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MAGYAR ORNITHOLOGIAI KOZPONT
HUNGARIAN CENTRAL OFFICE OF ORNITHOLOGY

ECENSIO CRITICA
AUTOMATICA

OF THE

DOCTRINE OF BIRD-MIGRATION

BY

OTTO HERMAN /

late Member of the Hungarian Parliament, Chief of
the Hungarian Central Office ot Ornithology,
Fellow of the Royal Hung. Society of Natural
History, Hon. Member of the «Deutsche Or-
nithol. Ges.», of the «Ornithol. Gesellsch. in
Bayern», of the «Deutscher Verein zum
Schutze der Vogelwelt», of the Oesterr.

Bund der Vogelfreunde, Graz,
Honorary President of the
Hungarian Society for the
Prevent. .of Cruelty to
Animals at Budapest,

Koszeg, Sopron,

Editor of the
<Aquila
ete.

WITH ONE MAP.

BUDAPEST

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE ROYAL HUNGARIAN MINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE

1905.

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MAGYAR ORNITHOLOGIAI KOZPONT
HUNGARIAN CENTRAL OFFICE OF ORNITHOLOGY

ECENSIO CRITICA
AUTOMATICA

OF THE

DOCTRINE OF BIRD-MIGRATION

BY

OTTO HERMAN

late Member of the Hungarian Parliament, Chief of
the Hungarian Central Office of Ornithology,
Fellow of the Royal Hung. Society of Natural
History, Hon. Member of the «Deutsche Or-
nithol. Ges.», of the «Ornithol. Gesellsch. in
Bayern», of the «Deutscher Verein zum
Schutze der Vogelwelt», of the Oesterr.

Bund der Vogelfreunde, Graz,
Honorary President of the
Hungarian Society for the
Prevent. of Cruelty to
Animals at Budapest,

K6szeg, Sopron,

Editor of the
«Aquila
etc.

WITH ONE MAP.

BUDAPEST

PRINTED BY ORDER OF THE ROYAL HUNGARIAN MINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE
1905.

PRINTED BY VIKTOR HORNYANSZKY, BUDAPEST.

DEDICATED

TO THE

BRITSHEORNMEAOLOGISTIS UNION

ON THE OCCASION

OF THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL
ORNITHOLOGICAL CONGRESS

IN LONDON 1905

THE AUTHOR

DUAR eee Reet

CONTENTS:

Dedication

Preface

Introduction . a Se
Recensio critica of the routes

Inductive Theses of the Hung. Centr. Office :

Otto Herman
Gaston de Gaal
Jacob Hegyfoky
Jules Pungur :
Theses taken from Literature .
Recensio contradictoria .
Conclusion .
Index of Authors .
General Index .

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PINE AGE:

hen the second International Ornithological Congress

was held in Budapest, the capital of the Hungarian

Kingdom, in 1891, we had the pleasure of welcoming

also Englishmen, the first, if | am right, who have

[sooo ever appeared at a continental ornithological meeting.

Among them Dr. R. BOWDLER SHARPE, the well-

known keeper of the ornithological department of the British Museum,

chairman of the section of ,Systematic Ornithology, submitted a most

valuable paper* on this subject. Moreover he honoured us Hungarians
by delivering an address on the same matter.

Thanks to the munificence of the Royal Hungarian Ministry of
Agriculture, | am enabled to return the courtesy rendered to us by a
member of the B. O. U., by respectfully dedicating to it the following
paper.

I have intentionally chosen as subject ,,Recensio critica, automatica
of the Dotrine of bird-Migration“ because this manifestation in Bird-

* A review of recent attempts to classify Birds; an address delivered before the second
International Ornithological Congress on the 18. of May 1891. Budapest‘. (Published at
the Office of the Congress.)

m Vil

PREFACE.

life was the chief cause for the holding of the first International Ornitho-
logical Congress, held in Vienna in 1884. The late Crownprince
RUDOLPH had intended to create an international organisation, though,
as regards the plan of observation and treatment, no agreement was
made.

It is the H. C. O.* alone which since that time has worked in a
purely systematical manner, having in the course of ten years established
numerous permanent observation-stations, the results of the work of
which have been compiled and published, including, as far as possible,
also investigations from other countries.

On account of its interzonal character Bird-Migration ought to be
the subject of international investigation, for even the most elaborate
observations of a smaller area depend also, just as is the case with
Meteorology, on observations in the other neighbouring regions.
Although at both Congresses certain resolutions were passed concerning
the creation of an internation alorganisation, the,, Permanent International
Ornithological Committee“, founded in Vienna in 1884, did nothing to
carry out these regulations. At the third International Ornithological
Congress in Paris in 1900, the resolution concerning international obser-
vations over the whole of Europe on the Swallow (Hirundo rustica)
and the Stork (Ciconia ciconia) had the same result — all remained
on paper.

Ornithologists in the various countries, therefore, work as regards
Ornithophaenology according to their own judgment, an isolation,
which is not favourable to leading us to a full understanding of Bird-
Migration.

On the occasion of the ornithological meeting at Sarajevo ** in
1899, the attempt to inaugurate cooperative observations in Hungary,
Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina was happily successful, but only

* \ Hungarian Central-Office of Ornithology“.
** Of the resolution in ,,Aquila“ VIII 1901. pp. 147—155.

zs VIII sz

PREFACE.

as regards the methodical treatment; the work itself has been carried
on by Hungary alone without any interruption.

It is perhaps still a question of the earnestness and dignity of Orni-
thology as a branch of Science, whether, amidst the enormous progress
attained in all departments of Science, the phenomenon of Migration,
which is of such eminence in Ornithology, should be treated henceforth
too rather as a pastime, and whether it shall remain in future also a
field for sentences, quite out of keeping with the present state of
Science ?

In recommending my essay to the attention of the British Ornitho-
logists’ Union, I hope that the followers of DERHAM, who two hundred
years ago (1708) worked as pioneer in Ornithophaenology, will find
ways and means of initiating better proceedings, especially as regards
a methodical treatment of the results of the observations.

LILLAFURED in Hungary, September 1904.

OTTO HERMAN.

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INTRODUCTION

MOTTO.

, Just as Meteorology was only a mass
of statistical data before the simultaneous
facts were, day by day, schematised, so
will Ornithophaenology remain but a
mass of statictical data, until the compi-
lation of the simultaneous observations
and the schematising of the Phenomena
of Migration, atleast in regard to some
peculiarly characteristic species, is carried
out. J. HEGYFOKY ,, Aquila‘ VI 1899. p. 9.

_

se

Dan:

he statement, that an enquiry into the bodily peculiarities

and manifestation of life in Birds is not more impor-

tant, than the investigation and appreciation of the same

in other living beings, is irrefutable. —- The problem of

the comprehension of animal life is a uniform task for

all mankind; and if investigation divides the problem into more or less

definite parts, this is only a distribution of labour, which is rendered

absolutely necessary by the natural inadequacy of the physical powers
of the individual investigator.

The ultimate aim in the investigation of the parts, as in that of
the whole, is one and the same, viz. to apprehend the problem of
animal life in its origin, its development and organisation both in itself
and in reciprocal action with the other Phenomena of what we
call Nature“.

Our contemplation of Nature leads us, in considering the unbounded
manifestations of animal life, to the conclusion that the problem
whether in respect of time, space or comprehension, is an inexhaustible
one, that the experience of generations does not offer us the full under-
standing, the essence of the Phenomena and of their meaning, but
only a faint and, in consequence of the many breaks, a loose connexion,
the perfecting of which must be made the object of unflagging labour.

a3 @B L*

INTRODUCTION.

The manifestations of life in the organic connexion with animals
and in the influence on Nature, grouped in reference to time, place and
elevation, are inexhaustible, and form the ,daily bread“ of the very
greatest investigator, just as of him to whom only the Phenomena of
a very small district are assigned.

But also within the parts into which we are obliged to divide
the question, there are problems which, only solvable by experience,
demand a methodical partition of work and consequently uniform
methodical treatment, since there is no other way of approaching the
essence of the problem.

If we consider Birds from the point of view just expounded,
we can ask the question: Do Birds, compared with other animals,
either in respect to bodily structure or manifestations of life, or both
of these, possess peculiarities, which can form the object of special
research, being specially characteristic of the Bird and requiring special
treatment ?

Among Birds, we do find such a peculiarity in the fact that a con-
siderable number of species, in accordance with the change of seasons,
undertake regular Migrations. They migrate from one zone to another
and thereby periodically avoid those influences of certain districts, which
are unfavourable to their propagation. Hence it follows that these Mig-
rations, as we understand them, signify a number of preliminary con-
ditions, which seem to go beyond the idea ,animal*, and even touch
upon the ,,mysterious* and incomprehensible“.

For it is not the power of flight which, from an ornithological
point of view, needs special treatment, but the vast regular Migratory
Movement — Passage — through the zones, which from year to year
is regularly performed, and is repeated not only by the species, but
by the individual to the end of life.

It is the deeper biological comprehension of this special Phenomenon
which in its course can only by a methodical distribution of labour,

by a uniform and strictly methodical treatment be brought closer to a

@m 4B

INTRODUCTION.

scientific solution; indeed only by means of correct induction, by the
exclusion of all speculation, to which the seeming ,,Mystery“, the so-
called ,,Wonderfulness* or ,,Inexplicableness“ opens so wide a field.

The power of flight is certainly also an essential condition to
Migration on the part of Birds, but considered in itself, it is not a
special characteristic of this class. As a peculiar power and in its
manifold changes, we find it not only among highly developed
Vertebrata, but also in the Insect class, and here just as in the case
of Birds we find it to be not only a means of locomotion, but far
more an essential condition of life, without which the species and the
individual cannot acquire the food necessary for their existence.

We can easily understand that this regularly recurring Phenomenon
of Migration, even in antiquity, attracted the curiosity of mankind in gene-
ral, but particularly that of the scientist. The Phenomenon which in
its course avoided and still avoids the rational observation of man,
remained enveloped in mysterious darkness. This darkness affected, and
still affects, not so much the intellect as the imagination of man, and
to some extent also that of the investigator. But imagination is known
to be a very bad adviser and the most unreliable guide conceivable in
cases, where we must stand solely on the firm ground of facts.

As far as the Phenomenon of Migration is concerned, BACON
of VERULAM has in many respects lived in vain. From a few data dealing
with a small area, to draw conclusions which extended to, and em-
braced zones, and, where neither data nor conclusions were or are to
be had, to put forward the ,,Mysterious* and then draw inferences, was
then and is often now even ,,Method*!!

The only change is the call for ,,Facts*! The records dealing with
the day, hour, direction, course of the wind and weather chosen
for the Migration and the manifestations of life among Birds; the sort-
ing of these data according to locality, time and species; such and
other calculations are worked out with little or no coherence. They
are then published as ,, Treatment‘, though strictly speaking they are

INTRODUCTION.

only a confused mass of data which would only hamper the metho-
dical treatment even if they had originated from methodical compi-
lation. To put it shortly: even in our own day, while Meteorology‘,
which is organically connected with the Migration of Birds, can boast
triumphs due only to the strict inductive method of its investigations
and treatment, its sister,,Ornithophaenology*, with few exceptions, lingers
within the sphere of sophistry. Except in afew cases, a kind of passion
prevails to set about the matter in the easiest way, and to put the sub-
jective idea (often pronounced ,,firm conviction‘) before the actual result,
viz. the proposition obtained by methodical induction.

That this cannot be the way by which we can further proceed is
perfectly clear and manifest. Hence arises the question: In which
direction must we proceed if we wish Ornithophaenology also to reach
a level and take a course compatible with the present position and
advance of science ?

If we consider the state and the progress in the sphere of Meteoro-
logy as displayed to us to day, and then cast a glance on the early
history of this branch of Science, we have before us a perfectly clear,
intelligible view of the course of evolution.

Meteorology also was once in its infancy. The reading, three times
a day, by primitive instruments, never compared with others, the pro-
perties and value of which were consequently problematical, the
weather-forecasts“ derived by these imperfect, entirely local data for
politically limited districts — all these former modes of treatment
in Meteorology coincide exactly with the common method used in
Ornithophaenology nowadays. Here also local and in the majority of
cases purely ,chance-data“ suffice for the boldest combinations, the
value of which is not one whit greater than the former ,,weather-forecasts“
of the old ,,observing weather-prophets*.

And if we now ask the question: Why has Meteorology become
a distinguished branch of Science, of great significance and with a deep
influence even on practical life? we must answer: Dilettantism and

a ow

INTRODUCTION.

amateurism were confined with in proper limits; the place of uncritical
groping in the dark was taken by methodical observation founded on
well-established facts and by real methodical treatment; the cultivation
of this branch of science, the importance of which was perfectly well
recognised, was entrusted to well-equipped institutes ; so its develop-
ment was secured, the soundness of the results obtained guaranteed.

Ornithophaenology has to follow exactly the same course; it lies
in the nature of the thing that it can have no other.

The objection will certainly be raised that we cannot attach to
Bird-Migration the same amount of importance that we impute to the
course of the weather, with which many highly important and vital
interests of mankind are connected. As regards the question of impor-
tance this is quite correct, but this is no reason why a scientific problem
which is, in the respect just mentioned, of minor importance, should
proceed on a wrong tack. For Science does not recognise ,,important*
and unimportant problems, but only problems requiring solution.

