THE READING NATURALIST

= ~——~—S VOLUME 1 NUMBER 2
Bearer, CONTAINING

f ‘
bens, Brow ier

“ A FIELD KEY
TO FOUR HUNDRED
COMMON MUSHROOMS

AND TOADSTOOLS

BY
in F. B. HORA

bi ’

ia & > Py ¥
AoE oe eR

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Published by the
READING AND DISTRICT

Natural History Society
“$1950

THE READING NATURALIST y 4

VOLUME 1 NUMBER 2

3
I @e

CONTENTS 3

A KEY TO FOUR HUNDRED COMMON MUSHROOMS
AND TOADSTOOLS. — F. B. Hora.

PREFACE

SCALE REAGENTS ABBREVIATIONS |
KEY TO GENERA

KEY TO SPECIES

GLOSSARY

REFERENCES

A sketcu of the Geology of the Country around
Reading. —
Professor H. L. Hawks, D.Sc., FLR.S., F.G.S.

Prant Hunting in the Lower Chilterns. —
K. 1. Butler {8 A. M. Simmonds.

Tue Dragonflies of Berkshire. —
Philip S. Corbet, B.Sc.

Sprinc Bird Watching in Caversham gardens,
orchards, & plantations. — Dr. E. V. Watson.

RECORDERS REPORTS
GEOLOGY
BOTANY
ORNITHOLOGY

a wae
WEOO NIST DD

59

63

65

67

A FIELD KEY TO COMMON
MUSHROOMS

AND

TOADSTOOLS

BY Fa WO Ron

PREFACE

Tuis key is an expanded version of a smaller one which I
constructed and had duplicated for the use of students in
connection with field work on agarics. When I first be-
came associated with this field work, it was soon evident
to me that some such key was needed. I was unable to find
any work previously published in this country along the
lines I wanted. H. J. Wheldon prepared a key to the Brit-
ish Agaricineae which appeared between 1910 and 1913.
This, however, required the user to know the spore colour
in all cases. Furthermore, it is a key to all species recorded
as British at that time, that is to say about 600 more than
the number admitted in the Revised list of British Agarics
and Boleti published by Pearson and Dennis in 1948.
These authors recognise rather more than 1200 Agarics
and 47 Boleti: this is a reduction by about one third of the
previous number.

The success of my smaller key has encouraged me to
publish the present much larger one. In fact, I became
agreeably surprised to find how the smaller key enabled —
students to name many of our common toadstools after
little more than an hour’s help over the initial difficulties.

I would emphasise that this is essentially a field key. It

2

cannot replace serious work in the laboratory along mod-
ern lines with a good microscope and the usual chemical
reagents. Field and laboratory work must go hand in
hand, a proper balance being maintained between the
two. I believe that training in the field identification of
agarics 1s an excellent way of acquiring skill in the art of
differential diagnosis. Laboratory work should serve to
confirm, modify, or show the limits of such field obser-
vations. I also believe that exclusive reliance on or over-
emphasis of laboratory methods 1s as bad as their neglect.
It is possible to identify most of our toadstools by field
characters, and it will be a sad day when our students will
not venture an opinion on any toadstool without recourse
to a well-equipped laboratory. The study of any kind of
biological systematics must always involve the observation
and study of living things in their natural surroundings.

I have seen and handled living specimens of not less
than ninety per cent. of the species included in this key.
The remainder have been added for the sake of complete-
ness Or intrinsic interest.

WHEN THIS KEY
FAILS

Tue only real test of such a key is: can someone else work
it? Although very few rare species are included, the 400-
odd species dealt with still represent only about one third
of our total agaric flora. For this reason alone, the key
must fail at times. But there will be other reasons: ambi-
guity, characters not sufficiently differential, plain (but
honest) errors, etc. When some or all of these things arise,
or any other reason that makes the key unworkable, do
please write and tell me so, naming, and, for preference,
enclosing, the offending species, and stating how they

3

offend. It is only in this way that progress can be made in
a key of this sort. All your criticisms will be helpful to me
and will be duly acknowledged. It is intended that impr-
ovements to the key will be printed on special perforated
paper in subsequent numbers of this journal so that they
can be detached and stuck in at the appropriate place. May
I add that encouraging remarks, however mild, will be

greatly appreciated and duly acknowledged.
BE DILBERT? Y

THE poisonous toadstools and those to be avoided have
been indicated in appropriate terms. Those which from
my own experience I have enjoyed eating are also given
appropriate remarks. To the remainder, and they are the
great majority, I have given no gastronomic status. These
are all harmless; many of them I have tried myself and —
found dull, but many have their devotees. It seems to be
a matter of taste.

To the beginner who wishes to try the edible qualities
of different species I would say this: have the identity of
your finds confirmed by a competent mycologist. Their
gastronomic properties can then be looked up.

ON SENDING TOADSTOOLS
BY: .P.Oisih

I am always pleased to give an opinion on toadstools sent
to me. Attention to the following points will be of great
help. Send only complete, healthy, freshly gathered spe-
cimens, including young stages: they should be dug up,
not pulled up. If more than one species is sent, see that
they are kept separate by enclosing in a paper bag, or
simply wrapping up in newspaper. They are best sent in
a tin, but a cardboard box will do. Do not add damp moss

4

or wet paper. See that they cannot shake about in the con-
tainer. Choose a posting time so that they reach me during
the morning. Above all, avoid the risk of their remaining
in the post over the week-end.

HINTS ON THE USE OF
THIS Key

START with species of which you can see several individ-
ual specimens at different stages of development. Avoid
the isolated, odd individual. Those species which have a
ring or volva, or are tufted or grow on wood will probab-
ly be found the easiest to name successfully, at least to
begin with. Having come to a specific name, the speci-
mens should be checked with a reasonably full description
—see References. For the beginner, the value of this key
will be greatly increased if he can, in the early stages,
obtain some guidance from a more advanced student.
Attendance atforays, such as those run by the British
Mycological Society, is probably the best way of obtain-
ing such help. I sha// myself be pleased to consider leading
a foray tf the distance from Reading ts not too far and Iam
notified in good time.

If you are disappointed with this key, please read the
section entitled ‘when this key fails’? before consigning
it to the flames.

The University,
# Reading.
‘Fuly 19506

SCALE OF RELATIVE SIZES
OF TOADSTOOLS USED
IN THIS KEY

SMALL, where cap does not exceed 3cms. (1.2 in.) i.e.
can be covered by a penny, and stipe does not exceed
diameter of an ordinary pencil ( 8mm. or 0.6 in. ).

VERY SMALL is occasionally used for a cap that can be
covered by a sixpence ( 2cms. or 0.8 in. ).

MEDIUM, cap 3-Scms. .(1.2-2in.) and or thickness of
stipe less than diameter of ordinary pencil.

LARGE, cap 5-7cms. (2-2.75in.) diameter of stipe ex-
ceeding that of ordinary pencil.

VERY LARGE, cap 7cms. (2.75 in. ) upwards; thickness
of stipe exceeding diameter of ordinary pencil.

REAGENTS

FERRIC ALUM. A large crystal may be Kept in the pocket.
It is quite harmless.

AMMONIA SOLUTION. A 25-50 per cent. solution of 0.88
ammonia in water. It has a strong pungent smell of
smelling salts, so a violent sniff should not be taken
with the nose too near the mouth of the uncorked bot-
tle.

ABBREVIATIONS
+ more or less. sp. species (singular),
spp. species (plural).
NOMENCLATURE

Tus follows the revised list of British Agarics and
Boleti by A. A. Pearson and R. W. G. Dennis. See sect-
ion on reference works.

REY TO GENERA

Ee

Mushrooms, toadstools or “* brackets’”’ with gills, pores or peg-like projecting
spines usually on lower surface of the + expanded fruit body (= cap).

1. Plants with well defined gills, rarely joining together to form a few
large pores (= alveoli), but when this does occur, the large pores
are most usually near the stipe and the gills are decurrent

1. Plants without such gills :

2. Pores only present, rarely larger than the lead i ina pencil :
2. Peg-like projecting spines only present—HYDNACEAE: Hyd-
num, Tremellodon, etc., not here considered.
3. Stipe excentric, lateral or absent; fruit body (cap) of corky to woody
consistency, not fleshy nor putrefying in a few days.—POLYPOR-
ACEAE: Polyporus, etc., not here considered.
3. Stipe central; fruit body (cap) of fleshy consistency, soon putrefying
in a few days 4
4. Cap densely beset with overlapping greyish- black scales, looking
rather like an expanded fir cone seen from beneath.—Strobilo-
myces strobilaceus.

4. Cap virtually smooth, at most with a few soft, but not overlapping
flecks.—Boletus.

5. Stipe central, rarely somewhat excentric, not definitely lateral nor
absent . , 3 ; 6

5. Stipe markedly excentric or - definitely lateral or absent ‘ 98
6. Gills soft, yellowish pale brown, can be readily pushed off from

overlying flesh of cap; become darker brown in a minute or so
after bruising; somewhat joined together near stipe to form a
few large pores (alveoli). (Gills decurrent.)—Paxillus (part).
6. Not this combination of characters hs 7

7. Gills little more than raised veins or ribs, mostly repeatedly and
dichotomously branched; edge rounded, blunt, not sharp. (Cap
colour uniformly grey-black or + apricot yellow, smooth; gills
decurrent.)—Cantharellus.

7. Gills well-developed (of normal mushroom type); branching ex-
ceptional, and then mostly where gill joins stipe; edge sharp, not

WN MN

rounded nor blunt (Gill attachment various) : 8
8. Cap, gills or stipe, when broken, and without squeezing, exuding

an opaque white (rarely + watery) or coloured juice (latex, milk) 9
8. Not so e: 10

9. Medium to very large spp., “cap fleshy, ‘convex-flat to funnel-shaped,
gills + adnate to decurrent (hence gills approach stipe in + descend-
ing line).—Lactarius.

9. Essentially small spp., cap almost membranous and conical to
convex (hence gills approach stipe in + ascending line under the
cap).—Mycena (part).

10. Vertical section of young (unexpanded) cap shows whitish gills
with dusky to black colour (the maturing spores) spreading in-
wards, but starting always at the free ends (often a pinkish zone
between blackish and whitish areas). As cap expands, gills
slowly ‘“‘ dissolve ’’ (** deliquesce ”’, ‘* auto-digest ’’) into a black,
inky, fluid, again starting always. at the free ends. Finally cap
also + dissolves away. Mostly fragile, ephemeral, spp., cap at

7

11.

11.

13.
13,

15.

lips

17.

17.

19.

19.

19.

first cylindrical or ovate, membranous or very slightly fleshy;
gills thin, very crowded, sides parallel and almost touching, free
(sometimes joined to a collar) or slightly adnate. Volva or ring
sometimes present on stipe. If tufted, then never a small sp.
—Coprinus.

10. Not this genus

Plants growing on burnt ground, or on living or r dead remains of

other toadstools, or arising from a (buried) fir cone

Plants not of the above habitats

12. Volva present, ring absent; parasitic on Clitocybe sp(p).—
Volvaria surrecta (= V. loveiana).

12. Neither volva nor ring present

Plants confined to burnt ground

Not so (small spp.)

14. Gills decurrent, shallow, frequently branched, free end rounded,
blunt, edge white-fluffy when seen under the lens. Small to
medium sp., cap + grey brown.—Cantharellus carbonarius.

14. Gills not decurrent; the combination of other characters not
applying . :

Young dark-brownish, almost membranous cap beset with n numer-

ous white, fibrillose, teeth-like scales, persisting longest at margin;

mature gills black. Small sp., growing in troops.—Psathyrella
pennata.

Cap at all times devoid of such tooth-like scales; mature gills not

black . ‘ ‘ ;

16. Cap sticky-slimy, ah rusty yellowish-brown: cuticle of cap
can be peeled off. Mostly a small sp., gills dirty pale yellowish-
brown.—Flammula carbonaria.

16. Cap not sticky-slimy, + dark brownish-black; cuticle cannot
be peeled off. Small sp., gills + greyish.—Collybia ambusta.

Plants arising from a (buried) fir cone.—See Collybia.

Plants growing on living or dead remains of other toadstools

(usually Lactarius, Russula)

18. Very small, but otherwise perfectly normal- looking toad-
stools with closely set (crowded) gills. No special smell.—
Collybia (part).

18. Very small, gills feebly developed or somewhat thickish;
widely spaced (not crowded), the general effect being an appear-
ance of rather abnormal toadstools. Smell “‘ nauseous” or
strongly of “‘ new meal ”’.— Nyctalis.

Membranous ring (superior, dependent) and volva present, the

volva often reduced to scales, rims or belt-like zone(s). Warts,

scales, patches, etc. (when present) on cap, easily pushed off (finger
nail) without tearing underlying tissue. (Gills quite free, persis-
tently white).—Amanita. |

Membranous ring or volva present, not both. Warts, scales, patches,

etc. (when present) on cap, not detachable without tearing under-

lying tissue

Neither ring nor volva present. " Sometimes a cobweb- like filamen-

tous veil (cortina) extends over gill chamber in young, -+- unopened

specimens, often leaving remnants on edge of expanding cap and

a ring-like filamentous zone or zones (but not a membranous ring)

on the stipe

15

16

18

20

29

21.

21.

20.
23.
23.

25.

25.

Zi.

al,

2.

20. Membranous ring only present (in a few cases reduced to little
more than a ridge, or disappearing as plant matures)

20. Volva only present

Plant confined to dung; cap smooth, sticky- slimy without detachable

pellicle, mature gills black, gills adnate or almost free. Mostly

medium sized buff-coloured plant, with persistently dome-shaped
cap.—Ane laria semi-ovata (= A. separata)

Not this combination of characters 4

22. Gills quite free; plants not growing on wood. “(dn mature
specimens, stipe can often be seen to fit into cap like ball and
socket joint)

22. Gills not free; plants often growing on 1 wood (stumps, trunks,
etc.) or on saw-dust : 3

Gills persistently pure white, rarely ‘with very faint suggestion of

pink, never maturing to dark chocolate brown.—Lepiota (part).

Gills almost blood-red, maturing to dark reddish-brown. Cap

with + denticulate edge.—Lepiota haematosperma.

Gills when young (cap + unexpanded) grey or distinctly pink,

maturing to dark chocolate brown.—Psalliota. The Mushroom

genus.

24. Gills adnate or sinuate; not growing on wood (stumps, trunks,
etc.) nor on sawdust, nor tufted ‘

24. Gills arcuate-decurrent to + decurrent, or plants growing on
wood or sawdust or + tufted.

Cap sticky or slimy; gills at first dusky and mottled, maturing

blackish or + chocolate brown and then with + distinct purplish

tinge

Cap not sticky nor slimy: gills persistently white to creamy, not

mottled.—Lepiota (part).

26. Cap with pellicle that can be peeled off. Mature gills with
purplish tinge. Spores purplish—Stropharia.

26. Cap without detachable pellicle. Mature gills black. Spores
black.—Anellaria semi-ovata (= A. separata).

Mature gills white to off-white. Either cap and stipe pure white,

slimy, of -+ gelatinous consistency and not attached to long,

branching, cord-like, brown to black threads (rhizomorphs) which
ramify under bark of tree, or cap + honey-coloured to brownish
and growing from rhizomorphs. Spores white.—Armillaria.

Mature gills yellowish, rusty yellowish ochre to brownish. Plants

usually yellowish, cap usually with darker pressed down or erect

scales. Spores + ochre brown.—Pholiota.

28. Edge of cap conspicuously striate; gills persistently white.
Stipe appearing somewhat as if its cuticle were torn. Spores
white.—Amanitopsis.

28. Edge of cap not striate; mature gills pink. Cuticle of stipe
smooth. Spores pink.—Volvaria.

Gills of characteristic waxy appearance and consistency, + widely

spaced (not crowded) and attached to cap by unusually wide base.

Plants not tufted nor growing on wood (stumps, trunks, etc.).

Other characters vary with habitat, thus:—(a) woods and plan-

tations: gills adnate-decurrent or arcuate-decurrent to markedly

decurrent; stipe + dotted with granulations above or somewhat
scaley or with a + fibrillose ring-like zone above. Cap colours

9

21

23
24

25
27

26

2.

31.

31.

33,

33.

32:

35.

af.

a7.

a:
a9,

predominantly whitish, or dull greyish, dull brownish, sometimes

with dull olivaceous or purplish tinge. Bright colours most usually

absent, except as occasional flecks. (Plants slimy or sticky); (6)

grasslands (lawns, meadows, pastures, commons, heathy grassland,

etc.): gill attachment various; cap whitish, but mostly ei:
coloured: crimson, red, yellow

Gills not of characteristic waxy appearance and consistency, nor

attached by a wide base. Compare above habitat characteristics .

30. Mature gills greyish to black; cap rose red, brownish, rusty-
brownish or brownish with purplish tinge. Mostly top-
shaped spp., strictly confined to conifer plantations. Spores
black. (Gills markedly decurrent).—Gomphidius.

30. Mature gills not greyish to black. Plants not confined to coni-
fer plantations. Spores white. —Hygrophorus.

Plants + tufted (excluding those growing in troops, etc.)

Plants growing singly (occasionally 2 or 3 plants may have their

stipe pressed together towards the base, or the plants may grow in

troops, etc.)

32. Growing on wood essentially ok above ground (stumps, trunks)
or on sawdust . é

32. Growing on the ground, amongst litter, twigs, etc., or may be
on buried wood

Gills decurrent, or if not decurrent than the free edge appearing

as if pieces had ‘been chipped or clipped out at + irregular intervals,

and then the plants of distinctly me tai even + corky consistency,
pliant not easily cracking : f :

Gills not decurrent, edge not jagged .

34. Medium to large spp. : i

34. Small -+- membranous sp., confined to coniferous ‘stumps. _-
Omphalia campanella.

Edge of gills appearing as if pieces had been chipped or clipped out

at + irregular intervals (plants of distinctly leathery, even corky

consistency, pliant, not easily cracking).—Lentinus (part).

Edge of gills even

36. Gills branched, joining together towards the stipe, sometimes
extending down stipe as wide meshwork of slightly raised
lines. Plants fleshy, predominantly whitish, greyish, + pale
yellowish.—Pleurotus (part).

36. Gills not branched nor joining together. Plants leathery,
predominantly tan colour, sometimes with reddish flush or
tinged lilac.—Panus torulosus.

Rather small sp., cap persistently dome-shaped, at first yellowish

and smooth, maturing to grey and then conspicuously radiately

grooved. Mature gills grey-black, ascending under cap and +

adnate. On wood of broad-leaved trees only.—Psathyrella dis-

seminata.

Not this combination of characters

38. Stipe, at least towards the base, + densely hairy or velvety
with short hairs; best seen when dry.—See Collybia (part).

38. Stipe essentially without short hairs; best seen when dry

Stipe stout, tough, spindle-shaped, with very evident longitudinal

grooves. Whole plant + reddish-brown. anon a fusipes.

Not this combination of characters . . ‘ : 5

10

30
31

34
35

36

38

39

40

41.
41.

43.

43.

45.

45.

47.
47.

49.

49.

31.

JI,

40. Cap sticky or slimy, beset (at least when young) with +
whitish flecks. Whole plant straw-yellow (cap paler towards
edge) and commonly with a greenish tinge.—Flammula gum-
mosa.

40. Cap not stickey or slimy, flecks absent from cap .

Plants restricted to wood of coniferous trees

Plants restricted to wood of broad-leaved trees . }

42. Cap + pale ochre colour; flesh practically without taste. —
Hypholoma capnoides.

42. Cap rusty yellowish orange or + tawny; flesh distinctly bitter.
—Flammula sapinea.

Cap and stem predominantly yellowish (cap sometimes with brick-

red flush); flesh distinctly bitter.—Hypholoma (part).

Cap and stipe not predominantly yellowish; usually greys to

browns; flesh not bitter .

44. Cap convex, rather fleshy, not ‘striate at margin, rich date-
brown when water-soaked drying out + ochreous. Spores
dusky not white

44. Cap + conical, almost membranous, grey-brown « or if brown,
then margin striate; not drying out -+- ochreous. Spores white.
—Mycena (part).

Gill chamber of unexpanded cap covered with cobweb-like filamen-

tous veil, remnants of which are usually visible round margin of

+ expanded cap.—Hypholoma (part).

Cobweb-like veil quite absent.—Psilocybe (part).

46. Rather small plant, cap persistently dome-shaped, at first
yellowish and smooth, maturing to grey and then deeply and
radiately grooved. Mature gills grey-black, ascending under
cap and + adnate. Spores blackish.—Psathyrella disseminata.

46. Not this combination of characters.

Cap sticky or slimy, either straw-yellow (paler towards edge) and

often with greenish tinge, or + egg yellow (spores + rusty).

Cap not sticky or slimey; colours various 3

48. Gills free, cap distinctly membranous, + egg- -yellow (no green
tinge) at first ovate, then expanding, becoming radiately
grooved; often splitting at margin.—Bolbitius (part).

48. Gills broadly adnate, cap quite fleshy, beset with whitish scales
(at least when young). Greenish tinge commonly present.—
Flammula gummosa.

Stipe velvety with short hairs or woolly below. Small to med-

ium spp., distinctly tough, pliant, almost leathery, cap somewhat

pinkish pale brown or + buff coloured.—Marasmius (part).

Stipe not velvety with short hairs

50. Whole plant rusty yellowish orange or r tawny; flesh distinctly
bitter. (On buried coniferous wood.)—Flammula sapinea.

50. Only the cap orange brown. Flesh slightly acid.—Clitocybe
flaccida.

50. Above colours absent; flesh not bitter F

Large to very large plants: cap (and stipe) essentially tough and

pliant, + umbonate at first, later expanding and often irregular.

Gills (often in same specimen) -+ sinuate to somewhat decurrent.

Plants grey-brown.—Tricholoma (part).

Small to medium spp., the combination of other characters not

11

41
43

45

50

51

be

a3.

DD.

Jo

ai.

oy

a9.

ao.

61.
61.

63.

63.

applying

52. Gills free; young cap almost milk-white, later brownish and
with faint but distinct lilac flush. Small to medium sp., +
leathery, pliant.—Marasmius wynnei.

52. Gills adnate or sinuate y : i ;

Cap + conical, grey-brown to brownish: not drying out +

ochreous or whitish. Gills persistently whitish. May be distinct

nitrous smell. Spores white.—Mycena (part).

