THE LIBRARY

OF

THE UNIVERSITY

OF CALIFORNIA

PRESENTED BY

PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND

MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID

THE RELATION

OF

ANIMAL DISEASES TO THE
PUBLIC HEALTH,

AND THEIR PREVENTION.

BY

FRANK S. BILLINGS, D. V. S.,

C&.VOCATB OF THE P.KYAL VETKRISART INSTITtTTB OT BKSLI.N ; MEMRCR OF THE ROYAL VETEBINART

ASSOCIATIu:< OF THE PROVINCE OF RRAN'DKNBURO ; HOJJORART MEMBER OF TUE

VETERINARY SOCIETY OF MOXTBEAL, CANADA, ETC.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETOX AND COMPANY,

I, 8, A!«D 5 BOND STREET.
1884.

COPYKIGHT, 1884,

By D. APPLETON AOT) COMPANY.

IN MEMORY OF

ANDREAS CnRISTIAN GERLACII,

L.VTE DIRECTOR OF THE ROYAL VETERINARY ISSTITI'TE,
BERLIN, PRCSSIA,

TO WnOSE EXAMPLE, LOVE, AND SYMPATHY

THE ATTIIOR OWES WHAT LITTLE ABILlfV HE POSSESSES,

THIS BOOK IS AFFKOTIONATELT

Q tbicattb.

\

710 •

PEE FACE

»

This book is written for the benefit of the people of the
rniteJ States, Its purpose is to intruduce to every thinking
man and woman of the country a new subject, the higher pur-
poses of Veterinary Medicine. It is a work which treats of the
Prevention of Diseases, not their Treatment. AVhile at times
the language of the author may appear uimecessarily severe to
the casual reader, he should not forget that the author is an
enthusiast ; that he has given his life and energies to the sub-
ject of the establishment of Veterinary Science in this country ;
and that the evils so sev^erely combated are not " straw men,"
the creations of a vivid imagination, but actual evils that, unless
prevented, will work most serious injury to the country in the
not distant future. All that the author asks is calm reflection
and an honest verdict upon his work.

CONTENTS.

PART I.

PAGE

The Diseases of Domestic Animals ...... 1

TrichiniasU of Man and Animals ...... 2

The Intestinal Trichinae . ..... 11

Trichiniasis in Swine ....... 15

Trichina; in American Pork . . . .18

Examinations of American Pork ...... 20

American llogs much more infected than European . . .26

The Di.-iease in Swine ....... 28

Prevention of Trichiniasis in Swine ...... 31

The Microscopic Examination of Pork ..... 32

Objects which may be mistaken for Trichinae, or not recognized as such . 34

Trichiniasis in Man ....... 36

Prevention of the Disease in Man ...... 40

Hog-Cholera . . . . . . . 41

Etiology . . . . . . . . .41

Bacillus suis ........ 43

Influence of Season and Temperature ...... 44

Incubation ......... 45

Pathological Anatomy ........ 47

Microscopic Observations ....... 48

Prevention of the Disease ....... 50

Disease of Cattle ...... .52

Tuberculosis in Cattle . . . . . . .61

Statistics as to its Prevalence . . . . . 71

Infection .......... 74

Bacteria ......... 79

Classification of Bacteria ....... 80

Distinction of Bacteria from Inorganic Objects .... 84

Dissemination of Bacteria in Different Media . .86

Nutrition of Bacteria ....... 86

Reproduction of Bacteria ....... 88

Reproduction by Spores ....... 89

The Action of Bacteria with reference to Contagious and Vinilcnt Disea.scs . 89
Dispersion of Bacteria and their Entrance into the Animal Organism 94

Infection of the Animal Organism ...... 98

Disinfection ........ 100

Vlll

CONTENTS.

The Diseases of Domestic Animals:
Anthrax and Anthracoid Diseases

History , . . .

Etiology

Nature of the Infectious Elements

Appearance and Extension .

Phenomena of the Disease

Pathological Anatomy

Prognosis

Diagnosis

Prevention

Therapeutics .

Immunity
Anthrax in Man

Etiology ....

Symptoms and Course

Therapeutics
Anthracoid Diseases
Emphysema infectiosum
Texas Fever of Cattle .

Definition

Etiology

Stages of the Disease

Phenomena during Life

Post-mortal Phenomena .

Microscopic Examination

Prophylaxis
Diseases of the Dog
Rabies
Hydrophobia in France

Phenomena of Canine Eabies

Prevention
Diseases of the Horse
Glanders

Transmission to other Animals

Geographical Distribution

Etiology .

Tenacity of the Contagium .

Natural Infection

Disposition, Immunity

Phenomenology .

Duration of the Disease
Acute Nasal Glanders
Pulmonary or Chronic Glanders

Pathological Anatomy

Infiltrated Neoplasmatic Processes

Diagnosis

Prognosis

Prevention
Glanders in Man

Cause . . . .

Acute Glanders in Man
Chronic Glanders in Man .

CONTENTS. ix

PART II.

PAOK

History of Veterinart Mepicink ...... 209

The Establishment or thk Veterinary Schools .... 2t)3

The Veterinarv Schools of Friince ...... 2G4

The Veterinary In-ititutc at Vienna ..... 280

Short Notiees of the Schools of Belgium, Sweden, Russia, and Norwny . 2'.)1

The Schools of Germany ....... 29!»

Stuttgart ......... 2t'9

Ilanover ......... 30t

Munich ......... 308

The Veterinary Institutions of Prussia ..... 321

The Prussian Laws for Suppression of Contagious Animal Diseases . .310

The Laws and Regulations for Rinderpest . . . . . 311

Special Regulations to prevent the Introduction of the Rinderpest from

Foreign Countries . . . . . . . .34-3

Regulations with reference to Rinderpest in Germany . . . 344
Regulations to be put in force after the Rinderi)est has been declared

ended ......... 347

Restrictions with reference to Use of Animals having Contagious Diseases 350

Anthrax ......... 851

Contagious Plcuro-pneumonia ...... 355

Glanders ......... 367

Variola of Sheep ........ 360

Rabies . . . " . . .362

Disinfectants ........ 864

PART III.

The Means of Prevention ....... 368

A National Veterinary Police System ...... 368

The Foundation of Veterinary Schools in the United States . . . 390

State Veterinary School.^ . . . . . . . 415

A National Veterinarv Institute . . . . . . .419

IlYER^ri.

:s££ooz r^

PART I.
THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AK'BIALS.

TuE subject of the relation of animal diseases to the public
health, while not by any means unknown to hygienists, is still one
whicli has not until the last few ycai"s attracted the scientific study
which its importance demands. This is mainly due to the practical
tendency which has prevailed in all veterinary schools, and which
has been pushed, to the undue neglect of scientific investigation.
Thankfully, the day of the school empiric is fast drawing to a close,
and the rising sun of scientific research is beginning to dispel the
fogs of tradition and the apathy of self-content which has rested
upon veterinary medicine.

The day has come when veterinary medicine is beginning to
make its power felt, and to take its tnie place as a scientific institu-
tion among the nations of the world.

We have all been taught that the first commandment is "to
have no other gods besides me." But without desiring to enter
into the discussion of religious questions, the hygienist may say
that, while this may be very important to the spiritual man, the
earthy man has also certain positive responsibilities to himself,
which find their expression in the command, " Man, know thyself."
This commandment seems to be a stranger to the minds of most
men, for how little do wo know of the physiological laws which
control that complicated machine, the animal organism, or of the
means by which we can in a large measure prevent diseases, not
only among ourselves, but among our animals! The majority of
our people assume that the nucleus of all knowledge is to be found
somewhere in that record of Jewish history, the Christian Bible.

"With reference to the prevention of human diseases from causes
to be sought in the animal world, either directly or indirectly, we
find, however, but little of practical value in that book. The in-

2 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

structions of Moses to the Jews have far more to do with certain
superstitions ideas of the cleanliness or uncleanliness of certain spe-
cies of animals as unfitting them for food than with any true
knowledge of their non-hygienic character. Enthusiastic but blind
worshipers have even gone so far as to assert that Moses must have
known that trichinae existed in pork, hence his forbidding its use
as food. But they do not stop to think that these parasites require
a microscope for their detection, an instrument which was not known
to man until thousands of years after the books of Moses were writ-
ten. That the flesh of diseased animals was unfit for human food
did not entirely escape the attention of the Israelitic legislator ; but
his restrictive utterances were limited to his own people. He tells
the chosen of the Lord that : " Ye shall not eat of anything that
dieth of itself ; thou shalt give it unto the stranger that is in thy
gates, that he may eat it j or thou may est sell it unto an alien j for
thou art an holy jpeojple unto the Lord thy GodP — See Deut. xiv, 21.

Numerous passages, which command that all blood must be re-
moved from the body before using it, lead us to infer that all such
articles were to be well cooked before being eaten, and that raw or
underdone meats were an abomination to the Jews, as they should
be to all people.

Plutarch asks : "Why is it that the priests of Jupiter are forbid-
den to touch raw flesh ? " And answers : " Raw flesh is no more a
living creation, and is unfit to eat. Cooking gives it another form."

]^ot only is human life endangered by the consumption of prod-
ucts from previously diseased animals, or from the consumption of
improperly cooked flesh, but quite a number of animal diseases are
capable, by intentional or accidental means, of transmission to man.
Yirchow has said that " man is far more susceptible to infection
from animal diseases than the latter from similar diseases of man."

TRICHINIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS.

There is, perhaps, no one disease of our domestic animals which
enjoys a more sensational reputation, or which has been more thor-
oughly investigated, than the disease of swine caused by the parasite
trichina spiralis. There is none more worthy of the attention of the
public or the hygienist. Although the literature* treating upon

* The American student will find the best compilation that exists on this subject in
the " Report on Trichinge and Trichinosis," Glazier. 1881. Published by the United
States Marine-Hospital Service.

TRICniXIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 3

this disease is of comparatively modern date, still we have no justi-
fiable reason for doubting the presence of these parasites in swine
at a very early date, and also that the consecutive disease in man
must have existed for years, if not centuries, before it came to sci-
entific recognition; I am inclined to think, almost coeval with the
consumption of pork as food. In this opinion I find myself op-
posed by many distinguished observers ; but the fact that trichinae
were not discovered earlier than 1831 does not at all militate against
my conclusions. They simply were not suspected. Every fact in
connection with the history of the parasite — its minuteness, the un-
certainty of its pathognomonic phenomena in man, and still more
so in the hog, which render ditticult the correct diagnosis of trichi-
niasis — supports my hypothesis.

Ililler* says: "The history of this disease can be appropriately
divided into three periods, the first beginning with the discovery,
or observation, of the capsule — the parasite not being recognized —
in 1S21-'2S, including the description of the same by Dr. Hilton,
of Guy's Hospital, London, England, in 1S35.

'• The second period extends from 1835, when Paget discovered
the encapsulated parasite and Owen described it, giving to it its
name, 'trichina spiralis,' to the first authentic observation of the
disease in a human being, and the direct establishment of its con-
nection with a parasitic disease of swine which took place in 1860.

" This begins the third period in the history of trichina spiralis —
the period of active scientific investigation — which is by no means
at an end, and which awaits its conclusion in the discovery of the
original source whence swine derive the parasite."

In the mean time, Professor Leidy, of Philadelphia, was the first
to discover the parasite in the flesh of the hog in 1867. It is a
singular fact that this discovery should have been made by means
of an American hog.

The principal workers in this important field of helminthic re-
search have been Owen, Cobbold, Bristow, and others, in Britain ;
and Leuckart, Virchow, Zenker, Kiichenmeister, and the veterinari-
ans Gerlach and Fiirstenberg, in Germany.

Cobbold t describes the parasite as follows : " Trichina sjnralis is
an extremely minute nematode lielminth, the male in its fully de-
veloped and sexually matured condition measuring only one eigh-
teenth of an inch, while the perfectly developed female reaches a
length of about one eighth ; body rounded and filiform, usually
slightly bent on itself, rather thicker behind than in front, espe-

* Ziem?3cn's " Encyclopscdia of Medicine," vol. iii. f " Entozoa," p. 335.

4: THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

cially in the males ; head narrow, finely pointed, unarmed, with a
simple, central, minute oval aperture ; posterior extremity of the
male furnished with a bilobed caudal appendage, the cloacal or
anal aperture being situated between these divergent appendages ;
penis consisting of a single spicule, cleft above, so as to assume a
V-shaped outline ; female stouter than the male, bluntly rounded
posteriorly, with genital outlet placed forward at about the end of the
first fifth of the long diameter of the body. Eggs measuring y^w
of an inch from pole to pole ; mode of reproduction viviparous."

" The shell-less ova develop into minute embryos immediately on
fructification, and completely fill the uterus of the female, and are
born in immense numbers." * " The embryos measure, previous to
birth, about ten micrometres in length, and five to six in transverse
diameter. The study of the structure of the embryo is almost im-
possible so long as it is retained within the body of the maternal
parasite. Here it resembles a delicate thread, having a somewhat
uniform granular appearance, which becomes less distinct as devel-
opment progresses. In the older embryos — extra-maternal — we
may perceive a very delicate cuticle and an axial line running
through the body ; the extremities are more or less blunt, and not
easily to be distinguished as to which is the posterior or anterior
end of the parasite. In the intestines the embryos measure about
0*1 mm. in length, sometimes more, and have a transverse diameter
of about 6 /i." (Pagenstecker.)

" Within the abdominal cavity they may be found to measure
from 0*12 to 0*16 mm. in length, with a transverse diameter of 8 fju.
They have scarcely ever been seen less than 0"12 mm. in length
when in the muscles. Comparison with mature trichinae indicates
that the slenderer of the two extremities is the head."

" The posterior extremity possesses more rigidity than the ante-
rior, and also seems to have a backward and forward motion. The
rigid condition of the terminal end of the parasitic embryo corre-
sponds with the situation, or limits, of the axial line, which is looked
upon as the rudimentary alimentary canal. The anterior portion of
the embryo is not granulous, but clear, being only modified by a
delicate chitin thread which is continuous with the cuticle, and con-
stitutes the first indication of the chitinous lining of the oval cavity.
As development progresses, this axial line divides into two parts ;
the anterior portion corresponds to the so-called cell-body of the
mature parasite, and the posterior to the stomach, intestines, etc.
The sexual organs can not, as yet, be distinguished. The embryos
* Leuckart, "Die menschlichen Parasiten," vol. ii, p. 512.

TRICniNIASIS OF M.VN AND ANIMALS. 5

may be met with not only in the abdominal cavity of the autosite,
but also in tlie thoracic and pericardial sac, and in such numbers
that these places may be looked upon as normal resting-places for
the embryos on their migrations ON'er the infected organism. In
general we lind them far more numerously represented in the ab-
dominal cavity, which corresponds exactly with our knowledge of
their activity, for it is here that they must first come after passing
the intestinal parietes on their migrations. From here they pass on
to the other cavities b}' means of the natural openings, or ostia,
through which the oesophagus and large vessels pass thi'ough the
diaphragm. These vessels are loosely surrounded by connective
tissue, which others favorable conditions for the passage of the para-
sites. From these cavities the embryos follow the course of the
larger vessels and nerves over the body, the loose connective tissue
offering the favorable conditions. The duration of the migratory
period can not be determined with any great degree of accuracy ;
but it is undoubtedly very short, as embryos have been found in
the thoracic cavity, the pericardial sac, and adjoining muscles, as
early as in the abdomen. The majority of observer seem to agree
in considering the ninth or tenth day of invasion as terminating the
migratory period — that is, when but a single invasion has taken
place."

" The end)ryos display no distinguishable changes either in size
or structure during the period of migration. The first appreciable
changes occur after they have reached the muscles, and have be-
come lodged in their fibers."

" When they have penetrated the fiber — that is, become intra-
sarcolemmatous — the protoplasma of the muscle-cell undergoes cer-
tain pathological changes, which exactly correspond to the fatty de-
generation observed in parenchymatous myositis. A proliferation of
the nuclei is quite common, if not an invariable phenomenon. Like
all tissues which have undergone fatty degeneration of their plasma,
such fibci-s are darker, less refracting, than those which have not
been subjected to parasitic invasion. Such fibers lose their con-
tractility. When cut transvei*sely, the swollen jiarenchyma extends
beyond the sarcolemmatous sheath, and if the trichina be near the
section, it often extends free, or becomes free, with the protruded
plasma. It is doubtful whether the triehinaj live upon the elements
of the plasma while lodged in the fii)er, as they are in an appar-
ently chrysalis condition. This fatty degeneration of the paren-
chyma seems to offer no impediment to a second invasion of the
fiber."

6 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

" While previous to migration the embryo shows a somewhat
slender form, it soon becomes thicker, or more rotund, its trans-
verse diameter beiag nearly double that which it had before migra-
tion. Its anterior portion becomes more slender and resembles that
of the mature parasite. The posterior end becomes more blunt.
Progressive changes also take place in the axial line, the different
organs becoming distinct ; especially is this the case in the cell-
body. The primitive sexual gland is to be seen as an elongated
sac ; the pointed anterior end extends beyond the stomach in the
females, and turns abruptly backward in the males. The oval cav-
ity has a proportionate length, and over its middle distinctly shows
the first traces of a nervous system, which in the form of an oval
enlargement, cervical gangUon, is to be distinguished from the cy-
lindrical mass."

" With the progressive development of the internal organs comes
a corresponding increase of the external dimensions of the parasite.
It increases more in length than thickness, and its previous rotund
form becomes more slender. At the same time the body becomes
curved, and after a while assumes an irregular, spiral position —
trichina spiralis. They begin to assume this position the earliest in
the larger fibers ; but it occurs in all, even when the lumen scarcely
exceeds the transverse diameter of the parasite. In the vicinity
of the parasite the sarcolemmatous sheath invariably becomes dis-
tended, owing to the lateral pressure exerted by the parasite. The
spindle shape of the tube is due to the elasticity of the sarcolemma ;
but, as it becomes thicker and clouded, proliferation must take place
as well. The intra-sarcolemmatous, or capsular, development of the
parasite terminates in about three weeks from the time of its in-
vasion of the fiber."

" The enlargements of the sarcolemma — capsules — vary much
in form and size. Sometimes they are far more cylindrical and
elongated than at others, and again one end may be elongated and
the other bluntly rounded."

" The capsules are surrounded by a rete of capillaries, which can
be injected. A growth in length and thickness, due to the irrita-
tion caused by the parasite, gives them a very ramified character."

In this condition the parasites are known as " muscle trichinae " ;
but when in the intestines of an autosite, as " intestinal trichinae."
In the first form they make their abode entirely in the striated, or
motory, muscles — the flesh. They have not been met with in an
encapsulated condition, either in the non-striated muscles or in
purely adipose tissue.

TRICmNIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 7

"While this seems to be tlie opinion of almost all observers,
durin<^ my observations in 1879, and again in ISSl, I frequently
found encupsuled trichiniii in the midsit of purely adipose tissue,
hetween muscle-Jibers of very fat hogs ; iiever^ however, in the adi-
pose tissue which lies upon musculature. Since then, other observ-
ers have rei^orted the same thing. In a letter, read at the ninth
annual meeting of the American Public Health Association, held
at Savannah, Georgia, in 1881, emanating from the Department of
Agriculture, dated October 20, 1881, the author, with the custom-
ary ignorance and consequent impudence of an American politician,
says, in answer to the question, " Are trichintii found in the fat ? "
" I have until now thought not. Professor Taylor, of this depart-
ment, tells me that in the ' Journal of the Microscopical Associa-
tion' he has recently seen that they have heen found in fat. I
should rather see than believe without so doing.''^

I think this is easily explained. The great amount of fatty in-
filtration had caused absorption of the plasma, and atrophy of the
fibers by compression, which was, however, resisted by the greater
density of the sarcolemma in the vicinity of the parasite, and also
by the latter itself. Xo other explanation seems to me possible, for
the capsules were comparatively perfect.

The encapsuled parasites may be met with in the striated mus-
cles of all parts of the body, such as the digital muscles, those of
the abdominal walls, of the extremities, the eye, the ear, the larynx
and pharynx, the tongue, oesophagus, and the diaphragm ; but the
heart seems to be a favored locality, for they have only been found
in its flesh in very isolated cases.

In making examinations of the CBsophageal muscles of a rabbit
that had been fed with infected pork, I was much struck "with the
abruptness with which I met trichinse, in passing in review a mi-
croscopical section of the oesophageo-cardiac portion of the stomach,
when one passed from the fibers ])roper to the stomach to those of
the oesophagus ; in fact, trichinae could be seen in the striated fibers
of the latter, where they intruded between the non-striated of the
former ; but in no case were there any to be seen in the smooth, or
inorganic fibers.

These parasites are not, however, equally distributed over the
musculature of the autosite, but, on the contrary, appear to have
their favorite places of abode. They have a predilection for the
muscles of the anterior part of the body; of these, those of the
tongue, larynx and pharynx, and masticator}* muscles are especially
favored. The muscles of the rump are more profusely invaded

8 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

than those of the extremities. Very few have been discovered in
the tail of any animal. In the extremities, the parasites are found
to be more abundant where the muscle-fibers begin to lose them-
selves in their tendinous extension than in the body of the muscle.
]^umerous estimates have been published by different observers
as to the percental invasion of the different muscle-groups, several
of which may be given here.

Microscopic specimens,* of an average length of two centimetres
and a width of one centimetre, were taken from the flesh of several
hogs which had been found triehinous.

Eighty sjDecimeus taken from hog 'No. 1 gave the following :

a. Pillars of diaphragm 12 trichinse.

&. Muscles " 4 "

c. " larynx. 1 "

d. " ribs None.

e. " tongue "

/. " neck "

g. " eye and overarm "

Sixty specimens from hog Ko. 2 :

a. Pillars of diaphragm 10 trichinaB.

&. Muscles " 6

c. " larynx 2 "

d. " ribs None.

e. " tongue "

/ " eye '"

g. " overarm and neck "

Forty from hog 'No. 3 :

a. Pillars of diaphragm 40 trichinse.

&. Muscles " 25

c. " larynx 4 "

d. " ribs 6 "

e. " tongue 8 "

/. " neck, eye, and overarm 2 "

Forty from hog No. 4 :

a. Pillars of diaphragm 40 trichinse.

h. Muscles " 30 "

c. " larynx 10 "

d. " ribs 10

e. " tongue 6 "

/. " overarm -. 2 "

* " Mittheilungen aus. d. thierarzlichen Praxis im Preussischen Staate," 18V7-"78,
p. 99.

TRICHINIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 9

According to Gerlach : *

One jj:raiii of flesh taken from tlio

Psoas luuscle coutuiued IGl tricluuo).

Diaphragm muscle . " 129 ''

Laryngeal " " 120 "

Tongue " " 105 "

Orbital " " C4

Abdominal " " 54 "

Mas.-^etor " " 45 "

Lips, near snout '• 43 "

Serratus magnns " 39 "

Pectoralis major " 33 "

CEsophagus, anterior to the diaphragm " 31 "

" posterior " " 1 "

Pelvi-femoral muscle " 20 ''

Tibial " " 26 "

Longissimus-dorsi muscle " 20 "

Soapulo-humeral " " 18 "

Radio-ulnar " " 17 "

Metatarsal " " 9 "

Intercostal " " 8 "

Small muscle of ear " 2 "

" tail " 1 "

Kriimerf gives the following as the results of examining one
gramme of tiesh from different parts :

From the biceps contained 420 trichina).

" raasseter " 213 "

" genio-glossus " 188 "

" gastrocnemius " 186 "

" sterno-mastoid " 171 "

" pectoral " 148 "

'• diapliragm " 129 "

" crico-tliyroid " 124 "

" intercostal " 113 "

" rectus abdominis " lOO "

'* psoas " 105 "

" tongue " 58 "

" laryngeal " 21

Not having any opportunity to make detailed examinations of
the muscles of any whole or single hog, I could not make any per-
sonal observations of the percental di^-jK^i'sion of the trichinae over
the different muscle-groups or parts of the organism.

Coming upon a piece of a pillar of the diaphragm which was
wonderfully infected, I made the following numerical observation

* " Die Trichinon." f " Deutsche Klinik," July and August, 1872.

10 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

(in fact, I never saw among all my examinations a piece of pork so
completely filled with these pests ; capsules with four trichinae in
them were by no means seldom) : '05 (5 centigrammes) contained
at least 50 trichinag. One gramme would therefore contain 1,000,
and 4 grammes, or a drachm, 4,000, and a pound of such pork
would contain at least 400,000, and, if we assume the muscles of a
hog to weigh 100 pounds, its organism — were equal dispersion pos-
sible—would contain 40,000,000.

The immense multitude of these parasites which may be found
infecting a sing-le oro^anism is still more wonderful than their wide

O C5 O

dispersion over the autosite.

Leuckart estimates that, in some of the cases which have come
under his observation, a single gramme of flesh lodged from twelve
to fifteen hundred ; and assuming the muscles of a man to weigh
forty j)ounds, the number of these parasites infecting a human or-
ganism at such a ratio would sum up some thirty millions.

In Zenker's case — to be especially noticed later — Fiedler calcu-
lated that the woman must have lodged some ninety-four millions ;
and Cobbold assumes that one hundred millions of the encapsulated
parasites may sometimes infect one organism at the same time.

Leuckart again says that no one would look upon the foregoing
as exaggerated estimates who, like himself, had found some sixty
trichinse in ten milligrammes of muscle.

In a report of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, it was esti-
mated that one cubic inch of pork, examined under its auspices,
contained some ten thousand, and that a person consuming the
ordinary amount of such fiesh, taken at a single meal, would intro-
duce into his organism more than one million trichinae.

Kauch found numerous trichinae infecting the muscles of a hog.
Of three hundred microscopic specimens, they failed in but tliree.
In some he found thirty in one focus ; in others, but five or six ex-
amples. As in seventy specimens weighing one gramme three hun-
dred and fifty trichinae were found, one pound would contain one
hundred and seventy-five thousand ; and one hundred pounds, sev-
enteen million five hundred thousand. In many cases, however,
the parasites are much less frequently met with ; and one has to
search through many microscopic specimens before meeting with
any, and then only with isolated examples.

"When sufficient time has elapsed from the invasion of the mus-
cles and formation of the capsules, the same may be recognized
microscopically as small, white specks. Such muscles appear as if
sprinkled with grains of white salt or sand. The calcification of

TRICniXIASIS OF M-VX AND ANIMALS. H

the capsule begins about the fifth month subsequent to the invasion
of the muscles.

It lias been said by some observers that the trichinae capsules in
the hog do not calcify ; others aflSrm the contrary. The polari-
scope, liowever, will reveal tlie presence of calcareous salts in the
capsule if sutHcicnt time has elaj)sed since invasion. The reason
they may not be easily recognized microscopically must be souglit
intlie influence on the salts of the fatty oils in the porcine organism,
which renders the crystals less visible.

The Intestinal Tkichinje.

So long as the trichinjB remain encapsulated in the fibers of the
muscle, their condition remains unchanged. They make no progress
in their development, irrespective of the number of years that they
may have been imprisoned. They have been seen in an active — i. e.,
capable of progressive — development, under favorable conditions,
thirteen, twenty, and even twenty-four years from the time invasion
took place.

a. In 1861 a woman was admitted into the hospital at Altona, Ger-
many, suffering from a mammary cancer, which had been develop-
ing some twelve years. On its removal and subjection of its tissues
to microscopic examination, the presence of trichinje in the muscle-
fibers was manifested. On inquiry, it was ascertained that in 1856
the woman had resided at Davenport, Iowa, where she was taken
suddenly very ill, gastric and rheumatic phenomena being the most
prominent of any, together with oedema of various parts and para-
lytic phenomena. Her brother, with whom she resided, was at-
tacked in a similar but less severe form at the same time. The
woman died at the Altona Hospital in 1864, and an examination of
lier muscles revealed the presence of great numbers of encapsulated
trichinae. A cat fed with pieces of these muscles died in the course of
sixteen days, its muscles being repletely infected with these parasites.

h. Virchow reports a case where, after the lapse of thirteen years
and a half the parasites moved in their capsules on prolonged ex-
posure to the heat of the sun.

c. Klopsch reports a case of trichiniasis, with complete recovery,
which took place in 1842. The parasites were discovered in the
muscles of the individual twenty-four years afterward. This dis-
covery was also made on the excision of a mammary cancer. At
the same time that this woman was ill, two persons in the same
house became sick under similar conditions. Both died. (Virchow's
" Archiv," Bd. 35, p. 609.)

12 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

d. Professor Dammau,* formerly of the Elclena Agricultural
Academy, reports a very interesting case, illustrating the longevity
and tenacity of life of embryonal tricliinse in the muscles of a hog.

This hog was fed with trichinous meat in November, 1S6J:, and
in February, 1865, presented to the experiment station at Eldena.
Since that time the animal had been kept isolated, unless removed
from its pen for examination. On February 3, 1875, and February
12, 1876, Dammau removed a small piece of flesh from the shoulder.
At both times trichinae were found. A considerable piece of flesh
was removed and fed to two rabbits, and eighteen days subse-
quently their muscles were found to be j)lentifully invaded with
trichinse.

This case demonstrates, beyond all question, the presence of
living trichinse, which were caj)able of maturing, fructifying, and
developing young when fed to other animals, after a period of
eleven years and a quarter from the time that the invasion of the
hog took place.

Although the encapsulated trichinse suffer no changes while
confined in the muscles of an autositic organism, yet the introduc-
tion of portions of such muscles into the intestinal tract of man, or
other suitable animal, causes rapid changes in their condition. The
processes of digestion soon set the imprisoned parasites free from
their capsules, three to four hours being sufficient for the purpose.
The freed parasites rapidly complete their development to mature
trichinae, thirty to forty hours being enough. In cases of fresh in-
vasion, when the capsules have not become very hardened, twenty-
four hours have been found sufficient to demonstrate the presence
of sexually matured trichinae in the intestines of animals fed with
such flesh by way of experiment. Still, we may often find trichinae
inclosed in their capsules on the third day after feeding infected
flesh to an animal.

There is scarcely another helminth by which this matured stage
in its development is reached in so short a period.

Under these circumstances it is self-evident that the changes
necessary to maturity by these parasites must be of a very insignifi-
cant character.

As a rule, sexual connection takes place within two days from
the time the trichinae become free.

The parasite increases in length and thickness, and in the fe-
male the uterus fills with fructified ova, which soon develop into
embryos still inclosed in the maternal worm.

* "Zeitschrift fiir prac. Thi«rlieilkundc," ISYG, vol. iii, p. 92.

TRICHINIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 13

The female intestinal or matured parasite lives from five to six
weekr;, and produces at least fifteen Imndred embryos. (Leuckart.)

The newly burn embryos are at first buried in the mucus which
lines the intestinal canal ; a microscopic examination of such mucus,
at this time, will reveal them as free and niovaldc parasites. The
embryos soon begin their migration and dispei*si(.)n over the organ-
ism, the first act being the penetration of the intestinal parietes. It
seems to be still a matter of discussion as to the means or ways
by which further migration takes place. Some authorities, in fact,
all the most eminent, favor the view that the parasites proceed by
the way of the mesenterium and connective-tissue tracts over the or-
ganism, and penetrate the sarcolemma, or sheath of the muscle-fibers.

Another view, the possibility of which is conceded by the
above-named authors to a minor degree, is that the embryos gain
access to tlie circidation, and are transported over the organism by
the moving fluid, boring the smaller vessels at convenience, and
thus gaining access to the muscles. (Thudicum.)

AVere this the principal j^ath of dispersion, we ought to be able
to discover numerous examples of the parasite in the circulating
blood of living animals that have been subjected to feeding experi-
ments. This has not been the case, however.

Thxis it is evident that the host, or consumer of trichin-infected
Jit sh, provides the means for its own invasion.

While this is, in general, the manner in which invasion takes
place, it by no means excludes the possibility of the infection of an
animal taking place by intestinal trichinas (embryos), which have
passed from an already infected organism with its fieces. In this
way an infected swine may infect others, or, in fact, give occasion
to a secondary invasion of itself, by rooting in the manure of its
j^n. In the same way swine may become infected from infected
human beings where, as is too often the case, the out-houses for
the family are placed over the pig-pen, or load into it, or where the
contents of the same are thrown into the piggery for the swine to
work over.

Thus we see the cycle of invasion may frequently continue
from swine to man, and from man to swine.

Trichinre may be assumed to be regidar cosmopolitans. AVhethor
Xoah took a pair of them with him into the ark will probably con-
tinue to be an open question. They have been discovered in Ger-
many, England, Scotland, Denmark, Sweden, Kussia, France, Italy,
North and South America, Africa, India, Australia, Spain, Egypt,
and Syria.

14 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

In fact, it may truly be said that they have been found infecting
pork in whatever land, and wherever they have been sought for.

As to their presence in other animals than man and the hog,
they have only been unquestionably found in warm-blooded ani-
mals, such as cats, dogs, rabbits, rats, mice, the marmot, the wild
hog of EurojDC, and even the hippopotamus.

Gerlach has produced invasion in calves and horses, while
Leisering was unable to in the latter animal.

Several reports have been published with reference to the dis-
covery of trichinae in the flesh of fish and other cold-blooded ani-
mals, but they all fail of experimental proof, and are non-conforma-
ble with our knowledge of the physiological activities of the parasite,
which becomes torpid in a temperature a few degrees below that of
the ordinary living mammal.

For some unknown reason they do not seem to be able to invade
the muscles of fowls, though some authors claim to have found
them in the intestines. A case is reported of invasion of some
soldiers from eating a goose ("Philadelphia Medical -Times," April
13, 1878), the accuracy of which is very questionable, as pigs are
fully as easily stolen as geese; and no evidence exists that they
were seen in the flesh of the goose.

"With regard to hens, I made quite a series of experiments.

1. I fed them with highly infected pork, in the natural way.
Results negative. 'No trichinae, either in the intestines or mus-
cles.

2. Assuming that the triturating powers of the gizzard might be
sufficient to destroy the parasites before they could gain access to
the intestines, I caused a quantity of infected pork to be chopped
for several hours, until it became a veritable mush ; microscopic
examination of this mass revealed the presence of numerous free
trichinge. This mass was stirred up with warm water, so that it
could be drawn into a coarse syringe ; the intestines of the fowls
were then washed out as cleanly as possible with warm enemas, and
time given for the water to flow off again. Several syringefuls of
the mass were then injected, and the outflow stopped artificially.
After forty-eight hours this obstruction was removed. Results
absolutely negative, so far as producing muscle-invasion was con-
cerned, at an examination made four weeks from the time of the
experiment. No trichinae in intestines.

3. The abdominal cavity of six other fowls was opened, and two
tablespoonfuls of the watery mass, but thicker than the preceding,
poured in. The aperture was then sewed up. The hens drooped

TRICniNIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 15

a few days, but recovered, and ate well. Examination at the same
time with the othei-s gave negative results, altliough a queer-looking
condition of tlie abdominal cavity existed. Why these hens did not
die of septictemia I do not know.

I had hoped to carry on numerous feeding and therapeutic ex-
periments during my examinations of i)ork in 1S81, but lack of
means on my own part, as well as on the part of the Board of
Health of Massachusetts, prevented their accomplishment.

Tricudoasis in Swine.

As we have previously mentioned, the disease was discovered
in swine by Leidy, in 1847.

It is to German observers that we must look almost entirely for
any authoritative statements with reference to the percental infection
of swine with these pests, for in no other country is there at present
anything approaching a systematic examination of pork, and even in
Germany there is much room for improvement.

To make the statistics valuable, it is necessary that the law
should require that, at least so far as domestic consumption goes,
all hogs should be examined before being cut up, and that only one
part — viz., the pillars of the diaphragm, or psoas muscles — slioiild be
used for examination. There is no evidence that this is the case in
Germany, hence I much doubt whether it would not be possible to
largely increase their present ratio of infection. The following
statistics have been gathered at random, M'ith no attempt at com-
pleteness, but simply as illustrations, from the books in my own
library, such as Virchow's " Archiv," the " Yierteljahrsschrift f iir
gerichtliche Medicin," the " Deutsche Zcitschrift fiir Thiermedicin,"
"The Veterinary Reports of Saxony and Hanover," the " ^lagazin
fiir Thierheilkunde " (Gurlt u. Hertwig), the " Archiv fiir Tliier-
heilkunde," and the " Mittheilungen aus d. Praxis d. Preussischen
Staate."

For Rostock, Germany, Petri gives the following :

1869 Number hogs examined, 5,4o7 ; trichinons, 1

1871 " " " G,520 " 2

1872 " " " 6.555 " 0

1873 " " " 0,441 " 3

1874 " " «• fi,731 " 2

1875 " '> '• 7,222 " 5

1876 " " '• 7.165 " 0

1877 " " '• T,5G2 " 2

Total 53,653 15

Tricbinou.-=, 1-3543.

16

THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

For Braunschweig, Ulide reports : Whole number examined
between 1866 and 1880, 111,806 ; trichinous, 29.

1866-'67 there was found 1 liog of every 6,700 examined, trichinous.

1867-'68 '

' 5,700

1868-'69 '

' 14,500

1869-'70 '

' 15,300

1871-'72 '

' 13,387

1872-'73 '

4,874

1873-'74

' 5,129

1874-'75 '

' 7,004

1875-'76

' 13,183

1876-'77 '

7,127

1877-'78

5,879

1878-'79

' 10,397

1879-'80

3,857

PRUSSIAN STATE STATISTICS.

No. examined.

Trichinous.

Measles.

No. of state examiners.

1876

1,728,595
2,057,272
2,524,105
3,164,656
3,342,303

800

701

1,222

1,938

2,284

4,705
5,434
6,165
9,669
11,379

11,915

1877

12,865

1878

16,251

1879

17,413

18,332

1880

Total

12,816,831

6,945

Trichinous, 1 to 1,845.

Eulenburg's report for 1880 deserves some special consideration.

The ratio of trichinae in swine in Prussia has, we see, constantly
advanced with each year since 1876. In 1879 it was 1 to 1,632 ;
and in 1880, 1 to 1,460 ; which must be attributed to greater exact-
ness in the observations. The great number, constantly increasing,
of appointed examiners is also worthy of notice: from 11,915 in
1876, they have been increased to 18,332 in 1880. In Berlin they
found 1 to 1,247 swine trichinous, while in Posen the ratio was
1 to 138, which more nearly corresponds to the conditions in this
country. There does not seem to be &t present any endeavor on
the part of the Government to make investigations into the cause
of these things. Three hundred and twenty-nine cases of trichiniasis
among human beings, and four deaths, are reported. In all cases it
was traced to the consumption of either uncooked or improperly
examined pork. In Berlin there were but sixteen cases during the
year, a much smaller number than in previous years, which is at-
tributed to the greater stringency with which the examinations are
carried out. One of these cases is interesting from the fact that

TRICniNIASIS OF MAX AND AXIMALS. 17

the person who died, consumed, raw, a piece of pork known to he
trichinous, in order to show tl»at the idea that trichinsij caused dis-
ease in man was a faUacy. Of examinations of American pork, the
report says 3,030 trichinous pieces, sides, were found. Such an
examination lias no statistical value, as it does not show whether
the sides were all from different hogs or not ; further, were they all
American I The average of trichiniasis in American I'Ieces, not
hogs, was found to be 4 to 100. It was found that the abdominal
muscles were only serviceable for examination, or such as were at-
tached to the shoulders. More than twenty sides a day should not
be examined by one person (?).

In Schleswig, of TS2 " Amerikanischen Rouladen," 8 were found
trichinous ; of 1,052 sides, G4 ; 3,903 hams, 6G ; and 13 shouldei-s, 3.

In Stettin, of 72,230 sides, 1,124 were found trichinous.

The number of swine affected with measles was 1,710 more
than in the former year.

From Hamburg, Germany, we have a few statistics which may
have an instructive comparative value :

In 1ST8, of 35,510 American hiiins esaininod, 397 trichinous.
'' " 14,003 " Bides " 85

" 17,113 European haras " 3 "

" " 2'2-2 " sides and 10,838 hogs examined, none trichinous.
In 1879, of 79,8G4 American hams exnmiued, 1,087 trichinous.

41 (( 22,749 " sides and shoulders examined, 196 trichinous.

'' " 28,710 European hams examined, 2 trichinous.
" 16,204 " hogs " 1 "

In 1880, of 55,008 American hams examined, 566 trichinous.
" " 23,589 " sides " 270 "

" " 49,943 European hams, sides, and hogs examined, none trichinous.
At Blankenburg, from 1864-'65, 7,000 to 8,000 hogs examined, and but 1 in-
fected.

At IXanorer, from 1865-'66, 18,656 hogs examined, and 12 trichinous.
In Sachsen-Weimar, from March, 1868-'69, 19,611 examined, and 1 found
trichinous.

In 1875-'76, at Frankfort, 8,000 hogs examined, 4 tricliinous.

" " Gulen, 1,600 to 1,800 hogs examined, 1 trichinous.

At Copenhagen, 1867, 8.174 examined, 15 trichinous.
At Charkow, Russia, 1876, 3,550 examined, 5 trichinous.

These statistics could be multiplied ad libiiu)n, but they are
sufficient to show the results of Continental examinations. It is to
be regretted, however, that we have no reliable statistics from either
England, Scotland, Ireland, or France, or other Continental coun-
tries, since they have commenced to lay so much stress upon the
infected condition of American pork.
2

18 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

Trichina in Americajst Pork.

"We have already noticed the examinations of American pork
made at Hamburg during several years, and will follow with a few
more quotations of the same nature :

At Rostock, 12 of 622 Americaa sides were found trichinous.
At Gothenburg, 8 of 210 American sides were found trichinous.
At Ebbing, 2 per cent of the pieces examined were found trichinous.
In Schleswig-Holstein, of 5,673 pieces examined, 47 were found trichinous.
In 1877, 343 cases of infected American pork were reported, and 183 cases
of the disease in human beings.

In the early part of the year 1881, badly infected American
pork was reported as having been found at Lyons, France.

Professor Mueller, of the Berlin Veterinary Institute, wrote me,
under date of December, 1880, that of eighty-eight live American
hogs (constituting a part of a shipment) that had been slaughtered
at Dresden, fourteen were found trichinous.

Dr. Loring * says, " I do not know that Germany or France
has even examined for this disease in live hogsP

The foregoing was reported by me in American papers at the
time, and subsequently in the report of the Imperial Board of
Health of Germany, and several German medical reviews ; and
could have been as well known to our agncultural department as
the presence of pleuro-pneumonia in the District of Columbia, a
fact that ocular demonstration of diseased lungs could scarcely force
upon our agricultural commissioner.

At Turin, Italy, February, 1879, four per cent of a lot of Cin-
cinnati hams were found trichinous, which led to the Government
putting restrictive examinations on all further importations.

A continual recurrence of such facts has caused a more or less
strong feeling on the Continent against our pork, a feeling which
nationalism and the public prints have fostered to the fullest extent.

The result has been that in many countries restrictive measures
regulating the importation of American pork have been introduced,
which to a certain measure have acted as an embargo against further
importations. In some countries these measures have even been
extended to American lard, and a great alarm created about some
kind of hydraulic pressing out of the same instead of trying it out ;
in fact, everything possible is being done to keep out the competi-
tion of American products.

* Letter to Health Congress, Savannah, 1881.

TRICniXIASIS OF MAX AND AXIM.VLS. 19

"With regard tt.) our pork, I think the assertions of tlie Germans
and their restrictive measures are just.

Naturally enough the old adage, " Touch a man's pocket and you
touch his heart,'' found an illustration on this side of the Atlantic.

The pork-producers of every variety became very much alarmed,
and called upon the Government to assist them.

Our consuls all over Europe were requested to make inquiries
as to the true nature of these reports, and to report to their own
Government. It is not within the nature of my work to consider
these re2:>orts in detail ; but, suffice it to say that they displayed
fully as much patriotism for the purity of American pork as the
Continentals did for their o^^^l. Some went so far as to call the
whole thing a humbug. A real desire to know the truth pervaded
neither our representatives at home nor abroad.

As with pleuro-pncumonia of our cattle, so with trichiniasis of
the hog, our Government adopted a prevaricating and false course.
It sought to "bluff down" the results of foreign examinations, and
either did not seek to discover, or ignored the results of, home ex-
aminations.

In the face of a report of the State Board of Health of Massa-
chusetts— numerous copies of which were sent to Washington —
which contained a pa])er on the subject of trichiniasis, and statistics
of the examination of the largest number of hogs which had until
then been made in the country, the State Department published
a singular document, which requires attention. It utterly ignored
the statistics of the above report.

Clauses 8, 9, and 10 are as follows :

8. That the percentage of American hogs infected with trichinaa
is, in all prohabililt/, hy reason of tJie superiority of the hreed
(which?) and feeding, much less than that among the hoys of any
other country.

9. That freedom from trichiniasis of the two great pork-consuni-
ing centers of the West, Chicago and Cincinnati, furnishes the
strongest possible evidence of the purity of American ])ork. In
Chicago, of forty thousand deaths, with causes, reported for a series
of years, oidy two were from trichiniasis. During the same time
none were reported in Cincinnati.

10. The reported cases of trichiniasis among human beings have
resulted from eating uncooked pork, etc.

With regard to trichiuie in American hogs, the above-quoted
sections from a state document have no foundation whatever.
They have nothing to stand upon.

20 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIilALS.

In clause 8 it does not stand upon facts, but upon a mere asser-
tion— that "probably," etc.

Again, the person who instructed the Government knew abso-
lutely nothing about trichinse. Neither the breed of the hogs nor
corn-feeding, or any manner of feeding as commonly practiced, aside
from swill-feeding, need have anything to do, ])ro or con^ with tri-
chinse in the hog. The hogs at the two great packing centers have
never been thoroughly examined for trichinse, and at the time this
document was published neither the Interior nor any other depart-
ment had organized any proper examination of American pork.

The j)ercentage of deaths among human beings has nothing to
do with the percentage of infection among swine.

Luckily for the American people, it has not. Even though
cooking will kill trichinse, and thus render infected pork harmless,
it does not prove that American hogs have " much less trichinse
than those of any other country." A German has as much right to
indulge a taste for uncooked smoked ham or spiced hashed pork as
an American or Englishman has for rare or raw, warm or cold roast
beef. The German may be invaded by trichinse for his cannibal-
ism, and the American by a tape-worm {icBnia 7nedio-candlata).

Examinations of American Pokk.

At Chicago, April, 1881, a Dr. Paton is said (newspaper report)
to have examined twenty specimens each, from four hundred hogs,
and found none trichinous.

The Chicago Academy of Sciences (" Boston Medical and Surgi-
cal Journal," vol. Ixxiv, p. 136) reports the examination of thirteen
hundred and ninety-four hogs, and finding twenty-eight trichinous.

Health Commissioner De "Wolff reported (1879) finding eight
out of a hundred trichinous.

In 1879 I commenced my examinations of pork for the State
Board of Health of Massachusetts, and again during three months
of the summer of 1881. These examinations were not made upon
any selected lots of swine, but the specimens were taken at random
from the hogs as they hung up.

1^0 attempt was made to discover whence the hogs originally
came, though, with the exception of about fifty, they were all
bought at Chicago, and hence %cere emphatically Western hogs. In
making these examinations, the pillars of the diaphragm were inva-
riably used, one piUar representing one hog. But three microscopic
specimens were taken from each pillar — a rule which I invariably
adhered to.

TRICniNIASIS OF MAX AND ANIMALS.

21

1879.

LOT.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

l:}

U

15

\6

17

IS

19

20

Number ex-
auiluud.

47

48

72

fio

226

11)2

100

81

95

93

98

300

201

192

200

257

2:]8

163

26

12

2,701

Non-infoctod.

Trlchioous.

44

3

46

2

62

10

r,G

4

210

16

179

13

96

4

80

1

94

1

89

4

90

8

275

25

188

13

187

5

184

16

252

5

225

13

154

9

25

1

11

1

2,547

154

Trichinous, 1 to 17'54.
From the same source as tlie preceding :

1881.

LOT.

Number ex-
amined.

' Non-infected.

Trichinous.

1

127

130
153

1 120

127
15(1

7

2

3

3

3

4

120

115

5

124

KiO

123

' 99

1

6

1

7

119
127

113
123

6

8

4

9

1 60

152

8

10

125

lis

7

11

127

122

5

12

122

118

4

13

124
KiO
122

118
100
115

6

14

0

15

7

16

120

114

6

2,000

1,929

71

Trichinous, 1 to 28.

22 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

rrom another source :

LOT.

Number ex-
amined.

Non-infected.

Trichinous.

1

129
130
140
105

73
130
119
127
132
182

93
128
112
124

81

84
120

59

120
123
130
102

71
125
115
120
130
175

93
125
110
120

80

80
117

57

9

2

7

3

10

4

3

5

2

6

5

7

4

8

7

9

2

10

7

11

12

3

13

2

14

4

15

1

16

4

17

3

18

2

2,008

2,199

75

Trichinous, 1 to 27.

From a third source :

LOT.

Number ex-
amined.

Non-infected.

Trichinous.

1

105

45

65

80

61

63

96

100

100

98

90

101

121

103

76

102

130

130

131

122

85

105

45

64

78

60

60

92

99

99

96

86

98

121

100

75

100

124

125

128

120

84

2

3

1

4

2

5

1

6

3

7

4

8

1

9

1

10

2

11

4

12

3

13

14

3

15

1

16

2

17

6

18

5

19

3

20

2

21

1

2,004

1,959

45

Trichinous, 1 to 44.

TRICHINIASIS OF MAX AND ANIMALS.

23

KE8UME.

Number of hogs
exaiiilned.

Non-infoctcd.

Trichlnous.

1879

2,701
2,000
2,UG8
2,004

154
71
75
45

1 to 17

1881. Same source

1 to 28

" Seeoiul source

1 to 27

*' Tliir<l source

1 to 44

Total

8,773

845

1 to 25

Tlie above figures do not certainly serve to support the words of
our state document, that there are " less trichinae in American pork
than in that of any other country." They do speak in no uncertain
terms that our Government has a duty which it owes to a large
national interest, and that is, to spare no expense until the original
soui'ce whence our swine become invaded be discovered.

As has been already said, all but about fifty of these eighty-
seven hundred hogs were bought at Chicago, hence were Western
hogs, though killed and examined at Boston. They were purchased
at the same yards M'hence the Chicago packing-houses get that
pork which our State Department declares to be so " free from
trichina?.*'

Further, the percentage of infection of the hogs from the differ-
ent sources is interesting, but not very instructive. In 1879 we
had a ratio of infection of 1 to 17 hogs, and from the same place
1 to 28 in 1881 ; while by the hogs from a third source we had an
infection of 1 to 44:. Yet they were all Western hogs.

This variation in the ratio of infection between those examined
in 1879 and 1881 called forth the foUowing remarks from Dr. Lor-
ing, the present Commissioner of Agriculture :

" A veterinarian of Xew England informed me on the 1-ith of
April last that he had examined portions from 2,701 "Western hogs,
obtained in Boston, 154 of which he found infected, i. c., one case
to each l'ij%\ liogs examined. lie tells me that he will make a
statement to this meeting that he has examined portions of 8,773
Western animals, and has found one case to every 25 animals. You
will 8fe that there is a great dljferenre between hix firf<t {Aj)ril) ex-
amination and this one^ and his result is so greatly different from,
the English examination of our hogs^ above mentioned, and fto much
above any linown jyroportion among animals of every other country,
that I can not hut ent^:rtain doubt'* of the value of his examinOr

timy *

* See letter to Ucaltb Congress, Sarannah, 1881.

24 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The Englisli examination spoken of reads as follows :

" Tlie insjpectors of the Yeterinary Department examined two
hundred and seventy-nine separate portions of swine'' s flesh, which
were sent from Liverpool^ and detected living trichince in three
specimens'''' (1 to 93).

As to the discrepancy spoken of between the results of my ex-
aminations, made about a year apart : it is not greater than that
between any two lots taken at random in the same examination, nor
so great as between very many lots examined on two consecutive
days; for instance, in my series of 1881, lot 14 (source the same
as in. 1879) consisted of 100 pieces, of which none were infected,
while of lot 13, 124 pieces, six were trichinous.

In two different epidemics of small-pox, the number of deaths
is never the same, or even the number of cases. Are we, then, to
say a later invasion is not small-pox, because the number of cases or
deaths is less or more than in a previous ? I never for a moment
expected similar results, and should have been as pleased to find
none as any one in the country.

"With reference to the English examination, 1 to 93, it is greater
Tjy far than the i^atio of infection found in the hogs of any
other country, and greater than I found in some lots examined hy
me ^ for instance, lots 1, 2, 3, 4, of my third series, 1881, con-
tained, respect'ively, 105, 45, 65, and SO specimens, representing 295
hogs, of which three were trichinous, 1 to 98. Further, we do not
know the parts that the English examined ; had they been pillars
of the diaphragm, the proportion might have been greater.

As to the correctness of my results, I will simply say that Dr.
Folsom, of the Massachusetts Board of Health, went over a large
part of those examined in 1879, and that comj)etent physicians and
a gentleman whom I educated to work with me, continually revised
my other specimens as I examined them.

Again, if the Commissioner of Agriculture doubts my results,
let him send a competent man, or men, here, and examine with me
the same specimens, be it one or ten thousand, and I venture to say
we shall find a percentage of infection larger than that I'eported in
any other country, and large enough to satisfy any one.

Further, the Germans might well doubt the figures of their own
examinations, as, from the Prussian statistics, we see the ratio of
infection is steadily augmenting.

I wish now to refer to the report of Dr. Jansen T. Payne,* from
which I quote the following :

* Report of the American Public Health Association, 1881.

TRICniXIASIS OF MAX AND ANIMALS. 25

" The metliod of couductiii^ the resoarclies was as follows : ' The
extlCujiles procured one afteniuon were examined the following day
by the aid of a good microscope, capable of magnifying objects two
hundred diameters. A low i)ower was found to yive greater satis-
faction than a higher one could have dune, and obsetniers in this
field would do loell to hear this in mind. WJt£n it is taken into ac-
count that each of the specimens had to le separated into minute
shreds hefore they were placed upon the stage of the mhyroscope, and
consider the number of fibers examiiwd in such cases ^ " (he exam-
ined in all 21, GOO specimens from 5,400 hogs), ^^^ it will readily
be perceived that it is impossible to make anything like an ac-
curate guess as to the whole number of pncccs of rnuscle-fiJber ex-
amined.'' "

Eesiilt : Is uml^er examined, 5,400 ; trichinous, 22.

'* By this series of examinations, it has been ascertained that
Southern-bred hogs are free from trichince.''^

If tliere is anything I dislike to do, it is to criticise the work of
another observer; but one would like to know if two hundred di-
ameters ia considered a low power. For myself, when looking for
trichinju, should I use such a power, I should not expect to find
many trichina?, but boa-constrictors ; in fact, many would escape
me. The male trichina measures one eighteenth, the female one
eighth of an inch, in length — magnified two hundred diameters,
what would one have ?

Again, dividing specimens into shreds may be highly technical,
but eminently unpractical ; for with crush-specimens one can easily
recognize the parasite, and it is done (juiekly ; while in this way,
and with such a high power as two hundred diametei-s, one would be
sure to miss many.

I doubt the statement that " Southern hogs are free from trichi-
ncB^^ as much as I do that ^^ corti-f ceding" has anything to do with
trichiniasis.

But I'oston is not the place for anything but statistical examina-
tions. We must go nearer to the fountain-head. At Chicago it
would be possible to examine large lots of hogs that have come
directly from the breeder or fattener to the packer. Here lots
could be examined and traced to the breeder. If highly infected,
it would be ea-^^y to go to such places and make all manner of ex-
aminations of the remaining hogs, of the earth, worms, grubs, etc.
Some unknown living thing lodges trichinae before they enter the
porcine organism. The scientific questions are : "What is it ? where
is it ? and what are its modes of life \

26 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

These tilings discovered — and they 7nust be — we can j)ut an end
to porcine trichiniasis, and every other kind.

American Hogs much more Infected than Continental.

A comparison of the statistics here given shows beyond all ques-
tion that American hogs are more liable to trichiniasis than those of
Germany ; for we have seen that in those examined at Rostock we
had but 1 to every 3,543 ; at Braunschweig, 1 to 8,963 ; in Prussia,
1 to 2,032, as trichinous ; while of the American examinations,
from authentic sources, we have 28 out of 1,394, or 1 to 50 ; 8
out of 100, and 345 out of 8,773, or 1 to 25, as infected. These
were Western hogs, yet no one well acquainted with the circum-
stances would, I think, assert that the hygienic conditions under
which our Western swine are raised are not superior to those of the
famed " home-fed porkers " of the small New England farmer, raised,
as they only too often are, in dark, loathsome, poorly ventilated
pens, only too frequently under stables, with the house-vaults and
sink-drains emptying into them,

I should here mention that it has seemed impossible to make
any valuable examinations of Massachusetts-raised hogs, there being
no authorities to co-operate with me in procuring si^ecimens. It
will finally become necessary for each State to organize an exact
statistical examination of the hogs raised within its limits, as to the
proportion infected with trichinae.

As to German hogs, whoever has been upon a tour of observa-
tion through the agricultural districts of Germany, must have been
most forcibly struck with the absurd non-hygienic conditions under
which, not only hogs, but all the domestic animals are, in general,
raised, in comparison with those of our own country, especially of
the great stock-raising West.

In making examinations of hogs, with reference to tracing them
back to the raiser, an important question will be whether the great-
est proportion of trichiniasis is found among the hogs fed at the
large distilleries, or under the apparently more favorable open-air
feeding of the farmer ; or, again, as many farmers pasture their hogs
in woods, etc., before the corn is ready for fattening, is it among
such that we find more trichiniasis than among those kept con-
stantly in pens ? It would also be of interest, and perhajis of practi-
cal value, to know if the wild swine of our Southern forests are much
invaded, as well as the peccaries of Mexico and South America.
The following freely made translations of jDublished remarks of an
eminent German, will show the opinions which are gaining ground

TRICniXIASIS OF MAX AND ANIMALS. 07

in Germany -with regard to our pork, and also how well i)osted
even specialists are with reference to the true conditions in this
conntry.

Bollinger* (pathologist of the Veterinary School at Munich),
writing on the " Triehinic in American rork," in a review of an
article by Iloepcr on the same subject, says : " The author of the
paper ' Die Trichinen der americanischen Schinken ' has made
numerous examinations in order to contradict the opinion held in
America " (by whom ?) " that the trichinae of American ])ork are
an entirely ditferent species from those found in the swine of Ger-
many, and are harmless. Also to contradict the opinion that the
peculiar process which 'American sugar-cured liams' are passed
through, is sutHcient to render the parasites harndess."

lie fonnd both these assertions without foundation. The cm-ing
process does not in all cases kill the trichina? in the deeper seated
parts of the ham.

The following absolutely erroneous explanation is given for the
greater proportion of trichiniasis in our hogs in comparison with
those of Germany :

"The swine that arc BROuonx to the lxug-e Attiericcui slaughter-
houses are allowed to feed upon the refuse from slaughtered swine,
and in this way have tbie and opportunity to infect thejnselves.
Such infected sicine are themselves slaughtered, and again give cause
to infection of those that remain, which may have arrived loiter.
Accordingly, this evil must go on constantly extending, and all j)er-
sons must earnedly he warned against the consu)njjtio?i of raw
Ainerican pork J''

This German author certainly betrays ignorance of the true
conditions at any large American packing-house. The refuse from
the slaughtered sicine is never fed to other swine that may be at
such places, at any large packing-house in this country. It is sold
for fertilizing purposes, or prepared for that jnirpose, and that
only.