And after all, Ornithophaenology also is not entirely wanting in
all practical or important relations with mankind.

The periodical change of locality of the enormous masses of mig-
rating birds signifies at the same time the transference of work from
one zone to another, an energetic, mighty upheaval of the course of Nature
and of the conditions which man has, by culture, created for his benefit.
What does this restless, assiduous work of the birds in its many pha-
ses mean for field, wood, garden, cattlebreeding — quite apart from
the aesthetic, ethic, deep effects of the same? And we have to reply,
that this action, working mostly like a regulator, cannot be replaced or
dispensed with: that the sums which this work signifies for man are
not large but simply enormous: that the Bird, compared with the course
of the weather (although of secondary importance) must never be under-
valued and that the exact understanding of these relations in organic
connection with Migration, although they require no special institution,
yet deserve serious exertion and due sacrifice.

a TB

INTRODUCTION.

Since the existence of the H. C. O. I always endeavoured to throw
light upon the matter. The first step must naturally be the history of
this branch of Science. For this history is not only in a purely human
sense ,,vitae magistra“, but also ,magistra scientiae“, especially in the
sphere of induction (empiricism).

On the occasion of the second International Ornithological Con-
gress held in 1891 in Budapest, I gave a perfectly objective sketch
of the historical development of the knowledge of Migration, and at
once made use of the same to compile the whole material of data chro-
nicled in Hungary.* In volume VI of ,,Aquila‘, the periodical of the
H. C.O., I published, under the heading ,Vom Zuge der Vogel auf
positiver Grundlage‘, a collective treatise, in which, besides the results
accumulated during four years in Hungary, | published a series of
opinions or Theses on this matter, from EMPEROR FREDERIC IL.
(11941250) to the present day, showing frequently great diversity
and contradiction on the part of even foremost authorities. Recently
a historical review was worked out and published in an enlarged
edition by JACOB SCHENK,** first Assistant of the H. C. O.

While engaged in systematically carrying out these works, the
H. C. O. was continually active, so far as their resources allowed,
in collecting all available material for the foundation of the true know-
ledge of Bird-Migration. Assisted by men like the Meteorologists
J. HEGYFOKY, the Ornithologists and Ornithophaenologists GASTON
GAAL DE GYULA, JULIUS PUNGUR, auxiliary help-mates, like E. SZALAY,
J. SCHENK, A. VEZENYI; voluntarily observing Ornithologists, like
G. ERTL, A. VON WACHENHUSEN, Baron SNOUCKAERT VAN SCHAU-
BURG, the Meteorologist EKAMA, E. VON MIDDENDORFF, Miss HELENE
VON MIDDENDORFF, KAIGORODOFF, M. HAERMS,O. HAASE, and others;

* Herman ©.: ,,Die Elemente des Vogelzuges in Ungarn bis 1891.“ in Hung. and
German. 1895.
** Die Frage der Vogelzuges“ Suppl. to Vol. IX. of ,,Aquila’ 1902.

a 8 &

INTRODUCTION.

a system of observers, with such men as Count C. FORGACH, STEFAN
CHERNEL VON CHERNELHAZA, J. VON CSATO, Count J. MAJLATH
A. VON BuDaA, TITUS CsORGEY at their head; the staff of the Royal
Forest-Department, which has since 1890 been working with clockwork
regularity, — all these, united with the fact that the Government and
Legislature of Hungary have supported the work with a munificence
quite unprecedented, have made it possible to attain results which per-
haps deserve some notice.

V. VON TSCHUSI: (in: Ornith. Jahrbuch 1904. p. 115) writes: ,,it
ought to be acknowledged that the H. C. O. has paved the way for a
scientific Ornithophaenology.* This frank acknowledgement of one of
the chief authorities for Palaearctic Ornithology is certainly encou-
raging. In the meantime we are satisfied to have been able to point
out the right direction.

Miss HELENE VON MIDDENDORFF in Hellenorm (Esthonia), the
granddaughter of A.von Middendorff, author of the ,,lsepiptesen Russ-
lands“ (1855), has generously presented the H.C. O. with all the material
on Bird-Migration left by her late grandfather, a most valuable gift,
for which we express our sincerest thanks.

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egarding the criticism, in my opinion there is still one gap

left which I purpose to fillup with the map accompanying
this paper. It shows the Routes of Migration compiled
from various authors, not only from their cartographi-
cal publications, but in some cases also according to their
written directions. It is only natural that the map is not exhaustive,
for two reasons: firstly, because the widely scattered material was not
all at my disposal; secondly, because to draw in all that is noted down,
even the local Migration-routes and directions, would have been a Gor-
dian Knot, to unravel which the span of life still left to me would
be inadequate; and modesty forbade me to employ the method of
ALEXANDER THE GREAT.
The sources for this map are as follows:
1. *BORGGREVE: ,,Die Vogelfauna von Norddeutschland*. 1896.*
2. *BREHM, CH. L.:,,Der Zug der Vogel“. Isis. 1828., Naumannia 1855.
3. DIXON: ,, The Migration of British Birds‘. 1895.

* The books marked with an asterisk contain no maps.
°

@ 13am

ROUTES OF MIGRATION.

4.*GATKE:,,Die Vogelwarte Helgoland* 1891.(also with J. Cordeaux).

5. “HARTMANN : ,,Stréda Bidrag till Skandinavisk Fauna‘ 1858.

6. *HIERONYMUs: ,,Uber das periodische Verschwinden vieler Vogel
zur Herbstzeit* 1857. Journ. f. Ornith.

7.*KESSLER: ,,Einige Beitrage zur Wanderungsgeschichte der Zug-

vogel* Bull. de la Soc. des Nat. de Moscou, 1853.

8. MENZBIER: ,,Die Zugstrassen der Vogel im europaischen Russ-

land“ Bull. de la Soc. des Nat. de Moscou, 1886.

9. MIDDENDORFF A.: ,,Die Isepiptesen der Vogel im europaischen

Russland* 1855.
10.*MIDDENDORFF A.: ,,Sibirische Reise“ Tom. IV. 1873—-1874.
11.*NAUMANN: ,,Naturgeschichte der Vogel Deutschlands* I. 1880.
12. PALMEN: ,Om foglarnes flyttingsvagar* 1874.

13. QUINET: ,,Consid. sur les Oiseaux d’Egypte* Ornis XII. 1902—3.
14.*SCHLEGEL: ,,De Dieren van Nederland“ 1860.
15. SEVERTZOW: _ ,,Allgemeine Ubersicht der aralo-tianschanischen

Ornis.“ Journ. f. Ornith. 1873—76.

16. SEVERTZOW : ,,Etudes sur le passage des Oiseaux dans |’Asie Cen-

trale part. par le Ferghanah et le Pamyr.* 1875.
17.*WALLENGREEN : ,,Die Briittezonen der Vogel innerhalb Skandina-

viens“ Naumannia 1854 —50.
18.*CORDEAUX: ,,On the Migration of Birds ete.“ Compte rendu II. Int.

Orn. Congress at Budapest. 1892 p. 165.

A glance at the annexed map should explain the statement that
Birds in their Migration from one zone to another, even if they had
the will, could not possibly follow all directions which authors invented
for them, and herein lies the weakness of the method which is founded
almost on mere supposition.

| have allowed myself only to draw a single line and that on posi-
tive grounds. From PALMEN’s Migration-routes, I take the line ,,Nile“
— which there, begins at about the latitude of Cairo —— with Lado
(lat. 5° 2’ 0" N., long. 50° E., 465 Metres above sea-level) as the starting

a 14 @w

ROUTES OF MIGRATION.

point, because in connexion with this place we posses an interesting
series of data supplied by EMIN PASCHA.

Further, as regards Heligoland, I have followed J. CORDEAUX as well
as GATKE; for we owe the excellent observations on the crow flight
over Heligoland towards England to these enthusiastic investigators.

[have included HARTMANN also, because he has treated the Migra-
tion along the Meridian; and HIERONYMUS, because he accepts the
deflective influence of the Alps and so on.

To the point of Lado | attribute special importance. The EMIN series,
which further on, we, will get to know better, is like astrong nail driven
in the soil of Africa, to which we can safely cling. For, to tell the
truth, it is difficult to conceive what grounds authors can give to
support themselves, when they plant the drawing pen on the map, some-
where in the Tropic of Cancer, and from thence wander in bold lines
over mountain and valley ?! For in reality, without positive grounds, there
is no starting point and without a more extended knowledge based on
reliable evidence there is no acceptable line to be drawn — naturally
not in a mathematical but in a migratory sense. Surely it requires an
enviable courage to draw from the district of Lingah, on the eastern
shore of the Persian Golf, or from Ras Osmara, on the same coast, and
from Bagdad, a line over Behring-Straits, and to name it, as QUINET
did, ,,volée“ (flight), to say nothing of the sharp crossing of the lines
of QUINET and DIXON on the one side and those of MENZBIER on the
other! What real grounds can there be for such a line — ornitholo-
gical migratory route-— as QUINET has drawn from Bombay over the
Gauri-Sankar to Pekin ?

The chart, by showing the contrasts, must act automatically on the
authors, or atall events induce them to prove the inductive correctness
of their point of view or abandon the same.

If we take a strict view of those Migration-routes, which are
most likely to cross the northern half of the eastern Hemisphere,
it must at once become apparent that PALMEN’s frequently, and

@15 ww

ROUTES OF MIGRATION.

so bitterly assailed ,,Netz“* is after all induced in his own way, not
phaenologically but ,faunistically*. Corresponding to the species
he chose, the Migration of which he described on the base of
ornithological observations, the routes lead mostly to the margin of or
along water.In this way PALMEN in general avoided the difficulty of
making his routes go through districts which no Ornithologist has visi-
ted and of which we posses no phaenological data at all, as unfortu-
nately is the case with DIXON’s** and QUINET’s maps.

But in order that this critical and automatic review“ may render
complete service, also for myself and the H.C. O,1 append in two groups
a summary of the 7heses induced by us,as wellas those gathered from
Literature, beginning with the sayings of the EMPEROR FREDERIC II.
This review is not exhaustive, but it will contain all that is especially
characteristic; and that will suffice.

* Net, system of routes.
** One of his lines is drawn over Agram—Servia, where in 1895 no observations were
made at all.

a 16 zw

IGhESES,

PINDUCTIVE ThiESES: lite RESULTS
OF THE WORK OF THE HUNGA-
RIAN CENTRAL OFFICE OF
ORNITHOLOGY.

oe

is

sor

+

i

OTTO HERMAN.

1. All that has been designated ,,mystery* or ,,riddle“ in connection
with the Migration of Birds, is, in point of fact, only a want of inductive
and positive knowledge, and nothing but the neglect of a proper division
of labour in cases where the individual alone cannot attain the aim.

2. The observation and its elaboration divides into three organi-
cally connected parts:

I. the Migratory: progress of Migration ;

Il. the Phaenological: connection with Meteorology ;

Ill. the Biological: causal impulse.

3. Parallel to the oscillating movement of Migration — generally
from North to South and vice-versa — goes the sexual impulse and its
periodical development and retrogression, which, consequently, has an
essential influence on Migration. The attendance of sexually immature
individuals belongs to the physiology of masses.

4. In consequence of the power of flight, Birds find their way,
without special organs, otherwise than animals fixed to the ground.

5. The lower the altitude of the locality, the earlier the arrival.

@ 19 Zw 3%

THESES. O. HERMAN.

6. The higher the altitude of the locality, the later the arrival.

7. The more southerly the locality, the earlier the arrival.

8. The more northerly the locality, the later the arrival.

9. The lower the altitude of the locality, the later the departure.

10. The higher the altitude of the locality, the earlier the departure.

11. The more southerly the locality, the later the departure.

12. The more northerly the locality, the earlier the departure.

13. Latitudes and longitudes, as regards the Phenomena of Migra-
tion, are generally congruent, in the sense that the higher the northern
latitude and the higher the locality, the later the arrival and vicé-versa.

14. The progress of Migration is generally isothermal, and is in
consequence independent of the power of flight of the migrating
species.

15. The question ,,Migration-route or movement in a broad front,
is incorrectly formulated. Passing Birds follow constant directions,
therefore certain routes; in settling the breeding area or breeding zone
the result is expansion in the form of repletion.

16. The settling or colonization in the breeding quarters — much
influenced by sexual excitation — a priori excludes a movement in the
sense of isepipteses, as well as isotherms and isohypsals.

17. The settling of the breeding region goes on by tribes.* Between
tribes of the same species there is often a large interval according to
local features of the region.

18. One and the same species settles often in comparatively southerly
or high northerly countries, resulting in a successive arrival, passage
and departure.

19. On the way from the breeding places to winterquarters, or vicé-
versa, tribes from various settlements of the same species meet and
travel in company, and on reaching their places of breeding or hiber-

* Tribe = (Stamm), means the totality of individuals of a species which settle in a
certain district.

ta 20 &

THESES. O. HERMAN.

nation, the masses disperse, according to the topographical situation of
these places.

20. Many observers took the branching-off of the tribes from the
main direction for the original direction of Migration, thus causing flagr-
ant contradiction.