Cap convex to flat, -- brownish or whitish when water-soaked,

drying out + ochreous. Mature gills brownish with purplish or

distinct lilac tinge. No nitrous smell. Spores + brownish with
purplish tinge.

54. Plants growing on wood essentially + ‘above ground (stumps,
trunks) or on sawdust ;

54. Plants growing on ground amongst litter, twigs, ete.

Plant + violaceous (also the gills, the edge persisting violaceous).

Small to medium plant on wood of broad-leaved trees.—Leptonia

euchroa.

Not so .

56. Gills quite free

56. Gills sinuate or adnate ; , ; , : ;

Cap membranous, sticky-slimy, commonly with raised veins

forming a sort of network; gills yellowish brownish. Spores

rusty yellowish-brown.—Pluteolus.

Cap distinctly fleshy, not sticky-slimy; reticulation absent, but

may be radiately fibrillose or felty squamulose. Spores and mature

gills pink.—Pluteus (part).

58. Cap with purple to brownish granules on a + yellow back-
ground; gills yellow. Confined to coniferous wood.—Trich-
oloma rutilans.

58. Not this combination of characters

Cap brown, slimy, with radiating wrinkles, commonly from a

central umbo. Stipe widening slightly downwards, remarkably

solid and prolonged into a long underground “ radicle ’’ which is
attached to (buried) wood of broad-leaved trees, especially beech.—

Collybia radicata.

Whole piant rusty yellowish to tawny; not slimey; no “ radicle”’

Confined to coniferous wood.—Flammula sapinea.

60. Gills broadly adnate to markedly decurrent; mature cap
commonly + funnel shaped } '

60. Gills free, adnate or sinuate, or doubtfully decurrent; mature
cap rarely funnel shaped

Medium to large spp.

Small spp. :

62. Stipe when rubbed with ferric alum giving Faaily (i.e. within
about 1 minute) a + greenish or pinkish colour (gills not soft,
not easily pushed off from overlying flesh of cap nor staining
brownish when bruised).—Russula (part).

62. No reaction to ferric alum. :

Gills soft, light brownish, becoming brown where bruised after

about | minute; easily pushed off from overlying flesh of cap.—

Paxillus (part).

Not this combination of characters

12

52

53

59

63

64

65.

65.

67.

67.

69.

69.

(ie

ie

73.
Ex

64. Mature gills pinkish; cap white, soft, like kid glove. Cap, at
least when mature, somewhat lobed at edge and irregular;
stipe often -- excentric. (Distinct smell of “‘new meal’’.)
Spores pink.—Clitopilus prunulus.

64. Mature gills not pinkish, the combination of other characters
not applying

Mature gills dark grey to almost black. Top- shaped plants, cap

sticky-slimy. Gill chamber of young plants covered by fibrillose

veil, often seen on stipe of older plants as + fibrillose zones.

Plants confined to plantations of conifers. Spores blackish.—

Gomphidius.

Mature gills not dark grey to almost black; cap not sticky-

slimy; veil or its remains quite absent. Plants not confined to

plantations of conifers. Spores white.—Clitocybe.

66. Cap -++ convex and somewhat sticky, clear deep pink to rose-
red. Mature gills greyish, thick, widely spaced and forked.
Confined to conifer plantations and probably exclusively to
pinus. Spores blackish.—Gomphidius roseus.

66. Cap usually depressed towards the centre and the combination
of other characters not applying. Spores never blackish

Cap, gills, stipe some shade of brownish. Spores brownish

Gills, at least, not brownish. Spores white or pink . .

68. Gill chamber of very young plants covered by fibrillose, cob-
web-like veil, usually seen as flecks round edge of + flattened
(mature) cap.—Tubaria.

68. No such veil or its remains.—Psilocybe (part).

Mature gills pinkish. Spores pink, angular.—E£ccilia.

Mature gills usually whitish, not pinkish. Spores white, smooth.

(Spp. more numerous and usually more common than those of

Eccilia.)—Omphailia.

70. Young dusky coloured gills mottled or variegated with
numerous small patches (the maturing spores), best seen
by section through centre of cap. Spores dark brownish
(usually with purplish tinge) or essentially black .

70. Mottled or variegated gills at no time present. Spores white,
pink, rusty yellowish-ochre or rusty brown .

Young cap with conspicuous fibrillose veil, which remains for

some time on cap edge and leaves ring-like fibrillose zone on upper

part of stipe. Large sp., with dull ochre brown cap when water-
soaked, drying out paler. Spores dark brown with purplish tinge.—

Hypholoma velutinium.

No such fibrillose veil, but cap edge may slightly over reach the

gills and be + denticulate. Spores dark brown (purplish tinge

abseat) or essentially black.—See Panaeolus.

72. Gill chamber of young plants covered by a fibrillose cobweb-
like veil (cortina), remains of which in older plants may often
be seen as fibrils at cap edge, or as fibrillose zone(s) on stipe,
or sheathing stipe for about two-thirds from below upwards
as a stocking-like covering

72. Not so 2 : ; ‘ : 5

Cap smooth, often sticky- slimy. Mostly medium or larger spp. .

Cap rough with fibrils radiating from centre, the fibrils commonly

separating longitudinally as cap expands; or beset with (non-)

13

65

67
69

71

f es

ae

74

79;

Td:

71.

az.

7:

79.

81.

81.

83.
83.

detachable scales, flecks, etc.; usually cigar brown to dark-

brownish (rarely reddish), not i enighennisy Mostly small to

medium spp.

74. Stipe essentially cylindrical, at “most tapering very lightly
downwards

74. Stipe swollen below, hence + club- shaped or with basal mar-

ginate bulb.—Cortinarius (part).

Cap sticky-slimy, colours light, usually and predominantly pale

yellow ochre, not + dark brownish. Mature gills pale watery

brownish, never with a rusty appearance. Spores cigar brown, never
with a rusty appearance.—Hebeloma (part).

Cap not sticky-slimy, colours dark predominantly brownish.

Mature gills usually rusty yellowish ochre or rusty cinnamon,

sometimes yellowish, olivaceous or blood red. Spores rusty yellow-

ish ochre or rusty cinnamon.—Cortinarius (part).

76. Plants of damp + boggy places and essentially in association
with alders or willows.— Naucoria (part).

76. Notso .

Mature gills and spores pale brown to cigar brown, without ¢ a rusty

cinnamon appearance.—IJnovcbe.

Gills creamy to rusty cinnamon. Spores rusty cinnamon.—cf.

Cortinarius bolaris, C. pholideus.

78. Gill free, adnate, sinuate (or emarginate), the gill edge being
either horizontal (to ground level) or + ascending under the
cap

78. Gills doubtfully decurrent, the gill ‘edge ‘descending from
horizontal as it approaches the stipe, not + horizontal to
ascending under the cap

Mature gills pink or blue to mauve. ‘Plants with no distinct smell

of rotten fish, but may be radish smell. a cig white orjflesh to

salmon pink . :

Mature gills some other colour, usually some "shade of brown.

Included here are plants with mature gills and spores pinkish

brown and distinct smell of rotten fish. Spores some shade of

brown, never white or pink

80. Gills free.—Pluteus (part).

80. Gills adnate or sinuate

Margin of cap striate, gills connected by veins, cap and stipe

usually uniformly pinkish to lilac. Whole plant smelling strongly

of cut radish.— Mycena pura.

Not this combination of characters . :

82. Either mature gills powdered with a white bloom ‘(the mature
spores), cap and stipe pinkish yellowish pale brown or whole
plant deep mauve. In both cases stipe is distinctly fibrous in
structure, almost pliant, not easily cracking when slightly bent
(but fibres may split longitudinally). Spores white, + globose
and finely prickly.—Laccaria.

82. Not this combination of characters A

Gills sinuate (or emarginate); stipe fleshy? ‘to fibrous!, not

cartilaginous : {

Gills adnate; stipe cartilaginous

84. Usually small to medium spp., without purplish or " violet

1 See glossary.

14

76
a

TT,

73

66

80

86
81

82

83
84

85.

85.

87.

87.

89.

89.

91.

95.
93.
a.

colours or flushes being present. Spores salmon pink, poly-
gonal in outline.—Entoloma (part).

84. Usually large spp. with purplish or violet colours or
flushes. Spores very pale pink, not polygonal.—Tricholoma
(part).

Cap mostly convex but depressed at centre, rough with fibrils,

scales, etc., edge (at least when young) distinctly inrolled.—

Leptonia.

Cap mostly conical and papillate, smooth; edge (at least when

young) somewhat turned under, scarcely inrolled.— Nolanea.

86. Cap deep brick-red-brown to almost black when water-soaked
(edge paler), drying out to + pale ochre; stipe deep dark
brown to almost black. Small to medium sp., smelling
strongly of rotten fish or + mouldy cucumber. (Spores and
gills -- pinkish pale he ii I cucumis.

86. Not this sp. ' d :

Gills quite free; cap membranous, sticky-slimy, + yellowish.

Small to medium plants of grassland. (Spores Fe detent )—

Bolbitius (part).

Gills adnate or sinuate, or if appearing to be free, then cap not

membranous

88. Gills at least some shade of brownish, never - white :

88. Gills not some shade of brownish; usually white, off-white,
cream, yellow . ;

Cap dome-shaped or conical. Small spp., the stipe usually at least

three times longer than diameter of cap. Edge of young cap not

incurved.— Galera.

Cap convex to + flat. Small to large spp., the stipe rarely more

than three times longer than diameter of cap. Edge of young cap

+ incurved

90. Cap + sticky-slimy, colours not dark brownish: gills pale
watery brown, clearly sinuate. Spores cigar brown. Medium
to large spp.—Hebeloma (part).

90. Cap not sticky-slimy, colours most usually dark brownish;
gills + rusty ochre brown, most usually free to adnate, not
clearly sinuate. Small to medium spp.—Naucoria (part).

Plants small j i ; E o>
. Plants medium but 1 more usually larger

92. Cap dome-shaped or conical; gills usually ascending “under
cap. Plants tender, not leathery and not reviving on being
wetted after drying out.

92. Cap mostly expanded and flat (may be slight hump at centre),
the gill edge being + horizontal. Plants tough, leathery,
pliant, readily reviving on being wetted after drying out.—
Marasmius (part).

Gills white to off-white; spores white.—Mycena (part).

Gills + honey coloured; spores yellowish-brown.—Galera (part).

Gills grey to black; spores blackish.—Psathyrella (part).

94. Stipe when rubbed with ferric alum giving finally (i.e. within
about 1 minute) a usually + pinkish, but occasionally +
greenish coloration. Gills brittle, with no or very few interme-
diate gills.—Russula (part).

94.\ No such ferric alum reaction. Gills not brittle, usually with

15

87

88
89

91

90

92
94

93

95.

oT.
Di.

69:

99.

101.

101.

103.

103.

105.

105.

107.
107.

numerous intermediate ones

. Gills clearly sinuate (or emarginate); stipe fleshy

Gills free or adnate, not clearly sinuate; stipe cartilaginous or

leathery or horny ‘ ‘ : :

96. Gills pale watery brown, cap smooth: spores cigar brown.
Hebeloma (part).

96. Gills not pale watery brown, usually white, off-white, yellow,
+ mauve, spores white sometimes with slight suggestion
of pink.—Tricholoma (part).

Gills closely set and crowded; plants generally not reviving on

wetting after being dried out.—See Collybia.

Gills + widely spaced, not crowded; plants readily reviving on

being wetted after drying out.—Marasmius (part).

98. Gill edge longitudinally split into two halves, the free ends
being + rolled back. More or less shell-shaped, tough sp., of
ashy grey colour, laterally attached to wood. Stipe absent.—
Schizophyllum commune.

98. Gill edge not thus split

Whole plant of corky or + woody consistency. Cap rf shell

shaped, velvety with a very short “nap” and often with series of

concentric lines. Gills whitish to very pale yellowish ochre,
occasionally branched and anastamosing. Stipe absent; attached
laterally and most usually to birch wood.—Lenzites betulina.

Plants at most leathery, not corky or woody L

100. Edge of gills appearing as if pieces had been clipped or chipped

out at + regular intervals. Plants tough aed leathery; large
to very large spp.—Lentinus (part).

100. Gill edge even : ;
Stipe densely covered with a brownish-black velvet-like “ nap ii
Large to very large sp., with yellowish brown decurrent gills.—
Paxillus atrotomentosus.

Stipe not so .

102. Small spp.

102. Medium or larger spp.

Spores whitish.—Pleurotus (part).

Spores + pinkish pale brown.—Crepidotus (part).

104. Gills easily pushed off from overlying flesh of cap, pale
yellowish brown, becoming dark brown within about a minute
of bruising.—Paxillus (part).

104. Not so

Gills white, off-white, fs creamy, pinkish | or grey ‘ :

Not these colours; usually pale watery brownish . . 4

106. Plants tufted.—Pleurotus (part).

106. Not tufted.—Clitopilus prunulus.

Spores whitish.—Pleurotus (part).

Spores + pinkish pale brown.—Crepidotus (part).

16

95
96

97

99

100

101

102
103
104

105
106
107

REELY: PO sre CLES

AMANITA
1. Cap white, whitish, very pale yellowish, with or without a pale green-
ish tinge; no red colours. Flakes on cap present or absent . i 2
1. Cap scarlet, reddish or orange. Colours bright or dull. Flakes or
warts on cap normally present 3

1. Cap colour predominantly brownish: ‘dark greyish olive brown, +
brown to yellowish-brown; sometimes (as also stipe) flushed with
lilac é 4
2. Volva extending it in one. or more flaps up stipe. Cap flakes typi-

cally absent.—A. phalloides. Deadly poisonous: recoveries
exceptional and only after intense suffering.

2. Volva forming distinct rim round the suddenly swollen base.
Cap flakes typically present. Broken flesh with smell of freshly cut
raw potatoes or radish.—A. citrina (= A. mappa). Not edible.

3. Flesh where eaten by animals reddish, or becoming reddish after
cutting. Uncut stipe often with reddish flush. Cap dull reddish
brown.—A. rubescens. Edible when cooked, but best avoided until
known with certainty on account of confusion with A. muscaria.

3. Flesh where eaten by animals not reddish, nor becoming reddish
after cutting. Uncut stipe never with reddish flush. Cap bright
scarlet to orange yellow.—A. muscaria. Poisonous, sometimes
deadly.

4. Brownish cap and often white bulbous stipe with distinct lilac
tinge. Broken flesh smelling faintly of freshly cut raw potatoes
or radish.—A. porphyria. Not edible.

4. Lilac tinge quite absent ‘ 5

5. Cap margin striate; upper surface of ring ‘smooth: bulbous stipe
with one or more circular rims above the bulb. Cap greyish brown
to brownish yellow.—A. pantherina. Poisonous.

5. Cap margin not striate; upper surface of ring striate; club-shaped
stipe with no circular rims. Cap greyish brown or dull dark greyish.
—A. excelsa (= A. spissa). Edible when cooked, but to be avoided
on account of confusion with A. pantherina.

AMANITOPSIS
Cap mouse-grey.—A. vaginata. Edible.
Cap yellowish-brown.—A. fulva. Edible.

ANELLARIA
Cap light brownish-yellow to darker brownish-yellow, smooth, sticky or slimy,
dome-shaped and never expanding. Small to medium sp., on dung.—A.
semi-ovata (= A. separata).

ARMILLARIA
Whole plant white, slimy and of gelatinous consistency. Cap without scales.
Medium to large sp., saprophytic or parasitic on feeble beech trees.—A. mucida.
Whole plant light brown to honey-coloured, not slimy nor of gelatinous
consistency. Young cap (at least) beset with small brownish or blackish
scales. Commonly tufted on dead wood, the long, blackish boot-lace like
threads (rhizomiorphs) spreading under the bark.—A. mellea.

17

11.

11.

BOLBITIUS

. Generally grouped or tufted sp., the expanded cap up to 2 in.

across. Stipe, at least when young, + scurfy with white flecks.—
B. vitellinus.

. Generally not grouped or tufted, the expanded cap smaller, stipe

smooth or at most mealy at apex
(2. Stipe white, mealy above.—B. titubans.
2. Stipe yellowish, at least above.—B. fragilis.

BOLETUS

. Ring present, best seen in young specimens. (Cap slimy, either

buff-coloured and + flushed with purplish or bright golden-yellow) .

. Ring absent

2. Cap bright golden-yellow. (Confined to larches. we elegans.
2. Cap + buff coloured, usually with central purplish flush.—
B. luteus.

. At least upper part of stipe with network of raised lines ai

restricted to extreme apex)

. No such network, but stipe may be rough with granules, etc., or may

appear as if stippled :
4. Pores finally deep orange to deep red
4. Pores white, greyish, yellowish, greenish or flesh pink

. Cap off-white to + ashy-grey. Cut flesh white or at most pale

cream before turning blue. Stipe with yellowish and reddish colours,
network usually red.—B. satanas. Poisonous.

. Cap some other colour. Cut-flesh yellow before turning blue. Net-

work usually red on yellow background

6. Cap olivaceous-brown or reddish brown.—B. Vaeidas.

6. Young cap yellowish, becoming blue on slightest touch, finally
changing to red, this being the usual mature colour.—B. purpureus.

. White flesh of cap not becoming blue on exposure to air after

cutting

. White flesh of cap (or stipe) becoming at once, or almost at once, os

intensely blue on exposure to air after cutting

8. Pores fleshy pink; taste of flesh distinctly ‘bitter. —B. felleus.

Not edible.

8. Pores whitish or very pale yellowish-green; taste of flesh not at
all bitter. (Network often restricted to extreme apex of stipe).—
B. edulis. Very good eating.

. Cap reddish-brown to bay brown. Network and stipe yellowish;
pores yellowish becoming slowly greenish when bruised.—B.
appendiculatas.

. Cap whitish to ashy-grey. (Flesh + bitter. Bruised tubes appein=
greenish. ) :

10. Stipe reddish-purple except at yellowish apex. Da calopus.

10. Stipe + uniformly yellowish.—B. albidus.
Stipe -+- throughout rough with small brown to black scurf-like
scales (pores greyish white)
Not so, but stipe may be slightly longitudinally ribbed or appear

as if stippled with red.

12. Cap + orange-reddish, the cuticle slightly exceeding and
turned back over the pores.—B. versipellis.

12. Cap brownish, grey-brown to almost black .

18

Wn

10

12
14

13

13.
13.

15.

f3.

17.

17.

$9.
eo

21.
21.

Al.

Cut white flesh not changing colour within 30 minutes or at most

to a pale flesh-pink. Growing under birches.—B. scaber.

Cut white flesh changing to + violaceous-blackish within about 30

minutes. Growing under poplars.—B. duriusculus.

14. Pores finally deep orange to red. Cut flesh at once becoming
dark blue.—B. erythropus.

14. Pores some other colour (flesh changing, if at all, slowly pale-
bluish) .

Yellowish stipe dotted with granules at extreme apex. (Cap ochre-

brown, pores and flesh become rose-lilac on treatment with

ammonia.) B. granulatus.

No such granulations (ammonia reaction usually negative)

16. Flesh with very peppery acrid taste. (Cap coppery yellowish-
brown; stipe yellowish growing from bright yellow mycelium.)
—B. piperatus. Not edible.

16. Not this combination of characters

Pores distinctly arcuate-decurrent. Pores compound es 2 or 3

smaller pores appearing as if grouped into a larger pore. (Cap

coppery buff-yellowish).—B. bovinus.

Pores free to adnate, never arcuate-decurrent, nor the combination

of other characters applying ‘

18. Cap dark bay brown; bruised (mature) pores becoming clear
green in a few seconds. Cut flesh turning bluish.—B. badius.

18. Not this combination of characters

Cap predominantly cafe au lait to dull yellowish ochre. Usually

strong and unpleasant smell

Cap some other colour. Plants with ; no special smell

20. Cap beset with somewhat darker flecks. Bruised (mature)
pores not changing colour. Cut flesh slowly turning bluish in
parts. Stipe not relatively stout nor pubescent below.—
B. variegatus.

20. Cap without darker flecks. Bruised (mature ) pores turning +
olive in about a minute. Cut flesh remaining yellowish or
intensifying slightly. Stipe relatively stout, pubescent below.—
B. impolitus (cf. B. subtomentosus below.)

Cap red or purple red, sometimes tinged yellow brown; cuticle

often cracking. Stipe usually flushed with red.—B. versicolor.

Cap + brown and when cut showing reddish line under cuticle.

Gaps between natural cracks on (mature) cap also red. Stipe

usually flushed with red.—B. chrysenteron.

Cap + olive pale brown. No red line under cuticle of cut cap.

Gaps between natural cracks on (mature) cap yellowish. Stipe not

flushed with red, but often with a few anastamosing rib-like raised

lines.—B. subtomentosus (cf. B. impolitus above).

CANTHARELLUS

. On burnt ground. Cap dark brown to almost black, + funnel-
shaped or at least depressed at the centre, surface slightly rough.
Small to medium sp. with greyish gills.—C. carbonarius.

. Not on burnt ground ‘

2. Gills crowded and repeatedly and regularly dichotomously

branched

2. Gills not crowded: branching irregular. (Gill edge blunt, rounded)

19

15

16

17

WM Ww

W WwW

. Cap (and stipe) greyish, papillate, finally + funnel-shaped. Gills

whitish, edge flat. Small to medium sp., the gills often spotted
pinkish.—Clitocybe umbonata.

. Whole plant orange or pale creamy; gill edge wai Medium to

large plants

4. Whole plant -- orange. _Clitocybe aurantiaca. Edible.

4. Whole plant + creamy.—Clitocybe aurantiaca var. albida.
Edible.

. Cap fleshy, stipe solid; whole plant egg-yellow.— Cantharellus

cibarius. Very good eating.

. Cap|membranous, greyish to brownish; stipe hollow . : ’

6. Cap brownish, stipe yellow to orange.—C. tubaeformis.
6. Whole plant greyish-brown, drying out paler.—C. cinereus.

CLITOCYBE

. Gills repeatedly and regularly dichotomously forked
. Gills not thus forked

2. Cap (and stipe) greyish, papillate, finally as funnel- shaped.
Gills whitish, edge flat. Small to medium sp., the gills often
spotted pinkish.—C. umbonata.

2. Whole plant orange or + creamy. Gill — — Mostly
medium to large plants. , , ;

Whole plant ++ orange.—C. aucinieea Edible.

. Whole plant + creamy.—C. aurantiaca var. alba. Edible.