According to the best German authorities, it takes from five to
seven days for the newly introduced trichina^ to bring forth young.
No large American packing-house keeps a lot of swine on hand for
from five to seven days, for they are killed as soon after arrival ns
possible. It would be impossible for them to kill from one to three
thousand a day and do otherwise. AVliile these iu«isertions are abso-
lutely false with reference to the large ])a('king-houscs, they are as
strictly true, not only of many smaller establishments, where hogs
* " Deutsche Zeitschrift f. Thiemicdicin," vol. i, p. 220.

28 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

are killed for home consumption, but also where they are fattened
and killed by the farmer, or raised for the use of his family.

This report says further ; " This refuse from slaughtered sioine
at such large estdblishments is sold to the neighboring farmers as
food to fatten their swine, and thus helps to swell the jpercentage of
trichiniasis in American hogs."

This is fcdse also !

The report ends as follows : " It is therefore right to warn the
people against the consumption of American pork" — and recom-
mends the most stringent microscopic examination of the same.

The Disease in Swine.*

ITumerous feeding experiments with trichinous flesh were made
at the Berlin school, the results being given in an able j^aper by
Professor Mueller. It was proved that the consumption of such
flesh by swine, with the sequential development of the embryos in
their intestines, and their migration and lodgment in the muscles,
may indeed cause disease, but that the phenomena of the same have
neither that constancy nor distinctness of character which will ad-
mit of its recognition during the life of the animal.

All the swine thus fed became ill within a few days after con-
suming the meat.

The following were the most constant phenomena j)resented :

Diarrhoea, but not constant, being frequently interrupted by the
passage of more solid f[fices; sometimes it did not come to pass
at all.

Phenomena, indicating abdominal pains, were frequently ob-
served ; such as uneasiness, burying themselves in the straw, etc.

Such phenomena, either singly or collectively, may be observed
in swine, entirely aside from any anticipatory trichin-infection.
They simply indicate the action of some irritant within the intes-
tinal canal, and in this case, it being trichinae, if the swine die, or
are killed, we should have the same phenomena as in an intestinal
catarrh of like grade, plus the trichinse, which could not, however,
be recognized macroscopically.

"With the gradual cessation of the migration by the trichinae, the
abdominal symptoms become less marked, and finally disappear, to
be followed by those indicating some disturbance of the motor
functions. If the latter do not lead to death, they in their turn
gradually cease with the encapsulation of the parasites.

Although the presence of trichinte within the intestines causes
* Taken from the "Magazin f. d. gesammte Thierheilkunde," vol. xxxi, p. 6.

TRICniNIASIS OF MAN' AND ANIMALS. OQ

diarrhoea, yet, in these animals, it was impossible to find any em-
bryos in their fivces.

This by no means excludes the possibility of finding them in
other cases ; yet their passage away with the feeces must in a meas-
ure be retarded from their being buried in a profuse layer of mu-
cus, which is the product of tlie irritation caused by them.

In none of these swine was it possible to discover anything
resendding the subcutaneous a'dema wliich comes to jiass in man
under the same circumstances, and which serves essentially to the
confirmation of the diagnosis.

Leisering, of Dresden, has also made numerous experiments
with swine, of the same nature.*

lie says : " One can not speak of a trichin-disease in swine,
which is characterized by distinct and pathognomonic phenomena.
In this regard the trichinae deport themselves similarly to the cysti-
cerci, measles."

Gerlach f says :

a. "About two fifths of the hogs fed were either not affected
or but slightly indisposed ; the remaining three fifths were visibly
sick.

h. " The light cases presented nothing of diagnostic value, while
in the severe ones the symptoms were of such a character that,
with the aid of the scalpel and microscope, a diagnosis could be
made."

(This is no more than saying that, with dian'hoea and abdominal
pains, followed l\v disturbances in the motor functions, the scalpel
and microsco])e would reveal the true cause, if trichinae.)

c. " After an attack of trichiniasis, the hog again becomes well,
and can be raised and fattened, as if nothing had hajipcned.

i1. " In cases which apparently pass over symjitondess, as the
animal betrays but slight constitutional disturbances, the infection
is still suflicient to make the flesh a dangerous article of food.

e. '' Hogs are most susceptible to trichin-invasion in early age.
Old hogs are not easily infected ; i. e., the muscles are not very
much invaded by the parasites.

f. ''Death results in over one half of the extremely severe cases.

g. " Death is caused by means of intestinal irritation, as well as
the severe muscular disturbances. Forty-one per cent die by the
former, and fifty-nine by the latter."

That trichinre can only gain entrance to an organism by means
of the mouth and alimentary canal is beyond all question.
* "Bcricht u. d. veterinair Wcscn im Sachscn," 18C2, p. 118. f " Die Trichincn."

30 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Notwithstanding tlie apparent negation of the quoted Berlin
experiments, we have the very highest authorities affirming, on the
strength of positive observations, that intestinal and eiribryonal
trichinoi do leave the invaded organism with thefcBces.

Leuckart says : " As the usually matured trichinae accumulate in
great numbers in the intestines, and as the irritation caused by
them leads to the development of a more or less intense diarrhoea,
it is evident that the young must be taken up and pass oS with the
faeces ; and not only free embryos, but also pregnant females, are
subjected to this removal, which has been sufficiently attested by
my own observations and those of Yogel, Kuhn, Gerlach, and
others. This form of migration, under favorable circumstances,
also contributes to the further distribution of trichinae. Ilaubner
and Gerlach give cases where they intentionally caused the invasion
of young — non-infected — swine by causing them to live in the same
pens with known infected ones. Such embryos and pregnant fe-
males become mixed with the manure and bedding of the hog-pens
or on the grass of pastures, and may be taken up by other swine, or
even by the original autosites, thereby leading to renewed inva-
sion."

In the above we have a course of invasion in which the swine
are the only factors.

Is there no other factor (or factors) in the question ? We have
previously remarked that wild swine have been found trichinous ;
also that rats, dogs, foxes, and other wild animals serve as autosites
to them.

Of all animals in which these parasites have been found, none
have that interest, aside from swine, to the hygienist and patholo-
gist which is enjoyed by the rat, on account of a hypothetical etio-
logical connection between the trichinae which infest them and
those in swine.

Leisering ajDpears to have been the originator of this hypothesis.

The following statistics will suffice to show that the rat is even
more favored with trichiniasis than swine :

Of 704 rats from different parts of Germany, 59 were found
trichinous — 8*3 per cent.

Of 208 rats from German knackers, 46 were found trichinous —
22*1 per cent.

Of 224 rats from German slaughter-houses, 12 were found tri-
chinous— 6 per cent.

Of 272 rats from other places, 1 was found trichinous — 0"3 per
cent.

TRICniXLVSIS OF MAX AND ANIMALS. 31

Of 326 rats from other places, 30 were found tricliinous — 11 per
cent.

Of 51 rats caught at a knacker establishment at Spectacle Island,
Boston Harbor, I found 39 trichinous.

The jiruprietors of this place kindly gave ine opportunity to
examine twenty-eight hogs, which had been kept and fattened by
them at the island in question. Noiie were found trichinous. These
hogs I'eceived no city sioill of anu hind. What fe><h they received
had been subjected to thelwat necessary to extract the fats; other-
toisey they received nothing hut corn-meal.

Fort y rats caught at one of the large packing-houses near Boston
were all found triahinous.

Of sixty rats caught for me at different stables in the city of Bos-
ton, whe?'e no hogs icei'e or had been kept, but six contained trichinw.

I can not see any just grounds for accepting the rat-infection
theory ; i. e., that swine become invaded in the majority of cases
from eating trichin-invadcd rats. In fact, I am strongly inclined
to think that fpiitc the contrary is the case ; though I willingly
admit that an occasional hog may become invaded in this manner.
My own observations would seem to j)rove that whenever rat.s have
opportunity to get at the trimmings or refuse of slaughtered hogs,
there the rats will be found to be most profusely trichinous ; while
in other localities it will not be so.

Admitting that an occasional rat may lead to trichin invasion
among hogs, we have still the open question, Is there no common
source from which not only swine and rats, but icild animals, may
derive this parasite? As, according to my own observation upon
■American pork, and my very limited examinations of American
rats, they are both more largely invaded by trichinae than similar
animals in Gennany, it seems as if here in America were thi: place
to study and decide these important questions.

It will not do for ns to falsify or ignore true facts. The man-
ner hitherto adoj)ted of asserting, by way of pure negation, that
'■^American pork ha^ no trichina^," as the pork interest has done,
will not do. TVe must stand on facts gained bv accurate and trust-
worthy observers. We must accept them. AVe must search for
the cause. Any other course is absurd, and equally ruinous to self-
respect.

Prevention of Trichin.e in S^^'INE.

1. Boards of health should take means, looking to the better
education of the people in relation to hog-raising, as well as all the
principles of animal hygiene.

32 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

2. Boards of liealtli should instigate exact statistical researches
into tlie percentage of trichiniasis among swine raised in their re-
spective States, as well as the hygienic conditions under which hogs
are raised, in relation to this and other diseases.

3. Continued examinations of rats should be made in all parts
of the country, and their slaughter encouraged in every legal way.
In this regard we can look upon the rat-pit as serving a public pur-
pose ; and the rat-invasion theory, with reference to hogs, will re-
ceive a final settlement.

4. All sick swine should be peremptorily isolated from healthy
ones, under the supervision of a competent veterinary inspector.

5. All swine suffering from diarrhoea should be isolated, and
singly. The greatest care should be taken in cleansing the pens of
such sw^ine from all fecal masses and refuse.

a. The fseces from such swine should be subjected to micro-
scopic examination.

h. On cessation of the diarrhoea, whether motor disturbances
appear or not, the muscles, tongue, etc., should be harpooned, and
the specimens thus gained subjected to microscopic examination.

6. Hogs in which trichinse had been found should be branded
and fattened singly, or together ; but they should never be allowed
to be sold for human food. Their lard could be tried out and sold.

7. All hog-pens should be kept scrupulously clean, and the turn-
ing of compost-heaps, or the drains from water-closets or houses.
Into hog-pens should be forbidden by law.

8. Feeding the offal from slaughtered swine to others, cooked or
uncooked, or having slaughter-houses over places where swine are
kept, should be forbidden by law.

9. Each State should have a board of animal hygiene, and a corps
of competently educated veterinary police.

The Microscopic Examiitation of Pork.

Numerous elaborate essays have been written upon this subject ;
but the entire process is so easy and simple, that such extended
labor can well be looked upon as useless.

Among the first, and at the same time most profusely invaded
muscles, are the so-called "pillars of the diaphragm." They are
always to be found as two small stumps of muscles — flesh — imme-
diately below the kidneys in the dressed hog when hung up to
" cool out," or in front of them when the hog is laid down. If
there are any trichinse in the organism, examples will surely be
found here. These pieces belong to the trimmings, and their re-

TRICniNIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS.

33

moval in no way interferes witli tlie value or ajipearanee of the
dressed lio<;f.

Although a power of fifteen to twenty diameters is sufficient to
demonstrate the presence of trichinte to a jirofieient examiner, still
it is much easier and safer to use one of from fifty to seventy-five.

Fair microsco2>es, but by no means as convenient as the Ilartnach
model of Continental makei*s, are to be had from Americans at from
fifteen to twenty dollars. A large table to the microscope is a con-
venience.

A few glass slides, or object-glasses, and some strong covering-
glasses, a pair of small curved scissors, and two teasing-needles, are
all that is necessary to complete the outfit.

The first step is to take a piece of muscle and cut into its sub-
stance, in order to have it as moist as possible, and with the curved
scissors cut several thin slices lengthwise to the fil)ers, and with a
needle place them on the object-glass a little distance apart; the

,rf'f.'':Cit/' • ' rr/r ■■

I

Fio.

Fio. 1. — Fresh Trichinous Invasion.

^Leuckan.;

covering-glass is then to be placed upon them and gently pressed
with a slight, rolling motion, which will invariably make the speci-
mens thin enough for examination.
3

34:

THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

It is not necessary to cleanse the glasses for each specimen to be
examined.

To determine if the trichinae still live, place the object-glass over
heat — a spirit-lamp — for a second, enough to warm the slide, and
then place it under the microscope, and they will be seen to move
in their ca^^sules.

Salted pork is best examined by cutting it into thin pieces and
soaking for a time, although the specimens can be at once placed in
water for a few moments.

Objects which may be mistaken fob Tkichin^, or not eecog-

nized as such.

It not unfrequently happens that the capsules become abnor-
mally thickened, and the parasites dead within them. They do not
then present the same appearances that are generally observed under
normal conditions.

Fig. 3. — Encapsuled Concretions
WITH Dead Embryos in them.

Fig. 4. — Trichina -Capsules with
Calcified and Disintegrated Con-
tents.

In other cases the calcification is of such a character as to almost
entirely change the appearance of both capsule and contents.

Treatment of such capsules with hydrochloric acid will render
the diagnosis easier.

TRICUIXUSIS OF MAX AXD ANIMALS. 35

In some cases cysticerci, measles, perish and become calcified.
These objects are somewhat larger than trichina-capsules, and often
contain a caseous mass.

The sacs of Raiuey, or, as they are also termed, " psorospermije,"
are elono^ated granulous bodies, like the triehime, situated wii/nn
the sarcolemnia of the liber. Their true nature or pathological im-
portance is not yet well determined.

Some valuable diagnostic
points are, that in the latter — i '^ . , " ' ' ^r)

trichinai — the striation of the
fiber is entirely destroyed with-
in the capsule, while by i)soro-
sperms it is retained, limiting

the objects laterally, and con- '

tinning directly from their ex-
tremities.

Bruch,Virchow, and Leuck-

art have described peculiar ,. r r. n - xr

_ ■» iio. 5. — r<c;iu)srKKMS in a Hugs Mlscle.

roundish or oval objects of a (Leuckart )

whitish color, having varying

dimensions, which sometimes appear in the flesh of hams, and which

have been demonstrated to consist of agglomerates of needle-like

crystals. They fill the fiber to a variable degree without otherwise

disturbing its contents, and disappear upon the addition of muriatic

acid, the normal striation again becoming visible.

TmcnixiAsis in Max.

It is not my purpose to write an essay on the pathology of
trichiniasis, either in man or animals, but to give the necessary
natural historical facts of its life, and to illustrate its jirevalence,
with short notices of the phenomena of the disease in the above
species. Treatment being so unsuccessful, it would be folly to notice
it, and it also belongs more to works on medicine than in an essay
on hygiene, or a contribution to preventive medicine.

It has been previously mentioned that the honor of confirming
the causal nexus between trichina? in j)ork and in man belongs to
Dr. 2ienker of Dresden, Germany. This was in the case of a ser-
vant-girl, admitted to the city hospital at Dresden, as a typhus
patient. She died, her nmscles being found completely infected
with trichinse. At the same time that she became ill, other per-
sons of the same family, and the butcher that slaughtered a hog
for them, were ill also, but in a modified form. An examina-

36 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

tion of the pork at the house revealed the presence of numerous
trichinae.

Thudicum * suras up the principal phenomena of trichiniasis in
man as follows : " Sudden swelling of the face, particularly of the
eyelids, after the patient has for some days felt prostrate and lost
his appetite — the swelling causes only a sense of tension, but no
pain — fever, quick pulse, copious perspiration, which not rarely has
a repugnant odor ; painf ulness and immobility of the arms and legs ;
the muscles are swelled and contracted, and give great pain on being
moved, or pressed severely ; in the worst cases the entire body is
perfectly immovable and highly sensitive ; there is diaiThcea, with a
red, somewhat coated tongue, inclined to dryness ; when the swell-
ing of the face has subsided, oedema of the feet, legs, and thighs
comes on. Shortly afterward anasarca and swelling over the trunk
makes its appearance."

From the time of Zenker's case, numerous others have come to
pass in different countries, and epidemics have caused a shudder of
horror among reflecting people.

Epidemics have been reported at Corbach, 1860 ; Plauen, 1861-
'62; Calbe, 1862; Hallstadt, 1862-'63 ; Hanover, 1864 ; Dresden,
1864 ; and other places in Germany. The most remarkable outbreak
is that of Hedersleben, a place of some two thousand inhabitants,
of whom 337 became sick at one time, and 101 died.

Cobbold communicated to Heller that the first authentic case of
the disease, during life in man, occurred in England in 1871.

"We have mentioned several cases illustrating the intra-vital dis-
covery of the parasites in human beings on the excision of tumors,
and numerous others are reported in medical literature.

Forty persons became infected with trichinos at one time at
Bremen from, it is said, eating American pork.

At Lissa,f five members of one family became infected from
eating of a ham which, it was said, had been pickled, smoked, and
boiled for two hours.

A poor woman ;{: became trichinous from eating the flesh of a
dog, to which her necessities had driven her.

At Linden,* a suburb of Hanover, four hundred persons were dis-
eased at one time, and twenty-one died from eating trichinous pork.

Dr. Keifer, |! of Detroit, reports a fatal case of this disease, the
patient dying at the end of the fourth week.

* " Seventh Report of the Privy Council," London, 1865.

f "Boston Medical and Surgical Journal," vol. xc, p. 491 ; vol. xci, pp. 471 and 627;
vol. 1, p. 208. X Ibid. * Ibid. J Ibid.

TRlCniNIASIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 37

Dr. Ilerr, of Dubuque, Iowa, reports fifteen eases and five deaths
from eating raw smoked ham made into sausages.

Several cases are reported for Phihidelphia in the '* American
Journal of Sciences.''

In January, 18S1, a case occurred at Blackwell's Island, Xew
York. Two cases were reported at Chicago during the same month,
and two at Milwaukee.

Dr. Germer, health-officer at Erie, Pennsylvania, reports by letter
of January 27, 1881, that the preceding Christmas he discovered
seven cases in a place eight miles distant, which were traced to the
eating of home fed and cured pork.

The most interesting American case is one that occurred at
Brooklyn, Long Island, September, 1879. Seven of a family were
affected, and two persons died from the disease. This case came to
trial at Brooklyn, the family suing a packing-house from which
they had bought a portion of a ham two days previous to the erup-
tion of the disease. As they had been continually in the habit of
eating raw ham and sausages, and as they had purchased the ham
only two days previous to the first appearance of illness, it was self-
evident that the plaintiffs did not have any case, especially as no
microscopic examination of the ham had taken place. Further, it
does not seem as if retailers of pork can be held responsible for its
containing trichinte in a country where neither the law nor the com-
munity recognize any such disease of the hog. Even our boards
of health simply recognize the existence of trichinie in pork as a
scientific fact. All the hogs, specimens from which I examined,
were cut up and sold, even though the Massachusetts Board of
Health knew that I was continually finding them trichinous. Until
the public becomes alive to its own interests, we may be sure that
no steps toward prevention will be taken by the State.

A German judge has ruled differently. A })rovision-dealer at
Berlin was declared "guilty" for selling trichinous pork, which had
not been subjected to microscopic examination, but which had
caused disease among a number of persons, some of whom died.
The judge ruled that such a decision was justifiable, even though
the microscopic examination of pork was not then made imperative
by law. The objection that the seller had no knowledge of its in-
jurious character was ruled out.

Dr. Sutton,* of Aurora, Indiana, reports nine cases of trichiniasis
with three deaths from the consumption of uncooked sausage. The
meat of the same was found to be trichinous. A cubic inch of the

♦"Lancet," vol. ii, 1875.

38

THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIilALS.

flesh, taken from the bone of one of the persons that died, was as-
sumed to contain one hundred thousand trichinae.

Dr. Sutton says that " microscopic examination of thousands of
swine slaughtered in Indiana reveals three to sixteen per cent of
them as triehinous." This is an unfounded statement, there being
no authentic statistics of the examination of thousands of swine in
Indiana even now, nor at the time the above was written.

The " Rochester Democrat," May 1, 1879, reports several cases
of trichiniasis in that vicinity.

Cases have also been reported in the " Annals of the Michigan
Board of Health," at Otsego, Detroit, Port Huron, and other places,
several of which terminated fatally.

In Saxony,* from 1860 to 1875, 39 different eruptions of the
disease had taken place. The whole number of cases reported was
1,267, with 19 deaths ; of the 19 that died, 3 out of 8 acquired the
disease from eating raw meat ; 2 out of 630 diseased from cold sau-
sage ; 8 of 340 from fried sausage, and 2 of 48 from eating raw ham.

Of the 6,959,964 swine which were slaughtered in Saxony in
these sixteen years, only 39^ 1 to 180,000, gave occasion to trichiniasis
in human beings.

TABLE GIVING THE OBSERVED CASES OP TEICHINIASIS IIST BAVARIA.

No.

Place.

Tear.

■ Number
of cases.

Author.

Where described.

Nature of triehin-
ous meat.

1

Wurzburg.

1853

2t

Virchow.

"Virchow's Archiv,",
vol. Ixxxi, 1853.

2

U

1861

It

Kolliker.

"Wurz. med. Zeit.,",
vol. ii, 12, 1861.

Fresh meat

^ and raw

ham.

3

Erlangen.

1870

n

Maurer.

" Deutseh. Arch. f.

klin. Med.," vol.

viii, 368, 1871.

4

(1

(?)

u

Zenker.

Ibid., p. 388.

6

Zweibriicken.

i8vo-"n

If

Friedreich.

Ibid., vol. ix, p. 459,
1872.

6

Speyer.

1873

5

David.

Communicated to Dr.
Goring.

Swine from Ba-
den.

7

Hof.

1878

6

Roth.

"Ref. Aerztekammer
V. Oberfronken."

Some- made
pork.

8

Bamburg.

Feb.,

1878

30, 1 died.

u

«t ((

9

Niimberg.

Mav,

1

10

1878
May,
June.

10!
J

Merkel.

(I «

Salted pork.

11

Treucbtlingen.

11

4

(1

<i (1

Sausage-meat.

12

Marktlenten.

July.

19

Roth.

<t II

Partly-fried sau-
sage.

13

Burgsinn.

Feb.,
1879

7, 3 died.

11

" Mittheile polit. Zeit-
ung."

* Reinard, " Archiv d. Heilkunde," p. 241, 1877. f Accidentally found at the autopsy.
X " Deutsche Zeitschrift f iir Thiermedicin," Bollinger, Bd. 5, Hefte 3 u. 4, p. 204.

TRICniXUSIS OF MAN AND ANIMALS. 39

Glazier, in his report, has collected a list of 3,044 eases of disease
among human heings, and ^31 deaths, in Europe. For this country,
77 cases and 24 deaths.

He has also endeavored to get at the prevailing opinion of doc-
tors as to its extension among tlie people in this country, as revealed
in autopsies, but, while many report having seen eases, the reports
are in general of so vague a nature as to be next to valueless.

An Epir)E!inc of Triciiiniasis ox the Jordan.*
By Dr. John Wobtahet.

The outbreak of tJie disease was traced to a M'ild hog which had
been shot in the swamps adjoining the village of El Khiam, on the
25th of iS^ovember, 1880. It was a very large boar, and I was told
that its flesh appeared fresh, fat, and perfectly healthy. A very
large number of the people of the village ate of the flesh of this
hog, partly in a raw and partly in a semi-cooked condition. Not a
single person that ate of the flesh escaped infection.

The head of the boar was sent as a present to a family in a
neighboring village. It was cooked three times before any of it
was eaten. Although quite a number of people partook of it, none
of them became sick.

All of those that partook of other portions of the hog remained
in a healthy condition until the eruption of the disease made itself
evident, which took place in the majority in the second, and by
some in the third week. I heard of only one man who was taken
with eraesis and diarrhoea soon after eating. In this case the phe-
nomena of the disease were very mild. Another ate the meat well
cooked, and remained free from any indications of invasion to the
end of the fifth week subsequent to the same, and then was not
confined to his bed.

The principal phenomena during the third, fourth, and fifth
weeks were oedema of the face and extremities, severe nuiscular
pains, more or less fever, and itching over the whole body. The
oedema sometimes extended over the whole body. The pain com-
plicated the active muscles, inclusive of those of the lower jaw,
the pharynx, and larynx. It was most severe at points where
the tendons were inserted upon the extremities. Every move-
ment was painful. The fever seemed to assume a severe type
only in the fatal cases. Children suffered less than those of mature
years.

The period of convalescence, extending from the fifth week on,

* " Virchow's Archiv," vol. Ixxxiii, p. 553.

40 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

was very slow, and accompanied by mucli muscular pain, oedema,
and weakness. In some cases distinct relapses were apparent.
The number of persons diseased was :

Males 124

Females 103

Children 35

Total 262

Of these died :

Males 3

Women 3

Total 6

Of those that died, the cause seemed to be the exhaustive nature
of the fever, and the constitutional disturbances in the fourth and
fifth weeks of the invasion. The last fatal case was that of an eld-
erly woman, in the beginning of the eighth week of the invasion.
Some pieces of the musculus biceps brachii from this woman were
subjected to microscopic examination and numerous trichinae found
in the same.

This is the first case of the kind reported in medical literature
from Oriental countries, and is also of value as showing that the
wild hogs of those regions also become trichinous as well as those
of Europe.

With reference to the observations of trichiniasis in the dead
body:

Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, reported four cases during the years
1842-'44.

Turner says of Scotland, that in five years 1 to 2 per cent of the
human cadavers wei'e found trichinous.

Fiedler found 2 to 2-5 per cent at Dresden.

Wagner, 1 to 30 or 40 at Leipsic.

Reports of like nature come from other countries.

Pkevention of the Disease in Man.

Aside from the regulations already given for the prevention of
the disease among hogs, which, if possible to be carried out, would
prevent it in man, there are several which must come into action as
public health preventive measures.

There is but one golden rule to prevention : cook the porh thor-
oughly !

Leuckart and other experimenters have shown that a tempera-

HOG-CnOLERA. ^i

ture of 140° Falir., which must extend through a piece of pork, is
necessary to the jiositive dcatli of the parasites.

The direct ai)plieation of dry heat, liy means of a hot tahle, to
specimens under the microscope, demonstrates that a temperature
of 50" C.—l'2'2° Fahr.— is necessary to kill trichiniv.

The ordinary processes of cooking, salting, and smoking are not
always a sure means of killing these parasites.

All hogs should be subjected to microscopic examination by ex-
perts, and no hog allowed to be cut up for sale as food until such
an examination had been made. Those found invaded should be
branded triehinous, and their sale as food forbidden by law under
penalty of a heavy line.

HOG-CHOLERA.

PNEUMO-EXTEKmS SciS CONTAGIOSA.

This peculiar infectio-contagious disease of the porcine family
has been known to agriculturists and veterinarians for centuries.
For years it has been looked upon as a form of anthrax, typhus,
erysipelas, etc. ; but it has remained for our country to institute the
first extensive researches as to its nature, though Klein, in England,
anticipated them by doing some good work in this direction. On
the Continent of Europe the disease has not as yet been scientifi-
cally studied.

I have nothing but praise for the admirable reports of Messrs.
Detmers and Law upon the porcine pest, issued by the Agricultural
Department at "Washington in 1S7S, and most earnestly recommend
it to public consideration.

In 1S77 our national commissioner reported a loss to the coun-
try of $16,653,428 from contagious animal disease.

Etiology.

As with all forms of infectio-contagious diseases, we find also in
hog-cholera, that it was a long time before we gained any accurate
knowledge with reference to the nature of the elements causing it.
Some have asserted that pigs will not contract the disease when fed
on succulent vegetable food ; but Law has proved the fallacy of
this opinion by direct experiment, Xaturally, unfavorable nutri-
tive and hygienic conditions will favor the development of this as
well as other diseases, but they are not the direct cause.

42 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

Roell says tlie disease is attributed to hot and saltrj -weatlier,
uncleanly pens, and offering to the swine of spoiled, moldy food
and deeomj)Osing material in general.

Harms seems to be the first to have discovered germs in the
blood, and to have attributed to them an etiological importance, as
he found the blood and other parts of diseased swine, as well as the
food, replete with these organisms.

Bollinger also describes micrococci and short cylinder bacteria
in the blood, but does not consider the etiological connection with
the disease as established.

Eoell says further, " The disease has not yet been produced by
inoculation."

Spinola wrote a monograph on the "Diseases of Swine," Berlin,
1842, and considers the disease to be of a gastro-bilious character ;
and says further, it is observed to occur in those swine which have
much rest, a surplus of strong feed, especially that which is of a
spirituous nature — brewers' grains, etc. — which incline to a surplus
23roduction of gall and its accumulation in the system. He also
considers the above climatic conditions to exert an influence in the
generation of the disease.

It remained, however, for American veterinarians, not indige-
nous to the country, to establish beyond doubt the true nature of
this disease.

The results of the studies of Messrs. Law and Detmers show the
disease to be of an infectious and contagious nature, and capable of
transmission to other animals as well as swine by inoculation.

They discovered in the blood peculiar elements having a globu-
lar or micrococcus form, as well as staff-like bodies — the mature
form — to which Detmers gave the name of

Bacillus Sris.

These objects are found invariably in the blood, urine, mucus,
exudations, etc., in all pathologically changed tissues and in the
excrements of the diseased animals, and constitute, beyond all ques-
tion, the etiological momenta of the disease. These bacilli undergo
several changes, and require a certain length of time to fulfill their
development ; consequently, if introduced into an animal organism,
some time must pass (the incubational or colonization period) before
the morbid phenomena become apparent. Three stages of develop-
ment may be observed — viz., the germ, or micrococcus stage ; the
bacillus, or rod-bacterial stage ; and the proliferating or germ-pro-
ducing stage.

HOG-CnOLERA. 43

Tlie micrococci are found in immense numbers in tlie fluids of
tlie oriranisni, especially in the blood and exudations. If the tem-
perature is not too low, and a sufficiency of oxygen is present, they
soon develop, or grow longitudinally, by a sort of budding process
— a germ, or micrococcus, under C(»nstant microscopic observation,
budded and grew to double its length in exactly two hours in a
temperature of 70° Fahr,, and gradually developed to a true rod.
Some of the latter under favorable circumstances commence to grow
again in length, until they a])pear live to six inches long, with a
power of 850 diameters. At the same time scission takes place,
and they break into two or more segments. These long bacteria
appear to be replete with germs; the external envelope disappears,
or is dissolved, and the germs become free.

Some of the bacilli move very rapidly, while others appear mo-
tionless. The cause of motion seems to be in some way dependent
upon the temperature, for they appear motionless if the latter be
low, but sof»n move if the temperature be increased and caused to
exert a direct influence upon them.

Another change to be observed is the collection of the germs,
or bacteria, in the so-called zooglea clusters, which are often to be
met with in tlie bloo<l and other fluids, and invariably in the exu-
dations in the lunjjs. In the ulcerous tumors of the intestinal
mucosa these clusters are comparatively seldom, but the bacilli are
very numerously represented. These tumefactions in tlie intestinal
tracts appear to afford the most favorable conditions for the growth
and development of these bacteria.

"Whether these zooglea clustei's are instrumental in the ])ro-
dnction of capillary embolism is still an open question, though it
appears highly probalde. The vitality of the germs, and especially
of the bacilli, does not appear to be very great (Detmei's) except
where they are contained in a medium not very prone to decomposi-
tion, such as water which contains a slight amount of organic sub-
stances. In the water of streams, brooks, etc., the germs are not
very rapidly destroyed. In fluids and substances subject to putre-
faction the bacteria lose their vitality very soon, and apparently dis-
appear. They are also destroyed when acte<l upon by alcoliol, car-
bolic acid, thymol, iodine, etc. With reference to the vitality of the
infectious elements. Law savs of the

Yinih'nre of Dried Yirun. — This was indicated three years ago
by Professor Axe, of London, who successfully inoculated pigs
with virus that had been dried on ivory ])oints for seventy-six days.
Law inoculated three pigs with virulent products that had been

44 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

dried on quills for one day ; one with the same kind of virus that
had been dried four davs, another with virus that had beon dried
five days, and another with virus that had been dried for six days.
The quills had been sent from Xew Jei*sey and ]^orth Carolina,
without any special protection. Of the six inoculations four gave
positive results, while two, in which the quills were subjected to the
action of disinfectants, gave negative.

Vii'idence of Dried Intestine. — Pieces of dried intestine, which
had been dried for three and four days each, were used for inocula-
tion, and gave positive results.

Virulence of Moist Morbid Products if secluded from the Air.
— In these experiments a pig was inoculated with a piece of in-
testine sent from Illinois in a tightly corked bottle. The specimen
had been three days from the pig, and had a slightly putrid odor.
The disease developed on the sixth day.

A second pig was inoculated with blood from a diseased pig
that had been kept for eleven days at 100° Fahr. in an isolation ap-
paratus, the outlets of which were plugged with cotton-wool. . lU-
ness followed in twenty-four hours.

• These experiments go to prove that the exclusion of air, or re-
tarding of putrefaction, probably favors the longer preservation of
the inficiens.

Probable Non- Virulence of Morhid Products that have under-
gone Putrefaction. — This seems to be proved by direct experiment.

Virulence of the Blood. — Law produced positive results by ex-
j^eriments upon two pigs, which is opposed to the single experiment
of Klein ; but Law does not know but that at certain stages of the
disease the blood may be non-virulent.

Infection by means of the air does not seem to be clearly proved.

Transmissions of the disease to other animcds than the hog for
inoculation seem aU to be followed by positive results in sheep,
rabbits, and dogs ; and Klein succeeded in producing it in rabbits.
Guinea-pigs, and mice.

Seasons axd TEitPERATUEES.

Experience has proved the extension and devastations of this
disease to be the most extreme in the late summer and early fall
months; but the cold weather of winter does not seem to be able
to put that check to its ravages which occurs under the same condi-
tions with other diseases of a somewhat similar nature.

Detmers says : " "While, therefore, the very severe weather of
the past winter caused a great reduction in the number of animals

HOG-CHOLERA. 45

affected, tlie disease was not eradicated, nor did its fatality seem to
be lessened. The extension of the disease from one lierdto another
was greatly diminished ; but in infected herds where the malady
was already prevailing when cold weather set in, there appeared
but little ditference in the rapidity of the transmission of the dis-
ease from one animal to another in the same lot.''

Dr. Law confirms this statement, for his experiments proved
that " the severe frosts of winter do not destroy the germs of the
malady, but simply retard their conveyance from one herd to an-
other.''

In another ]ilace Dr. Law says : " I have demonstrated that the
freezing of the virulent matter does not destroy its activity, and
that the virus loses nothing in potency by preservation for one or
two months closely packed in dry l)ran. The same may 1)c inferred
of all other situations when it is closely packed, and Avliere the air
has imperfect access. These last two points are of immense im-
portance as bearing npon the question of the i>reservation of the
poison in infected pens and yards, alike in winter and in summer,
to say, nothing of its possible conveyance by means of fodder or
other vehicles."

Incubation.

According to the average drawn from a large number of obser-
vations, the period of incubation varies from five to fifteen days.

Intka-vttal Phenomena.

One of the very earliest symptoms is a marked rise in the tem-
jx'rature of the hog ; yet the fact is not without some questionable
diagnostic value : first, on account of the variations which seem to
exist in the normal temperature of different hogs ; and, second, the
difficulty which the struggle of the pig throws in the way of the
proper application of the thermometer, which may in some cases
cause a more or less marked rise in the temperature. Detmers does
not consider the thennometer of any great value in the diagnosis
or prognosis of this disease. The disease frequently announces it-
self by a cold shivering on the ])art of the atfiicted swine, lasting
from a few moments to several hours, frequent sneezing, and more
or less coughing.

These anticipatory symptoms are soon followed liy a more or less
loss of appetite, a rough and somewhat staring condition of the
bristles, a drooping of the ears, loss of vivacity, and in some cases
by vomitiTig ; a desire to bury themselves in the bedding and to lie
down in dark and quiet corners; a dull and injected condition of

46 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

the eyes ; swelling of the head, eruptions upon the ears and other
parts of the body ; occasionally bleeding from the nose, and partial
or total blindness ; dizziness, diarrhoea, and stertorous breathing.
The flanks fall in, and the animals rapidly become emaciated, and
betray a vitiated appetite for dung, dirt, and saline substances ; in-
creased thirst, accumulation of secretions in the canthi of the eyes,
and more or less copious nasal discharges. The peculiar offensive
and fetid smell of the exhalations and excrements may be looked
upon as characteristics of this disease. This odor is so penetrating as
to announce the presence of the disease, especially if the herd of
swine be a large one, at a distance of half a mile, or even more, if
the direction of the wind be favorable. If the animals are inclined
to be costive, the faeces are generally grayish or brownish-black in
color, and hard ; if diarrhoea is present, they are semi-fluid, of a
grayish-green color, and in some cases contain an admixture of
blood. In a large number of cases the more tender portions of the
skin on the lower surface of the body, between the posterior ex-
tremities, behind the ears, or even on the nose and neck, exhibit
numerous larger or smaller red spots, or sometimes a uniform red-
ness. Toward the fatal termination, this redness frequently changes
to a purple color. The physical examination of the thorax reveals, if
pleuritis be present, the characteristic crepitation. As the patholog-
ical processes progress, the movements of the afflicted animal become
weaker and slower, the gait staggering and uncertain ; sometimes
paretic phenomena appear, especially in the posterior portions of the
body. If still standing, the head becomes much depressed, but, as a
rule, the diseased animals are found lying down in a dark and se-
cluded corner, with the nose buried in the bedding. An extremely
fetid diarrhoea frequently marks the approach of a slow, fatal termi-
nation of the disease ; the voice becomes very peculiar, faint, and
hoarse, the sick animal manifests the greatest indifference to its
surroundings ; emaciation and general debihty increase very fast ;
the skin is hard, dry, and dirty, the more so according to the dura-
tion of the disease ; death ensues under convulsions, or very quickly ;
in some cases a cold, clammy perspiration breaks out over the body.
"Wherever pigs or hogs have been ringed, the wounds thus made
betray a great inclination to ulceration. In those few cases which
do not terminate fatally, the symptoms gradually disappear ; the
cough becomes more frequent but less laborious, the discharge from
the nose becomes for a day or two more copious, but soon diminishes,
and the offensive odor of the excrements disappears ; existing sores
or ulcers have a tendency to heal ; the animal becomes more live-

HOG-CnOLERA. 47

ly, and gains slowly in flesh and strength ; a short, hacking cough
frequently continues for a long time.

Patholocjical Phenomena.

The morbid processes, though essentially the same, can have their
seat in many ditferent organs or parts of the body. The necro-
scopical aspects of the disease are consequently not always the
same.

AVe almost always tind a more or less extensive infiltration of
portions of the lungs, as well as serous hiumorrhagic conditions in
the i)ulmonary tissues. In some cases the infiltrated conditions of
the lungs are so extensive that they sink when thrown into water.
The degree of consolidation is largely dependent upon the duration
of the disease. In some lungs these centei-s of consolidation were
circumscribed and rare, while in others they were diffuse, and com-
plicated a large portion of the lung. "Where the consolidation was
limited, it was principally seated in the anterior lobes. In animals
where the disease had progressed slowly, the different stages, or bet-
ter conditions of consolidation were observable, conforming to the
red, brown, or gray hepatization of pathologists — conditions of color
dej>endent on the amount of blood present in the intiltnited pul-
monary tissues. The greater the endothelial proliferation, and accu-
mulation of inflammatory products, the greater the pressure exerted
upon the capillary loops dipping into the alveoli ; hence the variation
in Color, red, brown, or gray.

The lymphatic and mesenteric glands were invariably found to
be enlarged. In some cases they presented a brownish or blackish
color, and contained not only disintegrated elements but extravasa-
tions which lay between and separated the normal elements of the
glands.

The trachea and bronchi were filled with more or less frothy
mncus, which contained desquamated epitlielium and bacteria. The
mucous membrane was more or less tumefied and congested.

Morbid changes were almost invariably present in the pleurte,
mediastinum, and pericardium, as well as slight effusions in the
ca^^ties of the chest and abdomen. Pleural a<lhesions were fre-
quently met with, as well as deposits u[)on the free surface of the
membranes.

The h'lirt (myocardium) was found to l>e complicate*! in the
majority of cases. In some animals it was flabby and dilated, and
generally congested. In the majority of cases pathological changes,
which may be s;iid to be pathognomonic, were found in the ciccum

48 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

and colon. These consisted of peculiar growths or ulcerous tumors
in the mucosa. (Whether these were limited to the Peyer's patches
or not the report does not say.) They varied in size and shape, and
were more or less prominent above the general surface of the mu-
cosa. The base of the older ones was frequently more or less pig-
mented. Their size varied from that of a pin's head to a quarter of
a dollar. The smaller ones were generally of a yellowish color, and
projected but slightly ; the larger ones were of a grayish-brown
color, or even blackish, and had usually a slight concavity in the
center. The greater part of these growths consisted of connective
tissue. In some cases these growi;hs, especially the smaller ones,
or those of recent origin, were situated upon the surface of the mu-
cosa, and were easily scraped off, leaving behind an uneven, excori-
ated surface, having the appearance of granulation tissue. The
older and larger tumors penetrated more deeply into the substance
of the mucosa — in some cases so deeply that their removal caused
perforation of the walls of the intestine. Similar productions were
also found in. other parts of the intestine.

The contents of the gall-bladder were found, in many cases, to
consist of a semi-solid, granular, dirty-brownish substance. In most
of them the ductus choledochus appeared to be thickened, so that
the semi-solid condition of the bile might be attributed to absorption
of its fluid elements, due to retention.

Morbid changes in the skin were frequently met with, consisting
of ulcers, purple spots or patches, or diffuse redness.

The blood presented both qualitative and quantitative changes.
It was dirt-colored in all cases wdiere death had been caused by cxt
tensive pulmonary complications, but was thin and light-colored
where pathological changes predominated in other parts of the or-
ganism. It invariably coagulated on exposure to the atmosj)here.
The kidneys exhibited no very marked change.

Microscopic Observations. (Law.)

Skin. — Microscopic sections through the affected portions of the
skin showed the various grades of congestion, with blocking of the
capillaries, and an excess of lymphoid and large granular cells and
pigment granules with extravasations and necrotic centers. With
the earlier congestion there is more or less anasarca and consequent
separation of the elements of the cutis, while in the later or more
severe conditions a fibrinous exudation takes place, and this may
even exude upon the free surface and form dark scabs. In no in-
stance was formation of pus in the skin to be seen. One feature.

nOG-CHOLERA. 49

which does not seem to liave been hitherto observed, was tlie impH-
eation of the bristk^-folHcles.

Intestines. — St^ctions through those portions of the intestines
which are merely congested and reddened, but without ulceration,
show stagnation and blocking of the capillaries of the mucosa and
sub-mucosa, with thickening and softening of the tissues, especially
of the epithelium. This last contains a great excess of granules,
and aggregations of the same into cell-forms, while the ei)ithelial
cells are reduced in size and contain enlarged nuL-lei. As has been
pointed out by Klein, the degeneration is often the greatest around
the openings of the crypts of Liel)erkuhn, and in their interior,
while their cavities are frequently filled with extravasated blood.
Aside from the above one frequently finds lymphoid and migrated
blood-cells, hajmatine crystals, and micrococci.

The ulcere, with a central slough, present at their base the same
characteristics as the congested mucous membrane. The slouch is
mainly composed of small nucleated cells and granules, and mi-
crococci.

Lymphatic Glands. — The obstruction of the capillaries and ex-
tnivasation of blood arc most common in the cortical portion of the
gland ; when the medullary portion is complicated, the extravasated
blood is oftenest met with in the lymph-channels and inter-stromatous
spaces, while the parenchyma seems to escape. The cellular changes
are most marked in the protracted cases of the disease.

Or(jans of Respiration. — The characteristic lesion of the lungs
is lobular pneumonia ; the exudation being most abundant in the
interlobular connective tissues, and is often of a dark color on ac-
count of the presence of red blood-cells. A microscopic section
transverse to the bronchioli and alveoli reveals the presence of an
exudation containing a large number of round lymphoid cells, gran-
ules, and in the alveoli similar accunndations.

Kidneys. — Clouded swelhng of the cortical, with consequent
hypenrmia of the medullary, substance.

Blood. — In most cases no changes were to be observed except
the presence of numerous bacteria. No such organisms were to be
found in the blood of a healthy pig.

DiAc^N'osis. — From the foregoing detailed description of the
phenomena of tins disease, it is evident that there is but little
difficulty in its correct recognition, especially when appearing in a
number of swine at the same time.

Proonosis. — This is always unfavorable, for even though indi-
viduals may survive the attack, still the ravages of the disease are
4

50 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

sucli as to almost destroy their value as marketable animals from
an economical point of view.

Treatment. — On account of its difficulties, medicinal treatment
of swine is in general almost useless, and with this disease truly so ;
the antizymotics are, however, indicated in unison with tonics.

Prevention.

As in all infectious diseases, of whatever nature, the aim of
modern medicine is prevention. On account of the great liability
to extension peculiar to this porcine pest, the regulations of prevent-
ive medicine must be fully as much of a general as of a local
character.

We shall follow Mr. Law in considering this question. He says :

" One farmer may easily eradicate it from his swine, but, so long
as it continues to prevail among those of his neighbors, his stock is
daily subjected to the danger of renewed infection."

This being the fact with reference to the individual farmer, it is
equally the case in every township, county, or State. In our East-
ern States the pest is almost invariably due to the importation of
diseased stock, and, though from the lack of pigs it never gains
wide extension, it illustrates the infectious nature of the disease in
the West. To secure a complete or even restricted immunity from
its ravages, active measures must be taken over the entire land, and
this can only be done under the supervision of one central, con-
trolling power, with the necessary number of local authorities.

The following measures should be adopted :

1. The appointment of local inspectors to carry out the measures
necessary to suppress the disease.

2. The injunction on all having the care of or ownership of hogs,
and upon all who may be called upon to advise concerning the same,
or to treat them, to make known to such local authorities all recog-
nized or suspected cases of the disease, under a penalty for any and
every neglect of such duty.

3. The obliging of the local authorities, under the advice of a
competent veterinary inspector, to see to the absolute destruction of
all pigs suffering from the pest, and all that have been in contact
with them, and their burial in some isolated place, and the thorough
disinfection of the pens, utensils, and persons around them.

(It will frequently be found most advantageous to the interests
of all concerned, to kill and bury the hogs in their pens, and to
burn the latter, when of wood, as well as the utensils, and to erect
new pens at some place properly distant for any new lot of hogs.)

HOG-CnOLERA. 51

4. The complete isolation of all domestic animals wliicli have
been in contact with the diseased pigs, and in all cases of sheep and
rabbits, the destruction of the sick when this shall be deemed neces-
sary.

5. "When all the pigs in an infected herd have not been de-
stroyed, the remainder should be placed upon an official register,
and subjected to daily inspection by the veterinaiy inspector, so
that the sick may be removed and killed on the first indication of
disease.

G. Sheep and rabbits which have been in contact with diseased
hogs should be treated likewise, and none should be removed from
the fiock until after the lapse of a month from the last appearance
of disease among them.

7. All animals and birds, wild or tame, and all persons except
those employed in the work, must be carefully excluded from the
infected premises, and until the same have been pronounced safe,
after careful disinfection, etc.

S. The losses sustained by owners from the compulsory slaughter
of their hogs should be made good by a valuation to be fixed by a
competant board of assessors.

9. Such reimbursement should be forfeited by owners who fail
to comply with the law in properly notifying the authorities of the
real existence or suspicion of the presence of the pest among their
swine.

10. A register should be kept, in prescribed form, of all hogs
kept on farms within a certain radius of infected herds — say one
mile — and no removal of such animals should be permitted until
the disease had been pronounced at an end, unless by special license
from the competent authorities, after the veterinary inspector had
pronounced the herd in question to be absolutely free from every
suspicion of the disease.

11. Tlailroad and shipping agents of adjoining stations to in-
fected districts should be forbidden to ship pigs, excepting by license
of the local authorities, until the plague luis been pronounced at an
end in such districts.

12. "When infected pigs have been conveyed by rail, boat, or
other means of transport, measures should be taken to insure the
thorough disinfection of such vehicles of transport, as well as the
bams, docks, or yards, or other places into which the diseased ani-
mals may have been turned.

52 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

DISEASES OF CATTLE.

Cattle assume bj far the first place among our domestic ani-
mals, from an economical point of view. The prosperity of a nation
might well be estimated by its wealth in cattle. Of all animals,
they supply the greatest proportion of our animal food. "Without
beef and milk, we could hardly think ourselves capable of existing.
Assuming this rank, then, as a source of food, it is self -apparent
that the greatest care should be taken in keeping such animals in a
hygienic — i. e., healthy — condition.

Animal hygiene differs much from human :

1. The animals must be kept healthy.

2. They must be kept healthy, so that they may yield the great-
est possible return to the owner, be it work, flesh, milk, or other
products.

To attain this end requires the greatest attention on the part of
the owners.

To attain it economically,, the owner must pay attention to the
different characteristics of each animal, that no food goes to waste.
One animal fattens easier than another on the same amount of food.
One cow yields more milk, or one ox performs a like amount of
work upon food that its neighbor will not thrive upon.

But in many instances, and it is with these we have especially to
do, animal hygiene imposes upon the owner a responsibility that has,
up to the present time, almost escaped appreciation.

It is the imperative duty of owners^ or breeders of animals, to
study every influence that may possibly have an injurious effect
upon them, when destined to be articles of human consumption,
either as flesh or milk.

Thus we see that the interests of public health demand the
greatest and most studious care of the water, feeding, and surround-
ings of such animals.

We are not going too far when we assert that this branch of
animal hygiene has been almost entirely neglected, not only by the
owner, but by scientists as well.

Tape-worms are not by any means an uncommon occurrence in
man, yet how few people realize that one variety is derived from
the consumption of improperly cooked beef !

An instance comes to our mind of an M. D., who enjoyed a large
practice, that came to us with the segments of a tape-worm, but
could not believe it was, because the patient never ate any pork.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 53

On being told that man also obtains such a parasite from eating
beef, he was eomi)letelj surprised.

The name whicli science has given to this parasite is Tamia
medlo-canellata, or, better, saginata.

This parasite exceeds in length that which we have j)reviously
described as being obtained from i)ork. Its sections, or proglottids,
are also broader and thicker. Tania solium, or armaUi^ derived
from pork, has its scolex, or head, armed with huuks, wliich is not
the case with the one we are at present considering. This fact at
firet led naturalists to think they had before them one and the same
tape-worm, the dilferenccs in appearance and formation of the heads
representing different stages of development, the armed parasite
representing a youthful, the unarmed an aged, period in its exist-
ence. This has been clearly demonstrated to be a mistake. Pro-
glottids of tffiuia saginata fed to young swine failed to produce cys-
ticerei, or measles, while the same when fed to calves were followed
by positive results — i. e., the development of cysticerci of the un-
armed tape-worm in the intertibrillar tissue (Leuckart, Mosler, it al.).

As to their presence in cattle, Dr. Thudicum * says :

" The question why the cysticerci of ticnia saginata have never
been observed in the flesh of cattle, with the exception of those
cases in which they have been intentionally reared, is of great inter-
est and importance, from a sanitary point of view. It is possible
that these bladder-worms are present in the musculature of cattle in
very small numbers only, and consequently do not present any such
striking appearance on section of the muscles as is produced by
measles in the muscles of swine. For while a pig would devour an
entire tape-worm if it came in its way, a calf would refuse to eat it,
if it could avoid doing so ; hence, only free eggs or single proglot-
tids, adhering to or concealed in the herbs making up the ordinary
food of cattle, could be introduced into their systems. Thus, cattle
driven along a road or path would ])c liable to snatch a mouthful of
grass, and with it a proglottid of the bookless or five-cu})pod ta])e-
worm. The very circumstance of tJie scarcity of cysticerci in the
flesh of cattle facilitates their importation into thi' human intestines.
The single specimens are not discovered, and consequently not
avoided ; hence, the taenia derived from them live in almost all
countries of our globe, and infest the black and white man, the
Mongol, the !Malay, and the Indian. I have examined many thou-
sands of specimens of beef from many hundreds of bodies of beeves,
and have never yet found a cysticercus of this ta?nia in the flesh or
* Report to the Privy Council of Great Britain. Sec seventh report, London, 1865.

54 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

any other organ. Probably if calves and heifers were systematically
dissected with the same care as human bodies, these cysticerci would
appear as frequently as the trichinae or the cysticercus cellulosse in
man, both which parasites were discovered in the anatomical thea-
tre, and without anatomical dissection would no doubt have eluded
the vigilance of science much longer."

As said previously, taenia saginata is found in man in all parts
of the world. It seems far to exceed taenia solium in its prevalence
among the inhabitants of Austria proper and Lower Germany, while
in North Germany taenia solium is more frequently met with. It
has been met with in England, and a case of invasion is also report-
ed in an Indian in our own country ; but well-ordered statistics in
this regard are so out of the general course of events in these two
countries, that we are not justified in assuming that the populations
of the same are so much favored above their fellow-men in other
countries.

With reference to protection from this parasite —

1. We must have a well-organized system of inspection of all
animals slaughtered, by competently educated men.

2. The people must be educated in a knowledge of these dan-
gers, and also in the means necessary to their prevention.

a. Without the active co-operation of the jpeojple^ we can hope for
little successful reform in this country.

3. The consumption of undercooked meat must be looked upon
as dangerous to health.

Cattle are also subject to several diseases which threaten the
public health, from the fact that they are transmissible to man by
means of infectious elements peculiar to each of them.

" Foot-and-mouth disease " is the common name given to a pe-
culiar vesicular eruption which afflicts cattle on the parts indicated
by the above name, as well as upon the ud'der of milch-cows.

This disease has also been observed in sheep, swine, goats, the
deer family, occasionally in the horse, and cases have been reported
among dogs and turkeys. Further, numerous cases of infection
have been reported among human beings.

Fleming says : " It has caused almost as much loss and trouble
to the farmers of Britain as has the contagious bovine lung-plague.
In 1876-'77 this disease was reported as infecting 11,064 cattle,
4,809 sheep, and 1,904 swine in the kingdom of Prussia. It is
needless to say that no statistics exist as to its extension among cat-
tle and other animals in the United States."

The asssertion that animals affected with it have been exported

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 55

from this country and landed in England, makes it probable that
the disease has attained a foothold among our animals. But ^vhere i

Veterinary science is in a state so much less than embryonal
in this country, that no one knows whence these animals came ;
whether they were diseased when leaving here, or what portion of
them was diseased.

This disease is transmissible to man. So far as my knowledge
extends, this has only taken place from diseased cows.

Yalentine, of Italy, 16l>5, noticed the synchronous appearance of
a i^ustulous eniption in the mouths of human beings, and a similar
disease among cattle. Sagad, 170-1, was the first to notice that hu-
man beings acquired the eruption from the consumption of milk
from cows affected with the same. Ilertwig (of the Veterinary
Institute, Berlin, Prussia) first proved the same by direct experi-
ment, lie drank daily for four consecutive days a quart of milk
taken from cows having the disease. On the second day he ob-
served a mild fever, pains in the limbs, headache, a dry and hot
throat, and a peculiar sensation in the hands and fingers. These
mild phenomena continued about five days ; then the lining of the
mouth became swollen, especially the covering of the tongue. In
a short time small vesicles began to develop. At the same time
that these eruptions appeared in the mouth and on the lips, ap-
peared an eniption of similar character upon the hands and fingers.
Two medical practitioners also subjected themselves to the same
experiment, and at the same time similar results followed. All
three recovered completely. (Bollinger, in Ziemsscn's " Ilandbuch
der Pathologic," vol. iii, p. G37.)

The danger from the consumption of the milk of cows afflicted
with this eruption is most emphatically demonstrated by the fact
that young animals fed upon the same frequently perish in conse-
quence of gastro-entcritis, i. e., inflammation of stomach and bowels.

For man, milk from such cows, to which ninety per cent normal
milk has been added, is still dangerous when consumed. Cooking
the milk from such cows completely destroys its infectious qualities.

Bollinger gives the following examples of the eniption of the
disease in human beinf]:s bv indirect infection :

"A boy had a severe aphthous eruption in the mouth after
biting the edge of a pail which was polluted with the droolings
from the mouth of a diseased cow." " A man accidentally infected
himself by putting between his teeth a knife which had been pol-
luted in the same manner." "Another infected himself by chew-
ing a piece of wood which had been used to clean the mouth of a

56 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

diseased cow." " A veterinarian had a long-continued and painful
eruption in the mouth from touching the internal part of the same
with his finger after having handled a diseased cow."

In the " Preussische Mittheil. aus. d. thierarztlichen Praxis,"
18Y4:-'T5, are given three cases of aphthous eruption in the mouths
of men who had drunk buttermilk which had been taken from a
cow having foot-and-mouth disease.

On account of the paucity of observations from competent medi-
cal men, little is known about the disposition of mankind to this dis-
ease. Doubtless, as in other infectious and contagious diseases, some
persons have a far greater disposition to infection than others. Bol-
linger says, " Notwithstanding the ruling opinion to the contrary, the
disease is much more frequent among human beings than expected."

Numerous observations have been made of the synchronous en-
zootic eruptions of this disease among cattle and an eruption in the
mouth of human beings.

The outbreak of this disease among human beings is only to be
prevented by competently educated and trustworthy veterinary in-
spectors for all dairies, and by the exact isolation of all diseased
animals.

Such milk might be cooked before being offered for sale ; but
the danger of insufficient or neglected cooking is too great to justify
such a procedure, so that its sale should be strictly forbidden, and,
if persevered in, as strictly punished.

Such milk, after heing thoroughly coolced, could be appropriately
used for feeding swine. Whether the consumption of butter and
cheese made from such milk is dangerous to mankind is an open
question requiring more extended and critical observation.

Another subject which has not, as yet, received by any means
the attention which it deserves is, the changes produced in milk
chemically, and especially microscopically, by the presence of in-
flammatory conditions of the udder of the cow.

a. The influences of such milk should be critically tested by
means of feeding experiments upon young and healthy animals of
the same and different species ; controlled by feeding young ani-
mals from the same mother, or of as nearly as possible like age and
constitution, upon the same material.

h. Are there in such milk, from diseased udders or single cisterns
of the same, such microscopic changes as to allow their recognition
when mixed with milk from perfectly healthy cows ?

Fiirstenberg * has gone into this subject with no inconsiderable

* "Die Milchdriisen der Kuh," Leipzig, 1868.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 57

deirree of exactness. From his and other researches it is evident
that changes in the constitntion of the milk are produced by so
sHght a change from normality as a hypentmic (increase of the
qnantity of blood) condition of the interstitial and subcutaneous tis-
sues of the udder. A comparison of such milk with normal, or,
when but one cistern is complicated, with milk from the other cis-
terns of the same udder, has shown that the solid elements are greatly
augmented at the expense of the fluid ; especially are the casein and
albumen augmented, while the normal milk contains more milk-
sugar, and the so-called "extractives" in greater quantity. The
inorganic elements are also considerably increased in the milk from
diseased udders.