21. The non-observation of these branchings-off, their conception
as original directions, and finally their being ideally lengthened in enter-
ing them on the maps, led to diametrically opposed ideas in regard to
the cartographical routes of migration or their direction.

22. Tribes keep together in joining a body of migrants.

23. Upon the territorial range of the tribes is based the subspecific
difference, as far as recognizable within the limits of differentiation.

Concrete cases,

24. The migratory conduct of Anthus cervinus (,,Aquila* VI) proves
the migration in tribes, as well as the tribal distribution in the hiber-
nating region. Southerly range from Borneo to Algeria, northerly from
Kamtchatka to Western-Finmark. Eastern and western form of the
species is subspecifically distinguishable.

25. The Swallow (Hirundo rustica) settles in Europe, reckoned from
Gibraltar to Lulea, in 105 days.

Arrival in Gibraltar lat. 30° 10 N. — 13. of February.*

Arrival in Lulea lat. 65° N. — 29. of May.**

The young swallows in Gibraltar are already fledged, when the
old ones arrive at Lulea. This proves indisputably that settling does
not depend on the power of flight.

26 HOWARD L. IRBY (ibid.) observed at that the time when the Swal-
lows were already settled in Gibraltar, during 70 days — from the 13th
of February to the 24th of April — others passed northward, no doubt

* Irby, Howard L: ,,The Ornithology of the Straits of Gibraltar London 1895.
** Nordlinder in litt. Series

21 &

THESES. O. HERMAN.

such as departed later (cf. also Andersen in ,,Aquila‘‘ X). This shows
a Migration in tribes, and also tribal distribution.

27. According to EMIN PASCHA’s observations at Lado—-Africa lat.
5° 2’0 N. long. 50° 0’ O E. fr. Ferro. — Hirundo rustica leaves on an
average on the 20th of March, therefore 35 days later, than she arrives
at Gibraltar (v. above) — a direct proof that the Swallows hiber-
nating at Lado are destined for other northern regions.

28. In the Forrester’s house on the Hagi in the Tatra— 1000 Metres
a. s. |. — Hirundo rustica arrives about the 5th of May, thus 28 days
later than the average for the whole country (Hungary), taken on
10,000 dates: 7. of April: HEGYFOKY.

On Hideghavas — 1320 Metres — the Swallow arrives on the 13th
of May, therefore 36 days later than the average, and from 61 to 69 days
later than the earliest date of arrival: the 5th of March 1898: DE GAAL.

29. That Birds living in the extreme North leave their winter-quar-
ters comparatively late, is proved by the following observations:

Africa, Cape Blanco — lat 20° 0’ N., long 1° O' E. fr. Ferro: Sterna
macroura, Strepsilas interpres, Calidris arenaria, Tringa canutus and
Tringa minuta were still noticed between Oth and 10th of May (DE
SCHACK etc.).

30. The facts that migratory Birds leave us in the fall, whereas those
in the South leave with the beginning of the rainy season, is already
sufficient to prove the organic connexion between the Phenomena of
Migration and the changes of weather. Observations and their working
out must therefore be carried on in organic connexion.

31. Just as in Meteorology there are no two years absolutely alike,
so it is in regard to Ornithophaenology. In both these branches of
Science therefore, year by year, observation and methodical treatment
is required as a ,conditio sine qua non“.

32. Bird and Plant are phaenologicaly distinguished by the fact,
that the first frees himself from the influence of weather, whereas the

Plant is constantly subject to it.

THESES. GASTON DE GAAL.

33. Henceforward the systematical investigation of Bird-Migration
has to consider also the hibernating regions and their peculiarities, in order
to balance the knowledge in the breeding regions with those in the win-
tering regions: a condition necessary for understanding the whole
Phenomenon.

34. A better knowledge of Bird-Migration depends in the first place
ona methodical working out of the whole chronicled material gathered
from all regions; further on the establishment of a uniformly working
system of observation, extending, for the present, all over Europe.

35. Without interzonal observations there is no plausible answer to
the general progress of Migration.

36. Only after having gained a sufficient knowledge of the whole
Phenomenon, with its constant deviations, according to species and
region, can we begin to give it a deeper biological foundation.

37. All errors, contradictions and imperfections in the question
of the progress of Bird-Migration result from the following causes:

a) That the matter has been treated speculatively, whereas it ought
to be treated by a merely inductive method.

b) That from few data, which though inductive, are after all only

local, too general conclusions have been drawn.

c) That too great importance has been assigned to only pretending

»Authority“.

d) That dilettantism played too great a part in the matter.

e) That methodical work was avoided, instead of which uncri-

tical compilations were considered sufficient.

GASTON GAAL DE GYULA.

,Among the factors to be taken into consideration in the observa-
tion of Bird-Migration, only operations based upon average figures pro-
mise positive results“. (,Aquila* VII. 1900. pp. 370—377.)

@ 23 wv

THESES. GASTON DE GAAL.

»A critical control of the data of migration is indispensable; the
mean figure is to be gained from the average data of several years’ obser-
vations in a certain region“.

,Average figures — mathematical treatment — give a more accurate
result than mean figures— geometrical treatment*. (,,Aquila* VII. 1900.
pp. 358, 359.)

,As a foundation for working out comparative international mate-
rial on Bird-Migration the geographical-chronological method — zonal-
system — is most appropriate“. (,,Aquila* IV. 1897. pp. 45-—47.)

Under the name of ,,Quadrat-System‘, this system is extensively
explained in: Aquila“ VIL 1900. pp. 13, 14, 371.

»Between ,extravillan“” and ,intravillan“* data there exists undoub-
tedly a temporal difference*. (,Aquila‘, taken from all registrations.)

»Delay towards the North varies more or less, but can be proved
for every species from year to year“. (Taken from all registrations.)

» | he main-direction in the spring movement in Hungary is therefore
northerly. In certain parts however a deviation is observable, e. g. in the
case of the Stork (Ciconia ciconia), which in the eastern half of Hungary
moves from S. E. to N. W. — whereas in the big plain of the Alfold
and in the western part of the country the direction is from S. W. to
N. E.; the main direction however remains a northward one.“ (,,Aquila“
Ill. 1896. p. 69. and IV. 1897. p. 64.)

» The assertion that migrating species, without exception, are obliged
to avoid high mountain-chains, has been refuted by the Hungarian
data* (,,Aquila* III. 1896. p. 74. — Since confirmed for Ciconia ciconia
and other species by ERTL.)

In some species not the ,,first appearance®, but the date of the arrival
of the main body — Culmination — gives a more uniform view of the
movement. (,Aquila* III. 1896. pp. 60.61. Alauda arvensis).

* ,Extravillan“ means the outskirts of a borough, ,,intravillan‘’ the inhabited parts
of it; the first has always earlier dates of arrival.

@ 24 @®

THESES. GASTON DE GAAL.

»After a mild winter the spring movement generally takes place
earlier“. (,,Aquila® II. 1895. p. 74.)

,A severe winter retards the spring-movement.“ (,,Aquila* III. 1896.
ps1 13))

» 1 he stock of arrival-data, as collected by means of our observation-
stations, cannot be considered throughout as_,,Migration-data-stock“,
but is more a mixture of Migration- and Distribution-Phenomena, the
latter prevailing.“ (,Aquila* VII. 1900. p. 362.)

»Consequently this Phenomenon, as far as we are able to perceive it
by our senses, is not so much a characteristic of Migration, as rather
a Phenomenon of distribution and repletion. The precise separation of
both these elements, as far as possible, must be one of the chief objects
in further investigations.* (ibid.)

,In carefully observed species it is impossible to connect the dates
of arrival by Isepipteses or other curves.“ (,Aquila* VII. 1900. pp.
3606, 370.)

, supported by the data of a few but well-observed species we- may
expect to obtain better results in further observations on Migration.“
(,Aquila* II. 1895. p. 80., VII. 1900. p. 371.)

»With regard to Hirundo rustica in Hungary one cannotspeak either
of ,Migration-routes* or of ,front-migration’, but only of a gradual
settling in the breeding area, resembling the work of a sower“. (,,Aquila‘
VII. 1900. p. p. 360——370 and II Taf. XXX.)

This refers of course to the Swallows breeding in our vicinity and
not to those passing to more northern regions. Cf. the observations
of HOWARD IRBY at Gibraltar (v. OTTO HERMAN. 26.)

Altitude has a marked retarding influence, on every species. (Total,
result from the regions* of OTTO HERMAN.)

* Hungary is orographically divided into four Migration-regions, each characterised
by its dates for arrival: I. Plains: earliest; I]. Transdanubian district: somewhat later;
Ill. Eastern elevation: later than Il ; IV. Northern elevation : latest.

@ 25 w@ 4

THESES. JAKOB HEGYFOKY.

, subalpine stations have the latest dates, without regard to geogra-
phical position*. (,,Aquila* VII. 1900. p. 365.)

» 1! he whole settling needs a comparatively long period — inthe case
of Hirundo rustica it varies from 60 to 70 days": oscillation. (,,Aquila“
VII. 1900. p. 363.)

»l he oscillation therefore is also a biological symptom and does
not result solely from erroneous observations“. (,Aquila* VII. p. 363.)

» The general oscillation in the course of the settling can be proved
even in the smallest area from one village to another, and shows that
neither phenological, nor geographical, but on/y biological factors are
the cause“ of it.

JAKOB HEGYFOKY:

Progress in the department of Bird-Migration.

According to ten years’data (1890/91, 1894/1901), comprising 10,053
cases, the Swallow (Hirundorustica) arrived in Hungary on the 7th of April.

The temperature of April 7th, according to 24 hours’ reading at
sea-level, and based upon 45 years’ observations of seven stations, was
9:9" C, and that on a spot of the country which is geographically deter-
mined by 47° 1’ N. L. and 37° 2’ E. L. from Ferro. (The years 1890
and 1891 yielded as mean day of arrival the 4°9th of April and a mean
temperature of 9-4 C’. Aquila‘ II. p. 128, 136.)

The 10,053 data of arrival divide into 13 Pentades* (between March
7—11 and May 6—10). In the beginning only a few data are noticed,
then they get more and more numerous, till they reach culmination
between April 6 —10 (with 25.3 percent); after this they become scarcer.
The same results as in the case of the Swallow were gained in that of
13 other species of Birds. (,,Aquila* X. p. 196.)

* ,,Pentade“ is a period of 5 to 6 days, into which the Migration-period is divided, in
order to be able to compare or rather to determine even smaller parts of time.

@ 260 @

THESES. JAKOB HEGYFOKY.

Six pentades before the culmination show 41°5, the six after the
culmination 33°2°/, of all data; the arrivals before the culmination are
therefore much more numerous than afterwards.

An elevation of 100 metres shows a delay in the arrival of the
Swallows of about 3 days (3°03), in departing an earlier start in the
higher region of about 0°7 days than in the lower ones. (,Aquila‘ II pp.
131, 148.)

Every geographical degree northward delays the arrival of the
Swallow for about 1:17 day. (Természettudomanyi K6zlény, Ann. 1901.
p- 292). Temperature also sinks faster on every kilometre upwards
than from South to North.

The earlier the Swallow shows its appearance ina place, the shorter
is the interval between the arrival and the settling for reproduction
(Term. Kozl. Ann. 1901. p. 294). Early comers therefore seldom
remain.

Low atmospheric pressure, depression, very often shows the greatest
rate in the arrival of the Swallow (,Aquila* VII. p. 390 and IX.
pag. 47).

If there is a centre of depression west of Hungary and if its path
is directed to north or north-east, Swallows make their appearance
in crowds. (,,Aquila* IX. p. 48 and 68).

The fair side of the depression, with its warm, southerly winds, is
therefore favourable to the arrival.

In the same way the fair side of the depression accelerates the arri-
val of: Cuculus canorus, Alauda alauda, Columba oenas, Sturnus sturnus,
Vanellus vanellus, Motacilla alba, Scolopax rusticola, Ciconia ciconia,
Upupa epops, Chelidonaria urbica, Turtur turtur, Oriolus oriolus
Coturnix coturnix. (,,Aquila* IX. p. 78 and X. p. 193.)

The other part of the depression -— the bad side — with its cool,
northerly winds, causes delay in the arrival of the Swallow and the
13 species mentioned (,,Aquila* IX. p. 59 and X. p. 193). Generally
speaking, positive deviation from normal temperature has an accelera-

@ 27 @ 4°

THESES. JAKOB HEGYFOKY.

ting, negative deviation a retarding effect on the arrival. (,Aquila* IV.
p. 194.)

This was proved also by the departure en masse“ of the Swallows,
after a strong negative deviation from the average, when the tempera-
ture suddenly fell to about +5’, whereas the temperature on the surface
of the-earth might have been as low as 0°, (,,Aquila* III. p. p. 145, 149
and ,,Wetterbericht zum Wegzug 1898*.)

The European depressions extend their sphere of action often as far
as North-Africa and thus our birds can easily arrive with the southerly
aircurrents prevailing on their fair side. (,Aquila“ X, p. 194.)