4. Plants with pleasant smell ‘‘ of aniseed’’. Medium to large
plants; gills between adnate and decurrent

4. No characteristic smell

Whole plant blue-green or sea-green. aus odora.

Cap pale yellowish-ochre when water -soaked drying out to almost

white.—C. suaveolens.

6. Cap with thin flesh, + greyish translucid when water-soaked,.

but on drying out becoming opaque and whitish, or the water-
soaked colours becoming much paler (hygrophanous)

6. Cap distinctly fleshy and not affected by changes in water content.
Gilis markedly decurrent or arcuate-decurrent

Cap, when mature, saucer to funnel-shaped, the gills then appearing

decurrent

Cap, when mature, convex to flat, Or at most depressed at the centre,

the gills, appearing little more than adnate. (Small to medium spp.)

8. Stipe whitish above, brownish below. Medium sized sp.,+
translucid greyish when water-soaked, becoming opaque-whitish
when dry. No smell of “‘new meal’’. Stipe apex not mealy.—
C. dicolor Lange.

8. Stipe -- of same colour throughout ;

Apex of stipe with network of darker filaments. Cap darkish- brown

when water-soaked, becoming paler on drying out; sometimes

greyish-brown. Medium to large sp.—C. cyathiformis.

Apex of stem wthout such a network. Medium sized sp. with trans-

lucid pale brownish cap when water-soaked, drying opaque off-white.

Bruised flesh smelling and tasting of ‘“‘new meal’? or cucumber.

Apex of stipe not mealy.—C. vibecina.

10. Strong smell of ‘‘ new meal’’; apex of stipe not mealy. Small

to medium sp. with greyish-brown cap.—C. ditopus.

20

11

10

11.
11.

5,

13.

15.
15.

tf.
17.

£9.
19.

10. No special smell. Stem apex mealy. Small to medium sp. with
greyish-brown cap when water-soaked, drying out paler.—cC.
metachroa.

Cap greyish, convex or somewhat shallowly depressed towards the
middle. (Large to very large spp.)

Cap not greyish; predominantly whitish to yellowish-ochre

12. Gills (and cylindrical stipe) whitish.—C. nebularis.

12. Gills creamy; stipe club-shaped.—C. clavipes.

Predominantly creamy to yellowish-ochre or + orange-brown spp.,

with deeply decurrent gills. Mature cap funnel-shaped

Predominantly white spp., the gills adnate to arcuate-decurrent

14. Cap + orange-brown. Medium to large, sometimes tufted
sp.—C. flaccida.

14. Cap creamy to yellowish ochre .

Large to very large stout plant, at least 4 in. across. as) geotropa.

More slender plant, rarely exceeding 3 in. across.—C. infundi-

buliformis.

16. Growing in woods .

16. Growing in grass. (Medium sized spp. )

Large spp. ; ‘

Smallspp. .

18. In woods of broad-leaved trees. LE. repustata:

18. In coniferous woods.—C. pithyophila.

In woods of broad-leaved trees.—C. phyllophila.

In coniferous woods.—C. candicans.

20. Cap with faint tinge of pinkish, usually zoned and with a bloom

that soon disappears. No smell of ““ new meal’’.—C. rivulosa.

Poisonous.

20. Cap without pinkish flush, not zoned; bloom persistent.
Faint but distinct smell of “new meal’’.—C. dealbata.
Poisonous.

CLITOPILUS

Cap fleshy towards centre, thin at margin; at first convex later +
saucer-shaped, margin mealy. Stipe sometimes + excentric. Faint but
distinct smell of “‘ new meal’’. Medium to large sp.—C. prunulus.

Ww W

COLLYBIA

. Cap pale greyish-brown, almost membranous, streaked with radiat-

ing brown fibrils; gills widely spaced, thick. Large to very large sp.
with cylindrical stipe fixed into substratum by means of whitish,
branched mycelial cords.—C. platyphylla.

. Not this sp.

2. Cap brown, slimey, with radiating wrinkles and commonly with
central.umbo. Stipe widening slightly downwards, markedly
solid and prolonged into a long subterranean “ radicle ’’ which
is attached to (buried) wood. Medium to large sp. with sinuate
gills.—C. radicata.

2. Not this sp.

. Plants tufted and growing ¢ on wood
. Plants growing on unburnt ground, not attached to wood, some-

times grouped or tufted, or arising from (buried ) fir cone

. Plants growing on burnt ground or on dead remains of other agarics.

21

12
13

11.

6 ls

13.
13.

(Small spp.) . .
4. Stipe + velvety with short hairs, to at least half-way pss
4. Stipe glabrous, or at least with a “‘ bloom ” or basal woolliness.

. Medium to large sp. with sticky orange-yellowish cap and yellowish

gills. Stipe yellowish-red.—C. velutipes.

. Small to large sp. with rusty-brownish cap when water-soaked,

drying out to yellowish-brown; not sticky. Gills white. Stipe

bright reddish-brown with slight purplish tinge.—Marasmius

acervatus.

6. Stipe spindle-shaped with conspicuous longitudinal grooves.
Medium to large sp. with foxy-brown cap and stipe.—C. fusipes.

6. Stipe cylindrical, or at most compressed, bright reddish-brown
with slight purplish tinge. Small to large sp. with rusty brownish
cap when water-soaked, drying out to yellowish brown.—
Marasmius acervatus.

: Stipe velvety with shorter or longer hairs to at least half-way up, or

arising from (buried) fir cones

. Stipe glabrous or at least covered with whitish bloom :

8. More or less tufted sp., not arising from buried fir cone. Small
to medium sp. with pale rusty-brown cap when water-soaked,
drying out to whitish.—Marasmius confluens.

8. Not tufted, but springing from (buried) fir cones. Small spp.

Vernal sp., stipe usually not less than three times the diameter of cap

and densely woolly-hairy on lower half. Spore print blue with

iodine solution.—Marasmius esculentus.

Autumnai sp., stipe usually less than three times longer than diam-—

eter of cap, and not much more than extreme base woolly-hairy.

Spore print not changing colour on addition of iodine solution.

—Marasmius myosurus.

10. Stipe stout, thicker than a pencil, longitudinally striate with

fibres : , d ;

10. Stipe quite smooth, thinner than a pencil. Medium sized hygro-

phanous sp., somewhat rusty-yellowish when water-soaked,
drying out almost whitish.—C. dryophila.
Cap dry, at first white, soon mottled as well as the gills with fox-red
spots. Large to very large sp., often grouped but not tufted.—
C. maculata.
Cap greasy to touch, + brown when water-soaked, drying out
unevenly to pale yellowish-brown. Medium to large sp., the cap
with small central umbo.—C. butyracea.
12. Growing on dead, usually black, remains of other toadstools
12. Growing on burnt ground. Cap and stipe dark brown to
almost blackish; gills greyish.—C. ambusta.
Stipe growing from a small, hard tuber-like body (sclerotium) .
No such sclerotium.—C. cirrata.
14. Sclerotium brown-purplish-black.—C. tuberosa.
14. Sclerotium yellowish-ochre.—C. cirrata var. cookei.

COPRINUS

. Tufted spp., the cap + grooved at the margin. (Young cap mealy or

with glistening particles)
Growing singly
2. Stipe sheathed below (from base upwards) by ‘the adherent veil,

22

11

13

14

WN

leaving distinct rim at top of sheath, where veil broke off as cap
expanded. Cap whitish to greyish-yellow, darker at centre with
brownish scales.—C. atramentarius.

2. No such sheath. Cap yellowish-brown or slightly rusty-yellow-
ish-brown, beset with glistening particles.—C. micaceus.

. Cap ovoid to cylindrical and covered with a white felt-like covering

which may break up in various ways as cap expands

. Cap covered with a loose meal . ;

. Cap devoid of such coverings, of greyish colour, with deep grooves

radiating from small central brownish area. Stipe smooth.—C.

plicatilis.

4. Cap cylindrical, the felt-like covering remaining continuous and
in the form of overlapping fluffy scales.—C. comatus. Edible.

4. Cap ovoid, the felt-like covering breaking up into + irregular
flakes which eventually drop off.—C. picaceus.

. Mealy covering entirely snow-white.—C. niveus.

. Mealy covering off-white to almost grey.—C. stercorarius.

CORTINARIUS

4 (‘Cap iets or slimy at least when moist. (Stipe sticky or slimy

or not) . ; ; : é

. No part of plant i is either sticky « or slimy i

2. Bulbous base of stipe with -+ distinct rim (i.e. ‘bulb marginate)

2. Stipe equal throughout, or club-shaped or bulbous at the base,
but not marginate ) :

. Plant having, somewhere, shades of violet, blue or r purple

. No such shades present

4. Gills becoming purplish when bruised (young gills same shade of
violet or blue) . :

4. Gills unaffected by bruising ‘

. Young gills at first whitish. Large sp., “with greyish- blue cap, some-

what ochry towards centre.—C. caesiocyaneus.

. Young gills at first bluish-mauve. Large sp. with clear light blue

cap, soon discolouring to + dirty yellowish-brown. Mainly a beech

wood sp.—C. caerulescens.

6. Stem solid; young gills deep violet. Large sp., cap purplish-
violet dark brown, sometimes with olivaceous tinge, soon dis-
colouring through dirty yellowish. Mainly in coniferous woods.
C. purpurascens.

6. Stem stuffed, then hollow; young ‘gills very pale lilac. Large
plant, cap brownish dull yellow-ochre, with a purplish tinge at
first. Mainly a sp. of broad-leaved woods.—C. purpurascens var.
subpurpurascens.

. Young gills whitish or off-white. Medium to large sp., cap yellowish-

ochre, sometimes somewhat rusty at centre; when young +

sprinkled with a whitish hairy hoariness. Mainly a beechwood sp.

Gill edge jagged.—C. multiformis.

. Young gills rosy violet to violaceous purple. Medium to large sp.

with yellow cap, somewhat rusty towards centre. Stipe deeply in-

serted in the bulb and springing from a yellow mycelium. Gill edge
jagged. Mainly a beechwood sp..—C. calochrous.

. Young gills light yellow changing to rusty orange. Large to very

large sp. with tawny-orange cap. Gill edge entire.—C. fulgens.

23

—v
WUN

AO “1 Rk CO

14.
11.

13.

43.

15.
15.

17.

17.

19.
19.

8. Stipe sticky or slimy at least when moist, or flesh bitter
8. Stipe quite dry, not sticky or slimy, nor flesh bitter

. Cap deeply radiately grooved to about one-third the way in.

Stipe tapering above and below + distinctly fibrillose. Large to

very large sp., cap light ochre or pale Se re elatior.
Not this combination of characters

10. Stipe sheathed, more especially towards the base, with concen-
tric, floccose, interrupted zones
10. Stipe quite smooth
Margin of cap quite smooth .
Margin of cap striate, or slightly radiately grooved. “Medium to
large sp., the cap greyish-brown or dull yellowish to ochre-brown.
Stipe with lilac or bluish tinge.—C. mucifluus (compare C. elatior
above).
12. Cap orange-tawny. Medium to large sp., the brownish floccose
zones mostly in lower half of stipe.—C. collinitus.
12. Cap essentially chestnut. Medium to large sp., stipe whitish.
(Essentially a plant of coniferous woods).—C. mucosus.
Young gills with flush of pale blue. Cap yellowish without any trace

of blue. Medium to large sp., flesh without noticeably bitter taste.

—C. delibutus.

Young gills whitish to off-white, without any blue colour. Cap at

first uniformly pale bluish-violaceous. Medium sized sp. with

distinctly bitterish flesh.—C. croceo-caeruleus.

14. Stipe sheathed with + concentric brownish or ochreous zones
or spots. Very large sp. with yellow to ochre cap. Mainly
associated with birches.—C. triumphans.

14. Stipe fibrillose, club-shaped, without concentric zones or spots.
Young gills lilac. Medium to very large sp., the cap at first
greyish-lilac soon discolouring to dull yellow-ochre, but flesh
flushed bluish, soon fading on exposure to air.—C. largus.

Cap and stipe + Pee scaley

Not so .

16. Scales reddish. " Medium sized, ‘yellowish- red sp. mainly in
beechwoods.—C. bolaris.

16. Scales blackish-brown, + recurved. Mostly medium sized +
dark brownish sp.—C. pholideus.

Stipe encircled with one or more bright reddish zones or bands.

Large sp., cap brownish.—C. armillatus.

No such red band(s)

18. Violet, purplish or lilac colours present, at least it in the young
gills

18. No such colours present, not even in the young gills

The + club-shaped stipe sheathed from below upwards ending in a

-+ rim-like zone at the upper part of the stipe j :

Stipe not thus sheathed. May be whitish belt(s) :

20. Whole plant silvery-whitish with flush of very pale blue.
Medium to large plant. Cut flesh and young gills very pale
bluish.—C. albo-violaceus.

20. Cap + brown. Young gills violet, later + dark brown. Rim
of upper part of sheath on stipe almost ring-like. Medium
sized sp., with sweetish smell, mainly in beechwoods.—C.
torvus.

24

11
12

16
17

ys
21.

2S:
23.

25,

25.

27.
ay.

29:
29.

at.

a4.

1.

Cap hygrophanous. Mostly small to medium plants .

Not hygrophanous. Not further considered.

22. Cap yellow-brown, stipe whitish (with violaceous flush). Med-
ium sized sp. with cylindrical stipe.—C. bicolor.

22. Cap brown to dark chestnut brown. (Stipe without belts but
with violet or lilac tinges above)

More or less tufted sp., with somewhat club-shaped stipe. Medium

to large plant, cap + umbonate.—C. saturninus.

Not tufted. May be grouped

24. Gills dark brownish. Medium sized Sp., cap dark chestnut
brown, stipe slightly rusty brown below, cut flesh violaceous.
—C. castaneus.

24. Gills pale cinnamon. Small to medium plant, cap bay-brown,
tinged purplish at first. Stipe silvery white below. Cut flesh
brownish.—C. erythrinus.

Large plant. Cap dark brownish. Stipe club-shaped, pale brown-

ish, densely fibrillose from below upwards to a darkish ring-like

zone.—C. brunneus.

Small to medium plants; stipe cylindrical or at most, slightly thick-

ened at extreme base or tapering downwards.

26. Gills blood-red or cinnabar red. (Cap not hygrophanous.

26. Gills without these colours

Cap brownish, sometimes with olivaceous tinge .

Cap and stipe + blood-red or cinnabar-red ;

28. Stipe, at least below, covered with reddish fibrils. Cap chest-
nut-brown.—C. phoeniceus.

28. Stipe tawny-yellowish. Cap brownish usually with olivaceous
tinge.—C. semisanguineus.

Stipe rarely exceeding diameter of cap. Essentially a plant of woods

of broad-leaved trees, especially beech.—C. cinnabarinus.

Stipe about twice the diameter of the cap. Almost entirely a conifer

wood plant.—C. sanguineus.

30. Gills at first yellowish, becoming pale cinnamon. Medium
sized sp. with yellowish stem and -+- umbonate yellowish-brown
to brownish cap, often tinged olivaceous. Cut flesh yellow.—
C. cinnamomeus.

go. Wot this sp. .

Stipe with at least one whitish fibrillose ring-like 2 zone. “Cap almost

orange-brown (paler on drying out); gills rusty, stipe dull reddish-

brown. Medium sized plant, often with smell of cut radish.—

C. hinnuleus.

Stipe white floccosely-scaley below a + ring-like zone. Cap (and

stipe below the fibrils) of a dark brownish colour and beset through-

out with numerous short, white fibrils especially towards the margin.

Medium sized plant with -+- umbonate cap, mainly under birches.

—C. hemitrichus.

CREPIDOTUS
Medium sized sp.; cap -+ coffee-dash colour when water-soaked,
drying out whitish, quite smooth and of somewhat gelatine-like con-
sistency. Stipe virtually absent. Spore print pale dull brown with

pinkish tinge.—C. mollis.

1. Small spp.; cap, at least towards edge, somewhat velvety (lens).

25

22

23

24

26
27
30
28
pi

31

Spore print pale ochre brown or fleshy pink : 2
2. Cap with dull yellowish tinge; only edge of cap shortly pubescent.

—C. pubescens.
2. Cap without, yellowish tinge; throughout + shortly hairy, more

so towards edge.—C. variabilis.

ECCILIA
Medium sized sp. cap generally convex and depressed towards the centre
(umbilicate). Colour when water-soaked predominantly brownish and pellucid
Striate; drying out greyish. Gills adnate to decurrent, at first white then pink.
—E. griseo-rubella.

ENTOLOMA
1. Cap campanulate and umbonate, unaffected by changes in water
content (not hygrophanous), more or less beset with flocci or fibrils 4
1. Cap essentially smooth, hygrophanous or not ’ ; " : 3

2. Stipe brownish with dull purplish fibrils. Medium to large sp.,
with + greyish-brown cap.—E. porphyrophaeum.
2. Stipe devoid of any colour. Small to medium sp. with greyish-
brownish cap.—E. jubatum.
3. Cap + sticky, not affected by changes in water content, rather fleshy
and without any silky apppearance. More or less greyish-yellowish

spp., with smell of “‘ new meal ”’ 4
3. Cap not sticky, its appearance altered by water content, almost
membranous and when dry having a silky appearance . 5

4. Cap convex, or with very broad central hump. Young gills
yellow before changing to pinkish. Large to very large sp.,
2 or 3 plants often joined at their stipe base, but not tufted.—
E. lividum. Poisonous; sometimes fatal.

4. Cap convex to plane with distinct umbo. Young gills white.
Large sp. with creamy to pale ochre cap.—E. prunuloides.

Large spp. (growing in troops or even + tufted)

. Small to medium spp. F

6. Spring or early summer sp., cap distinctly umbonate. Large sp.
with greyish cap, dotted or splashed with darker spots.—E.
clypeatum.

6. Autumnal sp., not umbonate. Large sp., with greyish cap drying

out to pale yellowish.—E. rhodopolium. Poisonous.

Cap and stipe whitish, smell not distinctive. Growing in woods.—

E. speculum.

7. Cap brownish. Essentially grassland spp. . 8
8. Gills with prominent transverse ribs, best seen by section through

cap. No distinctive smell.—£E. costatum.
8. No such transverse ridges. Distinctive smell of ‘“‘new meal” or
cucumber.—E. sericeum.

Wn
SN

=

FLAMMULA
1.” Growing on burnt ground. Small orange-brown sp., with sticky cap
“48! growing in troops.—F carbonaria.
1. Not growing on burut ground. . 2
2. Pale straw- yellow tufted sp., with sticky + scaly cap. Medium
sized sp., groping on or near wood or in grassy places. —F.
gummosa

26

2. Golden-yellow-tawny sp., growing singly or in 2’s or 3’s, always
attached to coniferous wood.—F. sapinea. Not edible.

GALERA
Cap small to medium, dome-shaped, not expanding; striations absent
except at extreme edge. Gill edge straight.—G. tenera.
Cap small, dome-shaped, not expanding; striations on cap clearly
present. Gill edge curved.—G. Aypnorum.

GOMPHIDIUS
1. Cap pinkish to rose-red. Flesh at base of cut stipe yellowish with
flush of reddish. Small to medium sp., of coniferous woods and
plantations.—G. roseus.
1. Cap brownish with or without a purplish-violaceous tinge )

2. Cap convex, umbonate. Young stipe with zones of scale-like
fibrils above. Flesh at base of cut stipe yellowish-coppery-red.
Medium to large sp., of coniferous woods.—G. viscidus.

2. Cap convex, but depressed towards centre and without an umbo.
Stipe with fibrils but not obviously zoned. Flesh at base of cut
stipe bright yellow. Medium to large sp., of coniferous woods.—
G. glutinosus.

| HEBELOMA
1. Young specimens with fibrillose veil, which in older plants remains
as fibrillose covering on stipe from below upwards, ean ina +
ring-like fibrillose zone just below stipe apex
1. No such veil at any stage. Stipe at most powdery or somewhat
flocculose ;

2. Large fleshy sp. with cap and stipe + coffee- dash colour. Cut
flesh of stipe similarly and uniformly coloured.—H. fastibile.
Not edible.

2. Medium spp. of similar basic colour, but much darker towards
centre of cap. Base of stipe both inside and outside becoming
flushed dirty brown from the base upwards

3. Pale margin of young cap distinctly fibrillose.—H. TuesODhacnHn.

Not edible.

3. Pale margin of young cap as well as stipe virtually devoid of fibrils.—

H. testaceum. Not edible.

4. Stipe scarcely exceeding diameter of cap, usually shorter; + mealy
or floccose. Medium sized plant with + distinct smell of radish.
—AH. crustuliniforme. Not edible.

4. Stipe about twice the diameter of cap, at most a little mealy at
apex. No radish smell.—H. longicaudatum. Not edible.

HYGROPHORUS

1. Growing in woods or plantations; gills arcuate-decurrent to de-
current. Veil present in young plants, often showing in older plants
as delicate flakes at cap margin, or leaving a + ring-like fibrillose
Zone on stipe apex. sa + scaly throughout or dotted above with
granules

1. Essentially grassland spp.: gills variously ‘attached. Veil absent.
Stipe without ring-like zones nor dotted with granules above
2. Cap brownish with or without an olivaceous tinge .

Pa

WwW Or

11.

#1:

13.

13.

15.

1S.

+7.

2. Cap white or off-white

Gills pale yellow. Cap not umbonate, olive- brown and like the stipe

very slimy. Medium sized sp. of coniferous woods.—H. hypothejus.

Gills white. Cap umbonate, olive-brown and like the stipe very

slimy. Medium to large sp.—H. olivaceo-albus.

4. Cap margin and upper part of stipe beset with bright yellow
flocci. Medium to large sp. almost confined to beechwoods.—
H. chrysodon.

4. No such bright yellow flocci .

Cap + uniformly white (may become -+ parchment- yellow with age).

Medium to large sp., smell not distinctive-—H. eburneus.

. Cap with dull-yellowish flush towards centre. Medium sized

sp. with strong distinctive smell of goats (resembling larvae of goat

moth).—H. cossus.

6. Cap white, off-white or buff-coloured. Not slimy or sticky spp.
(Gills decurrent)

6. Other and usually bright colours present: " yellow, with or without
greenish flushes, scarlet to red or if greyish-brown then with strong
nitrous smell. Essentially sticky or slimy spp.

Cap buff-coloured. Stout top-shaped medium to large plant. -——

H. pratensis. Edible.

Cap white or whitish : : f ;

8. Distinct and pleasant smell of ““ russian leather ” . Small sp. with
few and widely spaced gills.—A. russo-coriaceus.

8. No distinctive smell .

Small sp. with umbilicate and almost membranous cap. A+ niveus.

