Suites a
Buffon, his Histoire des PoJypiers, which was published
conjointly with M. J. Haime, and the Elements de Zoolo-
gie, which has become a classical text book.

The scientific merits of M. Edwards are not so much
dependent upon the number and extent of his labours
as upon their general tendencies. In addition to special
facts, the author has always sought for generalities.

Thus, after having given the anatomy of the Crusta-
ceans, he adds a memoir on the teguraentary skeleton of
these animals, which is entirely conceived in the spirit of
the philosophical schools, although executed with a rigour
which is very often wanting in works of that nature.
His elucidation of the general history of these Articulata
necessarily led to the consideration of their geographical

* The Annales des Sciences Naturelles first appeared in 1824,
vinder the joint direction of MM. Audouin, Brongniart and Dumas,
and -were then devoted equally to zoology, botany, geology, and
mineralogy. Since 1834 the two latter sciences have not been
included, and the second series, which continued to appear for ten
years, was under the direction of MM. Audouin and Edwards for
zoology, and MM. Brongniart, Guillemin, and Decaisne for botany.
In 1844 the third series was commenced, the zoological depart-
ment being under the sole direction of M. Edwards, whilst
M^I. Brongniart and Decaisne superintended that of botany. In
1854 the Annales entered upon their fourth series under the same
editors.

APPENDIX. 299

distribution, and this study led him to the theory of the
centres of creation, — a view which is daily being con-
firmed by additional pal^eontological results. In his
works, as well as in his memoirs, M. Edwards has
always given great prominence to external description
and to anatomy, and moreover he never separates the
study of the function from that of the organs. It was
by assuming this point of view that he was led to pro-
pose the prificiple of the division of physiological labour,
a principle which has thrown an entirely new light upon
some of the most difficult questions in Zoology. M. Ed-
wards has given a general resume of his scientific views
in a work entitled Elements de Zoologie Ghierale.

We must not confound M. Milne Edwards, the zoologist,
with his elder brother, William Edwards, who was also
a member of the Institute (Academy of Moral and Po-
litical Sciences). This brother died at Paris in 1844,
and was much older than the zoologist. After having
studied medicine he first turned his attention to expe-
rimental physiology, and published on this subject a
capital work, which has been too much neglected
by some of our modern physiologists, and which bore
the title De Vljiftuence des Agents Physiques sur la Vie,
He afterwards turned his attention to ethnology, which
soon entirely absorbed him. His researches on the
Gaels and the Kimri, the results of which he applied to
several European nations, were the means of obtaining for
him a place in the Institute. The latter years of his life
Avere devoted to the prosecution of a great work on lan-
guages which he was unable to complete, and of which one
partappeared after his death under the iiilQoi Recherches
sur les Langues Celtiques.

Audouin, a member of the Institute (Academy of
Sciences) and Professor at the Jardin des Plantes, was
born at Paris, in 1797, and died in 1841. Although ori-

300 RAMBLES OF A NATUPwALIST.

ginally intended for the bar, and afterwards for the
medical profession, he nevertheless felt himself invin-
cibly drawn towards zoology, and a happy accident
aided him in this pursuit. In one of his entomological
excursions he was met by Al. Brongniart, who felt him-
self attracted towards the young student, in whom
he thought he recognised the same ardour by which he
was himself animated. He assisted him by his advice,
and Audouin derived so much benefit from their in-
tercourse, that he qualified himself to discharge the
duties of the chairs held by Lamarck* and Latreille "f,

* Lamarck, a membar of the Institute (Academy of Sciences)
and Professor at the Jardin des Plantes, Avas born at Bargentiu in
1744, and died at Paris in 1829. As the ^-ounger son of a noble
family, he had been destined for the church, and entered at the
Theological College ; but, on the death of his father, he made his
escape, and enlisted in the army under the command of Marechal de
Broglie. He very soon distinguished himself, and was raised to
the rank of lieutenant in consequence of his daring conduct in
action, but a serious ilhiess and the annoyances of the service
induced him very speedily to renounce the career of arms. He
came to Paris with the view of studying medicine, or rather of
following his favourite pm-suit of botany. About this time he
invented the dichotomic classification, which enables us very
readily to ascertain the name of the plant or animal which we may
desire to determine. Subsequently to this he published his Flore
Frarigaise, drawn up in accordance with his own views, which
Buffon caused to be printed at the royal press, and which achieved
a great success. He was soon nominated keeper of the collections
at the Jardin du Roi, and when the Convention reorganised the
Museum, he was appointed to lecture on the Invertebrata. He was
then nearly fifty years of age, and the subject was perfectly new to
him, yet he devoted himself so assiduously to the task that he
even succeeded before long in throwing an entirely new light upon
this imperfectly known subdivision of the animal kingdom. Unfor-
tunately his incessant labours injured his sight, and he became

f See next page for note.

APPENDIX. 301

both of whom had become aged and infirm. Having been
called upon to replace the latter of these distinguished
men, Audouin devoted himself to the study of entomo-
logy, and he was engaged in exploring the south of
France with the view of studying the insects which
attack the olive trees, when he was carried off by
a painful illness. MM. Audouin and Edwards, united
by a friendship which was never weakened by the simi-
larity of their aims and the identity of their objects,
published conjointly several memoirs, amongst others the
work to which we have often referred, en titled Recherches
sur le Littoral de la France. M. Audouin has also pub-

corapletely blind. This misfortune was, however, alleviated by the
cares of his daughter, who, to a certain extent, worked for him, and
wrote under his dictation. Lamarck has published a great number
of works, of which three are especially conspicuous from their size
and importance ; Flore Frangaise, Zoologie Philosophique, and espe-
cially the Histoire Naturelle des Animaux sans Vertcbres, which has
nobly earned for him the title of the French Linnaeus.

t Latreille, who received from his cotemporaries the title of the
Prince of Entomology, was born at Brives in 1762, and died at
Paris in 1833. He was a member of the Institute (Academy of
Sciences), and of almost all the Academies of Europe, yet few men
have led a more unostentatious, and even laborious life. First, as a
young man occupying the position of an obscure parish priest, he
narrowly escaped death during the evil times of the revolution.
Subsequently he filled the place of mere assistant at the Museum,
and did not attain the rank of professor until after the death of
Lamarck. " They give me bread to eat now that I have no teeth
left," he exclaimed on learning his nomination to the chair, which
he was destined to occupy for only four years. Science truly is
sometimes an unjust parent, for Latreille was one of her most
illustrious sons. By his publication of his Genera Crustaceorum et
Insectorum, he divided with Cuvier the honour of having introduced
the natural method into zoology. The greater number of his
other works are equally remarkable, and his Histoire des Crustaces
et Insectes is a work which serves as a model for all those which
may succeed it.

302 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

lished several memoirs on pure and applied Entomology;
amongst others an Elementary Treatise on the Tegu-
mentary Skeleton of Insects, a work on the Muscardine
and another on the Pyrale, which did not appear till
after his death.

Note V.
The controversy alluded to in the text regarding the
nature of these organisms applies to all polypes, including
those of the Coral. These animals had been described
and named as plants even by Marsigli, who carefully
studied them in their living state. Peysonnel, a surgeon
of the Royal French Navy, was the first to recognise the
veritable nature of their pretended flowers, and he made
known his discovery to Reaumur.* But this illustrious

* Reaumur, who was boru at La Rochelle in 1683, and died in
1757, deserves to be regarded as one of the most distinguished
scientific men of France. From his earliest age he devoted himself to
science, and all his labours were preceded by the serious study of
mathematics. His first memoirs on Geometry gained him admit-
tance to the Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty -four.
Although he was possessed of an independent fortune, he laboured
with unwearied ardour, and occupied himself with the most varied
subjects. Every one is aware of the fact, that he invented the
thermometer which bears his name. The practical arts are,
moreover, indebted to him for the suggestion of a method for trans-
forming forged iron into steel, while to him are also due several
improvements in the fabrication of porcelain, and the introduction
into France of the manufacture of articles of block-tin. It was,
however, in his works on natural history, that he exhibited the
greatest originality, and even true genius. He devoted his atten-
tion first to Molluscs and Zoophytes, not only with the view of
describing their external forms,but in order to discover and explain
the most obscure phenomena of their lives. It was also from this
point of view that he studied Insects ; and the work which he has
left on this subject, under the title of Memoir es pour servir a VHistoire
des Insectes, may be considered as a masterpiece of exact and
minute observation.

APPENDIX. 303

naturalist, pre-occupied with old ideas, and wishing as he
himself said, to respect the reputation of a fellow-
labourer, whose previous works he esteemed, did not
think it necessary immediately to communicate the
result to the Academy. He did, however, make it
known in 1727, but without himself adopting it. Pey-
sonnel's discovery was contested until the experiments
made by Trembley *, on the fresh-water hydra had exhi-
bited in the latter a naked type of the Coral Animal and
other Zoophytes. All doubts were at length finally re-
moved by the works of two members of the Academy,
Guettard f and Bernard de Jussieu, who, in 1741, visited
the sea coast with the view of verifying Peysonnel's
observations.

Note VI.

Kepler, who was born in Wiirtemburg in 1571,
and died at Ratisbon in 1630, was to a certain extent
the precursor of Newton. He was one of the first
who applied mathematics to physics ; he completed the
Rudolphine Tables, which had been begun by Tycho
Brahe %, reformed the Calendar, and published several

* Trembley, who ^vas born at Geneva in 1700, and died in 1784,
has immortalised his name by the discovery of the fresh-water
hydras, and by the curious and exact experiments which he made
on these animals.

t Guettard, a distinguished physician and mineralogist, was born
at Etampes in 1715, and died at Paris in 1786.

X Tycho Brahe, who was born in 1546, and died in 1601,
remains celebrated in the history of astronomy for his love of that
science and for the invention of a system which may be regarded
as intermediate between those of Ptolemy and Copernicus. Accord-
ing to him, the earth occupies the centre of our system, but the sun
in turning round the earth is accompanied by the superior planets,
which serve it in the capacity of satellites. This system, which
appeared to reconcile the progress achieved by modern science with

304 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

works on astronomy ; but of all his labours, that which
has rendered his name immortal is the discovery of the
laws of the motion of the planets and of the comets round
the sun. We will here give these laws, referring our
readers to works on astronomy for more ample details.

1st. The orbits of the planets and the comets are
ellipses, of which the sun occupies one of the foci.

2nd. The area described by the radius vector of a
planet or a comet in its movement round the sun, is pro-
portional to the time.

3rd. The squares of the times of the revolution of the
planets and comets round the sun are proportional to the
cubes of the mean distances from the sun.

It has been asserted that Kepler was led by accident
to these splendid mathematical discoveries, under the in-
stigation of those mystic ideas to which he so willingly
abandoned himself. We do not know what degree of
truth there may be in this allegation, but it is very certain
that this great astronomer was moved by deep religious
impressions. We possess a proof of this in the beautiful
prayer which terminates one of his works, and which has
been introduced in the opening part of Buckland's Reli-
qiiicB DiluviatKB. It will no doubt afford satisfaction to
our readers if we give a translation which has been
made of this prayer.

" Before I leave this table on which I have made all
my calculations, I must raise my eyes and my hands
towards heaven, and devoutly address my humble prayer
to the author of all light. O Lord, by the sublime light

the famous text in the Book of Joshua, was long held in high esteem
amongst theologians. It is now entirely exploded. Tycho Brahe
had erected his observatory of Uranibourg, on a little island of the
Baltic, which he rendered celebrated by his labours and by several
important discoveries.