Data of arrival regarding earlier arriving species extends over a
longer space of time, than that of later comers ; consequently culmination
develops better with the later, than with earlier comers. The Phenome-
non of arrival is effectuated, therefore, more slowly in the case of earlier
arrivals, than with the later arriving species. (,,Aquila* IV. p. 4.;
Xap. 195):

The oscillation in arrival is more marked by the earlier arriving, than
by the later arriving species, no matter whether the oscillation is
judged according to the interval between two extreme dates, or according
to the mean deviation of a single year from the mean of many years.
This refers not only to Hungary (Ghymes), but also to Pommerania
(Schloss Kampen near K6slin), Livonia (Dorpat), Esthonia (Hellenorm)
and South Russia (Kiew). In 6 species of early arrival the absolute
oscilation is 39, in 8 later arriving species 21 days; the average deviation
in the former species is + 7°8, in the later + 4:2 days. (Term. Kozl. Ann.
1900 p. 91).

The average deviation in the same species in different and far dis-
tant localities seems to be a constant quantity. The latter amounts
in the case of the Swallow, observed in 9 places (between 46 to 65°
N. Lat.), to + 3°5 — 4°8 days. (Term. K6zl. Ann. 1900. p. 88.).

The oscillation in the earlier arriving species is greater than in the
later arriving species on account of the variation in temperature, because

A 28 w

THESES. JAKOB HEGYFOKY.

in the former case the temperature varies in degrees below and above
O°, whereas in the latter it varies only in degrees above 0°. (Term. K6zl.
Ann. 1900. p 89.) Prominent oscillations in temperature and arrival run
«parallel and vice versa. (,,Aquila* IV. p. 7.)

In Hungary Birds arrive earlier in the large plains than in other
parts of the country, the difference according to 3 years observations
of 14 species being about 7-4 days. This is caused by climatic condi-
tions, which in spring are most favourable on the vast lowlands.
(,Aquila* X. p. 198.)

On Method.

In regard to future observations HEGYFOKY recommends the follow-
ing points.

1. In working out data of Migration only the simultaneous ones
are to be used as a basis to calculate the average.

2. In long series of observations it is necessary to examine the ave-
rage of shorter periods, Lustres and Decennaries, with regard to their
accuracy and variation, otherwise it would be impossible to use for
comparison the average of observations that are not simultaneous.

3. Even single dates are valuable, because they are adaptable for
correcting errors in the series.

4. In publications the year should stand first; the species ought to
be arranged alphabetically.

5. The average of a period should be calculated from the total data
of one period; the earliest arrival should be marked: £; the latest +, or
with conspicuous letters. If the number of data is very bulky, pentade-
rates should be established, in order to determine precisely the begin-
ning, culmination and end.

6. There should be 4 to 6 stations for observation of as many
species as possible, besides numerous stations for observations of a few
specially characteristic species. The localities should be published alpha-
betically.

a 29 @

THESES. JULIUS PUNGUR.

7. With regard to the 6 stations mentioned first, as well as the
geographical coordinates, international regulations are necessary.

8. Only simultaneous phenological and meteorological data are
to be employed for comparative treatment. °

JULIUS PUNGUR.

According to the present state of the work based upon the vast
observations of the autumnal passage of Hirundo rustica, in 1898,
(2345 reports), the results are as follows:

1. In contrast to the spring-migration the autumnal migration leads
from North to South; its course is less marked than in spring.

2. Corresponding with the successive populating of a region in the
spring migration, a successive depopulation takes place in autumn.

3. The more or less delaying or accelerating finds its most decided
expression in the regions. (Cf. ant. p. 25. Note.)

4. The real departure ,en masse“ lasted from 4th August to the
first of October, i. e. 59 days.

5. From the beginning of the earliest departure -- August 4th —
till the last noticed Swallow — November 4th — 93 days elapsed.

(Vide: ,Aquila* XI. 1904.).

wm 30 w@

Il. THESES
TAKEN FROM LITERATURE.
(CHRONOLOGICAL.)

(Vide: ,,Aquila* VI. 1899.)

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amor

WAY TSS ENG OVEN
GRIMES

MPEROR FREDERIC II. (1194— 1250) ,,.De arte venandi cum
Avibus* Editio Schneider 1788. (Vide: ,.Rhea‘ Il. 1849.
Thienemann, Leipzig.)

1. Birds migrate from colder regions to warmer and
vicé-versa —— passagium et reditus.
. Only perfectly-feathered individuals migrate.
. Not all Birds are Birds of Passage.
. Birds of all orders migrate, but not all to very distant countries.
Some only movefrom the mountains into the valleys and vice versa.

oC SoC)

. Migration is caused by:
a) Change of temperature; and in connexion therewith
b) Exigencies of subsistence.
7. Young Birds, when strong enough, prepare for Migration, gather
and meet at various places.
8. Each species always meets separately.
9. Birds become aware of Migration-time by a power of foresight
and sensitiveness to cold and warmth.

@ 33 B 5

14.
Lo:

LINNE,

I

oe

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

. Weather influences Migration.
. Contrary winds, showers or hail hinder the movement.
. Birds that are not yet quite strong enough for flight commence

the journey earlier, the stronger ones later.

. Land-Birds travel without distinct order; others in two con-

vergent lines, one of which is always longer.

The leader has to work hardest, but is relieved by others.
Birds wander from the North, as far as their range goes, to
countries where they find food

Carl: ,,Dissertatio migratione Avium* Upsaliae 1757.
Nutriment and temperature.

The Migration is directed to unknown regions.

JENNER, E.: ,,Some observations on the migration of birds* 1824.

We
FABER,
1.
De

3:

Breeding and in connection therewith more need of food.
Friedrich: ,Uber das Leben der hochnordischen Vogel" 18206.
Birds have an impulse for wandering and homing.

Mild winters effect acceleration of the spring migration.
Young Birds in the autumnal migration seldom travel in com-
pany with the old ones and, as a rule, later.

4. The species change quarters with different winds.

. Originally every species was sedentary; Migration originated

from extension of the limits of the species.

. Causes: Instinct of migration, homing faculty, temperature and

nourishment.

BreHM, Ch. L.: ,Der Zug der Vogel.“ Oken’s ,,Isis* 1828 p. 912.

L.

DO fF WH ND

The gipsy habits in Birds have to be considered in judging

Migration critically.

. The previous winter has great influence on the movement.
. Weather during the passage has a great influence.

. There are Birds migrating by day, others by night.

. Birds travel at great heights and

. against the wind.

a 34 @

16.

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

. Some Birds wander on foot, others swim.

. The migrating direction is S. W. to N. E.

. Coastlines and courses of rivers influence the direction.

. Young ones do not follow the routes of the old ones.

. Females migrate farther south.

. Birds follow certain high-roads of Migration.

. A certain quartering system is observed by wandering

Birds.

. The cause of the Phenomenon of Migration is a faculty of pre-

sentiment by which Birds foresee weather.

. The Phenomenon is not to be explained either by want of

food or currents of air.
Bird-Migrationcan be utilized for exact weather-prognostication.

EckKSTROM C. A.: ,Zerstreute Bemerkungen tiber schwedische Zug-

I.

vogel*. Oken’s , Isis“ 1829.
Neither food, nor temperature, but only instinct intensified by
experience and memory, are the causes.

POGGENDORF: ,,Annalen der Physik und Chemie“ 1833.

if

Food, temperature and sexual instinct.

BREHM, Ch, L.: Der Zug der Vogel. ,Naumannia* 1855.

Cause: a wonderful faculty of presentiment.

NAUMANN, I. F.: ,Uber den Vogelzug mit besonderer Hinsicht auf

Helgoland*, Rhea I. 1846. p. 18 u. ff.

. There are certain routes which Birds find even when wandering

at night.

. There must be highways of Migration frequented every year

by migrating Birds.

. Along the routes of Migration there are certain places of rest.
. The direction — in Helgoland — is East-West, sometimes with

slight deviation, also South-North.

. Temperature, wind and weather are of great importance.
. Migrating Birds turn aside from large obstacles.

t 35 5

iF

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

Birds are afraid of crossing the open sea; they either take a
roundabout way or follow directions offering resting-places —

Helgoland, Capri.

KESSLER: ,,Einige Beitrage zur Wandergeschichte der Zugvogel* Mosc.

Bull. 1853.

. There-are summer-birds, winter-birds and periodically wandering

birds.

. Migrants which arrive earliest, remain longest, those arriving

latest generally leave earliest.

. Summer- and winter guests often meet in the same place.
. Weather has great influence upon Migration.
. The arrival of Birds of passage and of winter guests seems

to depend upon the weather in their northern home.

. The order in which the species arrive in various localities is not

always the same.

. The advance is very unequal, in some species quicker, in others

slower.

. The oscillations are stronger in the South, than in the North.
. Some species seem to migrate from S. W. to N. E.. others

from S. to N. The Migration-direction is not always from S. to N.
but when crossing rivers also from S. W. to N. E.

. Migrating Birds rarely follow distinct routes, but advance, pretty

uniformly along the whole extent of the front (broad front).

. Birds have no presentiment of weather.
. Oscillation in early comers is more marked.

On Method.

Only observations continued for years in as close a system as

possible, can give positive results.

MIDDENDORFF, A. von: ,,Die Isepiptesen Russlands etc.* 1885. Extra-

copy from Mém. de l’Acad. des Sciences, St. Pétersbourg.

@ 30 B

CO

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

. It seems plausible that Birds follow distinct Migration-routes.
. Birds do not travel with full speed, but cover daily only com-

paratively short distances.

. Considerable elevation above sea-level delays.
. Regarding time of arrival, the greater or lesser distance from the

winter-quarters is of no little importance.

. Near the Arctic circle early and late Migrants often arrive

nearly simultaneously.

. First comers — early arriving Birds — are always more unsteady

than late comers.

. Length and severity of the previous winter have evidently an

influence on the arrival.

. The innermost essence of the Migration-Phenomenon is at

present still a Problem, not wholly decipherable by climatical,
magnetic and similar influences.

On Method.

. We require as close an observation-system as possible, in con-

nexion with meteorological observation.

. Knowledge of the average time of arrival is necessary.
. To ascertain averages 50 years are required.
. To obtain an intuitive view of Bird-Migration it is advisable

to construct Isepipteses; they are not coincident with Isotheres
but approach Isochimenes.

KJAERBOLLING: ,,Forhandl. vid de Skand. Naturforssjette mdte“.

ie

2.

Stockholm 1885.

The outlines of the Eastern-sea and the situation of islands have
an influence upon migration.

Wind and weather have great influence upon migration.

HIERONYMUS, Dr.: ,Uber das periodische Verschwinden vieler

I.

Vogel zur Herbstzeit*. Cabanis’ Journ f. Orn. 1857.
High mountains deflect the migration route.

wa 37 am

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

BUTTNER G. J.: ,Aphorismen tber die Wanderungen der Vogel“
»Naumannia* 1858,
1. Migration originates from an indefinable instinct.
BREHM, A. E.: ,,Das Leben der Vogel“ 1861.
1. The Migration-direction is southwesterly and vicé-versa.
2. Streams and valleys are the highways of Migration.
. Deep ridges when in the direction of large valleys, are passages.
4. Cause of migration: love and hunger.
HEUGLIN, TH. von:,,Zoogeographische Skizze des Nilgebietes“ ,,Peter-
mann’s geogr. Mitth.“ 1869.
1. The migratory Birds of Europe and Northern Asia wander as
far as Central- Africa.
2. The Migration-direction is N. S.
3. Coasts and streams are readily followed by Migrants.
MIDDENDORF, A. von: ,,Sibirische Reise“ Tom. IV. 1873—74.
1. There are Migration-routes, which follow the geographical
latitudes.

Qo

2. There are Migration-routes, which follow the geographical
longitudes.

PALMEN, I. A: ,Uber die Zugstrassen der Vogel“ Leipzig 1876.
(,Om foglarner flyttningswagar* 1874.).

1. Migration is a Phenomenon of movement.

2. Two moments have to be taken into consideration, the time-
moment — migration-season — and the space-moment
migration-route.

3. Birds migrate from their northern breeding stations to the
southern ones along certain geographically fixed routes.

4. As arule Birds do not migrate beside or between the routes.

5. Migration-routes, as arule, run separately or at most meet only
at the final point.

6. The individuals return in spring along the same Migration-route
as they travelled in autumn.

@ 38 @

13:

14.

15:
16.

Li:

18.
19.

20.

Ze

22,

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

. An interchange of individuals does not take place on the route.
. Over unfavourable districts Birds pass without break.
. The total number of the individuals depends on the frequency

of the species at the starting point and on the nature of the route.

. Most of the Birds do not fall under the same category for the

breeding-season as for Migration.

. The departure may be simultaneous; in the procession the in-

dividuals have the same rank, as in the breeding-zone: succes-
sive migration; or the northern ones set out earlier: passage.

. Hereditary organisation makes Migration possible, but does not

cause it.

The migratory instinctdepends partly on bodily, partly on traditio-
nal heredity.

The knowledge of the Migration-routes becomes traditional with
the species.

The beginning of Migration originates in irregular passing.
The appearance of stragglers is the result of Migration departing
from the routes.

If stragglers breed in strange countries, the geographical limits of
the species are extended; regular Migrations leave them as
they are.

This phenomenonexplaines abbreviated and protracted migration.
Migration-routes may also give an impulse to evolution of forms;
such arise from irregular Migration.

~ On Method.

Dates of arrival scarcely give sure results, they are most critical
to work up.