Medium sized sp. with fleshier cap + convex to saucer-shaped.—

HZ, virgineus.

10. Gills almost free, at most emarginate :

10. Gills between broadly adnate and decurrent, not sinuate or

emarginate :
Cap greyish-brown with strong ‘nitrous smell. Small to large sp.—
H. nitratus.
Not this sp.
12. Apex of stipe distinctly greenish. Medium sized slimy of
mixed yellowish-green colours.—H. psittacinus.
12. Not this sp.
Cap scarlet to red; may 0 or may not discolour to various shades of
yellow or black, especially after bruising
Cap predominantly yellow
14. Large sp. with convex cap becoming plane: no part turning
black or bruising.—H. puniceus.
14. Medium sp. with pronounced and persistently conical cap,
turning black within a few minutes of bruising.—H. conicus.
Stipe fibrillosely striate, not sticky. Medium to large bright golden
yellow sp., the stipe about as long as diameter of cap.—dH.
obrusseus.
Stipe almost smooth, distinctly slimy. Small to medium lemon-
yellow sp., the stipe about twice as long as diameter of cap.—H.
chlorophanus.
16. Cap + mealy, not sticky
16. Cap from first quite smooth and sticky ‘
Small vermilion sp., the gills yellow, sometimes with flush of same

28

10

17
18

7.

colour as cap. Meal on cap rather scanty.—A. miniatus.

Small scarlet to orange sp., the gills pure white, or at most, creamy.

Meal on cap abundant, especially at centre.—A. turundus.

18. Cap foxy-yellow, the colour somewhat obscured by a lead-
coloured slime. Stipe similarly coloured and with lead-coloured
apex. Small to medium tough plant.—dH. /aetus.

18. Cap and stipe + uniformly waxy-yellow. Small to medium sp.
—H. ceraceus.

18. Cap blood-red, fading to yellowish. Small to medium sp.,
the gills + flushed with same colour as cap, the stipe usually
compressed.—A. coccineus.

HYPHOLOMA

. Solitary or at most grouped sp. (but not tufted), the brown gills

variegated with numerous darker, almost blackish, patches. Young
cap with conspicuous fibrillose veil, which remains for some time on
cap edge and leaves ring-like fibrillose zone(s) on stipe. Large sp.
with dull ochre-brown cap when water-soaked, drying out paler.—
H. velutinum.

. Densely tufted spp., gills uniformly coloured, not variegated

2. Cap and stipe predominantly yellowish, sometimes with reddish
flush towards centre of cap. Appearance of cap unaffected by
changes in water content (not hygrophanous). Rather tough
spp., with + fleshy cap 5

2. Cap coffee-coloured to date- brown. Yellow colours absent.
Stipe white. Appearance of cap changing with water content
(hygrophanous). Rather fragile spp., with almost membranous
cap

. Flesh very bitter: young gills "yellowish. Confined to wood of

broad-leaved trees

. Flesh with no special taste: young gills white. Confined to coni-

ferous wood. Medium to large sp.—AH. capnoides.

4. Cap with central flush of brick-red. Medium to very large sp.
—AH. sublateritium. Not edible.

4. Cap without central flush of brick-red, usually only darker
towards centre.—H. fasciculare. Not edible.

. Cap rich date-brown drying out to cafe au lait. Gills pale brownish

to -+- chocolate brown. Medium sized sp., lilac or violet tinges
absent.—H. hydropgilum.

Cap + honey-coloured, drying out almost whitish, usually,
especially the gills, + tinged with lilac or violet. Medium sized sp.,
—H. candolleanum.

INOCYBE

The majority of spp. of this genus can scarcely be identified without
microscopical examination. The following, however, have fairly well
defined characters. (The spores of these selected spp. are smooth, not
nodulose nor with + projecting and radiating spines.)

1.

i.

Plants with distinct sweetish, aromatic smell of ripe fruit, but some-
times + mouldy as of over-ripe fruit. Bruised external flesh not
becoming deep pink. (Medium to large spp.)

Such fruity smell generally absent, but if present then bruised external
flesh becomes deep pink. Otherwise any smell is usually described

29

* earthy ”’ or ‘* spermatic ”

oi Cap dull able yellowish ochre, at first convex, then flattening out:
covered with darker fibrils or fibrillose scales, Flesh, when cut,
especially at base of stipe slowly changing to pale rusty. Smell
fruity, not mouldy. (Muricate fusiform cystidia present.)—
I. pyriodora.

2. Cap dull cigar-brown or fawny brown, remaining convex, not
flattening out; beset with + recurved fibrillose scales, especially
towards centre. Flesh, when cut, especially at base of stipe,
changing + rapidly to deep pinkish. Smell fruity but mouldy.
(Muricate fusiform cystidia absent.)—J. cervicolor.

3. Mature (expanded) cap whitish or + deep lilac. (Bruised external

flesh not becoming deep pink) 3

3. Mature cap not so. (if whitish when young, then bruised external

flesh becoming deep pink) ,

4. Cap persistently whitish; small to medium eee cap convex,
flattening out and somewhat umbonate; + silky-fibrillose
(Muricate fusiform cystidia present).—I. geophylla.

4. Cap + deep lilac, otherwise as above.—lI. geophylla var. lilacina.

5. Bruised external flesh everywhere taking on a deep pink colour.

Mature cap + ochre-brown (whitish when young) finally (unbruised

specimens) flushed with + brownish scarlet especially towards +

umbonate centre; at first convex, + flattening out and commonly

splitting at margin. Medium to sometimes large sp. with faint but

+ sweetish, fruity smell. (Muricate fusiform cystidia absent.)—

I. patouillardii. Poisonous, sometimes deadly.

5. Bruised external flesh not taking on a deep pink colour

6. Cap dull yellowish-ochre to fawny-ochre, radiately fibrillose, the
fibrils separating as cap expands, showing whitish underlying
flesh, more especially towards edge of cap; conical at first,
flattening out and distinctly + acutely umbonate. Large plant
with cylindrical stipe and “‘ earthy ’’ smell. (Muricate cystidia
absent.)—I. fastigitia. Poisonous, sometimes deadly.

6. Cap predominantly brownish. Spp. scarcely to be identified in
the field.—J. brunnea, I. eutheles, etc.

LACCARIA
Whole plant mauve. Medium sized sp.—L. amethystina.
Whole plant pinkish-yellow-ochre-light brown. Medium sized sp.—L.
laccata.

LACTARIUS
1. Milk coloured from the first or within about 2 minutes
1. Milk white, opaque, or translucid watery white, or almost watery,
unchanged for at least 2 minutes

2. Milk deep saffron to orange. Medium to very Jarge sp. confined
to conifers.—L. deliciosus. Edible.

2. Milk sulphur yellow within about 2 minutes. Medium to large
almost fiesh-coloured sp. with zoned cap. Most usually under
oaks.—L. chrysorheus. Not edible.

3. Cap white or pinkish (brown colours absent). No characteristic
pleasant smells (press gills close to nose) . :
3. Cap some other colour. May be pleasant smells .

30

11.

rf.

13.
13.

4. Cap uniformly white, quite dry, not slimy or sticky, edge not
shaggy. Very large funnel-shaped spp. with acrid milk

4. Cap with pinkish zones on white background, edge very shaggy
(best seen in rather young specimens). L. torminosus. Not
edible.

Cap velvety, especially towards incurved edge; gills not especially

crowded nor repeatedly forked.—L. vellereus. Not edible. (Commonly

confused with Russula delica, but latter has flesh only slowly becoming

+ peppery, and the gills develop a glaucous tint, especially after

gathering.)

Cap smooth; gills very crowded, repeatedly forked.—L. piperatus.

Not edible.

6. Cap greyish or lead-greyish with, sometimes, a faint pink or lilac
tinge .

6. Cap brownish- black, with or without an olivaceous flush, or
olivaceous or dark greyish-green or light dirty brown. Red
colours absent. Cap usually + slimy. Milk acrid

6. Cap dark reddish foxy-brown, or pinkish-brown, or + ‘bright
orange to orange-brown, or cut-liver brown

Plant with distinct smell of coconut. Medium to large plant confined

to ground around birches.—L. glyciosmus.

Not this sp...

8. Milk and bruised whitish gills becoming grey within about 20
minutes. Medium to large sp.—L. vietus. Not edible.

8. Milk unchanging. Creamy yellow gills ageing to dull pale ochre.

Medium to large sp. with + zoned greyish to yellowish cap.—
L. pyrogallus. Not edible.
Cap blackish-olivaceous-brown. All parts giving intense violet
colour with ammonia. Large to very large sp. especially associated

with birches.—L. plumbeus (= L. turpis). Not edible.

Cap predominantly greyish to greyish-green, sometimes ageing to

pale dirty brown. No ammonia reaction . 4 j ‘

10. Cap usually distinctly zoned with darker spots. Bruised whitish
gills and milk slowly turning dirty grey. Medium to large sp.,
more especially in beechwoods.—L. blennius.

10. Cap scarcely zoned. Creamy gills ageing to dull pale ochre,
unaffected by bruising. Especially (? exclusively) on ground by
hazels.—L. pyrogallus. Not edible.

Cap -+ bright orange or orange-brown. Medium to large sp., the

milk slowly becoming distinctly bitterish.—L. aurantiacus. Not

edible.

Not this sp. .

12. Milk white and opaque : 5

12. Milk watery or whitish translucent. (Taste always mild) ¥

Cap dark reddish-foxy-brown or cut-liver brown

Cap pinkish light brown, usually + zoned. Faint but ‘distinct and

characteristic pleasant “‘ oily’ smell (press gills close to nose).

Medium to large sp. Confined to ground under oaks.—L. quietus.

14. Margin of cap (generally incurved) + crenate. Cap cut-liver-
brown at centre, paler towards edge. Milk placed on back of
(especially sweaty) hand turns + bright yellowish in about 10
minutes. Medium to large sp. of coniferous woods.—L.
hepaticus (= L. theiogalus sensu C. Rea).

31

11

10

14. Not this combination of characters.

15. Plant with very pleasant persisting smell, developing especially
after drying, usually described as of melilot or fenugreek. Medium
sized sp. with brick-red-brown cap, usually papillate. Milk mild,
almost watery, opalescent not white opaque.—L. camphoratus.

15. Not this combination of characters. Smell absent
16. Cap dark-reddish-foxy-brown, with central papilla. Milk very

hot after about 45 seconds. No special smell. Medium to large
sp. especially of coniferous woods.—L. rufus. Not edible.

16. Rather similar plant, but milk persistently mild. Smell and
taste very faint, but often like ivy. Medium to large sp. more
especially associated with broad-leaved trees.—L. subdulcis.

17. Plant, especially on drying, developing a strong persistent smell of
melilot, fenugreek. See 15.

17. Faint but distinct rather unpleasant ‘‘ smell of bugs ” :

18. Cap dark-bay-brown; smell pronounced but disappearing on
drying. Medium sized sp. mainly of frondose woods.—L.
cimicarius.

18. Cap rather more tawny-brown; smell faint. Small to medium
sp.—-L. serifluus.

LENTINUS
1. Cap + yellowish orange-brown, quite smooth, funnel-shaped.
Medium to large sp. tufted on wood of broad-leaved trees, especially
beech. Smell strong, very pleasant, persisting long after gathering.—
L. cochleatus.
1. Cap whitish, pale yellowish or coffee-dash colour, not smooth but
beset with + darker scales. Smell faint, pleasant or not ‘
2. Large to very large sp., cap whitish to creamy, + funnel- shaped
or at least somewhat depressed towards centre and covered with

almost blackish radiately arranged fibrillose scales. Often tufted |

sp., confined to wood of broad-leaved trees.—L. figrinus.

2. Large to very large sp., cap yellowish ochre + convex to funnel-
shaped and covered with -- reddish-brown scales. Confined to
wood of coniferous trees, rarely tufted.—L. lepidus.

LENZITES
Cap and gills of corky or -- woody consistency, -+ semi-circular up to
about 3 in. across; velvety with a very short “‘ nap” and often with
a series of concentric lines. Gills whitish to very pale yellowish ochre,
occasionally branched and anastamosing. Stipe absent. Most commonly
on but not restricted to birch stumps. Absent from coniferous wood.
—L. betulina.

LEPIOTA

1. Tufted sp., cap distinctly membranous, at first smooth, soon break-
ing up into + coarse flocci; margin soon deeply, radiately grooved.
Medium sized sp. with white gills.—L. caepastipes.

1. Gills almost blood-red maturing to dark reddish-brown. Small to
medium sp., cap darkish grey, with + denticulate edge. Often
grouped, but not tufted.—L. haematosperma.

1. Not tufted, gills white or whitish, cap + fleshy .

2. Cap uniformly smooth or silky; gills joined to collar at stipe

32

15

16

18

apex, otherwise quite free. Predominantly large white plant with
fleshy cap, the mature gills (also spores) with very faint flesh-pink
tinge.—L. naucina. Edible.

2. Not this sp. Cap scaly or granular

. Gills quite free; stipe fitting into cap like ball and socket joint. Cap

cuticle breaking up into coarse fibrillose scales or conical warts;

not granular ,

. Gills adnate, at least not clearly free. No ball and socket joint, the

flesh of cap and stipe continuous without a break. Whitish, pinkish

or + ochre spp. with granular cap often with a denticulate edge and
granular, peronate stipe

4. Apex of stipe surrounded by distinct hard collar to which gills are
joined. Ring of mature specimens movable, being cut off both
above and below. Large to very large spp. with coarsely scaly
cap and + bulbous stipe :

4. Nosuchcollar. Ring not movable, being cut off above only and
sheathing stipe below, hence stipe is peronate to ring ;

. Flesh of stipe on being cut turning + orange in a few seconds. Stipe

without spiral snake-like markings.—L. rhacodes. Very good eating.

. Flesh not thus changing. Stipe with characteristic and beautiful

spiral snake-like markings.—L. procera. Excellent eating.

6. Large sp., the brownish cap beset with numerous hard conical
warts, which leave a circular scar on falling off. Gills very often
forked. Strong unpleasant smell.—L. acute-squamosa. Not
edible.

6. Small to medium sp., cap with concentric red-brown scales on
white background. Umbo red-brown. Unpleasant smell re-
calling cut radishes.—L. cristata. Not edible.

. Cap off-white to slightly dirty-pinkish.—L. carcharias.

. Cap + yellow-ochre.—L. amianthina.

LEPTONIA

. Edge of gill not differently coloured from the sides ; j ‘

. Edge of gill persistently dark violet-blue to black; sides much paler,

becoming even paler with age . : p : ‘

2. Stipe, or part of it, yellow to white :

2. Stipe dark violaceous blue. Small sp. with bluish- black cap. —
L. lampropus.

. Stipe becoming blue to green when bruised. Small sp. with yellowish

cap -t tinged olivaceous.—L. euchloa.

. Stipe whitish unaffected by bruising. Small sp. with rich creamy cap.

—L. sericellus.

4. Growing on stumps. Gill edge dark violaceous, not jagged.
Small to medium sp. with dark violaceous cap.—L. euchroa.

4. Growing on the ground. Gill edge black, jagged.—L. serrulata.

MARASMIUS

. Stipe appearing either as if rooted in the ground, sawdust, etc., not
piercing leaves, twigs, wood, or growing amongst litter, etc., froma
(generally) easily visible mycelium. (Medium sized spp.)

. Stipe appearing to pierce the (unburied) substrate of leaves, twigs,
wood, there being no visible, fluffy, mycelium

2. Stipe uniformly coloured, solid, leathery not horny, nor " chan-

33

G2 Lo

Mn

11.

11.

i;
f,

nelled on the outside and not dilating at apex where it abuts the
cap. Essentially buff-coloured spp. without distinctive smell

2. Stipe at least in mature spp. paler above, dark brown to blackish
below, hollow or channelled on outside, almost horny, ++ taper-
ing downwards, but typically dilating above at extreme apex
where it abuts the cap. Sometimes with smell or taste of onion or
garlic

Stipe woolly below. _M. peronatus. Not edible.

Stipe not woolly : 4

4. Gills wide spaced, thick. ea Gage Good eating.

4. Gills crowded, thin.—See Collybia.

With distinct smell or taste of onion or garlic

No such smell or taste (but may be others)

6. Tufted medium sized sp. with brownish cap, the stipe almost black
at the base and covered with a whitish bloom. Taste of garlic
persists in mouth for about 30 minutes. Growing (? always) on
rotting sawdust.—M. cauveti: Maire and Kuhner.

6. Solitary sp. with medium sized whitish cap, somewhat grooved at
margin. Growing mostly amongst beech litter or on wood.—
M. alliaceus.

Cap and upper part of stipe, at least when young, whitish, and when

mature pale brownish with lilac flush. Stipe not velvety at base.

Small to medium sp. mostly tufted in beech litter.—M. wynnei.

Cap and upper part of stipe pale yellowish. Stipe velvety at base.

Small sp. generally grouped but not tufted amongst beech litter.—

M. lupuletorum.

8. Foetid medium sized sp. growing out of wood. Cap brownish +
deeply and radiately grooved.—M. foetens.

8. Not this sp. Plants with cap smaller than a sixpenny piece

(2 in.)

Gills joined to collar at apex of stipe. Cap whitish, ‘stipe ‘black,

looking like a horse-hair.—M. rotula.

No such collar i ‘ p :

10. Gills vein-like, branched and wrinkled; stipe whitish above,

brownish below and very shortly velvety (lens). Pure white plant
most commonly growing out of leaves.—M. epiphyllus.

10. Not this sp. Gills normal :

Stipe rarely exceeding diameter of cap. Cap off-white with pale

reddish-brown centre. Stipe growing out of dead branchlets, twigs,

stems.—M. ramealis.

Not this sp.; stipe much longer than diameter of cap

12. Stipe glabrous, shining black, looking like a horse-hair. No
special smell.—M. androsaceus.

12. Stipe densely but shortly velvety. Whitish plant with strong
foetid smell and growing from dead conifer needles.—M.
perforans.

MYCENA
Stipe with distinct basal disc. (Minute spp., cap white)
No such disc . i A :
2. Cap sprinkled with minute glistening particles. Pellicle of cap

10

11

12

1 First described in 1935 by Maite & Kiihner from specimens gathered in Algiers and since

recorded from France. This first British record is due to Professor T.

M. Harris, F.R.S. I am

indebted to Mr. A. A. Pearson who sent specimens to Professor Kiihner of Lyons for identification.

34

rin

11.
tt.

EB.
13.

ry:

not separable. Commonly on bark, often of living trees.—M.
tenerrima.

2. No such glistening particles. Pellicle of cap separable.—M.
stylobates.

. Stipe, when broken, yielding an opaque white or coloured milk
. No such milk . ! : :

4. Milk white, opaque
4. Milk coloured

. Cap greyish-brown to brownish. Ny galopus.

Whole plant pure white.—M. galopus var. alba.

Cap blackish.—M. galopus var. nigra.

6. Milk + orange. Cap brownish.—WM. crocata.

6. Milk dull dark red or purple-red

Edge of gill dull reddish-brown. Small sp., cap pinkish-brown, not
obviously continued beyond gills. Growing singly.—M.
sanguinolenta.

. Edge of gill not differently coloured. Small sp., cap pinkish-grey-

brown, the margin exceeding gills and -+- denticulate. Almost

tufted on rotten wood.—M. haematopus.

8. Stipe slimy. Pellicle of cap separable as one piece. Small to
medium spp. with very pale grey-brown cap. .

8. Stipe not at all slimy

. Stipe clear yellowish, at least above. Cap exceeding gills i in form of

denticulate edge

. Stipe whitish to greyish- brown. “Cap edge not exceeding gills and

not denticulate. Small plant with off-white to dirty-white cap and

faint rancid smell. Almost confined to coniferous woods.—M.

vulgaris.

10. With strong rancid fat smell. Ageing plants becoming blotched
foxy-red.—M. viscosa.

10. Smell faint, indefinite. No blotching.—WM. epipterygia.

Gill edge coloured differently from the sides (lens)

ay edge of same colour as sides or whitish
. Gill edge red or orange-yellow .

a Gill edge dark to almost blackish-purple

12. Gill edge date-brown, without red colour. Rather small sp.: ;
cap dull yellowish-brown, and when water-soaked, with broad,
darker, radiating lines to about half-way in. Never a woodland
sp., almost exclusively in lawns or at least amongst grass.—
M. avenacea.

Gill edge red. Very small sp. with pinkish cap and gills.—M.

rosella.

Gill edge orange-yellow. Very small sp. with dull brownish cap

and greyish gills.—M. elegans.

14. Medium sized sp. with purplish-lead coloured cap and gills
similarly coloured. Essentially a sp. of broad-leaved woods
especially beech not of conifers. Gill edge blackish-violet or
blackish-purple.—M. pelianthina.

14. Rather small sp. with greyish-brown cap when water-soaked
drying out greyish. Gills whitish-grey. Essentially a sp. of
coniferous woods. Gill edge dark (brownish) purple.—M.
rubro-marginata.

Stipe steel-blue-grey with silvery longitudinal striations. Medium

35

Nnowo

10

15.

17.

17.

1g:
19.

19.

at.
21

23.

sized sp. with brownish-grey cap growing on or very near wood,

most commonly grouped or even tufted.—M. eee er

Not this sp.; stipe ordinary

16. Small to medium brown or grey spp.. tufted a or at least grouped
on rotting wood, stumps, etc. , ; > ; :

16. Not so

Small tufted sp., cap margin exceeding gills and + “denticulate.

Gills not veined nor becoming pinkish with age. Confined to oak

stumps.—WM. inclinata.

Medium sized mostly grouped plants. Cap not exceeding gills nor

denticulate. Gills veined, becoming pinkish with age. Mostly on

birch and alder stumps.—M. galericulata.

18. Cap + brightly coloured; orange to red, pinkish, pale lilac
to pale violet, yellowish to + olivaceous. Smell, when present,
of radish, not nitrous

18. Cap pure white or whitish, or dull browns to greys. ‘Smell,
when present, nitrous, not of radish ‘

Cap orange-red to red. Very small sp. with yellowish stem. —

M. acicula.

Cap predominantly pinkish to pinkish lilac. Medium sized hygro-

phanous sp. with interveined gills and + strong radish smell.—

M. pura (cf. Laccaria laccata).

Small olivaceous sp. with striate cap and greyish stipe.—M. chlor-

antha (= M. lineata sensu Lange)

20. Cap pure white to pale yellowish white

20. Cap dull browns to greys . : ; : ‘

Minute pure white plant, the cap about 3 zo in. across. On dead

leaves, more especially beech leaves.—M. capillaris.