APPENDIX. 305

which Thou hast spread over all nature, raise our desires
to the divine light of Thy grace, in order that we may
be, one day, transported into the eternal light of Thy
glory ! I give Thee thanks, Lord and Creator, for all the
pleasure that I have enjoyed, and for the ecstacy which
I have experienced from the contemi^lation of the work
of Thy hands. Now that I have completed this volume,
which contains the fruit of my labours, and have devoted
all the intelligence that Thou hast given me in composing
it, I proclaim before men all the greatness of Thy works ;
I have explained to them these evidences as far as it has
been permitted to my spirit to comprehend their infinite
extent. I have devoted all my energies to raise myself
to the height of truth, through the paths of philosophy ;
and if it has happened to me, a miserable worm, con-
ceived and nourished in sin, to say anything unworthy of
Thee, make me to know it, in order that I may efface
it. Have I suffered myself to be carried away by the
seductions of presumption in presence of the admirable
beauty of Thy works ? Have I thought too much of
my own renown amongst men by raising this monument
which ought to be consecrated entirely to Thy glory ?
O, if it be thus, receive me in Thy clemency and Thy
mercy, and grant me this grace that the work which I
have just completed may ever be powerless to do evil,
and may contribute to Thy glory and to the salvation of
souls ! "

Isaac Newton, who was born at Woolsthorpe in Lin-
colnshire, in 1642, and died in London in 1727, was one of
those geniuses of which all humanity may well be proud.
It is asserted that he had already made the greater
number of the discoveries which have immortalised his
name at the age of twenty-four. He has left several
treatises on Mathematics, Physics, and Astronnomy,
among the most remarkable of which we may instance

VOL. I. X

306 K AMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

liis Optics and his Principia ; and on the latter of these
rests his principal title to fame. In this work he has
developed, in a manner which all astronomers declare to
be truly admirable, the doctrine of universal attraction, —
a doctrine which has furnished a key to a host of pheno-
mena, and on which the entire system of modern astro-
nomy is based. Without going too much into details
which would carry us beyond the plan of this work, we
will briefly recapitulate the principles established by
Newton.

1st. All the particles of matter diffused through the
universe mutually attract one another directly as their
mass, and inversely as the square of the distance.

2nd. This force is independent of time, it acts through
all substances whatever may be their nature, and their
state of rest or motion.

3rd. When two spherical bodies attract one another,
the attraction is exerted precisely as if the entire mass
were concentrated in the centre of each sphere, and
consequently as if each of them formed only one sole
particle.

4th. Two spherical bodies, obedient to the action of
attraction, describe each round the other, considered as
fixed, concave curves belonging to conic sections: they
likewise describe similar curves round their common
centre of gravity. These curves will be ellipses, para-
bolas, or hyperbolas according to the conditions which
are present.

otti. In each case, the angular velocity with which
the line joining the centres moves will be in an inverse
ratio to the square of their mutual distance, and the areas
described by this line will be equal in equal times.

For a long time experience has proved that these
laws govern our solar system, and recent discoveries
on the motions of double stars have proved that they

APPENDIX. 307

equally regulate the course of the most distant stellar
groups.

Newton's labours brought him at an early age both
honours and riches. All the different Academies of
Europe were anxious to enrol him among their members,
and at the age of fifty-four he was appointed Master of
the Mint, a lucrative position, which enabled him to leave
at his death a fortune of about 28,000/.* Perhaps this
may be regarded as a misfortune, as far as science is
concerned, for, being engaged in the duties of his office,
Newton did not pursue his scientific investigations.

Like Kepler, Newton was very religious, and naturally
disposed to entertain mystic ideas. Even in the midst of
his scientific labours he was engaged in making a com-
mentary on the Apocalypse. After having all his life
enjoyed perfect health, he died from stone in the bladder
after twenty days of the most intense suffering ; but
although the perspiration often stood on his brow from
the torture which he endured, he was never heard
to utter a complaint, nor was his serenity of mind
disturbed.

Note VII.

Linnaeus, who was born at Eoeshult in 1707, and died
at Upsala in 1778, was one of those rare geniuses from
whom we date a new era in science. Like all men who
feel themselves called to some definite vocation, but who
are prevented- in early life from following the bent
of their own inclinations, his youth was one of trouble
and privation. His father, who was a poor Protestant
clergyman, and who destined his son to succeed him in

* [Sir David Bre-wster makes Newton's fortune even larger than
the sum mentioned by De Quatrefages, namely, 32,000/. See his
Memoirs of Sir Isaac Newton, vol. ii. p. 396.]
X 2

308 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

liis pulpit, had placed tlie boy at school when he was ten
years of age : instead, however, of attending to his
classes and learning his Latin grammar, the child ran
about the fields picking up wild flowers. The punish-
ments of his master, and the threats of his father were
alike unable to overcome this instinctive inclination,
and being considered incorrigible, the boy was at length
apprenticed to a shoemaker. In this capacity he had the
good fortune of attracting the attention of a physician,
named Rothman, who lent him the works of Tournefort,
and recommended him to Stoboeus, Professor of Botany,
who employed him to copy manuscripts for him, and who,
being struck by the strange tastes of the youth, sent him
at his own expense to the university of Upsala. The
allowance made to Linnaeus was, however, anything but
munificent ; and to increase his means he gave lessons,
and occasionally even, availing himself of the art which
he had learned during his apprenticeship, mended the
shoes of his brother students. Happily for himself, he
soon rose to some distinction, and the Professor of
Botany, after having first entrusted him with the manage-
ment of the botanical garden, employed him as his sub-
stitute in lecturing, and some time afterwards the town
of Upsala engaged him to make a scientific expedition to
Lapland ; an undertaking in which he exhibited no
less personal courage than ardour in the cause of
science.

Having met on his return with the annoyances which
the local jealousies of a little town are apt*to entail upon
all who have the talent of raising themselves above the
ordinary standard of their fellow-citizens, Linnaeus would
have been thoroughly disheartened if there had not been
a feeling which tended to keep alive his ambition. A
young girl, to whom he was much attached, and who
reciprocated his affection, exacted a promise from him

APPENDIX. 309

that before their marriage he would travel for three years,
in order to acquire that reputation to which he was so
well entitled to aspire. Linnaeus took his departure for
Leyden, where the reputation of Boerhaave * was then
attracting a crowd of disciples. He reached this town
without resources of any kind ; but the great Dutch phy-
sician knew how to appreciate the stranger, and through
his means he was soon made known to a rich amateur
passionately fond of natural history. This generous
pati'on threw open his collections and his library to the
young Swede, who, in testimony of his gratitude for these
favours, immortalised the name of his benefactor in the
title of one of his first works. f At Leyden, Linnaeus re-
ceived the degree of Doctor of Medicine, after which he
visited England and France. It was during one of his
two visits to Paris that he contracted that friendship with
Bernard de Jussieu, of which his correspondence affords-
numerous proofs.

On his return to Sweden, Linnseus did not at first
meet with the reception which ought to have been
awarded to his already celebrated name ; but at length,
through the good services of De Geer J and the Count

* Boerhaave, who -was born at Yoorhout in 1668, and died in
1738, has left a name celebrated in the annals of medicine. His
reputation was so great, that letters were sent to him from India and
America, bearing the sole address of Boerhaave in Europe. He
left a large number of works, which, even at the present day, possess
some points of interest from the efforts which he made to reconcile
the vitalism of Hippocrates with the chemical views of Sylvius, and
the solidism of Hoffmann.

t This work was entitled Hortus Cliffortianus ; Cliffort being
the name of his rich and generous friend.

X De Geer, who was born in 1720, and died at Stockholm in
1778, belonged to a baronial family in Sweden. He demoted the
large fortune which he possessed to the promotion of science and to
the aid of the unfortunate. From his youth he had been an ardent
entomologist, endeavouring to follow in the steps of Reaumur,

X 3

310 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

de Tessin *, he was appointed physician to the king in
1739, and was at length enabled to marry the young
girl, who had divined his genius, and secured his
glory.

In 1741, Linnaeus was named Professor of Botany at
the University of Upsala, where the high character of
his lectures and of the works which he soon published,
attracted a crowd of pupils from all parts of the world,
who spread abroad the fame of their great teacher. He
was soon rewarded with academic and civic honours ; but
without suffering himself to be intoxicated with his good
fortune, he continued his labours unremittingly, centering
his happiness in the circle of his family and in the pur-
suit of science. For thirty-two years he preserved all
his original activity, but then a marked feebleness of
memory appeared as the precursor of those infirmities
which rendered his old age painful. Two attacks of
apoplexy deprived him of almost all his facultiesj
and he finally died of dropsy at the age of seventy-one.
Sweden knew at any rate how to appreciate the loss
which she had sustained, and the funeral of Linnaeus was
conducted with all the pomp which is usually reserved for
princes of the blood royal, while King Gustavus the Third
himself composed the funeral oration.

Linnaeus may be regarded as one of our greatest
scientific lawgivers ; and he influenced all scientific
movements, not only in his own country but throughout
all Europe. Some few minds, either from a faithful

His memoirs bear the impress of a keen and patient intellect,
associated in a high degree with talents for observation. He
published in French a large work entitled, like that of Reaumur,
Memoires pour servir a VHistoii'e des Insectes. -

* In gratitude for the patronage and friendship of the Count,
Linnaeus has immortalised his name by dedicating to him his
Sy sterna Natures.

APPENDIX. 311

adherence to established errors, or in consequence of
having entertained more advanced ideas, alone escaped
his influence ; and it was very probably on both these
grounds that Buffon constantly showed himself so ini-
mical to the views of the illustrious Swede.

Linnaeus not only worked himself, but he gave out
the subjects of theses, proposed problems to be solved,
and sent forth his pupils to explore all regions which
promised to yield a rich harvest to the natural sciences,
and he thus largely diffused around him the most active
and emulous zeal for science. His works, which were
written in Latin, are distinguished by a style which is
at once very correct and picturesque, and which occa-
sionally exhibits a remarkable character of elevation and
energy. We would especially instance the preface to
his Systema NaturcB^ and his description of the general
characters of the Class of the Reptiles in the same work.

The writings of Linnaeus are essentially descriptive ;
and, at the present day, when science has made such
rapid progress, we must throw ourselves back into the
time at which he wrote in order fully to comprehend
the magnitude of the services which he has rendered.
Before his time all classifications, including those of
botany, were extremely imperfect both in respect to
principle and in application. The genera which were
tolerably well defined, bore a single distinctive name, but
each species was designated by a descriptive phrase ; and
it will easily be understood that this kind of phraseology
would become very cumbrous in proportion as the
number of species was augmented. Hence it became
extremely difficult for the memory to preserve any
precise impressions of any considerable number of
species, while it was almost impossible to grasp at the
general relations. Linnseus created the binary nomeri-
clature, in which every animal and vegetable being is
X 4

312 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

designated by two names, one a substantive, which
indicates the genus, the other an adjective, which desig-
nates the species, and which may be said to correspond
to our family and baptismal names. He w^as thus
enabled to devise simple and precise systems of classifi-
cation, which rested upon a basis which was at once
more extended and more solid than any adopted by his
predecessors. These classifications, which were received
at the time with enthusiasm, are still made use of by
botanists. Linnaeus did not, however, deceive himself
in reference to the artificial nature of all systems gene-
rally, and of his own more especially ; he felt that
there must be something superior to his own method,
and in his Fragments of^the Natural Method he aimed at
more general views ; but the proper time was not yet
come ; and this glory was reserved for two Frenchmen,
Laurence de Jussieu in botany, and Cuvier in zoology.