In other words, such milk assumes characters simulating those
of colostrum, containing the well-known colostrum bodies, having a
yellowish-white color, is viscid, and coagulates easily. In such a
secretion, Fiirstenberg found the results of chemical analysis to be
as follows :

Water 81 • VS9

Solids 18-211

Total lOUOOO

The solid elements were :

Fat 5-210

Casein and albumen 8 • 887

Milk-sugar and extractives 3 • 070

Salts. 1-044

Total 18 211

These 1-044 salts consisted of :

Phosphoric salts and oxide of iron 0 • 384

Carbonates of lime O'lOS

Chloride of sodium (cooking-salt) 0 003

Soda 0 549

Traces of sulphuric acid 0 - 000

Total 1 044

From the non-diseased parts of the same udder the results of the
analysis were as follows :

Water 88-583

Solids 11-417

Total 100000

58 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The 11-417 solids were :

Fat 3

Casein 3

Milk-sugar and extractives 4

Salts

Total 11

The mineral elements were :

405
218
092

702

41 T

Phosphoric earths and oxide of iron 0-317

Carbonates of lime 0*146

Chloride of sodium 0*004

Soda 0-325

Traces of sulphuric acid 0-000

Total 0-702

The same is true, except in degree, of the more excessive grades
of inflammation. The important question is, Is such milk harm-
ful, and to what extent f

May not the only too frequent cases of so-called " summer-com-
plaint " of children, especially of those brought up on the bottle, be
traceable, in a measure, to feeding them upon milk containing these
colostrum-like elements ?

We know that colostrum exerts a gentle purgative influence. Is
it, then, going too far to (in an a priori manner) assume that such
milk, when continually given, may produce more serious and lasting
effects ?

This can only be proved by direct experiment upon young ani-
mals, which can not be done except at some expense to the State.
It is, indeed, done by children, at no expense to the State, but at a
fearful cost of human life, and all that is needed to close the evi-
dence of this human vivisection is the competent veterinary expert
at the milk-fountain end of the route, and the exact medical observer
at the other. I think there would be little difficulty in establishing
the connection between cause and effect, if animal life is not too
precious and too tender for sentimental persons who esteem it above
human at the present day. While every one is crying out for more
economy in reference to State expenses, and while many expenses
can doubtless be cut down with great benefit to the people — for in-
stance, the number of representatives might be greatly lessened,
with a corresponding increase in quality — might it not be well to
call to mind the old adage that " it is not well to hold on to the spile
with all one's might, and not look out for the bung."

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 59

The work of State boards of health is not surely to be limited to
gathering statistics of mortality in man, or ins])ecting our water-
sources alone, but should extend to the investigation of those experi-
ments by which alone the true causes of disease may be discovered.
We are too ajit to satisfy ourselves with iine-sounding hypotheses
with regard to the origin of many so-called strange diseases, which
a few exact experiments would soon send to the winds, and which
would lead to the discovery, if not of the cause or causes, certainly
of means for their prevention.

The real germ of small-pox contagion has never yet been posi-
tively isolated, although many fond supporters of the micrococcus-
germ theory cherish an idea to the contrary ; yet careful experiment
and exact observation, in unison with practical experience, have
taught us that exact attention to, and universal application of, vacci-
nation, is an almost infallibly sure means of prevention against its
deadly ravages.

AVith regard to this very milk question, a few facts, gained from
actual experiment, are worth thousands of surmises from 2)racticing
physicians.

To this end State boards of health should have at their com-
mand an experiment station, under the control of a competently
educated person as superintendent and observer of the experiments.
Such a person should be a veterinarian, and be at the same time a
member of the State Board of Health ; the advantage to such boards
of such a member is by no means appreciated at the present time,
either by the members of such boards or by the people at large.

With reference to the expenses of such a station, the question
for legislators, and also for the people, to consider, is not one of im-
mediate outlay, but whether it is cheaper to spend a few thousand
<l()llars yearly for experiments, or to have causes of disease, and
sometimes death, existing for years, which it is possible to discov-
er, or at least to find means to prevent their action.

Another most important question to which I desire to call atten-
tion is, IIar>e States or cities done their whole (hdy when they have
appointed inftpectors to examine milk after it has left the producer^
as it ?.* rfady for delivery to the consumer ?

If, as I can but think, experiment will prove that the consump-
tion of milk from cows having diseased udders, so called "garget,"
is fraught with danger to human health, then city im^pcction^ or de-
livery inspection^ is next to usdesn^ and the place for the most im-
portant inspection is at the stable of the jrrodncer.

All such cows should be isolated by an official veterinary in-

60 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

spector, and tlie sale of the milk from such isolated cows for human
consumption should be punished by most severe penalties.

In fact, the inspection of the milk as it is delivered to the dis-
tributors for immediate consumption can only lead to the discovery
of dilution — that is, cheating in value — 7iever to the discovery of an
unhealthy or absoliUely diseased fountain-head^ i. e., cow or cows.

The unquestionable guaranteeing to the public that the cows
producing the milk are healthy is, in my opinion, far more a matter
of necessity, from a hygienic point of view, than the discovery of a
varying degree of watery dilution, always providing the water it-
self is pure. In the one case, we have discovered a simple swindle ;
in the other, what might prove to be the cause of serious constitu-
tional disturbances among the consumers.

It may not be known to many milk-producers that medicine given
internally, and many things, such as salves and dressings, especially
those used against insects, applied outwardly, are capable of exert-
ing an influence upon milk which is very likely to be disturbing, or
even injurious, in a far more serious degree to the consumers.

The following examples, casually gathered iu my reading, will
suflBciently testify to this remark :

Guenther * found antimony in milk after feeding the tartrate
to a cow. Harms observed a hsemorrhagic diarrhoea in two dogs
and three young goats, after feeding them with the milk from a cow
which had been given a large dose of the above-mentioned tartrate
— forty-six grammes — the day before,

Klink f demonstrated the presence of quicksilver in the milk of
a woman afflicted with syphilis, that had been subjected to the blue-
ointment treatment.

According to Henry and Chevallier, cooking-salt, bicarbonate of
soda, sulphate of soda, and iodide of potassium, may be discovered
in milk when given to animals.

Twelve cows were so infected by carbolic acid, which had been
used in a strong solution to disinfect the stable, that human beings
who used the milk, both cooked and uncooked, became sick, but
finally recovered. \

A large number of persons in Rome were poisoned from the
use of goat's milk. || The disease, as it appeared in these people,
was strongly characteristic of cholera. Some persons recovered in

* " Jahrcsbericht d. Thierarzneischule zu Hannover," N"o. 6, p. 72.
f " Vierteljahrsschrift fiir Dermatologic u. Syphilis," 1876, p. 207.
X Scholtz, "Preussische Mittheil.," 1874-'75, p. 109.
il " Med. u. Chivurg. Centralblatt," 1876.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. Qi

the course of seventy-four liours, but the majority were ill for some
four or iive days. The violence of the symptoms was in direct pro-
portion to the (quantity of milk consumed. The suspected fi^oats
were subjected to a careful examination by a veterinarian, but noth-
ing abnormal discovered. Their food was next critically examined,
and the following four poisonous plants Avere found in it: '" conium
maculatum," " clematis vitalba," " colchicum autumnale," " plum-
bago Europea." An examination of the milk vomited by the sick
people revealed the presence of colchicum, which was looked upon
as the cause of the disturbance.

Tuberculosis of Cattle.

This disease of cattle, but especially the milch-cow, is now play-
ing a most sensational role in the discussions of hygienists, more
esjjccially those of Germany.

That the tendency or disposition to this disease is transmissible
from parents to offspring has been placed beyond all question by
the observation and experience of stock-raisers. This fact is also
well enough known, but by far too little appreciated, by human be-
ings with reference to their own race.

Dr. Bowditch, of Boston, has clearly shown the influence which
long-continued residence in low, damp, unhealthy localities has upon
the generations of the older ISTew England families in extending or
keeping alive this disease ; but the medical profession has been alto-
gether too silent with regard to hereditar}' influences.

Mueller * says that, basing his opinion upon 988 cases of per-
sonal observation during the course of nine years, in 21*8 per cent
of the same the parents had also suffered from tubercular consump-
tion. This percentage increases to 28*0 per cent, if we take into
consideration the grandparents, brothers, and sisters. Other ob-
servers assume that thirty-eight per cent of the deaths from tuber-
cular consumption in human l)eings is due to hereditary influence.
If, as said, stock-raisers have learned a lesson from costly experience
in this regard, and are applying principles of selection or exclusion
in their breeding of animals, is it too late to apply like principles to
human beings ?

Is it not liigh time that the principles of scientific breeding
should be applied l)y man to his own species ? I>eauty, form,
money, position, should all play their aj)propriate part in the selec-
tion of the partner for life by man or woman ; but, as the natural
result of marriage, as the result of being made male and female, is

* "Inaugural Disscrtatioa," Bcrnc, 1876.

62 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

the production of eliildren, is it not still more imperatively de-
manded of us to take the health of these products of our lust more
frequently than our good sense into earnest consideration by select-
ing a partner from families in which these tendencies have attained
the least possible strength ?

Have we any right to condemn children thus to lives of misery
and early graves? What stock-raisers do for their pockets, man-
kind should certainly have sense enough to do for their own off-
spring.

" 'Tis through ignorance they do it."

The blame falls upon the shoulders of an incompetent, avari-
cious medical profession. Consumptive families bring large fees,
help to buy corner-lots, and enable the great doctor to ride com-
fortably about with coupe and coachman.

But to return to our subject. This disease of cattle has been
practically known to exist for a long time. Its cause has been sought
in all sorts of absurdities, such as acrid or irritable substances in
food or water. Even hereditary influences failed for a long time of
their due appreciation. In Germany the disease is also known as
the " Franzosenkrankheit," or French disease. It probably received
the name when everything evil which befell the German race was
only too willingly attributed to their French neighbors as well as
conquerors.

The first intimation that some irritating or infectious elements
were contained in the milk of cows having this disease is due to
Gerlach, the most noted of all German veterinarians, and late di-
rector of the Royal Veterinary Institute at Berlin.

The experiments of Yillemin, Klebs, Orth, and many others,
have amply demonstrated that the elements from tuberculous dis-
eased lungs, lyrnph-glands, and other organs, contained some pe-
culiar infectious material capable of producing a similar disease
when inoculated upon, or in some cases fed to, animals by way of
experiment.

With reference to the milk of tuberculous diseased cows, the
honor of priority is unquestionably Gerlach's.

Here we have to do with a question of manifold character. ]N^ot
only is the j)ublic health threatened, but both the nation and each
individual dairyman, or cow-owner, has to face a question of no
secondary economical importance.

If the experimental results obtained by Gerlach and other ob-
servers, both German and French, become universally accepted, then
governments have no other recom-se than to order the most exact

DISEASES OF CATTLE. g3

supervision of the cattle in their respective countries, by wliich the
disease may be discovered, and their sale as meat at the earliest pos-
sible moment of such as are suitable. All others, in which this is
found unjustitiable on account of their condition, must be turned
over to the knacker.

The loss and expense of such a procedure can be best appreci-
ated by the expert acquainted with the extreme extension which
this disease has aecpiirod among cattle, especially milch-cows.

If any government undertakes to stamp out this disease, it will
find difficulties by far exceeding those connected with a t^iaiilar pro-
cess by any other contagious malady.

The adage, '' Touch a man's pocket and you touch his heart,''
will be more than sufficiently verified.

In Germany, where the majority of the milch-cows are stall-fed,
and that, too, in poorly ventilated, ill-arranged stables, this disease
has acquired an extension of which we can at present make no ap-
preciation in this country.

The assertion of the infectiousness of the milk from such cows
raised a perfect storm of abuse in Germany, which poured down on
the asserter's head until he died. The more ignorant, lazy, and
intlifferent men were, the louder they abused. jMany men who were
professors at the schools joined in the cry, " Down with him ! "
without ever making the attempt to prove the assertions wrong
by direct experiment. Succeeding experiments have, however, es-
sentially strengthened the assertions of Gerlach.

As these fii*st experiments * with reference to so momentous a
question are worthy of all attention, I take the liberty of noticing
a very few of them in this place.

Having a cow afflicted with tuberculosis that still gave milk,
it was resolved to use the same to test the question " ic/tet/wr the
milkfi'om such a cow is capable of producing a similar disease in
yo>infj animals \rhen fed \ipon it.''^ f

The cow was seven or eight years old, much emaciated, respira-
tion difficult, and had a rough, weak cough ; vesicular respiration
perceptible over all parts of the thorax which inclose the lungs, but
numerous unnatural, especially dry " rdles '' were perceptible. In
no place vcas the percussion deaden&l. No fever. Appetite good.
Daily milk quantum, 1,500 grammes. After the lapse of three

* It is not our purpose here to go into detail with reference to these experimcnls, but
we will refer those interested to the " Veterinnrv Journal," London (England), vols, viii^
ix, and x, where they will find abundant material.

f Gerlaoh, " Experiments with Reference to the Milk of Cows having Tuberculosis.'
" Jahresbcricht d. Thicrarzneischule zu Hannover," 1868-'69.

64 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

months the cow was killed. The emaciated condition had grad-
ually increased, the milk-secretion likewise decreasing : in the first
month the yield of milk decreased 600 grammes ; in the second, 500
grammes, and during the last eight days the secretion ceased en-
tirely, although the animal received all the nourishment she could
consume.

'■'■Autopsy. — The inner thoracic walls, the diaphragm, and the
mediastinum were covered with numerous tubercles of variable di-
mensions ; the pulmonary pleura, or covering of the lungs, was far
less complicated. The lungs were voluminous, and double their
normal weight, l^odules and tubercles were distinctly perceptible
on palpation. The bronchial lymph-glands were hypertrophied —
enlarged — ^hard and nodulated. Cross-section of the pulmonary tis-
sues revealed the presence of numerous tubercles and tuberculous
devastations ; large and small cavities filled with a muco-punilent
mass, others with caseous material; numerous miliary tubercles
were disjjersed over the pulmonary tissue."

With the milk from this cow were fed two calves, two pigs, one
sheep, and two rabbits. The first calf died from an accidentally ac-
quired disease.

Calf No. 2. — A healthy, well-nourished caK, eight days old,
was fed with milk from the above-mentioned cow, for a period ex-
tending over one and two thirds months ; at first it received 1,000
and later 300 grammes of milk daily, an average of about 650
grammes per day ; in fifty days the whole quantity of milk con-
sumed amounted to from 30 to 32 kilogrammes. Aside from this
the calf received other milk ; later, diluted milk and oatmeal.
Neither phenomena indicating the presence of disease, nor disturb-
ance of the nutritive functions, were observable. The calf was
killed one hundred days from the time that the experimental feed-
ing began, and fifty days after the feeding with milk from the tu-
berculous cow had ceased.

Autopsy. — The pleura of the shai*p edges of the right lung was
covered with delicate red, filamentous excrescences, which extend-
ed as a fringe about a centimetre beyond the edge of the lung.
Here and there this neoplastic production formed a connected mem-
brane in which were to be seen miliary tubercles, as refracting
points. The costal pleura, the inner lining of the ribs, was also irreg-
ularly covered with a membrane of similar character. In the lungs
were to be seen tubercles, otherwise the parenchyma was normal ;
immediately under the pleura were to be seen four small and six
miliary tubercles, and eight more were to be seen in the loose inter-

DISEASES OF CATTLE. (55

lobular tissue. The smaller tubercles were more transparent, and
bad a grayish color, having a firm organic character ; in the center
of one of the larger ones was to be seen caseous material. The
bronchial lymph-glands were much enlarged ; inwardly disturbed
by many purulent and caseous centers ; here and there lime-salts
'were perce])tible ; tlie tuberculous centers extended prominently
above the cut surface of the gland. The mesenteric and other
glands presented a similar character.

The microscopical examinations of the tubercles gave the same
characteristics as those of man.

Some of the experiments Avith the other animals mentioned
previously gave negative, wliile othere were followed by positive, re-
sults.

These and other more recent experiments prove that the milk
from cows complicated lo'ith tuberculosis is not only ]iarmful, hut
that it also contains elements of a specifically dangerous cTiaracter /
it is capahle of generating elements of a similar character : it there-
fore hears the character termed infectious.

Wliile I will not go so far as to consider the above-noticed and
other experiments as conclusive and unquestionable evidence that
the milk from tuberculous cows (and why not human mothers ?) will
at all times produce tuberculosis in young animals fed on the same,
yet, such is my confidence in the value of the experiments made
by Gerlach and still later by others, that for myself I have no
doubt whatever that the milh from tuberculous coios and mothers
will, in the greater numher of cases, generate tubercles in young ani-
mals when fed with sufficient quantities, and for a sufficient length
of time, to produce infection.

The casual reader might perhaps fail to see the point to which
these conclusions necessarily lead us, viz., that if young animaU
can be thiis infected, what is there to prevent the same taking place
in babes brought up on the bottU ? I do not wish to place myself
before the public as a visionary alarmist.

Here are facts, however, induced from carefully executed ex-
periments, and by a man noted for his exactness and trustworthiness
in other branches of researches.

Bollinger has summed up the feeding experiments upon young
animals, with the milk in question, as follows:

'• Three pigs — one successfully, two doubtful.

" Three calves — two successfully, one prematurely died.

" One lamb — one successfully.

" Two dogs — two negative results.

zr AvrT4-.is

:. STT sg^sSirv^ TBggTrtr? ; "QSS ^}t^ST

ms rsssarss.

t&eT4»

-1 m ■ :.h u^ ;

Tarn

^i. aire

■fjH iiri:. _

".id to ie

• , 0 to tliS

Aprf ^ . '

"-■t HL m-

■^ 1 12. tr.

■», 1

'^ tr&ci

i

DISEASES OF CATTLE. (J 7

cavities in the same, and she raised purulent ichorous sputa. She
died from the disease Julj 23, IS 76.

** 6. Nurse Sanger had the habit of removing the mucus from
the babes' mouths bv means of suction with her own ; and of blow-
ing her own breath into the mouths of asphyctic children ; and, in
general, treated children in a manner which rendered it possible
for the expired air from her own lungs to get into theirs, kissing
them much, etc.

** 7. In three of the cases of tubercular meuingitis which came
to my personal observation, the sickness began with bronchitis-

'* S. Meningitis tuberculosa is not an endemic disease among
children at Neuenburg. In the nine years, from lS0G-'74, only
two deaths are reported from this disease among children under
one year old. Of twelve children, under one year old, that died in
1S77, only one died from this disease ; the parents of this child
were both subjects of tubercular consumption.^'

These cases, and those which follow, that were made by an ac-
complished veterinarian, in connection with the experimental testi-
mony which we have brought together in a simply suggestive but
by no means exhaustive form, should be more than sufficient to
call the attention of every reflecting man and woman to the fact
that tuberculosis is not only a disease, the disposition to which is
transmissible from parent to offspring, both human and animal, but
that it is, under certain circumstances, a highly contagious and in-
fectious disease. They tell tis in warning words that we mtist not
only be most careful in selecting our partner for life, but in the
selection of the nurse, or maid, for children, and, when neoeeeary,
Oic coic from which we are to give them milk,

Th^ inifuertCf of th< expired air from the lung9 cf caHU afiieUd
vcith the disease called tuberculofis upon other animals of the tame
sjKci<^ confined in the same ttahU tcith them.

This question is one of vast praedcal and economical impor-
tance to the farmer and dairvman. I much reg^t that I am so
entirely limited to the observations of foreigners upon cattle in
their own countries rather than to observations gathered in our
own country ; but this fact should stimulate us to more careful
consideration of these questions, even though it be late in the day
that we begin.

A German veterinarian. Albert, contributes a very thoughtftd
and interesting paper, detailing personal observations bearing upon
this very point, in the " Wochenschrift fur Thierheilkunde,'^ yoe.
30 and 31, ISSO, under the title '* The Tuberculosis of Cattle as an

68 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Infectious Disease." The following is a free translation of the es-
sential points of this paper :

Although heredity is unquestionably a very important cause in
the generation of this disease among cattle, still it does not suffice
to explain the great extension which the same acquires among
them ; especially is it insufficient in answering for the eruption of
the disease among cattle in stables where no breeding takes place,
or where the young animals are brought in from other places. In
such stables other causes must be brought into action, and these are
the transmission of the disease from one animal to another. I have
observed that when there is in a stable one individual which contains
in its organism the conditions necessary to the extension of the dis-
ease— tubercular process in the lungs — the disease extends to the
other animals — cattle — in the same stable which have been there
for a sufficient period. This seems to conform to the fact that
tuberculosis is a disease peculiar to our domesticated cattle, but not
to the wild ones of the plains, and agrees with the experience that
certain stables are looked upon as peculiarly favorable to the gener-
ation of the disease.

Of the peculiar metamorphoses which tubercles undergo, those
of caseous degeneration offer the most favorable conditions for in-
fecting the expired air of a diseased animal.

The following cases will answer to illustrate the point in ques-
tion:

Case I. — At the time (1848) that the views of veterinary au-
thors were most crude with regard to the nature of bovine tuber-
culosis, I had occasion to treat the disease upon a farm where it had
prevailed for a long time, and caused much loss to the owner.

Upon the farm were always kept fourteen milch-cows and cattle,
a bull, and four calves. Of these, four head were sold each year,
and replaced by the same number of calves. The animals sold
were not always of the same age each year ; in one year the two
and three year olds would be sold, in another older cows, and the
third some of each, according to the fullness of the owner's purse,
so that there were cattle on the farm two, six, and twelve years
old. Of these older animals, I found on my first examination two
afflicted with a rough, dry cough, and with accelerated respiration.
As I was aware of the constancy with which the disease had pre-
vailed among the owner's cattle, it was my advice to get rid of these
two as early as possible. This advice was followed. The cattle
were fattened, and upon being slaughtered my diagnosis was con-
firmed.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 69

In the mean time every attention was given to the feeding and
general care of the cattle upon the place.

In 1851 I again found two of the cattle that coughed, and grad-
ually hecame somewhat emaciated. The attempt to fatten them
was partially successful in one, but failed in the other. Both were
killed, and tuberculosis found in them. Four calves were placed in
the spring of 1S52 with the cattle in the old stable, and four others
placed where they were taken from. All seemed to be healthy to
the spring of 185-1, when one of the calves, which had become three
years old and had been placed in the old stable, began to cough.
The cough was at fii*st very slight, but commenced to increase after
the heifer had calved. In the following summer it again dimin-
ished, to augment very considerably in the fall. This animal was
put out to graze in the spring of 1855, and to my surprise became
quite fat ; but upon being slaughtered the animal was found to be
highly tuberculous.

Of the old cattle there still remained a single cow, which we
will call " A," that had always stood next to the above-mentioned
animal. All the others had been sold and killed, their places hav-
ing been filled by new ones. This cow had coughed for a long
time ; but, not suffering in condition, she had been kept, as she was
a great favorite with the farmer's wife, especially as I had not then
the slightest suspicion of infection by means of the atmosphere.
Every animal which during this period had stood beside this cow
had begun to cough after a shorter or longer period, and, as the
positions of the animals were sometimes changed, it happened that
in course of time nearly all of them began to have the same sus-
picious cough.

The continued buying, rearing, and selling of cattle went on for
nine years before I had opportunity to examine the cow "A,"
which was then sold to a butcher. The examination of the body
and its contents resulted in finding it highly tuberculous. The re-
sult of all my experience awakened in me the suspicion of the
transmission of the disease from animal to animal, an opinion which
was then considered ridiculous. I comnmnicated ni}' opinion to the
owner, and addsed his selling off all his cattle and replacing them
with new and healthy ones from parents and places where the dis-
ease was not known to exist. My advice was appreciated by the
owner calling in a quack to take my place.

Case II. — On another farm were kept from twenty-four to
twenty-six liead of cattle. In 1864 the owner bought a calf to bring
up, the mother of which died a few years later from tuberculosis.

70 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

This calf developed very poorly for the first two years of its life ;
its neck and head were small and long, and its bones very small, so
that the whole habitus of the animal was cachectic. This animal was
killed in the fall of 1869. In the course of the winter of 1869-70
many of the cattle began to cough, and among them two, " A " and
" B," so severely that my services were requested.

I found all the animals in an apparently healthy condition ; only
the two, A and B, were noticed to cough. By auscultation, I found
in A a peculiarly marked bronchial respiration in portions of the
left lung. At this time I knew nothing of the breeding, or the
phenomena seen in the above-mentioned calf, which had been
slaughtered. During this winter and the succeeding summer the
two cattle, A and B, besides others, continued to cough. All the
animals on the farm coughed during the winter of 18Y0-'71, except
the yearlings and some calves which were kept in another stable.
In the spring of 1871 the two cows, A and B, began to emaciate so
much that it was considered advisable to kill them. The autopsy
revealed the general characteristics of tubercular pneumonia, and
tuberculosis of other organs. Basing my opinions upon the pre-
viously mentioned experience, I made no hesitation in pronouncing
all the cattle in this stable that coughed as afflicted with tuberculo-
sis, and advised the owner to gradually get rid of them all. On ac-
count of economical reasons, this was easier said than done, and the
owner has never since been free from this disease among his cattle.

During the period from 1864-'71, tuberculosis has been always
present among the cattle of this owner, who has lost nineteen head
from the disease in that time.

The author gives four other illustrations of similar extension of
tuberculosis among cattle upon other farms, and closes his remarks
with the following interesting case :

The milk from one of these cows had been used for some time
in a cooked condition, but the condition of the cow finally became
so bad it was decided to give the milk to the hogs, but uncoolied.

From May of the same year, the farmer's wife noticed that the
young pigs (four or five months old) fed upon this milk did not ap-
pear to thrive well, and as, in the course of a few weeks three died,
I was requested to make an examination of the last one. I found
the same much emaciated. I found a tuberculous peritonitis with
effusion in the caWty of that organ. The lungs and bronchial glands
were normal; the mesenteric glands enlarged — on section of the
same, found them filled with a tuberculous mass ; tubercles in the
liver. In the course of a few weeks the two remaining pigs of the

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 71

litter also died. I found tuberculosis in one of them, and the owner
told me that the other, and another of an older litter which was
with them, and fed on the same milk, were also found tuberculous
on being exaiiiined.

Unfortunately, in tliis country, there are not at present any sta-
tistics witli reference to the extension which this disease ha,s attained
among our cattle, and the same is almost true with reference to other
lands. The following meager statistics may not, however, be with-
out interest to the reader :

Statistics wrrii reference to Tuberculosis among Bavarian
Cattle for the Year 1877.

Tuberculotts.

Males 809. Females 4,107.

1-G2 to the 1,000.

64 under one year, or 1"31 per cent.

528 from one to three years, or 1081 "

1,846 from three to six years, or 37-80 "

2,445 over six years, or 5007 "

Goring, " Zeitschrift fur Thierheilkunde," 4, 286.

From January 1 to December 31, 1874, were killed at Augsburg,
Bavaria, 11,331 cattle (calves excluded) ; of tliese 134 were tnhercu-
lous, 1"18 per cent ; 42 males (13 bulls and 29 steers); 92 females.
Of the whole number slaughtered, about one third were males and
two thirds females.

For the year 1876 were killed 13,241 cattle and 25,909 calves.
Of these, 250 were foimd tuberculous ; viz., 243 cattle over one
year old, one calf three weeks old.

The percentage for 1876 was 1*84; for 1875, 1*40; for 1874,
MS ; for 1873, 1-02; for 1872, 1-27. For 1876, 75 males and 168
females. Of the males, 39 were castrated and 36 were not.

Statistics of Diseases found amono Animals slaughtered at
Munich in 1874.

"Whole number slaughtered at the public shambles :

i Oxen 231

Cattle ^ fj^^^ ^^^ ^^^^j.^ g 290

Calves , 4,201

Sheep 1,563

Swine 808

Of the frequent diseases were observed :

Y2 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Pulmonary tuberculosis in one goat and 235 cattle.

Perlsucht, or tuberculosis of the serosaa 197 "

Tuberculosis of the liver 29 "

Tuberculosis of the udder 1 "

Tuberculosis of the bones 2 "

Abscess in the lungs 45 "

Pleuro-pneumonia 20 "

Echinococcus of the lungs 44 "

Echinococcus of the liver 10 "

Induration of the liver 264 "

Distoma hepaticum 219 "

Icterus 20 calves.

Nephritis, suppurative 12 cattle.

Abscess in udder and mastitis 8 "

Scabies 242 sheep.

Osteomalacia 9 cattle.

Measles 4 swine.

Slunk veal 57 calves.

Nauseous appearance of flesh in one swine and 25 "

"Department veterinarian Pauli reports* that 12,585 kilo-
grammes of flesh were officially destroyed at the investigation sta-
tions in Berlin from 18TT to 1878. Further, 1,646 cattle, 2,027
swine, 235 calves, and 714 sheep, were killed in the police slaughter-
house to determine their hygienic condition. Of these, 213 cattle,
643 swine, 196 calves, and 382 sheep were found unfit for food. Of
the 213 cattle, 49 suffered from general ' tuberculosis and initial
emaciation,' 46 'from general tuberculosis and cachexia,' and 22
'from tuberculosis, general hydrops, and cachexia,' and 85 swine
were found measly. In 998 cattle, 1,466 swine, 8 calves, and 107
sheep were found single diseased organs, which forbade using the
flesh for human food."

There is no subject more urgently requiring the attention of
boards of health and the people than this.

However important trichiniasis may be, this far exceeds it. The
few experiments which have been made should be repeated by hun-
dreds— yes, thousands, if necessary — by carefully selected men, and
at the expense of the State, until this question is forever settled ^ro
or con.

"While this is being done, competent veterinarians (not empirics)
should be engaged by the respective State boards of health to gather
reliable statistics with reference to the extension of tubei'culosis
among the cattle of each State.

It would be well that the National Board of Health instigate the
work.

* "Mittheil. aus d. Thieriirzt. Praxis," 1877-78, p. 99.

DISEASES OF CATTLE. 73

As the statistical results of the experiments which liave been
made unquestionably go to prove that such milk does contain ele-
ments of a spccijicalbj infectious character, there is no question that
laws should he made, and executed also, so as to prevent the sale of
such milk for human consumption, either for itself or mixed with
other milk, in no matter how small quantities.

Xo such milk should be sold ; but such cows should be strictly
isolated and fattened, or condemned.

This question of the specific infection of milk from tuberculous
cows is no trifling matter ; on the contrary, it is one of life and
death. IIow many thousand babies are yearly brought up on the
bottle with cow's milk !

All the fond parents ask is, that the milk is from one cow. This
guaranteed, they appear to feel perfectly satisfied. No one seems
yet to have thought that a trustworthy and expert guarantee of the
hygienic condition of the cow giving the milk was necessary. We
make great demands, and get terribly excited about the purity of
our water-supply. "We spend millions of dollars to keep the foun-
tains pure, and to prevent all foreign admixtures on its passage to
us. Is it not as much our duty to examine into the purity of the
fountains from which comes our milk-supply ?

"We can not but repeat our assertion that every State board of
health should be liberally supplied with funds to be used exclusively
for experimental purposes, and in every State there should be a
station for such purposes.

I do not know that it has ever yet been proved by direct experi-
ment how much dilution it is possible to give to milk hj means of
unduly watery food given to the cow, or how much the milk can be
concentrated, in one and the same cow, by systematically lessen-
ing the quantity of fluid given consistent with the health of the
animal.

The first form of feeding might he well called, dilution of
milk icithin the law, while when the water is added after milking
we have dilution Mnder penalty of, or vjithout, the law.

Both forms of dilution are equally a swindle upon the con-
sumer.

An economy which does not recognize the absolute necessity of
such experiments as the above is of the " penny-wise but pound-
foolish variety," and never in the true interests of the public.

Y4 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

Anthkax {Carbuncle).

Anthrax is the disease of all the diseases strictly due to germ-life
which is best understood by scientists. Before considering it, how-
ever, we desire to introduce some general remarks, and then to con-
sider the subject of germ-infection, though in a very general manner.

The word infectio means to pollute.

The subject of infection is one of the most theoretic connected
with the study of medicine.

To theorize does not mean to dream of things possible, as the
major part of the j^eople and too many professionals seem to think.
To be called a theorist, if one is in reality such, is by no means a
disgrace ; on tlie contrary, it is the highest honor that can be given.
It means, truly, that one is a man capable of reasoning, both by in-
duction and deduction. To be called a jfyractical man means that
you know nothing but routine practice, or what one has inherited
from teachers and fathers, and that we are incapable of reasoning.
Theory is the connecting link, the hypothetical bridge of explanation
between two known facts.

These facts are, first, that something takes place; second, the
phenomena by which you recognize that something has taken place.
The empiric is satisfied with this knowledge. It is enough for him
that a horse has colic, and that certain symptoms indicate it, and
that in general a dose of a certain medicine will cure it. This is
being practical.

To theorize means to be able to think, and to think logically and
well — to be able to trace the connection between cause and effect.
If there is any disgrace in this, then those who are called theorists
are generally in most honorable company.

The trouble with our profession is and has been that it has never
yet produced a great thinker. Xot one of the men whose names
you have been taught to revere as great among veterinarians have
ever been great thinkers. Even human medicine has been noto-
riously wanting in this regard.

Good thinkers are scarce at best. The Bacons, Goethes, Des-
cartes, Humes, and Franklins of this world are always phenomenal.
The great practitioners have been numerous ; the great thinkers in
medicine can be counted upon the fingers of one hand. They are
the men who have shaped the course of medicine for years after
their death, and frequently dunng their lives.

INFECTION. Y5

lias veterinary medicine ever produced a Bichat or a Yirchow ?
When it docs, it will stand scientifically on a level witli human medi-
cine, and not till then ; for then it will for a time give the direction
to all medical research and thought. Good theorists arc ever prac-
tical in the best sense of the word ; for practical does not always
mean a knowledge of therapeutics alone, as many teach. An erro-
neous theory, ably defended, is of more benefit to the world than
a true one which lacks earnest defenders or combaters. It stirs men
up, and leads to the discovery of the tnitli.

Darwinism has been the greatest blessing to natural science that
the nineteenth century has produced, even though all its premises
should finally be proved incorrect. You have only to think of the
immense increase of our knowledge of the lower forms of life, of
the physiological functions of both lower and higher animals, to re-
alize this.

Some of our very best veterinarians are getting by far too con-
ceited, and this conceit is unfortunately becoming inoculated into
the rising generation.

There is no such thing in existence as veterinary science.

"We speak of veterinary pathologists, when in reality we have
never Lad a single one. Pathologists and pathological anatomists
are entirely different things, though occasionally united in one
person.

Bichat and Yirchow were pathologists, because they were good
thinkers. Pathology is the philosophy of disease. They were or
are pathological anatomists, because they could correctly read, that
is, describe the results of disease. From these reaults they theo-
rized ; that is, from facts they thought ; that is, they tried to tell us
how the results took place, for no man has yet seen the processes of
disease.

AVhat we see upon the dissection-table, or under the microscope,
is not the processes of disease, but the results.

If we are practical in the world's sense, these results will be of
no value to us ; if we are theorists, they may be very instructive,
and we can become truly practical.

I have said that Yirchow and Bichat were pathologists, and that
veterinary medicine had never produced a pathologist.

This is a fact, contradict it who nuiy. P>ut if we have not ]>:-o-
duced pathologists, we have pathological anatomists, some say.

Again I say, all wrong. A pathological anatomist is a man who
correctly describes the results of disease, of which Rokitansky is a
striking example.

76 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Have we produced sucli a man ? Do our text-books tell us much
of the results of disease in our animals ? Some may quote to me the
names of Gerlach, Roell, "Williams, Leisering, Bouley, Chauveau,
Toussaint, and others, not one of whom deserves to be named with
a Rokitansky, a Yirchow, or a Bichat.

They have done some good experimental work, in a very limited
field, and, like one solitary star shining out from a dark and clouded
heaven, loom up all too conspicuously — thankful, as we are, that
they have done something to make veterinary medicine worthy of
notice. But where is our pathological anatomy ? "What is Roell,
the best of German works on special pathology ? Has it any original
pathological anatomy ? It is Rokitansky from beginning to end ;
that is, human results transferred, without criticism, to animal con-
ditions. Briickmliller's " Pathological Zootomy," the only work on
pathological anatomy of our animals, is another abortion, born too
early to have anything in it but adapted Rokitanskyism.

What do we know about the microscopic pathological anatomy
of the brain, the kidneys, or any single organ of our animals ? The
macroscopical conditions are fairly described ; the microscopical have
been scarcely thought of, but borrowed from human medicine.

Have we a single contagious disease, the pathological conditions
of which have been carefully studied and described by veterinari-
ans ? Ko !

Do we know the pathological condition of the lungs, in direct
progress from beginning to end, in pleuro-pneumonia ?

Are our methods of investigation, urine analysis, microscopic
technic and examination, any of them, the result of veterinary gen-
ius ? No — all, all borrowed !

Then why speak of veterinary science ? These things are not
written to discourage, but rather to stimulate, for I, for one, believe
the day will come when veterinary medicine will have its patholo-
gists who shall give the key-note to medical thought, and veterinary
pathological anatomists equal to any that human medicine has had,
or will ever produce.

In that day we shall not grope in darkness, but shall see things
as they really are. "We must learn to observe well, and, above all,
to think well, and next to that to be able to express ourselves well.
Medicine has its language, and the exact and logical use of language
is the best characteristic of an educated man.

I will illustrate my meaning by a few of the incongruities of
medical literature. We frequently read of collapsed conditions
of the lungs, by which is meant the dark-blue, airless spots which

INFECTION'. 77

He somewliat beneath the general level of the pleura. This is real-
ity atelectasis puliiionum, that is, airless. The structural changes of
the lung by M'hicli this condition and true collapse are produced
ai'e absolutely diliorent. In atelectasis we have a shutting olf of the
supply of air, a gradual absorption of that which was present, and
a consequent retraction of the pulmonary tissue, by which the blood-
vessels come nearer together; a non-oxidation of the blood in the
same, hence the darker color; hut tJie lung-tissite retracts, it retains
its ehuticitij. In coUapsris pnlmmunn the hing-tissiie has lost its
elasticity^ an entirely diiierent condition. Such a lung has lost all
the springy characteristics of normal lung-tissue ; it is dead, doughy to
the touch, which is never the case in atelectasis. Again, clinicians
speak of hepatization, instead of solidification or infiltration of the
lung. Plepatization means, indeed, solidified (liver-like), hut only to
the touch. The observation and language of the dissection-table have
been transferred to the bedside, where they do not belong. Each
place has its appropriate language.

"We speak of apoplexia cerebri, as if there were no other form of
apoplexy, whereas the word means to strike down, to cease acting
suddenly; hence we may also have apoplexia cordis, pulmonum,
laryngia, medulla oblongata, all organs the continual action of
which, or of ])arts of them, are absolutely necessary to the continu-
ance of life. We here again mix up cause and effect. Apoplexy
is the cessation of function, not the cause. The hremoiThages in
the brain are that and nothing more ; but because in some cases
apoplexy accompanies them, they are not always apoplectic centei*s.
The part complicated, or the amount extravasated, causes the clinical
expression apoplexy.

While these things have, as it were, become sanctified by usage,
they are not in accordance with the logical use of language.

Concussion of the brain, by which life ceases, may be supposed
to take place without ha?morrhage, yet is essentially apoplexia cere-
bri, though we never hear it spoken of as such.

"With reference to some of the infectious, or, better, contagious
diseases, we find medical writers falling into the same error when
they speak of the elements by which the disease is transmitted to
human beings as "animal poisons." There are animal poisons,
such as come from reptiles ; but the infectious elements of the con-
tagious diseases are not, logically speaking, poisons.

A poison is something which in well-defined quantities causes
specific effects. Unless this quantity of a given poison is intro-
duced into the system, this effect does not follow.

f^^ THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

In contagious diseases the quantity necessary to infection can
not be measured. The elements of infection in contagious disease
multiply within the organisms into which they are introduced.
Poisons do not thus multiply of themselves.

The quantity of poison remains the same, unless a second intro-
duction takes place.

Infectious or contagious diseases have their period of incuba-
tion— that is, a period elapses before the infected organism shows to
us that anything has taken place. Even in inoculation the action is
not immediately visible. In some diseases, as rabies, this period may
extend over weeks or months, while in others only a few days elapse.

By poisons the action is immediate, provided the quantity intro-
duced is sufficient.

Infectious diseases have their cycles, or stages. They have the
above period of incubation, their period of full development, and
that of reconvalescence, their " stadium accrementi and decrementi,"
while poisons have no such course.

The diseases which are known as contagious, or infectious, do
not by any means belong to a single class or group.

"We have the group of acute exanthemata, such as the variolas,
measles, scarlatina, certain forms of mange, the foot-and-mouth dis-
ease, the maladie du coit, and the pustulous eruption upon the genitals
of our domestic animals. These diseases are frequently accompanied
by catarrhal conditions of the respiratory or digestive tracts, with
cerebral, hepatic, or splenic disturbances ; but these latter do not
constitute the essentials of the disease. They are also generally ac-
companied by fever, which of itself is nothing specific, fever being
a general phenomenon accompanying all serious constitutional dis-
turbances.

There is no such thing as specific fevers. Of specific causes
there are many.

"We have also a group of infectious diseases known as the acute
intestinal, that tract being the chief seat of the same, though, as
with the above, other parts or organs do not escape compHcatiou.
Such are abdominal typhus, cholera, dysentery, and rinderpest.

Then we have those of the respiratory tract, the influenzas — a
collective name — pharyngitis et laryngitis diphtheritica, tussis con-
vulsiva, pleuro-pneuraonia, and the malarial influenza, or pneumo-
pleuro-enteritis of the horse. Also the group of septic diseases,
which embraces those classed under the general names of septicae-
mia or pyaemia, erysipelas, gangrena septica, phlegmonia, puerperal
fever, etc.

IXFECTIOX. 79

Another group embraces the so-called essential or malarial fevers,
such as febris reciirrens, llava, and the Texas cattle-fever ; and,
finally, the zoonoses, or contagio-infectious animal diseases, rabies,
glanders, anthrax, as well as those peculiar to one species or an-
other, as syphilis of man.

After these general remarks we will now consider what are at
present looked upon as the elements of infection, in one form or
another, of all these different groups — viz. :

The Bacteria.

"What arc bacteria ?

'*■ Cells deprived of chlorophyl, of globular, oblong, or cylindrical
form, sometimes sinuous and twisted, reproducing themselves exclu-
sively by transverse division, scissiparity, also by spores, bacillus
subtilis, living isolated or in groups, and having affinities to the algt\»."

Owing to their microscopic minuteness, it is not to be wondered
at that most varying views have been held as to their real nature
and place among living things.

That they constitute veritiibly a contaglum vivion, that is, are
living things, there is at present no doubt, various as have been the
opinions as to what the true meaning of such a term should be.

A living contagium is such by which the infectious elements
have the principal characteristics of life ; that is, they live and die,
and are capable of reproducing themselves : whether the reproduc-
tion takes places within or without the animal organism is non-
essential to our definition.

Even very ancient writers seem to have arrived at some vague
idea of the existence of a contaglum vivum. "We find the same in
the writings of the Roman fathers of agricultural and veterinary
literature of the fourth century, A. D, "V^aro and Columella, who
asserted that many malarial fevers were caused by the penetration
of lower organisms into the body. Even before the discovery of
the microscope, animal organisms were supposed to have an etio-
logical connection with the pest.

Leeuwenhoek, the fatlier of microscopy, is said to have been the
first observer who described anything like tnie bacteria. This oc-
curred in 1075, while examining some water, in whicli he describes
minute globules as crossing the objective field. The following year
he recognized similar objects in fteces, and the tartar from the teeth,
and gives such descriptions that we are warranted in assuming that
they were bacteria, vibrios, and leptothrix.

An author of the seventeenth century attributed the epizootics

80 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

which prevailed at that time to the action of some sort of grass-
hopper or locust, and recommended that the inhabitants make large
fires to drive away or kill them, in order to prevent the diseases.

Later, we find various absurd ideas being supported, and cholera,
variola, syphilitic and other animals described by authors as being
the specific cause of such diseases.

Such absurdities led to the ridicule of the idea of living infec-
tious elements, which found its counterpart in the idea of infectious
gases, a theory which has been of late abandoned, owing to the
great advances in microscopy and the technicalities of scientific re-
search during the last ten years.

The Classification of Bactekia.

As early as 1773 O. F. Miiller made an attempt to classify these
objects ; others followed, among them the noted German natural-
ist Ehrenberg in 1838, and the Frenchmen Dujardin (18'11) and
Davaine.

Ehrenberg speaks of —

1. Bacteria, as filaments linear and inflexible, and gives three
species.

2. Yibrios : filaments linear, flexible ; nine species.

3. Spirillum : filaments spiral, inflexible ; three species.

4. Spirochaete : filaments spiral, flexible ; one species.
Dujardin (1841) classed them as —

1. Bacterium : filaments rigid, with vacillating movement.

2. Yibrio : filaments flexible, with undulatory movement.

3. Spirillum ; filaments spiral, with rotary movement.

Up to this time the bacteria had been looked upon as animals,
and placed at the foot of that kingdom. Later, the idea that they be-
longed to the vegetable kingdom has been gradually gaining ground,
and is at present almost universally accepted ; although the renowned
German naturalist Haeckel places them in his intermediate class or
kingdom of protista. Davaine (1859) was the first to clearly demon-
strate the vegetable nature of the vibrios, and their near relation to
the algte.

Davaine's classification was as follows: Filaments straight or
bent, but not spiral, moving spontaneously. "Wlien rigid, bacterium ;
when flexible, vibrio ; when motionless, bacteridium ; when the fila-
ments were spiral, spirillum.

From this time on we find the study of these objects assuming a
new and more exact character, thanks to the work of Pasteur, Da-
vaine, Haller, Cohn, Koch, and others.

INFECTION.

81

The absence of cliloropliyl distinguishes tliem from the algic, and
places thera among the fungi ; a view which is supported by nearly
all the best botanists of our day. The generally accepted classifica-
tion is at ])res(.'nt that of Colin, and is —

1. Spherobacteria, or globular bacteria.

2. Micro or roil bacteria.

3. Desmo or tihimentous bacteria.

4. Spiro or spiral bacteria.

In 1874 l>illruth, the noted surgeon and author on surgical pa-
thology, published a large work upon disease-germs — viz., upon
coccobacteria septica — and arrived at very different conclusions from
those of Colin, wliich have not, however, gained any general accept-
ance. BiUroth chiims tliat there is but one single original species
of bacteria, and that all others are derived from it, viz., coccobacteria
septica. This vegetable organism may present itself in two forms:
the globuhir coccus, and that of rods, hacteria. These two forms
may reproduce by elongation and transverse division, or may pass
from one to the other.

According to the variation in size, Billroth speaks of micrococcus,
microbacteria ; mesococcus, mesobacteria ; megacoccus, megabacte-
ria. And, according to their relations to one another, as mono-
coccus, monobacteria ; diplococcus (in pairs), diplobacteria ; strepto-
coccus (in chains), streptobacteria ; gliococcus, gliobacteria ; petalo-
coccus (foot or base), petalobacteria.

"We have said that the most generally accepted classification was
that of Cohn, but, before considering it more particularly, we feel
obliged to notice that of another noted German author, which is
based upon the action of these germs.

Xiigeli speaks —

1. Of mucorini, or mold-fungi.

2. Saccharomycetes, or budding fungi, which produce the fer-
mentation of wine, beer, yeast, etc.

3. Schizomycetes, or fission-fungi, which produce putrefactive
processes. This group end)races the micrococci and bacteria.

I. Sphekobacteria. — Spherical bacteria are defined by their
name. Tlu-y are round or oval bodies of vor}* small size. They arc
sometimes found isolated, often appearing in pairs — diplococcus ; or
again we meet with them in the ff)rm of chains, or articulations —
streptococcus ; or united together by a sort of homogeneous material
— zoogleaform. AVhcn in this condition they are young and in pro-
cess of active proliferation. Sometimes they form a coating upon
the surface of liquids. "When we speak of a raycoderma, they have
6

82 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

no independent movements, but simply display the well-known mo-
lecular trepidation.

The function of spherical bacteria has been determined to be
zymotic ; that is, ferment-producing. According to Cohn, they do
not take part in the production of putrefying processes.

While the above includes a distinct form of germ-life, there is
no question that the spores of some other forms of germ-life, viz.,
bacillus, give no distinguishing means by which to separate them
from spherobacteria, except the results of experimental cultivation ;
as the Bible says of men, " By their fruits shall ye know them."

There is but one genus of the spherobacteria, viz., " micrococcus."
They are described as cells, colorless or scarcely colored, very small,
globular or oval, forming by transverse division, filaments of two or
several articulations in the form of a chaplet, or united in numerous
cellular families, or in glutinous masses, all motionless. This genus
is divided into three groups :

Micrococcus chromogenes.

Micrococcus zymogenes.

Micrococcus pathogenes. ^

The first groups are again distinguished as to the solubility or
insolubility of the coloring-matter, and are found upon vegetables,
milk, etc.

The second group contains but one variety of special interest to
us, viz., M. urece, found in urine, where it transforms the urea into
carbonate of ammonia (Pasteur).

The pathogenetic micrococci are of so much more importance
that we must give them particular attention.

They are spherical bacteria, which are found in affections of a
contagio-infectious nature, such as 3f. vaccince, being very small,
appearing isolated or in pairs in recent vaccine virus, and in the
pus of variola-pustules. They are looked upon as the active prin-
ciple of vaccine virus.

M. dijpMheriiicws. — Granular ovoid cells, isolated, or more fre-
quently united in pairs, or in a chaplet of four to six cells, some-
times multiplying in colonies, and extending themselves in all the
complicated tissues, decomposing and destroying them.

M. septicus. — Little round, motionless cells, crowded in masses
or united in chaplets ; found in the secretions of wounds in cases of
septicsemia, as zooglsea in callous ulcers, as isolated cells, united in
pairs ^ or chaplets, in tTie serum of epidemic puerperal fever, and
in all tissues, vessels, etc., in pyaemia and septicemia.

Many others have been found and given specific names, espe-

INFECTION. 83

cially by Ilallicr, Zurn, etc., as in Bcurlatiiia, epidemic diarrhoia,
typhus, glanders, rinderpest, syphilis, gonorrhoea.

II. The Skcond Group of Conx, the Micuouacteuia. — "We have
here the single genus bacterium. Cells cylindrical or elliptical,
free, or united in paire during their division, rarely in fours, never
in chains, sometimes in zoogUea, having spontaneous movement, os-
cillatory and very active, especially in media rich in alimentary
material and in the presence of oxygen.

As with the spherobacteria, we might divide the rod-bacteria
into three groups: first, those of putrefaction, J3. termo^ llneola ^
second, those of lactic acetic fermentation ; third, the pigment-bac-
teria of colored milk and pus.

J3. tenno is the most common of all varieties. They are cylin-
drical cells, slightly swollen in the middle, isolated, sometimes united
in ])airs, two to five times as long as wide. Movements oscillatory.

They can easily be produced in all infusions of animal and vege-
table substances. Tliis bacterium is said to have cilia or hair-like
projections from each end of the rod.

It is the veritable agent and first cause of putrefaction, and
hence is to be found in all cadavers where this process has com-
menced.

B. Ihuola is larger and found in various animal and vegetable
infusions, but is not definitely known to cause a specific fermenta-
tion.

The other forms of lactic and acetic fermentation are not of es-
pecial pathogenetic interest.

III. Desmobactekia. — This group of Colin^s is of especial inter-
est, as it contains the specific germ of anthrax, that germ upon which
the germ-infection theor}- of disease largely depends for support.

They are filiform bacteria, composed of elongated articulations,
isolated, or in chains more or less extended, and resulting from trans-
verse division. (In this form they correspond to leptothrix, but
differ from torula in that the filaments are not constricted at the
point of articulation.) They may be motionless or not, dependent
upon the presence or absence of oxygen, the reaction of the medium
which contains them, and other unknown conditions. Some forms
never exhibit movement.

AVe have here but one germ to consider — bacillus.

The bacilli, are characterized as slender filament><, straight, short,
or of moderate length, rigid or flexible, and as being with and with-
out movement. One species is a pigment bacteria.

Bacillus stihtilis. — Very slender elongated filaments formed of a

34 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AKIMALS.

single cell, or of two, three, or more segments. Thickness un-
measurable ; well-defined flexible movement of an active or passive
character. Reproduction is by fission and by globular or oval
spores, which develop in the interior of the articulations. They
are to be found in stagnant waters.

This bacillus plays an important part in butyric fermentation.
It exists in rennet, and can support a temperature of 105" C. and
live in a medium deprived of pure oxj'gen, in which case it takes a
peculiar form and contains persistent spores which when set free
give rise to other rods.

Bacillus anthracis is a species very similar to the preceding, but
generally longer, and always motionless ; length four, twelve, and
even fifty micrometers ; thickness scarcely measurable.

Bacillus anthracis is developed in charbon — carbuncle — of cattle,
man, sheep, horse, rabbit, rat, etc. ; never in dogs, the cat, birds, and
cold-blooded animals. It is found, above all, in the capillary vessels.
When cultivated in suitable media, such as the aqueous humor of
the eye of the ox, and the different cultivation fluids, this bacillus
develops spores in the interior of its segments which may germinate
and develop rods.

The other bacilli of this group are without any special interest.

The only form of special interest is the " spirochaeton hermeieri,"
found in the blood of persons suffering from recurrent fever (chills
and fever), but only during the access, never during the intermis-
sions of the disease.

Distinction of Bacteria fkom Inorganic Substances.

'No one has ever questioned the living nature of bacteria, except
with reference to the most invisible varieties. These smaller forms
may be often confounded with vario-us matters, such as organic par-
ticles, molecular granules, fat-globules, or fatty detritus. To distin-
guish them from micrococci is almost impossible, unless the greatest
circumspection is taken by the observer.

The detritus, or the amorphous powder, or precipitated mole-
cules, of inorganic substances, though they equally well exhibit the
noted Brownian movement, are to be distinguished from micrococci
by such optical signs as their angular or irregular form, their lesser
refraction, and their action toward certain chemical agents.

The case is quite different if the molecules are of an organic
nature. They enjoy, in common with micrococci, a round form,
movement, and refraction. However, their form is wanting in the
regularity proper to germs ; they vary in color, and their refractive

INFECTION. 35

power is always less. "Warming the slides, the action of ether and
other known reagents will enable one to distinguish them.

The must ditKt-ult of all objects to distinguish from micrococci
are fat-globules, or so-called fatty iletrUus. The difference in refrac-
tion is very small, and in mucilaginous solutions the action of re-
agents is not always to be depended upon. Cultivation is the only
secure course to employ in cases of grave doubt.

Only ,such (jlubuU's as have iJie power of multlpllcaiion are vital
hodif^ : when this does not take place, we may assure ourselves that
we are having to do with some form of pseudobacteria.

Xiigeli says there are but three diagnostic signs by which we
are enabled to recognize, to any degree of certainty, that molecules
under our observation are organisms — spontaneous movement, pro-
liferation, and equality in dimensions, united with regularity of
form.

The most certain characteristic is movement in a straight or
curved line — a phenomenon never to be seen in inorganic mole-
cules.

Multiplication is a character of less importance, because of the
liability to adhesion of inorganic or other molecules. ' Granules, of
varying size and of a more or less irregular form, ought not to be
considered as belonging to the segmented fungi.

As to chemical reagents, concentrated acetic acid, which causes
all animal tissues to clarify, is without influence on bacteria. Many
coloring-stuffs used in microscopic technics are of assistance in diag-
nosing bacteria ; among the best of these are hamatoxylin, fuch-
sine, and Bismarck brown.

The Development of Bacteria.

Of all living organisms known to natural science the bacteria
are the most widely dispersed : they jnay, in fact, be said to be
ever}'where — in the air, water, upon and in solid animal and vege-
table bodies.

OuiGiN. — The origin of all inferior organisms has ever been a
question open to most variable and vital discussion ; but, in general,
three ways have been assumed for this most imj)ortant function:

1. By heterogenesis ; that is, by direct production from mineral
or organic substances (spontaneous generation).

2. On the rule that ''like bejrets like'' it has been asserted that
all bacteria must come from others of the same kind, by one of the
recognized forms of generation : fission, spores, etc.

3. Others assume that, while they derive their origin from

86 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

organisms abeadj in existence, tliej represent notliing more than
dijfferent stages or forms of development of known species. This
latter hypothesis is known as polymorphism.

The Dissemination of Bacteria in Ditfekent Media — Air and

Water.

The experiments of Pasteur, T\Tidall, and others, have clearly
demonstrated the presence of vegetable germs in the air which has
been allowed to pass through apertures into vessels prepared for the
purpose. These germs generally have the micrococcus or microbe
form, and are present in lesser numbers in winter than in summer
and fall, which fact finds its explanation in the greater degree of
vegetable decomposition and telluric evaporation which takes place
during the warm months in comparison with the cold.

The experiments of Cohn and others have demonstrated that the
atmosphere contains very few adult bacteria ; in fact, they are rarely
found therein in a complete state, but rather as bright, refracting
points, very difficult if not impossible to distinguish from one another.
These points probably represent the latent or permanent spore-con-
dition of bacterium life, capable of generating into tnie bacteria
under favorable conditions. These spores may form the point from
which epidemics take their origin, and in this condition are capable
of wide dispersion.

Nutrition and Respiration of Bacteria.

As bacteria have some of the essential characteristics of organ-
ized beings — a cell-membrane and protoplasmic contents — they must
naturally receive nourishment and respire in the same way as all
colorless -vegetables and inferior animals which have no special
apparatus for such purposes ; that is, by endosmotic absorption.

It matters not in what medium they may be met with, they re-
quire— in order to live — water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen, as well
as certain salts from the mineral world, which enter in very minute
quantities into their organism.

Water is indispensable to the activity and development of bac-
teria. Desiccation, drying out, completely arrests the movement of
those that are mobile, and the functional activity of all bacteria.
Desiccation does not, however, killthem, unless it is too prolonged,
as is proved by the activity retained by the various kinds of virus
used for inoculation. In the condition of permanent spores they
retain their vitality a long while. It is a surprising fact that the
great chemical difference existing between salt and fresh water

INFECTION. S7

appears to exert little or no influence upon the development of bac-
teria.

NiTitoGKx. — The experiments of Pasteur have demonstrated that
an albuminoid nitrogenous substance is nut necessary to the life of
bacteria, but that other nitrogenous substances, as ammonia, will
answer the same purposes.

Pasteur's cultivating solution is as follows :

Distilled water 100 parts.

Sujrar-onndy 10 "

Tartrate of ammonia 1 '*

Ashes of one gramme of yeast 0075.

Cohn's fluid is designed to counteract the development of mold
due to the cane-sugar in the above solution, and is as follows :

Distilled water 100 parta.

Tartrate of ammonia 1 "

Ashes of yeast 1 "

Mayer gives us another fluid which does away M-ith the ashes of
yeast, viz. :

Phospliate of potash 0-1 gramme.

Sulphate of magnesia 0*1 "

Tribasic phosphate of lime 0*1 ''

Distilled water 20 c. c.

Carbon. — Aside from other sources, bacteria can obtain this im-
portant element to their life from organic acids.

Oxygen.— ^Numerous controversies have taken place among sa-
vants as to the 7'6le tliis element plays in bacterial life.