Rather small whitish to yellowish plant, the slightly umbonate cap

having a scalloped appearance towards the edge as it dries out.

Stipe white or very faintly tinged with pale yellow.—M. flavo-alba.

22. Rather small to small plants with distinct nitrous smell.

22. Nitrous smell absent. Spp. not further keyed out.

Small + tufted sp. growing on or in close association with tree

stumps.—WM. alcalina.

NAUCORIA

. Cap deep brick-red-brown to almost black when water-soaked (edge

paler), drying out to + pale ochre. Stipe deep dark brown to almost

black. Small to medium sp. smelling strongly of rotten fish or +

mouldy cucumber. (Spores and gills + pinkish pale brown).—

N. cucumis. Not edible.

Not this sp... ;

2. Young cap (at least) + beset with flecks, ‘scales or fibrils. Plants
virtually confined to + swampy ground around alder trees.
(Spores rusty brown) .

2. Young cap virtually devoid of flecks, ete. Plants not associated
with alders .

Cap -+ bay brown (sometimes with rusty tinge) when water-soaked,

drying out + ochre. Small sp. the young cap + granular to scaly

(margin fibrillar); stipe also + fibrillosely-scalyi—N. conspersa.

Cap -+ dirty ochre when water-soaked, drying out paler. Small

sp., the young cap with minute granular meal, soon disappearing.

36

16

17
18

19
20

21
22

23

Stipe same colour as cap, becoming brownish from below upwards.

—WN. escharoides.

4. Plants essentially of grassy places: meadows, pastures, grassy
road-sides. Not on wood, in woods or similar uncultivated
places. Spores (and generally gills) + cigar-brown, not rusty

4. Plants of other habitats and characteristics. Not further con-
sidered.

5. Stipe not exceeding diameter of cap. Small to medium sp., cap
convex + ochre colour, darker towards centre, slightly sticky in
moist weather and with “ new meal ”’ smell.— WN. vervacti.

5. Stipe at least twice diameter of cap
6. Stipe slightly bulbous below and arising from a boot-lace like

mycelial cord. Small sp., cap becoming + flat and of pale
yellowish-brown colour, somewhat sticky in moist weather.
Slight ‘‘ meal ”’ smell.—WN. arvalis.
6. Stipe slightly swollen below but no mycelial cord; no smell of
“meal’’. Cap remaining + dome-shaped :

7. Cap sticky (obvious only in damp weather). Small to medium sp. ‘a
the dome-shaped cap + yellowish to pale brown.—WN. semi-orbicu-
laris.

7. Cap always dry, not sticky. Otherwise similar to above and con-
sidered by some not specifically distinct.— N. pediades.

NOLANEA

Cap + ovate and umbonate or papillate; when water-soaked, of a date-
brown to umber-brown colour and striate to about half-way in, becoming
much paler on drying out. Spores characteristically 4 (sometimes 6)
angled. Medium sized sp. of pastures and grassy clearings in woods.—
N. staurospora.

Cap -+ ovate to convex, with characteristic yellowish-ochre tinge, striate
to about half-way in (at least when water-soaked). Medium sized sp.
confined to coniferous woods.—WN. cetrata.

NYCTALIS
Cap mealy, not membranous; gills poorly developed, narrower than
overlying flesh of cap; smell unpleasant.—WN. asterophora.
Cap almost membranous, silky, not mealy; gills + normally developed,
deeper than overlying flesh of cap; smell + pleasant, of ‘‘ new meal ”’.
—WN. parasitica.

OMPHALIA
1. Young cap + shallowly dome-shaped, sometimes with very slight
depression at the very centre. Small spp., the stipe rarely less than
twice the diameter of cap
1. Cap + funnel-shaped or saucer-shaped or at least flat, from the
beginning. Edge of young cap slightly incurved. Small to medium
sized spp., the stipe rarely exceeding the diameter of the cap ;
2. Tufted sp., confined to coniferous wood (stumps, etc.). Small
plant, cap + umbonate, ochre colour with darker striations
towards the margin. Stipe + bay-brown, at least below.—0O.
campanella.
2. Not tufted . F i f : P : ; :
3. Cap with dull colours: off-whites, greys, browns. Not further

37

considered.

. Cap + clear ochre-orange

4. Stipe apex flushed violet. Rather ‘small sp. amongst moss and
in grass.—O. fibula var. swartzii.

4. Stipe uniformly coloured. Rather small sp.—O. fibula.

. Cap, at least, wholly white. spp. not further considered.

. Cap not so

6. Cap and stipe almost black when water-soaked, drying out grey-
ish. Gills very closely set, white. Medium sized sp., the cap
depressed at centre, striate when water-soaked.—O. maura.

6. Not this combination of characters

. Cap when water-soaked dull brown with + olivaceous tinge and with

darker striations, drying out almost white, gills off-white and widely

spaced. Medium sized sp. common in peaty ground.—O. umbellifera.

. Cap reddish-brown, orange-brown to + bright orange

8. Cap bright orange or orange-yellow. Gills and stipe yellowish.
Medium sized sp. mainly of boggy places.—O. postii.

8. Cap reddish-brown to orange light brown, stipe rather paler.
Small sp. with striate cap when water-soaked.—O. pyxidata.

PANAEOLUS

. Cap + uniformly coloured, or with slightly different tinge at centre

but with no darker marginal belt. Edge of cap slightly exceeding

gills and sometimes + denticulate (Gill colour predominantly black)

. Cap with + persisting darker marginal belt, the edge not exceeding

the gills and not denticulate :

2. Plant predominantly whitish with ue yellowish, often cracking,
centre to the cap. Small to medium sp. with -+_ dome-shaped
cap.—P. papillionaceus. Not edible.

2. Plants predominantly reddish-brown to pinkish-light-brown

. Cap with network of raised ribs. Small sp. with -- dome-shaped cap.

—P. retirugis. Not edible.

. No raised ribs on cap. Small to medium sp. with reddish-brown

stipe.—P. campanulatus. Not edible.

4. Gill colour (and spores) essentially black

4. Gill colour (and spores) essentially dark brownish

. Cap brownish to blackish, + convex and with no central umbo,

Small sp.—P. fimicola. Not edible.

. Cap reddish-brown, flattening on expansion and with broad central

umbo. Medium sized sp.—P. sub-balteatus. Not edible.

6. Cap convex, brownish, not slimy. Small sp.—Psilocybe foenisicii.

6. Cap ovate-conical with distinct drawn-out apex, never expanding,
the edge remaining incurved; dull yellow to yellowish-brown,
slimy.—Psilocybe semi-lanceata.

PANUS

Stipe + central, not + suddenly swollen at apex. Medium to large sp.,
cap pinkish pale brown when water-soaked, -+ funnel-shaped and often
flushed lilac, drying out yellowish. More or less tufted sp. on wood of
broad-leaved trees; flesh not bitter.—P. torulosus.

Stipe definitely lateral and + suddenly swollen at apex. Small to medium
sp., cap pale brownish. On wood of broad-leaved trees; flesh distinctly
bitter.—P. stipticus.

38

PAXILLUS

. Stipe present, central to eccentric ;

. Stipe absent. Dull yellowish + elongated sp. (to about 4i in.) attached

laterally to coniferous wood.—P. panuoides.

2. Stipe yellowish pale brown, not velvety. Large to very large sp.
with + dull yellow-brown cap (tinged olivaceous when young),
the margin inrolled and almost woolly, at least when young. Not
confined to coniferous woods.—P. involutus.

2. Stipe covered with a brownish almost black velvety nap. Large
to very large sp., stipe usually eccentric, probably confined to
coniferous woods.—P. atro-tomentosus.

PHOLIOTA

. Growing on wood or tufted spp.

. Growing on ground, not tufted. (Cap smooth, not scaly)

2. Cap distinctly scaly. Large to very peas spp. predominantly
yellow to tawny g

2. Cap not scaly é 4 : i ; !

. Cap and stipe sticky or stimy: ‘beset with brownish scales. Large

yellowish sp. growing on beech wood.—P. adiposa.

. Cap and stipe not sticky or slimy y

4. Cap and stipe with well-developed erect and recurved ‘dark brown
scales. Large to very large sp. with + yellow-ochre cap.—P.
squarrosa.

4, Cap with feebly developed scales of same colour as cap and

pressed down, not erect or recurved. Stipe sheathed from below

to ring with a + fibrillose, not scaly, covering. Large to very
large sp. with -_ tawny cap.—P. spectabilis.

: Cap distinctly hygrophanous, varying brownish to yellowish accord-

ing to water content

. Not so. Medium to large sp., cap ef coffee-dash colour, darker

towards centre (stipe not scaly)—usually on poplar, elm or willow.—

P. aegerita.

6. Stipe below ring densely covered with darker recurved scales.
Medium to large sp., confined to wood of broad-leaved trees.
Cap brown when water-soaked drying out to yellowish, not
striate at margin.—P. mutabilis. Edible.

6. Stipe below ring without recurved scales. Small to medium sp.
confined to coniferous wood. Cap -+ honey coloured when
moist, drying out dark brownish; striate at margin.—P.
‘marginata.

. Ring membranous, hanging down and radiately grooved on upper

surface. Small to medium hygrophanous sp. with + cafe au lait

coloured cap when water-soaked, drying out paler.—P. togularis.

. Ring not so

8. Stipe hard, not becoming hollow. Medium sized sp. of cultivated
places. Cap + off-white. Taste slightly unpleasant; no smell
of ‘‘ new meal ”’.—P. dura.

8. Stipe stuffed becoming hollow, hence not hard. Medium sized
sp. of fields, meadows and woods. Cap + coffee-dash colour.
Taste and smell pleasant of “‘ new meal ”’ but faint.—P. praecox.

a9

Mn Go

W WwW

IF

PLEUROTUS

. Medium to very large spp.
. Very small to small spp. (Stipe definitely lateral or absent.) Cap

white + kidney-shaped
2. Stipe central, excentric to almost lateral
2. Stipe definitely lateral

. Gills decurrent or arcuate-decurrent :
. Gills sinuate or adnate. Very large sp., cap whitish to creamy dirty

yellow, stipe -- excentric. On wood of broad-leaved trees, often
parasitic.—P. ulmarius.
4. Cap at all times whitish to pale yellowish, stipe usually well
developed, central to almost lateral. Gills deeply decurrent
4. Young cap brownish-black to brownish violaceous ageing
through greyish to dirty yellowish; stipe absent, or if (feebly)
developed, then almost lateral. Gills arcuate-decurrent. Tufted
on stumps and trunks of broad-leaved trees.—P. ostreatus.
Young plants enclosed by a veil which leaves a ring-like zone at stipe
apex, soon disappearing as cap expands, but veil remains may still
often be seen on cap margin. Large to very large sp., cap whitish
and with pressed down greyish scales, growing tufted on wood of
broad-leaved trees. Bruised mature gills become slowly yellow
(may take an hour or more).—P. dryinus.

. Nosuch veil or its remains, but very young cap may be mealy. Large

to very large sp., cap whitish to creamy, growing tufted on wood of

broad-leaved trees.—P. cornucopiae.

6. Densely tufted medium sized sp., cap brownish-grey and +
tongue-shaped; gills anastamosing and deeply decurrent. Mostly
on rotting sawdust.—P. petaloides var. geogenius.

6. Not densely tufted; medium sized sp., cap yellowish-green to
olivaceous; gills pale yellowish. On wood of broad-leaved trees.
P. serotinus.

. Stipe present, but very short. Cap pure white or with faint flesh

tinge; pellicle detachable. Mature gills white. On twigs and wood
of conifers.—P. mitis.

Stipe absent. Cap whitish without detachable pellicle. Mature gills
+ cafe au lait colour. On twigs, wood, leaves, etc.—P. septicus.
Commonly confused with Crepidotus variabilis but spore print of P.
septicus is only slightly off-white, whereas Crepidotus variabilis has
distinctly pinkish pale brown spores.

PLUTEOLUS
Cap smooth, small to medium, membranous, lead-grey and some-
times with a pinkish tinge; striate to about half-way in.—P. aleuri-
atus.
Similar, but cap with network of raised lines.—P. aleuriatus var.
ireticulatus.

PLUTEUS
Cap whitish to greyish and (like the stipe) covered with fibrillose
scales more especially towards the centre. Large to very large sp.—
P. cervinus var. patricius.
Cap yellow; cuticle virtually smooth, not becoming mealy, fibrillose
or felty-squamulose as the cap expands. Medium to large sp., edge of

40

RAW~I N

cap + striate.—P. leoninus.

. Cap brownish, dark, dull brown to almost black. Cuticle mealy or

becoming fibrillose or felty-squamulose as cap expands, rarely +

smooth

2. Medium to large spp., the whitish to pale brownish stipe covered
with somewhat dark brown fibrils. Cuticle of cap becoming
felty-squamulose or breaking up into + radiating fibrils, not
mealy ;

2. Small spp., stipe not streaked with brownish fibrils. Cuticle of
cap smooth or mealy : : ; s :

. Gill edge dark brownish.—P. baibroses!

. Gill edge of same colour as sides.—P. cervinus. Edible.

4. Cap sooty-brown, umbonate, edge not striate .

4. Cap yellowish-brown, not umbonate, edge finely striate. Stipe
whitish, dull yellow below.—P. chrysophaeus.

. Stipe uniformly white.—P. nanus.

. Stipe yellowish below.—P. nanus var. lutescens.

PSALLIOTA

. Mature cap with well-developed reddish-brown to dark brown

scales, so that the colour would be called brown or brownish and not

white or whitish. (Cut fiesh changing at once to bright blood-red
or after some minutes to dull reddish-brown or appearing dull
reddish-brown and not undergoing further change)

. Mature cap silky-smooth or fibrillosely-scaly, but the colour essen-

tially whitish to brassy, there being no obviously darker scales.

(Sun-scorched plants may be somewhat tan coloured) :

2. Flesh (and bruised gills) everywhere on cutting becoming immedi-
ately bright blood-red .

2. Flesh not so, or may change slowly to dull reddish- brown or be
dull reddish-brown from the first :

. Young stem when rubbed becoming pinkish. Large to very large

plant mainly associated with broad-leaved trees, oak, hazel, beech. —

Ps. haemorrhoidaria.

. Young stem when rubbed becoming yellowish. Medium to very

large plant mainly associated with coniferous trees.—Ps. sanguinaria.

4, Ring with obvious warts, scales or patches on lower surface of
ring .

4. Ring quite smooth on under surface

. Stipe smooth below ring. Ring beset on lower surface with white

flocci.—Ps. silvatica. (Sun-scorched plants of Ps. arvensis may come

here.)

. Stipe rough below ring with flocci or scales. Lower surface of ring

with bright or dull yellowish a (cap with definite tinge of

yellowish or light tan)

6. Stipe not exceeding diameter of cap. Cap bruising yellowish: cut
flesh dull reddish-brown at least in places. Large to very large sp.
mainly in pastures. Young gills pinkish. Ps. villatica. cf. Ps.
arvensis.

6. Stipe exceeding diameter of cap. Rubbed stipe and cut flesh
yellowish to dull orange. Young gills whitish, not maturing
through a pink stage. Very large sp. mainly of woods.—Ps.
augusta. Edible.

41

11.

1.

. Base of stipe + bulbous, often yellowish; dark red-brown scales of

cap densely overlapping, so that the colour is predominantly brown.
Medium to large sp. of woods.—Ps. silvatica.

. Base of stipe tapering, not yellowish; cap scales light brown, not

densely overlapping so that colour is as much white as brown.

Medium to large sp. of pastures and meadows, not in association

with trees. (Young gills pink from the first.)—Ps. campestris. The

well-known edible Field Mushroom.

8. Stipe with one or more belts some distance below the ring, with
flocci on the lower surface, the belt(s) joined to a covering which
almost forms a sheath to the base of the stipe. Centre of cap +
brassy-yellowish when mature. Medium to large sp. of gardens,
even pavements. (Young gills pink from the first.)—Ps. edulis
K. & M. (= Ps. rodmani (Peck) Lange.). Edible.

8. Stine not so

. Cut flesh of slightly swollen base, and all external parts « on bruising,

turning bright yellow within a matter of seconds. Medium to large
sp. never growing away from trees.—Ps. xanthoderma. Poisonous
to some.

. Cut flesh of base of stipe not staining yellow. External parts may

become yellowish slowly after rubbing or bruising ¢

10. Ring simple, i.e. without (sometimes radiately arranged) scales
or patches on lower surface. Cut flesh sometimes staining very
faint, dull pinkish. Gills pinkish from the first :

10. Ring double, i.e. with obvious patches on the lower surface.
Bruised or rubbed external parts or cut flesh often staining +
yellowish; pinkish stains absent. Young gills greyish ‘

Medium to large sp. The cap remaining whitish and not becoming

yellowish. Essentially a sp. of meadows and pastures away from

trees.—Ps. campestris. The well-known edible Field Mushroom.

Small to medium sp., the whitish cap with a yellowish sometimes

rusty tinge, especially towards the centre.—Ps. comtula.

12. Lower part of ring with regularly and radiately arranged
patches, giving a many-pointed star-like appearance. Stipe
often swollen below, but not forming a + distinct basal bulb.
Essentially a sp. of fields and meadows.—Ps. arvensis. The
Horse Mushroom. Edible.

12. Lower part of ring with + irregularly arranged patches. Stipe
with + distinct basal bulb. Essentially a sp. associated with
trees.—Ps. silvicola.

PSATHYRELLA

. Cap of young plants with white radiating fibrils or, at least the edge,

denticulate with fibrillose squamules

. All such fibrils or squamules absent from the young cap

2. Essentially a sp. of burnt ground. Young cap denticulate with
white fibrillose scales. Small to medium sp. with dark brownish
cap.—Ps. pennata.

2. Not growing on burnt ground. Young cap beset with white fibrils,
not denticulate-scaly

. Cap dark brownish when water-soaked, drying out paler, stipe re

fibrillose. Small sp. with brownish gills, sometimes + tufted.—
Ps. semi-vestita.

42

10

11

12

. Cap lead-greyish when water-soaked, drying out whitish; stipe with
spreading fibrillose scales. Small to medium sp. with grey to black
gills.—Ps. fibrillosa.

4. Tufted or densely gregarious small sp. growing on or around
stumps of broad-leaved trees. Cap dull yellowish to lead-grey,
soon becoming radiately grooved.—Ps. disseminata.

4. Not this sp. :

. Small but usually medium sized spp. with bluntly conical cap and

scarcely adnate gills. (No pinkish tinge anywhere on cap or gill edge.

Stipe not “* rooting ’’) 4 j : :

. Small to medium-sized spp. with broadly adnate gills

6. Cap brownish and radiately striate when water-soaked, drying out
to almost coffee-dash. Small to medium sized sp.—Ps. subatrata.

6. Cap pale tan to dull ochre when water-soaked, not striate, drying
out to + coffee-dash. Small to medium sp.—Ps. conopilea.

. Small to medium sp. with distinctly “‘ rooting ’”’ stipe. Cap pale

brownish to pale dull ochre and like the gill edge, commonly with a

+ distinct pink tinge. Stipe not mealy at apex.—Ps. gracilis.

. Small spp. with no “ rooting ”’ stipe, but stipe mealy at apex. Cap

cone-shaped

8. Cap smooth, ashy- -grey, appearing as if sprinkled with minute
glistening particles.—Ps. atomata.

8. Cap + radiately grooved, greyish-yellow and with crenate margin.
—Ps. crenata.

PSILOCYBE!

. Densely tufted medium sized hygrophanous sp.; cap date-brown

when water-soaked drying out pale ochre-brown. Stipe white,

smooth.—Ps. spadicea.

. Not this combination of characters. (Stipe reddish-brown to

brownish, at least below and rather rough with fibres, not smooth)

2. Gills + ascending, narrowly adnate or sinuo-adnate

2. Gills + horizontal, broadly adnate or weakly decurrent. Small
hygrophanous sp., cap reddish-bay-brown when water-soaked,
ochre pale-brown when dry. Stipe at most only slightly exceeding
diameter of cap.—Ps. bullacea.

. Spp. essentially growing amongst mosses (Hypnum, Polytrichum,

Sphagnum) both in coniferous woods and peaty bogs ;

. Spp. growing in or on the margins of woods, mainly in wet places,

but not in association with mosses. (Cap predominantly dull

reddish-brown)

4. Cap dull reddish-brown when ‘water-soaked, drying out to brown-
ish yellow; edge not striate. Small sp., essentially of wet peaty
places.—Ps. uda.

4. Cap creamy honey coloured when moist (sometimes with olive
tinge), edge striate. When dry, of a dull yellowish colour and not
striate. Small sp. in close association with the moss tufts (Poly-
trichum, Sphagnum) amongst which it grows in peaty bogs.—
Ps. elongata.

. Gills greyish without any yellowish colour; stipe about as long as

the diameter of cap. Medium sized sp.—Ps. sub-ericea.

. Gills yellowish, becoming -+ olive and purple tinged when

1 For those spp. of Psilocybe with mottled gills, see Panaeolus.

43

mature. Stipe about 2—3 times longer than diameter of cap. (Small
to medium sized sp.).—Ps. ericea.

RUSSULA

. Cap at first white, the margin for a long time inrolled; with age

becoming spotted brownish and finally turning wholly black. Gills
with many intermediate smaller gills (not reaching the stipe). (Large
to very large spp., flesh mild or acrid)

. Cap variously coloured, never becoming wholly black: gills without

(or almost so) any smaller intermediate ones. Reaction to ferric alum
none or most usually some shade of salmon-pinkish. (Green in R.
xerampelina and may be dull olive in R. cyanoxantha) .

2. Broken flesh (cap, gills) not changing colour; young cap whitish,
velvety, the gills glancing glaucous just above attachment to stipe
(often more visible an hour or so after gathering.)—R. delica.
Commonly confused with Lactarius vellereus, q.v.

2. Broken flesh changing to reddish or blackish, but not at once

. Gills very thick and widely spaced. Broken flesh red then black.—

R. nigricans.

. Gills ordinarily thin and crowded

4. Cut flesh becoming red before blackening. ge donsifolta,.
4. Cut flesh turning black, not passing through a red stage.—R.
adusta.