Dates from different places are only commensurable, if they are
of the same year.

A typical series is a uninterrupted series of epochs drawn from
mean data.

a 39 w@

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

SEVERTZOW N. Dr.: Etudes sur le passage des oiseaux dans I’Asie-

On —

Centrale, 1875.

. Every species travels along its own route.
. On the way Birds stop at quite inappropriate places.
. Migration-routes are strips of land, where Birds appear in greater

numbers than in the intervening tracts.

. All routes are characterized by crowds of first passers which

neither nidificate nor hibernate.

. Alpine Birds do not migrate, but pass into the valleys.

6. East of Khanghai the entire passage is directed to China.

. The migration-routes, which are close together in Central-Asia,

branch off in the north and also cross each other.

WALLACE, R A: ,,Die geographische Verbreitung der Thiere* 1870.

Ip
. The oscillation in the spring-migration amounts only to 14 days.

2
3:
4. Migration dates froma period, when the Mediterranean Sea did

Weather has no essential influence on Migration
Old Birds wander farther south than young ones.

not exist.

. The Mediterranean is passed only at certain points: Gibraltar,

Sicily, Malta, lonian Islands.

WEISSMANN, AUG: ,Uber das Wandern der Voégel* Samml_ gem.

wissensch Vortrage, herausgegeben von Rud. Virchow und
Friedr. von Holzendorff, Berlin 1878. Ser. XIII, Heft 291.

. The nature of the phenomenon of Migration is already known.
. Birds of Migration are influenced by an impulse, which originates

from passing (roving) — imperfect migration.

. Only such birds migrate as cannot exist without change of

place.

. Birds are taught to wander; troops migrate under the guidance

of old experienced Birds, which fly at the head of the procession.

. Birds follow distinct Migration-routes. These migration roads

are the old routes by which they spread northward.

@ 40 &

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

. The crossing of the Mediterranean at certain points dates from

a geological period, when the Mediterranean was divided by
land into several basins.

. Birds are hereditarily gifted in a high degree with a sense of

orientation; they direct their wanderings to places already
known to them.

. Migrating Birds know all the pecularities of the route and never

leave it voluntarily.

. Migrating Birds have a fine sense for observation, sharp eyes

and an excellent local memory increased by experience.

. Migration originated, in the fact that birds settled also in coun-

tries which yield food only during part of the year.

. Settling took place only gradually from South to North, espe-

cially since the glacial period.

. In the course of the slow advance of the species the necessary

qualities for Migration itself -- Passage —— developed gradually
to greater perfection

HOMEYER, E. von: ,,Die Wanderungen der V6gel mit Riicksicht auf

[o/0)

die Ziige der Saugethiere, Fische und Insecten* 1881.

. Birds do not wander along distinct, sharply defined routes, but

disperse uniformly, fanlike, over extensive regions.

. Birds migrate essentially with the wind.
. Birds possess a certain presentiment for weather.
. Most of the small birds are crepuscular wanderers, the large

ones day-, and strand-birds nocturnal wanderers.

. Migration generally goes on at a great height.
. The Migration procession of eachspecies divides itself into van-
2 |

guard, main body and rear-guard.

. Young and old Birds, sometimes also the sexes, migrate sepa-

rately.

. Guidance does not exist.
. Only invincible obstacles cause deviation or crowding.

wm 41m 6

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

10. After the main-movement no backward movement occurs.

11. There are regular and irregular resting-stations.

12. Migration is essentially influenced by weather. (Cf. 3.)

13. In countries having the same climate, Birds arrive nearly simul-
taneously.

14. The impulse of Migration is hereditary, not gained by training.

15. Before starting, many species assemble at certain meeting-places.

16. Wander-Birds always return to the same place.

17. Birds have a strong sense for locality and direction

18. Fundamental causes of Migration:

a) Warmth and currents of air ;

b) Light;

c) Food;

d) Propagation and homing instinct;
e) Sociableness.

19. Data of arrival and departure alone are insufficient to solve
the problem; an exact knowledge of all constant and local
varieties is wanted for this purpose.

20. Immigration or advance of certain species does not exist.

21. Straggling guests are badly observed species, so to say a fiction.

22. The direction of Migration is not everywhere the same.

23. In normal years the oscillation is trifling.

24. The breeding-region is the real home of the species.

25. All species undertake reconnoitring trips, to find out suitable
breeding places.

26. Species which form constant local varieties, are most suited
for observation.

27. Wandering by walking or swimming does not take place.

PARKER, H.: ,,Observations on Early Nidification and Migration in
North-west Ceylon“. Ibis 1883. p. 197.
1. Time and place of nidification are determined by the food-supply

and the feeling of security, and not by weather or climate.

@ 42 w@

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

2 The cause of Migration is the search for plentiful food.
A period of 2000 years is sufficient to establish Migration.

OO

4. There are some exceptions to Mr. Seebohm’s law that every bird
breeds in the coldest regions of its Migrations“. (,,Sibérie en
Europe“ p. 244.)

5. The country in which a migratory bird breeds is not necessarily
the home of the species.

HARTWIG: ,Zum Vogelzuge®. Journ. f. Ornith. 1885.

1. Almost the chief reason is food; temperature and light are of
minor influence.

MENZBIER, M.: ,,Die Zugstrassen der V6gelim europaischen Russland“.
Bull. de la Soc. Imp. des Nat. de Moscou“ Ann. 1886. No 2.

1. Only two large Categories of Migration-routes can be accepted:
viae marinae littorales — and: viae subcontinentales ; viae sub-
marinae littorales signify a transitory category.

2. Every species travels its own way; what Biologists call Mig-
ration-routes are only the coincidence of the routes of several
species for a shorter or longer distance.

3. The Phenomenon of Migration is called forth by the conditions
for the acquisition of food; the Migration-routes originate in
the history of the range of the species and feeding and oro-
hydrographical conditions.

4. The breeding-places have an influence on the Migration-routes
of the species, but not exclusively and not for all species; for
the majority of continental Birds a change in the breeding-places
must be considered as a normal phenomenon.

5. The Migration-routes change in the course of time either in
connexion with changes in the distribution of the species:
or in connexion with changes in the oro-geographical cha-
racter.

6. The routes of the autumn and spring Migration are not always
the same;in some cases the difference between spring and autumn

wa 43 w o°

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

migration along the same road is marked by the different number
of migrating individuals.

7. In the phenomenon of migration no unimportant part is played
by imitation, the chasing among different species, the assembling
in herds of young birds, the similarity of colour ete.

. The inherited knowledge of the Migration-routes and the expe-

(oe)

rience gained by the successive generations leads in some regions
to a shortening of the original route, reducing the route to only
determined directions of Migration.

9. Thecharacteristic of the Migration-routes is determined not only
by the migrating species, but also by the relaying of the sum-
mer- and winter-population, which is in connexion with the cha-
racter of the country and the food-supply.

10. Changes in the food-supply produce also changes in the perio-
dical appearance of Birds, for which the alteration of the mig-
ratory habits of a bird into sedentary ones may stand as an
individual example.

TRISTRAM, H. B.: ,, The Polar Origin of Life considered in its bearing on
the Distribution and Migration of Birds“. Part II. [bis 1888 p.209.

1. All birds breed in the northernmost limits of their range.

2. Birds which penetrate furthest north for nidification, — whether
species or individuals —, usually retire furthest south.

3. All northward Migration is undertaken for the purpose of nidi-
fication; the southward migration for food or warmth.

4. The lines of Migration are very different in the case of different
species, and often intersect each other.

5. Birds which breed in the Tropics do not migrate, unless in the
case of birds which ascend the mountains for nidification and
descend to the plains in winter, as various Thrushes in the
Andes, and numberless species in the Himalayas.

SEEBOHMM, Henry: ,, The geographical distribution of the Charadriidae“,
(Preface) 1888.

wa 44 w

ite

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

In the Northern Hemisphere all migratory Birds breed on the
northernmost limit of their range; except in the Southern Hemi-
sphere, where every Bird breeds in a colder climate than that
in which it lives during migration at other times.

. The higher north Birds wander in summer, the farther south

they go for hibernation.

GATKE, H.: ,Die Vogelwarte Helgoland“. Braunschweig 1891.

le

There is a spring Migration, characterized by:

a) want of disposition for more convenient routes,
6) want of inclination to make a halt,

c) restlesness and haste to proceed:

The cause is sexual instinct.

. There is an autumn Migration, but without the characteristic

features of spring Migration.

. In both seasons the routes are not the same.

4. Under normal circumstances Migration is not observable.

WP
[3:

. Disturbing influences — weather — allow fragments of the

Phenomenon to be observed.

. The flight during Migration is rapid, up to 53 geographical

miles an hour.

. The flight in Migration can take place at an altitude of 25000

to 35000 feet.

. Birdschoose those layers of air which are most convenient for mig-

ration; as well as those currents of air which are most appropriate.

. This shows great sensitiveness (v. 8).
. Guidance by old individuals does not exist.
. A separate Migration-order according to age exists, viz.

a) in spring the old ones arrive first,

6) in autumn young Birds commence Migration.

There are no Migration-routes but only Migration-directions-
Migration did not develop from either straggling movement,

nor from heredity.

14.
LS:

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

Birds act with a purpose and therefore instinctively.
The front of Migration corresponds to the breeding region.

MARTORELLI, Giacinto, Prof.: ,,Le mute regressive degl’Ucelli migranti

On

CO

etc.“ 1892.*

. The ease with which birds are able to change locality, for

which they are predestined in consequence of their bodily cons-
titution, was the reason for Migration, which became regular
and hereditary.

. The fact that refrigeration in the Arctic regions lasted for cen-

turies or a change caused through special glacial period had no
doubt a powerful effect upon the distribution and differenti-
ation of Birds.

. Temperature has no decisive influence upon Migration: the latter

is based upon the want of food and safety.

. The number of species actually known as migratory Birds is so

large, that Migration may be considered rather a rule than an
exception.

. Migration is not constant and is not uniform even with indivi-

duals of the same species.

. The oscillations in Migration are in close connexion with the

habits of birds and the localities haunted by them.

. The colour in the majority of migratory Birds — at least in

our Hemisphere — is either little different or becomes more
striking only after arrival at the breeding places.

. If there is a marked difference in colours between the sexes

of the same species, the colour of mature males before lea-
ving for winter-quarters Is likely to be confused with that of
immature males.

. Birds breeding in one Hemisphere do not breed in the other,

but pass over to the latter in the second summer.

* A diligent compilation.

@ 46 w

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

10. Migration, owing to which birds enjoy the benefits of this two-
fold summer, leads them from the Arctic regions to the southern
parts of the Continents and vice versa.

11. Tropical Birds do notmigrate atall,or only ina very limited degree.

12. The objectofthe greatest part of northward—bound Migrants is
breeding; of those passing to the south, food, warmth and light.

13. The breeding place is not necessarily the original home of
the species.

14. Itis not always the breeding regions that have the coldest climate.

15. As a rule, species or individuals which migrate far to the
North, migrate far south too.

16. It needs a long time for Migration to effect a differentiation
of species; less time is sufficient to produce more or less modi-
fication of Migration.

17. Migrating companies of one and the same species may travel
in various directions, the routes may even cross.

18. The sense of orientation is not infallible, but develops with
age and improves.

19. The younger generation is guided by the old Birds, which
know the route by experience.

20. If the younger ones by chance lose the proper route, they
have much difficulty in finding it again, hence the fact that most
of the stragglers are young Birds.

ANGOT, A.: ,,Annales du Bureau-Central Météorologique* Paris 1895.

1. Temperature is not an incentive to Migration.

NEWTON, A. PROF.: sets forth the hypothesis of over-crowding ;
arriving migrants replace those which had arrived before, there
being no room for both in the same place (Cfr. Gatke : ,,Heli-
goland as an ornithol. observatory“ 1895. p. 145 and the new
yNaumann* ed. by Dr C. HENNICKE. Gera, part I. 1905 p.
101. and W. RUSKIN Butterfield,,Remarks upon... Migration.
of Birds*. Nov. Zoological Vol. XII. 1905. p. 16.).

@ 47 @

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

BRAUN, Fritz: ,,Uber die begriffliche Stellung des Striches zum Zug-
phaenomen* Ornith. Monatsberichte. VI. Nr. 12. 1898.

1. Passage is a local movement of the species in question in any
direction of the compass and does not necessarily lead to
regions with plenty of food.

2. Migrating Birds obey an impulse, which has developed in the
course of thousands and hundreds of thousands of years. They
take to flight before a scarcity of food expected to come sooner
or later.

3. Most of the Birds which at present are birds of passage were
formerly, in very remote times, most likely migrating. More
and more accustomed to the circumstances in the new regions,
they became birds of passage and gave up Migration. The breed-
ing business at first was in collision with the instinct of mig-
ration, later however It became victorious and changed the mig-
ratory bird into one of passage

4. Migration and the instinct of propagation are closely connected.

5. The Birds changed from Birds of Migration into birds of passage;
gradually produced, instead of one, two or even three breeds,
from which it maybe concluded that, the more breeding increases
in extent, the more the instinct of Migration weakens.

BRAUN, FRITZ: ,,Der Vogelzug. I.“ Journ. f. Ornith. Nr. 4. October 1898.