It seems, a priori^ that, like other living things, oxygen must be
necessary to germ-life. Pasteur has demonstrated tliat it is not so,
however, with all forms of bacteria. In putrefying processes lie has
demonstrated that, after certain species have developed />*. termo.^
which depend upon the presence of oxygen, and come to the surface,
forming a coating upon it, the fluid beneath is free from this gas,
and yet other forms of bacteria come to develo})nient in it.

The first of these organisms — that is, tliose dependent on oxygen
for life — he has styled aerobic fungi, and the others anaerobic.
Other observers do not agree with this theory. Hoffmann, a very
able German savant^ says : " These little beings can not live without
air — that is, without oxygen. If this gas is wanting, tliey cease to
move and to proliferate. If a drop of liquid full of bacteria is

88 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

placed upon a glass slide and covered, the active bacteria will all
gradually approach the margin of the cover, and at the end of sev-
eral days will be found ah've, while those situated toward the center
will be dead."

Toussaint, the ablest veterinary student of this subject, has re-
cently published the following results with reference to B. anthracis :

" The bacteria which occupy the central portion of Kanvier's
moist chamber, and which by reason of their situation receive very
little oxygen from the groove, are soon arrested in their develop-
ment, while those which occupy the borders are long and collect in
immense numbers. Those in the center remain small, formed of
two, four, or five articulations, which are easily separated. They
soon cease to grow, and are not transformed into spores."

Cohn, an unquestionable authority, also says that "the com-
plete development of bacillus, and, above all, the generation of
spores, only take place under the free access of air."

Reproduction of Bacteria.

"We have already mentioned that bacteria reproduce either by
scissiparity — fission — or by the endogenous production of spores,
which are again capable of developing into bacteria. We have
also frequently mentioned that these spores are so wanting in
specific characteristics that it is impossible to assert whether each
variety of bacteria has its own specific spore or germinal form,
although this theory is mostly supported ; while able authors also
hold to a metagenetic theory — that is, that a metamorphosis be-
tween the different forms of fungi is possible, the same being due
to the influence of the different media in which they may be culti-
vated or live.

When proliferation takes place by fission, or transverse division
of the cell, we see the cell gradually yet rapidly increases in length,
the protoplasma in the middle becoming clearer, and a partition
forms in the middle of the cell, separating the protoplasma into two
distinct portions. The partition is at first very delicate, but soon
thickens, and the cell divides in two.

This phenomenon takes place more or less rapidly, dependent
upon the richness in nutritive material of the media in which it is,
on the temperature, moisture, etc.

In some cases a constriction takes place in the middle of the
cell, the two ends having a figure-8 or bulb-like form.

INFECTION. 89

Reproduction by Spores.

Until recently multiplication l)y fission "vvas the only form of
bacterial reproduction admitted by naturalists.

The formation of spores has been observed in bacillus subtilis
(Cohn), bacillus anthracis (Koch), and in bacillus amylubacter by
another ohserver.

In cultivation experiments nuide with hay-infusion we may see,
at a certain moment, in the homogeneous filaments of the bacilli,
very refractive corpuscles making their appearance. Each of these
corpuscles becomes a spore, oblong, or in the form of a short fila-
ment, highly refractive, and having well-defined outlines. "We find
the spores arranged in a simple series in the filaments. So soon as
the formation of spores has terminated, the filaments can no longer
be distinguished, and one would say that the spores were com-
pletely free in the mucus; but their linear arrangement shows that
they are produced in the interior of the filaments. These dissolve
slowly, and the spores, being reduced to a fine powder, settle to the
bottom of the liquid, where they may be found in great (piantity.

The germination of spores does not apparently follow in the
same medium; but, if we remove them to a new cultivating fluid,
we may observe the spore to swell up and elongate, resembling a
bacterium with a head. Soon the head, the most refractive portion
of the object, disappears, and the tube stretches into a short rod-
bacillus, commences to display motion, and becomes jointed by
transverse division.

The Action of Bacterlv witu Reference to Contagious and
Virulent Diseases.

One of the peculiarities of all life is the struggle for existence.
Both animal and vegetable life is encompassed by this fact. Indi-
viduals of the same kind and those of a different kind all live at the
expense of one another. Many perish in the conflict.

Life is a constant struggle with death. Even the individual
cells of which the organs of our body are composed undergo this
constant struggle ; the stronger overcome the weaker. So it is
with disease.

The germs of infectious diseases on entering the animal organism
at once begin a conflict with the elements of the same for nutritious
material. If the elements of our bodies are the stronger, they
finally overpower these disease-producing enemies, and we live ; if
the latter are the more powerful, we die.

90 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

While many forms of fungus-life are known to have an eco-
nomical value, which we make practical use of in the production of
wine, beer, vinegar, yeast, etc., it is still more important to us, and of
no less practical value, that we should know the nature of the action
of those which produce disease, either in ourselves or in our domes-
tic animals. In both instances we have to do with questions of
natural economy, though the directions in which we pursue our in-
vestigations are so manifestly different.

While much has been written upon the action of bacteria as re-
gards their etiological relation to disease, still we are forced to admit
that the subject is yet buried in the greatest obscurity. We find it
a hard task to distinguish the essential from the unessential in our
studies.

The task we have before us is, then, to discuss the role which
bacteria play in the generation of disease in the animal kingdom.

The diseases w^iich have been attributed to germinal action are
very numerous ; in fact, the list includes all the infectious and con-
tagious diseases, and many of a questionable character. Some en-
thusiasts (Hallier, Zurn, and others) have even professed to discover
the specific germ in every case, and we have in their writings most
explicit descriptions of the peculiar fungi of glanders, cholera, hay-
fever, rinderpest, and numerous other diseases, observations which
the most exact experiments of other equally proficient authorities
have failed to confirm.

While our knowledge of specific disease-producing bacteria is
thus limited, we can safely assert that, with increasing years and
consequent improvement in the means and methods of investiga-
tion, it will be constantly extended and augmented.

It is well known that there are forms of fungus-life which live
upon plants. A peculiar fungus — ustilago maidis — is the specific
cause of the rust of grain. It is also known that during one period
or form of its existence, this fungus lives upon the leaves of the
barberry-bush ; and practical experience, based on this knowledge,
has proved that with the removal of these bushes in certain districts
the sequential disease of corn has ceased to appear.

A very important question is, Are the infectious elements of
disease of a gaseous nature, or are they organisms ?

We know from experimental experience that a very small quan-
tity of infectious material is necessary to produce certain diseases.
We also know that, when in case of a certain disease (anthrax) we
introduce the smallest quantity of material into the organism, a mul-
tiplication of this material takes place.

INFECTION. 91

We know that the disease-producing germs arc capable of suspen-
sion in the air, thereby impregnating it with tlie property of infection.

If we phiee healthy cattle in the same stable with others afflicted
with contagions plenro-pneumonia, we know that they will probably
ac(piire that disease, even though none of the healthy may be placed
in direct relation with the diseased ones. The same has often been
found to result when healthy cattle were placed in a stable where
the disease had been, and the sick and all others in it at the time
had been removed and some attempts at disinfection taken place.
I shall relate circumstances which will sufficiently prove that cattle
in the same stable with others having tuberculosis have acquired
the disease, and that by means of the aspired air.

Of our own species we know that it is only necessary for a sus-
ceptible pei*son to be in a room for a few moments with an indi-
vidual afHicted with the measles, scarlatina, variola, exanthematous
typhus, to acquire these diseases, or to live for a short time in a cer-
tain malarial district, to acquire either the yellow fever or intermit-
tent fever.

These examples sufficiently demonstrate the infectious nature of
the atmosphere at certain times and in certain localities. While
this is a fact, still the most contradictory views are entertained, both
by the medical profession and the public, as to the real nature of
the infectious elements. "We find our medical writings constantlj'^
mentioning " volatile contagiums," or " gaseous miasmas " — things
which do not exist, and are entirely in contradiction with the results
of modern research.

AVe can speak of the infectious elements as fixed, or movable ;
that is, such as nuist be attached to some vehicle, be it a living or-
ganism or something polluted with the excretions of the same, or
such as are easily taken up by the air and transported to some dis-
tance from the place of generation. But neither of these definitions
corresponds to our ideas of a gas.

A poisonous gas when suspended in the air is more or less
widely dispersed, and soon loses its activity. If it enters the body,
it must enter in certain quantities, or no evil action follows. We
know of no means by which it can multiply itself within an organ-
ism. On account of their liability to disjn'rsion, it is almost impos-
sible for an organism to inhale enough of a poisonous gas to cause
serious disturbance in the open air. The gas and person must be
confined in a room, and a given quantity inhaled, before evil con-
sequences result. Even though a person may inhale a considerable
quantity of such gas, removal from it soon relieves its effects.

92 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

As many of you may have read, in tlie Catacombs of Rome and
other such places carbonic- acid gas is generally very abundant in
the lower strata of air in the passages, and while it is impossible for
dogs or cats to follow their owners in such places, yet the latter,
on account of the greater elevation of their respiratory apparatus,
can walk along in perfect safety. We know also how quickly un-
pleasant odors are dispersed by the atmosphere.

A poisonous gas must be very soon so dispersed as to lose its
specific characteristics.

Were the generation of cholera dependent on infectious gases,
we should find it rapidly extending over every part of a city or dis-
trict, instead of being confined, as is frequently the case, to certain
streets or districts. So in the case of rinderpest. If the infectious
elements were of a gaseous nature, our endeavors at stamping out
would be utterly futile ; yet we know we can frequently confine it
to a single stable in a village where many cattle are kept. Were
the infectious elements gases, all individuals with any disposition
to infection would contract given diseases, as they would be far
more likely to take up a correspondingly equal amount of infectious
material than if they were of an organized nature.

Again, if they were gases, the infectious elements would soon be
so widely dispersed as to lose their activity.

While we know the minuteness of many forms of bacterial life,
so minute that our strongest powers give us but the most inadequate
idea of their nature, may we not safely assume that there are many
forms which still escape our observation ?

Are the elements of infection formless, or are they organic in-
dividuals— that is, objects having form and life ?

We have two possibilities to consider : either they enter an or-
ganism in such quantities as to cause immediate action, or they
enter in very small quantity, and have the power of multiplying
within the organism.

By poisoning the first takes place. A given quantity of a known
poison causes direct and specific action. This never takes place by
infection.

Specific poisons have no period of latency.

The most poisonous of substances act only in this manner. Minus
a given quantity, no poisonous action, though we may have what is
known as a physiological or medicinal action which we make use of
in many of them. If we carry these medicinal doses beyond a cer-
tain limit, a poisonous action frequently results, which is known as
the cumulative action of drugs — as with strychnine.

INFECTION. 93

While a given, appreciable quantity of poison is necessary to
specific action, we find in infectious diseases the contrary to be the
case. We can not appreciate the niinutcnc.-is of the quantity of in-
fectious element necessary to produce an infectious disease.

A single bacterium, in a condition of active proliferation, can lead
to the development of anthrax, if inoculated into a susceptible or-
gimism.

Who would have temerity enough to introduce under his skin
even the smallest part of the point of the finest needle which had
been di[)ped in the saliva of a rabid dog? Yet we can neither Aveigh
nor otherwise appreciate the quantity of the inficieus introduced.

You need no further proof of the impossibility of unformed
elements causing infection. Unformed elements have not the power
of self-multiplication.

We are, then, naturally driven to the assumption of organized
elements, as the etiological momenta in infection.

The elements of infection must have the faculty of multiplica-
tion. They must have the faculty of taking up soluble nutriment
from their surroundings.

What, then, must be the real nature of these elements? Our
studies and experiments have clearly shown that, of all organic life,
but one form has the characteristics which conform to these con-
ditions. That is the bacteria ; or, more particularly, the schizomy-
cetes, or fission, spore-producing fungi.

These fungi correspond in every particular with our theories.
They are small enough to be taken up in numbers, under favorable
conditions, and widely dispersed by the atmospheric currents. They
possess the ability to multiply to an incredible degree, doubling their
numbers, under suitable conditions, in a few minutes. Their te-
nacity of life exceeds that of any known objects.

AVhile the essential characteristics of the bacteria in question so
fully conform to our hypothesis, our practical experiences are not so
full of assurance.

AVhile, in some few diseases — diphtheria, intermittent fever, an-
thrax, and emphysema infectiosum — we find the fission-fungi or
sj>ores present in great numbers, in other hypothetic germ-diseases
they are frequently wanting, or very seldom met with.

AVhile we must admit the meagerness of our knowledge as to
the manner of life of these bacterin, yet we may a.isume that their
deleterious action extends itself in three directions.

While the infectious elements act in the smallest quantities in
the purely contagious diseases, when introduced into a suitable or-

94 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

ganism, experience seems to justify us in assuming that much greater
quantities are necessary with regard to the so-called malarial diseases.

Miasmas are not transportable in the sense of the infectious ele-
ments of purely contagious diseases.

We can not acquire intermittent fever at any time or place, but
must be in localities where it is generated.

In septic diseases, we have, fortunately, still another condition.

The continued introduction of infectious material is necessary to
produce septictemia ; for experience has taught us that if, by disin-
fection of the wound, we can shut off the supplj', even though the
wound continues, we may prevent the general disease. We know,
further, that we can introduce, subcutaneously, no inconsiderable
amount of septic material into a rabbit, without causing fatal re-
sults ; but, if we continue the supply, the general disease, blood-
poisoning, follows.

We do not know why it is that one individual of a given species
is susceptible to infection by a contagious disease, and another not ;
or why at one time an individual may become infected and at an-
other not ; or why at one time we may go to a locality where inter-
mittent fever or yellow fever prevails and not become diseased, while
at another time we may acquire either of them.

In fact, when we come to the earnest study of the causes of con-
tagious infections, as well as malarial diseases, we become more and
more convinced that our ignorance far surpasses any knowledge that
we may possess.

Dispersion of Bacteria, and their Entrance into the Anenial

Organism.

The deeper we seek to penetrate into the life and functions of
the bacteria, the more do we feel ourselves as lost wanderers upon
an unknown sea. We find very few known facts to cling to, as rocks
of refuge to the storm-tossed mariner. There are but few beacon-
lights along this coast.

There are no more important questions in connection with bac-
terial life than as to the means by which they become separated and
dispersed from the original places of generation ; and, again, how
they enter from these into the animal organism.

Notwithstanding our poverty of knowledge, we have still some
points of practical value at command to aid us on our way.

We have ail-sufficiently established the non-gaseous nature of
the elements causing contagio-infectipus diseases — a fact which will
become still more apparent as we pursue our studies.

INFECTION. 95

In all strictly contagions diseases, yon Avill remember, the ele-
ments of infection are always generated witliin the diseased organ-
ism, and pass off with the excretions, or are attached to them.

In miasmas they are always generated ontside of any animal
organism. This distinction mnst never be lost sight of.

It is trne we have infections diseases, in which, originally, the
etiological elements are generated ontside the organism, and which
have a certain degree of contagiousness by means of their excre-
tions. This is tiie group of infcctio-contagious diseases of which
febris tlava and anthrax are examples.

AVherever infectious germs are produced, their generation is
based upon the 2>i'esence of moisture, either as a watery fluid or
some substance containing moisture sufficient to the purpose.

We find no difficulty in comprehending the dispersion of infec-
tious elements when they are still contained within or upon the ma-
terials where they have been generated, that is, by means of streams,
or of solids or fluids impregnated with them. Distribution or disper-
sion of infectious stuff in this way is by no means the rule ; in fact,
it is seldom that it takes place to any distance, unless artificial means
come into play. Glanders, variola, and syphilis can only be ac-
quired by direct contact with an infected organism, or with a vehicle
which has been polluted with the specific elements of either of
these diseases.

Only the infectious elements — inficientla — of purely contagious
diseases are capable of any wide dispersion, and this can only take
place through the moving of diseased individuals or the transport
of derivatives from the same — clothing, excretions, hides, horns,
hair, etc. — or through accidental substances which may have become
impregnated with excretions from them. Elements of infection
can only be dispersed in two ways :

1. By means of water or fluids, or moist substances containing
them.

2. By the air, or in some desiccated vehicle or condition.
Infectious elements do not long retain their original condition

and activity in water. The nature of the nutriment found in such
media exerts a corresponding influence upon the nature and activi-
ties of genns. Metamorphosis into non-malignant forms is fre-
quently said to take place.

In jiure spring or rain water they soon demonstrate changes for
■want of sufficiency of nutriment. They retain their specific char-
acteristics longest in those media in which they are originally gen-
erated.

96 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The excretions of purely contagious diseases conform more to
this condition than external media ; but when these are exposed to
the action of an excess of moisture, decomposition of the media and
germinal changes soon follow, which are opposed to further con-
tagion.

We are justified in asserting that contagions which are sup-
ported in moisture not their natural media soon lose their activity.
Such disturbance takes place more rapidly in a warm than in a
cool temperature.

The more water a given medium contains, the poorer its nutri-
tious qualities, and the quicker destruction or change takes place
upon germs suspended in it.

In a frozen condition media as well as germs suffer but little
change. Distribution of infectious elements in a desiccated or dried
condition takes place either by means of the atmosphere, or upon
the surface of or within desiccated vehicles.

The elements of infection retain their vitality longer in a desic-
cated condition than when in or upon media of a moist nature, or
when the desiccation takes place with sufficient rapidity to prevent
decomposition or changes in the media, or the germs in or upon it.

If the processes of desiccation take place with such a rapidity
and to such a degree as to remove all moisture, the germs perish.
Some degree of moisture is necessary to their vitality. Germs re-
tain their activity longer in a cool, moist atmosphere than in a
warm and dry, and less long when suspended in a dry atmosphere
than when contained in a dry substance, where they are protected
in some measure from further desiccation. We know that the
transportation of infectious elements to any great distance by means
of the atmosphere does not take place, but that they may be trans-
ported a long distance by means of diseased individuals or infected
vehicles. From what has been said you must infer that infectious
elements are largely transported by means of the air or desiccated
objects, and that these are the chief sources whence to gain entrance
to the animal organism.

Infectious elements must be generated in media containing
moisture. They are not volatile — gaseous — and must first become
desiccated and reduced to powder before they can be taken up and
transported by the atmosphere.

Some authorities have mistakenly asserted that the germs are,
as it were, torn away from their moist media with the molecules of
water which pass off with evaporation. That this is false is proved
by the evaporation of salt water. The salts remain ; the volume is

INFECTION. f)7

less, but the quantity of salts is the same. TVhere vro find salts
suspended in the air, there has been sufficient mechanical action not
to remove molecules of water, but to take it up in drops, as in a
storm at sea. With the cessation of the storm the salts drop of
their own weight ; but evaporation does not cease. JBacteria can
not be removed by simple processes of evaporation ; small as they
are, they are larger and heavier than the molecules of salt dissolved
in water. Infectious elements can only be taken up and transported
by the atmosphere when in a dried or dust form.

Two important adjunct circumstances come also into considera-
tion in this regard :

1. The degree of adliesion with which such elements cling to
their place of birth or lodgment.

2. The mechanical means to which they are subjected.

"With reference to the latter, the most simple case is where the
dried mass, or the remnants of an evaporated fluid, are disturbed or
ground to a powder by some mechanical means which renders it
easy for the atmosphere to remove them.

The formation of dust in our streets, which may frequently con-
tain bacteria, and its removal by the wind, is a fitting example.

To this end it is essential that the material which contains the
germs does not contain anything of a mucilaginous or adhesive
nature, and that the particles of the same are sufficiently small.

The dissemination of a gas takes place very rapidly in the at-
mosphere. Even though the movements of the latter be imper-
ceptible, a bad-smelling gas soon disajDpears if the supjjly be cut
off.

The distribution of dust is dependent on its fineness and the vio-
lence or force with which the air moves ; but in no case is it capa-
ble of very extended dispersion. In a motionless atmosphere dust
molecules or germs soon fall to the ground. The smaller tliey are,
and the more rapid the movement of the air, the longer they are
kept in suspension.

So many circumstances are necessary to the dispersion of in-
fectious elements by means of the atmosphere, it is evident that
they may be confined for a long time to an individual, a house,
street, or locality.

An organism is, therefore, so much the more exposed to a given
infection, the more it is confined to a locality where infectious ele-
ments are or have been generated, or the more the air-currents come
from such a place.

Infections elements do not all possess the same degree of dis-
1

98 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

persion ; so that, under otherwise similar cirisumstances, one disease
may attack a far greater number of individuals than another.

The Infection of the Animal Organism.

Here, again, we find ourselves mostly upon a hypothetical foun-
dation.

All is not gold that glitters ; so it will be with many of the
existing theories of fungi-infection ; but out of all we shall finally
winnow many facts.

The penetration of germs into the body by means of an intact
outer cuticle may be looked upon as impossible.

Whether they can also penetrate through the mucosa, and walls
of the capillaries of the intestinal or respiratory tracts, is also very
questionable.

In anthracis pulmonum, a condition of the lungs due to the pres-
ence of coal-dust in the finest form, we find it accumulates in the
alveolae, but we find no proof of its gaining access to the circu-
lation; the same is true in the so-called "grinder's pneumonia,"
which is due to the presence of stone-dust in the lungs.

In the intestinal canal we know, from our physiological studies,
that even the finest qualities of solid fats are incapable of absorp-
tion ; the action of the gall and pancreatic fluids is first necessary,
by which they are reduced to an emulsion.

We are not, then, justified in assuming that bacteria gain access
to the living organism, either on account of their minuteness, or in
any passive way. Action on the part of the bacteria themselves
must play no secondary part in this phenomenon.

To a passive entrance, or in fact to any entrance into the living
organism, the respiratory tract offers by far the most favorable op-
portunity.

As may be known to many, the capillaries of the lungs are of an
extremely delicate nature ; they also dip into the alveolae ; that large
number of bacteria are taken up with the aspired air seems very
probable ; that very few, even in a profusely impregnated atmos-
phere, gain access to the air-cells of the lungs, must be also true ;
for the mucosa of the respiratory tract extends from the entrance of
the nostrils to the beginning of the inf undibula, or conglomerate of
air-cells. The alveolae themselves have no mucosa. The viscid
nature of the covering of this membrane is of such a quality as to
warrant our assuming that the major part of such germs are caught
by it, and gradually find their way back to the pharynx by means
of the ciliary movement of the tracheal and bronchial epithelium.

INFECTION. 99

AVe know that the fission-funyi liave a boring movement, and
that this is apjnirontly in a forward direction ; the question is, Is
it strong enongh to penetrate these tine capillaries ?

The answer is, AVe do not know !

Again, some authorities have described openings, or vacancies,
between the individual epithelium cells lining the alveoli, and
have looked upon them as the endings of tlie pulmonary lymph
system.

If such stomata or openings really exist, they offer a natural
and favonible atrium to the ])enetration of bacteria into the system
by means of the lungs.

As we have said, but a very small number can certainly pene-
trate so deeply as the alveoli ; but we know that, on account of the
wonderful degree of proliferation, a very small number is sufficient
to produce infection.

The blood, from its chemical composition, and the presence of
oxygen, united with the temperature of the body, offers the most
favorable condition for the multiplication of bacteria.

As to the intestinal tract, we have already said that the nature
of the mucosa is such that we do not believe it possible for the bac-
teria to penetrate its different metnbranes.

The acidity of the stomach offer's very unfavorable conditions to
the life or multiplication of germs.

Some have assumed, and among them the ablest of mycologists,
that an abrasion (wounding) of an intact surface is necessary to the
entrance of bacteria into the system. AVhen we reflect on the mi-
nuteness of these objects, and how frequently results of this nature
may take place, both in the respiratory, and particularly the digest-
ive tract, we tind good grounds for accepting this hypothesis as the
one favoring the general way in which infection takes place.

Slight abrasions of the mucosa of the nostrils, pharynx, cheeks,
etc., or even that of the tesojihagus, stomach, and intestines, are very
common with our own species : how much more so in our domestic
and other animals which seek their food in a natural manner, or re-
ceive it from the none too careful hands of man !

An unhealthy mucosa is of itself seldom intact ; abrasions of its
epithelial covering are very common, even though they do not occa-
sion sucli disturbances as to lead one to suspect any very serious
trouble. The proneness of the niminantia to take up all sorts of
foreign objects — nails, hair-pins, broken glass, and even knives and
fork? — is well known to many.

Traumatic inflammation of the stomach and heart are no uncom-

100 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

mon diseases in our cows, especially such as are grazed on road-sides
and house-yards.

Traumata, wounds in the cutis, are very common among our
animals, and much more so among grazing animals, especially on
the feet and legs and around the hoofs ; and as these parts are fre-
quently in places where germs would be abundant (marshes, etc.),
they offer the most favorable atria to the penetration of germs.

How do germs act ?

By depriving the body of nutritive material, by obstruction, cap-
illary embolism, and by the products which either of themselves,
or by the disease-processes, are induced by them.

That they require large quantities of oxygen has been made ap-
parent ; and it is self-evident that, on their entrance into the body,
there must be a constant struggle with the red blood-cells for this
necessary gas. Whether they produce carbonic-acid gas (COj), and
thus add to its accumulation in the system, is still an open question.

That capillary embolism is possible has been too frequently ob-
served to be questioned. This condition would be but another way
by which parts, not the whole, of the system, are shut off from
oxygen and other nutritive material.

Infectious diseases do not seem to last long enough to cause ne-
crosis, or necrobiosis (death), in parts thus shut off from the circula-
tion ; at least, never in my reading have I met with any description
of phenomena similar to those we meet with in ordinary embolism.

When an organism withstands the invasion of an infectious dis-
ease, we may assume that it offers no longer a favorable condition to
the bacteria ; they die, suffer some sort of a dissolution, and are
passed off as an effete material.

Disinfection.

The birth of crude empiricism may be asserted to have been
coeval with the first realization of pain or suffering on the part of
man. The aim of modern medicine is prevention. We are ear-
nestly endeavoring to make practical the old saying, " An ounce of
prevention is worth a pound of cure."

The men who boast of their " cures " are slowly becoming less
numerous among the true practitioners of medicine.

As observers slowly came to the idea that one disease, and then
another, was due to some inficiens ; that many such diseases were
strictly or partly contagious — that is, passing directly from one ani-
mal organism to another — they began first to take means to prevent
them : hence restrictions of commerce, not only with regard to hu-

INFECTIOX. 101

man beings, but animals and their products. This restrictive, pre-
ventive medicine, if we may be allowed the term, has been rewarded
by the grandest results, though it at first paid little or no attention
to the primary causes of the diseases it sought to prevent. The
causes it recoy:nized were those of intercourse and commerce. It
sought to regulate these with reference to the contagious diseases,
and the result has been that the black-death and bubo-pest have
become entire strangers to Western Europe ; Asiatic cholera is no
longer the terror of the civilized world. Aside from the benefits of
vaccination, the varioliB no more carry horror into the human family.
The cattle-owner of Europe does not awaken on any morning and
find the rinderpest devastating his herd. The lung-plague of cattle
is kept within restricted limits, and so of other diseases of like na-
ture.

Tliese remarks have no relation to diseases of a purely malarial
character, which are based on locality. Here we have to do with
questions of drainage, tillage, and the like, which we will not dis-
cuss at present.

"While this work of modern medicine is of no secondary impor-
tance, the results of the observations and experiments of recent
years have opened still another path to the workers in preventive
medicine.

They have discovered the causes of some diseases, and gained
knowledge that justifies us in assuming that the causes of all infec-
tious and contagious diseases are of a similar nature. This cause
is the schizomycetes or fission-fungi, and their germs, which bear
the general name of micrococci or microbes.

Having discovered these objects, the next step has been to study
their mode of life, how they live and multiply, what elements favor
these processes, and what are opposed to them.

Our conceptions in this regard are still far from clear, and too
frecpiently our action is based on mistaken reasoning.

We too often think that, when we have removed the odor from
an offensive place or substance, we have destroyed its disease-pro-
ducing qualities, a hope which is only too soon negatived by expe-
rience.

The resistibility of germs is such that we may look upon it as
very nearly fallacious to disinfect the atmosphere by adding to it
chlurine-gas, or sulphur, or any similar disinfectants. Such disin-
fection is more or less an idea inherited from the earlier days of
preventive medicine, and not in conformity with our present knowl-
edge.

102 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

In considering the question of disinfection we must ever bear in
mind that the fission-fungi, or their spores, always occnr in one of
two conditions ; that is, moist or dry. This fact should always be
settled before we decide as to our disinfecting procedures. When
in a moist medium, bacteria are much more easily destroyed than
when united with a dry.

If we meet with them in a fluid, a boiling-heat is necessary to
their destruction. Temperatures of 77° to 10^° Fahr. are in general
favorable to bacterial life. The most advantageous has been found
to be 95° Fahr. The resistibility to high temperatures varies in the
different bacteria. A temperatui-e of 113" to 122° Fahr. has been
found sufficient to kill bacteria thernio, while bacilli have been
found to resist 176° Fahr. Extreme degrees of cold are far less
effective to their destruction than heat. We have too often assumed
that when our antiparasitics, or, better, antiseptics, have prevented
the fermentative processes, the germs have been destroyed also.
"While heat is the most effective of all the disinfectants, we shall
make no mistake in adding to it those chemicals which are at enmity
with bacterial life.

Nageli sums up his remarks on disinfection as follows :

1. The infectious elements can not be securely destroyed when
in an absolutely dry condition.

2. Boiling-heat can only surely kill them when they are in a
moist or fluid medium.

3. The antiseptics which have gained acceptance are not posi-
tively death to them ; they only place them in an inactive condi-
tion, that is, consume them. (This argument is open to the objec-
tion that, in disinfection, the disinfectants have been, or have to be,
used in too diluted a condition, or in such a way as not to come
either directly or in sufficient volume in contact with the bacteria.
This last must nearly always be the case in spray or smoke disinfec-
tion, which we believe to be an illusion.)

4. They are changed, not destroyed, by decomposition of media,
by means of a surplus of water or heat, so that they lose their infec-
tious properties.

5. They are harmless when removed in a moist condition.

The true value of the internal application of the antiseptics is of
a very questionable nature ; for these materials exert fully as poi-
sonous an influence upon the autositic as the parasitic organism.

In some cases, as in intermittent fever, it would seem as if we
could bring the organism so under the influence of quinine as to act
against the proliferation of the spirillum. That this bacterium dis-

INFECTION. 103

appears in the intervals of tlie fever has been mentioned. AVhere
it comes from a^ain during the paroxysms is an open question.

AVhile this may be true, in a measure, of quinine, boracic acid,
and some other materials, the internal use of the stronger antisep-
tica in suthcieut volume is too dangerous to be tried.

A special study of the antiseptics would lead us too much into
details for our present purpose, and I must refer my readers to the
works uptm that subject; among the disinfectants are the corrosive
acids, carbol, tliymol, boracic acid, hypermanganate of potasli, the
coal-tar preparations, and the long list of antiputrids.

AlfTIIRAX AND AnTHRACOID DISEASES,

The word anthrax is of Greek origin, and means a coal. Tlie
name wjvs not originally given to a single disease, but to a group of
diseases which were characterized by a black, tarry appearance of the
blood. In any form, the blood is essentially complicated, while all
the organs of the body are more or less aifected.

Modern research has led to the isolation of one disease from this
group as anthrax.

The others may be called anthracoid (i. e., anthrax-like) diseases.

They are all germ-diseases ; but the germ which has led to the
isolation of one disease as anthrax has singular characteristics in
its mature or bacterial form which enable us to distinguish it from
other almost similar bacteria.

The disease is also known as charbon (carbuncle), Milzbrand, etc.

Jlisiori/.

Of all the pests, or infectio-contagious animal diseases, anthrax
seems to be the one of which we have the earliest historical rec<»rd.
Moses has apparently described it as one of the plagues by which
Jehovah punished the Egyptians. The early Greek and Roman
writers mention it under the names of sacer ignis ; gutta robea ; also
by its present name, and it is also mentioned by Arabic writers as
" Al Immrah'' or '* Persian fire."

Charbert was the first author to enter into any clear and criti-
cal study of the various diseases of this group, and published a work,
" Description et Traitement du Charbon," Paris, 1780, which even at
the present day exerts more or less influence, especially in France.

Although the observations of the eighteenth century led many
authors to declare for the contagiousness of anthrax, still others
declared it to be non-contagious. Kausch, an author early in this
century, gave a good description of the pathological changes of this

104 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

disease, and looked upon it cliieflj as a paralysis of the pulmonary
nerves, but declared himself for the infection of man and animals
by means of the blood, flesh, etc.

Delafond, 1843, studied the disease among sheep ("Maladie de
Sang"), and looked upon the abomasum and intestines as the chief
seats of the disease, and declared it to be an acute enteritis by
which the blood was also complicated. He denied the infectious
character of the disease, and sought its etiology in hyper-nourish-
ment, and in abnormal chemical changes in the earth. Gerlach
1845, looked upon this disease of sheep as identical with anthrax,
and proved its infectiousness by direct experiment, and considered
the contagium to be volatile aud having great tenacity.

Heusinger, in his noted historical work upon " Animal Plagues,"
looked upon the disease as a malarial neurosis, and assumed that the
infectious elements acted chiefly upon the ganglionic nerve-centers.
The primary changes consisted of a paralysis of the blood-vessels
of the spleen and the consequential death of its tissues, hence its
German name, " Milzbrand " ; following this, the disease is charac-
terized by vascular jjaralysis, blood-stasis, extravasations, and necro-
sis in different organs. Contagious elements are developed by the
disease, which lead to its extension. These elements are taken up
by the lymph and blood-vessels, chiefly the latter, from the parts
primarily complicated. The apparent divergence with which the
disease manifests itself in different animals is not essential, as the
essentials of the disease are nearly the same in all. The disease de-
velops primarily in grazing animals, solipeds, ruminants, and swine.
All animals are open to infection.

In 1855 Virchow followed Heusinger in declaring for the mala-
rial nature of the disease ; he emphasized its septic character, and
looked upon the cause as a specific ferment. "Wald, 1862, laid spe-
cial emphasis upon the nature of the soil in the generation of anthrax.

In 1856 Pollender broke the ground which has gradually led to
our modern views of the true nature of anthrax, and its isolation
from kindred diseases; so early as 1849 he had found peculiar staff-
like bodies in the blood of anthrax-diseased animals. Entirely inde-
pendent from the observations of Pollender, Brauell, professor at
Dorpat, Russia, found (1857) the same microscopic elements in the
blood of men, sheep, and horses that had perished from the disease.
He looked upon them as vibrios, and as he found them intra vitam
(during life) in the blood of such animals, considered them to have
diagnostic value, while Pollender declared their importance to be
still an open question.

INFECTION. 105

The discovery of tliese two observers gradually drew the at-
tention of scientists to the study of this disease, and it may be truly
asserted that no single disease has enjoyed so much observation in
modem or ancient days.

By means of a succession of experiments Brauell came to the
knowledge that the peculiar staff-like bodies appeared from one, two,
or three, and in some cases eight to ten hours before the death of the
diseased organism, and when the course of the disease was very acute,
but a few moments before its fatal termination, while they were not
to be seen in the blood of convalesents, lie credited these objects
with a ])rognostic and diagnostic value, but denied to them any etio-
logical importance, as the disease could be produced with blood which
did not contain them, a fact which will find its explanation later on.

These peculiar bodies were not looked upon in the same light
by different observers, some considering them as coagaluted fibrin
(Briickmiiller, "Zootomie- Pathologique"), fragments of broken-
down tissues, blood-crystals, while Delafond looked upon them as
a species of leptothrix. In 1S60 the last-named author adopted the
views of Brauell.

In 1803 Davaine declared these bodies to be bacteria, and, in
order to distinguish them from the motory bacteria of putrefaction,
gave them the name of hacterklicn. As the blood without them
was not infectious, he declared them to be the specific cause of this
disease. The bacteridii\} are destroyed by putrefaction, but may be
preserved for a long time in a desiccated condition.

After this time, there followed a period of the greatest diver-
gence in the views of different observers as to the true nature and
place of these objects : all sorts of things — blood-crystals, the bac-
teria of putrefaction, the cent-like rolls of the blood-cells, etc. —
were declared to be the same as the bacteridiiB. Davaine's work,
more than that of any other author, gradually led to the production
of order out of this chaos.

He found the bacteria to be present in the majority of cases of
anthrax, an<l that they frequently appeared before the outbreak of
the symptoms of diseases ; when they disappeared, by putrefaction
or otherwise, the infectiousness of the blood ceased. The number
of bacilli in a single drop of blood was estimated by Davaine at
eight to ten millions ; and he claimed that a drop of blooil diluted
to a million times its volume by water was still competent to pro-
duce infection.

The modern workers in this field of mycology are sufficiently
known through our general study of the bacteria.

X06 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Etiology.

Our studies have led us to the conchision that anthrax is an
acute infectious disease due to the action of specific germs called
bacteria. The disease verj frequently assumes an enzootic or epi-
zodtic form, although it is frequently sporadic in its appearance and
occurs mostly in grazing animals and swine, but is also transmissi-
ble to man.

The nature of the earth plays no unimportant part in enzootic
outbreaks of the disease. The disease is found most frequently in
localities where the earth contains much moisture, and in regions
where the rivers, brooks, or swam2)s are subject to drying out ; in
fact, in just such districts where intermittent fever prevails among
men.

In many regions, such places become generally known as in-
fected districts, and are either fenced off or the animals kept from
grazing upon them, or they have been turned to cultivation, which
has led to the manifest decrease of the disease. Such regions are
especially frequent in the Bavarian Alps, w^here I studied the dis-
ease Tinder the guidance of Professor Feser, of the Munich Veteri-
nary School. One is surprised that such infected localities are often
to be found at the very tops of the mountains or upon highly situ-
ated levels.

An undue degree of moisture in the earth seems to favor the
develoj)ment of the bacteria.

While there is much similarity in the telluric nature of regions
where anthrax and intermittent fever prevail, it is not in accordance
with practical experience that both diseases should prevail in them,
for we find the one where the other does not appear, and mce versa.
"While anthrax is a disease, the generation of which seems so largely
dependent on the nature of the ground, it is by no means a malarial
disease. It never prevails to any such extent as intermittent fever,
even in regions where it appears, and which offer every condition
favorable to its development.

The presence of the peculiar infectious elements is always ne-
cessary to the generation of the disease, no matter how favorable
the telluric conditions may appear to their development.

My friend Dr. Oemler reduced an annual loss of twenty-one
per cent among the sheep of his district in Germany to two per
cent by energetic opposition to the burial of all cadavers of animals
that had died from the disease. Similar results have followed a
like procedure on the part of numerous other competent observers.

INFECTION. 107

A Russian commission, appointed to look into the causes of anthrax,
reported the chief cause of the epizootic outbreaks of the disease to
he the inco?npIet'.' burial and removal of the cadavers of horses
which had perished from it.

Every animal diseased witli anthrax, or its cadaver, or any por-
tion of the same, must be looked upon as a dangerous center from
which infection may proceed.

The physical conditions of the earth, viz., its amount of water,
chemical constituents, and temperature, must always be looked upon
in considering the generation of anthrax.

Practical experience goes to prove that extreme drying out or
draining of a suspected or known district is unfavorable to the de-
velopment of its infectious elements.' In such cases, rains following
great heat and drought are generally characterized either by the re-
appearance of the disease or its greater prevalence. On the con-
trary, drought and heat favor its appearance in very moist districts.
The disease is generally most prevalent in such districts when the
temperature of the earth has reached its highest maximum. This
is generally in our latitude in the months of August and September.

A question of importance in the generation of this disease is, Is
an impregnation of the earth with the infectious elements necessary
to the development of the disease, or are they capable of independ-
ent development in such earth by the metamorphosis from some
other kind of fungi already present ?

The previously mentioned practical observations of the careful
removal of cadavers, instead of burial, would seem to favor the
first of these views.

The chief, if not the only, cause of anthrax must be sought in
infection, in general, not direct, but by means of some vehicle, the
infectious elements being extremely tenacious of life and easily
transported, as has been painfully illustrated by cases in man due to
dried hides brought from a distance, curled hair, or other animal
derivatives.

The most frequent carriers of infection are cither diseased ani-
mals, their excretions, or their products — hides, horns, hoofs, etc.
Again, healthy animals, or even men, flies, gnats, etc., may serve as
vehicles to infection. Gerlach reports numerous cases among shec])
due to the bite of the dogs used to tend them, where the latter have
been fed or have fed themselves upon the cadavers of sheep that
had perished from the disease.

Davaine frequently produced the disease by inoculations with
the probosces or feet of flies which had first been permitted to pol-

108 THE DISEASES' OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

lute themselves with the blood from animals that had died from the
disease.

Bollinger reports finding the specific bacteria of anthrax in the
blood of flies which were caught upon the cadavers of such animals,
and to have produced the disease in rabbits by inoculating with the
same.

As further vehicles of infection we may mention the harness,
stable-utensils, straw, and haj, etc., which have been in contact
with diseased animals.

Articles of food — beets, turnips, carrots — which have been raised
upon lands where cadavers from anthrax-diseased animals have been
buried, have been asserted to have caused this disease when fed to
cattle.

The fluids of the stable — urine, etc. — seem to be less dangerous,
as putrefaction is known to be in opposition with the life of these
germs.

The respiratory tract, the external cutis, and digestive tract, are
the chief atria of the infectious elements, though the flesh of such
animals has often been consumed with impunity ; still, feeding ex-
periments upon animals susceptible to the disease have sufficiently
proved the infectiousness of such meat. The susceptibility to in-
fection is greater in the ruminants — tame and wild — than in the
solipeds, less in the omnivora, and still less in the carnivora ; the
cat, however, more so than the dog.

Nature of the Infectious Elements.

"While we have already noticed this subject in our general con-
sideration of the bacteria, it is of such great im23ortance that we
may be warranted in treating it still more in detail.

The fact that anthrax could be generated in an experimental
way, with blood in which the bacteridise could not be discovered,
has led many authors to deny to them any etiological importance.
This fact remained incontrovertible until observers had advanced
in the study of the life of these parasites.

Fii'st their minuteness, and again the very small quantity neces-
sary to infection, may have led authors to this mistaken conclusion ;
but, above all, it was the ignorance of the earlier observers of the
spore of the schizoraycetic fungi which led them into tliis error.

An interesting fact with reference to the iiiti*a-orcjanismal life of
the bacteria of anthrax is, that the placenta offers a natural filtra-
tion apparatus, which prevents them passing from the blood of the
mother to that of the foetus. Inoculation experiments have demon-

INFECTION. 109

strated not onlj the presence of tlie l)actcria in the bk")od of tlie
mother, and their absence in that of the foetus, but also that, while
the blood of the mother was highly infectious, that of the ftetus
was wanting in this quality.

This only goes to prove that in this case, even if the micrococci,
or germ condition of the bacteria, be present in the mother, it is
not so in the ftetus ; but does not militate against the })rovc'd fact
that blood from anthrax-diseased animals without bacteria is still
infectious.

Feser has made some interesting experiments with regard to
the filtering ability of the milk-glands in sheep. lie has inocu-
lated ewes with lambs by their side, and proved that infection had
taken place, both by examination of the blood and by experiments
with the same upon other animals ; but the lambs did not become
infected from the mother's milk, although isolated bacteria were to
be seen in the same. Inoculations made with such milk, however,
produced the disease in other animals.

The presence of the bacteria in the milk, and its infectiousness
on inoculation, while the lambs feeding upon it were not infected)
go to support a theory of infection we have alreddy considered in
our general remarks, viz., that a wounded or al)raded surface is ne-
cessary to the infection of an organism. In lambs feeding upon
milk alone such is surely impossible in the coui*se of the digestive
tract.

The fact that bacteria pass the membranes of the milk-glands
and not those of the placenta, may be explained by the mechanical
action and minor lesions, which can result to the milk-glands from
the suckinj; and buttiu": of the lambs.

As we have frequently mentioned, this disease is now known to
be due to a specific cause — a schizophyte, or vegetable parasite,
bacillus anthracis — a staff-shaped bacterium which multiplies by
spores.

An English observer, Ewart, of University College, London,
gives a very clear descri]>tion of the life of these germs, which may
not be out of place here, notwithstanding all we have previously
considered :

" At first the bacilli were absolutely motionless — they had been
taken from the spleen of a mouse — but in some cultivations, after
keeping them in a temperature of 33° C. for a few hours, a great
number of them began to move actively about the field. While
at rest they were not altogether without change, for clear lines
across them indicated that they were in the process of division

110 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

into segments. Sometimes a number of rods ceased moving, and,
previous to lengthening out into filaments, arranged themselves into
patches of zooglea.

" The division into two or more segments is not always a very
rapid process. A rod, which was watched until it divided, was
made up of three segments, and one of them from the beginning
looked as if it might separate itself from the others ; but after six
hours of ahnost constant endeavor, it was still connected by a very
delicate thread, and before final separation, which took place after
seven hours' observation, it was divided into two segments in a com-
paratively short time, so that, when it did escape from the other ap-
parently inactive pieces, it moved about the field of the microscope
like two freely movable links of a chain.

"After assuming this motile phase for some time, the rods
lengthened out into spore-heaving filaments.

" The lengthening of the rods into filaments is an extremely rap-
id process, and is apparently affected by the temperature. In five
hours, at a temperature of 32° C, a rod may have increased so as to
be from eighty to one hundred times its original length, and in
twenty-four hours the filament may be full of spores. If the tem-
perature be kept at about 28° C, the spore may not appear until
the thirty-sixth or fortieth hour. When the spores have once ap-
peared, all the other changes go on at an ordinary temperature of
from 12° to 18° C, but not nearly so rapidly, even when the prepa-
ration is kept in the sun for a few hours daily, as when artificial
heat is employed. On the other hand, a high temperature, 37°-
40° C, at once checks all development.

" The filaments, when first formed, are perfectly hyaline, but
soon the central protoplasmic contents can be distinguished from the
gelatinous-looking sheath. The protoplasma next divides into nu-
merous short pieces about the size of the original rod out of which
the filament was formed. These contract, leaving clear empty
spaces between them, and often again divide to form still shorter
masses of protoplasm.

" At each side of this transverse line of division minute clear
specks appear — the first indication of sjDores. These gradually in-
crease in size and luster, and as they increase the protoplasma dis-
appears ; in fact, the spores seem to be developed from the proto-
plasm. Soon after the appearance of the spores the filaments seem
to be made up of numerous segments, each segment containing one
spore, the spores lying at the adjacent ends of the segments. The
spores now begin to escape. The filament gradually disappears, and

INFECTION'. Ill

the spores appear surrounded by a mass of gelatinous material. The
spores, when free, according to previous observers, develop into rods.
My own observations lead me to believe that the spores do not always
at once grow into rods, but that they may divide into four sporules,
in which the envelope as well as the spores take part. The spore then
elongates, becomes dumb-bell sha}>ed, and finally develops into rods."

The action of the bacteria within the autositc is, as we have said,
the consumption of oxygen, for which they have a great affinity,
and the production of CO,. This fact, the absorption of O and ac-
cumulation of CO,, would seem to account for those cases of sudden
death by anthrax, and for the symptoms by which the disease mani-
fests itself — such as dyspnoea, cyanosis, clonic spasms, distended pu-
])il, falling of the temperature, and asphyxia — which all correspond
with the phenomena of poisoning with CO,. The necroscopical re-
sults corrcs}:)ond to the same : congestion of the venous system, a
dark, tar-like condition of the blood, extravasations, cyanotic col-
oring of different parts.

A peculiar diagnostic characteristic of bacillus anthracis is the
abruptness with which each segment terminates : the ends are square,
as if cut off, a condition which has not as yet been observed in any
other bacteria, not even B. sultilis, which resembles it very closely
in every other particular.

The tenacity of B. anthracis is very great. They may retain
their virulence in a desiccated condition for months or even years.
10^ DQ of a drop of blood has been found sufficient to cause infection.
Davaine has caused infection with blood that had been kept in a
dried condition for twenty-two months.

Bollinger sums up his conclusions as to the nature of anthrax as
follows :

" It is an acute infectious disease. The infectious elements con-
stitute a vegetable parasite, which generates (endogenous) within the
infected organism, and perhaps externally (ectogenous), that is, in
the earth, when it finds conditions favoralde thereto ; that is, when
the earth has been first impregnated. Tiie disease is not contagious
in the general acceptance of the word, as infection from animal to
animal directly seldom takes place ; but it is highly transportable
by means of vehicles, from the peculiar characti-ristics of its etiologi-
cal elements.

AppeajHUxce and Kctn.^iov.

Anthrax occurs in all countries and climates, though to what
extent it appears among the animals of this country we have no
definite knowledge.

112 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

In making a diagnosis as to whether a given disease is anthrax
or not, it must always be borne in mind that no bacillus anthra-
cis, no anthrax ; when, in doubtful eases, you can not decide, in-
oculation experiments will always give you the key to a correct
diagnosis.

In 1864, 72,000 horses died in Russia alone from the disease.
In the province of Novgorod (Russia), from 1867-'70, over 56,000
horses, cattle, and sheep, and 528 men, perished.

Phenomena of the Disease.

The disease, in general, presents itself under one of three forms :

1. The apoplectic form (anthrax acutissimus), the duration of
which varies from a few minutes to several hours.

2. The acute form (anthrax acutus), the duration of which varies
from a few hours to some days.

3. The subacute form (anthrax subacutus), which includes all
cases of longer duration.

Great divergence exists among the various authors as to the
duration of the period of incubation in anthrax. In some cases the
appearance of the symptoms of the disease seems to follow imme-
diately on the introduction of the inficieus. Fever has been ob-
served within two hours subsequent to inoculation. Among cattle
the incubation may continue for four or five days ; in small animals,
rabbits, etc., twenty-four, thirty-six, or forty-eight hours ; seldom
three or four days. On account of the variance in form with which
the disease appears, it is difficult to give any concise description of
its phenomena.

In the so-called apoplectic form the infected animals frequently
drop, almost as if struck by lightning ; they fall into convulsions,
dyspnoea, cyanosis, and in a few minutes death results. Frequently,
these violent symptoms are wanting in all prodromic phenomena,
the animals eating and appearing apparently as well as ever. It is
not unfrequent to find animals in the morning dead in the stall
which were apparently perfectly healthy the evening before. The
acute form of the disease appears about as follows in horses and cat-
tle : Animals apparently healthy suddenly develop a loss of appe-
tite ; in cows, the milk secretion is restricted, or ceases altogether.
The animals begin to tremble, and frequently chills may be seen to
be present ; the superficial parts of the body become cold. This
cold stage passes into a febrile, after a longer or shorter period.
Peculiar contractions and clonic spasms of the extremities are quite
frequent. During the remissions the animals appear weak and de-

INFECTION. 113

pressed, or tliey may be apparently quite well and ruminate, and
take to feeding.

The pulse is increased to double its normal rapidity ; the tem-
perature rises from 41° to 41'7°C. The excrements are frequently
tinged witli dark blood, or are bloody and diarrhoea-like.

These symptoms are not constant, but are interrupted by remis-
sions, -svhich may continue from six to twenty-four hours, during
which the animals often appear as if quite well again.

Aside from the aix)plectic and acute forms of the disease, we
have a subacute and exanthematic form, in which we meet with a
carbunculous and erysipelatous tumefaction distributed over differ-
ent parts of the organism, especially on the posterior extremities.
These tumefactions are generally hot, and more or less painful. The
general habitus of the animal seems to suffer but little change. Re-
sorption of the exudations soon begins, and it is not very frequent
that we meet with excoriation and ulceration.

From sixty to seventy per cent of the cases of anthrax in horses
and cattle end fatally, and are characterized by the above-mentioned
phenomena — dyspnani, cyanotic condition of the different mucosae,
opisthotonic condition of a variable intensity, spasms of the musculi
palpebrarum, so that we can only see the whites of the eyes ; the
animals become extremely weak and are unable to stand ; the tem-
perature falls below normal ; the extremities become cold, the pupils
distended, and death appears, under the ]ihenomena of asphyxia, in
from twenty-four to forty hours from the tirst ai)pearance of the
disease.

In favorable cases, the recovery is very rapid. The carbuncular
formations in the cutis are much less frequently met with in cattle
than horses ; otherwise, the symptoms of the disease among horses
offer no essential differentiation from cattle.

The intra-vital phenomena of anthrax in the smaller domestic
animals are far less distinctly marked ; however, we meet with con-
vulsive phenomena, dyspnoea, and mydriasis.

Pathological Anatomy.

The pathological anatomy of anthrax shows no essential differ-
entiation among the bovine or equine species. In cattle which have
perished during or of the disease in its acute or apoplectic form, we
find the blood of a black-red color, thick and tar-like, and without
the ability to coagulate. The bhxjd has the same character during
the intra-vital progress of the disease ; the entire venous system is
congested ; the ingesta are frequently mixed with extravasated blood ;

114 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

the intestinal parietes, especially of the jejunum, are more or less
infiltrated with a sero-hsemorrhagic mass. Similar gelatino-haemor-
rhagic infiltrations may be seen in the omentum, mesenterium, in
the eapsula adiposa of the kidneys, the connective tissue of the in-
ferior parts of the neck and mediastinum. A sero-haemorrhagic
effusion is frequently to be met with in the abdominal and pleural
cavities, particularly the former.

Ecchymoses of variable dimensions are frequently to be met
with in the muscles of the heart, also extravasations of variable extent
under the endocardium and epicardium, particularly about the auri-
cles. Hsemorrhagic effusions are frequently to be met with in the
sexual organs of females. Genuine carbuncular eruptions are sel-
dom met with along the intestinal canal of cattle. The rigor mortis
is not of a very severe grade ; a frothy, blood-stained fluid is fre-
quently to be seen issuing from the natural apertures of the body ;
the abdomen is frequently distended with gases. If animals are
slaughtered early in the disease, it is frequently impossible to con-
jecture its nature, if they have been allowed to bleed freely, and the
intestines, etc., have been carefully removed. This is an important
fact from a public-health point of view.

The chief patho-anatomic variation in horses is that we meet
this gelatino-hsemorrhagic infiltration to a far greater extent than in
cattle. This peculiar yellow, serous, blackish infiltration is difficult
to describe ; but, after having once been seen, it does not easily pass
from remembrance, and, aside from anything else, even the fre-
quently asserted pathognomonic tumefaction of the spleen, is one of
the most characteristic pathological phenomena of anthrax. These
infiltrations may be met with wherever we have normally loose con-
nective tissue, the retro-pharyngeal and laryngeal region, along the
trachea and large blood-vessels and nerves, in the mediastinum and
mesenterium, the organs of the pelvis, and fatty capsule of the kid-
neys.

The disease is not so marked along the intestinal tract in horses
as in cattle ; but we find carbuncular eruptions and erosions to a
greater extent than in the latter.

The large glands of the body — kidneys, liver, spleen — are gen-
erally tumefied, the parenchyma clouded, and the vessels filled with
blood. The lymph-glands also show signs of hypertrophy, and
many bacteria are to be found in them.

Aside from the characteristic bacteria, we find the white or col-
orless blood-cells numerically increased, sometimes immensely.

Leucocytosis. — ^This condition is a transient numerical increase

INFECTION. 115

of the white or colorless blood-cells in proportion to the red, while
leucaemia is a permanent increase of the former over the latter.
This increase is to be traced to the hyperplastic condition of the
lymph-^Jauds and spleen.

The red blood-cells seem to suffer some changes ; they are less
tirm in their contours, and have a greater degree of adhesiveness
than is conimon to them.

Bacteria are, naturally, to be discovered only by the use of the
microscope in the entire capillary system, many of them being vir-
tually the seat of embolic bacterial obstruction. The parasites are
also plentiful in all the effusions and extravasations, and frequently
among the tissues.

In the smaller animals the necroscopical phenomena of anthrax
are far less characteristic : the spleen is but little enlarged ; the
sero-hfemorrhagic infiltrations are by no means so numerous, as well
as the extravasations.

A special tendency to rapid cadaveric changes does not seem so
common to cattle, sheep, and goats, as to horses. The rigor moi'tia
often fails, or is present to a minor degree.

Pi'ogjiosis.

The prognosis in anthrax is to be considered as exceedingly un-
favorable, sixty to seventy per cent of the cases ending fatally
among the larger animals. In the acute and apoplectic forms re-
covery seldom takes place, and in the sub-acute the mortality is very
great.

Diagnosis.

The diagnosis is often very difficult intra vitajn^ especially with-
out recoui-se to the microscope, in sporadic cases in localities where
the previous occurrence of the disease does not give cause for sus-
picion.

During the intermissions of the disease, the microscopic exami-
nation of the blood is often followed by negative results, as well as
inoculative experiments. However, these should ever be resorted
to, and, when taken in unison with the above detailed necroscopic
phenomena, one need seldom make a mistake.

The bacteria may, however, generally be found in the blood
soon after death. It must not be forgotten that putrefaction is op-
posed to the life of the bacteria.

On account of the extreme degree of infectiousness possessed by
this disease, the practitioner must ever remember that, in a certain
sense, he takes his life in his hands in making autopsies upon ani-

116 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

mals which have died or are suspected to have perished from it.
"With wounded hands, or even the slightest abrasions of the cutis,
no one should make such an autopsy. Great care must be taken
not to wound one's self with the knife, or upon sharp edges of broken
bones, for death is almost sure to follow.

While a student in Yirchow's laboratory at Berlin, the body of
a tanner who had died from anthrax was brought in ; the patient had
simply removed the scab from a razor-scratch on his neck with the
edge of a raw South American hide — sun-dried, however — which he
was carrying. This case also illustrates the extreme tenacity of the
germs of anthrax when dried.

Prophylaxis.

Notwithstanding the prevalence of the idea that the prevention
of the enzootic or sporadic outbreak of anthrax in regions where it
has constantly appeared is a task of great difficulty, we must say that
this does not accord with practical experience, as we have proven
by examples taken from the observations of persons of undoubted
ability.

Although it is beyond question that such soils or districts are
highly infectious, yet we know that the thorough disinfection, and
other removal of cadavers than by burying, also a similar care with
reference to the excretions from such animals, have tended greatly
to diminish the annual losses from the disease in notorious districts.

Diseased animals, as well as their cadavers, must be thoroughly
protected from the attacks of flies, by keeping the stables dark,
blankets, etc.

As an excess of moisture, or drying out of the ground-water,
are both known, under certain previously mentioned conditions,
to favor the development of the bacteria, and consequent infection
of animals exposed thereto, and as practical experience has proved
that thorough draining of such districts has been of beneficial effect,
this procedure should always be resorted to.

Animals should never be allowed to graze upon known anthrax
districts or suspected pastures. Such places should be fenced off
and used for agricultural purposes after careful drainage.

While these remarks upon the soil as an infectious medium
should by no means be disregarded, still there are numerous obser-
vations and experiences on the part of unquestionably competent
men which seem to stand in open contradiction to the theory of the
infection of the earth by means of the cadavers of anthrax-diseased
animals.

INFECTION. 117

"Wliile so high an authority as Pasteur asserts that the soil takes
up the bacteria and preserves them, and acts as a medium of culture
for them — also claiming to have found the common earthworm im-
pregnated with them, and looking upon the latter as a vehicle aid-
ing in their dispersion — we know that putrefaction is opposed to
their life and proliferation. All cadavers have to undergo the pro-
cesses of putrefaction and chemical decomposition.

Collin buried anthrax victims within a limited district, and used
every means kno^vn to be favorable to the life of the bacteria, yet
be fed thirty-five animals with plants in every condition grown
upon such soil without producing any evil effects.