. Reaction to ferric alum nil, or slowly becoming dull olive, never pink.

Cap of mixed colours: yellowish-greenish-violet-pinkish. Gills
white and when stroked with thumb feel greasy; also pliant, not
easily broken when finger is drawn across them. No special smell.
Cut flesh unchanging.—R. cyanoxantha. Good eating.

. Reaction to ferric alum distinctly greenish in a few seconds, never

pink. Cap varying reddish, purplish to + brownish. Gills yellowish
to ochre, not greasy to touch, not pliant but brittle, and easily break-
ing. Mature specimens with distinct smell of boiled crab (not
detectable by everybody). Gills, stipe and cut flesh staining brown-
ish.—R. xerampelina and its vars.

. Reaction to ferric alum at first + pinkish or creamy-pinkish and not

distinctly greenish in a few seconds .

6. Cap predominantly greyish-lilac, greenish or yellowish to brown-
ish. Red colours not predominant

6. Cap predominantly bright or dull red, violet or purple to almost
black, sometimes with a greenish or olivaceous tinge :

Either fiesh of cap or gills acrid or cap brownish with —-+ deeply

grooved margin and smell pleasant (bitter almonds) or unpleasant

(rancid oil). Otherwise cap yellowish, smooth

. Flesh mild (or slightly bitterish). If cap yellowish to prowiaich then

margin smooth

8. Margin of cap finally " deeply grooved. Cap predominantly
same shade of brown. (Smell rancid or of bitter almonds)

8. Margin of cap persistently smooth. (Spores white)

. Medium to large sp. Smell unpleasantly rancid, but faint. at

pectinata. Not edible.

. Very large sp. or distinct smell of bitter almonds

10. Smell unpleasantly rancid, strong.—R. foetens. Not edible.
10. Smell pleasant: bitter almonds, crushed cherry laurel leaves.—

44

10

rf.

11.

13.
ZS.

iS,
1s.

17.
tT.

19.
19.

21.
21.

23.
23.

20.

pnd

R. laurocerasi.

Whole plant uniformly pale dull yellowish-ochre. Smell faint, but

distinct, of crushed pelargonium leaves.—R. fellea. Not edible.

Cap almost bright yellowish-ochre, but gills and stipe white. No

distinctive smell.—R. ochroleuca. Not edible.

12. Cap predominantly greenish to greyish-green

12. Cap predominantly yellowish or brownish, but sometimes with
olivaceous flush

Cuticle of cap breaking up into a mealy patches. mys virescens.

Good eating.

Not so .

14. Cap flesh ‘under cuticle peeled from edge 2) reddish to violet.
Cap greyish-lilac. Spores creamy.—R. grisea.

14. Cap flesh under cuticle peeled from edge not reddish to violet

Gills and spores white.—R. heterophylla.

Gills and spores creamy.—R. aeruginea.

16. Cap almost bright yellowish-ochre; upper part of (often grey-
ish) stipe with network of faintly raised ribs (lens).—R.
ochroleuca. Not edible.

16. Cap dark, dullish brown, olivaceous towards centre. Stipe
always white, raised ribs absent.—R. heterophylla.

Flesh of cap or gills acrid , ;

Flesh not acrid (sometimes bitterish)

18. Cap pure pink, orange to red or scarlet. (Blue colours virtually

absent)

18. Cap purplish, lilac-pink or purple- black to almost black:
sometimes greenish-olivaceous towards centre

Edge of gills bright lemon yellow. Cap orange-reddish.—R. aoe

Not this sp.

20. Stem and gills ‘becoming yellow when bruised (thumb nail).
Cap scarlet.—R. luteo-tacta. Not edible.

20. Stem and gills remaining unchanged when bruised; capred .

Cap medium to large. Flesh under cuticle peeled from edge + rosy

and firm, not crumbly.—R. emetica. Not edible

Cap small to medium. Flesh under cuticles peeled from edge white

and not firm but crumbly.—R. fragilis. Not edible.

22. Stipe + flushed with purple or violet

22. Not so, but may be slightly rusty at base.

Young gills pale sulphur yellow. Cut flesh and gills turn red on

contact with ammonia.—R. drimea. Not edible.

Young gills pure white. No ammonia reaction.—R. queletii. Not

edible.

24. Stipe white or at most faint neutral grey. Edge of cap virtually
smooth .

24. Stipe ageing to “yellow. Cap usually with greenish centre, the
margin at first finely striate and finally + grooved. Only the
gills somewhat bitterish. Confined to ground around birches.
—R. versicolor. Not edible.

Cap dark, dull blood-red, with almost black centre, often discolour-

ing to yellow in the form of spots or larger areas. Flesh poe

acrid

Cap crimson purple and with distinctly olivaceous centre, but soon

fading to almost whitish; flesh very acrid.—R. fallax. Not edible.

45

13
16

14

15

18
Pip)

19
22
20

21

23

24

25

26

27.

20.

29.

29.

Si.
NB

a3,

cee

26. Cap with central umbo; cuticle can be peeled from edge to about
half-way. Confined to ground around pines.—R. caerulea.
Not edible.

26. No umbo. Only extreme edge of cuticle can be peeled off.
Not confined to pines.—R. atro-purpurea.

Cap with pure (primary) colours : either uniformly some shade of

red, or part red part + yellowish but no admixture with light or
dark blue shades (pinkish & tinged brownish or pale olive in R. vesca.

See 30)

Not so.

28. Mature gills and spores white to creamy F ;

28. (Mature gills and) spores almost bright yellowish to ochre. Cap

brick-red, cuticle peeling to about half-way. Stipe white or
with pinkish flush, -| parallel veined, firm not spongy.—R.
velenovskyi.

Stipe with (lateral) pinkish flush (rarely absent). Cap carmine or

clear red with characteristic “‘ bloom.’ Cuticle nowhere peeling

(except sometimes old, dried out specimens?) Stipe + smooth.

Flesh of cap & stipe firm, hard, not spongy.—R. lepida.

No pinkish flush on white stipe (may be rusty at base)

30. Cap clear rose to light pink, uniformly so but more often part

yellowish. Cuticle reaching to edge, peeling to about half-way.
Gills almost free, forked at base. Spores creamy.—R. rosea.

30. Cap pinkish, usually tinged brownish or pale olive, sometimes |

wholly pinkish-buff. Cuticle mostly falling short of cap edge,
peeling to about half-way. Gills almost decurrent, (7?) not
forked. Spores pure white.—R. vesca. Edible.

Stipe flushed with pink or purplish red :

No flush on white stipe : :

32. Cap reddish pale purple ue olivaceous towards centre. Mature
gills and spores yellow to ochre. (Mainly in beechwoods on
chalk).—R. alutacea.

32. Cap mostly lead grey to lilac, greenish at centre. Spores creamy.
—R. grisea.

Cap dark purple red to almost black at centre or if somewhat

violaceous or lilac then cap umbonate and plant confined to pine

trees ;

Cap essentially violaceous becoming tinged brownish Or if somewhat

dark purplish red then cap not umbonate. Plant associated with

broad-leaved trees, especially oak.—R. brunneo-violacea.

SCHIZOPHYLLUM

Cap small to medium, kidney shaped to semi-circular. Whole plant
predominantly ashy-grey. Gills longitudinally split into two halves,
the free ends being + rolled back. On fallen trunks, timber, boxes, etc.
—S. commune.

STROBILOMYCES

Large to very large sp., cap densely beset with overlapping greyish-black
scales. Cut flesh whitish at first, then pinkish and finally blackish.
Mainly in woods of broad-leaved trees.—S. strobilaceus.

46

28
31
29

30

32
33

26

STROPHARIA
Plants with some pale purple, bluish or bluish-green colours on cap
or stipe. Cap slimy, sometimes predominantly whitish. Bluish,
etc., colours often discolour or wash out to + dull yellowish-ochre.
(Not growing on dung or heavily manured ground)

. No such purple, blue or green colours. Cap predominantly yellow-

ish, never whitish.

2. Cap with thick, verdigris bine: _green slime, often dotted with
whitish scales especially towards margin. Stipe slimy. Medium
sized sp.; gills at first greyish, finally purplish chocolate brown.
— S. aeruginosa.

2. Cap preominantly whitish; stipe slightly translucent and tinged
faint yellowish but with pale clear bluish-green flush (sometimes
better seen by splitting stipe longtidunally). Stipe not slimy.
Small sp.—S. albo-cyanea.

2. Cap predominantly whitish, but the thick slime flushed with pale
purple towards the cuticle. Medium sized sp. with whitish stipe.
—S. inuncta.

. Cap when young beset with numerous + concentrically arranged

triangular scales, but soon falling off. Stipe also -+- squamulose up

to ring, whitish above, somewhat rusty below and about 3 times

diameter of cap. Medium sized sp. with + ochre-coloured convex
cap (slightly rusty towards centre), growing in troops, but not on
dung.—S. squamosa.

Young cap smooth, not beset with scales

4. Plants virtually ‘confined to dung. Cap slimy dome- shaped or
convex, not flattening out. Stipe rarely less than twice diameter
of cap ;

4, Plant not srowing on dung (nor ‘heavily manured soil). Cap
almost not sticky, finally flattening out, not remaining convex.
Stipe rarely exceeding diameter of cap. Medium sized sp. with
yellowish-ochre cap.—sS. coronilla.

Cap persistently dome-shaped. Stipe slimy from ring downwards,

smooth. Small sp. with olive-grey to purplish brown gills.—S.

semi-globata.

Cap broadly convex. Stipe dry, sheathed below ring with white

flocci. Small to medium sp. with dirty pale yellowish to chocolate

brown gills.—S. merdaria.

TRICHOLOMA

. More or less tufted spp., cap and stipe essentially tough and pliant.

Cap + umbonate at first, later expanding and often irregular. Gills
(often in same specimen) + sinuate to somewhat decurrent. (Colours
dull: no yellowish, reddish, purplish, violet colours)

. Plants not complying with above characters; i.e. typically not tufted,

above colours may be present. Gills uniformly sinuate

2. Cut or bruised flesh undergoing no colour change. Cut flesh if
coloured from first, then not bluish-black. Above colours often
present :

2. Cut or bruised flesh becoming bluish- black i ina matter of minutes.
(Cap colours dull grey-browns.) Medium to large spp. with +
smooth cap

. Stipe sheathed from ‘below with a fibrillose covering ending above

47

28

27

43.

13:

in a + well-developed ring. Cap fibrillose, of + rusty-brownish

colour. Stipe below ring of same colour, but white above ring.

Gills often somewhat dark spotted. Large to very large sp., the cut

flesh becoming slightly rusty.—T. robusta.

Stipe with no obvious ring ;

4. Plant growing on coniferous stumps; gills yellow. Large to very
large sp., the cap with purplish-reddish granulations or scales over
a yellowish background.—T. rutilans.

4. Growing on the ground N "

Cuticle of cap smooth, not broken up in 1 any way, nor sticky. Bright-

ish colours often ar mie pink, olive, sulphur-yellow, blue

to lilac

Cuticle of cap broken up in various ways (granules, felty scales, etc. )

or + streaked with pressed down radiating fibres; or the cap sticky

and then the gills + discoloured with rusty brownish spots. Above

brightish colours, except yellowish, absent . ‘

6. Plants with some shades of blue or lilac

6. Not so

Cap essentially ++ translucent when water-soaked (ic ey distinctly

hygrophanous), drying out opaque. Medium to large sp., often +

tufted; cap dirty brownish lilac, often wavy-deformed, the gills +

violaceous.—T. sordidum.

Plants not hygrophanous (spores very pale pink) .

8. Cap and stem + violaceous. Medium to large sp. with blue to
lilac gills. —T. nudum. Good eating.

8. Cap coffee-dash to almost greyish; stipe with flush of blue. Large
to very large sp., the gills off-white to very faintly pinkish.—
T. personatum. Good eating.

Occurring only in spring. Large to very large sp., the convex cap

whitish to coffee-dash colour, slightly darker towards centre.

Distinct and pleasant taste and smell of ‘“* new meal ’’.—T. gambosum.

St. George’s Mushroom. Very good ee

Autumnal species

10. Cap sulphur-yellow or “deep pink»

10. Not these colours

. Whole plant sulphur-yellow with strong, pungent, sulphurous smell

(or of “‘ gas works ’’). Medium to large sp.—T. sulphureum. Not
edible.

. Only the cap deep pink. Small sp. mainly growing in grass.—

T. carneum.

12. Mature gills flushed or spotted with pinkish or rusty brown;
young gills often-becoming so on bruising

12. Gills remaining whitish or creamy, not discolouring as above.

Plant with distinct smell of soap; taste slightly bitterish. Large

plant with grey-greenish, olivaceous or brownish cap, the margin

not grooved.—T. saponaceum.

No such soapy smell; taste distinctly bitter. Large to very large

plant with yellowish to ochre cap (darker towards centre), the

margin distinctly grooved.—T. acerbum. Not edible.

14. Cap when water-soaked grey-brown to almost brownish-black,
drying out paler, convex at first, then flattening out or +
saucer-shaped and somewhat depressed round a central umbo.
Stipe with distinctly fibrous outer layer, streaked or not with

48

13
14

a5.

15.

£7.

a1.

£9,

£9.

21.

2,

dark-brown fibres, inner flesh (of stipe) becoming + dirty
brownish from base upwards. Gills white or off-white.
(Spores warted, the warts turning blue-black in iodine solution.
Gill edge beset with characteristic harpoon-like cystidia.)
Melanoleuca section of Tricholoma

14. Cap unaffected by changes in water-content. Stipe character-
istics not as above. Cap white, creamy or reddish-brown.
(Spores smooth, unaffected by iodine solution. No harpoon-
like cystidia)

Large to very large sp., the cap when fully grown. = saucer-shaped.

Stipe whitish, streaked with dark brown fibrils. Gills between

adnate and slightly decurrent. Whole plant with unpleasant,

nauseous smell.—T. grammopodium.

Large plant, the cap when fully grown remaining flattened out.

Stipe whitish to pale brownish, but not obviously streaked with

dark brown fibres. Gills sinuate, not decurrent. Plant without

distinctive smell.—T. melaleucum.

16. Cap white or creamy. Smell unpleasant, taste rather bitterish.
Large to very large plant growing (? always) under birches.—
T. album.

16. Cap reddish-brown, paler towards margin. Smell faintly of
““new meal’’, taste very bitter. Large plant.—T. amarum.
Not edible.

Cap quite dry, the cuticle breaking up into numerous fibrillose or

felt-like scales as cap expands. Ai at dark mouse-

grey or rusty dark-brown ; : ‘ :

Cap sticky; smooth or broken up in various ways: fibrils, scales,

etc. Cap predominantly reddish-brown (and then -+ smooth),

yellow, grey or white ,

18. Cap dark mouse-grey, the gills uniformly coloured at first
white, slowly becoming very pale grey as plant matures.
Medium to large plant, the cuticle broken up into numerous
fibrillose scales, granulations, etc.—T. terreum.

18. Cap rusty dark brown, the gills discolouring to rusty reddish-
brown, either + uniformly or in patches, as the plants mature.
(Spp. confined to coniferous woods).

Cap with felt-like scales from the first, and margin on shaggy with

hairs. Medium to large plant with remains of fibrillose veil (cortina)

on stipe.—T. vaccinum.

Cap, when unexpanded, smooth, cuticle breaking up into +

densely overlapping fibrillose scales on expanding; margin never

beset with shaggy hairs. Medium to large plant; the stipe without
any trace of a cortina.—T. imbricatum.

20. Cap reddish-brown, to bay brown, the gills becoming spotted
with the same colour

20. Cap yellow, lead-grey- -violaceous, or ' whitish, the gills not
becoming spotted with reddish-brown

Internal flesh of stipe, especially in upper part, rap bright yellow.

Gills also yellow. Large plant mainly associated with birches.—

T. flavo-brunneum.

Not this combination of characters , ;

22. Cap streaked with radiating, pressed down fibres. Apex of
stipe white and mealy, sharply separated as if by a distinct

49

15

16

18

20

19

21
24

22

Z3.
23;

29.

25.

reps

i.
1.

boundary from the rusty lower part of stipe. Large to very
large sp. of coniferous woods.—T. albobrunneum.

22. Cap essentially smooth; Stipe not sharply demarked into two
differently coloured parts : : ‘ : : :

Plant with strong smell of “‘ new meal ”. Large to very large plant.

—T. pessundatum.

No smell of “‘ new meal’. Large plant.—T. ustale.

24. Cap yellow

24. Cap + white . :

24. Cap lead-grey with or r without a “violet tinge. Large to very
large sp. the cap with numerous radiating pressed down dark
violaceous fibres. Gills white maturing to very pale green or
pale yellow. Stipe white sometimes with tinge of yellowish.
Cut flesh, especially of upper part of stipe pale yellow.—T.
portentosum.

Cap with numerous pressed down scales (rarely smooth), the gills

also pale yellowish. Medium to large sp. of coniferous woods.—

T. flavo-virens (= T. equestre).

Cap with radiating pressed down darkish fibres; gills much paler

yellow than the cap. Medium to large sp.—T. sejunctum.

26. Cap uniformly white, + radiately fibrillose, but sometimes
spotted with rose, blue or violet. Large to very large sp. without
distinctive smell.—T. columbetta.

26. Whitish cap with central flush of pale yellow-ochre. Large sp.
with pleasant fruitv smell.—T. resplendens.

A few spp. comprising the section Nigrescentia of Kuhner, scarcely

to be distinguished without examination of spores. None common

except 7. immundum. Cap sooty to greyish brown when water-
soaked, drying out paler. Smell of “‘new meal ”’ when freshly
gathered. Spores almost spherical.

28. Cuticle thick almost horny and can be peeled from margin
almost to centre. Large species with brownish, somewhat
veined cap, the cuticle finally breaking up into darker granu-
lations.—T. loricatum.

28. Cuticle not horny, nor peeling, nor breaking up into granu-
lations. Large to very large sp., cap convex, greyish-brown
when water-soaked, drying out paler.—T. aggregatum.

TUBARIA
Growing in bogs or amongst sphagnum moss. Stipe more [than

four times diameter of cap

Growing on twigs, amongst grass, humus, etc., Stipe rarely exceeding

three times diameter of cap. Small sp. cap at first convex, soon

flattening out and finally -_ depressed at centre; hygrophanous, -++

honey-brown and pellucid-striate when water-soaked, drying out

+ pale dirty yellowish-white. Cap margin beset with white flecks

(remains of veil). Gills + arcuate-decurrent. Stipe hollow, + mealy.

—T. furfuracea.

2. Cap papillate. Small sp., cap conical to convex, not flattening
out; pale yellowish-brown when water-soaked.—T. paludosa.

2. Cap not papillate. Small sp., cap convex at first, sometimes
finally -+_ depressed at centre; somewhat reddish-bay-brown
when water-soaked.—T. stagnina.

50

23

25
26

VOLVARIA
1. Parasitic on Clitocybe sp(p).—V. surrecta (= V. loveiana)
1. Not parasitic. (Large to very large spp.)
2. Cap slimy, smooth; growing in rich ground. Ly. specnsen,
2. Cap dry, silky-fibrillose: growing on dead wood.—V. bombycina.

51

Bre:
ATTACHMENTS

| RING
(SUPERIOR)

: é ARCUATE
—~ DECURRENT
DECURRENT-
| MARGINATE BULB

SE

GLOSSARY
OF TERMS

ADNATE (of gills, pores), the inner end of gills or pores
more or less attached to stipe. See figure.

ANASTAMOSING (of gills), connecting more or less
crosswise to form variously shaped areas surrounded by

ills.

ARCUATE-DECURRENT (of pores or gills), the free
ends curved rather than forming a straight line as they
pass down the stipe. See figure.

CARTILAGINOUS (of stipe), of gristly nature, pliant,
not easily cracking when bent. A very useful field char-
acter but a real stumbling block to the beginner. Help
is often obtained by cutting the whole fungus longi-
tudinally through the centre of cap and stipe and then
examining the cut surface. In cartilaginous stipes, the
texture of tissue forming stipe and cap is different. This
is generally easy to see in Co//yéia. In the fleshy stipe
(see fleshy), the texture of both appears the same, the
cap looking like a mere expansion of the stipe. This is
well seen in most species of Tricholoma, Cortinarius.

CORTINA (of veil), cobwebby structure spread over
developing gill chamber. Best seen in young specimens.

CROWDED (of gills), appearing close-set ; often due to
relatively large number of intermediate gills. Examples
are the mushrooms, Co//yéza.

CUTICLE (of cap, stipe). The outermost layer. Does
not include detachable flakes, warts etc. in Amanita.
DECURRENT (of gills, pores), descending down stipe,
the free edge being more or less straight. See figure.
DICHOTOMOUS (of gills), dividing into two equal

branches.

53

EMARGINATE, See sinuate.

EXCENTRIC (of stipe), not attached at cap centre but
shifted to one side, not, however, involving cap margin.
cf. lateral.

FIBRILS (of hyphae), collected together longitudinally
to form thread-like fibres.

FIBRILLOSE (of cap, stipe); more or less beset with
fibrils,

FIBROUS (of stipe), of stringy consistency, approaching
cartilaginous q. v. Many fleshy stipes have a fibrous
outer coat and this difference in texture can usually be
seen in longitudinal section as indicated under cartilag-
inous.

FLESHY (of cap), thick towards centre, so that there is
a considerable amount of ‘‘meat”’ to the cap, as in the
common edible mushroom; not membranous q. v.
Flesh usually not less than .25 in. thick at cap centre.
See figure.

FLESHY (of stipe), of spongy consistency, easily crack-
ing when bent, not pliant. A very useful field character,
but difficult to grasp for the beginner. Help is often
obtained by cutting the whole fungus longitudinally
through the centre of cap and stipe, and then examin-
ing cut surface. In the fleshy stipe, the texture of the
tissue forning stipe and cap appears similar, the cap
looking like an extension of stipe. This is well seen in
Tricholoma, Cortinarius. In the cartilaginous stipe (see
cartilaginous) the two tissues appear different. This may
be easily seen in most species of Co//yéza.

FREE (of gills, pores), the inner end of the gills not
attached to stipe. See figure.

GROUPED (of plant arrangement), where several in-
dividuals of same species grow closely together but do
not spring from a common point, nor arise from a

54

common base. cf. tufted.