1. The determination of as many Migration-routes as possible is
no preliminary condition to explain the cause of the annual
wanderings.

2. In the glacial period Birds lived in the Tropics. With the pro-
gress of a favourable temperature the Birds moved northward,
began to breed and returned during winter time to the Tropics.

3. The experience of thousands of generations became instinct,
which manifested itself with the same regularity as the breeding
instinct. The force of the sexual instinct is according to its
genesis, proportional to the necessity of migration.

@ 48 @&

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

4. The time of departure of our migrating Birds is in direct propor-
tion to the specific kind of food, and in inverse ratio to the
quantity of food required and to the ability of the species to
get this supply of food.

BRAUN, Fritz: ,,Der Vogelzug. II. Journ. f. Ornith. 1899 Nr. 1.

1. The homes of our Birds of Migration are not the countries where
they sojourn in summer, but must be looked for in the southern
regions (Cf. 2 in Part I.)

2. The migratory instinct is not even a specific part of propaga-
tion in Birds of Migration. (Cf. 4 in Part I.)

3. Migration and propagation belong to a higher unity, the whole
belongs no more to the ideal world of an individual, but has
hardened into an instinct of the species.

4. Inouropinion the instinct of Migration has a very close connexion
with propagation (Cf. 2. supra.).

5. The entire impulsive life of birds forms a whole, in the centre
of which stands propagation and breeding. Breeding in its turn
depends upon the need of food of the species in question, so
that this is and remains the causal reason of Migration. *

DEICHLER, Christian: ,Der Vogelzug. Bemerkungen zu den beiden
gleichnamigen Artikeln von Fritz Braun“. Journ. fiir Ornith.
1900. Nr. 1.

1. The breeding regions are the home of migratory Birds, there-
fore for ours Europe.

2. This is proved by the palaeontological discoveries in the basin
of Paris, among them many recent forms like: Cypselus, Alcedo,
Parus, Motacilla, Passer ete.

3. The tropical characters of some of our Birds originated in pre-
glacial periods, when our regions still had a tropical climate.

~ A further article Noch einmal der Vogelzug“ in: ,,Journ. fiir Ornith. 1900 Heft 2
directed against Deichler, is only contradictorily.

@ 49 @

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

4. Migration began when after the tertiary age the glacial period
set in; this compelled the birds to pass to the tropics, whence
they returned in spring for breeding in those places which even
during the glacial preriod remained free of ice.

5. In the course of time this to and fro movement became
instinct, which acts independently of weather and food, and
forces the birds to Migration, even when there is plenty of
food still.

FINSCH, Dr. O. (in: ,,Notes from the Leyden Museum“ XXII. 1900/1
p. p. 121-125.) ,I direct attention to the strangest wandering
instinct of one characteristic species of the southern Hemisphere,
the long-tailed Cuckoo (Urodynamis taitiensis) and its geographi-
cal distribution. With the exception of a single case elsewhere
(in New-Caledonia) this parasitic species is confined in its propa-
gation to New-Zealand, being here a regular summer visitor,
arriving at the beginning of October and leaving in February. Except
in these months it is observed in various Islands of the Pacific
as far north as the Carolines (Yap, Palau), as far east as the Mar-
quesas, as far west as New-Caledonia (but strangely enough not
yet in Australia or New-Guinea). The distribution therefore com-
prises nearly the whole of the Pacific, from North to South over
560 geographical degrees (840 geographical miles), from West
to East over 80 degrees (= 1300 g. m,).

In contrast with all our Birds of Migration, which migrate for
breeding from South to North, this species
1. wanders for propagation from North to South ;*
2. as arule not over land but, although not a good flier, chiefly
over ocean;
3. not in company, but singly ;

* The same as Chalcococcyx lucidus and Tanspiptera sylvia.

@ 50 &

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

4. not forced by climatical influences, nor by want of food, nor
by want of Birds serving as foster-parents (to hatch the eggs),
as all these necessities of existence are to be found everywhere
on the whole area of its tropical and subtropical distribution.

5. The reasons for the wandering habits of this Cuckoo are there-
fore only explicable by instinct, a relic of an inherited habit.

6. The facts inferred from the observations on this species are
worth remembering by all ,as reflecting on the mysteries of
Bird-Migration.“*

a) Inductive- Theses:

BARRINGTON, R. M.:,,The Migration of Birds etc.“ London and Dublin
1901.

For Ireland.

1. Some species of migrating Birds are observed only in certain
localities along the Irish coasts, which shows the existence of
distinct migrating directions.

2. The majority of Birds of Migration arrive at a period of con-
siderable evenness, which leads to the conclusion that, at their
departure from Ireland, they arrive at the same time.

3. The departure is dependent upon the force, not upon the direc-
tion of wind.

4. The Migration direction is generally landward.

5. The first arrivals in spring are long-winged species; in autumn
out of 14 cases there were 9. In autumn the long-winged males
of Turdus merula depart first; the females last (errors with
young Birds not excluded). Whether the young Birds depart
before the old ones could not be ascertained.

6. Less powerful fliers migrate mostly by night, probably for
safety’s sake.

* Original contribution by Dr. O. Finsch.

@ 51 w 7*

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

7. During the dark phases of the moon many Birds, attracted by
the light of Lighthouses or Lightships, perish by collision with
the lanterns.

8. Migration by moonlight is not excluded, but then the light of
Lighthouses is avoided.

9. The losses through Lighthouse-lanterns are most numerous
in autumn, on account of the longer duration of the nights,
and the much greater number of individuals, among which are
many inexperienced ones.

LUCANUS, F. von: ,Die Hohe des Wanderfluges auf Grund aero-
nautischer Beobachtungen*. Journ. f. Ornith. 1902.

1. Birds of Migration generally pass lower than 1000 Metres
relative height.

2. They always migrate below the lowest clouds.

3. Only within sight of land are Birds able to find the proper
direction.

4. A very high altitude is unnecessary for Birds, because according
to aeronautical observations at an altitude of above 1000 Metres
the perspective (Fernsicht) lessens.

Before proceeding to group the Theses taken from Literature, |
have to make somere marks on those of BARRINGTON. This author keeps
strictly to positive data, and if, here and there, he does go infor conclu-
sions, he is very cautious. His Theses are therefore inductive and in this
respect valuable. However I cannot suppress one remark and that refers
to the predominance of observations which are made on Lighthouses,
not only by BARRINGTON but by the English in general and lately
elsewhere too.

The proper meaning of paragraph 8 with BARINGTON is that the
light of the Lighthouses attracts migrating Birds only on dark nights,
but that migration by moonlight is not excluded; only the migrants
avotd the light of Lighthouses and go on in their own direction, in which

we 52 @

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

the Lighthouse does not stand. The light of Lighthouses therefore has
a diverting effect, and does not show the original direction, which seems
very natural. I always think of the street-and garden-lamps, the light of
which attracts various Insects sometimes in myriads, without showing
us the true nature of their night-life. And therefore | am not sure,
whether the great sacrifice of EAGLE CLARKE,” his voluntary exile on
the Eddystone Lighthouse, to study the nightphases of Migration, has
yielded absolute phaenological results? But even if it had the results
are only of local importance.

Generally it is my firm opinion that all observations concerning
England must be worked out methodically in their whole extent, in
order to bring to light their hidden value. The ,,Reports on Migration‘
contain treasures of investigations from shore and Lighthouses, for which
we are indebted to the zeal of such excellent men as HARVIE-BROWN,
CORDEAUX, BARRINGTON, MORE and EAGLE-CLARKE, whose merits
are for ever connected with Bird-Migration. It is not to be doubted
that the right man will be found, to work up the whole material uni-
formly, an immense material, of which we get an idea when we think
of the observations on Cuculus canorus in the MARSHAM-family.** And
let us not forget DERHAM, the creator of Ornithophaenology, nearly
two centuries ago! (Philos. Transactions London 1708). In working
out all this material, we should get a very good history of observations
on Bird Migration in the United Kingdom, a work of the greatest im-
portance for all concerned in this most interesting branch of orni-
thological science.

Most likely there is still valuable material, which remains unpub-
lished. The labels on thousands of Bird-skins in the British-Museum,

* ,A month on the Eddystone: a Study in Bird Migration“. Ibis for April 1902. And:

Studies in Bird. migration II... at the Kentish-Knoch Lightship in the Autumn of 1903.
Ibis 1904 p. 112—142. Tab. 4.

** From 1739 to 1810 and again from 1836—1840 and 1845 to 1904. Cf. Southwell: ,, Trans.
Nort. and Norwich Nat. Soc.“ II. p. 31.

THESES FROM LITERATURE.

provided with day-data, contain a great treasure of ornithophaenological
facts which, when brought to light, will throw light upon territories
which could give us new fixed points, as EMIN PACHA’s series from Lado.

No doubt a very big work, especially at the outset, and a hard
trial for the patience of the workers, but the very first results will
produce a magic effect, gradually growing with the discovery of more
and more interesting facts.

With regard to the aeronautical observations published by VON
LUCANUS, I am inclined to believe that the relative altitude of 1000
Metres is calculated rathertoo low. We know that Birds migrate also
in day time, but in clear weather they are invisible, which even with
smaller Birds could not be the case, if they did not wander much higher.
On the other hand in dull weather, when the clouds are low, migrating
Birds may be seen at once, a fact observed by myself and others (among
them TITUS CsSORGEY). We leave it undecided whether this low-flying
serves for orientation, but generally in dull weather Migration stops.
When the weather clears up again, even large masses of Migrants
disappear as if blown away.

wa 54 w

RECENSIO
CONTRADICTORIA.

Age and sex. Travel often separately. GATKE 11. — Young Birds
prepare themselves for Migration. EMPEROR Freperic II. 7. — Whether
the young Birds depart before the old ones, could not be ascertained.

BARINGTON. 5.

Arrival.\n the Arctic regions early and late migrants arrive simulta-
neously. MIpDENDORFF. 5. — The seriatim arrival of the species in
various localities is not always uniform. KEssLER 6. (This is zo contradic-
tion). —In regions of the same climate Birds arrive nearly simulta-
neously. HoMever. 13.

Breeding place (Cf. also ,Original home“ p. 96). Is not necessarily
the original home of the species. Parker. 5. — Is not necessarily the
original home of the species. MARTORELLI. 13. — Is the home of the
species. HoMEverR. 24. — Has no exclusive influence. MENZBIER 4. —
Has influence upon Migration. GATKE 15.

Breeding zone. \n the northern Hemisphere on the northernmost
limit of the range. SEEBOHM. 1. — In the northern parts of the range
of the species. TRIsTRAM. 1. — Is not necessarily the coldest part of the
Migration region. MARTORELLI. 14.

m 57 w@ 8

RECENSIO CONTRADICTORIA.

Foresight. \n regard to weather. Emperor Freperic. 9. — Power
to foresee weather. BreHM, Cur. L 14. — Bird Migration can be utilized
for weather Prognosis. BREHM, Cur. L. 16. Birds possess a certain
presentiment of weather. Homeyer. 3. — Birds have no presentiment
of weather. Kesster. 11. — Great sensibility. GATKE. 9.

Guidance by experienced individuals. — Exists. WEISSMANN. 4.
Exists. MARTORELLI. 19. — Does not exist. GATKE. 10. — Does not
exist. HOMEYER. 8.

Immigration or a movement to extend the range of certain species.
— Does not exist. Homever. 20. -— Birds undertake certain recon-
noitring trips. HoMeyer. 25.

Immigration has undoubtedly been observed. Zostorops lateralis
(Lette) immigrated from Australia to New-Zealand; the settling of
Serinus serinus in Silesia (valley of Hirschberg, Riesengebirge) was
witnessed by myself. Finscu (in litt.).

Imperfect Migration v. Straggling p. 97.

Impulse. — Birds of Migration are incented by an impulse, which
originates from straggling — imperfect Migration. WEISSMANN. 2. —
Migrating Birds follow an impulse which has arisen in the course of
thousands and hundreds of thousands of year. BRAUN. 2. — A period
of 2000 years has sufficed to firmly establish Migration. PARKER 3.

Instinct. — Birds act instinctively. GATKE. 14. — The migratory
instinct depends partly on bodily, partly on traditional heredity. PALMEN.
13. — Migration originates from an indefinable instinct. BUTTNER. 1.

Mediterranean. — Migration originates in a period when the Medi-
terranean did not exist. Wattace. 4. — The Mediterranean is passed
only at certain points. WaALLAcE. 5. — The crossing of the Mediterranean
at certain points dates from a geological period, when the Mediter-

ranean was divided by land into several basins. WEISSMANN. 0.

a 58 &

RECENSIO CONTRADICTORIA.

Meetingplaces. — Young Birds meet at certain places before starting.
EMPEROR FRepeERIC. 7. — Each species always associates separately.
EMPEROR FREDERIC. 8.

Migration (Passage).

Altitude of: Very high. BREHM Cu. L 5. -— Homever. 5. -
25000 to 35000 feet. GArke. 7 Generally lower than 1000 Metres.
Lucanus 1.