Note VIH.

GeoiFroy Saint-Hilaire, a member of the Institute,
and a professor at the Jardin des Plantes, and in the
Faculty of Sciences, was born at Etampes in 1772, and
died at Paris in 1844, leaving a name which ranks
amongst the most illustrious in the annals of modern
science. This renown is due more especially to those
great and noble ideas which he advocated throughoul:
the whole of his life, and w^hich he either introduced or
restored to the field of zoological inquiry. This general
direction of his researches, which was continued for
nearly half a century, explains the diversity of the
judgments which have been passed upon him by his
successors. To appreciate these different opinions, and
to analyse all that is just or exaggerated in them,
renders a serious discussion of these facts and doctrines

APPENDIX. 313

absolutely necessary. It is impossible to separate
Geoffroy from his immediate predecessors or his cotem-
poraries, nor can we form an exact idea of the value of
his labours, unless we also take into account the rapid
progress which has been made since his death. A
subject of this kind ought not to be hastily disposed of in
a note ; and I hope, on some future occasion, to be able to
discuss it more in detail in a work, the idea of which has
long been present to my mind. I will here subjoin a
short and almost exclusively biographical notice of this
great man.

Being destined by his family for the clerical pro-
fession, Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire was provided, at the age
of twelve, with a Canon's stall, and was sent to prosecute
his studies at the College of Navarre. Here he attended
the classes of the physicist and naturalist Brisson, who
speedily awakened in him a taste for the natural sciences.
On leaving college he attended the lectures of Haiiy*

* Haiiy was a member of the Institute, and professor at the
Jardin des Plantes, and in the Faculty of Sciences. He was born
at Paris in 1742, and died at the same place in 1822. As the son
of a common, workman, he appeared destined to follow the same
career, when his intelligence and his devotion attracted the favour-
able notice of the superior of a monastery, who undertook the charge
of securing to him the first rudiments of instruction. He was soon
sent as a chorister to one of the churches at Paris, from whence he
proceeded to the College of Navarre, and after that to the College
Lemoine, where he became second master. Here he also con-
tracted a friendship with Lhomond the grammarian, and, to adapt
himself to the tastes of his friend, turned his attention to botany.
He now for the first time understood his true vocation, and devoted
himself with the greatest assiduity to the study of mineralogy,
which was then taught at the Jardin des Plantes by Daubenton.

Haiiy was thirty-eight years of age when he began his minera-
logical studies. At this time Linnceus had already shown that the
regular form of crystals is due to the action of forces, which obey
definite laws. Kome de Lisle had made a considerable step in

314 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

and of Daubenton*, and the relations which were soon
established between the masters and their pupil were
attended with the happiest results to science, for they
decided the future prospects of Geoffrey, and saved the
life of Haiiy. Indeed, the latter, who had been im-
prisoned as a refractory priest a few days before the

advance by recognising that the angles are constant in different
crystals of the same variety. The true laws of crystallisation
remained unknown until Haiiy was led to their discovery by a
fortunate accident. Struck by the regularity of fracture which was
observable in a piece of calcareous spar that accidentally escaped
from his hands, and was broken in pieces, Haiiy collected the
fragments, examined them carefully, and reduced them into still
smaller parts, by which he was led to perceive the constant relations
existing between the different forms which he thus obtained. He
now resumed the study of physics and mathematics, with the
elements of which he had once been well acquainted. Breaking
successively all the specimens contained in his own private collec-
tion, he measured and calculated the angles by methods which he
had himself invented, and, referring the almost infinite number of
forms which occur in nature to a small number of primary forms, he
finally created an entirely new science — that of crystallographic
mineralogy. The humble teacher had thus acquired for himself a
renown to which few men of science attain. Honours and dignities
were offered to Haiiy from every quarter. Both the republic and
the empire in turn sought him out in his retreat, and offered for
his acceptance the first chairs in their gift, and the most important
scientific missions ; but without being dazzled by these flattering
marks of attention, Haiiy remained faithful to his old habits of
work and humble privacy. Forgotten by the Boui'bons after the
restoration, he died, leaving no wealth beyond the collection on
which he had based all his discoveries. This collection, which was
so valuable on many accounts, was first bought for a very small sum
by an Englishman ; but having subsequently, through the zeal of
M. Dufrenoy, been repurchased for France, it is now preserved in
the galleries of the Jardin des Plantes.

* Daubenton was a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a
professor at the Jardin des Plantes, as well as at the College de
France. He was also a fellow labourer of Buffon.

APPENDIX. 315

September massacres, would undoubtedly have been put
to death, if his pupil had not employed the same ardour
in rescuing him which he exhibited all his life, when-
ever his judgment or his feelings were appealed to.
Not satisfied with having stimulated the colleagues of
the illustrious mineralogist to bestir themselves until the
Academy took a decided step, which was followed by an
order of liberation, Geoffroy, at much personal risk,
visited his master while in prison. A few days after-
wards he exposed himself still more in trying to save
his old professors at the College of Navarre. Invested
with the insignia of an Inspector of Prisons, he entered,
on the morning of the 2nd of September, into the
College of Saint Firmin, after having prepared every-
thing for the escape of his friends, who, however,
refused to leave, from the fear of aggravating the
position of the prisoners who still remained in the build-
ing. Geoffroy then, as a last resource, showed them a
wall which could be easily scaled, and by which they
might, when they pleased, make their escape. He then
went to pass the night of the 2nd and 3rd of Septem-
ber at the spot indicated, where he aided twelve priests
in making their escape. It was only at the break of day,
when he was assisting the twelfth of the fugitives, that a
musket ball struck him, penetrating through his clothes,
and thus affording him conclusive evidence that the build-
ing was already in the possession of the assassins, and
that his devotion could, therefore, be of no farther avail.
Haiiy, who had been saved by Geoffroy, obtained
for him the post of sub-keeper and demonstrator at
the Jardin des Plantes. On the 10th of June of the
following year, 1793, a decree of the Convention organ-
ised the plan of instruction at the Museum, and founded
twelve chairs in that institution. Geoffroy was nomi-
nated in this decree as professor of the zoology of ver-;

316 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

tebrate animals. At first he refused to accept the chair,
saying that, as his studies had been all directed to mine-
ralogy, he was incapable of lecturing on zoology. Dauben-
ton, however, insisted with all the authority of a parent
that he should accept the appointment. " Zoology,"
said he, to his young pupil, " has never been made the
subject of lectures at Paris ; everything, therefore,
remains to be done. Do you make the beginning, and
perform the duties of your chair in such a manner
that twenty years hence it may be said zoology is a
science, and what is more, an entirely French science^''
Overcome by the persuasions of his master, GeofFroy at
length accepted the professorship, and at once set reso-
lutely to work. At this time he was one-and-twenty
years of age.

Immediately after his installation, Geoffrey rendered a
very signal service to the science which he was called
upon to teach. The foundation of the Menagerie at the
Jardin des Plantes is entirely due to what may be called
an act of youthful temerity. From one of those caprices
which seem occasionally to have actuated the conduct of
those who held power at this period, the police had re-
ceived instructions to forbid the exhibition of living
animals in Paris, and to confiscate three itinerant me-
nageries, which were then being exhibited, and convey
them to the Museum. On the 4th of November, 1793,
Geoffrey, to his great surprise, was informed that a num-
ber of tigers, panthers, white bears, and other animals,
together with eagles, crocodiles, serpents, &c., were at
the gate of the Museum. They were to be received, fed,
lodged, and maintained, although the garden possessed
neither space, money, nor keepers. Geoffrey, however,
did not hesitate a moment, but ordered the vans and
cages which contained these animals, to be placed in the
court under his own window, retaining the ex-proprietors

APPENDIX. 317

as keepers, and taking upon himself the responsibility of
all the expenses. Some of his colleagues were alarmed
at the consequences, and blamed his conduct, whilst
others approved of it ; nevertheless, Geoffrey persevered,
and in the course of a month, a vote of the Assembly
confirmed the happy initiative of the young professor.
But the decree of the Convention, which bears the date of
the 11th of September, 1794, only gave an official con-
firmation to an establishment which had been in existence
for more than a year.

Here we must record an event of much consequence in
the history of science, and which is highly honourable to
Geoffrey. The Abbe Tessier, who had taken refuge in
the provinces, wrote to his colleague, Parmentier, " I
have found a treasure in the wilds of Normandy." It
was thus that Tessier described a young man, who, while
discharging the humble duties of a private tutor, devoted
all his leisure time to Natural History. He wrote in a
similar strain to Lamarck and to Geoffrey entreating them
to draw this young naturalist to Paris. To aid his
friend in the accomplishment of his wishes, Geoffrey re-
quested that the young man might send him some of his
manuscripts, and immediately on the receipt of a commu-
nication from the stranger, wrote thus to his unknown
correspondent, " Come to Paris without loss of time ;
come and assume the place of a new Linnagus, and
become another founder of Natural History." It was
thus that Cuvier, for it was he, was called to Paris by the
prophetic summons of Geoffrey. An intimate friendship
was soon established between the two ; and although this
friendship may afterwards have appeared to be broken by
the keenness of scientific discussions, we have pleasure in
certifying from personal knowledge that it revived with
all the intensity of earlier days as soon as one of the two
antagonists was struck by some of those trials which fall

318 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

upon the great as well as the humble. The existence of
this friendship is apparent in the earlier works of these
two illustrious men, for many of their researches which
they had carried on conjointly, were alternately drawn
up by only one or the other, although they were always
signed in the names of both.

The campaign of Egypt put an end to these joint
labours, for GeofFroy was easily induced to follow the
young general whose exploits in Italy had already gained
him so high a reputation. Having fallen into the sea
during his voyage, and not knowing how to swim,
Geoffroy was saved almost by accident. On his arrival
in the land of Egypt which so forcibly appealed to his
ardent imagination, he everywhere accompanied our
troops, evincing as much ardour and energy in the ac-
complishment of his scientific mission as our soldiers
displayed in fulfilling their duty. Having reached the
ruins of Thebes, he spent three weeks within the tombs
of that ancient capital, examining and studying the
mummies of animals, with the view of comparing them
with living species ; the result of his assiduous labours
was an immense quantity of notes and drawings, the
greater part of which were subsequently published. It
is well known how this expedition terminated which had
begun under such brilliant auspices. The remains of our
army were compelled to capitulate ; and availing them-
selves of the circumstances, the English wished to secure
to their country the glory of publishing all the discove-
ries that had been made by our savants. They demanded
that all the materials, notes, and drawings, that had been
obtained at the cost of such extreme labour and in the
midst of so many real dangers, should all be resigned to
them, while they ofiered to allow our compatriots to
superintend the publication, and promised in addi-
tion to secure for them an honourable position in

APPENDIX. 319

England. Some were disposed to yield, when Geoffroy
indignantly declared that, rather than give up his papers
and notes, he would burn them with his own hands at
the moment the English entered Alexandria. Carried
away by his example, all his colleagues declared their
determination to do the same. Nothing could, of course,
be attempted in the face of such resolution, and the
English plenipotentiary was therefore compelled to draw
back, while France secured the glory of publishing the
great work on Egypt.