HYGROPHANOUS (of caps), of those species whose
caps when water-soaked (best seen during or just after
rain) appear more or less translucent rather like gela-
tine, the attachment of gills being then often visible
through cap tissue (=pellucid striate). Such hygro-
phanous caps on drying out become opaque and com-
monly more or less whitish, or at least the dried out
colour is much paler than the water-soaked one. The
main difficulty in recognising a hygrophanous cap in
the dried out state. For this a vertical section through
the cap centre often helps, as the innermost flesh is less
exposed to drying out than the more superficial and
thus appears darker. Also, a cap may be put in water,
when the majority of hygrophanous caps will soon re-
assume the water-soaked state in about 30 minutes.

LATERAL (of stipe), where stipe attachment comes
off at and involves cap margin, so that there is no cap
margin above one side of attachment.

MARGINATE BULB (of stipe), where circular ridge,
border or groove occurs at junction of stipe with basal
bulb. See figure.

MEMBRANOUS (of cap), where the cap flesh is every-
where thin, rarely more than .1 in., so that there is
very little ‘‘meat’’. See figure.

PAPILLATE (of cap), where there 1s a small nipple-like
cone at cap centre.

PELLUCID STRIATE (of cap), where basal attach-
ment of gills to cap can be seen through the more or
less translucid flesh. Often seen in water soaked hygro-
phanous caps. See hygrophanous.

PERONATE (of stipe), where stipe is sheathed by a
stocking-like covering from base upwards, and often
to a more or less membranous ring or ring-like zone,

55

whence “‘peronate to ring’’. See figure.

PUBESCENT (of cap, stipe), beset with short hairs; best
seen when dry.

RING, more or less membranous structure on stipe. May -
hang from above where stipe joins cap (superior, desc-
ending), or may be continuous with peronate covering
(inferior, ascending), or may be movable. Sometimes
falls off soon after cap expands; it is then said to be
fugacious; hence young stages should be looked at.
Occasionally it is reduced to little more than a rim. See
peronate, also figure.

SINUATE (of gills), applied where gill attachment is
more (emarginate) or less (sinuate) scooped out just
before joining stipe. Well seen in Tricholoma, Hebe-
loma. See figure.

SQUAMULES (of cap, stipe), small, more or less fluffy
scale-like bodies.

SQUAMULOSE, beset with squamules.

STIPE. The “‘stem”’ which supports the cap:

STRIATE (of cap), having longer or shorter radiating
lines or (of stipe) having longitudinally arranged slight-
ly raised lines.

TROOPS (of plant arrangement), same as grouped, q.v.

TUFTED (of plant habit), where several separate stipes
(usually more than 3) arise from same point of attach-
ment to mycelium.

UMBO (of cap), more or less broad convex hump or
bump at cap centre.

UMBONATE, having an umbo,

VEIL(S), the envelopes or coverings of certain toad-
stools during development, leaving various remains in
adult stages, or none. Only two need be considered. (1)
universal veil, completely envelopes button stages, (2)
partial veil, spread across developing gill-chamber.

56

Either veil may be more or less membranous or cob-
webby (fibrillose). Remains of a membranous univer-
sal veil may be seen in adult stages of Amanita as
detachable flakes or warts etc. or as a volva q.v. A
membranous partial veil contributes towards ring on
stipe. A cobwebby universal veil occurs in young stages
of many species of Cortinarius, e.g. those with a marg-
inate bulb. Remains of this veil can often be seen col-
lapsed on stipe in adult stages. A cobwebby partial veil
is the cortina g.v. of Cortinarius, Hypholoma, seen
only in young stages, but remains often hang from edge
of more or less expanded cap, or collapsed on stipe as
fibrillose zone.

VOLVA, typically a bag-like membranous structure into
which stipe fits. Is generally below ground level, hence
often missed if toadstool is pulled up instead of being
dug up with a knife or trowel. May be reduced to warts
or scales at base of stipe as in some species of Amanita.
See figure.

REFERENCES
Lance, J. Flora Agaricina Danica. Copenhagen. 1935-

1940. Five vols. text, five vols. plates all in colour. A
superb work dealing with over 1000 species covering
field and laboratory characters. Keys to species but not
to genera. Price about 425.

Maustianc, A. Les champignons de France. Paul Leche-
valier, 12, Rue de Tournon, Paris VIe. 2 vols. 1946.
An excellent work for the beginner containing coloured
plates and full descriptions of about 200 species inclu-
ded in this key: contains key to genera but not to spec-
ies. Price about 2 5s.

Pearson, A. A. Notes on the Boleti, with short mono-

my |

graph and key. The Naturalist, 1946. Indispensable to
the study of this genus. Price about 2s.

Pearson. A. A. The genus Russula. The Naturalist 1948.
Is also a short monograph, containing a key to all the
British species. Is equally indispensable to the study of
this difficult genus. Price about 2s 6d.

Pearson, A. A. and Dennis, R. W. G. Revised list of
British Agarics and Boleti. Trans. Brit. Mycol. Soc.
Xxxi, 1947. The best account giving the composition
of our agaric flora, with notes on the excluded species.
Although essentially a check list, it is again indispens-
able. Price about §s.

Rea, Carton. British Basidiomycetae. Cambridge 1922.
The standard textbook but now out of print. Gives full
descriptions of all species, but since it includes about
600 species of Agarics now excluded in the revised list
of Pearson and Dennis, it must be used in conjunction
with that list. Keys to genera, but not to species.

Ramssotrom, J. A. A handbook of the larger British
fungi. British Museum. Tabular key to genera, but not
to species. Short descriptons of all the common species.
Very useful and easily obtainable. Price about 7s 6d.
Dr. Ramsbottom has also published two volumes in
the King Penguin series illustrating in colour our pois-
onous toadstools and a selection of our best known
edible ones. Short descriptions are also included. These
are excellent value.

58

A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF THE
COUNTRY AROUND READING

Professor H. L. Hawkins, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.

§ 1. Introduction.

The following notes are designed to assist workers in branches of
Natural History other than Geology. They attempt to indicate the
various types of subsoil in the neighbourhood rather than to explain
how or why these came to be where they are.

A line running through Marlow, Henley and Newbury serves to
divide the area into two characteristic and very different regions. To
the north of this line are the Chalk hills; while to the south of it come
the low clay-lands leading to the sandy heaths of Aldershot. The line
is an expression of the general “‘ tilt ’’ of the British area towards the
South-east; through most of geological time it has been usual for
north-western Britain to rise while the south-eastern part foundered
towards the Netherlands.

This generalisation illustrates one of the predominant features of
the Reading area. We are on the sinking side of Britain, and such a
region is more likely to acquire new coverings of silt than to lose
those already present. Elevated districts come under the scour of the
weather, and as they are pushed up the rain and rivers eat ever more
deeply into their substance; but depressed areas are sheltered, and
often act as temporary quarters for the debris from the higher areas
on its way to the sea. This superficial covering of broken rock is
known as “ Drift’: Reading is in a drift-laden area. Over almost
half of the area under description, the “ solid”? rocks are obscured
by a veneer of clay-with-flints, gravel or river-silt that is often thick
enough to decide the character of the subsoil regardless of the nature
of the strata beneath. Hence a description of the genuine geological
structure of the district might often prove misleading to a field-
naturalist.

One of the most characteristic qualities of the local topography is
directly connected with the prevalence of drift-deposits. Although
the area is by no means devoid of hills, it is usual to find at the top of
the climb a wide area as flat as the valley below. All of these high
plains are covered by stretches of the “Plateau drift”. Along the
sides of these valleys comparable areas of flat ‘* terrace-gravel ”
form shelves at various heights above the flood-plains, notable in
Reading itself. Usually the ‘‘ bed-rock ’’ appears at the surface only
along the slopes that separate one platform of drift from another.
§ 2. The Solid Rocks.

The oldest series of strata to reach the surface in our district is the
Lower Greensand, a representative of the Lower Cretaceous system.
The brown sands and soft sandstones of this series appear in the
extreme north-west around Clifden Hampden and Burcot and again
in the extreme south-east near Seale and Puttenham. The southerly

1 This is condensed from the paper under this title that appeared in Quaestiones Naturales, 1933.

59

extension of the latter exposure is responsible for the Hindhead
country, but within our chosen limits the development and extent of
the deposit is so small that it needs only passing mention. It is un-
certain whether the Lower Greensand underlies the whole of our
area. It has been proved by deep borings to exist under Winkfield,
Maidenhead and Slough; but it is a very patchy deposit, and it
would be rash to assume that it would be met with everywhere, even
near its visible outcrop.

With reasonable confidence we can regard the Gault Clay (the
lower member of what may be called the Middle Cretaceous system)
as forming a continuous layer over all of the district excepting the
tracts of Lower Greensand. It crops out as a belt about 24 miles:
wide between Didcot and Chalgrove, and again as a very narrow
band at the foot of the southern slope of the Hog’s Back. Its yielding
nature has allowed the weather to erode it into a low-lying tract, and
most of its northern crop (around Wittenham and Dorchester) is
obscured by wide and thick terraces of gravel. In spite of its feeble
showing at the surface, the Gault clay has an important subterranean
influence, for it is a very impervious stratum (and amply thick to be
effective) acting as a water-tight floor to the vast spongy reservoir of
the Chalk. Indeed, the line of outcrop of the top of the Gault, with
its frequent and reliable springs, determined in no small degree the
distribution of early human settlement.

The Upper Greensand, which follows directly above the Gault, is
by way of-being a hill maker. In the north-west it projects through
the mantle of gravel to form the Hadden and Sinodun Hills. Under
the Berkshire Downs (from Steventon westward from our district) it
forms a prominent line of foot-hills traversed by the Icknield Way.
In this area the Upper Greensand is very largely composed of a cal-
careous sandstone known locally as “‘ Malm”, and when dry it can
easily be mistaken for Chalk but for its gritty “ feel.”” It is famous as
orchard ground, but within our area it has small scope for showing
its qualities owing to the drift-cover. South of the Hog’s Back the
Upper Greensand reappears in a harder and sandier guise, but as a
very narrow belt. An interesting additional appearance of it occurs
in the heart of the vale of Kingsclere, where a blister-like wrinkle
of the strata has (with the aid of denudation) revealed the upper part
of the series. Here it is a truly green sand, often including much
chert; and, true to type, even in this case it constitutes Isle Hill in
the middle of the Vale.

The lowest bed-rock to reach the surface near Reading is the Chalk.
This formation attains a thickness of about 750 feet locally; but it is
far from being the monotonous series that might be expected. We
can find in our district ample justification for recognition of four
distinct types of chalk. At the base of the series is the “‘ Chalk Marl”’.
This is a hundred-foot succession of seams of greenish-grey calcareous
clay and thin harder bands of impure chalk; its outcrop is usually
marked by the belt of low ground at the foot of the Chalk scarp.

60

Next above comes the “Grey Chalk”’’, another hundred feet, but
this time of massive impure chalk. This division usually forms the
lower slope of the Chalk scarp. The third division of the Chalk in
upward succession is the Middle Chalk, which is tough and nodu-
lar at the base and a normal soft chalk above. This division, which
is about 200 feet thick, is mainly shown at the surface on the true
scarp-face of the Downs. Lastly (in our district) comes the “‘ White
Chalk with Flints” (the Upper Chalk), some 3C0 to 400 feet of soft
chalk frequently reinforced by seams of siliceous concretion known
as Flint. This division is responsible for the greatest area of the
chalk country, for it occupies the hill-tops and gently inclined dip-
slopes. For this reason, it is often obscured by drift, and, were it not
for the deep dry-valleys whose steep sides are washed bare, but little
of this great mass would be seen at the surface.

These successive changes in the character of the Chalk are trivial
by comparison with those that follow them.

Perhaps the best place in which the contrast between the Chalk
and overlying Eocene strata can be studied at present is in the
lime and sand pit near Pincent’s Farm, Theale. Here we find a bed
of water-worn pebbles of flint set in muddy greenish sand resting on
a planed-off surface of pure white chalk. Patches of Oyster-shells
often occur in or just above this gravelly bed, and layers of peaty
matter, or of pipe-clay showing beautiful impressions of the leaves
of land-plants, appear locally within a few feet of the top of the
Chalk.

The Reading Beds consist of about 75 feet of sands and mottled clays.
Except for the lowest ten feet (already described) they are very variable
in character both vertically and horizontally; but on the whole the
lower part is sandy and the upper part is chiefly clay. The sand-
banks yield excellent building sand, and are worked in several pits
around Tilehurst and Calcot. Here and there these sands have been
hardened to form massive concretions known as Sarsens. The
brightly coloured clays provide the raw material of one of Reading’s
claims to fame, for they can be made into tiles and rough pottery
of more than ordinary quality. °

The London Clay, averaging about 350 feet in thickness, naturally
covers a wider area than the Reading Beds; but almost as much of it
is hidden under drift as reaches the surface. Its lowest layer is
usually a sand packed with marine shells; the outcrop of this thin
porous layer is often marked by a belt of springy ground. The bulk
of the London Clay is stiff and blue; it is much dug for brickmaking.
Westwards, towards Newbury, the London Clay becomes rapidly
thinner and more sandy, and banks of coarse shingle occur in it.

By a gradual increase of sandiness the London Clay passes up into
the Bagshot Sands, which, with the overlying Bracklesham Beds
capped by the pure Barton Sands, are responsible for the belt of heath
country from Bucklebury and Greenham Commons in the west to
Finchampstead and Aldershot in the east. These sands are not only

61

the uppermost part of the Eocene system, but are the latest records
of ‘solid’? geology in the district. Of the next three periods of
Tertiary geological history there is no tangible record; and the
** drifts ’ of Pleistocene and Modern origin are separated from the
Barton Sands by an interval at least as long as that between
the Reading Beds and the Chalk.

The crisis of crustal folding that determined the present distri-
bution of the “solid” rocks in the district occurred during this
interval. In the succession of wave-like ripples into which the Alpine
“Storm ” drove the strata of Southern England, our area occupies
the greater part of one of the troughs. In the hollow of the trough
the Eocene deposits have been preserved, but on the rising sides (over
most of which they must once have been spread) they have either
been washed away completely or reduced to outlying relics such as
that at Nettlebed.

§ 3. The Drift Deposits.

Although, as explained above, the drift exercises a very profound
influence on the character of the district, it cannot receive propor-
tionate treatment here. For our present purpose we can adopt a
crude classification of the drift into four main divisions—the Clay
with Flints, the Plateau Gravel, the Terrace Gravel and the Alluvium.

The Clay with Flints is restricted to the Chalk areas. It caps
practically the whole of the top ridge of the Chilterns. It is the chief
support of the beech woods and provides the anomaly of an almost
lime-free soil on hills made of pure limestone.

There is no hard and fast separation between the Plateau Gravels
and those of the higher river-terraces; but for convenience one may
class the wide spreads of gravel that occur more than 100 feet above
the present rivers as belonging to the plateau type. North of the
Kennet-Thames they belong to the “‘ Northern Drift’, and may be
recognised by the inclusion of abundant pebbles of quartzite and
other rocks that must have been imported from a distance. South
of the Kennet-Thames, they are part of the “Southern Drift,”
composed almost entirely of local materials with occasional ad-
mixture of material derived from the Weald.

The Terrace Graveis, which represent the successive phases of
maturity and rejuvenation of rivers flowing over a spasmodically
rising plain, are chiefly grouped into three stages in this district.
The highest and oldest is about 90 feet above present river-levels.
The middle terrace is from 30 to 50 feet above river-level, while the
lowest terrace is but a few feet above the flood-plains. The ingredients
of these gravels are much like those of the Plateau spreads, and show
much the same differences north and south of the Kennet-Thames.

The Alluvium may be considered as the current gravel-terrace in
process of formation. That of the Thames valley is usually silty and
gravelly, and often contains fresh-water shells in abundance. That
of the Kennet valley is apt to include thick layers of sedge-peat.

62

PLANT HUNTING IN THE LOWER CHILTERNS
K. I. Butler & A. M. Simmonds

The chalk-slopes and beechwoods which lie within a ten-mile
radius of north-west of Reading are a veritable treasure-ground for
botanists. In addition to the usual chalk-loving plants several com-
paratively uncommon species may be found.

The Natural Order Orchidaceae is well represented. In June 1946,
the writers recorded eleven species in this area. An unforgettable
sight was that of a typical chalk-slope so thickly sprinkled with
Orchis pyramidalis and O. maculata that it was scarcely possible to
avoid treading on the blossoms. Mingled with them were smaller
numbers of Habenaria conopsea (Fragrant Orchis). Pyramid and
Spotted orchids occur on most of the slopes. O. maculata exhibits
variations due to varying habitats.

That striking example of plant-mimicry, Ophrys apifera likewise
is found on many slopes. Since this flower has been proved to be
self-pollinating, it has been thought by some that the species of bee,
which the labellum of the flower so closely imitates, has died out;
hence the plant has developed another method of pollination.
Rather less frequent than O. apifera is the less conspicuous but equally
interesting O. muscifera (Fly Orchis), usually found on the borders
or just within the woods.

Of the less common species, Habenaria viridis, (Frog Orchis)
recorded in 1946, is another insignificant in size and colour. Its
flowers are a dingy brownish-green and the spur, usually a conspi-
cuous feature in Orchis, is rounded; from some angles the flower
has a fancied resemblance to a tadpole! Another inconspicuous
dweller on the open chalk slopes is Herminium monorchis (Musk
Orchis). It is but a few inches high with small yellowish flowers
faintly redolent of musk. First recorded in 1942, its numbers had
increased in 1946 and a second small colony was discovered on
another slope. Habenaria bifolia, the graceful Butterfly Orchis, with
translucent creamy flowers delicately tinged with green occasionally
rewards the searcher in damp woods.

A fairly recent addition to our local records is Aceras anthropo-
phora, (Man Orchis), first observed in 1936. It occurs on one slope
only and the numbers fluctuate annually. In 1946, (apparently a
good orchid year) it was flourishing, but subsequent records show a
decrease which we hope is only temporary. Listera ovata (Common
Twayblade) occurs in many situations and at varying heights, in both
sun and shade. It may easily be identified by its two large ovate
opposite leaves. The whole plant is slightly viscid. A quite frequent
dweller in the beechwoods is Cephalanthera grandiflora (White Helle-
borine). Usually the flowers remain closed, but when open they are
of a typical orchid formation except that there is no rostellum.
Darwin suggested that a close self-pollination is induced by minute
insects which crawl into the flowers and disseminate the pollen.

63

Another orchid which has a preference for the deep shade is the
saprophyte, Neottia nidus-avis, (Bird’s-nest Orchis). This species is
entirely without chlorophyll and derives nourishment from decaying
vegetation among which it grows, and its yellow and brown hues
render it difficult to see. Epipactis latifolia (Broad-leaved Helle-
borine) is fairly widely distributed. It, too, is a shade-lover, and is a
later flowering species; the shoots appear several weeks before the
flowering period. Occasionally a form with purplish-green leaves
occurs, and in 1949 an albino form was brought into Reading
Museum. E. violacea has been recorded. Epipogum aphyllum (Leafless
Epipogum) one of Britain’s rarest orchids has been recorded from
South Oxfordshire, but not recently. Its extreme rarity may be due
to the fact that it only very occasionally produces flowering shoots.
Orchis hircina (Lizard Orchis), always spasmodic, made its most recent
appearance at the edge of a wood in 1934. Oxfordshire claims to be
the only county where Orchis Simia (Monkey Orchis) now grows,
and the “ one sheltered locality on the chalk ” (to quote W. A. Seaby)
comes within our area. In 1933 it was recorded that 80-100 flower-
ing spikes had been produced annually! Since then there has been a
considerable decrease, less than a dozen were seen in 1949.

Latest in flowering is Spiranthes autumnalis (Autumn Ladies
Tresses); it occurs but sparingly on one of the lower slopes, and was
seen in 1946 and again in 1949.

An interesting discovery in 1946 was that of Potentilla argentea
(Hoary Cinquefoil), growing in a disused gravel-pit near Nuffield.
Druce in his “‘ Flora of Oxfordshire ’’ (1886) says ‘‘ very rare,
probably extinct,” but the Society’s “‘ List of Flowering Plants ”’
(1900) records it as occuring in Caversham Warren! It may be
distinguished from P. tormentilla by the white down on stems and
leaves and five-petalled coroila. In the same neighbourhood Helle-
borus viridis (Green Hellebore) flourishes; it also occurs sparingly
at Maidensgrove and near Maidensgrove Scrubs, where may be
found Paris quadrifolia (Herb Paris).

Monotropa hypopitys (Yellow Bird’s Nest) a parasite, pushes its
bent flower-stalk through the dead leaves in many a beechwood.
The calyx and prominent flat-topped stigma persist in a dry state
well into early winter and then present an identification puzzle. The
plant is a member of the family ERICACEA, as 1s also Pyrola minor
(Small Winter Green), which is a survivor of the flora of the cool-
forest period when the climate of this locality was similar to that of
North Britain at the present time. This charming little plant with
its fresh green leaves and delicate waxy flowers occurs sparingly and
does not appear happy under present local conditions. First
recorded in 1937, and subsequently lost for some years, it was re-
discovered in 1946, not flourishing, but maintaining a brave fight.
Another, and more extensive colony was shown to us in the vicinity,
but this although well-established produces very few flowers. Seven
species of the genus Hypericum are recorded, but H. montanum

64

and H. androsaceum are infrequent.

Of the FILICES mention should be made of the curious Ophio-
glossum yulgatum (Adder’s Tongue) recorded twice in 1948 from the
vicinity of Nettlebed. This most unfernlike plant may be overlooked
in consequence of the superficial resemblance of the barren fronds
to young leaves of Arum maculatum. Ceterach officinarum (Scaly
Spleenwort or “‘ Rusty-back ”?) may be seen growing in the chinks
of a flint wall around a farm-yard, and Asplenium Ruta-muraria
(Wall-Rue Spleenwort) occurs in similar habitats.

THE DRAGONFLIES OF BERKSHJRE
Philip S. Corbet, B.Sc.

Despite their large size and brilliant coloration dragonflies are
studied by very few amateur entomologists. Both their habits and
their habitats often make capture a difficult task and this has
probably discouraged many who might otherwise have become
enthusiasts. For the collector they are unsatisfactory because they
rapidly lose their colours after death.

This lack of interest in the past has made the existing information
concerning their distribution very incomplete and fauna lists for many
British counties may well be deficient in some of the rarer or more
local species. Consequently the appearance of a new county record
may represent the belated discovery of a dragonfly which had
previously been overlooked, or it may indicate an increase in the
range of a successful species. It is usually possible, however, to
determine the category of such a record without much difficulty.