Causes of: —- Hunger and love. BReHM A. E. 4. — Food. Weis-
MANN. 10 Quest for richer food. Parker. 2. Food and _ safety.
MARTORELLI. 3. — Alimentation. MENzBIER. 3. — Readiness to change
the locality. MARTORELLI. 1.— Northward, breeding: southward, food.
MarTorELLI. 12. — Tristram. 3. — Change of temperature, subsis-

tence. EMPEROR Freperic. 6. — Warmth, light, propagation, homing
sense, sociableness, currents of air. HomMeyer. 18. — Not explicable

by want of food or currents of air. BReHM Cu. L. 15. Propagation and
food, JENNER 1. Temperature, food, wandering instinct, homing faculty.
Faser 1, 6. — Neither warmth nor want of food, but power to foresee
weather. BREHM, Cur. L. 14, 15. — Neither nourishment nor tempe-
rature, but only instinct, augmented by unconscious experience. Erk-
sTROM. |. — Food, temperature and sexual instinct. PoGGENDorrF. 1.
— A marvellous presentiment. BreHM, Cur. L. 1. — Temperature
probably only, anyhow main cause. 1. Temperature no cause. ANGoT I.
Chief reason food. Hartwica 1.

Direction of: — S. N..—W.E., S.W.—N.E,, E.N.—W.S. ete.
Influence of coasts and streams. HEuGLIN. 3. — Influence of coasts
and islands. KJAERBOLLING. 1. Influence of rivers and valleys. BreHM,
A. E. 2, 3. — Rivers are crossed. KESSLER. 9.

Evolution of: Migratory Birds originated from sedentary. FABER. 5.
— Migration originated from straggling (imperfect Migration.) Weiss-

a 59 tw 8°

RECENSIO CONTRADICTORIA.

MANN. 2. — Straggling (imperfect Migration) sprang from Migration.
Braun. 3. — Migration proper (Passage) developed from wandering.
WeEISSMANN. 12. — Migration originates from straggling (imperfect Mig-

ration). Patmen. 15. — Migration does not originate from strolling
movement, nor from heredity. GATKE. 13. — Strolling guests do not
exist. HOMEYER. 21. — The impulse of Migration is hereditary, not

cultivated. Homever. 21. (Cfr. Weissmann 12.) — Stragglers extend
the limits of the species and may create new routes of Migration. Pat-
MEN. 17. — Migration can give an impulse to the creation of new forms.
Patmen 19. — The gipsy habits of Birds are important in Migration.
BreuM, Cu L. 1.— Birds of Migration may change into sedentary Birds,
and vice versa, owing to conditions of food supply. MeNzBieR. 10. —
A period of 2000 years has sufficed for firmly establishing Migration.
PARKER. 3.——It takes a long time before Migration causes a differen-
tiation of species. MARTORELLI. 16. A rather short time is sufficient to
produce modifications in Migration. MARTORELLI. 16.

Flight of: Extremely rapid. GATKE. 6. — Not with full speed.
MIpDENDORFF. 2.

Limits of: Old birds migrate farther south than young ones. Wat-
LACE. 3. — Females migrate farther south. BREHM, Cu. L. 11. —
The higher north Birds wander, the farther south they migrate for hiber-
nation. SEEBOHM. 2. — TrisTRAM. 2. — MartoreLu. 15.

Manner of: Never on foot or swimming. HomMeyer. 27. — Some
Birds wander by walking or swimming. BreHM, Cn. L. 7.

Nature of: Birds have an impulse for Migration and a homing
sense. FaBer. 1. — The impulse of Migration is hereditary, not gained
by training. Homeyer 14, — The migratory instinct is inherited.
PaLmen. 13. — Migration became hereditary. MARTORELLI. 1. — Birds
are trained to wander. WEISSMANN. 4.

Obstacles in: Migrating Birds give way before hindrances. NAv-
MANN. 6. — Invicible hindrances cause deviation. HOMEYER. 9. —
HieRONYMus. 1.

@ 60 &

RECENSIO CONTRADICTORIA.

Order of : Land Birds travel without distinct order, others in <
order, one side being longer. Emperor Freperic. 13. — Separately
according to age; in spring old ones arrive earlier, in autumn young
ones depart earlier. GATKE. 11. — There exists a successive and by-
passing Migration. PaLmEN. 11. — There is a head-, main-, and rear-
part. Homeyer. 0.

Restingplaces on: A certain quartering system is observed by
wandering Birds. BreHM Cu. L. 13. — Along the migration route
there are certain places for rest. NAUMANN. 3. — There are regular
and irregular resting-stations. Homayer. 11. — On the way Birds stop
at quite inappropriate places. SeverTzoFF. 2. — Over unfavourable
districts Birds pass without a break. PALMEN. 8.

Routes of : Birds migrate from colder regions into warmer ones and
vice versa — passagium et reditus. Emperor Freperic. 1. — In both
seasons not the same. GATKE. 3. — The spring and autumnal Migra-
tion not always on the same route. MENzBIER. 6. — There are certain
recognized routes or highways of Migration. BreHM, Cu. L. 12. —

NauMANN. 1. — MippENDorrF. 1, 2.— WEISSMANN. 5. —— PALMEN. 3.
— Marrtoretu. 17. — Menzsier. 1. — Each species travels by its
own route. SEVERTZOFF. 1. — TrisTRAM. 4.— MeEnzsierR. 2.— Mig-

ration routes are the history of the distribution of the species. MENZ-
BIER. 5. — There are Migration-routes. Homever. 1. — GATKE. 12.
— Migration-routes scarcely exist. KessLer. 10.

Time of : There is a spring and an autumnal Migration. GATKE.
1, 2. — Smaller birds wander at dusk, large birds during the day,
strandbirds at night. Homever. 4.

Orientation. Inherited sense of orientation. WEISSMANN. 7. — Tra-
ditional heredity. PALMEN. 13. — Is not infallible. MARTORELLI. 18.

Original home (Cir. also Breeding places p. 87.) The Tropics,
from whence emigration northward took place. DEICHLER. 4. —

@ 61m

RECENSIO CONTRADICTORIA.

The breeding regions; for our Birds therefore Europe. DeEICHLER. 1.
— In the glacial period the Tropics; and: The home of our migrating
Birds are not the countries where they sojourn in summer, but sou-
thern regions. Braun. (II) 2, II (1).

Passage v. Migration.

Return. Always to the same place. Homeyer. 10.

Sense for locality and direction strongly developed. HoMeyer. 17.
(Cf. Instinct p. 89.)

Settling in the breeding region. Takes place from South to North.
WEISSMANN 11. — In certain tropical species the other way, from
North to South. Finscu. 1.

Strageling (imperfect Migration). From mountains to valleys and
vice versa. EMPEROR FREDERIC. 5. — Severtzorr. 5. — In the
Tropics from the mountains to the plains. TristRAM. 5.

Weather. \s of influence. EMpERoR FRreperic. 10. — GATKE. 5.
Is of great influence. KJAERBOLLING. 2. — Is of essential influence.
Homever. 12. — Kesster. 4, 5. —- Has no decided influence. Mar-
TORELLI. 3.

Wind. Contrary winds hinder Migration. Emperor Freperic. 11.
Birds migrate with the wind. Homeyer. 2.— Straggle with different
winds. FABER. 4. — Travel against the wind. BreHM, Cu. L. 6.

Winter. The previous winter has great influence. BreHm, Cr. L.
2. —- MippeNnporrr. 8. —- A mild winter forces on the spring Mig-
ration. FABER. 2.

The above summary is noteworthy in many respects. It proves that
besides many congruent observations and opinions, there are others
in direct contrast and nofew merely hypothetical. Really, it is a field in
which every thinking Ornithologist may create new Theses to any extent
and more or less incredible. But whether in support of real and posi-

tive knowledge, may strongly be doubted. | only remember the stri-

wo 62

RECENSIO CONTRADICTORIA.

king instances, that in the mind of some writers thousands, even hun-
dress of thousands of years were necessary to establish Migration,
whereas another is satisfied with merely 2000 years!

In looking back to the time of EMperor Freperic (XIII. century)
we have a good measure for the valuation of many facts, as well as
for the progress in our knowledge of Bird-Migration. — ,Only_per-
fectly feathered individuals migrate‘ — ,not all Birds are Birds of
Passage“, and chiefly section 14: ,,the bird at the head of the proces-
sion < is relieved, because he has the hardest work, having to consider
also dangers etc...“ This proves that the Emperor must have had on
idea of the work accomplished by the leading bird and that his opinion
on this subject is much closer to the results of modern knowledge,
than that of some ornithologists, even of modern time, who still cannot
do without the idea of leadership.

a 63 ww

oe

ts

i

CONCLUSION.

The chief object of the present paper is to intercede in favour of
the promotion of Ornithophaeonology in a manner worthy of /ts scien
tific character.

The critical Summary of categories, into which Ornithophaenology
may be divided, clearly shows that our positive knowledge of bird-migra-
tion is still a very insignificant one; that so-called sentences (dogmas)
prevail which sometimes sound very ingenious, but, critically taken, are
void of every firm foundation.

The comparatively small intrinsic contents of Ornithophaenology
are on one hand a consequence of the nature of the subject, viz. of the
fact that we are only able to make observation of fragments of mig-
ration; that the observation of this interzonal phenomenon is carried
out locally only, so that the connexion between the local phenomena
or observations, is in the highest degree a loose one; and finally that
the majority of observations in the whole is confined but to the palae-
arctic part of Europe; while on the other hand the observation lacks
all organisation, and the working up of the results is not carried out
according to a uniform method, both of which conditions are indispen-
sable to the solution of so difficult a problem.

@ 65 @ 9

CONCLUSION.

Considering this state of affairs, | propose:
1. Organisation of an international committee consisting of:
3 Ornithosystematicians
3 Ornithobiologists
3 Ornithophaenologists
3 Phytophaenologists
3 Meteorologists, who elect a president and a secretary.
2. The committee shall draw up a plan of observation of migra-
tion, chiefly in respect of
a) uniformity of data
b) uniform method of working up.
The complete plan worked out is to be brought before the V-th
Ornithological Congress.

(A 66 BW

ACAAOACOACAAOG

AAR AAA

INDEX OF AUTHORS.
(SEE ALTHEOS GENERAL INDEX.)

Angot Frederic Il, Emperor More
Bacon Gaal Naumann
Barrington Gatke Newton
Borggreve Haase Parker
Braun Haerms Palmén
Brehm, A. E. Hartmann Poggendorff
Brehm, Ch. L. Hartwig Pungur
Buda Harvie-Brown Quinet
Butterfield Hegyfoky Rudolph Cr. Pr.
Bittner Herman Schaeck
Csaté Heuglin Sharpe
Chernel Hieronymus Schenk
Cordeaux Homeyer Schlegel
Csoérgey Jenner Snouckaert
Deichler Irby Seebohm
Derham Kajgorodoff Severtzow
Dixon Kessler Southwell
Eagle-Clarke Kjaerbélling Szalay
Ekama Linné Tristram
Eckstr6m Lucanus Tschusi
Emin P. Majlath Vezényi
Ertl Marsham Wachenhusen
Faber Martorelli Wallace
Finsch Menzbier Wallengreen
Forgach Middendorff Weismann

aa

67 @ 9°

a ee —
ie .° : :
S ho 7
“s , *
ha : 4
: )
ae '
, ie a
aa
1s
; ; 7 +i
4 :
- i
,
acme
é
7 - ‘ 1o afi
y . - t
? oi,
) '
ar) “ y
Hert a t { +¢ =
= ? x eo
toe ro : 7
ne - 2 :
; thd
c 1 ' i i : '
‘ ‘

Tas i ; ;
Ee) % - oe p=

” mAs : a
, oie ! * at. i 2
fi an ia - -_ ' oa ye
Als . a. bog awe ; 3 ot nt Ly
Tw pe) OL ; : - iAH)
Petite oP. | aes tied
et ? ns - i

mh! - a > Yl ye : : a Jes 7

6. a a ic Se
Prix fi ee, + Aha ie Ate >
Pe we {ht 7 if ne - ' "Ny, Oi =

Than a, . } . iM tee eit an |
setae, fio i, - : : a ihe : - - ait oa

ius sea - } ai : “% ; '
. i, mane : 7 “buh Ge aie Ha i lg
Wari i = ) 2c we id ee he

ty apeey 7 Tae} r"

Wen E | ¢ ni
pec aii |
- aiee pie ir? © ee) ‘
1) Pe i ;
rr i ny i eee HH °- :

AML aU) Ga "Ry, ‘\

avi D orate ORIENTALI DRY, yy
FELENEK KELETERAE SEPTENTRIONALIS

a szerzok vonulasi térképadum chartas migrationis ab auctoribus Y
alapjan Gsszeallitotta: ublicatas in usum
LoGIANGARIGI ORn
Hep

HOLOGIG) CENTRALIs

ae Dall

Directiones
*——> Middendorff
++ Keszfer

-*+ Wallengreen
-o- Hartmann —>— Brehm

> Navmann +i Schlegel

3 Hieronymus --®-~ GatKe(Helgoland) et Cordeaux

—o-+ Borggreve ——> Vonulas iranya Directio

pelagicae
crave Via anatolica
ae Via tur Keata: 3
in .
Dixon ——— Severtzow -——-— Via asiaticae cente
Budapest, 1898-1904.

pra
. Pokorn y fc =i

id Conall 7 Roane BEB-< f

Sar iat

a ma te
eprigr

MVIUH RU G2799, ny
J

Wy]

IN PARTE ORIENTAL)
Vi

ORM ADARAS UI) me

ip yal De A FSLDGSMB ESZAKI
FELENEK KELET/ OLDALAN

ji? |

a szerzok vonulasi térképeinek AI
lapjan dsszedllitotta: gzPpon
[ niTHOLOGIA Kozt aan
— "eRaan ett”

MacyAR OR

—o- Borggreve

y
Helgouna) et Cordeau,
nulds iranya. Directo.
oy 1898-1804.