In 1808 Geoffroy was charged with a scientific mission
to Portugal, the object of which was to obtain from the
collections in that kingdom all the specimens which were
wanting in those of France. Far from abusing his
position, Geoffroy carried with him duplicates from the
Jardin des Plantes, and limited himself to making ex-
changes, which were equally advantageous to both par-
ties. The Canons of St. Vincent, surprised at conduct
to which they were so little accustomed, wished to make
Geoffroy a rich present, but this he refused. His liberal
and noble conduct, however, reaped its reward on a fu-
ture occasion ; for when foreigners, having in their turn
become victors, came to ransack our museums at Paris
and to recover all that had been taken from them, the
minister of Portugal having been invited to remove from
the museum everything that belonged to his own country,
replied that he had nothing to claim, for everything had
passed in goodwill, and that M. Geoffroy, far from abusing
his authority, had not only replaced through duplicates
everything that had been given to him, but he moreover
classified and labelled the great collection of Ajuda.
Thus, owing to the magnanimity of Geoffroy, the Jardin
des Plantes was one of the very few establishments of
Paris whose collections did not suffer by our disasters in
1815.

320 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

From this time forth Geoffroy undertook no more
expeditions, but devoted himself exclusively to science.
Although he was elected deputy for his native town, he
never took part in the debates, and very soon renounced
a position which drew him away from his studies. In
the latter years of his life he was stricken with total
blindness, and we have often had occasion to admire the
serenity with which he supported this misfortune. His
resignation was indeed rendered more easy to him by
the cares of a devoted family. " I am almost happy in
being blind," he sometimes remarked, " since it has made
me better understand how much I am beloved." The
physical repose to which he was condemned, seemed
only to redouble his intellectual activity, and to his last
hour he was occupied with those abstruse questions of
natural philosophy which had influenced and guided his
scientific life. He died happy in being able to leave his
scientific heritage in the hands of a son *, and a friend. f

* M. Isidore GeoflFroy Saint-Hilaire, -who is a member of the Insti-
tute, and a professor at the Jardin des Plantes, and in the Faculty of
Sciences, has more especially directed his attention to general zoology.
His treatise on Teratology, in which he has applied ordinary methods
to the description and classification of monstrosities, will always serve
as a starting point for those who may occupy themselves with this
important branch of the natural sciences. At the present time, he is
publishing a great work, entitled Histoire Generate des JRegnes Orga-
niques, and it is easy to foresee that, being penetrated with a deep ve-
neration for the memory of his illustrious father, he will endeavour in
this work, as he has done in all his other writings, to develope the
doctrines which have been handed down to him. This sentiment
of filial piety has already led him to write a special work, entitled
I7e, Travaux et Doctrine Scientifique de Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire.
M. Isidore GeoflFroy has also specially studied the collateral affinities
of animals, or zoological analogies, and on the considerations which
he has deduced from this order of ideas, he has established a mode of
classification which he has called parallel classification, and which he

f See next page for note.

APPENDIX. 321

Without wishing to pass any judgment in the present
place on the labours of Geoffroy, or to assign to them
the rank which they merit, a few general remarks may
afford a more exact idea of their nature. His works
are very numerous, and, to judge by their titles, one
might be tempted to believe that there was no connection
between them. Such, however, is not the case. Amongst
all these memoirs, which are dispersed in almost all the
scientific periodicals of that epoch, there are scarcely any
which have not been undertaken with the view of demon-
strating or of verifying some principle or some general
idea ; and all these principles and ideas were comprised
by Geoffroy in the fundamental thought of the unity of
the organic plan of the animal kingdom. We may there-
fore form some idea of the immense range of the observa-
tions and researches to which he devoted himself

has applied to the class of Mammalia, Having for a long time been
placed at the head of the Menagerie of the Museum, M. Isidore
Geoffroy has necessarily been led to occupy himself with many
practical questions, and it is to him especially that we owe the found-
ation of the Societe pour V Acdbnatation des Animaux utiles.

f M. Serres. a member of the Institute, and professor at the
Jardin des Plantes, is at the present time the leader of the school
of transcendental anatomy in France. He has published several
important works, in which the fundamental idea is that all higher
animals pass through all the inferior grades of being before they
arrive at their definite state : thus, for instance, man is considered
to have begun as an infusorial monad, becoming successivelj^ a
mollusc, an articulate animal, a fish, a reptile, a bird, an ordinary
mammal, and finally a man. In this theory, which was taught as
early as 1796 by Kielmaier, a professor at Tubingen, embryology
is a true transitory comparative anatomy, while comparative ana-
tomy is a permanent embryology. Without wishing to discuss the
value of these views, we may observe that M. Serres has displayed
much talent and ingenuity in their support. The principal works
in which this author has expounded his doctrines are VAnatomie
Comparee du Cerveau and h Precis d'Anatomie Transcendante.
VOL. I. Y

322 HAMBLES OF A 2TATURALIST.

Among the questions which Geoffroy had to consider
in maintaining his general proposition, that of monstros-
ities was the most beset with difficulties. To refer aber-
rant forms to regular forms, — to seek to trace in the de-
velopment of these singular beings the laws of normal
development, — to demonstrate that in these pretended
sports of nature, ordinary forces are only brought into
play in accordance with common laws, — to employ-
apparent deviations to discover those laws and forces
which escape our attention when their action is exercised
without any obstacle, — to determine the causes of their
perturbations, — and thus to arrive at an idea of mon-
strosity, not in the vague and unphilosophical manner of
Montaigne, but to judge of it with such precision as to
be able to characterise and classify monsters in the same
manner as in the case of normal beings, — this is the pro-
blem on the solution of which Geoffroy entered full of con-
fidence in his own powers ; a confidence which has been
justified in respect at least to all the principal points of
the inquiry. This work, which is one of the most re-
markable of the eventful period in which it was under-
taken, would be sufiicient to immortalise the name of its
author.

Four essential principles have especially guided
Geoffroy in these researches, which were alike delicate
in method and elevated in character : —

I. The principle of Les Affinites electives of organic
elements, which he subsequently generalised under the
name of La loi d' attraction du soi pour soi.

II. The principle of Analogues, according to which he
considers that those organs mutually represent each other
which have identical relations with other parts of the
organism.

m. The principle of Connexions, in virtue of which an
organ becomes atrophied, or disappears from one animal

APPENDIX. 323

and reappears in another, rather than change its rela-
tions.

IV. The principle of the Balancement des organes, from
whence it results that one organ cannot be excessively
developed unless some other organ which is connected
with it becomes proportionally atrophied. The first of
these principles applies more particularly to teratological
and embryological studies, whilst the three others ought
always to be present in the minds of those who study
anatomy.

In all these anatomical labours, Geoffrey has made
himself the ardent and earnest champion of the doctrine
of epigenesis against the doctrine of evolution, which
was then generally admitted, and which Cuvier himself
maintained ; and the very rapid progress of modern
science incontestably tends to confirm the view adopted
by Geoffrey.

The first memoirs which he published referred to de-
scriptive zoology, a study to which he often returned,
although his habitual train of thought had led him to very
different researches. Among works of this kind for
which zoological science is indebted to him, we must not
omit to mention his researches on the Bats. This excep-
tional group among the Mammalia attracted him by its
very singularity, and by the difiiculties which had re-
pulsed his predecessors. Already, in 1797, he had shown,
in a very remarkable memoir, that the ordinary rules of
classification were perfectly applicable to this group, all
the then known species of which he divided into dis-
tinctly circumscribed genera. Subsequently on different
occasions he resumed the same subject with marked
predilection, describing a great many new species, and
creating several genera, all of which have been adopted.
He has given the substance of these labours in a special
article in the Dictionnaire Classique cfHistoire Naturelle,

Y 2

324 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

where he has presented many general considerations
which admit of being applied to almost all the aberrant
groups which can be referred to any definite type. (Con-
sult for farther details the work of M. Isidore Geoffroy
already referred to, and VJEloge Historique de Geojffroy
Saint- Hilaire, by M. Flourens.)

Note IX.

Georges Cuvier*, who was born at Montbeliard
in 1769, and who died at Paris in 1832, has left a name
of which not only his country but all humanity may well
be proud. It would employ more space than I can
afford to give to this subject in the present volumes, were
I to enumerate all his works, and consider not only their
importance, and the influence which they have exerted,
but also those traces of weakness and imperfection
which they exhibit in common with all human labours.
I must, therefore, limit myself, as in the case of Geoffroy
Saint-Hilaire, to a short and almost exclusively biographi-
cal notice, postponing to some future period the scientific
history of these two celebrated men.

From his childhood Cuvier gave evidences of his
future greatness. At four years of age he was able
to read, and at the age of six he gave an explanation of
Hero's fountain, and of an enchanted poniard used in
the tricks of a juggler. At thirteen years of age, he
had read and re-read Buffon, and even copied all the
plates, and he organised amongst the children of his own
age a natural history society, of which he was himself
the president. At the age of fourteen he had terminated

* The following details have been principally taken from the
Notice Historique of the Life and Works of Cuvier, published by
M. Duvernoy his compatriot, pupil, friend, and successor ; for
M. Duvernoy succeeded Cuvier in the two most important chairs of
the natural sciences in France.

APPENDIX. 325

his classical studies, and was, moreover, acquainted with
algebra, geometry, and surveying. The son of a brave
Protestant officer, who had no resources beyond his
small retiring pension, Cuvier was destined for the
ministry, and offered himself as a competitor for one of
the scholarships which his native town possessed at the
university of Tiibingen. It fortunately happened that
he was prevented from entering this profession in conse-
quence of the injustice of the examiner, whose duty it
was to assign their relative places to the respective can-
didates ; and Cuvier, finding himself third upon the list,
renounced his original intentions. Soon after this, he
was presented to the grand niece of Frederick the Great,
and to Charles, reigning Duke of Wurtemburg, to whom
the principality of Montbeliard then belonged; and his
precocious merit having procured him the favour of these
distinguished individuals, he was sent as a Bursar to the
Academy of Stutgard, where he replaced Schiller.

In this remarkable institution, the pupils prepared
themselves for every kind of professional career, being first
obliged to attend a complete course of classics, and next
to devote two years to the study of philosophy, mathema-
tics, and the physical sciences. These different branches
of learning were, however, taught in the German lan-
guage, which was unknown to Cuvier, who could only
speak French. In a few months he had, however, over-
come so thoroughly this difficulty as to stand first in all
the examinations, and thus obtained the cross of honour,
which was to be awarded to the pupil who, in the course
of one year, had carried off eight prizes in the higher
departments of science.

Cuvier, feeling that he must now choose a profession,
decided on entering the financial department of the go-
vernment service. According to the regulations of the
Academy, the candidates who wished to enter upon this

Y 3

326 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

profession, were obliged to attend a curriculum, which
included the following branches of knowledge: — 1.
Civil law ; 2. Botany ; 3. Geography in relation to
commerce ; 4. Practical geometry ; 5. The drawing of
plants ; 6. Theoretical and practical economy ; 7. The
knowledge of the economy of rivers, lakes, and forests ;
8. Zoology; 9. Mineralogy; 10. Chemistry; 11. The
science of police ; 12. The knowledge of mines; 13.
Hydraulics; 14. Numismatics; 15. Civil architecture;
16. Technology; 17. The commercial laws of nations ;
18. The principles of taxation ; 19. Book-keeping ;
20. Finances; 21. The practical details of the office.
We thus see that the smaller states of Germany exact
from those into whose hands they entrust the public
money, many more guarantees than are required in
France from the members of our government.