Twenty-eight of the forty British species have been recorded from
Berkshire. Of these, one species, Sympetrum flaveolum, owes its
inclusion in the county list to a large immigration in 1926, and another,
Gomphus yulgatissimus, represents an obsolete record still in need
of confirmation. Gomphus, if still occurring here, should be found
flying along the sheltered reaches of the Thames during May and
June.

In 1949, three obsolete records were confirmed: Cordulegaster
boltonii, Aeshna cyanea and A. juncea, and two new county records
were established: Sympetrum sanguineum and Orthetrum cancellatum.
The former is common but closely resembles the widespread S.
striolatum for which it has doubtless been mistaken in the past.
O. cancellatum, however, is probably a recent arrival since it is known
to be increasing its range and its occurence in Berkshire is very
localised. This species resembles Libellula depressa when in flight,
but could hardly be confused after capture. With the addition of
these two;species the Berkshire list is probably almost complete
since the other British species are either rare or else restricted to the
north or west.

As a group, dragonflies possess a wide range of tolerance and are

65

seldom found restricted to one type of habitat. Although their
environmental preferences are not sharply defined, nevertheless
certain species tend to typify habitats, if only by being more abun-
dant there than elsewhere.

A characteristic dragonfly fauna centres around a pond on acid
heathland. The small, black and yellow Sympetrum scoticum and the
emerald-green Lestes sponsa are often very common. Aeshna juncea
may also be present, one or two males flying strongly overhead while
a female furtively oviposits amongst the Sphagnum and Juncus around
the edge of the pond. Libellula depressa and L. quadrimaculata may
dart to and fro close to the water, and, if the surrounding moorland
is marshy, Orthetrum coerulescens will put in an appearance. Hawk-
ing strongly along the peat runnels one may expect to see Cordule-
gaster boltonii, occasionally pausing on a clump of Juncus to consume
a recently captured bee. The latter species prefers streams having a
gravel bottom, the muddier ones being colonised by Pyrrhosoma
nymphula, Ceriagrion tenellum and Agrion virgo. Around the ponds
one may expect the ubiquitous Ischnura elegans, Enallagma cyathi-
gerum and Coenagrion puella to be present in some numbers.

Larger dragonflies are found in sheltered lakes surrounded by
trees and also in slowly flowing rivers. The Emperor Dragonfly,
Anax imperator, which inhabits such places, is fortunately quite
common in Berkshire. To watch two or three males competing for
superiority over a large pond or lake on a hot July afternoon is an
unforgettable experience. They throw aerial somersaults backwards
and forwards with effortless ease, often rising twenty feet as if in a
single movement, only settling when a passing cloud temporarily
obscures the sun. Then their bright blue bodies, so conspicuous in
flight, seem to merge into the background upon which they rest.

Later in the year, the Aeshnas appear. The Brown Aeshna, Aeshna
grandis, is very abundant around large lakes and also may be seen
flying along the banks of the Kennet Canal as late as eight o’ clock on
a summer evening. This species will oviposit equally readily in lakes
and slowly flowing canals. The Scarce Aeshna, A. mixta, a late
summer dragonfly, is locally common around Reading. Although
met with along the rivers and over large lakes and gravel-pits, it is
more often seen hawking along woodland lanes or sheltered roads.
This dragonfly is extremely difficult to net, being a powerful flier
and choosing resting places which are usually inaccessible. Aeshna
cyanea, the Southern Aeshna, occurs commonly around lakes and
ponds but it is often encountered patrolling a street or garden on a
warm evening.

Members of the family Libellulidae are especially abundant in
lakes and backwaters where the water is stationary. This is probably
because their eggs are scattered freely, unlike those of other dragon-
flies which are inserted into the tissues of water-plants, and would
run the risk of being carried away by moving water. Sympetrum
striolatum, S. sanguinuem, Libellula depressa and L. quadrimaculata

66

are the commoner representatives of the family while Cordulia aenea
and Orthetrum cancellatum are more localised.

Among the damselflies inhabiting sheltered lakes and canals
Erythromma naias, an eastern species; Platycnemis pennipes and
Agrion splendens deserve mention as characteristic forms. The latter
species lives in muddy, reed-lined canals, thus never occurring in the
same locality as its congener, A. virgo, which favours swifter and
more acid streams.

Two species that I have not seen but which are reported to occur
in Berkshire are Brachytron pratense, the Hairy Dragonfly, whose
haunt is along rivers and canals and Coenagrion pulchellum, which is
probably capable of breeding in almost any sheltered body of water.
The remaining species recorded from the county have already been
mentioned.

Although our knowledge of the distribution and habits of adult
dragonflies is being steadily increased, information concerning the
ecology and duration of the aquatic stages is almost non-existent.
A great many problems connected with the factors controlling the
rate of growth still remain to be solved and future workers have an
opportunity to make valuable contributions to our knowledge of this
difficult but fascinating group of insects.

SPRING BIRD WATCHING IN
CAVERSHAM GARDENS, ORCHARDS
AND PLANTATIONS
Dr. E. V. Watson

Gardens and orchards are, on the whole, among the richest of all
bird habitats. The favoured garden and adjoining strip of orchard
land will carry a bird population far in excess of that carried by most
types of open country. It will tend, moreover, to be rich not merely
in individuals, but in range of species. This was true of a large garden
that I knew well, many years ago in Surrey, where as many as 100
nests of a varied assortment of species could be found in a matter of
a few acres of land; and it is true, too, of the small area in Caver-
sham that I am considering in this article.

The particular area that I have in mind lies west of the Woodcote
Road, between the Upper and Lower Warrens, although the facts
relating to its bird life would apply in a general way to almost any
suitable stretch of garden, orchard and plantation in the Caversham
area. Abundance of food and cover, wealth of nesting sites, diversity
of habitat—these sum up the essentials of ‘‘ suitability’; and these
are the conditions which make it possible to see around 50 species
fairly easily in the course of a short period of bird-watching in this
small area.

Chill March winds are still blowing, and the shrubs and hedge-
tops are as yet scarcely dusted with green, when the first Chiffchaff

67

is heard repeating its simple unvarying phrases in the better-wooded
corner of our area. It is in the vanguard of summer visitors, but it
arrives upon a scene in which perhaps a dozen pairs of Robins have
already staked out their territory, and where many another resident
species is preparing to breed.

Hedge Sparrows—more conspicuous now than at any other season
are pouring forth a rather squeaky, but not unpleasing medley from
the briar or hawthorn sprig; Wrens burst out into vociferous accla-
mation of spring—and their territorial rights; Long-tailed Tits by
March are no longer touring the countryside in troops, but are care-
fully searching the hedgerow in pairs for suitable places to build
those perfectly domed nests of theirs; Bullfinches that have remained
in pairs all the winter, having done their worst on the blossom buds
of the fruit trees, are now piping furtively from some evergreen in
the vicinity; and Greenfinches—still to some extent gregarious,
trill unceasingly from the tops of cypresses. Long before the first
Chiffchaff proclaims that Spring has indeed come, the Blackbird will
have added its incomparably rich and mellow notes to the chorus
formed by those birds that sing in the garden on mild days in the dead
of winter:—birds like the Song Thrush that “‘ sings each song twice
over,” the Missel Thrush whose wild notes defy the storm, and the
Robin that is never averse to giving a snatch of song—often of
surprisingly fine quality—on the least promising of winter days.
The “‘ see-saw ”’ of the Great Tit and the tinkling bell of the Blue Tit
must also be regarded as songs. They ring out from the plantation
very early in the year.

The coming of the Chiffchaff heralds the arrival of the other
summer birds—immigrants that in less than 2 months must nearly
double the population of our little area. Early in April, the Blackcap
will be here, adping a new and vital note of song to the swelling chorus.
One day in the middle of April 1949, as many as 4 Blackcaps could
be heard singing within a quarter of a mile along the Lower Warren.
This may have signified a wave of passage, though plenty stay to rest
at Caversham. The ‘“‘ descending scale” of the Willow Warbler
will be heard too in the first week of April, but perhaps another ten
days or a fortnight will elapse before it echoes from almost every
strip of hedge or clump of trees—as indeed it will when we receive
the impact of the main wave of immigrants. Our record too often
take account of the onfliers or “‘ advance guard ”’ that give us our
early dates, whilst ignoring the arrival of the main wave, which, for
any species, is surely of just as real interest.

By the third week of April other voices will have been added—
the rather harsh and unmelodious song of the Common White-
throat, the matchless notes of the Nightingale, and—of course—
the Cuckoo, that haunt the fringes of our immediate area. By this
time, too, the Wryneck will have arrived—a very local species and
accordingly one of the most cherished summer visitors to Caversham
gardens. Perhaps it will be interested in the dead timber of those two

68

ancient oaks that have already attacked both Greater and Lesser
Spotted Woodpeckers. This last species will often advertise its
presence by a high-pitched call-note, repeated several times in quick |
succession, as one did a few days ago when it perched for a moment
on one of the Lombardy poplars at the bottom of my small garden.
But how swiftly it is off to another tree, there perhaps to “ drum ”
after the fashion of the larger species, but with less power. The
Wryneck repeats a single note, too, but it is of a very different quality,
not high like that of the little Woodpecker, but a lower pitched,
somewhat haunting rattle. The term rattle, however, fails to suggest
its musical quality.

Another bird, whose song is perhaps more accurately described
as a “rattle ’ is the Lesser Whitethroat. It may be heard at Caver-
sham in late April, at about the same time that the first Wood
Warbler is uttering its peculiar sibilant trill from the tops of near-by
beeches. The White rumped House Martins, also, will have returned
by now to those houses—rather few and far between nowadays—
that are fortunate enough to boast a little Martin colony. April will
in all likelihood be nearly over before we hear again the rhythmical,
soothing “‘purrr, purrr’’ of the Turtle Dove and the eerie screaming
of the Swifts. These are among the sounds of hot summer days and
_ long summer evenings.

Last of all birds to return will be the Spotted Flycatcher—so
unobtrusive in repose and so unmistakeable in action. Indeed, it
it will probably be the second week in May before we see it making
again those characteristic sallies after flies and other insects. By then
the almost full canopy of foliage, and the squawks and chirpings of
innumerable fledglings will be adding greatly to the difficulties of
the bird-watcher.

Finally, a word about some of Caversham’s less usual birds. For
instance, there are the occasions when a pair of Hawfinches display
their big beaks and striking wing-pattern in the garden of some
fortunate person—or unfortunate, if it happens to be the owner’s
peas or cherries that attract them. Again, in rough ground on the
fringe of Caversham, where building ceases and country begins, I
have seen in June that handsome bird—a cock Red-backed Strike.
Finally, and much more startling still, there was that occasion in
1948, when the inhabitants of one Caversham garden awoke one
spring morning to find a Hoopoe strutting about on their lawn. The
bird is rare, but there is no mistaking the pattern of that singularly
ornamental plumage. It remained for about a week but few orni-
thologists saw it. They saw only the report of it which appeared in
the popular press.

69

RECORDERS REPORTS—GEOLOGY
Professor H. L. Hawkins, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.

The narrow gorge of the Kennet valley between Katesgrove and
Coley provides the steepest hills in Reading south of the Thames.
Alpine Street on the east side, and Garnet Street on the west, have
very sharp gradients, and they naturally traverse the less precipitous
parts of the valley-side.

The deepest part of the gorge cuts through the hills in a south-to-
north direction. The strata there dip gently towards the south-east,
so that the river is flowing obliquely against the dip. The floor of
the valley (apart from superficial deposits) is cut into the Chalk,
while the sides consist mainly of the Reading Beds. But whereas
these sands and clays almost reach down to river-level on the Kates-
grove side, they rest on the Chalk about thirty feet above the flood-
plain on the Coley side.

On the east, old and new clay-pits have left their scars along the
valley-wall above Elgar Road. On the west, much of the steep slope
is built over, although recent slum-clearance has left some gaps.
But before the buildings were erected in the Coley district, that side
of the valley had also been the scene of much excavation. Sand-pits
extended from Berkeley Avenue almost to Castle Hill (Field Road
occupies the floor of these old pits), and recent trial-borings have
shown that large chalk-pits were scooped out lower down the hillside
above Wolseley Street.

Coley Place seems to have skirted the top of a Chalk-pit which has
since been filled in with rubbish to a depth of more than thirty feet.
But in one of the old sand-pits, just east of the present line of Field
Road (and about 100 yards north of Garnet Street), the underlying
Chalk was evidently dug in a pit that may have had a tunnelled
connection with the Wolseley Street quarry. This chalk “‘ mine”
was more than thirty feet deep, and like the main pit was filled in
with rubbish. Before that rubbish was fully consolidated, the houses
on the east side of Field Road were built. To-day, Nos. 59 to 75,
which more or less straddle the ‘“‘mine”’, are in sorry plight; No. 63
has disappeared, No. 61 is uninhabitable, and the others are in
various stages of collapse.

A series of trial-borings has revealed the presence of these forgotten
and obscured workings, and also the block of undisturbed ground
that separates them. About mid-way between the Field Road sub-
sidence and Coley Place, the top of the Chalk was proved at 150 feet
above sea-level. About 150 feet to the south, another boring proved
the chalk at 145 feet, and at a similar distance to the north it was
indicated at 155 feet above sea-level. The dip of the strata is shown
by these and other borings to be of the order of | in 45 in a south-
easterly direction.

The steep sides of this (geologically speaking) newly-cut gorge are
naturally unstable, especially the western slope with its downward

70

dip. But the immediate responsibility for the disastrous instability
of parts of the Coley side must be ascribed to “‘ Man as a geological
agent’’.

EXTRACT FROM BOTANY REPORT
Miss K. I. Butler

The last months of 1948 marked the advent of that phenomenal
weather which was to break so many records during the forthcoming
year. Miss R. Crosbie reported Campanula rotundifolia, Harebell in
bloom in late November, and on December 9th Mr. Fishlock saw
Daphne mezereum, in flower. Mr. Fishlock made some observations
on the early flowering of fruit trees—Prunus with some flowers on it
before the end of January, was in full bloom by the end of February;
Almond trees flowered early in March, and a Pear tree was in full
bloom early in April. Normally, Plum flowers first, then Pear, then
Apple—this season they were more or less telescoped and all flower-
ing at the same time.

Although ponds and lakes presented a somewhat sorry sight, with
partially dried-up beds and banks, some members were able to get
on closer acquaintance with such plants as Littorella uniflora,
Shoreweed,which was observed on the dried-up bed of Kingsmere
Lake, and again at Frensham Pond, and also Ranunculus drouettii,
and Ranunculus trichophyllus, two of our less common Batrachians,
found by Mr. L. Williams on the margin of a pond between Tid-
marsh and Theale.

It will be remembered that in 1948 Ophioglossum vulgatum, Adder’s
Tongue was located in two different areas in Oxfordshire. Another
success has been added by Miss J. M. Watson, who found it growing
in a damp meadow near Easthampstead Park, some plants 4 to 5
inches high, apparently a new record for Berkshire.

The following less common plants were observed during the
year:—Thesium humifusum, Bastard Toadflax—located on the Mouls-
ford Downs and a new record. Coronopus didymus, Lesser Swine or
Wart Cress—a plant of the coast and rarely seen inland, was found
by Mr. N. Peskitt, near Emmer Green. Polygonum bistorta, Bistort
more often seen in the north than in the south, and Pedicularis
palustris, Red Rattle, were both seen near the canal at Thatcham.

Mr. L. Williams reports some less common plants found in the
district:—Geranium lucidum, Shining Cranesbill, so reminiscent of
the west country, in a hedge at Greenham Common—apparently
the same place as recorded by Druce in his Flora of Berks. Medicago
falcata, Sickle Medick, by the river Kennet. This is a native of East
Anglia, and only adventive in Berks. Chenopodium murale, Nettle-
leaved Goosefoot, one plant in a heap of sand near Crowthorne.
Lamium hybridum an uncommon plant of waste places, found at
Tilehurst. Polystichum aculeatum, Prickly Shield Fern, in a wood
between Little Heath and Sulham. Orabanche major, Giant Broom-

71

rape, by the roadside near Streatley, and again near Kingsclere.

The highlight of the year, was the discovery by Mrs. Simmonds
of Illecebrum verticillatum, Whorled Knotweed. Prior to 1891 this
plant was only recorded from Devon and Cornwall, and the Channel
Islands, so its discovery in that year growing on the damp sandy
margin of a pool near Wellington College, was of singular interest.
Druce in the 1919 Supplement to his Flora records it again near
Kings Mere Lake with the suggestion that it had spread from the
original locality to other places about Wellington College, or it had
been previously overlooked. Mrs. Simmonds has found it growing
at the edge of a sandy road near Kings Mere Lake. It is most en-
couraging to know that during fifty odd years this uncommon little
flower is still holding its own.

The year 1949 was not a particularly good one for our local species
of wild Orchids, many of which were much reduced in numbers.
Attention is drawn to the existence of that rarity Orchis simia, Mon-
key Orchis, always a precarious one, firstly on account of the de-
predations of the so called collector (nine blooms were seen on June
Sth, but by June 12th every one had been picked); secondly through
the exigencies of the times. In 1944 it miraculously survived in
spite of timber being hauled across the slope on which it grows.
In 1949 it was further threatened by the ploughing up of the said
slope. This should be a matter of great concern to all naturalists,
for this is the sole remaining locality for Orchis simia in Great
Britain. Fortunately further investigation showed that the small
area of the slope on which it grows had just escaped the plough.

Mrs. Simmonds and Mr. L. Williams both remarked on the
following somewhat unusual occurrences this year :—(1) Bracken
fruiting profusely. (2) Beech, Hornbean and Sycamore compara-
tively flowerless.

The Fungus Foray in the woods around Kingswood Common and
Wyfold Court yielded between seventy and eighty species, in spite of
the dry season. New species identified were:—Amanita excelsa;
Boletus piperatus; Lepiota cristata; Pleurotus ostreatus; Lycoperdon
excipuliforme.

FXTRACT FROM ORNITHOLOGY REPORT
Mr. J. Bowden

November 21st—Glorious day, bright sunshine and warm; went
with Mr. Gribble to the Theale Gravel Pits to look for wild duck, etc.
Skylark singing lustily to which we both listened for a few minutes.
Counted between 50-60 Coots on the water and 3 Great Crested
Grebe, 1 Moorhen and in the far distance 5 small duck, which we
reckoned were Tufted duck, probably immature. From Theale we
went directly to Cranemoor Lake and on looking over the park wall
were delighted to see about 50 Canada Geese, there were also Mallard,
Coot, etc.

Iz

About 40 Golden Plover seen in the fields north of the Bath Road,
near Newbury, on March Ist. Their flight was very rapid, wheeling
and turning repeatedly; the characteristic angular and pointed wings
being very noticeable. Rooks nesting at Padworth within a few
yards of the main Bath Road in small Willow trees not more than
25 feet from the ground. The weather during the first few days of
April was very cold, bitter north winds, which brought splashes of
snow and passing scuds of hail, but this being the Spring of the year
some of the migratory birds had already arrived. I heard and saw
a Swallow at Woodley on April 3rd and at Burghfield on April 7th
saw a pair of Willow Wrens busily searching a thornhedge which was
yet quite bare of leaves. Mr. Williams saw a Yellow Wagtail by the
river at Streatley (April 19th) and a Wryneck at Burghfield.

In spite of its shy and retiring habits I was able to watch a Blackcap
in a small spinney near Camberley on May 24th. I was attracted by
its singing (which is very beautiful); after his little outburst of song
it frequently made a peculiar ticking sound almost exactly like a
Stonechat.

Mr. Gribble saw 4 Swifts on April 30th (a week earlier than usual)
and a pair of Grey Wagtails near the lock between Burghfield and
Theale. May 13th—14 Black Terns present at Burghfield Gravel
Pits. He observed most of them perching on a log of wood, several
were taking May flies. The same evening he saw a Common Sand-
piper and heard a Grasshopper Warbler and Nightingale. On May
22nd Woodlarks and Wheatears on the Fairmile, and near Goring
by a farm track a pair of Stone Curlews. Also seen at Burghfield
Gravel Pits (June Ist) a pair of Little Ringed Plover, a great rarity
for Berkshire. Mr. Runge found a Reed Warbler’s nest in the reed
beds at Thatcham on June 4th, it contained 3 eggs. Upon his second
visit (June 17th) he discovered a fourth egg, larger and similar in
coloration, which he very considerately removed to save the Small
Warbler the trouble of feeding a voracious young cuckoo.

Mrs. Simmonds reports Stone Curlew heard in Unhill Bottom
(April 26th), Red Shanks seen and heard near Burghfield Bridge
May 11th, also Common Tern, Dunlin Ringed Plover, Little Ringed
Plover, Yellow Wagtail, etc. A carefully constructed nest lined with
Sallow fluff found by Mrs. Simmonds amongst some nettles was
probably that of a White Throat.

At Englefield Park on August 27th, Mr. Gribble and I saw two or
three Green Sandpipers after much searching and waiting. The
difference to be seen in flight is the very pronounced white on the
oP which is clearly seen; the Common Sandpiper does not show
this.

Mr. Fishlock sent me a note from the “‘ Daily Telegraph ”’ which I
abbreviate :—The writer was awakened by the clear flute like notes
of the Golden Oriole which even hushed the Missel Thrushes in their
Chatter. In seeing the bird, the impression was not so much of the
gold as the flame coloured breast.

73

COMMIT?) TEE
1949-50
President
Mrs. A. M. Simmonds

Vice-Presidents |
Mr. W. A. Smallcombe B.Sc. Mr. C. Runge
Professor H. L. Hawkins D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Hon. Secretary Hon. Treasurer

Mr. W. C. Fishlock | Mr. B. R. Baker

Other Members
Mer. P..A: Betts Miss K. I. Butler
Mr. T. L. Gwatkin Miss L. E. Cobb
Miss B. M. Jones Miss K. M. Mason

Hon. Recorders
Grotocy—Professor H. L. Hawkins D.Sc., P.R.S., F.G.S.
Botany — Miss K. J. Butler
EwnwtromoLocy—Mr. L. H. Wilhams B.Sc.

OrnITHOLOGY—W/My. J. Bowden

The Society organises summer excursions and winter lectures.
Members of the Society receive copies of this Journal. All #
enquiries to the Hon. Sec., Mr. W. C. Fishtock, 19, South '
View Avenue, Caversham, READING, Berks.

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