Professor Feser buried a very large number of animals which
had perished from inoculated anthrax, and from which repeated
successful intra-vital and j^ost-morteni experiments were made, in
the grounds around the government experiment station at Leng-
gries, in Upper Bavaria, yet during the ensuing summer, when I
was assistant with him, we were unable to produce a single success-
ful inoculation, not only from the soil, but from the remnants of
the cadavei*s. The same results followed like experiments made
with material taken from a very large number of places where an-
thrax-diseased animals had been buried in the mountains.

Roloff, the present director of the Berlin school, is, however, a
strong partisan for the infectiousness of such places.

Therapeutics.

The administration of the antiseptics has been extensively tried,
and, in general, found unavailable in the treatment of this disease ;
although large doses, as large as safe, of carbolic acid, are said to
give favorable results to^some practitioners.

Immunity.

The question of the immunity to infection on the part of indi-
viduals of the same species of animal life, as well as the immunity
against certain diseases of other species which exist all through the
animal kingdom, is one of the most hidden subjects in connection
with the study of disease.

The consideration of this subject belongs, rightly, in our general
remarks upon bacteria ; but for special reasons we have placed it
here.

"W"e know that one condition to infection is expressed by the
practical tliough scientifically blind remark, want of susceptibility.
In what this consists we know not. Not every person exposed to

118 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

variola acquires the disease ; the same is true even of syphilis,
gonorrhoea, diphtheria, and all the contagious diseases of man. It
is equally true with regard to pleuro-pneumonia, anthrax, rinderpest,
etc., of our animals, though the individual immunity to infection is
far less in some diseases than others.

Again, syphilis can not be transmitted to our domestic animals ;
the glanders to the bovine family ; pleuro-pneumonia to man, or
most other animals, and so on of numerous other diseases ; while
rabies is the most generally infectious of all contagious diseases,
passing to nearly all warm-blooded animals. Foot-and-mouth disease
is, again, very general in its ability to infect the various species.
Man has a far greater receptivity to the contagious diseases of ani-
mals than they have to those of man.

The carnivora possess a very slight degree of receptivity to an-
thrax, while birds and fowls are said not to possess any in a natu-
ral condition. Pasteur has endeavored to show, and has, in fact, ap-
parently experimentally proved, that it is the high temperature of
fowls, 42° C, which is the cause of this immunity to anthrax infec-
tion, formally the bacteria do not develop in their organisms, but,
when he cooled their bodies off artificially, they did develoj), and the
fowls died.

I can not accept these conclusions, and think the immunity of
fowls must rest upon something else than their high temperatures,
for we know that a temperature of 42° C. is not at enmity with the
life of bacteria.

At the time that the above-mentioned experiments of Pasteur
came out, I was myself busy in the experimental study of bacteria,
particularly bacillus anthrax. In the disease itself in cattle, sheep,
horses, and rabbits, the temperature frequently rises above 42° C. ;
then why do not the bacteria cease to develop, and the animals re-
cover ?

I have frequently inoculated sheep that had a normal temperature
of 42° C, yet the bacteria developed and the animals died. Success-
ful reinoculations were also made from them. I have inoculated
horses suffering from influenza and pneumonia that would surely
have ultimately recovered, with a temperature of 42° C. or more,
yet the animals died from anthrax, and a plentiful development of
bacteria took place.

The above condition is what is called "natural immunity."

We have also what is known as " acquired immunity."

A person who has once had the measles, whooping-cough, scar-
latina, variola, etc., seldom has the disease a second time. Excep-

INFECTION. 119

tions do not contradict the validity of a rule, though they would a
law of nature. The same is true of pleuro-pneumonia.

Another form of acquired immunity is that produced by inocula-
tion, as in variola, pleuro-2)neuin()nia, and, according to Pasteur, in
chicken-cholera and anthrax. By this procedure the artificial pro-
duction of a mild form of the disease is able to prevent natural
infection. According to Pasteur, we have a still mure striking
phenomenon in anthrax.

His experiments led him to affirm that the inoculation of ani-
mals with a virus which has been attended by a certain series of arti-
ficial cultivation, made in a peculiar manner, was capable of prevent-
ing the eniption of the diseases when inoculated with blood of a
most virulent character.

He says : " Fifty sheep were placed at my disposition for inocu-
lation. Twenty-five of them were inoculated with a known virulent
nuiterial, and twenty-five were vaccinated with a prepared attenuated
virus. The first twenty-five all died. Two weeks subsequent to
the vaccination the other twenty-five were reinoculated witli a vims
of known malignancy : they all resisted infection. (This subject is
of the greatest importance, but governmental support is necessary
before we can thus advance the science of preventive medicine in
this country.)

Again, there is a species of acquired immunity of another kind.
It is known that syphilis is slowly becoming less virulent among the
people of the civilized world. AVe are less open to infection, and
the disease is not so malignant. People acquire a certain degree of
immunity against the poisonous action of certain drugs, by gradually
mcreasing the amount taken, as illustrated both by the sick-bed and
by acquired habits in the use of opium, arsenic, or even those luxu-
ries tobacco and alcohol.

The first cigar makes us sick, but finally we can smoke all day.
So it is with alcohol : we can gradually adapt ourselves to larger and
larger quantities.

To my mind there is but one explanation to all this, and tliat of a
very philosophical (i. e., theoretical) nature, although we have observa-
tions and experiences in the natural worhl whidi serve to confirm
our theory.

The two great forces which Darwin claims have exerted an in-
fluence upon the changes that centuries have produced in the forms
and characters of any species of animals, are —

1. The struggle for existence.

2. The gradual adaptation to natural conditions and surround-

120 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

ings, by wliicli are meant food, air, water, temperature, cli-
mate, etc.

These two influences liave tended to fasten upon a given species
certain characteristics which become transmissible or hereditary.

The struggle for existence leads to the survival of the fittest.

We have already said that in all life this struggle existed. It
exists not only between all members of the same species, inclusive
of man, but also between the cells which make up our organs. In
the battle for nourishment, only those cells which are best adapted,
from their chemical and physical characteristics, to their specific
work, survive ; the others perish. The worn-out are continually
replaced by the new. It is so in all life.

By contagious or infectious diseases we have learned, to our sat-
isfaction, that a living organism enters the animal body. Being
a li\ang organism, it must naturally seek for the necessary constit-
uents to its nourishment within the organism, or else it must die.
Where it does not find it, it causes no infection ; with its inability
to procure it, the disease caused by it must cease.

We have learned that the life of the foreign organism is depend-
ent on most of the elements of nourishment upon which the life of
the animal organism, as a whole, or its individual parts, the cells,
depends. The red blood-cells euter into a struggle for existence
with the bacteria for that life-gas, oxygen ; the various other cells
of the body for the different chemical constituents necessary to their
life, the sum total of which constitutes the life of the infected or-
ganism.

In this struggle, one or the other must win. If the cells are the
stronger, the bacteria perish, and the animal or individual infected
lives. If the bacteria are stronger ; if, added to their parasitic na-
ture, they also produce chemical stuffs at enmity with autositic life,
they are in a measure supported by an ally in their stiniggle with
the cells of the body, and the autosite dies.

But, with reference to the immunity acquired, we have but one
reasonable explanation, which is that, in some unknown way, the
cells are enabled to withstand the influences of their parasitic ene-
mies ; they gradually acquire a nature which renders them insus-
ceptible to further attacks — i. e., they adapt themselves to the influ-
ence exerted by the above-named poisons.

Like the habitual drinker or smoker, the cells are the same as
the individual of which they are the component units : they become
accustomed to the alcoholic poison.

So it must be in those cases where immunity follows vaccination

INFECTION. 121

or inoculation. The cells become accustomed to the material in-
troduced in such small quantities, or it becomes so changed that it
is robbed of sufficient uf its deleterious characteristics, so that, ^vhile
accustoming themselves to its action, they arc still able to overcome
it in the struggle for existence.

The continual infection of the human race with syphilitic germs
for centuries has hardened the cells of the organism, so that they
can better resist their attacks on exposure to infection. In the nat-
ural world, this acquired adaptability to circumstances exerts such
an inlluence as to become strongly hereditary : may it not be so,
in a less degree, with regard to some diseases ? There seems to be
no other reasonable hypothesis by which we can explain both the
natural and acquired immunity which the animal species possess
against certain forms of infectious diseases and poisons.

Summed up : Either the cells are strong enough to win in this
struggle for life ; or, in the struggle, they become, as it were, accus-
tomed to such influences, and are no more open to the attacks of the
germs ; or they are overcome in the struggle, and the autositic or
infected organism dies.

Anthrax in M^vn.
Pustula Maligna, Carbu7icidu8 Contagiosa.

The fact that this disease is transmissible to human beings should
be known to every one. On account of the liability to infection of
those having the care of anthrax-diseased animals, it is essential that
the veterinarian, as well as the public, should have some knowledge
of its deportment in the human organism.

Until recent years the disease has been looked upon l)y most
medical writers as belonging exclusively to the surgical branch of
medicine.

That the disease occurs in human beings was known to very
early medical writers.

I^iiologj/.

The idiopathic or spontaneous eruption of the disease must be
strongly contradicted, especially as we have conclusively shown that
such is not the case among animals.

There are no sufficient proofs that show that the disease ever
occurs in man, except by direct inoculation from diseased animals,
or their products.

^ledical writings do not give any evidence that the disease ever
occurs among human beings from the mere residence in notorious
anthrax districts.

122 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

Man acquires the disease —

1. By direct inoculation. That is, persons acquire the disease
whose occupations bring them in direct relation either with anthrax-
diseased animals or their products.

The most dangerous procedures are phlebotomy, slaughtering,
and skinning diseased animals. The infection is in general external,
and we can generally find some wound or excoriation which made
the atrium to infection.

2. By the consumption of the flesh of diseased animals. Exco-
riations or wounds along the whole extent of the digestive tract
may be atria of the disease.

This form of infection is veiy rare, but a sufficient number
of well-constituted cases have been recorded, many of them termi-
nating fatally, to make the consumption of such flesh a forbidden
article of food.

3. By means of flies and insects. Cases of this kind of infection
have been far more numerous than the former.

4. Infection from man to man has been observed, but few
cases have been recorded, however.

Those parts of the body upon which infection has primarily
taken place are generally the uncovered (84 per cent, Yirchow), such
as the face, lower arm, hands and fingers, and neck ; or, in other
words, infection takes place most frequently in those parts naturally
exposed to contact with infected material.

Summed up, we may say : Anthrax occurs most frequently in
man in those places where it prevails to the greatest extent among
animals, and among those whose manner of life brings them more
or less intimately into relation with the diseased animals or their
products — such as those employed at tanneries, wool-pulling estab-
lishments, and horse-hair factories.

The susceptibility to infection is less in man than in the larger
domestic animals.

Man enjoys no immunity to secondary infection from having
once had the disease.

(This seems to stand in more or less direct contradiction to the
experimental results obtained by Pasteur and others.)

Symptoms and Course.

We will not go into detail, but shall simply consider the chief
primary symptoms, such as we should observe in a groom, or a per-
son in whom infection would be likely to take place, for the treat-
ment of the disease is such that an accomplished veterinarian might

INFECTION. 123

sometimes be the means of saving eitlier his own life or that of
others by immediate action, in cases where the dehiy in procuring
a doctor wuukl be frauglit with great danger to the infected
pei*son.

The period of incubation is seldom less than from four to seven
davs (thouirli sliorter periods have been affirmed), and never longer
than from twelve to fourteen days. The lirst indications of infec-
tion are sensations of burning and itching, similar to the sting of an
insect, upon the ]>arts where infection took place. Such places ap-
2:)car as small, reddish tlea-bite sjmts, with a blackish center. The
spot at first swells, but rapidly becomes an itching nodule, upon
the apex of which appears a reddi.sh or bluish vesicle, which soon
bursts and presents a dark-red base. The patient frequently de-
stroys these vesicles by scratching before they come to maturity.
The excoriated places become dry, brownish, or red, and scab over ;
a red or violet circle surrounds them, upon which small vesicles
soon develop. These secondary vesicles contain a yellowish, red-
dish, or blackish fluid. The circle sometimes fails, but in general
extends, becomes more and more tumefied, and the surroundings
oedematous and verj' extensive.

It is not necessary to our purpose to extend these remarks fur-
ther, but the detailed account of the symptoms of anthrax can be
studied in any good work on human medicine.

The disease generally runs its course in fatal cases in from five
to eight days.

The first phenomena of the disease after the consumption of the
flesh of diseased animals generally appear very rpiickly : in six to eight
hours. The patients complain of shivering, weakness, headache, or
general sickness. Death frequently results in two or three days.
Peculiar pustulous or carbunculous centers are frequently to be met
with in the digestive tracts ; transudations in the cavities of the
body, sero-hfemorrhagic infiltrations of the loose connective tissues,
glands, etc., in which as well as the carbuncles the characteristic
bacteria may be found, as well as in all the capillaries of the body.

Beautiful microscopic specimens showing the bacteria may be
prepared from the skin, kidneys, or other organs.

The diagnosis is comparatively ea-sy where reasons for infection
exist. The examination of the blood with the microscope should
never be neglected, particularly of blood o])t.'\ined from suspicious
wounds or i>ustules, as the bacteria remain much longer locally con-
fined than in animals.

124: THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Therapeutics.

The chief aim is prevention of infection, much of which depends
iijDon the veterinarian instructing those exposed to the danger of
infection as to the care of their persons and of animals that may-
have the disease. The danger which may arise from the bites of flies,
and the necessity of keeping cadavers covered, and of care in han-
dling them, should ever be especially emphasized.

The chief therapeutic interference consists in the thorough de-
struction of the local centers where infection has taken place with
concentrated carbolic acid, or nitric or sulphuric acid. If the car-
buncle is fully developed, it should be at once cut out and the
wound thoroughly cauterized.

In inward infection by means of the digestive tract, appropriate
doses of carbolic acid and quinine should be resorted to in unison
with iron, wine, and other tonics.

Anthkacoid Diseases.

This name has been given to a group of diseases in which the
necroscopic phenomena are more or less allied to those of anthrax.
They are unquestionably germ or infectious diseases, but differ from
anthrax in wanting the specific bacteria of that disease in their
course, and the clinical or intra-vital phenomena. These facts
should ever be borne in mind in the nomenclature or classification
of diseases.

In veterinary medicine we have never yet arrived at an indi-
vidual independence, and our pathological anatomy is far more
human than zootomic. But, what is still more absurd, clinicians,
and especially the authors of our books, both past and present, have
given names to diseases of our animals because of some fancied re-
lation in the clinical phenomena to human diseases. They have
forgotten that the caiise of a disease should ever have much to do
with its nomenclature or classification.

What real relation have the diseases called measles or scarlatina
of our animals to the diseases of that name in man ? Not only are
they pathologically different, but their cause is different.

The measles of the hog is the cystic form of an animal parasite.
It is an invasive not an infectious disease.

To speak of scarlatina, or typhus, of the horse or any animal is
equally absurd. There are peculiar infectious diseases of man due
to specific causes which have never yet been known to exert any in-
fluence on animals. You might fill a stable with horses and with

INFECTION. 125

cliildren having scarlet fever, but no infection would take place ; or
strew its floor with the alvine dejections of typhus patients, with-
out causing infection of the horses.

Who ever saw the characteristic lesions of the Fever's patches of
human abdominal typhus in the horse or any animal i

The diseases which we will consider imder the head of anthra-
coid are the so-called emphysema infectiosum (black quarter) of cat-
tle, splenic or Texas fever, and the hog-cholera.

The disease which Eoell calls typhus equina (purpura of Will-
iams), and which he looks upon as anthrax or nearly akin to it,
bears far more relation in its clinical phenomena to anthrax in man
than to genuine anthrax in the horse, though it is uncjucstionably
an infectious disease and not a consequential complication of the
infectious pneumo-enteritis — influenza — of the horse, or strangles,
as some veterinarians claim. It occurs as frequently idiopathically
as it follows either of these diseases. In such cases they simply
act as a purveyor or preparer of the equine organism to the action
of a new inficieus.

EMPnYSEMA Infectiosum.

This disease, which is known to lis as black quarter, from the
peculiar color of sections of the muscles, or as Rauschbrand to the
Germans, from the peculiar rustling which follows stroking the skin
or cutting through the flesh of such animals, has quite a number of
pathological phenomena in common with anthrax, and frequently
occurs in the same localities. In its clinical appearances it is very
diflerent.

It is peculiarly a bovine disease ; but I have had a case in a
horse in Boston during the past year. I saw numerous cases of the
disease among cattle during my studies of anthrax in the Bavarian
mountains in 1878.

In the following remarks I shall mainly follow the description
of the disease as given by Professor Feser, who with Bollinger has
been the only one that has given any special study to it.

This disease of cattle has undoubtedly been known for a long
time, but has always been looked upon as an abortive form or pecul-
iar symptom of anthrax, no independent study of it having ever taken
place until the two observers named paid especial attention to it.
It occurs everywhere, but the Bavarian Alps are especially visited
by it. It is not so much found in the hot months as anthrax, but
in general occurs at about the same period. It is neither anthrax
nor any form of anthrax.

126 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Etiology.

Like anthrax, it is also due to specific infectious elements belong-
ing to the same class of bacteria — the fission fungi. The bacteria
of this disease are shorter and finer than those of anthrax, and do
not end with the abruptness which is the characteristic of bacillus
anthracis. They are also movable bacteria, while those of anthrax
do not in general betray any motion. They multiply by spores.

Feser gives the following necroscopical description : " Distinct
rigor mortis of the well-fattened cadaver. Visible mucosee dark
red. The left over-arm, the left shoulder and a j^art of the right,
and the middle portion of both posterior limbs were much tumefied,
and a distinct crepitation — rastling — was both to be felt and heard
on passing the hand heavily over these parts. The axillary and
inguinal lymph-glands were to be distinctly felt as hard nodes un-
der the skin. The subcutis and tendinous aponeuroses were filled
with a yellow, gelatinous infiltration in those places which were
tumefied. The connective tissue in the vicinity of the large vessels
was much thickened and infiltrated with a mass similar in appearance
to the above. The muscles appeared in many places of a dark-red
color — red infiltration — rich in blood, softened, emphysematous,
crepitating, and of a peculiar sweetish, sickly odor. (This odor of
the flesh in this disease is very striking, but can not be well de-
scribed.) The blood which oozed out of the vessels was black,
viscid, and tar-like.

"The above-mentioned lymph-glands were swollen, soft, and
full of blood.

" The abdominal cavity contained a reddish-black, peculiar-smell-
ing exudation. Peritoneum clean, lustrous, and smooth. In the vi-
cinity of the kidneys was a tumefaction filled with a yellow, gelatino-
haemorrhagic infiltration. Omentum infiltrated here and there as
above. The contents of the rumen soft, the epithelium, or rather
the mucous membrane, frequently peeling off and attached to the
ingesta. Reticulum filled with soft ingesta ; epithelium intact,
without injection of the vessels. Contents of the omasum firm.
Abomasum filled with a reddish-brown fluid, the contents having a
fetid odor ; epithelium adherent ; mucosa swollen, dotted with
ecchymoses and hsemorrhagic infiltrations, or rather diffuse ligemor-
rhagic centers. At the beginning of the ileum was to be seen a
very much contracted portion one decimetre long, of a diffuse dark-
red color ; the walls were thickened ; the epithelium desquamated,
and the underlying sinuses exposed. This portion of the intestine

INFECTION. 127

was filled with a blackish couguluia. Many other portions of the
intestine were the seat of diffuse red intiltration and eechynioses.
The epithelium was loose and easily detached ; the contents of the
intestines in tjjeneral of a yellowish-red colur, creamy, and full of ^a&-
globules. ^«othing particular to be remarked in the large intestines.
Kectum stained dark red in luuny places ; fieccs wateiy and green
in color.

"The spleen was enlarged from two to two and a half times its
normal size ; of a dark-brown color outwardly ; inwardly almost
black, soft, and disorganized. Liver dark red in color, swollen, and
full of blood. The blood was coagulated in the large hepatic ves-
sels ; kidneys, bladder, and testicles offered nothing very abnormal.

"The thoracic cavity contained a small amount of a sero-ha*mor-
rhagic exudation. The left costal pleura presented ingested vessels,
circumscribed red infiltrations and ecchymoses. Both lungs filled
with blood, but contained air in all parts ; here and there dark-red
spots. The pericardial sac contained a small amount of clear serum
(the normal quantity is somewhat less than a tablespoonful, about
ten grammes); the muscles of the heart of a dark-red color, with
here and there dark striations. The ventricles contained a con-
siderable quantity of a dark, black-red fluid and some coagulum ;
yellow sero-h{emorrhagic infiltrations into retro-pharyngeal and laryn-
geal spaces.

" Microscopic examination :

" a. The blood from the heart contained, aside from the blood-
cells, numerous micrococci and long, straight, and delicate movable
bacteria, from 0*005 to O'Ol millimetre in length.

"J. The spleen contained the same parasitic objects in addition
to its usual elements ; also the ingesta.

"r. These bacteria were also numerously represented in the
eero-hajmorrhagic infiltrations and the dark stained j)arts of the
muscles."'

Feser gives the following resume with reference to his observa-
tions and experiments :

The disease known as llauschbrand presents similar phenomena
wherever it appears. The animals look as if the cutis had been
blown up, and crepitation may be heard and felt on parsing the
hand over any such parts. The gas from these emphysematous
tumefactions burns with a pale-greenish color.

The disease is confined to localities, and appears with varying
constancy each year, causing with anthi-ax the chief losses of herds-
men. The disease appears especially in the summer and fall months.

128 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

Young animals are far more susceptible to it than old ones. In
the latter it is a very rare occurrence.

The microscopic examination of the blood, iiesh, etc., of the dis-
eased animals allows us a Yiew of the nature of the disease, for
everywhere we find the same characteristic — movable, delicate bacilli
and micrococci.

The disease, in all probability, must be looked uj^on as an acute
putrid infection. Numerous facts seem to strengthen this view.
Aside from the resemblance of the bacteria to those frequently
found in putrid masses, we have the acute course, the complication
of the lymph-glands and spleen, the textural decomposition, the de-
velopment of gases, and its transmission to other animals by injec-
tion of its fluids into their organisms.

The necroscopical results following experiments with purely
septic fluids are the same in general as those obtained in this dis-
ease.

The fact that similar bacteria are to be found in the surround-
ings of the animals — swamps, stable-fluids — makes it almost sure
that this is due to infection from outward and the multiplication of
the germs in the infected organism.

The disease is neither contagious nor is it of a transportable
nature, and thus is strongly distinguished from true animal pests.
Infection from animal to animal, or by means of vehicles, has never
been proved. The diseased animals come as isolated cases in the
midst of numerous others, both in the fields and stables. Some-
times several cases may occur among a herd ; but then they have
been exposed to the same external causes, and of the herd are those
in which the inner condition renders them susceptible to infection.

This predisposition to the disease must be especially emphasized,
otherwise we are utterly unable to explain why it should only oc-
cur in young animals, and of these the best developed and con-
ditioned are in general the ones to become affected, while the re-
mainder of the herd are subjected to the same feed, and exposed to
like external conditions. The flesh from such animals has and re-
tains an alkaline reaction, while normal flesh soon acquires an acid
reaction.

The therapeutic treatment of animals ha^nng this disease has
so far been entirely useless. Carbolic acid, and external cleansing
and disinfection of the animals, should be tried, however.

Experience has proved that the meat from such animals ca7i
be eaten, if well cooked, with but little danger to the consumer ;
whether it is justifiable or not, is another question. If it is to be so

INFECTION. 129

used, the animals should be killed when first attacked, and the flesh
cooked and eaten as soon as possible, as the meat soon suffers putre-
faction.

Bollinger gives the following conclusions with reference to his
study of the disease :

1. The disease is neither a form of anthrax nor of septic or pu-
trid infectitin, but —

2. It may be considered as a mycosis of a most dangerous kind,
which invariably terminates fatally.

3. The infectious elements may be either endogenous or ectoge-
nous.

4. The disease, like anthrax, belongs to those forms which may
be transmitted by the soil. It is not contagious.

5. The infectious elements are active when introduced into the
subcutaneous tissues, but also when introduced into the digestive
tract.

6. The disease can be experimentally transmitted to cattle, sheep,
goats, rats, and mice, though cattle become only infected in a natu-
ural way upon enzootic outbreaks.

7. Bollinger gave it the name of " emphysema infectiosum."
^Ve have now come to the consideration of a disease of the bo-
vine family which seems to be essentially American in its nation-
ality, the —

Texas, Spanish, or Splenic Fever.

I wish it were possible for me to refer to a really reliable report
or description of this disease. My own studies have been made
upon the report of John Gamgee to the Commissioner of Agricult-
ure of the United States, on animal diseases, and published in
1871.

I wish it were possible for me to say one single word in favor of
this report. It is a disgrace to the veterinary profession, to the man
who wrote it, and to the Government which published it. It is a
miserably arranged, illogical, and erroneous production. Symptoms,
definition, and periods, are mixed up, and there is no connection
between the parts. The pathological anatomy is simply abomina-
ble, and one which I should be ashamed to have a student produce.

* Ilistonj.

An attempt at the histr^ry of the disease is made by another
than Gamgee, but is of such a quality that we do not need to refer
to it.

130 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Definition or Nature of the Disease.

Gamgee says, " It is a disease peculiar to the bovine species,
•which has never been described as attacking Southern cattle, and
which occurs in a more or less latent form among them."

I admit my inability to comprehend the above language. Even
though a disease appears among a certain species of animals in a
" latent " form, it still attacks them, and we know that it does attack
the cattle of Texas, or it would not have received its name of Texas
fever.

Texas fever should be described as a peculiar infectious disease
of cattle, due to some unknown inficieus, undoubtedly of a bacterial
nature, which for its primary generation is dependent upon special
localities, climatic and telluric conditions.

With reference to its " latent " or mild character among the
cattle native to the localities where it originates, it exactly cor-
responds to the rinderpest of Europe, which appears in just such
a form among the cattle which graze upon the places where it is
said to originate, viz., the vast steppes of Kussia. It also bears
some resemblance to this disease in its clinical phenomena, as well
as pathological, but differs from it in not being strictly contagious,
that is, passing from animal to animal.

I have been unable to find anything in this report regarding the
influence of the infected localities upon new stock imported from
other places to them.

It is like anthrax or black-quarter in that it is confined to locality,
and some pathological phenomena, viz., the enlarged spleen.

Gamgee says further : " It is, so far as we have ascertained, in-
capable of communication by simple contact of sick with healthy
animals ; and, in the strictest sense of the terms, is neither contagious
nor infectious P

That it is not contagious, there seems to be unquestionable evi-
dence, for we read that when Texan cattle are put in a pasture, and
merely separated by a fence from other cattle native to these places,
that the latter do not acquire the disease. But that it is not an in-
fectious disease is quite another question.

That it is not an infectious disease as a contagious disease is, we
freely admit ; but that it is an infectious disease of a very malig-
nant type we positively assert.

In this regard it is very interesting to note that it exactly cor-
responds with an infectious disease of man, which is bound on
nearly the same localities — viz., yellow fever.

INFECTION. 131

While the nature of this disease is still a matter of grave discus-
sion, all authors unite in looking upon it as malignantly infectious,
still the greater majority deny that it is also a contagious disease.

Like Texas fever, the yellow fever is confined to localities, upon
moist regions, and a hot climate for its generation. By south and
west winds its ravages extend, while the cooler winds of the north
and east seem to check them ; and in a northern climate it does
not prevail, or dies out of itself. The same is the case with regard
to Texas fever : the famous " northers" of the Texas plains having
the influence of checking or putting an end to its ravages, and it
dies a natural death in a northern climate.

The yellow fever, again, takes a milder or latent form among
people indigenous, acclimatized to the climate and telluric influence,
as does Texas fever among cattle ; some races, as the negro, are said
to be almost exempt from its ravages.

Is^aturalized persons, once having had the yellow fever, acquire a
certain degree of immunity from a second attack, which they lose,
however, if they leave such regions for a time and then return to
them.

Our ''report" does not tell us Avhether Texan or naturalized
cattle acquire such an immunity from second attacks of the Texas
pest. Provided susceptibility to infection exists, the inficieus of
yellow fever enters the human organism and causes the disease.
They are said not to reproduce themselves (?) in the infected organ-
ism, but to act directly ; they do not pass from one organism to
another — contagion.

They retain, however, their infecting power a long time, when
once infesting a vehicle, and are highly transportable, either by
means of the sick, or ships, etc.

Our National Board of Health has given a great deal of attention
to this disease, and reports that it is a locally-generated infection,
and looks upon the inficieus as some at present unknown form of
bacterial life, which it hopes yet to discover, and then to be able to
prevent its action.

Tiiis Texas fever exactly corresponds to the above, and it is no
less the duty of our Government to spend time and money in search-
ing for its cause, than it is to study the same with regard to yellow
fever.

Gamgee says the disease " is not infectious^ in the strictest sense
of the term.'''' We assert the contrary, and will quote his own testi-
mony in proof of our assertion, and to show the utter fallacy of his
words, which will sufficiently indicate the weakness of his report. On

132 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

page 87 lie says : " Nevertheless, there are important data which in-
dicate that, from the period of arrival of a Texan herd on any distant
or any defined pasture, jive to six weeks elapse 'before the disease ajp-
jpears in the indigenous stock, grazing icith or after Southern cattle.
It is proved that animals may simply pass leisurely over a road or
prairie, feeding as they move along, and, without remaining for any
length of time on any portion of the ground they traverse, leave he-
}iind them a poison suffi^cient to destroy all, or nearly all, the cattle
which continue to feed ujpon itP

He then goes on to give cases illustrating this statement.

On page 88, he says : " At Tolono the largest body of Texan
cattle arrived toward the end of May, and the disease broke out (in
the native stock) on the 27th of July. One gentleman of Tolono
gave accommodations one night to three hundred Texan steers, on
the 25th of June, and the disease appeared among his own stock on
the 28th of July. In Champaign County, Texan cattle were placed
on the prairie on the 15th of June, and the indigenous stock hegan
to die on the 3d of August, twenty out of thirty-eight head dying
in four days."

" Thus we see that thirty to forty days elapse between the plac-
ing of Texan stock on a pasture, and the manifestation of the dis-
ease to the stock-owners of the neighborhood ^

If this is not being " infectious " in the extremest sense of the
term, and to the full letter of the law, then I admit my utter igno-
rance of the philosophical -use of language, and logical connection
between cause and effect.

Still further, page 109, Gamgee says : " Near Homer, where
there were 4,527 Texan steers, which had been driven to Broad-
lands, and had communicated disease not only to cattle feeding on
their trail, but also to a herd of Illinois cattle with which they
mixed in reaching their destination.''''

Page 110 : " That they " (the Texan cattle) " communicated the
disease to a very serious extent is beyond all doubt. ... At the
time of my visit the mortality (among native cattle infected by
Texans) was raging at its highest point, and men were busy from
sunrise to sunset, skinning, digging graves, and burying."

The whole report is replete with such testimony. Further com-
ment on our part is unnecessary.

If Professor John Gamgee does not consider the disease infec-
tious, the people of many of our "Western States seem to have come
to quite the contrary opinion, for, in the renowned Scotchman's own
words, page 121, " stringent laws have failed to avert the most dis-

IXFECTIOX. 133

astroiis and wide-spread losses, and while, on tlie one hand, persons
interested in the Texan trade have justitied their inattention to legal
restrictions by declaring them one and all unconstitutional, instances
have not been wanting of mob-law adoj^ting its own expedients.
Dealers and farniei's who owned Southern (Texan) cattle have been
threatened ; they have been pounced on in the dead of night, that
they might surely be found in their homes, and there and then
they have been requested to attend meetings of indignant and im-
poverished neighbors."

What more can I say ? Surely mankind never makes restrictive
laws, especially in this country, to prevent tratiic in a harmless dis-
ease, nor do men go about tearing people from their beds on account
of a " strictly non-infectious disease."

Etiology.

The cause of Texas fever has yet to be discovered. Gamgee
says, " It is an enzootic disorder '' (another contradiction, for enzootic
itself implies some general cause, of an infectious or invasive na-
ture), " due to the food upon which Southern cattle subsist, whereby
their systems become charged with deleterious principles, that are
afterward dispereed by the excreta of apparently healthy as well as
obviously sick animals."

This is a very nice way of using many words to say nothing.
Modern infection knows nothing of any such "deleterious princi-
ples" which work in this way. "Deleterious principles" means
nothing. They might be chemical in their nature, which would be
utterly incompatible with all our present ideas of infection. They
might be gases, although modern observer do not accept gases as
infecting material ; gases they should be, to conform with the gassy
nature of the report.

Stages of the Disease.

Gamgee speaks of four stjiges or periods of the disease, and yet
he says it is not an infectious disease.

Pathology teaches that only infectious or contagious diseases
deport themselves in this manner.

lie speaks of —

1. The incubative stage.

2. The invasive stage (an infectious is not an invasive disease,
this term being used with reference to the action of animal parasites ;
hence we should say the period of active infection).

3. The congestive or bleeding stage.

4. Termination.

134 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

I would classify the disease as follows :

1. Stadium ineubationis.

2. Stadium accrementi.

3. Stadium decrementi.

4. Stadium lethalis ; although I do not see the necessity of a
f oui-th stage, as it is always but the final determination of the disease.

1. Stadium incubationis. The period of exact latency or incuba-
tion has not been accurately determined ; it is not so well marked
as in many other infectious diseases, but may be said to be from
thirty to forty days.

2. Stadium accrementi. The period of active infection — i.e., the
progressive stage of the disease — is first indicated by a rise in tem-
perature. The temperature varies from 102° to 107"8° Fahr. This
period extends to from four to seven days, and should also include
the haemorrhagic stage of Gamgee, which, according to him, lasts
from two to six days longer.

3. The stadium decrementi is of indefinite length, but begins
with the cessation of the progressive or active symptoms.

Intravital Phenomena.

The ears of the animal droop, its movements become sluggish,
and the secretions retarded, especially in milch-cows. The appetite
at first continues as well as rumination ; a disposition to lie down
soon makes itself apparent, and, wherever pools exist, the sick ani-
mals apparently seek them out to lie in.

Some observers assert that a cough appears early in the disease,
but this does not accord with Mr. Gamgee's experience. Depression
of the head, drooping ears, arched back, hollow flanks, with a tend-
ency to draw the hind-legs under the body, and knuckling over
in the hind fetlocks, are early and very marked phenomena. The
skin appears dry and attached ; the faeces are not materially affected,
but in some cases clots of blood are attached to them. The urine is
at first clear. Many cases do not attract notice until the animals are
sufifering from hiematuria, but the urine retains its natural color in
some ten to fifteen per cent of the cases.

The visible mucosae are somewhat anaemic, but a hyperaemic
condition may sometimes be observed, accompanied with a viscid
discharge ; the mucosa of the rectum is frequently congested.

The pulse is frequent ; in the early stages hard and thin ; it
gradually becomes more feeble, and in the later stages, as death ap-
proaches, it is impossible to feel it. It varies from sixty to one hun-
dred and twenty beats in frequency.

INFECTION. 135

The therinoineter is an invaluable aid in the diagnosis of this
disease. The temperature is high at the comniencetnent, but be-
comes reduced with the approach of death and hivmaturia. The
temperature of the external parts of the body varies. Fre(piently
the poll, ears, and extremities are very hot in the active stage of the
disease. At other times they are cold, particularly the posterior ex-
tremities.

The respirations frequently rise as high as one hundred per min-
ute ; but in the comatose condition they are slow, deep, and
labored.

The nervous phenomena are very marked. Trembling of the
muscles of the posterior parts is very frequent, as well as of the
neck. "Weakness of the limbs, particularly the posterior, is very
common, so that many animals are unable to rise, or, if they get up,
walk with a feeble and tottering gait.

Listlessness and stupor indicate the approach of the end.

The state of the secretions is usually indicatory of the course of
the disease. Pei-spiration is much restricted; oedema of the cutis
is quite frequently met with.

The urine naturally contains albumen in large quantities when
haematuria is present. The milk secretion is almost if not entirely
suspended.

Termination. — In most cases the depression increases; the pulse
becomes more feeble and accelerated, the respiration labored, and
the temperature falls to 100° or 98° Fahr., and the patient becomes
outstretched upon the ground and dies without a struggle.

In rare cases the febrile symptoms subside, the secretions again
become active, the urine clearer, and the patient recovers in a few
weeks.

Gamgee has seen animals apparently recovering, and again the
febrile symptoms with diarrluea have appeared, and they have died
within thirty-six to forty-eight hours.

Po8t-Mortcd Phenomena.

" That form of splenic fever wliich is most latent and seen among
Southern cattle is not recognizable after death l)y tlie condition of
the skin, muscles, or in many cases even by the nmcosn?, with the
exception of that of the stomach."

The spleens and livers are enlarged to a more or less degree.

On removal of the skin, hncmorrhagcs and serous infiltrations
are sometimes found beneath the lower jaw and neck.

The muscular system is normal (?).

136 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The organs of respiration are in many cases healthy.

The mouth, pharynx, and oesophagus are always healthy. The
rumen is generally found full of food and its coats healthy.

The reticulum has often been found the seat of red imbibi-
tions.

The omasum is almost invariably in a healthy condition.

The abomasum, on the contrary, is almost always the seat of dis-
tinct and pathognomonic changes. It is often found of a pink or
dark-red color. The pyloric end is more commonly of a natural
color. Minute ecchymoses are frequently to be seen studding its
surface. Erosions of the epithelium are common. The duodenum
is often of a deep-red color ; sometimes its mucosa is deeply tinged
with bile ; ecchymoses are frequently met with.

The jejunum is frequently reddened, and circumscribed haemor-
rhagic centres are often to be seen. The caecum is often the seat of
extensive ecchymoses ; in the colon the same. The rectum is often
the seat of extensive hcemorrhages ; the liver of fatty degeneration,
congested, and heavy.

(I will here state the gall-ducts are filled with gall, and that the
microscopic examination of the liver often reveals a most beautiful
condition of natural injection of the gall-capillaries, though no micro-
scopical examination of tissues or organs seems to have been made
in this report.)

Tlie gall-bladder is usually found distended and filled with a
viscid fluid.

The spleen is uniformly enlarged, and weighs from two to ten
pounds. Its pulp is soft and degenerated, and oozes over the cut
sm'face. The kidneys are perfectly healthy (?), but are most com-
monly of a dark brown-red color from intense congestion.

In the majority of cases the bladder is found filled with bloody
urine.

'No marked changes are found in the nervous system, except in
those cases where paresis exists, when haemorrhages may be seen
in the cord of the lumbar region of varying extent. The dura and
pia are sometimes the seat of ecchymoses of variable extent.

Microscopic lamination.

As we have said, no microscopical examination of the tissues or
organs appears to have been made. Neither germs nor anything
abnormal seems to have been found in the blood ; but I am entirely
dissatisfied with this part of the report.

Treatment appears to be useless, yet quinine in large doses and

THE DOG. 137

carbolic acid in appropriate doses should be tried in case of valuable
cattle, and purgatives are certainly indicated in certain conditions

of the disease.

Pro2)hijlaxis.

In reference to Texas, or wherever this disease originally ap-
peared, we are as yet in such ignorance of its true cause that we can
not well speak of successful means of prevention.

It wouM seem that the same rules which are applicable to an-
thrax and kinilred diseases — as to draining the land, etc. — should be
of value here.

The trade in Texas cattle should be regulated by national laws,
so that no contact between thcni and natives could possibly take
place.

The disinfection of rail-cai's, stock-yards, the proper isolation of
pastures on which such cattle had been grazed or unloaded for a
period of at least two months from the time the last Te.xans were
upon them — all these measures are indicated by the report which
we have just considered ; and, lastly, our present knowledge is as
yet so imperfect with regard to this disease, and the losses the coun-
try yearly incurs from it so extensive, it is surely indicated that our
Government should institute further researches in rejrard to it.

THE DOG.

"We have previously considered some of the most direful influ-
ences exerted by certain diseases of swine and cattle, or their prod-
ucts, upon the human race, and have now to consider some of the
dangers to which we are subjected by that faithful companion of
man, not to be less highly prized but more carefully watched — the
(log. It is very doubtful if mankind truly appreciate these dangers,
threatening not only their health but their lives in too many in-
stances ; and especially is this true of the dog. One of the most
disturbing forms of parasitic invasion is derived in some unknown
wav from the dojj.

I'cBuia echinococcus is the name which has been given to the
smallest tape-worm yet found infesting animal life, being about four
millimetres long, and consisting of but three sections or proglottids.
The scolex, or head, is marked by a prominent rostellum, or crown,
and anned with from thirty to fifty liooks, placed in two rows around

138 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

the base of the rostellum. This parasite, in its mature form, makes
its home in the superior (anterior) part of the intestinal canal of the
dog, where it is sometimes met with in such numbers that one
could hardly believe the mass before him was made up of countless
examples of this toenia. They frequently give rise to most severe
disturbance to the canine organism, the animal demonstrating such
furious phenomena that they have been mistaken for those of rabies.
This taenia, or rather its cysticerc (embryo) form, gains access to
the human organism, as well as that of many animals, as the horse,
cattle, sheep, and swine, and gives rise to the development of enor-
mous cysts or sacs, sometimes multilocular or compound, seriously
disturbing the invaded organ.

Examples of invasion among human beings have been met with
among the inhabitants of nearly all countries, but most notably
among those of Iceland, where, according to Thorstensen, every
seventh inhabitant serves as an autosite (host) for these pests.

These cysts have been found in nearly all organs. Bollinger
gives the following percentage of invasions among the different or-
gans of the human body, taken from 252 cases :

In the liver 176 times.

" " kidneys 3 "

" " spleen 2 "

" " abdominal cavity 54 "

" " lungs 7 "

" " head 4 "

" " mammae (breasts) 1 "

" other places 8 "

Of 9,703 autopsies, made at different pathological institutes,
echinococcus cysts were found as follows : *

Berlin from 4,770 autopsies, 33 cases.

Dresden " 1,939 " 7 "

Gottingen " 639 » 2 "

Erlangen " 1,755 " 2 "

Zurich " 400 " 0 "

Rouen " 200 » 6 "

Total 9,703 " 51 "

^Naturally, the great aim with reference to this parasite, as of all
others, is preveyition. This consists entirely in keeping dogs in their
proper places — in absolutely disdaining all those disgusting famil-
iarities which are only too frequently indulged in by lovers of ca-
* Bollinger, " Zeitschrif t f iir Thiermedicin," vol. iii, p. 44.

THE DOG, 139

nine pets, such as sharing bits of cake, bread, or other articles of
food, drinking from a common glass, allowing them to lap one's
face, or those of children.

Babies of the Dog.

It would be fortunate indeed for the human race were this para-
sitic disease the only one to which they were liable from their canine
friends.

Of all the diseases, however, to which our poor humanity is lia-
ble, there is not one which so calls upon our deepest sympathies as
that derived from the bite of a rabid dog, known as lyssa, rabies,
hydrophobia. (This last name should be dropped, as it is based
upon the misleading and erroneous opinion ihat I'obid dogs are
afraid of and shun water. Numerous observations have been, how-
ever, recorded, by competent observers, of rabid dogs cj'ossing streams
of water, and attacking animals upon an ojyposite shore.)

The disease in man has been known since the early days of the
Christian era. It does not seem to have been known to Aristotle,
for he says : '' Dogs are subject to rabies ; it makes them mad ; all
animals that they bite also become mad, with the exception of
man." The validity of this last passage has been questioned. The
disease in man can be said to have been unknown, at least unde-
scribed, before Aristotle. It is doubtful if Hippocrates described it
in the dog. Up to the time of Celsus, a. d. 2^0, we still find no
description of it : it is in his writings that we iind the word " h}'-
drophobia " first appearing. The views of the writers of the third
and fourth centuries (Plutarch, Pliny, C.nelius Aurelius, and others)
were adhered to, and but little enlarged ui^on, by medical authoi*s as
late as the sixteenth century.

As nearly every one knows, and as every one should know, rabies
of man is a disease which oices its genesis solely to the bite of a rabid
animal, more especially the dog, and is a?i acute infectious disease,
having an invariably fatal termination. Tlie disease in man has
been artificially communicated to animals by inoculation, but trans-
mission from man to man has never yet unquestionably taken place.

As said, mankind in general owes its infection to being bitten
by a rabid dog : it has been statistically estimated that 90 per cent
of the cases of human rabies are due to this source, while from other
animals it has been estimated that 4 per cent have been due to bites
from rabid cats, 4 per cent from wolves, and 2 per cent from foxes.

" Of 796 human beings that died from rabies in France, "Wiir-
temberg, and Milan, 710 owed their infection to the bite of rabid

140 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

dogs, 30 to that from cats, 31 of wolves, 10 of foxes, and 1 to that
from a cow."

As regards that part of the human organism which has been most
frequently bitten, Bollinger further says that, in 495 cases, 263 =
53 per cent, were bitten upon the superior extremities, hands and
arms ; 110 = 22 per cent, upon the head and face ; and 14 = 3 per
cent, upon the lower extremities. The bites upon the face appear
to be accompanied with a greater percentage of mortality than those
of other parts of the human body. An interesting yet horrifying
example of the devastations and suffering which may be caused by
a single rabid dog is given by the German veterinarians Oemler and
Guenther :

" In December, 1871, the dog of a butcher showed indications
of being rabid. It was confined in a stable, where it tore in pieces
a goat and two geese, and finally freed itself by gnawing through
the stable-door. Before morning, it had bitten several dogs in the
village, and then commenced roaming over the country, passing
through villages, and in thirty hours encompassed some thirteen
German or fifty-two English miles before it was shot. On its way
it bit many living things. The people of the villages became terri-
bly frightened, from the fearful tendency to bite shown by the in-
furiated beast. Nine persons coming out of a church were sprung
upon and terribly bitten, one of them, a woman, to such a degree
as to necessitate conveying her home in a wagon. In all, fifteen
persons were bitten by this dog, mostly upon the head and face ; of
these eleven died of rabies." (Bollinger, loc. cit., p. 574.)

It is highly probable that dogs can communicate this disease in
the earliest stages of its incubation, even before any very striking
phenomena of illness may betray themselves. This seems amply
sufficient to explain those cases of rabies in man which have followed
the bites of dogs in which no suspicious phenomena had been ob-
served, and which has led to the erroneous opinion that, if a dog
afterward '^ goes mad," the person bitten by it will also " follow
suit," and which has also led to the serious mistake of the immediate
killing of the dog. In this regard I once knew of a singular case
of superstition. A coachman in one of our leading families of Bos-
ton kept quite a number of bull-terriers, and indulged in fighting
them: he was engaged one day in the so-called "training" of one
of them, when the dog accidentally bit the man's hand. Like most
of this class of persons, the man was strongly superstitious with ref-
erence to the bite from a dosr : he had heard that a sure means to
prevent himself from ever becoming mad was to cut the heart out

THE DOG. 141

of the living dog and bind it, split open, upon the bitten part. The
dog was muzzled, triced up, and the heart cut out and applied as
described. As the man had not become " mad " at last accounts, he
probably thinks that his " cure " was effectual.

A few cases have been recorded of persons becoming infected
from non-suspected but already infected dogs licking parts of their
persons which were wounded, or where veterinarians have been
made victims of their devotions to their studies, at a time when
they had abrasions upon their hands, by making autopsies of dogs
dying of rabies. About 50 per cent of the persons bitten by rabid
dogs die from this horrible disease. Of 855 cases, 399 died. If we
take, however, the bites which have resulted from suspected animals,
and add them to the above, the percentage is reduced to about 8
per cent. Of 1,3G2 bitten by rabid and suspected dogs, 105 died.

The importance of the value of cauterization of wounds caused
by the bite of a suspected or rabid dog is well shown by statistics
given by Bollinger, page 618 :

"Of 105 deaths from rabies in France between 1850-02, 111
were not cauterized at all, 45 too late, and 39 insufficiently. Of
200 human beings bitten by rabid dogs, 134 were thoi'oughly cau-
terized ; of these 92, 69 per cent, remained healthy, and 42, 31 per
cent, died from rabies. By non-cauterization of the wounds in 66
cases, the mortality was 55, 84 per cent. Consequenthj^ \chile after
cauterization of tfie icmnids made hy the Vites from rahid dogs,
scarcchj two sixths {31 per cent) of the persons litten die, hj the
neglect of this simple process five sixths {S4- per cent) have termi-
nated tcith deaths

"With relation to bites of clad or unclad parts of the body, we
find the percentage of mortality for the face and head as 90 per
cent ; for the hands, 63 per cent ; for the body, 63 per cent ; for
the lower liml)s, 28 per cent ; for the superior, 20 per cent. As to
se.v, we find 60 per cent ascribed to males, and 40 per cent to
females.

The consumption of the flesh and milk from rabid animals has
l)een found to be without harm to human beings.

The ])ercentage which the disease attains among human beings
is dependent upon its extension among animals, cs])ecially among
dogs. In Prussia, we find that the average deaths for fifteen years,
1820-'34, amounted to 71 yearly ; in Austria, for eighteen years,
1830-47, 58 ; in France, for twelve years, 1850-'62, 24-25 cases ;
in Bavaria, for five years, 1863-67, 13*8 yearly ; for the seven years
between 1868 and 1875, 18 per year ; in the district of Upper Ba-

142 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

varia, in 1875, 8 persons died of rabies. (Bollinger, loc. cit., page
600.)

" Dr. Hermann, of St. Petersburg, gives quite an interesting
paper on the ' Nature of Hydrophobia and its Treatment,' in the
' St. Petersburg medicinische Zeitschrift ' for 1875. From it we
learn that rabies is on the increase among the dogs of Pussia, and
consequently among human beings. From tables given by him it
may be observed that, in 1863, the reported cases of rabid dogs
were 8, suspected 7, while the number of people who perished from
hydrophobia was only 3. From that year up to 1874 there has been
a varying increase, until, in that year, 49 people were bitten by
rabid dogs, 12 by suspected dogs, 74 by diseased dogs, and 268 by
healthy dogs, while the number of people who died from hydro-
phobia was 8. Altogether, in twelve years, 2,724 people were re-
ported as having been bitten by dogs, of which 1,895 were healthy,
103 suspected, 198 rabid, and 528 affected with various diseases.
In St. Petersburg during that period, 25 people perished from liy-
drophobia, and 22 in the Oberhoft Hospital." *

The Pegistrar-General's report, of Great Britain, gives 74 deaths
as taking place in England in 1874 from the bites of rabid dogs.f

Hydrophobia caused the death of 47 persons in England in
1875. The "Lancet" remarks: "It is an undoubted fact that hy-
drophobia has been increasingly fatal in England in recent years.
The annual death-rate from this disease, to a million living, which,
according to the Pegistrar-General's report, did not exceed 0'3 in
the five years 1860-65, rose successively to 0*9 and 1-8 in the two
succeeding quinquennials, and further increased to 2 per million
in 1875. In London six deaths from hydrophobia were registered,
both in 1875 and 1876 ; and in the first twenty-nine weeks of 1877,
ending July 21st, nine cases had already been recorded." X

Hydrophobia in France.

" It is one of the duties of a French prefect to give information
of the particulars of every case of hydrophobia in his department ;
but, as may be supposed, these political servants very often neglect
a matter which has so little party interest. For eight years, 1869-'77,
only thirty-five out of eighty-six departments returned replies to the
official inquiries. Of these, however. Dr. Proust, in his own name,
and that of Professor Bouley, has recently issued an interesting report.
Their statements show that only one half of the persons bitten by

* " Veterinary Journal," vol. ii, p. 216. + " Veterinary Journal," vol. iv.

X Loc. cit., vol. V, p. 385.

THE DOG. 143

rabid dogs, or other animals, escape hydrophobia. The number of
deaths from this cause during a period of twenty-six years, accord-
ing to their notes, was 7-iO, or Httle less than 28 per annum. More
men than women were bitten, but sex made very little dilference in
the mortality. The liability to be bitten by young persons of from
five to fifteen years of age was found to be greater than that of
their seniors, though the fatality of the bite was not so great, not
more than one fourth, while among aged people, from sixty to
seventy, it amounted to two thirds, and above that age to three
fourths. Cliildren, therefore, seem to be less readily infected by the
poison, though their chances of meeting with the accident are greater.

"The animals reported as causing the bites during the twenty-
six years were: Dogs, TOT; wolves, 38; cats, 23; fox, 1; cow, 1;
and the disease was pretty equally distributed over all seasons. Ob-
servations on the incubation of the disease show that in a large pro-
portion of cases it declares itself within the first sixty days of the
inoculation. Thus, out of 221 attacks, 139 occurred within three
months of the bite, 54 between sixty and one hundred days, 21 be-
tween one hundred and one hundred and eighty days, and 3 at later
periods. The disease lasted from one to fifteen days, the greater
number of cases holding out about four days.

" Cauterization, either by actual burning or with butter of anti-
mony, is generally resorted to by French surgeons. This remedy
seems to have a great influence with reference to the effects of the
poison. In a given number of cases duly operated upon, the mor-
tality was only 35*7 per cent ; while, out of 117 persons left to
themselves, 90, or 82 per cent, died. Facts like these prove that the
great evil is not the number of deaths, but the terror and anxiety
caused to persons bitten by a strange dog.

" The moral is, somebody ought to be made responsible for
every dog in the country." *

It would have afforded me much pleasure to give some statis-
tics with reference to the extension of this disease among our
own people for a period of years ; but, unfortunately, we have not
yet arrived at that stage of civilization when authentic statistics arc
critically gatiiered by the various State authorities, and in many
States there arc no State boards of health. Some day (may it come
soon I) we sliall have such, and the results acfjuired by the respective
State boards will be published in a compact form by the National
Board, in unison with the deva-stations caused by contagious and
infectious animal diseases.

♦ " Vetcrioary Journal," vol. viii, p. 217.

144 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

IS'umerous cases have undoubtedly been reported in tlie various
medical journals ; but the time at m j disposal has been so limited
and interrupted by other calls upon it, that it has been impossible
for me to pass them in review.

As has been repeatedly emphasized, rabies occurs especially in
the dog, then in the wolf, cat, and fox ; also in the jackal, hy-
ena, badger, as well as in the horse, sheep, goat, swine, deer, ante-
lope, and rabbit ; but it is originally a canine disease. It is not
definitely known when man first came to a realization of this dis-
ease among animals. Aristotle, 322 b. c, makes the first undoubted
mention of the disease among dogs. Xenophon, Democritus, and
others, also mention it. Hippocrates, 460 b. c, has not left any-
thing in the writings which have come down to us to render it cer-
tain that he knew of the disease. Later authors, however — as Yir-
gil, Horace, Ovid, Plutarch — seem to have been well acquainted
with it. Celsus says : " When a wound resulting from a bite is not
at once energetically treated, then follows hydroj)hobia, a most ter-
rible evil, that permits of neither hope nor salvation for the person
bitten. We should seek to withdraw the poison by means of dry-
cupping, and, when possible, by firing, and, when that is impossible,
by corrosion and bleeding."

Galen, 131-201 a. d., describes the disease as the most fearful
known to man. As a prophylactic he mentions cutting out the
wound.

From this time on, notwithstanding much was written upon the
subject, little new was added to the knowledge of the ancient au-
thors until the latter part of the last century and the first of this.
There is still room for much work upon the subject.

This disease, like many others, seems to be wanting in character-
istic pathological phenomena, while its clinical or iutra-vital phenom-
ena are so striking that he who sees them once in well-developed
form will scarcely ever forget them.

The most important workers in this important field have been
Chabert, John Hunter, Meynell, Touatt, Hertwig, Magendie, Bruck-
miiller, Bouley, Yirchow, and many other eminent scientists.

The best work accessible to the American reader is undoubtedly
the compilation of the English veterinary author, Mr, George Flem-
ing, " Eabies and Hydrophobia," London, 1872.

Whatever may have been the historic origin of this disease, it
like many other contagious diseases does not originate spontane-
ously, but in our day owes its origin to the bite of the rabid animal,
especially the dog, and owes its extension to this means alone. It

TUE DOG. 145

deserves repeatiiiij; : rcibies does not arise »pontaneoushj^ it does not
originate from nothing.

All sorts of theories luive been adopted and found numerous de-
fenders, to sink again into oblivion. Among them may be men-
tioned the intiuences of extreme beat, extreme cold, want of water,
domestication, training, continement, too much ease and petting,
but, most ahsurd of all, and consequently held to with religious re-
spect, non-satisfaction of the sexual desires.

AVhat has not been laid to this last cause by an absurdly ignorant
and supei'stitious hunumity i

Every form of mental or nervous excitement, superabundance
of spirits, depression of spirits, poor appetite, a good appetite, too
much desire for sleep, want of sleep, good spirits, evil spirits, ill
temper, and about every ill which could be hypothetically connected
with the sexual organs, has been attributed to abuse or non-exercise
of their functions.

I by no means wish it to be understood that there is not a most
intimate connection between the sexual organs and numy nervous
centres, but I must affirm that many of the things attributed to their
influence is most absurd nonsense.

The medical profession seem not only too willing to support and
favor this unfounded superstition, which has been nourished by
man since history's beginning.

Man's selfishness has been fostered at the cost of woman's happi-
ness and health, and the medical profession has done its part to su])-
port it.

One would think the science of comparative physiology did not
exist, or that its teachings were a myth.

Blind fools seeking to lead an equally blind humanity ! " Pluck
the mote out of thine own eye before thou seekest to remove the
beam from thy brother's eye."

Some day., when what Ilaeckel calls ^^ physiogenie^''^ or wluit 1
would prefer to call funciio-getiesis, or thi genesis of the physio-
h>gical functions^ becomes a naked and cold-blooded part <f com-
parative physiology^ and is taught in our medical atid public
schools and described in our text-books, the world will learn and
know that no functions are given to contribute to mans pleasure
or selfishness ; hut thai, when pleasure is united with the exercise
of the physioh^gical functions, it is for the proper action of those
functions, and not for the sensual gratifiA:ation of a conceited nu;m-
ber of the animal creation. It may be axiomatically asserted, and
it is time that mankind should learn it, that man has no functions

10

146 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AKIMALS.

which he enjoys in common with the remainder of the animal world
for any other 2yurj)0se than they are made to fulfill in the lower
amAmals.

The doctrine, or rather the belief, in the superior position of
man has been altogether too much extended. The j^leasure united
with the enjoyment of functions is an attribute, as I have said, to
their physiologic action, and is no special gift to man.

Whoever heard of a person taking pleasure in eating with a
severe toothache or a sore-throat ?

The pleasure of taste is united to the functions of mastication,
not that man 7nay enjoy the blessings which the Lord has given
him, but that the food may remain so long in the mouth that it may
be made small, and the starch in it so much changed into dextrin
and sugar as to fit it in part for absorption by the organs for that
purpose situated deeper down.

This fact is not stated in any physiology written by man. The
chemical changes are, of course, carefully dehneated, but the " words
between the lines" seem to have entirely escaped physiologists and
medical men. "Were this not so, did mankind and the ruminants
and some other animals not take pleasure in mastication, they would
bolt their food like a dog. Some men do !

A second axiom is, that where functions do not exist, or are
rudimentary, either in individuals or species, certain anatomical,
structural differences exist in such organs which, while we may not
be able at present to demonstrate their existence, will surely not es-
cape the observation of scientists in the future.