The items in this list which relate to the natural
sciences, were not sufficient to satisfy Cuvier's inclina-
tion towards these studies. As a child he had admired
Buffon, as a young man he studied Linnaeus, and at a
later period of his life he drew a comparison between
these two great geniuses in so admirable a manner, that
it was easy to observe the degree of influence which
each of them had exercised over him. He first turned
his attention to botany, and discovered in the neighbour-
hood of Stutgard several plants which had escaped the
notice of his professor. He quickly communicated to
his fellow pupils the ardour with which he was himself
inspired, and he soon organised a natural history society
of a more serious character than that of Montbeliard.
Several of the members of this juvenile association have
left celebrated names ; among them we may instance the
botanist Marschall of Bieberstein, who afterwards became
Minister of State to the Duke of Nassau ; Autenrieth,
well known to all physiologists ; Jaeger, physician to

APPENDIX. 327

the King of Wurtemburg ; Pfaff, Councillor of State in
Denmark ; and Hartmann, the distinguished entomologist
and physician. The society met ^Yeekly to read and
discuss memoirs, and the author of the best work was de-
corated with an order, the design of which was due to the
same hand which afterwards traced the model for our
academic prizes. It is a remarkable fact that neither
human nor comparative anatomy formed a part of these
scientific recreations. Up to that time, Cuvier still
belonged to the age in which he lived, and limited him-
self to descriptive zoology.

As soon as his studies were completed, Cuvier found
it necessary to turn his knowledge to account. The
Count d'Hericy, proprietor of the Castle of Fiquainville
in Normandy, required a tutor for his children, and
Cuvier accepted the office. This change of residence
proved a most fortunate circumstance ; for hitherto he
had devoted himself more especially to botany and ento-
mology, and even during the early period of his sojourn
in Normandy he was engaged in the serious study of
insects, and sent to his friends at Stutgard a general
classification of this group, together with memoirs on
several genera. Soon, however, the nature of his occu-
pations was changed, and the scope of his ideas enlarged.
The ocean lay at his very feet, and Cuvier could not
long remain insensible to the new paths of inquiry which
were thus opened to him. He saw that an unknown
world was displayed before him, and he resolutely
applied himself to his new labours. We find from his
correspondence, that this period was occupied by his
researches on the Molluscs, one of the earliest of the
works which made him known, and which even at the
present day constitutes one of his principal titles to fame.
We may also see with what a keen appreciation and nice
discrimination he was already able to judge the greatest

Y 4

328 EAMBLES OF A NATUEALIST.

leaders of science, as, for instance, Linnaeus, Fabricius,
and others ; for if he saw where they erred, he also knew
how to indicate the remedy. Two letters written to his
friend Hartmann, and which M. Duvernoy has preserved,
are extremely remarkable in this respect ; for we find
in them some of those great ideas, which he was destined
subsequently to develope, well and clearly expressed, and
we may thus trace as it were the germ of those immense
labours which subsequently occupied the whole of his
life.

Cuvier remained for eight years in Normandy. I have
already related in my note on GeofFroy Saint-Hilaire
how he was called to Paris, and how Cuvier responded
to that appeal in a spirit alike noble and intelligent.
Mertrud, then a man of eighty, was Professor of Compa-
rative Anatomy at the Jardin des Plantes, and through
the influence of GeofFroy Cuvier was nominated first as his
assistant, and shortly afterwards as his successor. His
future, therefore, seemed provided for, although his
present position was a very unsatisfactory one. It was
at the time of the Directory, and the monetary embarrass-
ments of the existing government were felt in all the
different establishments devoted to public instruction ;
and in a letter of Cuvier's to Hartmann, he informs him
that twelve months' salary is still due to the professors at
the Jardin des Plantes, on which account he adds that
he is almost disposed to envy the fate of the elejDhants,
" for if their food has been obtained on credit, they at
all events do not know it, and consequently are not
mortified by it."

These straitened circumstances soon gave place, how-
ever, to competency, and subsequently even to the wealth
which was derived from several lucrative posts. We
must not omit to mention that science at all times pro-
fited by every change for the better in Cuvier's circum-

APPENDIX. 329

stances. The money which he received from the state
was in a great degree expended in the acquisition of
the books which were necessary to his labours, and in
the purchase of natural history objects which were placed
amongst the collections of the Museum. With the view
of obtaining the latter, he applied to all parts of the world,
and, thanks to his great name, all parts of the world
responded to the appeal. It was only by such means
that he was able in the course of a few years to found
and thoroughly to complete his splendid collections of
comparative anatomy and fossil bones.

Cuvier had been nominated a member of the Insti-
tute in 1796, when he was twenty-six years of age.
Four years afterwards, his colleagues in the Department
of Sciences chose him for their secretary. The office
was then a biennial one ; and when, in 1802, it was made
perpetual, his nomination was confirmed by the entire
section. From this period till his death Cuvier discharged
the high and difficult functions of this post; and his
annual reports of the progress of the physical sciences,
of which he was himself the representative, are amongst
the noblest testimonies of the vastness and power which
can be exhibited by the human intellect. Two other
sections of the Institute, namely, the French Academy
and the Academy of Inscriptions, subsequently numbered
him amongst their members. Although already pro-
fessor at the Museum, Cuvier was soon called to occupy,
in the College of France, the chair which had been
formerly held by Daubenton ; he was, besides this, named
successively, by Napoleon, Inspector General of the
University, as well as Councillor of the University and
Councillor of State, while Louis XVIII. named him
Chancellor of the University, a baron, and Grand
Officer of the Legion of Honour, and Louis Philippe
made him a peer of France. Immediately on his death

330 EAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

France raised to him, in the Gallery of Geology at the
Museum, a statue which represents him holding in his
left hand the terrestrial globe, which appears to crumble
beneath the touch of his right hand, and opens to reveal
to him its secrets.

These honours were well deserved ; for Cuvier pos-
sessed not only that instinct of divination which, in many
persons, constitutes their sole claim to genius — not only
inexhaustible patience — not only a mind of the most
comprehensive grasp — not only that marvellous good
sense which almost instinctively, as it were, separates
the true and the false ; but he possessed all these attri-
butes in their very highest degree ; and it is on this
account that he stands forth amongst his cotemporaries,
and appears to the eyes of posterity as a man of genius
in the full extent of the term — a truly great man.

Cuvier appears to have had a passion for work as
other men have a passion for pleasure. Nothing short
of this necessity for labour, which was inherent in his
nature, would have sufficed for the accomplishment of
the works which he has left. Convinced that in the
natural sciences the clearest intelligence is apt to become
confused if it deviates for a moment from the path of
direct observation, Cuvier began by combining together
his facts ; and it was by means of separate monographs
that he intended to collect materials for a general com-
parative anatomy, which should comprehend the result
of all his inquiries respecting organisation.

The number of independent works, notes, memoirs,
articles, scientific or administrative reports, and eloges
left by Cuvier is immense. It would be impossible to
enter into a detailed account of all his labours ; but we
cannot pass over in silence those three great works,
either of which would have been sufficient to give its
author immortality. These works are VAnatomie com-

APPENDIX. 331

paree, les Recherches sur les Ossements Fossiles, and le
Rcgne Animal. In the first, Cuvier added numerous
observations to the incomplete details which had been
collected before his time, arranging the different elements
into one great systematic whole, and thus substituting
a science in the place of a mere mass of scattered facts.
In the second, he appears as the sole creator and founder
of a perfect science — Palaeontology. He styled himself
the Antiquaire d'uiie espece noiivelle ; and it was in this
character that he explored the bowels of the earth, in
whose ancient archives he discovered the traces of ex-
tinct Faunas, which appeared to be revivified at his voice,
in order to reveal to us the revolutions of the globe
which we inhabit. In his third work, he comprehended
the entire animal creation, and endeavoured, for the
first time, to introduce into zoology a classification
founded on the natural method, which should, as far as
possible, serve as the expression of the science, and as
the surest means of advancing its progress. Yet these
three works were in his eyes mere preparatory labours, or
rather notes and data for that Grande Anatomie which
was always present in his mind, but which he was never
able to complete ; for a savant is, perhaps, less able to
realise his ideal than even the artist.

Cuvier died without leaving any children. He had
married Madame Duvaucel, the widow of a former
fermier-general* Two sons and two daughters resulted
from this marriage, but they all died in early life.

* In the reign of terror, twewty-ei^tfermiers-generaux were put
to death on the 8th of May, 1794, and amongst them was Lavoisier,
the founder of modern chemistry, who was, moreover, a man of true
genius. It is well known that when some of his friends made a
faint attempt to save his life, one of the rulers of the day exclaimed,
" The French republic has no need of savants to conquer her
enemies."

332 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

His younger brother, who had been called by him to
Paris, and who had become his confrere at the Academy,
did not survive him many years, and both brothers died
of the same form of pulmonary disease.* The son of
Frederick Cuvier entered into the service of the govern-
ment, and thus the name of Cuvier has no longer any
representative in science. (For further information on
the life and writings of Cuvier, we may refer to the
work of Duvernoy, which has been already noticed, and
that of M. Flourens, entitled Cuvier ; Histoire de ses
Travaux.)

Note X.

Francois Arago, who was born at Estagel in 1786,
and died at Paris in 1853, was a member of the Institute,

* Frederick Cuvier was born at Montbeliard in 1773, and died at
Strasbourg in 1838. He was very inferior to his brother, and in his
childhood he had even given up his studies, and been apprenticed
to a watchmaker ; but when once he was brought in contact with
his illustrious brother, he appreciated the duties which such a
position involved, and began completely to re-educate himself. He
soon devoted his attention to the natural sciences, and, in aiding his
brother to classify and arrange the collections of the Jardin des
Plantes, he became a naturalist. Having been appointed in 1804 to
the directorship of the Menagerie, he found ample subjects of study
in harmony with his tastes and capacity. He now began to investigate
the instincts of animals, and more especially of mammals, and his
memoirs on this subject are extremely important. He was the first
among naturalists who clearly distinguished in animals between a
blind instinct and intelligence, and he showed in several of their
actions the union of these two widely different faculties. In this
respect he may be said to have been far superior to all his
predecessors, not excepting Reaumur and Buffon. He has also
left several important works, namely, Des Dents des Mammiferes ;
V Histoire des Cetaces, which forms part of the Suites a Buffon ; and,
in conjunction with Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, VHistoire des Mammi-
feres.

APPENDIX. 333

perpetual secretary of the Academy of Sciences, member
of the Bureau des Longitudes, and Director of the
Observatory. This illustrious man, who has only lately
closed his chequered career, was the eldest son of a
numerous family. Although he had been destined by
his father for the bar, Arago at first chose the profession
of arms, and prepared himself without the help of any
masters for his examinations at the Polytechnic School,
which he entered with the highest honours. His remark-
able aptitude for the exact sciences attracted the atten-
tion of Monge, who secured his services for the observa-
tory. When, in 1806, the French Government wished
to complete the measurement of an arc of the meridian,
which had been begun by Delambre and Mechain, and
interrupted by the death of the latter, they selected
Arago and M. Biot (who was twelve years his senior,
and already a member of the Institute) to conclude this
undertaking.* They were associated in this labour with
the Spanish Commissioners, Chaix and Rodriguez.