INDIAL- OCZEAN —

“ 5

DOM cu Ay,

oN StRo xi
me | STS fieamaie

EMISPHAERAE SEPTENTRIONALIS

ecundum chartas migrationis ab auctoribus
publicatas in usum

ARI
ORTH OLOGIg CENTRALIS

NO

Van Van tans!
GENERAL INDEX.

Pag Pag
Advance . . . te eee SO Bird phaenologcy= =. =, 22
Aeronautical A a eee 2 Birdseskinieeymesee fi: 5 Vos)
AtticassNorths "29 aaa, 38 Bodyspinaltia eaertecne eer. meee
ApierNee phe et Oo 4 eee erar Oh BORGGREVEW Ameen eee eel
AQTAN ge wet co 4 eee LO BOFNCO vee eer es yw Remeron
Alauda alauda . . . See PH BRAUN FRITZ. . . . . 48, 49
Alcedo. . . Pee er pir eo) Breeding = \2 edt 43 34
Alexander the Great weet. LS Breeding Hemisphere : . 46
Algiers. . . ahr ses | BreedinowlimitSy.s ume cane 4
Alphabetical order . Sag Alo Breeding placesean) sean ll
Alpine birdSm. = -.. . . =.40 Breedingsmplsintlives sae sees) 43
Altitude of locality . . . . 19 Breeeding region . . . 20, 42
Altitude:of Mier. .-. . . . 59 Breding=zoner i acy 20) On
Audesy 2 ss ss oe AA BREHMGAC) E=sua esis tc OG
FAN GO ACH Ae eat ce A BREHM Gi. : >.) 137934735
Authusycervinuiss: 20.) . .. 021 BUDARAy een | eo
ANCCKCIKGIe. =e 5 94 5 os 3d BUTINERRGS: |b es eno
iNmwell Sa Ig, ap ate, eee nae! Butterticld= Sah ane GC Th
Asia, Gentral, “23. 2. = | 38 Cape Blanco . rate iis»
NuSitaliamemee pete te se ac et OO Capri = we: ae Ree
PAUUHORITYS Ios 5) eet ey an ed Carolinestcem aera 50
Autumnal passage. . . OU Causal reason’. - =: =. 2 49
Autumn. routes. . Bln. 4A Cause of migr.. . aa 43
BACON OF VERULAM. .. . 9 Causes of Migr. . . 59
BARRINGTON R. M. . 51, 52, 53 Chalcococcyx lucidus ee OIL
Behrings straits. . . . . . 15 Changeset routes 2. =) 44
Biological Pathesn: Gee 5 4 19 Chelidonaria urbica . . . . 27

@ 69 @

a

GENERAL INDEX

Pag. Pag
CHERNEL I. 9 Direction migr. . 34
Chronological method 24 Direction of Migr. . 42, 59
Ciconia . 24 Directions . : 46
Ciconia alba . . Vill Disperse wandering 40
Ciconia ciconia . Pa Distinct routes . 41
Coast lines 35 DIXON . 13
Coasts . 38 EAGLE—CLARKE 53
Coincidence of routes 43 Earlier arrival 19
Colour of migr. birds 46 Eastern-sea Sf
Columba oenas . Zit ECKSTROM C. A. 35
Commensurability . 39 Eddystone 53
Comparative treatement . 30 EKAMA . wes 8
Conclusion OD Elevation SF tel,
Congress 1884 . . VIL EMPEROR PREDERIC es G35
Congress 1891 . 5 Wall EMIN PASCHA . 15, 54
Contrary winds . 34 ERTL J. 8, 24
Coordinates . . 30 Essential influence . 40
CORDEAUX 14, 53 Esthonia : 28
Coturnix coturnix . Pa | Evolution of forms 39
Crepuscular wanderer 41 Evolution of Migr.. 59
Critical control . 23 Expansion Bay 0
Crossing rivers . 36 Experience . 35, 48
Crossing the Med. Sea 5 4] Experienced birds . 4]
CsaTo J. . 9 Extravillan 24
CsOrRGEY T. . 9, 54 Eyes, sharp 4]
Cuculus canorus 2M FABER FR. 34
Cuckoo 50 Ferroystestiten. 22
Culmination . 24 Finmark—Western . 21
Cypselus . 49 FINSCH O 50
Day wanderers . 41 First comers . 37
Dates of arrival. 39 First passers . 40, 51
Dates stock . 25 Flight of Migr. . . 45, 60
Decennaries . 29 Food as chief reason. 43
DEICHLER CHR. . 49 Food, cause . 42
Depression eee PH | Foot wandering 30
Depression bad side. 27 Foresight a Wen a DS
Depression — European . . 28 FORGACH,.C, ‘COUNT < - 57. eg ao
Depression — North Africa . 28 Front migration. . . . . . 25
DERHAM .... .... . IX, 53 Front of migr. . Sa. a eto
Deviation. . . . . . . 27, 4l Gaat, GASTON DE . 8, 23
Deviation-average .. . 28 GATKE H.. 14, 45

@ 70 B®

GENERAL INDEX

Gauri Sankar
Genesis é
Geological periods

Geometrical treatement .

Geographical degree .
Geographical method .
Gibraltar

Gipsy Habits

Glacial period
Gordian Knot

Guests .

Guidance .

Haase O..

HAeERMS M.

Hagi

HARTMANN

HARTWIG .
HARVIE—BROWN
HEGYFOKY J. .

Height of Migr
Helgoland .

HENNICKE . A:
Herds of young birds
Hereditary org. .
Heredity, bodily
HERMAN O.

HEUGLIN TH.
Hibernation
Hideghavas
HIERONYMUS Dr.
High roads

Himalaya .

Hirundo rustica .
Home of birds .
Home of species
HOMEYER, E. v..
Homing-instinct
Hungarian Centre .
Hungary — Ghymes
Hunger.

Imigration .

Pag.

221, 40

. 41, 48

Imitation :
Imperfect Migration
Impulse

Impulse, hereditary
Inductive Method .
Inductive theses
Inexpressibleness
Influences .
Instinct.

Instinct, migratory .
Instinct of propagation
Instinct, undefin.
Interchange
Interval .
Intervening tracts
Interzonal observ. .
Intravillan

Inverse ratio .

IrRBY L. HOwARD
Irish coasts
Irregular migration .
Irregular passing
Isepipteses
Isohypsals
lsotheres
Isothermal progress
lsothermes

JENNER E..

Jonian islands
KAIGORODOFF
Kamtchatka
KESSLER.

Khangai

Kiew ;
KJAERBOLLING
Lado .
Land-birds
Landward direction
Later arrrival .
Lanterns AY
Latitude of locality

. 40,
34, 40,

34, 48,

20525;

GENERAL INDEX.

Latitudes, geogr.
Light cause
Lighthouses .
Light ships

Limits of Migr. .
Lines, intersection .
LINNE

Livonia.

Local memory
Longitudes, geoer..
Longwinged species
Love

LUCANUS F. .
Lulea

Lustra .

Magnetic ence!
Main-direction
Main-movement .
MAJLATH, J. COUNT
Malta

Manner of Mie
MARSHAM FAMILY
MARTORELLI G. .

Mathematical treatement .

Mediterranean and Migr
Mediterranean Sea .
Meetingplaces

Memory

MENZBIER .

Meteorology .

Method

MIDDENDORFF A.
MIDDDENDORFF Ms
Migrating direction
Migration . a
Migration, beginning .
Migration-condition
Migration order

14, 36, <

Migration routes 38, 49, 43, 45,

Migration in tribes

Migratory-birds, number.

Migratory part
Moon, dark phases
MORE

Motacilla .
Motacilla alba
Movement, to and fro
Mystery

Nature of Migr.
NAUMANN .
Necessity .

Netz

New Giledeniae
New Guinea.
NEWTON A.
Newton’s law
New Zealand
Nidification

Night migration

Nocturnal wanderers .

Northern Hemisphere
Northward Mier.
Nutrition . :
Observation sense
Obstacles .
Obstacles in Migr.
Old birds .

Old routes

Order, arrive.
Order of Migr. .
Orientation
Orientation sense .
Original home .
Oriolus oriolus .
Ornithophaenology
Oscillation

Oscillation—~ arrival
Oscillation, trifling
Oscillation Wallace .

Over-crowding .
Pacitic .

; 14

25, 36,

Palaeontological diseovene

72 B®

Palau

PALMEN J. A.
PARKER, H.

Parus

Passage

Passage bird.
Passing Birds
Passagium

Passer .

Peculiarities of ihe! feiite
Pekin

Pentades . f
Permanent Garmmiltes
Persian Gulf.
Phaenological part.
Places for rest .
Plant phaenology .
POGGENDORF
Pommerania .

Power of flight
Preglacial period
Preliminary condition
Presentiment .

Presentiment f. weather .

Propagation .

Proper direction
PUNGUR J. :
,Quadrat System“ .
Quartermaker
QUINET

Range of the species
Rapidity of flight .
Ras Osmara .
Rearguard

Reditus

Regions, Herman .
Relative height .
Repletion .

Reports on Migr.
Restingplaces on iter
Resting stations

GENERAL INDEX.

Pag. Pag

155. 160) Rettintiee = eer et eet eer oON Oe
lass Ridges... : : haart.)
42 Routes of Mig : 13, 37, 43, 61

Male Doe Q) RUDOLPH CReiP2e. =. VIL
. 4, 41, 59 Sarajevo meeting . . . . . VIIl
33 SGHAECK@DE way anette fe 22

20 SCHENK JACOB. . . SORES,

oo SCHEEGE mre TH Fea bal

49 Scolopax rusticolay peu lp a7.

4] Sedentary birds. . . . . . 44

15 SEEBOHM HENRY ... . . 44

26 Seebohmilaw. =). » 4i6 =) 45
VIL Sense for locality: emye. vss 02

15 SensitivenesS 2a):) te. ci) 1 teu a40

19 Separate «mips eee. laee-n eee!

35 SerVideeea ae ee i ae

22 Settlinoee mere te ee eae OZ

35 Settling: sareatems oe eesieZ0)
a28 Settlinoy repionuemre ye pep ete.
5, 19 SEVERTzow N. . .. . . 14, 40
49 SEX ty. ee ee 57

2) 41649 Sexual instinct 3 2". 35, 45
7 3551/36 SHARPE (Rz Boa) ee eee AL
4] Sicily; ss, I eer 40

48 Simultaneous data. . . . . 29
HPD Simultaneous arriv. . . - . 42
8, 30 SNOUCKAERT BR. . . .. Bb erits}
24 Sociablemessia 2. ken teas beret

35 Southern Hemisphere . . . 45

14 Southward Migr. . . . . . 44

43 SOUTHWELL . . . . OO

45 Space-moment . . ... . 38

15 Special organs’; . =: = =. 19

Al Speculative Method . . . . 23

Jo Spring routes: (2-22). =. 49

25 Stork eee oe VII 24

52 Stowing . ... . Do

20 Stragelers#a eee ees an oo

a3 Stravclingw eee 02

61 Straggling guests . . . . . 42

42 Streams infl. .. , . . 38

wm 73 2 10

Sturnus sturnus
Subalpine stations .
Subsistence-cause .
Successive generations
Summer population
Summer visitor .
Swallow
Swimming
Swimming wand.
System of routes .
SZALAY E.
Temperature .
Temperature-cause .
Tertiary age .
Theses .
Time-moment
Time of Migr.
Training . . .
Transpiptera sylvia
Travel .

Tribes.

TRISTRAM .
Tropical birds
Tropical climate
Tropic of Cancer .
Thrushes ,
TSCHUSI VON
Turdus merula .
Turtur turtur.
Typical series

GENERAL INDEX

Pag. Pag.

oT Unknown regions . 34

20 Unobservable Migr. 45

33 Upupa epops 27

44 Urodynamis taitiensis 50

44 Valleys infl. . 38

F250) Vanellus vanellus . 27

VIM, 21 Vanguard . 41

42 VEZENYI A. : 8

35 Viae subcontinentales 43

16 Viae marinae subl. 43

Ln ee 8 Viae transitoriales . 43

38, 46, 47 WACHENHUSEN VON 8

33 Walking : 42

50 WALLACE R. A. . 40

17 W ALLENGREEN 14

~ VA? Warmth, cause . ‘2 42

42, 61 Weather . 34, 62

42 Weather, influence 36, 37, 40, 42

50 Weather, prognosticon 35

a7 WEISMAN AUG. . me 2

20 Wind . oy DilenO2

44 Wind infl . Sy/

47 Wind, with the. 41

49 Winter . ; 62

15 Winter population 44

44 Winter-quarters . 37

9 Winter, severe 25

51 Wonderfullness . 5

o7 Yap . , 2 eee 50

39 Young birds . 33, 40, 51
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