In this regard I hold that the organs of taste are either not de-
veloped or very rudimentary in the dog, which bolts its food, the
sensation of emptiness (hunger) being uppermost.

It would be extremely interesting to ascei'tain if the organs upon
which taste depends slowly atrophy and become rudimentary in
human beings who have acquired this natural attribute of the canine
family — that is, bolting their food.

To return to our subject.

Radi and Bourgelat subjected dogs to starvation in order to see
if rabies would develop itself ; but their experiments were followed
only by negative results. Menecier received similar results from
subjecting dogs for a long-continued period to poor food and care.
Pillwax, of Yienna, observed that a larger percentage of rabid dogs
came from the homes of wealthy or well-to-do owners. As to the
influence which has been hypothetically attributed to sex, the differ-
ence falls away when we consider for a moment the great disparity

THE DOG. 14:7

which exists between the number of male and female dogs. The
same is true with reference to the sup])Osed favomhie injlnences of
cast nit ion.

Schraeder gives the proportion of 207 cases of canine rabies at
Hamburg, in the years 1852-'53, as 25G males, 10 fenuiles, and 1
castrated dog.

AVhen we take into consideration the exceedingly high stage of
development which is enjoyed by the nervous system of the canine
race, and the great want of scientific knowledge with reference to the
psychical diseases of the same, it does not appear strange that many
diseases, the true cause of which must be sought in disturbances of
nervous centres, have beeu, and still are, mistaken for rabies. Nearly
every uneducated and casual observer would be excused, considering
the want of knowledge on these points, if he mistook a series of e])i-
leptic attacks, or the phenomena caused by inflammatory processes
in the brain or its meninges (the membranes inclosing the brain),
for rabies. In the last case, the phenomena displayed would be
suthcient to warrant the educated veterinarian to isolate and secure-
ly confine a dog in which they were present, so little is our knowledge
upon this subject.

We will again repeat that rabies, like all other known contagious
diseases, never generates spontaneously, hut thpourjh infection ; that
18, the inoculation or transmission of an infectious element from a
diseased organism to a healthy one is absolutehj necessary to the pro-
duction of the disease.

All theories with regard to the influences exerted by the seasons
fall to the ground in the face of the facts collected by exact obser-
vation. Epizootics of rabies are recorded from the icy fields of
Greenland as well as from the sunburned sands and arid tracts border-
ing on the Mediterranean Sea. Scarcely a land seems exempt froui
its devastations ; but it does not appear, as yet, to have extended to
Australia, New Zealand, and some portions of Africa, Germany,
France, Holland, Northern Italy, and of late England especially.

I>ollinger gives some interesting statistics with reference to sev-
eral eruptions of canine rabies on the Continent :

'• An epizootic reigned at Hamburg, from 1S51 to 1856 ; during
this period HOO cases of ra])id dogs were reported, while for twenty-
three years previous not a single case had been reported. In Saxony,
from 1853 to 1807, 807 cases have been recorded ; an average of 100
per year. In a total of 275,000 dogs in Bavaria, for a period of five
years (1803-07), an average of 800 cases of suspected and genuine
rabies were reported. For 1873, the total number of dogs reported

148 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

in Bavaria was 292,000, and 821 cases of suspected and genuine rabies
were recorded. In Vienna, from November, 1873, to August, 1875,
332 cases of canine rabies were reported.

Wliile I have been unable to find any statistics of a similar trust-
wortlij character for our own country, it is not without interest
to know that " in 1860 we had 112,000 dogs recorded in Massachu-
setts ; and further, that for the year ending May 1, 1875, 11,489
were reported as having killed sheep vahied at $10,584.53." (Flint,
" Massachusetts Agricultural Eeport," 1878.)

l*fotwithstanding the repeated publication of the phenomenology
of canine rabies, still the subject is of such vital importance to every
dog-owner, and to every citizen as well, that the more frequently it
is repeated the better it is for the community at large.

Phenomena of Rabies Canina.

The wound occasioned by the bite of the rabid dog heals in gen-
eral very quickly, leaving little or no indications of its presence be-
hind, unless it has been quite an extensive laceration.

The smallest abrasion of the epidermis is sufficient for infection.
This fact, in unison with the rapid healing of such wounds, suffi-
ciently explains those cases which have been frequently quoted in
proof of the spontaneous generation of this disease, where rabid dogs
have died or been killed, and then been most carefully shaved, and
not the slightest indications of a wound of the cutis could be found.

The period of incubation — that is, the time which elapses between
the bite and the appearance of the first suspicious phenomena — ex-
tends, in general, to from three to five weeks ; sometimes it extends
to as many months. In the other domestic animals the period of
incubation varies from two weeks to ten or even fifteen or sixteen
months.

As should be well known to every dog-owner, rabies canina pre-
sents itself in two forms : as furious, and as still or dumb rabies. It
is not my purpose to enter into minute details with reference to this
disease, but rather to endeavor to attract attention to the most promi-
nent symptoms in which the disease manifests itself.

Writers have, however, divided the disease into three stages,
and, as laymen might suppose that by these was meant three dis-
tinctly marked intervals, we will at once say that such do not exist,
and that, while the periods may be said to mark different stages of
development in the disease, yet these stages extend one into the
other so imperceptibly that no intermissions are observable. All
this dividing the phenomena of certain diseases into periods is more

THE DOG. 140

or less a matter of artificial classification, to suit the conveniences of
the clinical teacher.

These three stages have been spoken of as —

1. The melancholic or initiatory.

2. The maniacal or irritative.

3. The paralytic or lame stage.

The first perceptible indication which is manifested by the bit-
ten or infected dog would never lead one to suppose that the most
fearful and dangerous disease known to man was in })rocess of de-
velopment in the favorite of the family.

It consids in little else than a change in the natural deportment
of the animal.

This should be emphasized — emry change in the natural deport-
ment of your dog should excite your 8Ufpicio7i, and render you
watchful and uneasy. No time should be lost, not only in confining
your dog most carefully and securely, but in seeking the advice of
the most skillful veterinary expert at your command. Among
the chief initiatory symptoms are surliness, uneasiness, depression,
moodiness, a continued desire for change of place, fii*st in one comer,
then in anotlier ; now on the sofa, then under it : if naturally
morose, the bitten dog often displays a suddenly developetl affec-
tionate disposition ; on the other hand, the generally affectionate
dog becomes morose and suspicious, snappish and irritable. The
most insignificant circumstance will set such a dog in a fit of rage.
The eyes frequently give indications of the approaching tempest,
the conjunctivae or linings of the lids being injected or reddened ;
the eye itself having a peculiar, unnatural expression, which, to
be realized, must be seen.

Even in the early part of its development an abnormal appetite
is often apparetit, and is to he lool'ed vpon as one of the mod char-
acteristic symptoms of the malady. The neat, delicate, and cher-
ished pet of the family turns away from the usual loved tidbits, to
fill its stomach with masses of filth, such as its own freces, straw,
rags, and the like.

The sexual functions are frequently abnormally irritated, which,
has probably given occasion to the absurd theory with reference to
the genesis of the disease previously considered.

Such animals are more or less resistant to attempts at control,
and the once true and trustworthy house-dog, or the inseparable
lady's companion, suddenly develops a most marked desire to get
away from the favorite door-step, or the handsome rug, and to run
off over the country.

150 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

Tlie muscular movements soon begin to demonstrate a certain
want of concord ; tliey become uncertain, wavering, or weaker than
usual.

Such dogs frequently lick the place where the wound causing
infection has been, even gnawing it, as if it itched ; but a far worse
enemy than fleas is at the bottom of this trouble, and a more ener-
getic remedy than " Persian Insect Powder," or great " Doctor Go-
it-cure-all's Magnetic Enemy to Worms and Insects," is needed to
rid the poor beast of its troubles.

Without any signs of intermission, but rather with a gradual
increase of these phenomena, is ushered in the so-called maniacal
or " mad " period of the disease, Is^early all the previously consid-
ered j)henomena are presented to us with a tenfold intensity. The
whole external appearance of the animal becomes changed. The
appetite is wanting ; the once docile and affectionate dog is now a
fiend incarnate, seeking to bite and tear all within its reach ; the
cheery bark of welcome, which once greeted the approaching master
or mistress, is changed into an indescribable Jioiol. The tendency to
wander from home, or break away from its fastenings, is unbounded ;
the parlor pet seeks to get out, and the chained watch-dog bites and
tugs at its chain in its endeavor to break away. If confined in
cage, they bite and tug at the bars with the fury of a maniac, which
they, indeed, fully resemble. If, up to this time, the unfortunate
dog has displayed more or less respect for the master's presence and
voice, it now begins to know him no more, although some cases are
recorded where the ties of affection have even ruled, in a measure,
such a canine maniac until life was almost extinct.

Once free, they do not pursue any regular course, as if follow-
ing some intellectual perception, but roam here and there, often re-
turning home, and behaving like disobedient children, afraid to face
the owner's displeasure.

According to the previous nature of the dog is its inclination to
bite during this period of the development of the malady, some
being more dangerous in this regard than others. The slightest
irritation, such as the presence of a stranger, another dog or animal,
the presentation of a stick, is sufficient to set such a dog into a par-
oxysm of rage ; these paroxysms decrease in severity as the dog
becomes exhausted by disease.

Such animals seem frequently, like the human maniac, to be
gifted vnth supernatural strength and energy. Chains thought to
be unbreakable are ruptured as if made of straw ; walls or fences
thought to be unscalable are easily sprung over ; barn-doors or par-

THE DOG. 151

titions so solid and thick that escape is thoii*j:ht to he impossible arc
easily giunved thruii<5h, and an infuriated tiend becomes loose to
prey upon the community and the balance of the animal ^vorld.
Jlydrophoh'ta^ at' fear of water, is never seen in tlui d(><j, public. ()])in-
iou to the contrary. During my stay at the lioyal \'eterinary In-
stitute of Berlin, I had quite a number of opportunities for observ-
ing rabid dogs, and have frequently seen them bury their noses in
the dish of water in their cages, in their vain attem])ts to drink,
which the paralytic condition of the muscles of degkitition rendered
absolutely impossible.

As all severe exertions must have an end, so in this disease these
maniacal phenomena gradually pass over into those of the paralytic
form ; the paroxysms slowly become weaker, and the remissions less
and less perceptible.

The suffering and pitiable animal has become greatly emaciated ;
the once lustrous coat dull and staring ; the plump and rounded
Hanks sunken ; the bright and intelligent eye becomes dull and
expressionless; the tongue protrudes from the mouth, appearing
more like half-dried leather than a normal tonjnie.

Slowly but surely the weakness extends over the organism. The
gait becomes weaker and weaker ; the hind-legs waver from side to
side, until finally, overcome by weakness and paralysis, the animal
sits before you, a picture never to be forgotten.

Some lie as if overcome by sleep, but, if irritated, will rise upon
the fore-feet and seek to bite or snap at the irritating object.

The voice becomes hoarser and hoarser, the attempts to breathe
are painful in the extreme to look upon, the pupil of the eye is dis-
tended, and all natural expression is lost.

Death doses the painful drama in from four to seven days, al-
though in extremely rare cases the battle for life may continue to
eight or nine days ; never more than that.

The phenomena of dumb rabies are so similar to those of the
paralytic form that I will refrain from describing them. The dis-
ease ushers itself in, in about the same way, but the initiative phe-
nomena pa.ss almost imperceptibly into those of the paralytic form.

This dumb variety, when once developed, is not so dangerous to
mankind, or other animals, as the maniacal form : from the paralysis
of the lower jaw, such animals are unable to bite ; it is dangerous
to mistake this paralysis for a bone in the throat, which is some-
times done ; the fluids of the mouth are as sure to cause infec-
tion as those from a maniacal dog, if they come in contact with a
wounded surface.

152 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Prevention.

1. Eeduce the number of dogs in eacli State to the lowest
possible minimum, bj means of a high and rigidly exacted dog-
tax.

2. A quarterly revision of all the dogs owned in a State should
be made by the police authorities, and all dogs, of whatever age,
sex, or character, found without a license number and tag upon
their collar for the time in question, and not an old tag, should be
peremptorily killed at a time fixed by law, unless a license is at once
procured.

3. All dogs found running loose without an appropriate collar
and tag should be peremptorily killed.

(«.) The police should have power to kill, and not authorized
" dog-killers," who, as experience has taught us, are more apt to be
" diOg-stealers " than faithful public servants.

4. In every city, town, or village, there should be, not a pound,
but an animal quarantine, where animals in which contagious or
infectious diseases were suspected could be quarantined, for a time
fixed by law, and remain under the daily supervision of a com-
petently qualified State veterinary ofiicial, no empiric.

To this quarantine should be sent every dog in which an ab-
normal inclination to bite has been observed, and especially and
peremptorily every dog which had bitten a human being without
justifiable cause. Here it should be caged and confined for a period
of not less than five weeks, and at the expense of the owner. If
the owner of such a dog will not pay the expense, then at the ex-
pense of the city, town, or village, in which said dog is quarantined ;
the dog or dogs in question, if found healthy at the expiration of
such a quarantine, to be sold at public auction on account of said
town, city, or village, or killed.

(b.) Too much stress can not be placed upon the value of this
last clause to the community. ISTo greater mistake can be made
than at once killing a suspected animal which has bitten a person.
The plan proposed, by ascertaining the real condition of the dog,
will do more than any one thing to free the mind of a person bit-
ten by a dog from the danger of hysteric rabies, and also free
the minds of the community from an unnecessary and protracted
anxiety.

5. These regulations should apply to all dog-owners, whether
breeders or not, and no exception to them should be made, on prom-
ises of owners to see to them at home.

THE HORSE. 153

(c.) It is the safety and peace of niiiul of the community wliich
are to be considered, and not the pleasure of indiviihial dog-owners.

The technical supervision of competent State veterinary officials
(in no case of empirics) is tlie only coui-se which can guarantee any
Buccess and protection to the comnmnity.

THE HORSE.

HlPPOPHAGT, OR THE CONSUMPTION OF HoRSK-MeAT AS FoOD.

HoRSE-MPiAT steaks ! Roast horse-meat !

It is really singular what feelings of aversion one finds immedi-
ately following upon the suggestion of such articles of food in this
country. " Have we not beef, mutton, pork, and other articles of
food in such an abundance that you need not bring up such a dis-
gusting idea ? " is the next remark.

The "disgust'' in all these questions is simply based upon cus-
tom. That which is disgusting to the people of one country may
be most commonplace or a luxury to those of another. So it is with
periods ; the tastes of difEerent generations vary in other things than
fashions.

Thus we see that hippophagy, or the consumption of horse-
meat for food, was at one time an almost universal custom among
the pagan people of Northern Europe and Britain, Being a pagan
custom, it was but natural that, with the extension of Christianity
among these nations, its missionaries should insist that not only re-
ligious rites, but other customs of these people, which they lo(»kcd
upon as relics of heathenism, should be given up. "We find these
efforts of the missionaries supported by edicts from the popes, so
that the practice gradually became extinct, to be again taken up in
the early part of our century, and to gradually extend, though the
custom has never been without its adherents among the nations of
the world.

We can think of no justifiable reasons for such aversion to horse-
meat among our people. In fact, this aversion is based entirely upon
ignorance, and its twin sister, prejudice.

That we have a sufficiency or even a superabundance of animal
footl in our country is of itself no justifiable reason for heedlessly
sacrificing to the knacker a large amount of valuable food each year.

One sees upon our streets, at any time, a large number of horses

154 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

mucb better suited for the sliambles than for work. Poor men are
often compelled, bj a tyrannical law, the result of a sickly and gush-
ing sentiment, to sacrifice to the knacker, who pays them nothing,
horses that a few weeks' suitable feeding and rest would make
worth forty to sixty dollars for meat. Hundreds of so-called weeds
are yearly born and raised by farmers and breeders, to be at matu-
rity simjjly objects of torture from their unfitness for work, that at
four to six months old would pay a reasonable profit to the owner
as horse-veal, for the expense of raising and breeding. "While, so
far as we know, no horse-meat is offered for sale in the markets or
provision-stores of this country and Britain, it is fast becoming uni-
versalized among the cities of Northern Europe, as may be seen
from the following :

For the first six months of the year 1877 the horse-butchers of
Paris slaughtered 5,283 horses, donkeys, and mules ; the same fur-
nished 959,730 kilos (1,919,460 pounds) of flesh ; while, for the same
part of the year 1876, the number of animals of the same species
which were used was 4,422, and the net amount of flesh sold,
803,500 kilos (1,607,000 pounds). In 1878 the number of horses
and mules thus slaughtered was 11,319, while in 1877 there were
10,619, showing an increase of 700 head in one year.

Decroix,* a most enthusiastic hippophagist of France, says that
" for some years hygienists and pathologists have been directing
their attention to the progressive invasions made by tape-worms
in the human species, and they have applied themselves to discover
the cause of these invasions, and the means by which they may be
opposed. Notwithstanding several very interesting works, some
points are still controverted ; but it has been demonstrated that we
are attacked by the armed tape-worm, taenia solium^ as well as the
unarmed, ioenia mediocanellata, or better, tcenia itiermis / that the
germs of these entozoa are introduced into the intestinal canal of
man by the flesh he eats ; and, finally, that the armed tape-worm
is derived from the pig, and the unarmed from the flesh of cattle
and sheep. The former, says Dr. Cobbold, are found chiefly to in-
fest people of the poorer classes, while the latter are more frequently
found among the wealthy. It is well known that the larvae of this
parasite {tcenia inermes) are derived from imperfectly -cooked veal
and beef. M. Regnault has made tlie interesting remark that the
number of armed tape-worms has not notably increased, while the
unai*med worm has become more and more frequent. The certain
cause of this frequency has been considered to be the therapeutic

* " Veterinary Journal," iii, p. 47.

THE HORSE. 155

employment of raw meat, nowadays very common ; also the cus-
tom of eating it raw. The latter cause has not been sufHcicutly im-
pressed upon the public.

" Beef and mutton, then, freijucntly contain, in addition to their
nutritive principles, morbitic germs, the existence of which is not
apparent to the meat inspectors or consumers. In the first place,
the custom of eating raw flesh must be abandoned ; roasted flesh is
generally well cooked, even burned externally, while in the intorioi-s
it is in niany instances still raw. In the second place, when i)hysi-
cians have to prescribe raw meat, the jlesh of the horse should be
chosen in preference, as it is more healthy and nutritive than that
of the ox, sheep, or pig. The horse, in fact, is not liable to those
verminous affections which produce the germs of the different kinds
of tape-worniri of which the human body is the receptacle. Horse-
flesh is more digestible than that of the other animals, which are
prematurely and excessively fattened. It suits more especially
weakly, amemic, or chlorotic people, and those who undergo severe
muscular exercise. During the first quarter of the year 1875, 1,821
hoi*ses were slaughtered in Paris for food ; while, for the same pe-
riod in 1870, 2,370 were used, an increase of 541)."

Dr. Hugo IIel•t^^'ig, the first assistant of the market-inspection
bureau at Berlin, gives a very interesting account of the different
equine-slaughteriiig establishments in that city and the regulations
to which they are subjected. He says : " More than a thousand years
have passed since our forefathers ceased to use this valuable article
of food, which is principally due to the influence of Christian jiriests,
and their desire to wean the people away from all relics of the
heathenism in which they were supposed to have lived uj) to their
time. Boniface III played an important part in this matter. I>r.
Spinola, and a singer at the Koyal Opera-IIouse, Blume, played an
important role in bringing it again into use. Xotwithstanding much
opposition, the consumption of horse-meat has gone on steadily in-
creasing among the people, not only of Berlin, but other German
cities. A most favorable influence was exerted by the order issued
by the p(jlicc president of Berlin, whereby a most exact control of
the horse-meat market was ordained, and the quality of the meat
offered for sale guaranteed to the people. The regidation of ^larch
24, 1854, ordered : '' That no hoi-se could be slaughtered, under a
penalty of a fine of five thalers ($3.75), before it had been subjected
to veterinary inspection, and pronounced suitable for food." For
this purpose, a legal certificate was given, which must be kept by
the butcher, for a perio<l of four weeks, and shown to the police

156

THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

officials at any time during that period. An improvement in
this resrard has been since introduced, by which all certificates of
this nature are written in a book having prescribed printed forms,
which are kept by each butcher, and are open to the police at all
times.

" All places where horse- meat is sold must be made known to
the public by an appropriate sign, and no other kind of meat can be
sold from them. . . .

" The slaughtering of a horse, ass, or mule for human food can
only take place at the slaughter-houses appointed for the purpose,
and regulated by the Government."

The plan of the book for each butcher of horse-flesh to keep for
reference is as follows :

Number of horse,
mule, or ass
kiUed.

Description of

same, giving
age.size, color,
or other spe-
cial points.

Date of in-
spection.

Name of butch-
er, witb num-
ber of license.

6. 6.
Attest of veterinary

inspector, with Day of killing,

reference to hy- or other dis-

gienic condition | posalofani-

of animal slaugh- i mal.
tered.

It was of great benefit to the public when the numerous horse
slaughter-houses were done away with, and a general one instituted
for the city of Berlin, known as the Central Horse Slaughter-House.

The increase of the consumption of horse-flesh in Berlin is shown
by the following figures :

1847. .11 butchers slaughtered 3,000 horses.

1853.

. 5

686

1854.

. 4

400

1855.

. 4

700

1856.

. 4

759

1857.

. 2

367

1858.

. 2

450

1859.

. 4

443

1860.

. 4

618

1861.

. 3

519

1862.

. 7

1,042

1863.

. 7

1,307

1864.

. 8

1,742

1865.

. 8

2.142

1866.

.12

3.115

1867.

.17

2,911

1868.

.18
Total

4,026

. 25,226

THE HORSE. I57

" In Berlin, during the years lS77-'78, 4,739 horses were slaugh-
tered for human food. Of these, 74 were condemned as unsuitable
before slaui^htoring, and SO after; of the latter, 20 were found in-
fected with ghmders. . . .

" In 1877 at Altona 1,442 horses were slaughtered, of which ten
were given over to the knacker ; of these, tliree were condemned on
account of glandei*s, three suffered from pulmonary gangrene, and
four from entero-peritonitis. The greatest nuuiber of horses are
slaughtered in the winter months, their flesh being made into sau-
sages." *

The central horse - slaughtering establishment of Berlin is a
completely inclosed locality covering about an acre of ground, upon
which i.s situated a two-storied building answering for the residence
of the inspectors, and a bureau for the police officials; further,
two stables for the horses destined to be slaughtered, and two large
slaughtering-places with all necessary conveniences ; and two smaller
rooms, one for the hides of the slaughtered animals, and the other,
to which oidy officials have entrance, for the reception of slaugh-
tered but condemned meat, i. e., such as was proved to be unsuita-
ble for consumption after the animal had been killed and dressed,
but not such as came from animals havinf; a contagious or infectious
disease ; further, for the examination of animals, a room having
almost entirely glass sides, so as to give the greatest possible
amount of light to the inspectors.

For such horses as on inspection demand the attention of the
veterinary police, there is a special quarantine station, which is
completely disinfected and cleansed every time it is used. The
greatest cleanliness is observed in all parts of this establishment,
special places being designated for the blood and other offal, and
after each day's slaughtei'ing each part is cleansed and disinfected
under the supervision of the inspectors.

The following plan is carried out in the inspection of the ani-
mals :

Each morning, from nine to ten, the horses to be slaughtered
are mustered for inspection, their breed and nationality, and all
other results of an external examination, entered in the appropriate
book. To this end notice is first taken of the external appearance
of the animal, and then its temperature is carefully noted, to ascer-
tain that the animal is absolutely without fever. On completion of
this examination, the character of the respiratory phenomena, the
visible raucosie, the lymphatics and glands, the cough, etc. ; only

♦ " Mittheil. aua dcr Praxi.-<, lS77-'78," p. 97.

158 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS.

when all this is completed is the official permission to slaughter
given. It is self-evident that onlj' horses suitable for slaughter
are brought forward for inspection, and not such as are hastily
brought in. If, in a given animal, any suspicious phenomena are
observed, which under other circumstances would scarcely be taken
into consideration, a definite opinion as to its suitableness for food
is withheld until the animal is slaughtered and dressed, which is
done under the supervision of the inspector.

If a horse is found suitable for the purpose, it is at once slaugh-
tered, otherwise its slaughter is peremptorily forbidden. The latter
takes place in all infectious or feverish diseases, in emaciation, in
all cachectic conditions, and in all animals having suppurating
wounds. Animals not suffering from infectious diseases al*e al-
lowed to be killed for knackers' purposes, a special certificate being
filled out for this purpose. Horses, in which symptoms are observed
suspicious of glanders, are either consigned to the quarantine sta-
tion until a telegram is sent to the knacker, or are given back to
the seller (of the horses), when due notice, by telegraph, is at once
given to the i^roper veterinary police authorities.

To the honor of the horse-butchers, it should be mentioned that
this seldom occurs ; on the contrary, good horses are generally
bought for this purpose, the butchers often making journeys of one
hundred to one hundred and fifty miles to procure them, often buy-
ing from breeders young horses which from deformities or other
reasons are not considered suitable for rearing. They often pay
thirty or forty dollars for such horses, which makes evident the
value of the business of horse-slaughtering to the community ; for
not only is a cheaper article of food, of good quality, offered to the
people, but in case of a broken leg, or other misfortune, rendering
a horse unsuitable for the work required of it, the owner frequently
receives money enough to supply him with an animal suitable to his
purposes ; at least he does not suffer a dead loss, as is at present the
case in this country, and frequently lame animals are thus relieved
from torture, to the material benefit of the owner. In Yienna, sim-
ilar conditions to those in Germany prevail, and the inspection and
regulation of the traffic are carried on with the greatest circumspec-
tion.

The inspection which is exacted at the horse-slaughtering estab-
lishments should be extended to those where other animals are
slaughtered.

Aside from the great benefit which the poorer classes of the
community derive from having a cheaper meat than beef for food.

THE HORSE. I59

is the great saving uf material. Many horses are each year killed
and sent to the knackers -wliirh, were liippophagy a custom in this
country, would bring to the owners money enough to buy animals
suitable for certain work. Horses condemned to death on account
of broken limbs would not then become a dead loss to owners, but
would bring from forty to sixty dollars for food-purposes. Also,
from a humanitarian point of view, the question is deserving of con-
sideration. Many a person has an old horse which years have ren-
dered unsuitable f<n- working purposes, yet the owner's circumstances
will not permit the killing of the animal. "Were it the custom
to consume hoi*se-meat, such animals could be very easily brought to
a fairly fat condition, and at small expense, thus bringing far more
money to the owner, from the shambles, than could possibly be their
worth from a working point of view.

Glanders.

French, Morve ; German, Rotz.

History. — Williams says glanders was described by Aristotle,
which is an error ; in Aubert's and Wimmer's German translation
of his "Natural History" with the original text, it says: "The ass
— but not the horse — suffers especially from one disease, which is
known as ' malis.' It at first attacks the head, a viscid yellow slime
runnini' from the nostrils : when the disease extends to the luncfs it
is deadly, but when limited to the head it is not so."

It is impossible to see how any one can affirm the above to be
a description of glanders, for it is equally applicable to strangles,
especially when comjjlicated with malarial pneumonia, commonly
called influenza, the proper name of which should be pneumo-pleuro-
cntoritis equina^ infectiosum.

The tii*st writer of antiquity to describe anything like glanders
was undoubtedly Apsyrtus, who lived in the fourth century a. d.
He united under the name of "/xaXt?" several dangerous diseases,
while he describes farcy as elephantiasis. Vegetius followed in the
same direction in the next century.

Long before the disease was known to be transmissible to man,
it derived a certain pathological interest from the assumption that
it was a cause of syphilis in man, due to improper cohabitation
with maros. This idea seems to have spning from the coeval out-
break of glanders among the horses, and syphilis among the soldiers,
at the famous siege of Naples in the sixteenth century. Syphilis is
not inoculable in animals.

160 TUE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Rufus (thirteenth century) gave a very fair description of the
symptoms of the disease; he declared for its contagiousness, but
considered it to occur in all manner of ways.

Euini (fifteenth century) held the same opinion. Winter von
Adlers Flugel, a quaint German author of the sixteenth century,
had many odd ideas of the nature of the disease. He describes it
as occurring in two forms : the one known as " white " or stone-
glanders, which is curable in the early stages ; and the other called
"yellow," and which gives forth an offensive odor, and is incurable.
According to him, the symptoms of glanders are :

1. The horse appears as if suffering for breath when ridden hard
and stopped suddenly, a point which has some practical diagnostic
value.

2. The material which flows from the nose sinks to the bottom
of a vessel when filled with water. This idea is even asserted to
have diagnostic value by modern writers. Ditmar's report on gland-
ers, in the report of the United States Agricultural Department,
1878, says " it has some value."

3. The flow is constant.

4. If the discharge is white and odorless, it is " stone-glanders."

5. If yellow, reddish, or mixed with blood, the case is incurable.

6. Such horses often have a " rotten moisture " coming from the
mouth.

T. When given water, a profuse discharge is to be seen issuing
from the mouth and nostrils.

8. The ears and head droop.

9. Difficult respiration.

10. Cough, and have tucked-up flanks.

11. The nostrils are cold.

12. Appetite is poor.

13. Emaciated and lazy.

14. The mane falls out.

15. Such horses have an offensive odor.
The disease occurs in three ways :

1. The discharge comes from the brain.

2. The animal has chronic disease of the throat.

3. One horse can infect others.

When the discharge comes from the brain, it is due to a super-
fluous amount of fluid in that organ, which causes corruption.

Chronic pharyngitis often causes the disease.

From the latter part of the last century there has always been an
active controversy as to the genesis of glanders : two schools have

TlIK IIDRSE. 101

existed, the one affirming it to be of ;i purely contagious character;
tlie other admitting its contagiousness, hut athrming its genesis from
all sorts of circumstances. These two opinions still oppose one
another, though at present those affirming the alnogcnetic or spon-
taneous generation of glanders are becoming less and less. In
France, even to this day, there may be found many advocates for
the spontaneous generation of glandei-s, while in times past many
asserted the non-contagiosity of the disease. This was essentially
due to the teaching of Bourgelat and the Alfort school ; while the
Lyons school obstinately defended the contagiousness of the dis-
ease.

One of the most important French authors of the last century,
and the fii*st of this, and one who has exerted no mean influence
upon veterinary literature, was Lafosse the younger, and it is both
interesting and instructive to read what he has to say upon so im-
portant a subject, particularly as he represents the most advanced
veterinar}' thought of his period.

In his "Cours d'llippiatrique," Paris, 1772, Part 11, p. 2r.3, he
savs : " The ancient authoi"s knew nothing more of the seat of
glanders than they did of its treatment. Some of them looked upon
it as seated in the head, others in the lungs, others in the kidneys,
others in the stomach, and confounded the different kinds of dis-
charge; to all of which they have given the name of glanders."

" To assume that glanders was seated in the lungs was pardon-
able— 1. Because they have a communication with the nose. 2.
Because a discharge from the lungs by means of the nose does take
place (as in pneumonia). 3. Because the discharge from the lungs
l)ears some resemblance to that from the pituitary membrane (the
lining of nasal cavities). 4. Because glanders is often complicated
with pneumonia, or, which is the same thing, the discharge from the
pituitary membrane is often mixed with that from the lungs. Tlie
ancient veterinarians were less scrupulous in their researches than in
naming maladies — they were deceived by appearances. They were
in a good way, but erred in distinction. To assert that glanders
is situated in the kidneys, spleen, liver, or in the brain, is contrary
to the best teachings of ' hippotomie.' They utterly ignored the fact
that there wa.s no connection between these parts and the nose."

It is evident that even this great luminary of our art knew very
little himself about glanders, and that his knowledge of the seats of
the peculiar products of glanders was equally as fallacious as that of
the ancients whom he condcnms. But we will let him speak for
himself :

11

162 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

" I distinguisli glanders according to its nature ; as glanders
properly speaking, and glanders improperly so called."

" True glanders is the discliarge which comes alone from the
pituitary membrane. It is not proper to speak of any other form of
glanders than this."

" Every other disease than this is not glanders."

1. " True glanders maybe distinguished as simple and complex."

2. As primitive and secondary.

3. As initiative, as confirmed, and as inveterate glanders.
Simple glanders is that which comes from the pituitary mem-
brane.

Complex glanders is that which comes from the same, and the
trachea or the lungs at the same time.

Primitive glanders comes independent of all other complications.

Secondary glanders is that which follows on other diseases.

As to its cause, Lafosse takes a most sensible position when he
says : " The primary causes of glanders are not known. Some per-
sons think that it is due to some acrid and acid material."

The ens of the disease is to be sought in an inflammation of the
glands of the pituitary membrane which produces the discharge.

He considered glanders curable in its early stages, which should
be treated after the manner of all inflammations. When the dis-
ease had become chronic it was incurable.

So much for the ancient authors.

Of modern English authors, Fleming and Williams are the best
kno^vn.

In his " Yeterinary Police," Fleming speaks of glanders " as a
special diathesis peculiar to the equine species."

Glanders is not a "diathesis." Diathesis is from the Greek
TiOrjfii, — to dispose / and the word means a peculiar condition of an
organism, predisposing it to certain diseases ; as scrofula disposes to
tuberculosis. We may speak of a glanders dyscrasia. It can not
logically be applied to that peculiarity of the different animal spe-
cies by which certain diseases originate in them primarily, or only
in them. We can not speak of a measles diathesis, or a rinderpest
diathesis, any more than a glanders diathesis.

A diathesis is something inherited or produced. It is a weak-
ness causing a tendency to secondary complications.

Fleming says again, " It has been grouj^ed with that class of dis-
eases termed ' granulomes,' and defined as a malady having a tend-
ency to the formation of granular cells and destructive processes."

Here we see another error, which, had our author been person-

THE HORSE. 1G3

ally acquainted with the pathological processes of glanders, he could
not have fallen into.

Glanders is not characterized by destructive processes, as we
understand them in pathology.

In general, the processes of glanders have more of a formative
than destructive character. The tubercles of glanders seldom form
secondary tubercles in the immediate vicinity, but are generally iso-
lated neoplastic growths. Even in the mucous membrane of the
nose, the destructive processes are far exceeded by the formative,
and the permanent cicatrization of the ulcers of glanders is no rare
occurrence.

" Acute glanders has been occasionally supposed to be merely
the expression of purulent infection in the equine species, from
the frc(juency with which it has been observed to follow severe
operations, purulent fevers, or inflamed blood-vessels."

Glanders is in no sense of the word a purulent infection, and
when it appears under any of the above circumstances it was either
present in a latent form anticipatory to their occurrence, and they
acted as the causa su^'eiens to the visible outbreak of the disease,
or the animal acquired it after either of the above conditions were
produced.

'• The highest Continental authorities, and those who have most
attentively studied the etiology of the afifection, afe ahsoluUly unani-
mous in their opinion as to its being at times directly developed
and without contagion having anything to do with it."

It is surprising that a man of ^[r. Fleming's erudition could write
such as the above, for, in 18G8, long before his book appeared^
Gerlach, no second-rate authority, had come out absolutely for the
strictly contagious nature of glanders ; and his opinion had been
adopted by the most eminent Germans at the time of Mr. Fleming's
publication.

An equally fallacious opinion is, that " it appears among horses
when unduly exposed, poorly fed or watered, etc., as in the army
at times, or where hygienic measures are neglected, and the laws of
health ignored ; or in large towns, or in large establishments, if the
horses are suddenly called upon to undergo severe exertion during
bad weather and upon an insuflScient allowance of food or forage
of an unsuitable character."

Were this so, then nearly, if not more than, half of the work-
horses among the p<jorer class of horse-owners would have the dis-
ease. Neither faulty ventilation nor the most arrogantly absurd non-
hygienic condition can ever produce of itself, or themselves, glanders.

164 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Within the last year Mr. Fleming has given up all the above
views, and joined with emphasis the contagionistic party.

Williams says : " The remote causes of glanders, though not
yet clearly understood, are often found to arise from many debilitat-
ing influences, such as old age, bad food, overwork, exhausting dis-
eases and general bad management ; from specific miasmatic or
animal poisons, such as those generated in localities where large
numbers of horses are congregated together, even where the stables
are well ventilated, lighted, drained, and the animal well attended
to in every way, but more particularly where the contrary is the
case."

Kearly all veterinary authors seem still to adhere to this opinion,
but Eoell has come out a specific contagionist in the last edition of
his " Special Pathology."

Fleming quotes, in proof of the theory of spontaneous generation
of glanders (spontaneous means the development of something out
of nothing), the well-known extension of glanders among horses of
armies during campaigns, as illustrated by the late Franco-German
War, and other such experiences.

It would seem as if the whole veterinary profession had never
had eyes or brains, or else this manner of extension would never re-
quire the theory of spontaneous generation to support it. One would
think that pulmonary and constitutional glanders was as much a
myth to the veterinarians of the day as it was to Lafosse at the
end of the last century, who ridiculed any form of true glanders
other than nasal.

Lesering * gives a case illustrating the ease with which glanders
can occur among army-horses, and still the cause be unsuspected.
I will give it as nearly as possible in his own words :

"When glanders occurs more frequently in times of war or
mobilization of the army, the explanation is to be easily found in
the fact that great numbers of horses are centered ujdou a small ex-
tent of territory, and the opportunity to infection greatly increased
thereby."

" This assertion is amply illustrated by a personal experience of
my own. In Prussia, where there is no want of mobilizing the
forces, statistics have proved that after such occasions glanders ac-
quires a shocking extension among the horses. The open nature of
these manoeuvres, as well as the known care and careful revision to
which in the Prussian army horses are subjected, make it absolutely
impossible that undue labor, bad feed, etc., should have any influence

* " Bericht a. d. Vet. Wesen im Sachsen," 1S62,

THE HORSE. 165

on these eruptions. In such nianueuvres, I once had occasion to re-
view some one hundred liui^ses that were turned looso into a riding-
place for the night, and ran about among each other ' pell-mell.'
Of the one hundred, seven were found having glanders. How
many of the balance, the further life of which 1 could not follow,
could also become infected ? llow different would be the ideas of
another veterinarian who should examine the balance of these ani-
mals after the mananivres were over ! AVhat cause could he sur-
mise for their infection other than the vicissitudes of the exercises,
unless ho were a contagionist ?"

But the utter ridiculousness of the spontaneous-generation the-
ory— the bad air, bad liygiene, and composite evil theories — finds
an easy explanation when we come to study the peculiarly in-
sidious nature of pulmonary glanders, which often leads to years
of support of a contagious center, without even exciting the sus-
picion of any one, especially in a country like ours, where the
average animal practitioners — I will not call them veterinarians —
know less than nothing of the principles or practice of veterinary
science.

The very insidious nature of pulmonary glanders, when the spe-
cific processes of the disease are so deeply seated as to be beyond
our positive recognition, is very nicely illustrated by the following
cases, which could be easily enough augmented by reference to
veterinary literature :

Case I. — Chronic Glanders in the Horse. — "A ten-year-old
mare was brought to the Munich school by its owner on the lOth
of April, 1876, which had been suffering for several weeks with a
nasal discharge, accompanied by some general disturbance.

Status prasens. — Examination on seeing the animal: No fever;
the left intermaxillary gland swollen, with a node in it as large as a
hazel-nut ; the right less swollen ; not sensitive to touch ; the over-
lying cutis not attached ; a profuse muco-pundent discharge from
left nostril ; the mucosa, so far as visible, diffusely hypenemic,
swollen ; some serous secretion from the right nostril ; the mucosa
less red than that of the left side ; an occasional dry cough.'- *

Such a condition as the above, while it lacks all positive symp-
toms of glanders, justifies the strongest suspicion that such is the
case; said suspicion, and a consequential ])olice supervision of the
horse, must exist, either until the symptoms entirely disappear, or
the diagnosis is confinned in some other way.

The owner of this horse, and tlie veterinarian who attended to

• "Deutsche Zeitschrift fttr Thiennedicin," Erstes Supplement, 1878.

IQQ THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIIIALS.

his stable, both declared this and all the horses in the stable free
from any suspicion of glanders.

Three inoculative experiments were made with the nasal dis-
charge, by saturating threads in the same, and drawing the latter
through the cutis of a live rabbit's ear. All three gave negative
results.

Haubuer (of Dresden) introduced the (at times valuable) idea
of trepanning the sinuses of the head in case glanders is suspected,
which will frequently lead to the discovery of the disease.

It was done in this case this ; " the sinus Highmori contained a
moderate amount of muco-purulent secretion, the mucosa of both
divisions was somewhat tliickened, hyperaemic, and had a tense but
jperfectly smooth feeling. Not a single sign of unevenness could
he distinguished. All this seemed to justify the conjecture that in
this case we had only to do with a case of chronic catarrh of the
sinuses of the head."

The cavity was treated by injection of a two-per-cent carbolic-
acid solution twice a day ; the same flowing out of the left nostril
indicated that the opening was still free.

On the day following the operation a rise in temperature took
place, 39'1° C. ; jDulse 56, which again disappeared in time.

" From the seventh to the tenth day after trepanning the head
the intermaxillary glands became very much swollen, but neither
abscess formation nor resolution in any degree took place."

" On the IJrth of May the temperature again increased and
continued augmented until the animal was killed. In the mean time
the trepan-wound healed completely, and was entirely closed on the
22d of May."

Autopsy by Bollinger, May 28th :

"Extensive nasal and pulmonary glanders. In the left sinus
Highmori (a cavity of the head) a considerable quantity of yellow-
ish, thick, viscid, purulent material ; the mucosa having a swollen,
uneven nature, clouded with occasional hard neoplasmata (nodes)
projecting above its surface ; the infiltration common to glanders to
be seen at places. The mucosa of the sinus Highmori dextra
(right cavity of skull) presented nothing abnormal, aside from a
slight catarrhal swelling."

In the above, we see that all diagnostic assistance failed to dis-
cover the disease. Even the trepan-wound healed normally, and
not with long-continued ulceration, as is frequently the case in
glanders, and yet the disease loas jpresent.

We have seen that three inoculative experiments with the dis-

THE HORSE. 167

clKir"e from the left nostril f^iivc ne<!;ative results. Three others
made in the same manner Avith thread saturated with material
direetly from the ulcerated surface of the supernasal parts, gave
positive residts.

This sliuws that even inoculative experiments arc not always
to be depended upon.

Cask U.— Chronic Gla7iders.—T\\k case is still more interesting
and has much more practical value, as it illustrates perfectly how
one horse can be the means of infecting others, and yet not excite
attention to itself for a long time. This hoi-se had been in the pos-
session of its owner for over two yeai-s anterior to the time it was
brought to the Munich clinic ; two years hef ore this ^/;//(? glanders
had appeared in the num's stables, and one horse was killed on that
account, the others being quarantined. These cpiarantined animals
— among tiiem was a somewhat wind-broken but otherwise appar-
ently healthy W(»rk-horse — were declared to be free from the dis-
ease at the expiration of the time fixed by law. No other horse
was bought in the mean time to take the place of the one killed.

In February, 187S, the mate of the above-mentioned wind-broken
liorse died from pneumonia, but at the autopsy it was found to be
diseased with chronic glanders.

" Upon this an active veterinary inspection of the animals in the
stable again took place. The wind-broken horse — which had a very
insignitieant swelling of the left intermaxillary gland, and a slight
pellucid, viscid nasal discharge — was isolated from the others. As,
however, after six weeks' careful quarantine, no further symptoms
appeared among the other horses, they were declared free, the above-
mentioned horse still being quarantined." *

Friedberger, who makes the report, had this horse a long time
under observation ; he says as follows : " Status jyrccscns. The highly
wind-broken horse was in a comparatively good condition, feverless,
good appetite and spirit ; but the hair did not have tlie same luster
as that of the other horses in the stable. The left intermaxillary
glaiuls were somewhat swollen, attached but slightly to surrounding
tissues, and evinced no tenderness on pressure. From both nostrils
flowed a clear, viscid fluid, the discharge not being at all constant
in quantity, but in general more profuse from the left than right.
Nothing suspicious could be seen in the nose by the ordinary method
of examination."

'' The first diagnostic aid to which I resorted was the endeavor

♦ Ibid., Zweites Supplement, 1879.

158 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

to produce self-infection, by eroding the nasal mucosa so that the
discharge would necessarily flow over the wounded surface. A
comj)letely negative result followed.

" The nasal discharge was very variable, being on some days
scarcely visible, and on others very profuse ; at times it assumed a
thick, muco-purulent character."

" On the 7th of May (1878), I succeeded (by means of Gunther's
nasal speculum) in discovering a radiating cicatrix on the septum
in the superior parts of left nostril, which occasioned me to request
the owner to give it over to the school for further observation and
eventual slaughter."

" Numerous attempts at self-inoculation were made, but were en-
tirely unsuccessful, but the constant presence of the cicatricial forma-
tions in the nasal membranes permitted an unquestionable diagnosis,
so that the animal was killed on the 23d of May, 1878."

Autopsy {Bollinger). — " Chronic glanders of the nasal cavities,
the superior part of the sinus sinistra marred with large stellate cica-
trices ; perforation of the septum, cicatrices and ulcers of the mu-
cosa, and miliary tubercles in the moderately swollen glands."

" Glanders of the larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, bronchiec-
tasis ; glanders of both lungs, cicatricial atrophy of left lung."

" The nature of the pathological conditions makes it evident that
they had been present for a very long time, the exact period not
being ascertainable, but, as is shown, for over two years, during
which time this non-suspected animal had been the means of causing
the disease in others."

Having very cursorily looked over the views of some of the rep-
resentative authors of veterinary medicine as to the nature of gland-
ers, it becomes us to endeavor to define our own ideas.

Glanders is, then, a peculiar infectio-contagious disease, which
occurs protopathically only in the horse ; the original cause of
which is unknown and lost in history, but which, in our day, owes
its genesis entirely to contagion.

Spontaneous generation of glanders is for us an absurdity ; even
so is the so-called metamorphosis or degeneration of other diseases,
such as strangles, influenza, diabetes, or marasmus — a condition —
into it ; equally absurd are the assertions of authors, that bad hygi-
enic influences, of whatever kind or nature, overwork, etc., can
directly cause the development of the disease.

Were this so, we should have glanders constantly raging in cer-
tain districts, as an en- or epi-zootic disease, which is not ever the
case.

THE noRSE. 169

Transmission to other Species of Animal Life.

Glanders also occurs in the ass and niiilc, but I am inclined to
the opinion that it is orijijinally an equine disease, and that when it
attacks these other solipeds, it is due to infection from, or by means
of, a diseased horse.

It is also transmissible to man and all the domestic animals, eo:-
cept to cattle.

Sheep arc especially susceptible to infection. Goats have been
known to acquire the disease when kept in the same stable with
diseased hoi-ses. The disease has been observed, or intentionally
])roduced, in dogs, Ciits, prairie-dogs, white bears, lions, mice,
(tuinea-pigs, rabbits, and, according to Gerlach and Spinola, the hog
also, although no generalization of the disease appeared to take place
in them.

Geographical Distrib ution.

Glanders is fast becoming a regular cosmopolite. "With the ex-
tension of civilization, diseases of man and luiimals follow a similar
course. If the march of empire makes its way westward, disease
accompanies it. "While nearly all the contagious diseases of man
and animals are lost in history — that is, come to us with the earliest
historical records — still, during this period, we can follow their
westward movement along with the tide of Aryan civilization.

In civilized lands the extension of all contagious diseases bears
direct relation to the intelligence of the government in taking
means to suppress them, and the frequency and ease of travel and
intercourse.

This is naturally limited, in one way or another, by the peculiar
characteristics of the inlicieiis (cause) in each disease.

Glanders has followed the same course. At one time it was said
not to prevail in hot climates, but we now know that it has acquired
an alarming extension, and frequently breaks out at the different
cavalry stations of the British forces in India and other tropical
countries.

Where there is little or no intercourse with other parts, there is
little or no glanders, as in Iceland and other northern countries.

Tills led to the assumption that it did not thrive in such a cli-
mate, and that it steadily increased as we proceeded from the north
to the south, until we arrived at tropical limits.

This is all wrong; the occasions to infection — with lack of sani-
tary police — being given, glanders will appear as frequently in one
climate as another.

170 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

"We have said that intercourse had much to do with the increased
extension which glanders may acquire — this is well illustrated by
the experiences of different wars. In our own country, glanders
has acquired much more prominence since the war. In consequence
of the late Franco-German War, the percentage of glanders among
the horses of Prussia increased (reported cases) from 959 cases for
lS69-'ro and 996 for 18T0-'71 to 1,729 for 1871-'72 and 2,058 for
1873-'74.

In France, during the anti-contagionistic influence of the Alfort
school, especially of Dupuy and Bouley, the one looking upon the
disease as tuberculosis, the other as a form of pyaemia, and defend-
ing these absurdities with all partisan bitterness, the disease ac-
quired a perfectly frightful extension, so that in a mortality of 75
per thousand among the army-horses, an average of 35 was due to
glanders.

As the contagionistic idea began to gain ground, to the honor of
the Lyons school it always adopted this side of the question ; the
yearly average slowly but steadily diminished : the deaths falling
from 75 to 44:"5 per thousand, and the cases of glanders from 35 to
20*5 j)er thousand horses. While in 1846 the French army lost 4-7
per cent of its horses from glanders, the mortality in 1864 was only
0*9 per cent from the same cause.

A most remarkable and extensive eruption of glanders occurred
at the royal stud of Mezohogyrs, Hungary, between the years 1809
and 1816, nearly 20,000 horses perishing. In 1812 alone 12,000
perished. This was all due to the disease not being looked upon as
contagious, but a simple dyscrasia, in accordance with the humero-
pathological tendency of the veterinary medicine of the time.

In London, and the large English cities, glanders is reported to
be steadily on the increase.

It is so also in this country, without ant effective measures being
taken to prevent it.

In Massachusetts we have a useless institution, which bears the
name of " Cattle Commission," and is supposed to look after gland-
ers, but in all truih it looks after nothing, and investigates nothing^
except what it finds by the merest accident, or is reported to it by
others.

Mr. Charles P. Lyman, formerly veterinary surgeon at Springfield,
Massachusetts, writes me as follows :

" Your letter is received, and, although I fear that I can not give
you the data as minutely as you wish, yet I will do my best to give
the outlines of the outbreak of glanders which we had here during

THE HORSE. Ill

the past year. The lii-st horse that can properly be said to belong to
the outbreak was owned by an express coini)any here, and, with the
others of the company, was kept in a livery -stable. This horse was
taken by a (piaek to treat, upon the ' no cure no pay ' principle ; the
man promising to be able to bring about the result in a few days.
It so haj)pened that I was called into the same stable to see another
liorse, and while there one of the grooms, who had recognized the
disease, called my attention to this horse. I examined the horse,
and told the owner of the stable that he should have him removed.
My advice was not heeded, however, and the animal was allowed to
linger along until it died in its box. After this had taken place,
the 8tal>le was subjected to disinfection, but it was too late, for four
other horses, which had stood near the stall of that first named, were
killed on account of glanders. It is perhaps worthy of mention, for
it shows the absolute ignorance of Dr. Quack No. 1, that upon the
morning that the hoi-se of the express company died, when Dr. Q.
came to make his usual morning call — the horse had already been
drawn away to the knackers, the doctor (?) not knowing that he was
dead — a hostler renuirked to him that ' they had taken the horse out
for a little' ; to which the doctor (?) answered, ' I do not think it will
hurt him any. I was going to tell them that they might put him to
work to-day.' On the bth of March I was called to look at a horse

belonging to Messrs. , whose store was next to the office of the

express company, but whose horse was kept at a different stable.
This horse, on the night when I first saw him, seemed to have an
attack of acute pleuro-pneumonia — remember, I had myself as yet
had no case of glanders — however, glanders unmistakably developed
itself in the next thirty-six hours, and the horse was killed. Follow-
ing this was a roan horse in the same stable in which I diagnosed
farcy, and ordered isolation. The owner M'ould not believe the
fact, at least he said he did not, and called in the services of another
Dr. Quack, who said, ' The horse must have fallen through some
hole in the floor and made his leg sore.' This horse wa.s then
sold to a Frenchman for twenty-five dollars. Quack Xo. 2 treat-
ing him for a while, and I lost sight of him, to follow him up about
two months later, when I was called in by a woman to see a horse
in a different part of the city, and found the same horse, in a mori-
bund condition from glanders. It was immediately killed and
taken away. The husband of the woman had bought this horse of
the above-mentioned Frenchman for thirty-five dollai*s some four
weeks previously, with the assurance that he had fallen through a
floor, and that that was all the trouble witli hiui. At my instiga-

172 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

tion suit "was threatened, and the money recovered without the case
coming into court. In the mean time four or live other horses that
had been in the same stable with the second horse were condemned
and killed, among them a fine mare worth some five hundred dol-
lars. In these cases, all the horses had stood uj^on the same side of
the stable with horse No. 2. After this experience the other horses
were all removed from the stable, which was most carefully cleansed
and disinfected, and allowed to stand empty three or four weeks.
Since then no new cases have occurred at this stable. During
this time the disease had become well dispersed around the city,
and isolated cases were a frequent occurrence, the days being rare
in which we were not compelled to condemn one or more of these
animals. There was no great amount of trouble in getting most of
the owners to consent to the destruction of the diseased horses, but
a few would not consent, and would quietly sell the horses, so that
I generally lost sight of them, as they were taken over into Connecti-
cut, and there disposed of. The first one for which I was compelled
to call in the services of the State Commissioners was owned in
Chicopee, Massachusetts, and after being condemned and the board
of selectmen notified by me, the horse was turned loose in the
streets, it being summer, to wander about at will ; this fact coming
to my knowledge, I decided to call in the commissioners. The
horse was killed, but not before four or five others had contracted
the disease from him, which were also killed. Another center of
infection had in the mean time come into existence at the southern
part of Springfield, due either to the carelessness or ignorance pf
the previously mentioned Quack No. 1, who had been called upon
to see a sick horse at a brick-yard ; this person treated the horse,
and he finally died in a small stable containing nine other horses.
A few days subsequent to the death of this horse, a second animal
sickened, and my services were requested ; the horse appeared as if
it had some foreign substance in his windpipe, owing to a drench
which had been given it, and, while I was debating what to do with
him, the owner said there was another sick horse in the stable, that
I might look at before departure, remarking, ' D7\ Quack says it
lias strained its leg.' I found it to be another good case of farcy,
which let in light upon the sickness of the other horse. I ordered
the horses removed from the stable, and to be separated, the stable
at the same time to be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. Five
of these horses died of glanders. In all, from March 8, 1878, to
March 19, 1879, fifty-six horses have been killed on account of
glanders, which is a large number for a small city like ours. It is

TUE HORSE. 173

but natural to afisume that many cases escaped my observation, tf7i^7
you can well realize tlie difficulties w/iich a j)ersofi iritliout the
proper authority meets with. Although after June 1, 187".', I liad
every assistance wliicli the mayor, Mr, Powers, and the city solici-
tor could give me, the State law seemed so varj^ie to him, that he
did not feel like doing what he would have liked to do, or what
seemed necessary in the matter. It is to be hoped that we shall
soon have some better legislation with reference ti> these matters.
Foremost, it should be 80})ie one's business to look up and attend to
these matters exclusively. A competent veterinarian should at least
have an active c<»nnection with every Board of Health in the State,
and one also with the State Board. These matters are too in-
timately connected with the public health to have them governed
by sejKirate boards. AVe have not yet been able to completely erad-
icate the disease."

The following letter was kindly furnished me by Mr. Firth,
Secretary of the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals :

Dear Sir : In response to your request to be furnished with a
report of the number of farcied and glandered hoi-ses coming to
the notice of the society the past two years, I herewith transmit
the same, as follows, viz. :

Farcied horses 2

Glandered 27

of which number twenty-four were killed at once, three were isolated
by the health authorities (and, as we were informed, subsequently
destroyed), while the final disposition of the remainder was never
known to us. And in this connection permit me to say that the
earliest operations of the society (in the year 1808) developed the
frequent presence, in public places, of infected animals, and also
the not unfrequent complaints at our office of men who had been
duped into their purchase ; and not only were the diseased ani-
mals destroyed, but in souie instances others to whom they had
communicated the disease.

The growing necessity for such legislation as would make it tlie
especial duty of local boards of health to take cognizance of such
cases, led the society and the Board of Health of this city to present
to the Legislature of 1878 the draft of a bill that, it wa.s felt, would
effectually aid in stamping out the disease. The result was the
passage of chaj)ter 24 of the acts of that year (amended in ciiapters
160 and 178 of the acts of 1879).

174 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

It is well known to all competent authority, and it was in evi-
dence before the legislative committee, to whom the matter of a
statute was referred, that the most dangerous are the Tiiost obscure
cases, and, inasmuch as the general condition of an animal under
those circumstances is not such as to render him unfit for labor, it
is not reached by the particular statute (chapter 344, acts of 1869)
our society seeks to enforce ; yet, on the other hand, the presence
of such an animal in a public place is dangerous, and in such cases
we make it our duty to at once bring the matter to the attention of
the health boards.

We feel the subject to be all-important, and trust we have been
instrumental in secm*ing a measure of protection both to animals
and their owners.

Yery respectfully yours,

Charles A. Cueeiee,

Special Agent of the Massachusetts Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals.

I have made exertions to get reliable information from other
quarters, but only received the two following letters in reply, for
which I desire to publicly thank the authors.

My friend and colleague. Dr. Liautard, of the American Veteri-
nary College in New York city, writes ;

" You ask me for a letter with regard to the extension of
glanders in New York city and State. With reference to the lat-
ter, I have but little to say, as my experience is entirely limited to
the city of New York.

" From my connection with the city Board of Health, and the
American Veterinary College, I have been enabled to observe, to
no inconsiderable degree, the extent to which this disease j)revail8
in our metropolis. Although it has found a powerful enemy in
the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, I am well
satisfied that it exists in our private and public stables, and can be
seen traveling upon our streets every day in the year.

" In connection with my duties at the college, I have had occa-
sion to condemn quite a number of horses brought to our free
clinics. In 1876 I condemned 40 horses ; in 1877, 49 ; in 1878, 62 ;
and from January 1 to March 1, 1879, 49. This does not include
animals found by me in my private practice.

" But the most important of all my observations with regard to
glanders, the one which has no equal in all my experience, is that
of the summer of 1877. I was at that time requested by the Board

THE HORSE. 175

of Health to inspect the different hir<i^e pnbhc stahles of the city in
relation to ghuulei's, as the disease had become so prevalent as to
cause numerous complaints to be made. At the same time 1 was
'•ecpiested by the president of one of our larije horse-railroad com-
panies to call on him. Upon visiting him, I examined and con-
demned in one day thirty-six horses, and, after impressing upon him
the dangers to which the entire stock of the company were exposed,
I was authorized to extirpate the disease from their stables. I in-
spected the entire stock (over twelve hundred horses) weekly, then
semi-monthly, then every three months, until, after over nine months
of hard work, I finished my task, not having found any more gland-
ered horses in my last three visits. TJie comjyany lod hy this pro-
cedure some three hundred horses.

" On retiring from duty, I warned the president of the danger
that existed of the disease again appearing, and endeavored to impress
upc»n him the necessity of professional inspection of the entire stock
weekly, or at least semi-monthly, as is done in the large Continental
companies. Whether my advice was regarded or not, is shown by
the fact that glanders again appeared, and is still existing in the
same stables to quite a large extent.