* M. Biot, who is a member of the Institute (Academy of
Sciences, and Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres), has
survived his old fellow labourer, and is now one of the Deans of the
Institute. In 1853 he completed the fiftieth anniversary of his
election to the Institute, and this very rare circumstance gave
occasion to a demonstration of affection and esteem which was alike
honourable to M. Biot and the Institute. Notwithstanding his
great age, M. Biot has lost none of that scientific ardour which he
so frequently exhibited throughout his earlier life. We owe to this
physicist a very considerable number of works, treating both of
experimental and mathematical physics, and of pure mathematics.
The Traite Analytique des Courbes et des Sui^faces du Second Deyre,
and the Traite de Physique Experimentale et Mathematique have
passed through several editions. M. Biot has directed much atten-
tion to the astronomy of the Egyptians, Chaldeans, and Chinese.
He was for a long time aided in these historical researches by his
son Edouard Biot, who has been prematurely removed by death.

334 EAMBLES OF A NATUKALIST.

M. Biot returned to Paris, and Arago, Avho had re-
mained in order to effect the geodetic junction of Ma-
jorca with Ivica and Formentera, happening to be on
Spanish soil at the moment when the war burst out, was
taken for a spy, and imprisoned, but, having made his
escape, he took refuge at Algiers. When on the point
of returning to France, he was retaken bj a Spanish
pirate, and sent, together with all the crew, to the galleys
of Palamos. Having been claimed by the Dey of Algiers,
he was at length enabled to return to Paris, where the
fame of his works and of his various adventures secured
for him the friendship of some of the most distinguished
men of that period.

On the death of Lalande, Arago was appointed, in his
twenty-fourth year, to succeed him as a member of the
Institute. He subsequently became an examiner at the
School of Metz, a member of the Bureau des Longitudes^
and a professor at the Polytechnic School ; but he
resigned the latter post when the Academy of Sciences
selected him in 1830 for their perpetual secretary.
Arago was remarkably well adapted to discharge the
difficult duties of this office. His ready conception, and
his easy and clear style, enabled him to comprehend and
to analyse, in a mode at once critically exact and singu-
larly popular, the numerous memoirs on all varieties of
subjects which were presented to the Academy at every
meeting. It was in consequence of these qualities that
the elementary lectures on astronomy which he delivered
at the observatory were always numerously attended.
The fame of these lectures, which were begun in 1812,
and which he annually delivered until a short time before
the Kevolution of 1848, was one of the causes which gave
early celebrity to the name of Arago. The academic eloges
which he read at the public meetings of the Academy,
and the notices which he inserted in the Annuaire du

APrENDix. 335

Bureau des Longitudes, and in which he made the most
complicated questions of science accessible to every culti-
vated mind, had a similar result. Finally, the political
part which he played in the ranks of the opposition, both
during the Eestoration and under Louis Philippe, con-
tributed also very materially to increase his reputation,
by making him known to many persons who took no
interest in science. Very few savants, and certainly none
in our day, have ever enjoyed during their life a more
widely diffused popularity.

Arago, who in the eyes of the world in general was
regarded as the first of living astronomers, scarcely paid
any attention to astronomy properly so called. It was
especially as a physicist that he excelled, and in several
departments of natural philosophy he made important
discoveries. We owe to him, amongst other things, the
knowledge of chromatic polarisation, of magneto-elec-
tricity, and magnetism by rotation. He published very
few complete memoirs. His papers were often left
unfinished, whilst he also occasionally delegated to others
the task of accomplishing the experiments of which he
had conceived the general plan. With the exception of
his notices ande/o^e5, Arago published very little; and it
is probable that the forthcoming edition of his works,
which is now in the course of publication, will contain
many hitherto unpublished memoirs.

This is not the place in which to speak of Arago as a
politician. Every one is well acquainted with the part
which he played in public affairs. He at all times took
his place in the extreme opposition ; but it is certain that
he was very ill adapted to bear the excitement of a public
life. After his last election as deputy, under Louis
Philippe, he returned home ill and suffering from the
agitation caused by finding that he had given occasion
to a popular movement, which it was feared might lead

336 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

to the effusion of blood. How terrible then must have
been the effect produced on his mind by the agitations of
the republic, and above all by the sanguinary days of
June, 1848 ! Indeed, from this period, his health de-
clined rapidly, and notwithstanding a naturally robust
constitution, he sank under the effects of an incurable
diabetes.

More than two years before his death Arago almost
entirely lost his sight ; but, although he could no longer
read, he continued to fulfil the duties of perpetual secre-
tary to the Academy. Before each meeting, the different
memoirs and papers that were on the list for the day
were read over to him. At the proper time, when one of
his colleagues informed him of the title of the paper
before him, he would give an account of each memoir,
not certainly with all the charm of diction that he at one
time displayed, but still with so much clearness of mind,
that those who were not aware of the true state of the
case would have supposed that he had himself studied the
memoirs which he described. (See F. A. Barral, Notice
sur Frangois Arago.)

Note XI.

Buffon, who was born at Montbard in 1707, and died
at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris in 1788, was one of
the most remarkable geniuses of his native country.
His father, who was a Councillor in the Parliament of
Burgundy, possessed a considerable fortune; hence, after
having terminated his classical studies in the most
brilliant manner, he was able to indulge his tastes for
study without any of those pre-occupations of mind
which too often stifle, or at all events check, the develop-
ment of the most promising talents. Having made the
acquaintance of young Lord Kingston, who was travel-
ling with his tutor, a man of much cultivation and learn-

APPENDIX. 337

ing, Buffon, in company with his friends, travelled over
great part of France and Italy, and even remained for some
time in England. On his return, he translated Hales's
Vegetable Statics and Newton's Fluxions, and affixed to
each of these works a preface which gave early indica-
tion of his mental power. His translations were soon
followed by works in different departments of physics,
geometry, and rural economy ; among these works we may
mention the Experiences sur la Force des Bois, Disser-
tation sur la cause du Strabisme, and especially the Me-
moire sur les miroirs pour bruler a des grandes dis-
tances, which contains an account of experiments which
realise all that the ancients have said regarding the
burning-glasses of Archimedes.* These labours led to
his admission into the Academy of Sciences, in his thirty-
second year. Hitherto nothing had indicated the fame
which he would one day obtain as a naturalist ; but
having been appointed to the superintendence of the
Jardin du Roi in 1739, Buffon at once recognised all
the importance of this position, which had been entirely
neglected by the physicians of the king, to whom this
office was considered by right to belong. From this mo-
ment he laid down that plan of his future studies which
was to occupy his entire life ; and in order to construct
that magnificent temple to science with which the world
is familiar, he summoned to his aid those zealous natu-
ralists Daubenton f, Gueneau de Montbeillard, and the

* The invention by Archimedes of burning-glasses which con-
sumed the Roman galleys at considerable distances, when they were
engaged in the siege of Syracuse, was always regarded as a fabulous
account, until Buffon showed the possibility of such an occurrence;

f Daubenton, who was born at Montbard in 1716, and died at

Paris in 1800, was by far the most eminent of Buffon's collabora-

teurs, for it was lie wbo supplied all the anatomical notices contained

in the first fifteen volumes of the Histoire Naturelle. One edition of

VOL. I. Z

338 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

Abbe Bexon, -who prepared the materials from wbich
BufFon constructed his great work. But even in these
preparatory labours, they were guided by Buffon, who
never shrank from devoting himself to the study of
details which other observers might have thought un-
worthy of their notice.

Buffon, as M. Flourens has well observed, was in-
fluenced by two leading passions, that of work, and that
of fame. Being convinced, however, that the one leads
infallibly to the other, he worked for twelve or fourteen
hours daily. He generally passed four months of the
year at Paris, and the remaining eight on his property
at Montbard. Here, in a high tower erected in the
midst of fields and woods, he composed his great His-
toire Naturelle.^ This work, the fruit of fifty years' in-
cessant study, was published in several parts, and hence

the Mammalia was published by Buffon without any of these
anatomical notices, in consequence of which Daubenton refused to
continue his labours for his illustrious master, and soon published
in his own name a great number of memoirs on Zoology, properly
so called, and on its applications to rural economy. We also owe
to him the introduction into France of the merino sheep, which had
been vainly attempted by Colbert ; but his principal title to glory
rests upon the fact, that his researches in comparative anatomy
made him rank as the precursor of Cuvier in this branch of science.
Daubenton was a professor at the Jardin des Plantes, and at the
School of Medicine.

* Histoire Naturelle, Generale et Particuliere, avec la description
du Cabinet du roi ; such is the title of this immortal work. The
first, which is also the best of all the editions, appeared between
1749 and 1789, consisting of thirty-six quarto volumes. Since then
the Histoire Naturelle has been very frequently re-edited, sometimes
in the most deplorable manner, as for instance by Sonnini, who, by
transposing different parts, entirely destroyed the sequence of the
ideas, and prevented the reader from following out the views of the
author in their full development. (See Histoire des Travaux et des
Ideas de Buffon, by M. Flourens.)

I

APPENDIX. 339

it does not present that unity of plan that we should
have expected to find in the writings of so great a man.
It is not, perhaps, the less interesting on that account,
for here we may follow, step by step, the progressive
development of his views. He not only laboured inces-
santly to improve his style, but he was indefatigable in
his endeavours to increase his mental culture. Thus he
was ever as ready to abandon a false idea, as to expunge
a feeble expression, and on this account some of his
later writings are very superior to those which preceded
them both as to matter and style.

Buffon lived to see his own statue erected in the Jardin
du Roi, bearing this inscription : Natura par Ingenium :
a homage which he accepted as a just tribute to his
merits.* After his death, his services in the cause of
science were much depreciated by many naturalists,
whose opinion gradually spread to the public, and in
our own time he is looked upon by many as a mere
compiler. Such a result was inevitable, for Buffon and
Linnaeus were cotemporaries, and the views which the
latter held regarding the necessity of a rigorous classifi-
cation, and which Buffon unjustly rejected without duly
understanding, were soon universally adopted. The
pupils of Linnaeus, moreover, carried the views of their
master to such extreme lengths that in their eyes the
nomenclature became the science itself. Those who re-
garded natural history from this point of view, could
obviously not appreciate the genius of Buffon : but yet
this great man invariably found defenders among the

* Buffon was fully conscious of his own merits, and occasionally-
showed his self- appreciation in the most naive manner. He was
once asked how many truly great men the world had produced ; on
which he answered, " Five: Newton, Bacon, Leibnitz, Montesquieu,
and myself."

Z 2

340 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

leading minds of the day, and Cuvier, as well as Geoffroy
Saint Hilaire, fully recognised the value of his labours.

If, however, the scientific claims of Buffon's works
have been made a matter of dispute, there can be
no doubt as to their literary merits. Excepting MM.
D'Alembert and Daubenton, who both disliked him, and
excepting a few of the naturalists, who thought that a
work of science should exhibit a greater amount of sim-
plicity, his cotemporaries always did justice to his style,
which, although somewhat pompous, is really dignified,
always clear and often precise, and admirably depicts
that which had been only hitherto imperfectly described.
Posterity has in this respect confirmed the judgment of
his cotemporaries. But it was not without great labour
that BuiFon attained this degree of perfection, for
his letters to his friends are written in a bald and trivial
style, and in reading them, we can readily comprehend
how much trouble it must have cost the author to have
composed those magnificent passages which are scattered
through his works, and we may even believe the state-
ment that has been handed down to us, that the Epoques
de la Nature were recopied eleven times before they were
finally sent to press.

Buffon was tall, and had a handsome and expressive
iixce, and his whole air and carriage were dignified and
impressive. His disposition was kind, benevolent, and
serene. Although he was keenly attacked on different
occasions, yet he only deigned once or twice to reply to
the invectives directed against him, and he then re-
proached himself for having been guilty of a weakness
in defending himself at the expense of time which might
have been better employed. He died from stone in the
bladder, after suffering excruciating agony, and left one
son, who perished by the guillotine.