"Another company also requested my services. It had about
nine hundred horses, and in about the same length of time, and
after similar work, I condenmed to death about one hundred horses.
I also gave the same advice on this occasion which I had given to
the first-named company, and it was followed to such an extent
that I am not aware that there is a single case of glaudei's among
the Ivorses of this company to-day.

" In another stable, which I visited by request of the Board of
Ilealth, where there were over two hundred hoi*ses, twenty-five of
them were condemned at two visits. These animals were kept in
the hospital of the stable, and were under the care of the st>called
'doctor' (I). I had no authority to subject the entire stock to revis-
ion, but if I had, I am sure that the results would have been fully
equal to those of the other examinations. I am ])ei'fectly sure that
I could find numerous cases of glanders among the horses of this
company to-day.

" Is it not indeed surprising that such a condition of things shr»uld
be allowed to exist; and how can one com])reheiid that the president
of a company could so overlook the interests of the stockholders as
to allow so many diseased horses to remain among those of the com-
pany, without continually being on the watch to prevent such dis-
asters 1 Let us take, for example, the first case : 300 horses, valued

176 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

at the loTvest estimate at $125, amounts to 837,500. The same
amount to replace those destroyed makes $75,000. Add to this the
loss bj food, labor, the danger of infection to other horses, the costs
of cleansing and disinfection, and $100,000 would not cover the loss
to the company. In spite of all this, these companies still continue
to employ as veterinary advisers men entirely ignorant of the phe-
nomena of this disease, or, if they know them, men who are false
to their duties to the public, by persisting in treating animals
they refuse to condemn even with the most manifest symptoms of
glanders.

" Still at times an animal is recognized by one of these practi-
tioners, but the symptoms are of a mild type, the animal is in good
health and condition, it represents a certain sum of money : he al-
lows it to be sold to some low dealer (if he does not recommend it),
or perhaps to some countryman. In the first case the horse goes to
some horse-market, and is sold again to some poor but licensed
vender, cartman, or cheap livery-stable keeper, unless it happens to
be seized by an agent of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
to Animals, who has it destroyed upon my certificate. In the sec-
ond case the animal is taken across the river to Long Island or j^ew
Jersey, spreading the seeds of this loathsome disease wherever it
goes. In the face of such evidence as this is it not high time that
either our State authorities, or those in "Washington, paid more atten-
tion to the contagious diseases of animals, and enacted laws for the
protection of our animal property, as well as human beings, from
infection? Is it not high time that American veterinarians used
their infiuence toward the establishment of a general sanitary vet-
erinary system for the country, with its appropriate head in connec-
tion with the JS^ational Board of Health at Washington, looking
toward the suppression and prevention of these damaging animal
pests ? "

Dr. Gadsden writes from Philadelphia thus :

" Deak Sir : In answer to your inquiry respecting the preva-
lence of glanders in this city and State, I am glad to inform you that
disease is seldom met with now in this city. I can not answer for
the State, but no doubt there are many cases that do not come under
my notice.

" I need not tell you that I have them destroyed as soon as pos-
sible after examination. During the twelve years I have been in
practice in this city, I think it is safe for me to say I have con-
demned two hundred (200) horses with this loathsome disease and

THE HORSE. 177

had them destroyed, so yoxi will see I have not been idle. About six
years ago I was called to one of our best horse-car stables, to ex-
amine some ' sick ' horses that a quack was ' treating ' by contract
(so much per year). I found several of them suffering from glanders
in its woi*st form. I told the president of the ctfinpany the conse-
quences if he kept them longer in the stable ; he ordered me to pick
out the diseased ones at once, and if I remember right we destroyed
between forty and tifty of them in about two weeks. I have had
that same unpleasant duty to perform at four other horse-car com-
panies in this city ; the quacks used to treat them for ' distemper.'
"We have no special law on the subject. If I find any trouble about
having the diseased horee destroyed, I call at the office of the Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, and ask them to send an
officer to look after the horse, and see that it is not worked (as that
would be cruel), also to see that it is not kept near other hoi'ses (as
that would be cruel to them) ; so you see it very soon answers the.
owner's purpose (])ocket) to have it destroyed.

'* I have known of three men that died with this terrible dis-
ease in this city from inoculation (through sores on their hands),
while attending glandered horses and mules ; all of them suffered
very much. I hope you will do what you can to teach the public
the danger of this disease, as it is woi-se than this (so-called) pleuro-
pneumonia in cattle, and that is bad enough."

It is just the same in every State, and our national Government
is as incompetent and culpably negligent as those of the States.

Cattle commissions are unnecessary, and one-sided affairs. AVhat
we must have are boards of animal hygiene in each State.

A great noise has been made about plcuro-pneumonia among
our cattle. The Government and the cattle interest most emphati-
cally denied that we had any, as they do now about porcine trichi-
niasis ; but finally had to admit that we have a little of the former.
We should never have heard of either of them, unless some one
had felt his pockets touched. Then, like cowards, we sneaked be-
hind a false assertion, and said, "We have not such things." But
Europeans did not believe our assertion, and finally we retracted,
and admitted that we have just a few cases of pleuro-pneumonia
along our Atlantic seaboard.

How is it with glanders?

(rlanders has much in common with pleuro-pneumonia; it is
even more stealthy in its progress. Should we, unfortunately (or
fortunately, I should say), ship a few lots of horses with this disease
to some European country, we should probably again have the

12

178 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

stereotyped denial on the part of the Government and the horse
interests ; yet I venture to assert that there are to the thousand fifty
per cent more glandered horses in this country than cattle having
the contagious lung-plague, and that the former disease is extending
with more rapidity among our equine than the latter among our
bovine population.

The government gives the people no means of knowing the
facts from trustworthy statistics. The United States Agricultural
Department of Statistics, with regard to animal diseases, is a dis-
graceful farce.

Etiology.

In our remarks upon the views of different authors with regard
to the nature of glanders, we have unavoidably touched upon their
ideas as to its cause, which renders necessary some repetition in tliis
place.

"We have not time to discuss all these views in detail ; but we,
as those before us, are all children of the period, and can not well
sej)arate ourselves from the opinions prevailing at the time ; yet we
must, in all things, ever entertain a certain degree of skepticism :
to doubt is the beginning of self-education. A person who has
never doubted is an ignorant believer, and has no self-knowledge
— a mere puppet, unfit to be a member of any profession.

So in glanders, one party has looked upon it from the iatro-
chemical stand-point, looking upon an abnormal degree of oxidation,
or an undue degree of acidity of the blood as the cause ; others,
of the humoral-pathological school, saw its origin in all sorts of
dyscrasies — not diatheses, as Fleming has written — and even from
our stand-point we can speak of glanders dyscrasia, but not in the
way of humoral pathology, whereby the dyscrasia was the cause of
glanders, but from the natural scientific sense, the dyscrasia being
a part of the disease, the same as the neoplastic processes ; that is,
the result of the action of the inficiens. Others saw in it a form of
equine scrofulosis ; and still others looked upon it from the neuro-
pathological stand-point ; while others saw in it a form of tuberculosis,
and with the eruption of the pyaemia theory, we find it classed with
that kind of diseases. Nearly all these different views led to the
more or less strong opposition of the contagious nature of the dis-
ease, and, as we have seen, to great losses on the part of the people.

Is glanders pyaemia ?

The whole theory of the autochtone development of glanders is
more dependent upon a few experiments with pysemic material
than anything else.

THE HORSE. 179

Renault and Bouley injected pus into the jugular vein of a horse,
supposed to be healthy. On the sixth day pustules were observed
to develop in the nose, and soon afterward ulcers. Death resulted
in eight days. The autopsy gave numerous tubercles in the lungs,
and ulcers of the nasal mucosa. A positive result followed the re-
inoculation of another horse, with nasal discharge from this one.
Laisne reports a similar result. Others report the same, but Vines
exceeds all in absurdity, when he asserts that he produced glanders
by means of injections of vitriol into the trachea, and other such
procedures.

These experiments are openly opposed by others in the same
direction, and are not conformable to the results of pathological
experiments in our day. In fact, it should be well known that the
introduction of pus into a jugular vein will lead to processes in
the lungs which, taken by themselves, might lead one to suspect
glanders.

Furtho'more^ in old horses, nodulated bodies are frequently
met with which the inexperienced might take for tubercles — such
is the condition known as bronchitis nodosa.

Whether genuine tuberculosis occurs in the horse is an open
question !

Lauret, Billroth, Guenther, Spinola, Gamgee, Lee, and others,
have made numerous injection and other experiments, with both
laudable and ichorous pus, but have in no case produced glanders.

It will be observed that only in one case was glanders proved to
exist by second inoculation, in Renault and Bouley's experiments.
In aU the others no case of proof, or secondary inoculation, is given.

Were glanders ever due to pyaemia, we should have far more
proof of it than at present exists.

That it could ever have been assumed to be generated in this
way, must be sought in the hitherto all too much neglected fact
of the long latency which the pulmonary form may have, extending
over years without even a single detectable symptom of the real
disease. A wound, a cold, undue exposure, or any of the causes
hitherto looked upon as protopathie, may cause the acute eruption
of the disea.se.

The theory of the spontaneous generation of glanders again finds
full contradiction in the observations of practical exj)criencc, made
on islands distant from the mainland, and out of general communi-
cation with it.

Krabbe * reports that, on the Island of Bomholm, with over
* " Deutache Zeiuchrift," i, p. 286, 1878.

180 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

7,000 horses, the disease is unknown, and the same is true of lee-
land, with about 35,000 horses.

'No one would, I think, be bold enough to assert that these ani-
mals are not as much subjected to the evil influences of exposure,
poor feed, pneumonia, etc., as the horses of more favored climates.

While we can not help expressing our surprise that authors of
undoubted practical experience should still hold to the spontaneous
generation of glanders, and give it up for nearly all other similar
diseases, it is still more surprising that any person of sense can hold
to the utterly illogical, metachemical, or degeneration theory by
which one disease transforms itself into another, without the aid of
cause.

Such a thing is opposed to both common sense and experience.
"What, then, must we consider the cause of glanders ? In our day,
contagion, and nothing else !

A specific but unknown inficiens enters the organism and pro-
duces results, in general, only observed in this disease.

In accordance with tlie best results of modern pathologists, we
must assume this inficiens to be of an organic, formative nature ; that
is, belonging to the bacterial world. Chauveau has looked upon pe-
culiar cells as the etiological moment, but this is not in accordance
with our present views, though in one sense, but not in his, the
bacteria are cells. Frank has looked upon some chemical material
as the inficiens, and has demonstrated that the nasal discharge and
blood of glandered horses possessed catalytic action, and could trans-
form peroxide of hydrogen into O and H^O.

Hallier, Mueller, Seramer, Zurn, and others, have all described
bacteria found in the blood and secretions. Schutz claims to have
discovered, cultivated, and produced the disease by inoculating them.
These germs must either act of themselves, which, from the nature
of the disease, is scarcely probable, or, which is more likely to be
true, by means of some irritants which they themselves produce by
certain unknown metachemical processes.

Such an irritant is absolutely necessary to explain the slowly-
developing processes of chronic glanders — the (as we shall see)
gradual complication of the stroma, or interstitial tissues of many of
the most important organs.

It is not in conformity with our knowledge of germ-life that
they can directly act in this manner. Zurn * describes the bacteria
of glanders as follows : " In the blood of horses diseased with gland-
ers I have found micrococci, and strings of the same — streptococci —
* " Pflanzlichen Parasiten," p. 375.

THE nORSE. 181

consisting of from four to eight single cells. The micrococci did
not have a uniform size, yet they were always round, and had
an average diameter of 0-()002 millimetres. I observed that they
multiplied by fission. I saw these objects in warm blood taken di-
rectly from the horse ; they were principally to be seen in and
around the white blood-cells. The red cells also seemed to be in-
vaded by them, but to a less degree. The smallest capillaries were
often obstructed by colonies of micrococci."

" In the diseased lymph-glands I also found gi-eat numbers of
the same, and also staff-like bacteria — bacilli. They were either
isolated or in joints of two or three members. Such objects were
also present in the mucous lining of the cavities of the head."

Whether these objects seen by Zurn have really any etiological
connection with glanders is still an open questiun. Pure cultiva-
tion, extended experiments, etc., can only finally discover the imme-
diate inficiens.

One must be careful not to attribute too much imj)ortance to
micrococci or bacteria, found in any part of the nasal cavity or phar-
ynx, or bodily cavities which connect with the open air ; fur they
are not to be considered of any diagnostic value, and their isolation
is too difficult a task fur our present means.

The germs must be seen and collected elsewhere than here, or
from open wounds, on account of these foreign admixtures — even
though such material be highly infectious at the same time.

The inficiens of glanders is both transportahle — by that I mean
suspendible in the expired air to a limited degree — and fixed ; that
is, attachable to any foreign vehicle as a purveyor and supporter of
infection.

With relation to the inficiens being based upon the pers])iration
and expired atmosphere, we have the very illustrative experiments
of Gerlach and Viborg.

In these, horses having glanders were driven in cold weather, so
as to get into an active perspiration ; the steam arising from them, as
well as the expired air, was caught in glass receivers prepared for
the purpose, and allowed to condense.

Ilealthy horses were then inoculated with this material, and the
phenomena of glanders observed to develop. The expired air was
found to be far more active than the transpiration from the cutis.

These experiments go to prove two things :

1. That the inficiens is transportable to a minor degree.

2. That the inficiens must be of 2l formative nature.

No other conclusion is possible ; for, in our studies on bacteria,

182 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

we have already learned that neither gases nor chemicals have the
power of multiplication within themselves ; yet even in this case, mnl-
tiplicatiou of the inficiens must have taken place to have produced
infection, for Gerlach says that " only some twenty drops of the
condensed fluid was used for the inoculations." Yiborg, who lived
early in the century, could not well have discovered form-elements
in these fluids, and it is doubtful if the microscope which Gerlach
used in 1868 was equal to it. At least, he reports that none were
to be seen, and concludes that the infectious elements exert a chemi-
cal action, which was also Yirchow's opinion at that time. Nega-
tive experiments (which, however, have always but little value in
the face of positive, as the individual immunity peculiar to all spe-
cies must always be taken into consideration) have been made by
Ilertwig, Eegnault, and others, with reference to the expired air
causing infection by means of the lungs. Diseased hoi'ses were
caused to breathe into a canvas bag at one end, while healthy ones
breathed from the other, yet in these cases no infection took place.
These experiments are, however, only too abundantly contradicted
by daily experiences.

The Blood. — Numerous experiments made with the blood of
glandered horses have shown it to be infectious.

Schimming * gives the following resume upon the results of his
and other experiments :

1. " Yenous blood from a glandered horse injected into the veins
of a healthy one causes glanders.

2. " The quantity of infected blood injected appears to exert an
influence upon the duration of incubatory stadium ; the stage of the
disease in the animal from which the blood was taken may not be
without influence also.

3. " Three months may elapse after the transfusion of such blood
before we can recognize any pathognomonic symptoms. This will
probably serve to explain the negative results which followed some
of the experiments of Viborg, Gerlach, and Hening ; that is, the
period under which the animals were kept in observation was too
short to allow the disease to develop.

4. " The blood from glandered animals appears to have a less
intensive action upon healthy animals than the nasal discharge, and
secretions from wounded surfaces."

5. " Transfusions with such blood in dogs, cats, and swine, gave
negative results."

6. " The subcutaneous injection of six grammes of deflbrinated

* " Ansteckungsfahigkeit d. Rotzblutes," Dorpat, 18T5.

TUE HORSE. 183

blood, taken from a glandcrcd horse, in dogs, produced the disease,
which woukl seem to indicate that in this way the blood was more
actively infections than by intravenous injection."

Chauveau looks upon the active principle of infection in the blood
as being based on certain suspended particles, leucocytes, or other
form-elements, and not upon the serum.

Time failed me to make any search over the literature as to the
existence of tlie infectious princijsle in the secretions of the parotid
and other glands, or the urine, although Gerlach casually mentions
that the latter is infectious, without giving any experimental proofs.

Both practical and experimental experience sufficiently prove the
fixedness of the infectious principle of glandei-s.

"We know that it is contained in the discharges from the nasal
cavities, in tlie secretions of the cutaneous ulcers, and that whatever
becomes polluted with such material, be it the harness, cribs, bed-
ding, or any other accidental vehicles, may retain its dangerous prop-
erties for a long time.

A valuable experiment could be made as to infectiousness of the
fieces from horses diseased with glanders,

Teiiaciti) of the Contagium.

The infectious principle of glanders retains its activity for a long
time, and under varying influences. "When a vehicle — nasal dis-
charge— is spread out, and quickly dried, on any hard substance, it
soon loses its activity, but in stables where it pollutes the crib, etc.,
it retains it many months. It loses its activity on exposure to a
temperature of 45° R. ; by exposure to scalding water, or by the ac-
tion of chemical agents — disinfectants — such as chlorine, carbolic
acid, etc. — but only when brought into actual contact with the same.

Decomposition does not appear to thoroughly destroy it (Ger-
lach). It seems to lose its virulence when introduced into the in-
testines (as flesh) of man, the dog, swine, and hens, but while not
80 active, is still capable of causing infection in the horse.

The dispersion of the infectious principle over the organism is
by means of the blood and lymphatic systems.

The Entrance of the Infectious Principh: into the Orgajiism — that
is, Natural Infection.

Experience goes largely to prove that while the infectious ele-
ments of glanders have a fixed character, that is, are not capable of
being taken up by the atmospheric current, and carried to any great
distance from the point of original generation, or lodgment, still that,

184: THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIJIALS.

in bj far the greater number of cases, infection must take place hy
means of this principle when suspended in the atmosphere ; that is,
by means of the expired air from glandered horses. Were this
not so, cutaneous glanders (farcy) would be far m.ore common than
it is ; in fact, it should, under this cu'cumstance, be the j)rimary
form.

Again, were the infection not generally due to a suspended
principle, we should have far more cases of ulceration in the lower
or exposed parts of the nasal passages, which is rare, while deeper
seated ulcerations are more common.

Again, that a suspended principle is commonly the cause of in-
fection, is proved by the numerous cases of pulmonary glanders
which occur with little or no nasal complications ; in the numerous
cases of pulmonary glanders, accompanied by cicatrices in the mu-
cosa of the bronchial tubes, trachea, and pharynx, all indicating the
long continuance of the disease, but, with eecent complications in
the super-nasal parts, with no evidence of older complications.

Disposition. — Immxinity.

As in every other contagious disease, not every horse exposed to
infection has glanders. Of 138 healthy horses which Lamirault
caused to stand among diseased ones, and to be cleaned, etc., with
the same utensils,, and to work with the same harnesses, only 29 be-
came diseased — 28 with glanders, 1 with farcy.

According to Lydtin, 40 to 50 per cent of the horses exposed to
natural infection became diseased.

By inoculation of 23 horses, only 8 became infected.

The almost invariably fatal character of the disease does not
allow us to judge whether an acquired immunity is possible or not,
by animals that have once had it.

"With the present French mania for all kinds of vaccinations with
cultivated virus, we shall probably hear of a modified form of
glanders being able to give an acquired immunity to natural or fur-
ther infection, at least for a time.

I always stand skeptical to all such assertions — ready to believe,
but doubting until the evidence is overwhelmingly ^w or con.

At present I do not believe in the generalization to which the
few Pasteur vaccine experiments have led.

Inoculation for glanders is no new thing, but has as yet always
signally failed. Furnival,* an enthusiastic Briton, claims "to have
cured seven bad cases of farcy by inoculation," and was anxious to

* "Fleming's Veterinary Journal," vol. x, p. 51.

THE nORSE, 1S5

continue this method of equine salv;ition, but, as we have heard
nothing more from him in this direction, we may conchide that
there are backsliders in his equine salvation army.

Phenomenology.

According to duration, glanders may be spoken of as acute or
chronic ; according to seat, as nasal, pulmonary, or cutaneous glanders
(farcy).

Pulmonary glanders can occur -without either the nasal or cuta-
neous forms being present, but it is very questionable if cither of
the latter can occur without evidences of pulmonary complications.

Chronic glanders is the common, acute the rare course which
the disease assumes.

Incubation. — D u ration.

In inoculations the incubatory period is generally from three to
five days, but in natural infection it is very hard to say, the authori-
ties varying from five to six days to as many weeks. In that form
which is known as chronic glanders, a period of apparent latency
may exist for months, yet even here there must be a period of incu-
bation.

Acute glanders may terminate in from ten to fifteen days, while
the chronic variety may continue for months or even years, how
many is an open question.

Chronic glanders terminates invariably with the acute form, but
when the acute variety follows known infection, it never assumes a
chronic character.

Acute Nasal Glanders.

Under this name we usually find both the acute processes in the
mucous membranes of the head an<l those of the cutis treated.

It is generally the conclusion of chronic glanders, where the dis-
ease occurs by natural infection. It also may follow directly on in-
fection.

Although, according to Fleming, Reynal denies that acute gland-
ers generally terminates the chronic form, the evidences to the con-
trary are so strong as to leave no doubt of its correctness.

The acute form is ushered in by more or less fever, by hyperne-
mia of the mucosa of the nasal cavities, with tumefaction of the
same, and sometimes with slight epistaxis (bleeding from the nose).
In a few days the nodes begin to develop in the mucosa, or dif-
fuse yellowish infiltrations of the same take place ; a discharge
from the nose follows the first stage of congestion : the same is at
first thin, viscid, and contains but few cellular elements, but it soon

186 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

becomes thicker, more viscid, of a queer yellowish-green color, and
adheres moi'e or less to the nostrils.

These nodes and infiltrations soon begin to show evidences of
breaking down, the edges become swollen and ragged, resembling
rodent ulcers; they extend by the formation of new nodes, or pro-
liferations in the circumference, and the sequential breaking do%vn
of the same ; frequently such ulcei's coalesce, giving rise to extensive
ulcerated surfaces. When these conditions last a long while, perfo-
ration of the septum sometimes takes place.

It has been noticed that the discharge is often limited to one
nostril, and particularly to the left, for which we have no explana-
tion, but, whichever side it is, there is the locality of the most serious
disturbances.

The submaxillary and retro-pharyngeal lymph-glands soon be-
come complicated, the infectious elements gaining access to them
by means of the lymphatics of nasal cavities. The lymphatics may
often be seen as swollen cords, and, if not seen, felt. The processes
in the glands are essentially of an indurative character. The breath-
ing is frequently labored, from the complication of the larynx, so
much so that death may sometimes result from oedema glottidis.
The fever increases, the animals become more and more depressed,
lose their appetite, etc. If this condition appears as a conclusion
of chronic glanders, we have mucous rales in the bronchi, sometimes
pneumonic infiltration, with the usual respiratory symptoms.

Soon follow oedematous swelling of the legs, sheath, the sub-ab-
dominal region, with the characteristic farcy-buds over difi'erent
parts of the body, especially the posterior, the swollen lymphatics,
the complications, induration of the sub-cutis, etc. "With tlie prog-
ress of the disease, and breaking down of the tissues, the discharge
from the nose and cutaneous ulcers becomes more profuse, diarrhoea
frequently sets in, albuminuria is present, and, if not killed, the
animals die a miserable death in from eight to fourteen days.

In a case of chronic glanders, inflammatory conditions may be
ushered in by a variety of circumstances, viz. : an infected horse
may, in the same manner as a healthy one, be attacked by any
acute feverish disease, let it be from any mechanical injury, from
the influences of cold, or miasmata, or any such thing. Catarrhal
disturbances of the respiratory tract are especially favorable to the
transformation of chronic to acute glanders. Bad weather, cold and
dry east winds, in fact, any influences which tend to irritate the mu-
cosae, exert a similar influence. The same is true of severe surgical
operations, wounds, fever, etc.

THE nORSE. 187

Bollin<^er has shown hy numerons exjiorimcnts tliat tlic nasal
mucosa is a favorite place for the local disturbances of glanders -with-
out regard to the point whence infection took pKicc.

Pulmonary Glanders.

In general, this form of glandei-s may be looked upon as the
same thing as chronic glanders. The true iniportanee of this form
of the disease has scarcely had due aj^preciation even from the pro-
fession.

It can exist for montlis, or even years, without the appearance of
any outward signwhich could be at once considered as pathognomonic.

Gerlach and Bollinger both give numerous cases where glanders
has been suspected, but in which characteristic symptoms entirely
failed, yet on the autopsy the pathognomonic phenomena in the
lungs were found abundantly represented. Gerlach says :

" On November 2, 1803, three horses belonging to a coal-dealer
were brought to the school clinic at Hanover. No. 1 was killed on
account of farcy ; Nos. 2 and 3 were kept for four weeks under ob-
servation. They were both emaciated, and had an ill-looking coat.
No. 3 had no other suspicious symptoms. No. 2 had, at first, a
slight tumefaction of the intermaxillary glands, which gradually
diminished, and a somewhat retarded respiration. After four weeks'
observation, both horses were returned to the owner, the police be-
ing notified that they were still to be looked upon as suspicions. On
the 10th of February, 1804, horse No. 2 was again brought to the
school on account of epistaxis. It was much emaciated, and asth-
matic to a high degree ; the respiration was nmch retarded, and the
animal had a short, dry cough ; the intermaxillary glands were not
disea.sed, and tiie nasal mucosa presented nothing abnormal. Fever
and symptoms of disease were entirely wanting. On account of the
antecedent circumstances, pulmonary glanders was suspected, and
the horse killed.

Aritopsy. — The mucous membranes of the head and the inter-
maxillary glands healthy, the lungs filled with glanders neoplasmata,
etc.

On account of this result, the third horse was killed. It was Iroken-
■?f7/;jr7<'r/, otherwise not a single sign of glanders could be perceived.

A xitopsy. — Not an indication of glanders in the naeal cavities or
cavities of the head. Intermaxillary glands healthy. In the lungs
tubercles, and the characteristic growths of glanders, phenomena
which may be looked upon as justifying the strongest suspicion
of the presence of chronic glanders, especially pulmonary.

188 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AOTMALS.

Gerlach says: "It can be almost axiomaticallj asserted that a
continuous hard nodulated condition of the intermaxillary glands in
a horse is sufficient to excite the suspicion of the existence of glan-
ders, even when no suspicious phenomena are to be seen in the nose.
I have never seen a tumefied condition of these glands which had
any deceptive resemblance to the bubo of glanders, in any simple
inflammatory or catarrhal complications of the mucous membranes
of the head.

Further, a horse must be looked upon with suspicion —

1. " When it has a dry, dull, wheezing cough, with retarded
respiration ; when the general condition of the animal is poor, the
hair staring, the body emaciated."

2. " When horses in this condition have stood or worked beside,
or otherwise been in relation with others known to have had glan-
ders.

3. " When the dyspnoetic phenomena have been anticipated by
suspicious glandular or catarrhal phenomena.

4. " When a horse that has been much in contact with such a
broken-winded horse acquires the disease, the latter should be sus-
spected.

5. " When, in the course of the above condition, any suspicious
glandular or catarrhal complications make their appearance."

Yeterinarians have made a mistake all along in judging glanders
too much from the clinical stand-point, that i's,,from visible symp-
toms, and have neglected to appreciate the true value or teachings
of the processes in the larynx, trachea, lungs, and other organs,
which are only revealed by a necroscopical examination.

At the Berlin school, where very exact records are kept of the
results of each autopsy, it was found that in 216 cases of glanders,
upon which examinations were made between the years 1871 and
1874, the location of the disease in the lungs failed in but ten of
them, while they were wanting in thirty-three cases in the nasal
cavities and those of the head.

Pulmonary glanders, it must be repeated, is as frequently the
primary lesion of the disease as that of the head or cutis. Of the
above 216 cases, the lesions of the lungs were found to antedate
those in the nose, or cutis, in more than half the cases.

Bollinger says, from much experience, that the conclusion of
Yirchow and others is erroneous, that the nasal mucosae are as fre-
quently the atrium of the infectious principle of glanders as the
genitals in syphilis, and that the pulmonary complications complete
the disease.

THE UORSE. 189

In proof of wliic'h he gives the following cases from the records
of the Munich school :

1. A horse was brought in with a tumefied condition of the right
hind-leg. The animal had a slight mucous flow from the nose, oc-
casionally coughed, and had some fever. The leg continued to
swell, the fever augmented, and tlie animal was killed, being con-
sidered incurable.

Aiifoj)^-^. — Subacute glanders of the larynx, the trachea, and
lungs. Nasal cavities completely normal.

2. A nine-year-old horse, in a fair condition, M-as taken into the
clinic with the appearance of severe dyspntea. Nasal outflow from
both sides, considerable fever, accelerated pulse and respiration, a
weak, painful cough. The diagnosis was acute ccdema glottidis, or
muscle paresis in larynx. Tracheotomy. After eight days the
horse was killed.

Autopi^ij. — Chronic and subacute glanders of the larynx; acute
glanders of the nose, the trachea, and lungs.

Upon the septum of the right nostril was to be seen a fresh
ulcer, and in its neighborhood, as well as liigher up, several snudler
ones. Retropharyngeal and laryngeal glands acutely swollen. Ex-
treme oedema glottidis. The inner surface of the larynx showed a
diffuse ulceration, partly covered with fresh granulations. Isolated
nodes in the lungs.

3. Axitopsy. — Chronic glanders of the larynx and lungs, with
acute nasal glanders, and swelling of the glands.

Pathological Anatomy.

Glanders is essentially characterized by ncoplasmatic processes,
which are represented by tubercles, nodes, the diffuse infiltrations
known as glanders-growths, and by pneumonic conditions, which in
general come under the head of dry catarrhal, also by complica-
tions of the stroma of the large glandular organs, and in very
chronic cases by thrombosis of the pulmonary veins, and the forma-
tion of gelatinous infiltrations of varied extent in the lungs.

The unknown inficiens of glanders undoubtedly has a specific
tendency to act upon, irritate, or excite into a state of proliferating
activity the interstitial tissues, which compose the stroma or frame-
work of the organs.

The works on veterinary pathology absolutely fail, either in no-
ticing this fact, or calling sufficient attention to it.

I can not at this moment recall a single paper upon the
" shrunken kidney " of chronic glanders, which is a very common

190 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

occurrence, and many of our text-books make no reference to the
clinical phenomena by which it is indicated ; but when present we
can almost, if not always, find casts and detritus in the urine, as well
as albumen.

It is also worth recording that this shrinking of the equine kid-
ney in chronic glanders — I have never seen it in any other disease,
but my own experience is very limited — which is due to prolif-
eration of the elements of the stroma, and thus anticipated by a
swollen condition of these organs, does not give rise to that granu-
lous or hob-nailed appearance, which occurs in man under like
processes, and produce the condition falsely called cirrhosis renalis
— Kcppo<i, yellow — a name given to the yellow appearance of the
cut surface of the liver — rum-drinker's liver — due to stocking of
the gall, under similar processes, upon the hepatic stroma. The
framework of the liver of the horse is complicated in a like man-
ner, giving rise to brown atrophy.

As the disease assumes an acute character, we find the organic
parenchyma also affected, which makes itself anatomically apparent
in the clouded swollen condition of the cells, the fatty metamor-
phosis of their plasma, and finds its expression in the w^eak move-
ments of the organs, muscles, and the gradually approaching ma-
rasmus.

The very frequent occurrence of ante-mortein coagula in the
heart, and formation of extended and bleached-out thrombi in the
pulmonary veins, is to be attributed to the weakness of the heart,
due to parenchymatous carditis.

In the report of Ditmars (to the Agricultural Department, pre-
viously alluded to) on glanders, may be read quite a dissertation
upon glanders-cells as something specific. This idea is borrowed
from Gerlach, and is simply a product of the period when Gerlach
studied the disease, and the minds and endeavors of pathologists
were all bent toward the discovery and description of specific cells.

Singular to say, Gerlach, who was in general not only a skep-
tical but most logical man, fell into this error.

Gerlach says : " The neoplasmatic processes of glanders consist
of round ceUs, spindle-cells, the last in part derivatives from the
former, and the proliferation of the connective tissue, which, by-the-
way, is only a secondary phenomenon in glanders, and has nothing
specific. These round cells have nothing singular in their form,
they are like granulation and pus cells ; nevertheless, they are spe-
cific and the true basis of the disease — they are therefore gland-
ers-ceUs."

THE noRSE. 191

In tlie above we have two serious errors :

1. There are no such things as speeitic cells.

2. The complications of the connective-tissue, stroma, of the
organs, in which i)ruliferation takes place, is essentially ^tv (///«/• to
glandei-s — that is, in the general manner in which it occurs, though
the process itself has nothing specific in it, and may and does
occur under other conditions. The irritans, the infectious prin-
ciple of glanders, is the specific element ; and also, we can say, the
general manner in which the interstitial tissues of the equine or-
ganism are complicated, is also something peculiar to the disease.
Gerlach contradicts himself when he calls these round and spindle
cells "glanders-cells," especially the former, and says they con-
stitute the "itjh'eijic and true lasu of the diseased In another
place he tells us, " they originate from the cells of the connective tis-
sue and epithelial elements."

"Were they specific to glanders, they should be peculiar to it, and
not occur in anything else.

This is not so: they are the simple prodiict^ of inflammation.
Just such cells may be found in simple but severe ulcerations of the
nasal niucosie, from wounds, chemical irritants, or such like. AVe
can produce them at pleasure.

Specific cells are a physiological impossibility, so far as abnor-
mality is concerned.

They may be heterotopic, that is, produced at a place where they
do not belong ; as an epithelial production in the brain, or in the
uterus, or a bone ; then we call it cancer.

Or the singular phenomenon of an embryonal tooth in the pa-
rotid region, which is sometimes met with in the horse.

Neither the cells nor the teeth having anything peculiar in them-
selves, they are normal elements in a wrong place.

Cells may be heterochronic — that is, normal cells may be pro-
duced at an abnormal time.

In Fig. 2 of Gerlach's illustration of glanders-cell, he give as
first-cla.ss picture of the gelatinous connective tissue of the embry-
onal uml)ilical cord ; a specimen, by-the-way, which offers the very
best opportunity of studying the appearance and connections of
spindle-cells.

Glanders-cells, cancer-cells, tubercle-cells, are all without any spe-
cificity. It is not the cell alone which makes the cancer ; it is the
seat, and the peculiar anatomical arrangements, witli its physiologi-
cal characteristics, which constitute the specificity of that njalignant
neoplasm.

192 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

The genesis of these cells in the nasal discharge was pretty cor-
rectly given by Gerlach, but since his day we have been taught that
the greater portion of them are migrated leucocytes ; this is true for
pus-formation, but in inflanfimat'wns it is certain that proliferation
also takes place — hence some of our round cells may be prolifer-
ated, epithelial, or connective-tissue elements. This question of the
origin of spindle-cells by formative jDrocesses or inflammations is
still an open one, to my mind, notwithstanding the authority of
Cohnheim. I, for one, do not believe a white blood-cell can trans-
form or develop into a spindle-cell. We can not tell the difference
between a white blood-cell and the intermediate or round cell con-
dition of the developing spindle-cell.

Lihe hegets like, and in inflammations, where formation takes
place, it is my opinion that the migrated cells perish by fatty de-
generation, and the formation is due, as long ago asserted by Yir-
chow, to the permanent elements.

In glanders we have more or less circumscribed forms of neo-
plastic formations. The first of these are the tubercles, which vary
in size from submiliary to that of a cherry or acorn ; 2. The gland-
ers-growths, varying from the above to the size of an apple, but of
irregular form ; 3. The glanders-infiltrations, which are less circum-
scribed in their outlines, and extended along the surface ; these are
particularly to be found in the nasal mucosa and sub-cutis.

The Glanders-Tuhercle. — There has been and still exists much
discussion and difference of opinion as to what should be considered
a true tubercle.

While this discussion is valuable, from an anatomical and prac-
tical sense, it has still led to much unnecessary mystification among
students.

It has always been the old hunt after specific cells, or specific
characteristics, by which to decide between two (macroscopically)
apparently similar objects. In the energy of this hunt the true spe-
cific has been lost sight of to a much too great degree.

The cause, irritans, is the specific element ; the product may or
may not have specific characteristics. We find tubercles occurring
under a great variety of circumstances and among many different
species of animals. Different causes lead to their production in
one and the same species.

In the horse, tubercles occur in glanders ; an idiopathic miliary
tuberculosis has been reported, however.

I can not at present tell whether there are any marked structural
differences in these tubercles in the horse.

THE HORSE. 193

Again, a peculiar chronic production in old horses, with more or
less bronchial catarrh, is known as " bronchitis nodosa"; this has
been mistaken for •jjlanders and for true tuberculosis. The nodes are
mostly conjposed of connective tissue, with round cells between the
fibers, and consist of a circumscribed proliferation of the walls of
the finest bronchioli, as they lose themselves in the infundibula.
At times one can make a differential diagnosis, macroscopically, with
ease, a transvei-se section of the object revealing the lumen of the
air-tube. Carefully executed microscopic section will ahcays reveal
the true nature of these nodes.

Hereditary influences do not ai)pear to play any part in the pro-
duction of tuberculosis in the hoi^se.

The ylamhrs-tiibercle^ in the lungs^ is of a permanent character ;
it does not extend, as in human tuberculosis, by infection of the
neighboring tissues, forming large masses of degenerating material,
which break down and lead to the formation of cavities — one form
of phthisis pulmonuni. They do not occur in any such quantity
as in the human lung. They are inclined to calcify, although fatty
degeneration of their centers is by no means uncommon.

They are due to a specific cause, the irritans of glanders.

I have no doubt that miliary tuberculosis can be produced In the
horse, by the entrance of foreign substances into the lungs, as the
aspiration of a spray containing in it the sputa from human phthisi-
cal subjects, as has been done in dogs.

"We know nothing of the cause of the very rare miliary tubercu-
losis in the horse.

In men and cattle wc have an hereditary predisposition to tuhcr-
culosis.

Here comes the ridiculous part of the assertion of many authors.

The diseases are identical. Why ? Because in both cases giant-
cells are found in the tubercles. The tubercles of glanders ai*e not
true tubercles.

1. Because they have no giant-cells.

2. Because they have a central vessel, which these others do not.
Both forms have a vascular circle, or retc, cmbracinji: them.
Giant-cells are not specific to tubercles. They are not present in

all stages of the development of the neoplasm. According to Kol-
likcr, their presence is always indicative of retrogressive or destruc-
tive protissi's ; they arc the rodents of cellular pathology, or physi-
ology.

They occur in the medulla of the bones, in sarcomatous tu-
mors, and, according to Kolliker, are one of the active causes of

13

194 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

the normal indentations of the bones — at least, they are found under
the periosteum. Tuberculosis also comes to pass in swine, rabbits,
Guinea-pigs, monkeys, and other animals. Does the same cause
work here as in man, the horse, or cow ? .

Again, etiologically speaking, we have several varieties of tuber-
culosis in man : First, hereditary causes ; second, idiojyathic infec-
tion, from antecedent conditions, scrophulosis, cheesy conditions of
glands due to other causes; third, infection from persons having
phthisis, by means of the as])iration of some specific irritans with
which they pollute the air ; and, fourth, the questionable infection
due to milk from tuberculous nurses, or cows.

In cattle, we may briefly assume an almost similar line of causes.

This will do for our present purpose.

The tubercular neoplasm of glanders is, and always will be, a
tubercle, having its peculiar cause, anatomical construction, and
course.

Undoubtedly, in some unknown way, the physiological and ana-
tomical characteristics of the different species, as well as the varia-
tions in the cause, exert some influence upon the structure and
course of life of the tubercle. With regard to the structure and
nature of the tubercles in glanders, Yirchow says that " they are
formed chiefly by cellular proliferation. In the youngest neoplasm
I found large numbers of small, delicate cells, as well as numerous
nuclei ; in older tubercles, the cells are longer and contain nuclei ;
these cells are very abundant, composing the greater part of the
node. These cells undoubtedly proceed from the pre-existing ele-
ments, and especially in the mucosae from the connective-tissue cells
of the mucosa and sub-mucosa. The greater the number of cells,
so much more dense and yellow is the node ; retrogressive processes
soon take place in the older nodes ; the cells undergo fatty meta-
morphosis, and break up and shrink.

Leisering, who has made very extensive studies upon the neo-
plasmata of glanders, says : " In whatever form the neoplasms of
glanders may appear, the cells constitute their prevailing element.
They are generally found varying in size ; the majority bearing the
strongest resemblance to pus-cells ; others are from four to six times
larger. Aside from these, numerous free nuclei go to make up the
largest part of the node, as well as the cells of proliferating connect-
ive tissue. The neojilasms have a varying character, according to
the predominance of the cellular, or stromatous, intercellular tissue
over one another. The more rapid the development of the neo-
plasm, the more prominent the cellular elements ; on the contrary,

THE nORSE. 195

in slow developiiHMit, the connective tissue prevails. The dissolu-
tion is liiistened ur retarded by the same. In slow development, the
vascularization is less marked than in rapid. AVherever the pro-
cesses of ^lundei-s are present, there may be found the tubercles, al-
though the luniks are the favorite seat. They are sometimes present
in great numbers, and at others it is very hard to find even solitary
examples.

AVhy the tubercles in the lungs have so little tendency to break
down, and those in the nasal mucosa are so prone thereto, must be
sought in two circumstances :

1. Their development is far slower in the lungs.

2. The matrix is different.

Those in the lungs are absolutely from a connective-tissue
matrix, while those in any mucosa are from a far less consistent
matrix.

At any rate, they occur in the nasal mucosa ranch more as
they develop in the lunnan lung, that is, en masse, which, on ac-
count of their transient character, accounts for the tendency to
breaking down, and here they seem also to have the infectious char-
acter of the human tubercle, new ones springing up in immediate
proximity to antecedent ones, which gives to the ulcerated surfaces
thus caused their rodent or extending characters.

The development of tubercles in the sinuses of the head does
not occur to any such degree as in the mucosa proper to the nasal
cavities ; the nodes, or neoplasmatic productions which we find here,
have a different character, to which we shall again refer.

In farcy, the tubercles lie chiefly in the cutis, although they also
develop in the subcutaneous cellidar tissue, and frequently attain
considerable size.

" Histologically, the tubercles of glanders arc exactly alike,
whether we find them in the lungs, nose, or cutis. In a fresh con-
dition they are more or less soft, transparent, and of a pearl-gray
color. In this condition they each have an individual central ves-
sel, as may be seen by injected lung specimens."

Do those of the other localities have this central vessel ?

" In the examination of these nodes, we may often find at the
center a hemorrhagic point, which probably proceeds from this
vessel.

" They may continue for a long time in the above condition.
"When newly developed, they are immediately limited by healthy
lung-tissue; later they become a special limiting membrane of con-
nective tissue. They are frequently surrounded by a circle of con-

196 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

gested vessels, outside of wliicli we frequently find more or less
desquamative pneumonia.

" They undergo different metamorplioses ; sometimes fatty de-
generation or calcification.

" These calcified centers can often be removed as small calculi
from the connective-tissue capsule, or limiting membrane. The de-
velopment of ulcers most frequently occurs in the mucosa of the
respiratory tract and iu the cutis ; neoplastic and degenerative pro-
cesses following successively on each other."

Infiltrated Neoplastic Processes.

" By this is meant diffuse, not sharply circumscribed, neoplas-
tic growths, composed of a gelatinous, pellucid, yellowish, reddish,
or grayish mass.

" This condition is most frequently met with in the mucosa of
the nose, the sinuses of the head, the larynx, and trachea ; they ex-
tend but little above the surface of the mucosa proper.

" They undergo, generally, two forms of metamorphosis :

" a. Desquamation of the epithelium takes place upon the dis-
eased localities, leaving an ulcerated surface. The cellular ele-
ments prevail to even a greater extent than in the nodes. They
vary much in size. They undergo dissolution very rapidly, and give
the most pregnant examples of glanders ulceration.

" h. The fibrous character may predominate, and it is in this form
that cicatrization takes place."

Yirchow differs from Leisering, in that he thinks the cicatrices
proceed from the ulcers, rather than from the infiltrated form
glanders. Bollinger looks upon the cicatrices as processes of natural
healing of ulcerated surfaces, whether the same come from ulcera-
tive or infiltrated disturbances.

In nasal glanders we frequently find intensive thrombosis of
the veins of the septum and turbinated bones, as well as of the lym-
phatics.

The mucosa of the sinuses of the head is very delicate iu a nor-
mal condition ; in many cases of glanders we find it the subject of
neoplastic processes, mostly of the diffuse form, interrupted by
numerous circumscribed places of a more fibrous character, which
project above the general surface. The mucosa and periosteum of
these cavities form one membrane, and it is self-evident that one
can not be complicated without the disturbance extending to the
others, which leads to the developmont of osteophytes and hyperos-
toses, which remain after the mucosa has been removed by maceration.

THE noRSE. 197

ITauhner, of Dresden, lias ciideavoretl, ami often successfully, to
make use of these complications of the sinuses of the head as aids
to diagnosis in doubtful cases of glanders. By trepanning, the dis-
eased nature of the mucosa and hones may fre(pient!y be seen, and
in many cases the true nature of the disease may be determined by
the ulcerative character which the healing wound of the operation
assumes, although this can not be said to be an invariable rule.

AVe also find these diffuse neoplastic processes in the lungs of
varying size and quantity. Sometimes they are on the edges, and
at others in the body of the lung. In their substance tubercles may
be often found ; the adjoining tissue is generally more or less hyper-
ffimic.

At fii-st, these places consist of a yellow, gelatinous mass ; later,
the cellular or fibroid character may jirevaih In the first case, they
present some characteristics of gray hepatization • in the last, the
cut surface is dry, and the resistance to the knife greater in making
a transvei-se section.

These infiltrations undergo the same metaraoqihoscs which we
have learned in the tubercles, and complicate the pulmonary tissue
in their dissolution. In general, caseification and calcification take
place. They are frequently circumscribed by a sort of connective-
tissue capsule.

The processes in the cutis and limiting muscles have the same
characteristics as those in the lungs and nasal cavities, except that
the lymphatics are more considerably complicated. They frequent-
ly terminate in extensive sclerosis of the subcutaneous cellular tis-
sues or the development of ulcers, farcy-buds, or abscesses. Ery-
sipelatous and phlegmonous complications of the cutis and subcutis
are by no means uncommon, especially in the extremities.

As secondary complications of glanders, we often find bronchitis
and broiu'ho-pneumonia in the lungs, especially in the anterior and
deeper portions.

Another peculiar pulmonary complication, though not specific to
glanders alone, as it comes also in aged and worn-out horses, is
known as gelatinous infiltrations.

This condition being so common, and so little noticed in works
on veterinary pathology, I feel justified in touching upon it here.

Schutz, the able pathologist of the Veterinary School at Berh'n,
says, "This condition occurs quite frequently in the lungs of horses
complicated with glanders, and I must admit that I have had no
little difficulty in following its genesis." *

* " LuDgenkraDkheitea des Pferdca."

198 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC A^HMALS.

Gelatinous, infiltrated portions of the lungs are more or less
transparent, densely filled witli fluid, and extended to a moderate
degree. The fluid in sucli parts is viscid. The changes in these
parts become -more marked as the fluid in the alveoli augments.
When Tve make a transverse section of such parts, this fluid does
not flow over the cut surface, which is smooth and lustrous, unless
we exert pressure upon the lung. The contents of the alveoli
strongly resemble mucus, but, as there is no mucous membrane in
the alveoli, it terminates with the brouchiolus ; if this fluid contains
mucin, it must then be aspirated with the air. It does not, how-
ever, contain mucin. This fluid is very viscid and much like the
white of eggs ; it also contains cells, most of which strongly resem-
ble the white blood-cells ; some of them are larger, and are undoubt-
edly desquamated and swollen endothelial cells.

Accordingly, the disease product in the lungs consists of a viscid
fluid and cellular elements ; this mass seems to be of a movable
nature, and it is quite interesting to know why it is not expecto-
rated.

At first, however, I will remark that I can not accept the termi-
nology, " inveterate oedema," which Rindfleisch has given to this
condition, especially as he attributes it to the extravasation of the
serous elements of the blood in consequence of mechanical hinder-
ance to the circulation. On the contrary, we have here to do with
an inflammatory process, as is indicated by the presence of so many
round cells in the fluid. Laennec was the first to give the name of
" gelatinous infiltrations " to these conditions, and Briickmiiller has
also treated it as an inflammatory process. In it the extravasation
of fluid far exceeds that of the cellular elements of the blood,
which, with the desquamated epithelium of the alveoli, make up
the mass. "When this occurs alone we have a desquamative pneu-
monia, which is similar to the desquamation which occurs from
the cutis, except that the loosened cells are here inclosed in a cav
ity ; the presence of the fluid in this case causes them to swell,
and become more or less transparent, the same as when we put tlie
desquamated cells of the cutis-e'pithelium in water. As in most
pneumonias, there is also an exudation of fluid from the vessels into
the alveoli ; the name of catarrhal pneumonia is better than Buhl's
terminology, " desquamative j^neumonia." Horses have, in general,
this form of pneumonia, although not every catarrhal pneumonia
is complicated with gelatinous infiltration.

The conditions to the development of gelatinous infiltration are :

1. ^^Atelectasis of tJie comjplicated jpuhnonary tissue — i. e., the

THE HORSE. 199

complicated portion of the lun^s must first be ai7'Iess before the
inthmimatory processes take pUice. The atelectatic parts have a
more or less liomo^eneous character, and, when they become filled
with this riuid substance, they have the above-mentioned gelatinous,
pelhicid character. The atelectatic parts are rendered oidematous by
the intlammation ; fluid and cells distend the alveoli instead of air;
such parts are tense, yet elastic to the touch. AVe have, then, atelec-
tasis— airlessness — plus inflammatory cedema."

" It may be remarked that we have two forms of cedema : the
one mechanical, due to some interference with the circulation, by
which the vessels become so distended that the serous elements of
blood exude thro\igh the vessels; this is exemplified by the collat-
eral a''lei/ia, which often takes place in the non-complicated parts of
the lungs in pneumonia, that causes death by a sort of internal
self -drowning. The other is due to inflammation, which you should
know all about."'

2. " A second condition proper to gelatinous infiltration is ana3-
mia ; or, in other words, bloodless atelectasis is a sine qua no)i to ge-
latinous infiltration. This anajmia is the reason that such parts
have a yellowish or yellowish-gray color. According to Rindfleisch,
a hypenvmic condition develops in every atelectatic part. This
hyperoimia is the cause of the exudation of the blood-serum in the
alveoli, and causes a condition which he names splenization. His
* inveterate cedema ' is only to be distinguished from splenization
by the absence of hypenemia, and the anaemia by the pressure
caused by the continued transudation of fluid into the alveoli."

According to Schutz, neither splenization nor gelatinous infiltra-
tion are due to mere serous transudation. Both owe their genesis
in atelectatic tissues to inflammation, except in splenization the ato-
lectasic tissues are in a hypersBinic, while in gelatinous infiltration
they are in an ancemic condition. The splenized and gelatinous
infiltrated tissues contain not only serous fluid, but the products
of inflammation, i. e., water, which is rich in albumen and cellular
elements. Gelatinous infiltration is, therefore, not the second stiige
of splenization, as Rindfleisch asserts, but either can occur 8ui gene-
ris, and we have therefore to consider why at one time we have
gelatinous infiltration and at another splenization of the lung.

" I have only seen gelatinous infiltration in emaciated and weak
liorses, which were anremic. It makes no diflference whether this
latter condition was produced by poor dietetic conditions or chronic
disease. In such horses all parts are pale, also the atelectatic por-
tions of the lungs ; and slight catarrhal processes in such parts easily

200 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

produce gelatinous infiltration. The grade of the anaemia present
decides the grade of the paleness, and the latter is not the secondary
but the primary condition of the lungs, into which the transudation
of fluid, etc., takes place. "When, however, the atelectatic parts are
at the same time hypersemic, as in vital hypostasis, and, in such
hypostatic-atelectatic parts, inflammation takes place, then we have
splenization.

" Gelatinous infiltration, therefore, consists of atelectasis, om(2-
mia, transudation of fluid, and a moderate filling of the alveoli with
cells ; splenization, of atelectasis, hypostasia, hyperccmia^ transuda-
tion of fluid, and a moderate filling of the alveoli with, cells."

The conditions to atelectasis and ansemia are always present in
emaciated horses. In such, the respiratory movements ai*e weak,
and they frequently suffer from bronchial catarrh. Atelectasis is
naturally to be found in those portions of the lungs where the con-
ditions to the free circulation of the air are the least favorable ; that
is, the middle and anterior portions of each lung. The extent of
the atelectasis is dependent upon the extension of the bronchial
catarrh, and the degree of weakness of the respiratory functions.
As such horses are also anaemic, the atelectatic portion of the lung
must be in a like condition. Atelectasis and ansemia are both quite
common in horses suffering from chronic glanders ; their respira-
tory functions are also weak, and they often suffer from bronchial
catarrh. Therefore, in such horses, the lungs are already j)repared
for gelatinous infiltration, and we see it occurs the moment they
acquire a catarrhal pneumonia. Gelatinous infiltration is, how-
ever, a secondary complication, and has no idiopathic connection
with glanders. Each can occur without the other, though the
former is a frequent complication of the latter. We frequently find
the pathological processes of glanders in small and circumscribed
portions of the lungs, while the gelatinous infiltrations complicate
extensive portions of the same. When the latter are very exten-
sive, we often see striking clinical phenomena, caused by local ca-
tarrhal pneumonia, which has come in as a secondary comj)lication
to glanders. Clinicians have then said that the glanders has be-
come acute, though in truth it has only become complicated by an
acute catarrhal pneumonia.

" If they die in this condition, glanders has not been the cause,
but the accessory complication. If such horses have laid upon one
side for some time ante-mortem^ we shall find hypostatic hyperfemia
in the diseased portions of the lungs, and then, instead of gelatinous
infiltration, we shall find a splenized condition in the deeper-seated

THE UORSE. 201

portions of the Inngs. Such parts tlorive their name from their re-
semblance to the spleen.

'' Gelatinous infiltration and s[)k'nization occur under peculiar
circnmstances ; both of them represent the beginning of an inflam-
matory process, or a cellular infiltration of the alveoli — red hepatiza-
tion. Frequently, however, the alveoli become filled with cells,
when we have the condition of full cellular alveolic infiltration —
gray hepatization. These places are situated in the vicinity of the
bronchioli, and bespeak a high degree of irritation of the pulmonic
tissues. The causes of catarrhal pneumonia find their atrium by
means of the bronchi, so it is natural that these conditions should
develop in tlieir vicinity. Broncho-pneumonia has always a local
character ; it is circumscribed, not diffuse ; centers of pneumonia,
therefore, develop in the gelatinous, infiltrated, or splenized parts.
In the first, the centers are of a whitish, in the latter of a gravish-
red, color. Persons who look upon all circumscribed inflammatory
centers as indications of glanders, could easily mistake these for the
same. They have nothing whatever to do with glanders, however,
and can occur in any horse under the above conditions."

AVe have already spoken of the general complication of the in-
terstitial tissue, or stroma, of the large glands of the organism in
glanders, which does not find mention in the books, and have only
to mention that circumscribed neoplasmata also develop in these
organs, and sometimes within the l)ones. In the liver they possess
a great inclination to calcify. Clouded swelling and granular de-
generation of parenchyma of these organs also take place. Leuco-
cytosis, or an unnatural number of white blood-cells, is also common
in chronic glanders ; the increase of these cells is sometimes so great
as to produce a veritable leucaemia ; ten white to twenty red cells
have frequently been counted. The cause of this condition is to be
sought in the constant irritation which the lymph-glands undergo in
this disease.

Diagiiosis.

The diagnosis of glanders is often extremely difficult ; especially
is this the case in the chronic form, where all external pathognomonic
symptoms are wanting; but the fact of infection of other horses,
the prevalence of the previously detailed dyspnretic, debilitated,
and other suspicions phenomena arc generally sufficient to warrant
a questionable diagnosis, and the exact quarantining or slaughter-
ing of the animal by the authorities.

202 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AXIMALS,

Prognosis.

Always unfavorable ; treatment is never justifiable, on account
of the danger of the extension of the disease to man and other ani-
mals.

Prevention.

Xo one but accredited veterinarians should ever be permitted to
examine either glandered or suspected horses by the civil authori-
ties. If the disease is confirmed, or if there is a justified suspicion
of its existence, the veterinarian should at once inaugurate careful
inquiries as to the period during which the suspicious symptoms
have been present; the number of horses stabled with such dis-
eased or suspected ones ; whether they have worked with them ;
which have stood beside them, and for how long ; have any been
sold, or otherwise removed from the stable, and carefully examine
each horse in detail. The results of such an examination should be
reported in due form to the civil authorities. The examining vet-
erinarian should at once isolate the diseased or suspected horses in
a place distant from the healthy ones, or better, the healthy ones
should, if possible, be removed from the infected stable. The owner
and attendants must be notified of their duties in this regard, and of
the danger to themselves from carelessness.

Special persons should be detailed to take care of the suspected
animals.

The veterinarian should make an accurate and detailed descrip-
tion of each horse upon the place, or in the stable, a copy of which,
with owner's name, should be given to the civil authorities.

If glanders be diagnosed in a horse, it should be at once killed,
and in a way to guarantee, as far as possible, no further extension of
the disease.

When the suspicion of glanders exists, the animals should be
killed—

1. TVhen it can be proved that the suspected animal has been in
intimate relations with one known to have had the disease.

2. When there exists a suspicious nasal discharge ; tumefaction
and nodulated conditions of the intermaxillary and other accessible
lymph-glands; when suspicious cutaneous conditions are present,
especially when in unison with these conditions we have more or less
marked difficulty in respu-ation, and want of condition in the animal.

3. When, after the lapse of three months, a suspected horse
can not be declared free from suspicion by a majority of three quali-
fied veterinarians.

THE nORSE. 203

4. AVlien the owner can not supply suitable conveniences for
quiirantiiiing sueli a horse, or where reasons exist which rentier such
a procedure necessary to the public good,

5. If the owner refuses to comply with the veterinary police
regulations.

AVhen necessary, suspected horses should be branded in a man-
ner to be fixed by law.

A hoi-se must be looked upon as " suspected " when it has stood
in the same stable with one known to have or have had the disease ;
or when it is known that it has been exposed to infection from such
a horse.

Suspected horses or stables must be subjected to periodical ex-
aminations by an accredited veterinarian ; these revisions should
occur at least once in eight days.

Such horses may be allowed to be used within certain limits and
according to certain regulations of the civil authorities.

Such horses should be kept under veterinary control for a period
of not less than three months. If the restrictive regulations of the
civil authorities are not rigidly adhered to, suspected horses must be
subjected to stable (quarantine, where veterinary revision should also
take place at least twice a month.

The animal should be peremptorily killed, should the owner
attempt to evade these rules, and the evasion punished by law.

Should the disease extend from an infected locality, a careful
examination of the horses in the vicinity should l)c made.

The cadavers of horses killed on account oi e;landers should
either be chemically destroyed or securely buried, after the hide
had been destroyed by slashing and the carcass rendered unpal-
atable by saturation -with kerosene. Three feet of earth should
cover such cadavers, and the burial-place be either fenced in or
pave<l.