(For further particulars in reference to the life and

APPENDIX. 341

works of Buffon, see VEloge historique, by Cuvier, and
the work of M. Flourens, to which we have already re-
ferred.)

Note XII.

The Jardin des Plantes and the Academie Franyaise
were both founded by a royal decree in 1635. Guyde la
Brosse, who was physician to Louis XIII., and at whose
suggestion the garden had been established, was ap-
pointed its first superintendent.

The garden was established for an entirely utilitarian
purpose, as is implied by its original name of Le Jardin
des Plantes 3Iedicinales. It had already begun to
assume a more developed form and a more scientific cha-
racter under the management of the celebrated Fagon
first physician to Louis XIV., who in 1683 resigned
the functions of Professor of Botany in favour of
Tournefort.* Although the garden was much neglected
by the successors of Fagon, it revived under the director-

* Tournefort, who was born at Aix in 1656, and died at Paris in
1708, had devoted himself to botany from his childhood, and before
he left college he was already well acquainted with all the plants of
Provence. To increase his botanical knowledge, he made succes-
sive tours to the Alps, the Pyrenees, and Catalonia ; and, being called
to Paris by Fagon, he devoted all his leisure time to botanical excur-
sions, and thus successively visited Spain, Portugal, England, and
Holland. After being elected member of the Academy of Sciences,
he published in 1694 his Elements de Botanique, which marks an
epoch in science by the progress it made in the classification, and
more especially in the determination of genera. The reputation
which this work gained for him, facilitated the accomplishment of a
more important journey than any he had made on his own resources ;
for, on the instigation of the Academy, he received from the Go-
vernment a special mission to visit the Levant. He published the
scientific narrative of this expedition, together with several other
memoirs.

z 3

342 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

ship of Dufay, and more especially under that of Buffon,
who made his own reputation conducive to the advantage
of the establishment.

When the revolutionary rulers began to think of re-
constructing what they had previously destroyed, the old
Jardin du Roi was reconstituted by the Convention in ac-
cordance with a report given in by Lakanal with the title
of Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. The list of professors
nominated by the law of the 10th of June, 1793, is most
remarkable. All were more or less illustrious, and some
of them were truly great men, as we may see from the
following names : — Cuvier, Daubenton, Desfontaines,
Dolomieu, Fourcroy, Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Haiiy,
Laurent de Jussieu, Lacepede, Lamarck, Latreille,
Thouin, Vauquelin. It may be well conceived that
under such men as these, the impulse given to the
natural sciences by Tournefort and Buffon was in
no danger of relaxing ; and during fifty years there was
scarcely one great discovery made in these branches of
knowledge, which did not emanate from the Jardin des
Plantes. Notwithstanding our various revolutions, all
different forms of government, which succeeded one
another with such rapidity for more than half a century,
seem fully to have comprehended the glory that an
establishment of this kind reflected upon the country ;
for although other nations may have partly imitated it,
in all essential points it is unique of its kind. The first
Empire, the Restoration, and the Monarchy of July have
all in turn contributed to improve and enrich this great
centre of science.

The Academy of Sciences, which was founded in 1666,
disappeared like all other institutions of the same kind,
during the worst times of the revolution.* On the

* There was only one among all the scientific or literary societies
existing in France, which was enabled regularly to hold its meet-

APPENDIX. 343

first organisation of the Institute in the year in. of the
Republic (1795), it was again established under the
title of Classe des Sciences Physiques et Mathematiques.
Napoleon retained this name when he reconstituted the
Institute in the year XL (1803) ; but it resumed its old
name of Academic des Sciences in 1816, in consequence
of a decree passed to that effect by Louis XVIII.

This Academy comprises all the sciences properly so
called, each department being represented by only six
titular members in the sections of Geometry, Mechanics,
Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy, Botany,
Rural Economy, Anatomy and Zoology, Medicine and
Surgery, and by three titular members in the section of
Geography and Navigation. A special section is reserved
for men whose labours do not lead them directly to any
one of the preceding sections, as well as for those who
have employed the advantage of high rank or of a large
fortune in aiding and promoting the cause of science.
This is the section of the free members, of whom there
are ten ; the two perpetual secretaries are not included in
this number ; and when a member reaches this position,
which is the highest in the scientific hierarchy, his place
is filled up in the section to which he belonged. The
Academic des Sciences includes moreover eight foreign
associate members, who must be chosen from among
foreigners ; and who, during a temporary residence in
Paris, enjoy all the rights of titular members. These asso-
ciates, who are selected indifferently from any of the va-
rious departments, may, therefore, be considered as the
supreme leaders of science abroad and hence this title is
justly regarded as the most honourable of any that can

ings, and publish its reports, through the darkest periods of the days
of terror. This was the Societe Philomathique, an offshoot from
the celebrated Societe d' Arcueil, and which, in memory of its origin,
bears upon its tickets of admission these words, Science et Amitie.

z 4

344 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

be attained by the study of the sciences, properly so
called. Even to be proposed as a foreign associate is an
honour of which the most illustrious philosophers of all
countries are ambitious. There is additionally attached to
each section a class of corresponding members, who may
be either natives or foreigners, and collectively number
one hundred.

The Academic Fran^aise, the Academy of Inscriptions
and of the Belles-Lettres, that of the Fine Arts, and that
of Moral and Political Sciences, have each their special
constitution.

The five Academies of which we have spoken together
constitute the entire body of the Institut de France;
which, in accordance with every successive form of
government, has in turn been characterised as National,
Royal, or Imperial. To the Convention belongs the
honour of having thus grouped into one whole all the sci-
entific, artistic, and literary associations of France ; and
to succeeding governments the honour, which is per-
haps scarcely less, of having resisted the excitement of
the day, and of having steadily maintained the line of
conduct first adopted by the members of the Convention.

At the period of its constitution, according to the lavr
of the 5th Fructidor, in the year III. (22nd August, 1795),
the Institute comprised only three sections (viz. : the sec-
tion of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, that of Moral
and Political Sciences, and that of Literature and the Fine
Arts). Napoleon, when First Consul, increased this
number to four by dividing the section of Moral and
Political Sciences. Louis XVITL maintained, with slight
modifications, the same form of organisation, but he gave
to each section the title of Academy, and finally in 1832
Louis Philippe re-established the section of Moral and
Political Sciences under the title of an Academy.

APPENDIX. 345

Note XHI.

Van Beneden, who is professor at the University of
Louvain, is one of the most active and distinguishhed of
our modern zoologists. He has published numerous works
and memoirs on almost all the important groups belong-
ing to the sub-kingdom of the Invertebrata. Amongst his
various publications, I may instance his Exercises Ana-
tomiques, which principally refer to the Molluscs, and his
Recherches sur les Bryozoaires d'eau douce et d^eau salee.
For the last few years, M. Van Beneden has devoted
himself specially to the study of intestinal worms, and
he has already published the results of a series of very
important researches, which gained for him the prize
offered by the Academy of Sciences of Paris in 1853.

I regret that I cannot here give a circumstantial
account of this splendid work, in which the author has
considered, from every point of view, the difficult and
complex subject of the development of these animals.
This work, which will be printed at the expense of the
Academy, is still unpublished ; but those persons who
take an interest in the question may form a general
idea of the results obtained by the author, by consulting
the analysis which I drew up, in my capacity as re-
porter to the Commission appointed to award the prize.
I will here merely observe that this work, together with
the less extended researches of Dr. Kiichenmeister, have
shown, with almost unquestionable certainty, that a
large number of the intestinal worms are produced by
processes analogous to those which we meet with in
many other animals, as, for instance, in the Acalephee ;
and that, before they attain their perfect state, they must
pass through different conditions, corresponding in some
degree to those which I have described in reference
to the Medusae. It is, however, farther shown that

346 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

these complicated metamorphoses can only be effected
by the aid of certain migrations*; thus, for instance, if
we observe a young intestinal worm in one animal
species, we shall find it completely developed in some
other species ; generally, moreover, the first species in
which the intestinal worm passes the earliest period of its
existence is herbivorous ; and the second, or the one in
which it attains its definite form, is carnivorous. It is,
therefore, by eating herbivorous animals that the car-
nivora become infected with the parasites to which we
are now referring ; and this would appear to be a law,
from which even man, at least in a certain number of
cases, is not exempt. It is by eating raw, or badly
cooked pork, that a worm is swallowed in its larval
condition (Cysticercus), which, after reaching the di-
gestive canal, becomes converted into a Taenia or a
Bothriocephalus, parasites which have been commonly
confounded under the name of the tape-worm.

Note XIV.

The Mastodons were mammals resembling in all
respects our existing elephants, excepting that their
teeth were very different. Their bones have been found

* Dr. Kiichenmeister, a physician at Zittau, was the first who
instituted regular experiments to demonstrate what had already
been suspected by several naturalists ; viz., that a Cysticercus is
nothing more than a young Taenia. He clearly proved that such
was the case, and moreover that the state of the Cysticercus was a
normal, and not a teratological or abnormal state, as had been
supposed by several of our most distinguished helminthologists.
Dr. Kiichenmeister has extended his researches to the Csenurus,
which has its abode in the interior of the brain of the sheep. He
showed that these strange worms were also the larvae, or rather the
nurses (Ammen) of the Taenia, and that they in their turn were
produced from the matured ova of the latter.

APPENDIX. 347

in all parts of the world that have been well explored,
including the Australasian continent. This last fact,
which has been confirmed by Professor Owen, is very
remarkable.* All the existing Mammals of that country
belong to the group of the Marsupials, and the fossil
Fauna presents the same character in all its species,
with the exception of the Mastodons, which thus seem
to have been true Cosmopolitans. This genus com-
prises, in the present day, about a dozen species, one
of which, the great Mastodon (M. giganteus,) was at
least as large as our largest elephants. The fossil
remains of Mastodons are of common occurrence ; and
the skeleton is often found entire, and in a vertical

* Richard Owen, a corresponding member of the Institute, has
earned for himself the first rank among naturalists for his dis-
coveries in Anatomy and in Palaeontology. The nature, number,
and value of his labours have gained for him among his country-
men the title of the English Cuvier, by a similar figure of speech to
that which makes us name Laplace the French Newton. Professor
Owen's studies have been directed to nearly every department of the
animal kingdom ; and, amongst many other valuable contributions,
we are indebted to him for some very curious researches on several of
the rarest of our Molluscs, whose organisation was scarcely, if at all
understood. He has also made us completely acquainted with the
anatomical characters of the Marsupial Mammals ; but of all the
works of this learned naturalist, the most important perhaps are
those which refer to the history of fossil vertebrate animals, which
have placed their author at the head of all living palaeontologists.
In addition to a great number of special memoirs on the four
classes of this sub-kingdom, Professor Owen has published, under
the title of Odontography, a magnificent work on the teeth. In
studying the minute structure of these organs he has shown that we
may recognise the family, not unfrequently the genus, and some-
times even the species of a fish by the mere fragment of a tooth,
even where the original shape had been entirely destroyed by
friction.

348 RAMBLES OF A NATUEALIST.

position, as, for instance, in the Valley of the Ohio, as if
the animal had died after having sunk into the mud.

The presence of the bones of Mastodons in the super-
ficial strata of the earth has given rise to many fabulous
accounts ; thus they have, at different times, been con-
sidered to belong to the skeletons of giants. The
Indians of North America have even introduced them
into their legends; and the Creeks pretend that the
Great Spirit annihilated this gigantic species lest it
should destroy all other living beings. One male is
said to have escaped in a wounded condition, who still
lives among the great lakes, where he took refuge. The
aborigines of Canada regard the Mastodon as the origin
of still existing species, and they call this animal the
father of the buffaloes.

Note XV.

As the discussions relating to Phlebenterism have
spread even beyond the limits of the scientific world,
we think a brief sketch of the subject may be expedient.

Cuvier, and after him all zoologists, maintained that,
in the Mollusca, there existed a system of closed vessels,
by which the circulation was accomplished in these
animals, exactly in the same manner as in the Mammalia.
A few exceptional facts had indeed been noted by Cuvier
himself in the Aplysias, by Milne Edwards in the
Ascidians, and by Professors Owen and Valenciennes in
the Nautilus ; when the study of a small Nudibranchiate
Gasteropod on our sea coasts led me to the consideration
of this and several other analogous questions. Amongst
other characteristics hitherto regarded as some of the
most constant in the Mollusca, anatomists had always
admitted the existence of a simple intestine, and of a
distinct and well developed liver. Now, in studying

APPENDIX. 349

the Eolidina, I proved : firstly, that the intestine rami-
fies and sends prolongations to the dorsal papillae, which
had hitherto been regarded as ordinary branchiae * ;
secondly, that the liver does not exist as a distinct
organ, but that the intestinal. prolongations, of which I
have spoken, are invested with a granular covering,
resembling certain hepatic organs ; and, thirdly, that
the food penetrates through the entire extent of the
ramified canals of the intestine.

At the same time I found in the Eolidina a heart and
a tolerably well developed arterial system, but I could
not distinguish any veins ; nevertheless, I was so
thoroughly imbued with the ideas of Cuvier that it was
long before I was willing to admit the non-existence of
these vessels. Nor was I convinced that there were
really no veins in the Eolidina, until I had followed the
same blood-corpuscle throughout its entire circuit — until
I had seen it issue from the heart, and pass through the
arteries by whose walls its movements were regulated,
and until it was conveyed through every part of the
general cavity, and finally carried back to the heart.

The species of which I have spoken was the subject of
my first memoir, which was received without much op-
position. I had looked upon the Eolidina merely as a
degraded and consequently as an exceptional species ;
but having had occasion at Brehat to study several of
the allied species, I was led to take a more general view
of the subject. As I could not suppose that Cuvier and
Blainville f had been deceived in reference to this

* Previous to my researches, Milne Edwards had ascertained
this fact in the Calliopea of Risso ; and Loven, a Swedish naturalist,
had also recognised it in several species.

f Cuvier and Blainville had at their disposal Eolidse, whose size
adapted them admirably for dissection, yet neither of them have re-
ferred to the remarkable characters which I have described in respect

350 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

special point, wliich I had observed in the organisation of
the Mollusca, I placed these animals in a special group,
and named them Phlebenterous Gasteropods. At the
same time I made known the facts which I had obtained,
and the conclusions to which they had led me. The
greater number of these facts admitted of being readily-
verified by any one conversant with the use of the mi-
croscope, who would take the trouble of spending a few
days at the seaside. These views, however, were too
much opposed to accepted ideas, to be received with
much favour, and some persons went so far as to deny the
possibility of the observations which I had published, de-
claring that they were a priori opposed to all established
facts and all sound principles.

In several elaborate memoirs referring to this subject,
M. Souleyet, a distinguished navy surgeon, made himself
one of the chief organs of this opposition.* He constantly
appealed to the names of Cuvier and Blainville, and
thus gave to his statements a certain degree of plausibi-
lity and popularity ; and in no gentle terms, referred to

to these Molluscs. There can be no doubt that Cuvier must have
endeavoured to form a correct idea of their anatomy ; and he must
have observed some of these curious facts, but in consequence of
their being so much at variance with what he had elsewhere
observed, he may have supposed himself to be mistaken, and on that
account refrained from publishing them.

* M. Souleyet died on one of his voyages. His death caused me
deep regret, for all persons who were on intimate terms with my
opponent have always spoken of him as a man of perfect good faith
and as one devoted to the cause of science. He would therefore, no
doubt, have finally suffered himself to be persuaded by the mass of
proofs which have been collected since our discussions. Indepen-
dently of the memoirs undertaken at the time of this contest,
M. Souleyet has left several memoirs, and the zoological portion of
the Voyage autour du Monde, performed by La Bonite, in which are
contained many observations of great interest.

APPENDIX. 351

their preparations. Phlebenterism was declared to be
entirely exploded, and characterised as a mere chimera.

It so happened, hov/ever, that my opponents, who
were agreed in declaring me convicted of flagrant errors
(/ have considerably softened these expressions), were far
from agreeing amongst themselves. It is curious to
compare in this respect the remarks of M. Souleyet in
France, and Professor Allman in England, in respect to
the Acteons*, one of the most curious genera of this
group. That which is regarded by the one as a circula-
tory apparatus is in the eyes of the other a complete
respiratory apparatus. That which the one calls a
sanguiniferous vessel, the other calls an aquiferous
trachea ; the auricle of the one is in the eyes of
the other a sac, communicating externally by means
of an orifice. Finally, while the one declares that
Acteons are Molluscs, allied to the EolidaB, as I had pre-
viously stated was the case, the other, who is the re-
presentative of old ideas, would have these animals
remain near the Aplysiae. These fundamental discre-
pancies do not, however, prevent these naturalists from
congratulating each other on the perfect accordance
of their views. (See the memoirs of Allman in the
Annals of Natural History, and of Souleyet in the
Comptes rendus.)

This mistake on the part of two conscientious natural-
ists in reference to their reciprocal mode of seeing the
same thing was the more remarkable, because they were

* Contrary to what has been stated, the genus Acteon comprises
several species differing essentially from one another. In the place
of dorsal papillae, we find in all of them a broad, but thin expansion,
•which is prolonged posteriorly in the shape of a leaf, and surrounds
the body. The intestinal ramifications are distributed throughout
the whole of this lamina, which, moreover, encloses the reproductive
organs.

352 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

here disputing concerning the circulatory apparatus, and
yet my remarks in reference to this organ had excited
more incredulity than all my other statements. In the
eyes of those who ascribed a very exaggerated part to
the vascular apparatus, in accordance with their embryo-
logical theories, these facts were the less acceptable,
because they entirely destroyed their a priori system,
while to the greater number it seemed equally impos-
sible, from what Cuvier and Blainville had said on this
subject, to admit the existence of Gasteropodous Mol-
luscs without veins : and thus to many persons Phleben-
terism was synonymous with the absence of a circulation.
I have, however, shown in the text that this was by no
means the view I had advanced.*

Milne Edwards first undertook independently, and
afterwards in conjunction with Valenciennes, a series of
observations on the circulation of the Mollusca, which
soon led to the very unexpected results to which we
have referred in the text, viz., that in all the Mollusca
the circulatory apparatus is incomplete ; that there are
interruptions in the circulatory circle of all these
animals, and that consequently in all the blood must
flow into lacunae. These facts and conclusions of the
French Academicians were soon independently con-
firmed by MM. Pouchet, Van Beneden, and Owen, and
it was not long before they were admitted, in almost
every country of Europe. In Paris alone there was a
small group of incredulous inquirers, who were more or

* On my return from Sicily, and on the first outbreak of this
discussion, I defined Phlebenterism as an anatomical arrangement,
which is generally characterised by ramified prolongations of the
digestive tube, in virtue of which the digestive apparatus to a
certain extent supplies the place of the circulatory apparatus, and
aids in the process of respiration. This definition has been con-
stantly forgotten by my opponents.

APPENDIX. 353

less interested in denying these facts, and who persisted
in the old ideas ; and there may even now be some who
adhere to similar views. It follows, from these re-
searches, that the statements which I made in reference
only to the Phlebenterous Molluscs actually applied to
this entire division of the animal kingdom, while that
which I had myself regarded as an exception, from too
great a faith in the infallibility of our illustrious pre-
decessors, was found to be in reality the general law.

The question of the circulation of the Molluscs being
once determined, it only remained to consider those
facts and ideas which seem to me to group themselves
around the word Phlebenterism. Here, too, I must be
permitted to observe that all my general results and
deductions have been successively confirmed and
adopted. In entering upon this hitherto unexplored
path of inquiry, I had doubtless been guilty of many
errors and omissions, and in some cases especially, I had
attached too much importance to negative results ; but,
during my Sicilian expedition, before any controversy
had been excited on the subject, I had rectified some
errors, and filled up many of those deficiencies, which, I
may almost venture to say, are inevitable in a first
inquiry. At the present time the word Phlebenterism,
in the signification that I have -attributed to it, with all
the consequences that I have deduced from the facts
which had led me to advance it, has been adopted in
Germany and elsewhere even in elementary works.

Note XVI.

Johann Miiller, a corresponding member of the
Institute, and a professor at the University of Berlin,
must be considered as the leader of modern physiology

VOL. I. A A

354 RAMBLES OF A NATURALIST.

in Germany. Carried away by the theories of Oken*, he
was in early life, I have been assured, a follower of the
nature-philosophy ; but having speedily adopted other
views, he commenced a series of investigations on the
higher animals, undertaken from a purely physiological
point of view, which soon made his name celebrated,
and obtained for him the elevated position which he now
occupies. He has given a collected view of his doctrines
in his Handbuch der Phisiologie, which was regarded
as a standard work from its first appearance, and has
been translated into several languages. During the last
few years Miiller has devoted his attention to the lower
marine animals ; and with the view of better studying
them he has made several voyages along the shores of
the Baltic and the Adriatic ; and his researches on the
Amphioxus, on the family of the Myxinoidae, on the
larvge of the Echinoderms, &c., have acquired for him a
most eminent position among scientific naturalists.

His son, Maximilian Miiller, appears to be following
in the steps of his father. Amongst other memoirs, he
has published a very interesting article on the anatomy
of several marine worms.

The living physiologist, Johann Miiller, must not be
confounded with his namesake, Otto Frederic Miiller, a

* Oken, a German naturalist, founded the school of Natur-
philosophie, the object of which was to refer the entire creation to
one a pi'iori unity. We owe to him several important anatomical
and zoological works, which, however, are almost always spoiled by
the exaggeration of his theoretical dogmas. The following anecdote
may show how far he carried his extreme views. Walking one
day with a friend, who informed me of the incident, he stopped
before a house, which was then being built, and exclaimed, with an
accent of the most intense indignation, " How is it possible that
men can continue to build four storeyed houses when they have
only three stories of their own, the belly, chest, and head ? "

APPENDIX. 355

celebrated Danish naturalist, who was born in 1730, and
died in 1784. He had no fortune; but, aided by the
advice and counsels of his mother, who was a woman of
superior mind, he contrived, by force of perseverance, to
complete his studies. He began by giving lessons in
music, and he continued to teach various branches of
knowledge as fast as he himself acquired them. Having
become tutor to a young man of fortune, he took ad-
vantage of the leisure afforded him by this position to
occupy himself with the natural sciences. His first
writings speedily brought him into notice, and he was
provided with a high and lucrative ofiice ; but having had
the good fortune of marrying a woman who was both
wealthy and highly cultivated, he gave up his office, and
devoted himself exclusively to science.

The zoological labours of O. F. Muller were directed
principally to the Invertebrata ; and his Vermium Terres-
trium et Fluviatilium Historia, his Zoologica Danica, and
his works on the Hydrachniae, and on the Infusoria, have
placed him among the best and most laborious observers
of the eighteenth century.

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