Public watering-troughs are to be condemned, and faucets put
in their place. Ilackmen, teamsters, etc., should be obliged by law
to carry buckets to water their horses.

The disease may be declared as ended —

"When all diseased or suspected horses have been killed, or when
the latter have been declared free from suspicion.

When the infected 8tal)les, utensils, harnesses, etc., have been
thoroughly cleansed and disinfected.

204 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

Glanders m Human Beings.

As I said of anthrax, it seems to me indispensable that the vet-
erinarian should also know the essential points of glanders in man.
In detailing these I shall give the facts directly from Bollinger's
description.

Etiology.

It must be self-evident that equine glanders is the source whence
human beings derive the disease. In most cases it is possible to
trace the disease to the cause, although in some we are unable to ;
this latter variety has been looked upon in times past as of sponta-
neous origin.

The inficiens gains access to the human organs by means of
wounded or abraded surfaces, either in the care of diseased ani-
mals, or by persons examining them, or by persons in knackers'
establishments, and occasionally through accident or sheer careless-
ness. In some cases the nose, mouth, or eyes may serve as the
atrium, when horses snort and blow such material into these cavities.
A few cases have been reported where the bite of a glandered horse
has caused infection.

It is undoubtedly a fact that the flesh of glandered horses is in-
fectious, as is proved by the disease occurring in lions and other
animals that have fed upon it.

Decroix, the noted hippophagist of France, had the temerity to
eat it in both a cooked and uncooked condition, and saw no evil re-
sults therefrom. Koll and others report cases of infection of grooms
and others by drinking from the stable water-pails, or by wiping a
wound with a rubbing-cloth, or among veterinarians by using one's
handkerchief to wipe the horse's discharge from off the clothes, and
then using it about the person.

"When the disease occurs without any known locus infectlonis,
we must assume that it is through the aspired air, especially where
a constitutional complication antedates any local disturbances.

This has been observed to occur in grooms, etc., especially where
they sleep in the stables, or by the accidental sleeping upon the
straw which had been used to bed a glandered horse.

In this regard the following two cases are interesting :

1. A groom had the habit of taking the warm blanket off
the horse and replacing it with another. He would roll himself
up in it perfectly nude, and cover himself with others, and thus
sleep in the stable. The man acquired glanders, though no one
had suspected its existence in the horse, nor were there any ul-

THE nOKSE. 205

cerations, nasal discharge, or tuuietietl glands, to indicate its pres-
ence.

The autopsy developed the presence of pulmonary and constitu-
tional glandei-s.*

2. This is a most rcuuirkablo and instructive case. A family
lived over a stable, with steps leading down from the tenement by
the stable-door. The mother had an infant at the breast, and one
day, when taking it down to give it fresh air, a horse which was
being led out snorted and blew some discharge from its nostrils into
the chiUrs face. The child was taken ill, and glanders diagnosed.
An elder sister, who was in condition to act as wet-nurse, one day
took the child to nurse ; she had excoriated nipples, and some of the
discharge from the child's nose probably came in contact with them.
Both child and sister died from glanders.f

3. A young man purchased a glandered horse at Detroit, Michi-
gan, not knowing what it was. lie contracted the disease and
died.

The Massachusetts State Board of Health have recorded thirteen
eases of glanders, between the years 1859 and 1875, in that State.

Cases of the transmission of glanders from man to man have
been rejjorted ; one where a family of man, wife, and four children
all became diseased from sleeping in the same bed with the father.
Predisposition. — It can, in general, be said to be very small,
when we consider the frequent occasions offered to infection to those
whose business brings them among such horses.

In general, glanders among human beings may be said to be a
" calling " disease ; that is, occurring among the above-named classes.
Of the lOG cases collected by Bollinger —
41 were grooms.

11 coachmen, teamsters, and riders.
14 horse-owners and farmers.
10 veterinarians and veterinary students.
6 knackers.
6 horse-butchers.
5 soldiers.
4 doctors.
3 gardeners.
2 horse-dealers.

1 each in a policeman, shepherd, smith, and an anatomy serv-
ant at a veterinary school.

* " Mitthcilunp an d. Praxis iin Pnussiscben Staatc," 187a-'80.
\ " Veterinary JoumaV* vol ix, p. 144.

206 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC AA^IMALS.

Incubation. — The incubatory period is from three to five days ;
sometimes extending to fourteen days or three weeks.

Course. — The disease assumes either an acute, subacute, or chronic

form.

Acute Glanders.

Of twenty-eight cases, of which but one ended fatally, the aver-
age duration, aside from the period of incubation, was 16*5 days.
Cases of seven to eight days' duration are rare ; in general, it lasts
two to three weeks, sometimes four.

The introductory phenomena are frequently a general feeling of
disturbance, weakness, headache, shivering, often combined with
uncertain pains in the extremities, especially in the muscles and
joints.

If a trauma (wounds) formed the atrium of the inficiens, we may
remark on the locus infectionis hypersemia and inflammation of
the parts ; swelling and inflammation of the lymphatics. In rare
cases the disease begins with shivering. When the pains are in-
tense and intermittent or continued, fever is present. The ulcers
increase, the edges and base acquire an evil appearance, the ulcer
frequently a chancrous, rodent character. "When the wound is upon
a finger, the whole arm may be the seat of an erysipelatous or phleg-
monous inflammation, which is often complicated with pustular or
ulcerous eruptions. The constitutional disturbances increase at the
same time : the patient loses appetite ; the evacuations are retarded ;
the weakness increases ; the pains in the muscles and joints become
more intense, and the fever augments.

When the anamnesis is wanting, and when the infection has
taken place from a volatile inficiens, or when all signs of outward
infection fail, the disease might often be mistaken for typhus. As
the disease progresses, reddish spots appear on the cutis, which trans-
form into pustules resembling those of variola or pemphigus. These
pustules often appear in great numbers, and are of varying dimensions.
They frequently coalesce and form ulcers, giving off an offensive
odor. Large ulcers often develop on the extremities, which extend
to the sinews and bones. These cutaneous affections are frequently
so extensive as to leave scarcely any part of the body uncomplicated.
Sometimes the joints become tumefied with fluctuating swellings.
At others these eruptions appear within twenty-four or forty-eight
hours ; again, only within two, three, or four weeks, after the ap-
pearance of nasal catarrh, tumefaction of the muscles, pain, etc.

The mucosae, particularly of the nose, are frequently the seat of
inflammatory and ulcerative processes. When the nose is compli-

I

THE nORSE. 207

cated, we observe in the beginning a secretion of a tliiii, viscid, whit-
ish discharge ; swelling, hypei-aeniia, and pains in the nose and sur-
ronndings, gradually develop. The nasal discharge is fre(piontly uni-
lateral, and later becomes thicker, niuco-purulent, and ofTensive. In
a few eases nodules may be diagnosed. In many cases we can diagnose,
intra ritain, the development of pustules and ulcers in the nasal
mucosa, which in malignant cases lead to erosions of the perichon-
drium and perforation of septum. The uni- or bilateral nasal dis-
charge appears often oidy after two or three weeks, coeval with dif-
fuse redness of the nose, which may extend over the face and fore-
head. In few cases the nasal discharge fails, although nodular erup-
tions take place.

As in the horse, so in man, we frequently observe that the nasal
affection appears to he the closing complication of the disease.

Later, or coeval with the cutaneous erujitions, there develop
catarrh and inflammatory ulcerative processes in the other mucosas,
which stand in more or less intimate connection with that of the
nose, as in the conjunctiva, the mouth, (esophagus, and trachea. In
some cases abscesses develop in the joints, j)articularly those of the
hands. The submaxillary and lingual glands, which often contain
abscesses, become swollen and painful. The respiratory tract is fre-
qnently the seat of serious complications, such as bronchial catarrh,
with accompanying symptoms. The pulse is small and frequent ;
the temperature increases to over 4:0° C.

The participation of the nervous system is made evident by
vertigo, headache, ringing in the ears, want of sleep, uneasiness,
somnolence, delirium, etc. Albumen is sometimes present in the
urine. In pregnant females, abortion often takes place.

Chronic (Jlaxders

Assumes the 'above characteristics in varying form and less rapid
development. The medium duration — recovery is qtiite frequent,
slow, and incomplete — extends over four months.

Pathohxjical Anatonnj. — In this regard the })hcnonicna in man
bear a strong resemblance to those of pynemia.

The chief difference between those of man and horses is the
greater prevalence of tubercular eruptions in the fonncr; other-
wise we have almoet similar conditions, except the greater tendency
to abscesses in man.

I)iagno»is. — This, when the cause is kno\vn, is easy, otherwise
often very difficult, especially on account of the resemblance of the
processes to those of pytemia.

208 THE DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS!

Prognosis.— This is far more favorable tliau in tlie horse, al-
though in the acute form it is generally fatal.

Of 38 cases of acute glanders, healing by 1

Of 7 cases of subacute glanders, healing by 2

Of 34 cases of chronic glanders, healing by 17

Therapeutics. — This belongs to medical men.

Prevention. — Keep down equine glanders, and see to .the proper
instruction of .those about horses, that they exercise great care about
those having glanders, or in which it is suspected.

PART n.

THE HISTORY OF YETERIXART
MEDIOI]S^E.

In the foregoing pages I have endeavored to place before the
public some of the principal dangers to which mankind is liable
froni animal diseases themselves, or from jiarasites vi'hich, while in-
fecting the so-called lower animal organism, do not in some instances
cause any very serious disturbances ; still, when introduced into the
human organism, may cause disturbances of a very serious if not
of an absolutely mortal character.

The only known means by which prevention of these disturb-
ances, or maladies, may be hoped for, is by the enactment of laws
and regulations by the different State governments — which should,
however, be uniform in all States. These laws and regulations
should be rigidly executed. Their execution, however, does not
come within the province of liuman medicine per se. It belongs
to another branch of medical science, which has been, up to the pres-
ent time, utterly neglected by the people of this country, whether
represented by the respective State governments or by the General
Government at Washington. Coming under the same liead, and
therefore to be considered with it, are the sujiprcssion and preven-
tion of those ravaging animal pests which in past ages have almost
depopulated the older Continental nations of their animal wealth,
and which can any day be landed uptm our shores ; in fact, as T have
already shown, some of them are already "domesticated" with us,
and the sole reason that their real nature and their ravages among
our animals are not more immediately felt by the American people
is the utter failure of reliable statistics upon the subject to bring
it home to every American statesman and citizen as well.

The Commissioner of Agriculture, at Washington, gave out, for
the year 1S70, a pamphlet entitled " Investigations of Diseases of
Swine, and Infectious and Contagious Diseases incident to other

14

210 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

Classes of Domestic Animals." The title is Mgh-sounding enougb,
but while Messrs. Law and Detmers, veterinarians, give us some
valuable knowledge with reference to one contagioinfectious dis-
ease of swine, the so-called "hog-cholera," the "report" is abso-
lutely wanting in any reliable statistics with reference to the same.
I^umerous medical men have also given contributions with reference
to this swine-disease, many of which are most absurd : for instance,
calling it "typhus," and comparing it with the specific infectious
disease of man known by that name. Veterinary-Surgeon Det-
mers also gives a compilation with reference to the glanders of the
horse. Aside from the pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, no other conta-
gious disease of our animals is mentioned in the report. This is not
to be wondered at. In a country where there are very few well-
educated veterinary surgeons, where there is no appreciation of the
true value of veterinary science ; in a country where quacks and
empirics of every form are nourished and appreciated before the
well-educated practitioners, in only too many instances ; in a coun-
try where there is no official examination of the products from food-
producing animals, and where there are neither laws nor regulations
for the suppression of contagious animal diseases ; in a country boast-
ing, as it does, of its civilization and the extent of education among
its people, where there is no well-organized veterinary school, or a
medical school devoted exclusively to the scientific study and devel-
opment of science, and regulated by the State — it is not surprising
that it is impossible for the Government to gather rehable, or any,
statistics with reference to the devastations caused by pests among
its animals.

The j)revention of the already desGribed human diseases due to
causes originating in our domestic animals, the suppression and
^prevention of devastating aniinal jpests, can only 5<3 attained hy the
developtnent of veterinary science, and at the hands of scientifically
educated veterinarians.

This can only he attained hy having a completely organized and
State-7^egulated veterinary institute, and for reasons vohich I shall
presently give. One national institute is far more in the interests
of tJie people of this country than State institutes.

Before, however, entering upon the discussion of that subject, it
is not inappropriate to cursorily trace the history of veterinary medi-
cine from its beginning to our time. The history of veterinary
medicine per se can be logically divided into two periods : the
ante-school, or crude, empirical period, extending from the earliest
antiquity to the year 1Y62 ; and the scholastic or educational period,

THE niSTORY OF VETEUIXARY MEDICINE. o^^

extending from that date to our own day. Both of these periods
are capable of subdivision. The pre-scholastic period nuiy be sub-
divided into the ante-Greek, the Grreco-Ronian, and tlie period of
the "Stahhneisters," " niaresdial/' <jr master of the hoi*se, ^vhile
the schohistic period may be divided into tlie educational-empiric
and the scientific educational, which saw its birth about thirty years
ago.

" Westward the march of empire takes its way I " So true as
this is, it is no less true that with the " westward " movement of
humanity and civilization, the contagious and ravaging pests which
have preyed and still continue to prey upon a suffering human and
animal world have kept up a uniform extension. So it is of sci-
ence. So it is with the endeavor of medical science — prevention.
So it will be with that branch of medical science M'hich I am en-
deavoring, however unsuccessfully, faithfully to represent — veteri-
nary medicine.

Philologists have taught us that the civilized races of the day
took their rise from the Aryans, a pastoral people who conquered
the nomad tribes living on the high plateaus of the Caucasus Mount-
ains in the north of India. These Aryans attained a wonderful de-
gree of civilization, which is detailed to us in records of an age some
1000 years b. c. "With their civilization was mixed an immense
amount of superstition, a great awe and reverence for all the start-
ling phenomena of nature, as well as all natural creations. These
records are ingrafted in the beautiful poems of the "Artharva,''
" Rig " and '* Ayur Yeda," the last meaning the " Science of Life,"
and the great war-poem, the " Mahabharata."

The reverence which these people bore to their Brahmans, as the
ministers of their gods, and their worship of the sacred cow, and
tender care of all animal life, are well known to the student of these
ancient writings. "With suffering comes naturally an immediate
search for relief. Behold, then, the birth of empiricism I The re-
sults of these experiences were handed down from mouth to mouth ;
these sayings being frequently collected and recited for the benefit
of the people by the priests and wise men. The wealth of these
early people, and also of many of their immediate descendants of
our day, was in their immense herds of grazing animals. Fleming,
" Animal Plagues,'' says : " The immense steppes of Central Asia
still furnish us with examples of this condition of the unsettled
races who wander over them with their countless herds." A recent
traveler* in that region of the world pleasantly describes some of

♦ Atkinson, "Oriental and Western Siberia."

212 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

tlie scenes he witnessed among them : " Just as the day dawned I
turned out to examine our position, when I discovered the snowy
peaks of the Sian-Shan. They appeared cold and ghost-like against
the deep-blue sky ; presently they were tipped with the sun's rays,
and shone forth like rubies. I sat on the ground, watching the
changes with much interest, till the whole landscape was lighted
up. Immediately near me was a busy scene ; on one side the men
were milking the mares, to the number of more than one hundred,
and carrying leathern pails of milk to the 'koumiss' bag in the
' yourt,' the young foals being secured in two long lines to pegs
driven in the ground. In front, and on the opposite side, the
women were milking cows, sheep, and goats, and a little distance
beyond these the camels were suckling their young. Around the
camp the steppe was filled with animal life. The sultan told me
that there were more than two thousand horses, half the number
of cows and oxen, two hundred and eighty camels, and more than
six thousand sheep and goats. The screams of the camels, the bel-
lowing of the bulls, the neighing of the horses, and bleating of the
sheep and goats, formed a pastoral chorus such as I had never heard
in Europe." On another occasion he writes : " All were out with
the dawn, and then appeared a scene highly interesting to me. The
whole of the herds are brought to the ' aoul ' at night, where they
are most carefully guarded by watchmen and dogs placed in every
direction, rendering it almost impossible to enter any ' aoul ' with-
out detection. The noise at first was almost intolerable ; there was
the sharp cry of the camels, the neighing of the horses, the bellow-
ing of the bulls, and the barking of the dogs, and shouting of the
men. I counted one hundred and six camels, including their young;
there were more than two thousand horses, one thousand oxen and
cows, and six thousand sheep and goats. Even these, large as the
number may appear, were far short of the total number belonging
to the patriarch chief. It was, indeed, a wonderful sight, when they
were marched off in different directions, spreading themselves out
in living streams as they moved slowly along the steppe."

Disease then, as now, especially the ravaging pests, robbed these
early agriculturists, not only of their means of sustenance, but of
their wealth. As in our day, when such visitations endanger the
animal property of the people of a country, so in those by-gone
days did our Aryan fathers appeal to the gods for protection, and
make choice offerings from the fairest and best of their flocks for
their amelioration. They knew nothing oi prevention, in a modern
sense. The gods were manifesting their anger, and wreaking their

TUE HISTORY OF YETEKINARY MEDICINE. 213

wrath on the children of men. Appeasement was their only source;
and, at the cessation of the ravages, choice oiferings of thankful-
ness betokened the gratitude of sutfering man.

" Charaka" and " Susruta'' are the names which have come to
118 of the two earliest medical authors in the Sanskrit tongue.

The earliest source from which our knowledge of Indian medi-
cine is derived is taken from the hynms of the "Rig -Veda," about
1500 n. I'.* lu the " Artharva-Yeda'' diseases are looked upon as
evil spirits which overcome human beings, or as the results of the
displeai^ure of the gods, or as the intiuences of the sorceries of wicked
men. The most wonderful healing attributes were accorded to the
soma-plant. The Aswin, a twin god, were looked upon as Ilygeia
by the Greeks, i. e., as the gods of health : they made the lap of
woman fruitful ; they knew the plants which were endowed with
health-giving properties ; they kept the altar-fires burning. At a
later period they are described as the physicians of the gods. Be-
sides them, the god Agni, the god of lire, was looked upon as the
new awakening of spring ; Rudra, of the air, the winds, and the
earth.

These early authors also ascribed healing qualities to the action
of cold water :

" Two winds move slowly here and there, from ocean, and from distant lands ;
Power move thee, move thy suffering forth ;

"Wind, move healing this one to, and move, wind, his suffering forth.
The gods have thee hither sent with all the means of healing overspent."

•' Full of healing power is the watery wave ; the water cools the fever's heat :
Full of healing power against all pests, health bring to thee the water's flood."

" The good magi are under the protection of gods, in order that
they may combat evil spirits."

The essence of life is embodied in the air (the respiration).
Vital Power, Vital Spirit, are often spoken of. The doctor per se
\9. only mentioned in the more recent sections of tlic "Rig -Veda."
" The wishes of men vary : the wagoner seeks for wood, the doctor
for patients, and the priest for libations."

In the Hrahmanical period of the Aryan people, the priests ap-
pear to have also busied tliemselves with the practice of healing.
At this period the doctor seems to have taken a much-respected
place among these people. A completely educated doctor must

* Tills information with regard to ancient medical history \^ taken from TTaescr,
" Gcachichtc dcr Mcdicin."

214: THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

command all the principles and practice of medicine. Susruta says
that " the practitioner who does not perfectly unite in himseK a
knowledge of both surgical and inner diseases is as a bird with
but one wing."

The studies of the medical student began with the twelfth and
ended with the sixteenth or seventeenth year. At no one time
should a teacher instruct more than four or at the most six stu-
dents. Charaka gives the rules for instruction in detail, and the
requirements necessary to both teacher and student, in a manner not
unworthy of imitation, in many respects, by the same classes in our
own day and country.

He says : " The student must, above all, pay great attention to se-
lection of the most suitable text-books from the great number which
are jDresented to him ; he must select a teacher who is famiKar with
all the scientific, technical, and moral qualifications of his profes-
sion. He must devote himself unceasingly to the study of the text-
books of his profession. The teacher must not be less circumspect
in the selection of students of honorable birth, morality, physique,
and intellectual and manual ability. The students must begin their
studies in winter, and at a time when the moon is becoming full ;
on a day known in the calendar as favorable, and at a time when a
favorable constellation is in the ascendency ; they must be introduced
into their profession in the presence of the holy Brahmans and the
doctors, and with the offering of milk, butter, prayers, and sayings
of wise men, and presents to his teachers. The celebration should
end with an address to the students by the teachers, in which they
should be cautioned to be chaste, modest, and reticent, to wear a
beard, to speak the truth only, to eat no meat ; above all things
should they be obedient to their teacher, and endeavor to gain favor
in his eyes. The practitioner who wishes to have a successful prac-
tice and to acquire an honorable name, must look to the health of
the living ; above all, that of the holy Brahmans and the sacred cow,
and pray daily at the time of his uprising and retiring. He must
seek, vrith all the strength of his soul, to restore the sick to health ;
though his own life be called in sacrifice thereby, he dare not
on any account neglect the sick ; he must never seek to ingratiate
himseK with women. In dress and all external things he must be
simple, no drinker, and must always remain distant from bad com-
pany. In speech the practitioner must be gentle, clear, and pleas-
ant, speaking only to the point, and with moderation ; he must
weigh seriously the appropriate time and locality ; must be diligent
in reflection, and seek in every way to increase in knowledge. He

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 215

must never oiler help to perilous tli;it luive nuide themselves disagree-
able to the king, or to the people; or ofi'er assistuuee to defornietl
people, deteriorated, unruly, or wild persons, or even to women,
when their husband is absent. The student must never accept a
present from a wife, except with the permission of the husband.
When he enters a residence, it must be in the company of an au-
thorized person ; he must be well clad, and enter with bowed head,
reflecting, and with full dignity take due cognizance of all the sur-
roundings. Once in the sick-chamber, his whole attention must be
given to the treatment of the patient. The things going on in the
house of the patient nnist never be advertised abroad ; he must
never inform a patient that a fatal termination to his illness is ap-
proaching. The most learned man must never seek to impress upon
others the idea of his own importance. Many pei^sons withdraw
themselves from such men, however capable they may be. The sci-
ence of medicine is, in all truth, not so easy of acquisition. He
nmst ever be willing to learn from the experience and knowledge
of others. To the earnest man the whole world is full of teaching ;
only to the ignorant is she an enemy. With this in remembrance,
even the words of an enemy may be conducive to the good of many.
He must religiously observe every duty to the gods, the fire, the
holy Brahmans, the Guru, the aged, and the holy teacher. "WTien
this is done, then shalt thou be favored by the tire, the fluids, and
the gods. AVhen not, thy life shall be unsuccessful. When this
has all been said, the teacher shall respond, ' So shall it be.' "

Susruta gave similar advice to that already given by Charaka,
to the students of medicine. lie says : " They must utterly abstain
from love and hate, from anger and laziness, and from greed for gain.
They must pay consideration to external appearances, and have
care that their clothing is appropriate and cleanly. They must
be servants of the truth. They must show the same respect as to
their parents, to the Brahmans, to their teacher in medicine, to their
friends, and to all those who turn to them for help. The doctor
must wear his hair short ; his nails must be clean and closely cut ;
he must never leave his house except with his cane or sun-shade ;
above all, must he avoid all undue intimacy with women. He must
be handsome, well built, amiable, earnest, but without self-conceit,
friendly, and full of spirit ; his speech must be soft yet encourag-
ing, as that of a friend ; his heart must be pure and honorable ; he
must be a pattern of cleverness and sagacity, and must love his pa-
tients better than relations, friends, or his parents. One may have
fear of a brother, a mother, or a f i lend, but never of his doctor.

216 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

The teacher shall read from the holy books step by step, and verse
by verse ; he must speak distinctly, but without undue exertion,
neither too rapidly nor too slowly, neither through the nose, nor
with any indications of impatience."

The theoretical education of the student took place in the open
air, frequently in groves. The practical instruction consisted in the
visiting of patients, the practice of surgical operations upon models
made of wood covered with wax, also on soft fruits, and the punc-
ture of leather sacks ; the extraction of teeth was practiced on the
dead body and upon animals. The students also accompanied the
teacher on journeys in search of medicines, and to study the dis-
eases of other regions. In order to practice his profession, it was
necessary that the stndent had the consent of the rajah (ruler), who
watched over the execution of the regulations for the j)ractice of
medicine.

We see here that these Aryans were further advanced in some
things even than the enlightened citizens of this boasted country,
for they did not allow even the graduated student to practice medi-
cine without the consent of the recognized authority ; and, further,
the practice of medicine was regulated by the authorities. Quacks
and empirics probably, then as now, were vampires of civilization,
sucking the life-blood of the people ; but, nevertheless, the people
had means of distinguishing the accredited man from the swindler,
and the title of " doctor " was worth something more than the paper
it was written on, which is not at present the case in the United
States of America.

"iVb^ seldom, however, through the carelessness of the rajah,
imsuitdble doctors were admitted to 2^'>"<^Gtice. Such men flatter the
friends of the sicJc, are very attentive, take less pay, are boldfaced,
and never attribute the poor results of their practice to their own
ignorance. The educated practitioner must flee the company of
such men as a thicTcet full of ravenous animals. The reward of
the practitioner must be ordered according to the means of the pa-
tients. It is dishonorable to demand pay of Brahmans, relations,
friends, and the unfortunate. The doctor shall take no other pay
from women than refreshment. The kings have especial doctors^
who take part in the wars ; others must be present in the kitchen
to prevent poisoning."

In the " Laws of Manu " it is written that " the doctor who
mishandles animals shall receive the lowest, while he who mistreats
human beings shall receive the highest punishment."

The Indian doctors possessed but little real knowledge of anato-

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINT:. 0|7

mj. They, however, made studies upon the huuian body, hut in a
singular and unfruitful manner. The body must be that of a healtliy
man, not too old, not deformed, and from a person that had not
died from poisoning or tlie devastations of a long and wearing dis-
ease. The body nmst lie for seven days and nights in the watere
of a brook, and then the outer parts must be removed by brushing
with twigs. Instead of a description of the different parts of the
body, we find numerous calculations, measurements, and classitica-
tions of the parts. According to Susruta, the human body consists
of seven elements, and seven skins or membranes, three hundred
bones, twenty-four nerves, three fluids, one hundred and seven
joints, nine hundred ligaments, ninety sinews (the nails were looked
upon as the endings of the same), forty principal vessels, seven hun-
dred branches, and five hundred muscles. The navel was looked
upon as the central point of the nerves and vessels. The cardinal
elements, air, gall, and mucus, find frequent mention. The air is
situated below the navel, the gall between the navel and heart, and
the mucus above the heart. To the elements making up the human
organism was also added ether, out of which sprang light, out of
light generated water, and out of them both earth. The seven or-
ganic products of these cardinal elements were the chyle, blood,
flesh, cellular tissue, bones, the medullary substance, and tlie semen.
The blood generated from the chyle. The chyle is an aqueous
fluid ; it becomes red in the spleen and liver. Milk formed the
exclusive article of food to the end of the first year ; to the third
year, milk and rice ; and to the fifteenth, rice alone, when a mixed
diet was allowed. Tiie best means for the preservation of health
are the weekly offering of an emetic, montlily a purgative, and twice
yearly (at the change of seasons) blood-letting. Diseases were
classed as natural and supernatural. Diseases were frequently
caused by sin. The most important diseases were due to a want of
or surplus of action of the cardinal elements upon the jihysiological
elements— the chyle, blood, etc. The predominance of one cardinal
element over the others gave rise to the different temperaments.
The soul seeks to equalize the disharmony, dyserasies of the cardi-
nal elements, by which disease is produced. Disease is, therefore,
a disturbance of tlie activity of the soul occasioned by abnormalities
of the cardinal elements. The air contained in the body is the
cause of eighty different diseases. To these belong the diseases of
the nerves — tetanus, trismus, chorea, also leprosy. Among the dis-
eases of the urinary organs one is surprised to find that a sweet and
albuminous urine is mentioned. Diabetes was considered incurable.

218 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

A knowledge of poisons and their action is an indispensable part
of the education of the doctor, as the food is often poisoned by the
enemies of the ruler, wicked women, and unthankful servants.
These ancient Indian doctors seem to have been well acquainted
with hydrophobia, as the action of the bite of the rabid dog, fox,
jackal, wolf, bear, and tiger. The treatment consisted in appro-
priate local applications to the wound, and the inward offering of
antidotes.

In this regard Wise * says :

" The Bites of Mad Dogs. — When dogs, jackals, foxes, wolves,
bears, or tigers, become mad, they foam at the mouth, which re-
mains open, their tails bang down, they do not hear or see well,
and saliva flows from their mouths. In such a state they snap at
and bite one another. The part that is bitten becomes senseless,
blood flows from the wound, which becomes black, and other ap-
pearances are observed, as after a wound with a poisoned arrow.
The ])erson hitteii makes tJie same hind of noise and movements as
that of the anim^al which has bitten him. IVheii such a person sees
the shape of the animal which has hitten him, either in water or in
a glass, it is an unfavorable symptom. It is also iinfavorahle wJien
the person is afraid of water, and dreads either seeing or hearing
it. This is called hydrophobia, the fear of water. When the per-
son dreams of the rabid animal, it is unfavorable. Toward the ter-
mination of the disease the person is convulsed, becomes insensible
and powerless, and dies."

" In all such cases the first part of treatment should be to scari-
fy the part and squeeze out the blood, after which the p>art is to be
washed and burned by means of hot ' ghee^ Then apply to the
wounded part a mixture of certain antidotes, and give old ' ghee '
internally. Errhines are also to be given with the milk of the arka-
plant, Calatropis giyantea. Susruta recommends the following,
which is to be used both internally and externally : Take of ' Shir-
isha,' ' Kustha,' ' Haridra,' ' Shita,' ' Sharshapa,' of each forty ratas,
mix in a pint of water, and boil until reduced one fourth. During
the treatment the patient should be kept in a cool situation, without
any water. When the symptoms disappear, the person should then
bathe, and on the third and fifth days the above is to be administered
in half the dose given at first. He is then to take rice and milk.
It is recommended in these cases to act powerfully upon the system
by strong medicines before the poison has produced its constitu-
tional effects. After the infliction of the wound, and before it has

* " History of Medicine in India," vol. i, p. 280.

TDE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 219

produced any <;oncrul effects, the free use of water in batliin«j^ is
reconiiuended, anil the bowels are to be afterward opened by purga-
tives and emetics, followed by errhines to clear the passages."

The perfection to which the Aryan doctors developed the prac-
tice of surgery is surprising indeed. They made many useful
instniments, catlieterized the bladder, removed stones, punctured
the abdomen, originated plastic operations upon the nose, ear, and
lips, set fractured bones, performed " laparotomy,'' and made skill-
ful operations upon the eye. The Caesarean operation was per-
formed on the death of the mother to save the infant.

The beginners of veterinary medicine, or, rather, those who firet
practiced the liealing art upon animals, were undoubtedly the shep-
herds and lierdsmen, who were intrusted with their care. This em-
ployment was frequently followed in families, and the results of
experience thus gained were doubtless transmitted from father to
son for generations. These early veterinary empirics must fre-
quently have come in friendly intercourse, and thus the results of
nnitual experiences were interchanged and criticised ; so the fund of
empirical knowledge gradually increased, until the sum of these
experiences was linally gathered on parchment, and then, with the
birth of printing, into books. While many of these men were un-
doubtedly keen observers of nature, there is no doubt that they
were also great admirei's of the marvelous, and equally superstitious,
so that many most absurd superstitions as to the causes of disease
crept into their sayings and writings.

Charaka is said to have written a work upon the diseases of ani-
mals, but I have vainly searched for any quotations from it. That
the Jews and Egyptians were acquainted with many forms of animal
disease must be known to every reader of the Bible, for the plagues
with which Jehovah punished the Egyptians, and through which
they were robl)ed of tlieir cattle, are most graphically described by
Moses. The oldest Egyptian monuments bear upon them carvings
illustrating the treatment of animals.

The Greeks possessed, at a very early date, a more or less ex-
tended literature with reference to the treatment of the diseases of
animals. With the blooming of Greek culture, medical art took an
active move forward. IIij)pocrates, 4<50-377 n. c, the honored
father of medicine and the compiler of all the knowledge which ex-
isted up to his time, was quite well acquainted with the coarser
anatomy of some of the lower animals, and we find several notices
in his writings which warrant us in assuming that he was not unac-
quainted with some of their diseases. In speaking of hydrothorax,

220 THE HISTORY OF VETERIx\ARY MEDICINE.

or water in the chest, lie says, " It is a disease which is also fre-
quently met with among oxen, sheep, and swine." * He had proba-
bly met with it in these animals much more frequently than others,
because of their frequent use in the sacrifices at the altars of the
gods at the Hellenic temples. In another place he says : " In
cattle, the thighs are apt to become dislocated at the hip-joint,
when they are particularly lean, which occurs at the end of winter,
at which time they are particularly subject to dislocations. Homer
has well remarked that of all beasts oxen suffer the most at that
season, and especially those employed at the plow. In them, there-
fore, dislocations happen most frequently." f The influence which
Hippocrates exerted upon medical science for a thousand years
after his death is scarcely appreciated by the public, and by far not
sufficiently esteemed by his successors of the present day, many
of whom have not read his works, notwithstanding their accessibil-
ity to English readers, by the above-mentioned excellent and critical
edition, for which we are indebted to the Sydenham Society for
publication. The young practitioner of to-day seems to be carried
away by the desire for new things, and all sorts of iiew remedies
are eagerly sought after and experimented with, much to the neg-
lect of the study of the fathers of medicine. The present genera-
tion is emphatically one of research, but it is a great and harm-
ful error to think that the microscope and crucible can reveal all
that is to be known of disease. The works of the fathers of
medicine often excelled those of the present day in clinical ob-
servation, in the exact description of the intra-vital phenomena of
disease, and in detailing the results of experiences gained at the
sick-bed from the use of medicines. At present a healthy re-
action is beginning in this direction, and the microscope furor is
being toned down within the limits of practical possibility, notwith-
standing a Kew York enthusiast purposes to tell us whether two
given persons are compatible for marriage, so far as the production
of healthy offspring is concerned, by the microscopic appearance of
the granulations in the protoplasma of the white or colorless blood-
corpuscles. That such an assertion is but the utterance of a vision-
ary and untrustworthy observer scarcely needs to be mentioned.

Hippocrates,:}: also called the great, is said to have come from a
family of doctors, descending from yEsculapius and Ilerucles.
Little is known of his life, many relations concerning the same being
mixed up with myths and impossible extravagances. He was, how-

* Haeser, he. cit., p. 173. f "Works, Sydenham edition, vol. ii, p. 575.

J Wunderlich, " History of Medicine."

THE niSTORV OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 221

ever, greatly hunoret-l, and both j)niotlcL'(l and taugLt medicine
among his countrymen, lie wa.s the author of many books, but
few of those which have come down to us are looked upon as
genuine ; many others attributed to him c-untain much of his teach-
ing, however. It is a mistake to designate him as the founder of a
new system of medicine : he was simply a harvester in the lields of
medicine, but also a keen observer of the phenomena of disease. He
himself says that '' he who scorns or throws away the past, and seeks
to make a new way and new theories, or thinks that he has found
such, is either a deceiver or is himself deceived " — words which
should not be without due appreciation by the JSsculapians of the
present day and generation. The followere are many, the discover-
ers of new truths but isolated phenomena in the march of human
progress.

He was a grand observer of nature. lie made no new system,
but was bitterly op]>osed to hypotheses. He looked uj)on the living
organism in the Epidoclesian sense, as composed of four cardinal ele-
ments, which he named blood, mucus, black gall, and yellow gall.
His pathology was simple in the extreme. When these cardinal
elements bore a proper relation to eacJi other in the living organism,
a crasis or normality existed ; any disturbance of this normal condi-
tion, any preponderance of one of these elements, either as a whole
or locally, produced abnormality, dyscrasis. He laid but little value
upon theoretic discussions : " When any one can give a better ex-
planation, it suits me equally well ; such ability is but the result of a
glib tongue." His anatomical knowledge was quite limited, and he
seems never to have made studies upon the human body. He laid
great stress upon the value of knowledge with regard to all the ex-
ternal phenomena presented by the diseased organism. The condi-
tions, in disease, of many internal organs, did not, however, escape
his attention — such as the swelling of the spleen, and its subsequent
retraction, in various forms of infectious disease. " The practitioner
should be able to recognize the conditions presented to him, without
the necessity of referring to the relations of the patient ; ... if
perspiration occurs in a fevered patient, without remission of the
fever, the disease will be lengthened ; the fever increases when
the teeth have a viscid coating; ... a disea.'^ in which sleep has a
deleterious influence is deadly ; when the patient is, however, im-
proved by sleep, it is to bo looked upon as a favorable symptom ; . . .
sleep and sleeplessness, when present to an abnormal degree, are
evil symptoms ; . . . when a convalescent person has a good appe-
tite, but does not improve thereby, it is a bad symptom ; ... he

222 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

who would correctly prognosticate as to who will die or who will
recover, whether the disease will be of long or short duration, must
know well all the phenomena, and be well versed as to their re-
spective value."

His manner of treatment was well considered, and he generally
avoided heroic means. He placed great stress upon the value of
dietetics, which should be adapted to the individuality of the pa-
tient, his constitution and habits. He was, according to his idea of
the cardinal elements, much addicted to the employment of local
means, by which the supposed centralization of a given element was
to be equalized or the surplus removed ; therefore, we iind in his
writings many directions for local bleeding and applications. He
invented quite a number of surgical instruments; performed tre-
panning of the cranium, set bones, and reduced luxations. He
highly prized cauterization, and his last aphorism reads : " What
medicine will not cure, the iron will ; what the iron will not cure,
fire will ; what fire can not cure, must be considered as incurable."

But, above all Greek writers of antiquity celebrated in the field
of medicine, none equaled, in a knowledge of the anatomy of ani-
mals, that mighty intellect which has been the wonder of humanity
for generations, and which had not its equal in the arena of natural
science until long after the middle ages — Aristotle.

" Aristotle was born at Stagyra in Macedonia, in the year 384,
and died 326 b. c. He was undoubtedly the greatest thinker of his
time, and united in himself all the knowledge which then existed.
His father, Nichomachus, was body-surgeon to Amyntas III, of
Macedon, the father of Philip. At seventeen years of age, Aris-
totle went to Athens to study under the immortal Plato, who recog-
nized his great genius, and called him the brightest spirit of his
school. Aristotle soon separated himself from his teacher, and be-
gan to oppose the doctrines which he taught ; he went to Mace-
don, and became the tutor of Alexander the Great. "When the
latter went upon his conquests into Asia, Aristotle returned to
Athens, where he appeared in the character of teacher, Alexander
supporting him, and for his studies giving him the immense advan-
tages offered by the collections of curiosities made in his foreign
conquests. The results of his investigations are collected in his
writings and speak for themselves. . On Alexander's death the ene-
mies of Aristotle became powerful enough to cause his banishment
from Athens ; he was declared a heretic, a disbeliever in the gods,
and so deadly was the pursuit of his enemies that he finally killed
himself in his sixty-third year. His body was brought to the place

TEE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 223

of his nativity, his eountryinen erecting a nionuuient to liis memory.
Aristotle may be justly styled the founder of zoiitomy, the anatomy
of animals. His writings, subsequent to his death, suffered a rather
chanireable destiny: thev fell at tirst into the hands of his heirs;
then they were buried and barely escaped destruction from decay
and worms ; afterward they were conveyed to Athens, and finally to
Rome by the Romans on the capture of Athens, and from there
they have been dispersed over the world, but not without many
falsifications and changes." *

His anatomical descriptions,^ so far as they had reference to
man, were limited to topographical descriptions of the external
parts ; the formation of the internal was, as he himself says, little
known, but they were described according to analogy, from the ex-
aminations of similar organs in the lower animals. lie describes
the brain and its membranous surroundings, as well as its ventri-
cles, cavities ; also the optic nerves in their passage from the brain
to the eye ; on the other hand, he denied any connection between
the brain and the ear ; he describes also the larynx, uvula, epiglot-
tis, the trachea and its bifurcations in the lungs, also the Eustachian
tubes, but had an incorrect idea with reference to the connection
between the heart and lungs; he described the oesophagus, and
its passage into the stomach, as well as the extension of the latter
to the intestines ; also the epiploon and mesenterium, Kotwith-
standing much study, it was impossible for hira to come to any defi-
nite conclusions with reference to the vascular system ; he looked
upon the heart as the center of the vessels, but described only three
cavities in that organ, missing the septum between the auricles;
he notices the aorta and vena cava, as well as the main arteries
and veins of the head and neck ; also the diaphragm, liver, gall-
bladder, kidneys, and their pelvis, the ureters and veins of the kid-
neys, tlie urinary bladder and urethra, the testicles and their vessels,
as well as the same organs in the female, and the uterus. It is
doubtful, however, if he knew of the relation of the secretion of
the kidneys to the l)laddor, or of the organ at present considered as
the rudimentary male uterus.

Aristotle had very imperfect ideas of the circulation : the blood
was generated in the heart and from there dispersed over the organ-
ism ; it sprang, coagulated, out of the vessels, and was of varialjle
color. The respiration served as a cooler to the organism — its or-
gans are the lungs and gills ; his incorrect idea of the connection

* Schracder-IIering, " Bibliopraph. Lexicon f. TliicrarTte," p. 16.
f Aubcrt and Wimmer, "Aristotle's Thierkundc," Lcipsic, 1868. ,

224 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

between the lungs and heart gave him the conception that the air
came into the heart ; he compared the lungs to an air-sac, and does
not seem to have had any conception of the changes which take
place in the blood by their means. His views with reference to
digestion, and the changes which the elements of the organism un-
dergo, were very crude indeed. His description of the senses, see-
ing, hearing, smell, and taste, is surprisingly clear and explicit.
He looked upon the muscles as the organs of sensitiveness, and not
of movement ; the sinews as motor organs, and the heart as the cen-
ter of movement. He made an astonishing number of clever obser-
vations with regard to the generation and development of animals,
and studied the same in the hen's e^g ; the formation of the heart,
brain, and eye, allantois, and chorion ; the duration of gestation in
many different species. His observations with reference to the
instincts of animals are often surprisingly correct, as well as with
regard to the variations in their habits of life. Aristotle also de-
scribed quite a number of diseases among animals, and, as the sub-
ject is not without instructive interest, I take the liberty of giving
a very free translation of them here.*

" As to the diseases of quadrupeds, swine have three different
diseases. One is known as ' bronchos,' and consists in an inflam-
mation of the air-tubes and the masticating organs ; it, however,
frequently complicates other parts of the porcine organism ; some-
times the feet become diseased, and at others the ears. The dis-
ease develops rapidly, the swine soon losing their appetite. The
herdsmen know of no other treatment than to cut out the diseased
part at once. Aside from this, two other diseases occur in swine,
both being known by the name of ' kraura.' In one of them we
may perceive pain and depression of the head, and in the other
diarrhoea is the most frequent phenomenon. This last is reputed
to be incurable ; the first is, however, cured by rubbing the snout
with wine, as well as washing the interior of the same with that
material. In this disease, also, but few recover, as it generally
ends fatally in from three to four days. Swine suffer most from
' bronchos ' when the summer is very fruitful and the swine very
fat. Mulberries and plenty of warm baths are said to have a
beneficial effect ; scarification of the tongue is said also to be re-
sorted to. The swine are measly when the flesh of the limbs,
neck, and shoulders is soft; in these places the measles must be
sought for. The flesh has a sweet taste when it harbors measles,
at the same time it is soft and watery. One can easily tell when

* A. and W., chapters xx, xxii, p. 181.

THE niSTORY OF VETEIUNAKY MEDICINE. 225

the swine have measles, fur tliey are to be fouiul under the tongue.
Measly swine can not keep their hind-feet quiet ; they lose the
measles after having fed upon ' tiplia,' which also helps their con-
dition. The best food to nourish swine is peas and tigs, but one
must not give them one kind of food, as mixed diet is best for
them. It is &i\\d that acorns are greedily devoured by swine, but
that they make them have soft and watery flesh. AVhen in a
pregnant condition too many acorns cause them to abort, as they
also do sheep. So far as we know, swine are the only animals
that harbor measles.

'• Dogs also suffer from three diseases, known as ' rabies,' ' ky-
nanche,' and ' podagra.' Rabies puts them into fits of rage, during
which they bite furiously, and all animals bitten by them when in
this condition also become mad, loith the exception of man. This
disease kills the dogs, as well as all animals bitten by them, with the
exception of man. ' Kynanche ' is also deadly to dogs, and from
' podagra ' but few recover. Camels are also subject to rabies. Of
all other animals, the elephant alone is exempted from this disease,
but it is subject to tympanitis."

** Cattle living in herds are subject to two diseases, known as
' podagra ' and ' krauros.' In the firet, the feet become swollen,
but they do not die from it, nor do they lose their hoofs ; they be-
come better when one covers their horns with hot pitch. In ' krau-
ros,' their breath is hot and respiration accelerated ; this is called
fever in men, but ' krauros ' in cattle. The signs of this disease are
drooping ears and loss of appetite ; they die rapidly, and the lungs
are gangrenous upon examination.

'* Horses which live \\\>o\\ pastures are subject to no other disease
than ' podagra.' AVhen afllicted with this disease they sometimes
lose their hoofs ; but, when this is the case, new ones soon develop,
for, as the new hoof grows down, the old one is shed. Among the
signs of this disease is swelling of the right testicle, or a corrugated
condition of the skin between the nostrils. They are also subject
to a disease which is called ' eilos,' which is characterized by the
animals placing the four feet together under the body. AVhcn
horses go for some days without eating, and then become crazy, one
has to resort to bleeding and castration. They arc also subject to
' tetanus,' a disease by which all the vessels, as well as the head and
neck, become stiffened, and the animals move stiff-legged. They
soon become purulent. Another disease to which they are subject
is called ' krithian,' indicated by a soft palate and hot breath. These
diseases are incurable, when they do not cease of themselves, which

15

226 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

is also the case in tlie disease called ' nympliian,' in which the horse
becomes stiS when one blows up its nose, or depresses the head ;
when any one tries to ride them they go in circles until stopped.
They always depress the head when rabid. Other signs of the same
are that they depress the ears upon the mane, and again elevate
them ; that they become weak and snort much. Conditions con-
nected with pain of the heart are also incurable : in this the animals
have tucked-up flanks, or the bladder becomes displaced, which is
easily recognized from the inability of the horse to micturate, and
that they draw their legs up and stamp with their feet. According
to those who should know, horses and sheep suffer from all the dis-
eases common to man. A poison known as ' sandarac ' kills not
only the horse but all draught-animals. It is given in water. A
pregnant horse aborts when it smells the smoke from a blown-out
candle ; the same effect is also occasionally observed in women
when in the same condition. Horses love meadows and swamps.
They drink gladly of dirty water, and when the water is clear they
stir up the bottom with their feet, and then bathe in it, for these
animals generally bathe gladly and love water. Cattle, on the con-
trary, do not drink freely of water which is unclean and warm.

" The ass suffers especially from one disease, which is known as
' melis.' It at first attacks the head, a viscid, yellow slime running
from the nostrils ; when the disease extends to the lungs it is deadly,
but when limited to the head it is not so. Of all animals of its
kind, the ass can bear cold the least, and thrives, therefore, in warm
climates.

" The elephant is subject to tympanitis, and when thus afflicted
can neither micturate nor pass faeces. When it eats earth (?) at in-
tervals, it becomes weak ; but when it eats it constantly, it does not
seem to harm it. Sometimes it swallows stones. It also occasion-
ally suffers from diarrhcBa, and is healed by giving it warm water,
and hay which has been dipped in honey. When suffering from
want of sleep they become weak, but strength returns when the
shoulders are rubbed with warm water, salt, and oil. When troubled
with pains in the shoulder, they can be helped by placing roasted
pork iipon the afflicted part. Some elephants will drink oil, others
not. When a fragment of iron penetrates their body, it is said that
it can be driven out by giving them oil, but those who will not drink
it willingly must be given the oil mixed with roots."

The fame of the noted Greek general, Xenophon (349-259 b. c),
is not alone limited to the remarkable retreat of the brave ten thou-
satid, for his writings upon the horse and horsemanship have given

THE niSTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 227

Ijiin a no less lastiii<ij reputation. Fleming * says of liini : "This
celebrated cavalrv-offieer appears to have carefully studied the char-
acter of the horse, and all the precepts which he gives in his treatise
on horsemanship are dictated by an amount of wisdom and hu-
manity which has not, perhaps, been excelled since his day. The
safety and comfort of that animal and its rider were ever before
him ; his teachings were principally directed to make the horse pe-
culiarly atla])ted to service in war. lie displays great judgment
when specifying the proper form and disposition of the parts which
collectively make up the nearest approach to a perfect horse, and
markedly shows to what a high degree, in that distant age, tliis kind
of knowledge was cultivated ; indeed, from his writings we are led to
infer that in his time, and perhaps long before, there were accom-
})lislied hoi-sc-breakers and public riding-masters, as well as men who
were excellent judges of the qualities of the horse. In advising as
to the good ' points ' to be sought for in a hoi'se, he employs the
clearest terms to express his meaning. ' A person,' he says, ' may
form his opinion of the feet by first examining the hoofs; for t/iick
or strong hoofs are much more conducive to firmness than thin ones;
and it must not escape his notice whether the hoofs arc high or low,
as well before as behind ; for, in high hoofs, what is called the frog
is high above the ground, and low ones tread equally on the strong-
est and weakest parts of the hoof, like in-kneed men, or like crip-
ples among men, who limp on parts which were never intended by
nature to support them.' lie says, further: 'iVs attention must
be paid to the horse's food and exercise, that his body may be vig-
orous, so must care be taken of his feet. Damp and smooth stable-
floors injure even naturally good hoofs, and to prevent them from
being damp they ought to be sloping ; to prevent them from being
eniooth they should have irregular-shaped stones inserted in the
ground, close to one another, similar to a horse's hoof in size ; for
such floors give firmness to the feet of horses that stand upon them.
. . . The ground outside the stable may be put into excellent con-
dition, and serve to strengthen the horse's feet, if a person throws
down in it four or five measures of round stones, each large enough
to fill the two hands, and each about a ])ound (?) in weight ; they
should l)e surrounded with an iron rim, so that they may not be
scattered ; for, as the horse stands upon them, he will be in much
the same condition as if he were to travel part of every day upon a
stony road. The feet of horses that have been hardened by ex-
ercise will be superior on rough ground to those which are not
♦ "Iloreeshoes and Horseshoeing," p. 21.

228 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

habituated to it ; as persons that are sound in their limbs, to those
who are lame.' "

Among later Greek writers upon the domestic animals, we find
the name of Absyrtus, and a veterinary, Hippocrates, who lived
about the fourth century. The former, born at Brusa, in Bithynia,
is by far the most important writer of all the Greeks upon the dis-
eases of domestic animals. It appears that he belonged to a family
that was celebrated for its veterinarians ; at least, his grandfather,
Demitrns, also followed the calling. He was a good observer of the
outward phenomena of disease, although not a scientific student of
nature ; he does not seem to have associated much with the medi-
cal men of his time, and thus may have served to give the profession
a certain degree of individuality which it had not previously pos-
sessed. He especially mentions that the gall-bladder is not present
in the horse.

Hippocrates's writings were of but little importance, but were
more or less perfectly collected in the Constantinian " Hippiatrica,"
which we shall find occasion to consider later on. He belonged to
that great class of veterinarians who willingly acknowledged the
superiority of Absyrtns, and learned from him. Heusinger ex-
presses astonishment that, althougli Hij^pocrates lived at the time
of Absyrtus, none of the subsequent Greek and Roman veterinarians
seem to make any mention of him.

About this time also flourished the noted medical authors Cel-
sus and Galen. Celsus wrote an encyclopaedia containing works
upon medicine, agriculture, and veterinary medicine ; the part treat-
ing upon the last two subjects has been, unfortunately, lost to jdos-
terity. Of all Roman doctors, however, none has acquired the
world-wide celebrity and authority which have been given to Clau-
dius Galenus, 131-200 a. d.* He received a most careful educa-
tion, studying philosophy and medicine at Pergamos, his native
city, also at Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria; he was especially
diligent in the study of anatomy. At twenty-eight years of age he
was appointed medical attendant to the gladiators at Pergamos, and
remained there until 164 a. d. He then removed to Rome ; but
practice seems to have been a secondary consideration with him,
and he appears to have been but poorly appreciated by his Roman
colleagues. We find him, however, to have been on terras of inti-
macy with the philosophers, and prominent members of the aris-
tocracy ; he held public lectures upon physiology, which for a time
enjoyed great poj)ularity, but were subsequently given up on account

* Wunderlich, " Geschichte d. Medicin," p. 33.

TUE UISTOUY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 229

of the enmity of the medical profession. He soon after left Home,
traveliiif? over Italy, and returned to lVrii:'ainos in lGi> a. d., but was
again called to Ivonie by the enn)erors IMarcus Aurelius and Lucius
Yenis, where ho remained until his death, giving public lectures,
and busied with his studies and writings. lie was the most exten-
sive medical author that has ever lived, and appears to have begun
his authorship even as a boy. It has been estimated that he wrote
some four hundred books, some of them being quite large. He
was, indeed, a polyhistorian, and a man of astonishing learning;
many of the views of medical authors antecedent to his time are
only known to ns through his writings. lie possessed great analyti-
cal and critical ability ; he had seen much himself, and investigated
much, and possessed a highly systematic mind, clearing medicine,
as it then existed, from nuich of the superstition and nonsense with
which it was burdened. His anatomical knowledge was derived in
part from the writings of llerophilus and Erisistratus, and in part
from his own dissections, which were made largely npon apes. It
had not been possible for a long time to make studies of anatomy
upon the human form divine, and this age, which did not pause to
sacritice thousands of human beings at brutal gladiatorial combats,
still could not oUer one for the good of humanity and the advance-
ment of knowledge. Only once, during the German war of Marcus
Aurelius, was it allowed the doctoi-s to dissect a human body, but
they did not get beyond the situation of the intestines, ^t'ever-
theless, the writings of this great doctor remained for a thousand
yeare the source from which a knowledge of human anatomy was
drawn, and it was only by earnest endeavors, supported by actual
inspection, that his great authority was finally shaken. Galen is
accredited with saying that " the education of a doctor was incom-
plete without a knowledge of the processes of disease among the
lower animals."

The writings of the celebrated Roman veterinary authors, Cato,
Varo, Columella, and Vegetius, which are mostly cumpilations from
earlier writers, may be found collected in " De Rei Rusticse," a good
cditidU of which was given out by Gesner in 1735: cojiies of this
work may l>e found in some of our medical and public libraries.
These writings contain descriptions of some diseases, much of which
is altsurd and ndiculous, in the light of the ])resent day.

*' Marcus Fortius Cato,* the most ancient of this quartet, was
bom at Tusculum, or Tivoli, 234, and died 149 b. c. He was of a
plebeian family, ami served as a soldier under Fabius Maximus, but
* Schracdcr-llering, loc. cU., p. 76.

230 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

by his energy of character elevated himself to positions of the high-
est honor. He became a clever general, jurist, and orator. On ac-
count of his steadfast morals, and constant enmity to human frailties,
he acquired the surname of 'the Censor.' He was an enthusiastic
opponent of Greek doctrines and art, and has the honor of being the
first Koman who wi'ote upon agriculture : in these writings we ob-
serve a crude development of veterinary medicine. His writings
have been frequently printed and translated into several European
languages."

"Lucius Junius Columella* was born at Cadiz, Spain, in the
reign of the Roman emperor Clandius, about 42 a. d. He had fre-
quent recourse to the writings of Celsus, and did much for the
development of veterinary medicine. His writings upon the dis-
eases of the horse are not inconsiderable, but his descriptions of
those of cattle are by far the best which we have received from
antiquity."

" Publius Renatus Yegetii f (fourth century a. d.) is noted as
the most erudite among the early veterinary authors. He appears
to have possessed no inconsiderable degree of knowledge with refer-
ence to the diseases of the horse and their treatment, as well as a
scholastic acquaintance with the writings of his Greek and Roman
predecessors, and some of human medicine, and to have held affec-
tionately to its antiquated theories and methods of practice. I have
heretofore said that ' veterinary medicine has heen but a parasite
clinging to human medicine for support.' His writings bear the
characteristics peculiar to his time, but are distinguished from those
of many of his contemporaries by being written in more scholastic
Latin. He used the writings of Absyrtus, but complains of the
illiterate style in which they were written. As Vegetius often
speaks of the Huns and their horses, and as these people spread
over the Yolga in 374 a. d., it is evident that he must have lived in
the fourth or early in the fifth century, at a time when the Latins
also understood Greek. He describes the diseases according to the
parts afflicted, and varies but little from his Greek predecessors. It
is to his credit that he was the first veterinary author who endeav-
ored to bring some order out of the chaos which had until then ex-
isted, and endeavored to formulate some general principles for the
diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases. His first two books
treat upon the diseases of the horse, the third upon those of cattle,
the fourth gives a general description of the bovine and equine
form, and the composition of many medicines ; among the latter are
* Schraeder-Hering, loc, eit., p. 88. f Ibid., p. 440.

THE HISTORY OF VKTERINARY MEDICINE. 231

many which are nio-st hulicrous. AVhik' thu therapeutic knowledi^e
displayed hy ^'e^etius is frequently good, his knowledge of anatomy
was most insignitieant, especially of that which was then known in
human medicine."

It is in the writings of these authors that we iind the words
"veterinaria" and " veterinarius" first appearing, indicating the
Latin oritrin of our words ''veterinary" and "' veterinarian." The
art was also called '* mulo-medicine," and Vcgetius styles himself
"Vegetii Renatii sive Mulo-medicinae." It is at or about this
period that we first find intimations of horseshoeing among the
Romans, a practice they seem to have borrowed from the Germans
and Gauls.*

Veterinarii are also mentioned as attached to the Roman cavah-y,
and attending to the health of the animals used at the circus at
Rome.

During this period numerous pests carried devastation and mis-
ery among the Romans and their tributary tribes; the domestic
animals likewise suffered from similar scourges. No writer of the
period has given to posterity so classical a description of these devas-
tations among animals as the poet Virgil in his " Georgics." I take
the liberty of transcribing a few appropriate verses of the same from
Mr. Fleming's " Animal Plagues " :

" Not whirlwinds from the sea so frequent rush,
Big with storm, as pests 'mid cattle rage.
Nor individuals sole disorders seize,
But, suddenly, whole flocks, with every liope,
At once, and, from the youngest, all the race.

"... From tainted air arose
A dreadful storm, inflamed by autumn's heat,
And gave to doatli all cattle, tamo and wild.
Corrupting lakes, poisoning the grassy food.

" Hence, midst the springing grass, young cattle die,
And yield their gentle lives at loaded stalls;
Ilenco, madden fawning dogs, and the sick swine.
With suffocating shake and panting cough, give up their lives.

"Lo! a^ tlie hull under the plowshnre smokes,
He falls, and vomits mint'led foam and gore,
And makes his final groan;

• .\nr one dofirint; to road a most interesting archfrolngical Ptudv, should not fail to
obtain Mr. (Icorf^c Fleming's " Horsoshoos anil Horspshooing," which is a work more suit-
able to gi-neral education than for instruction in horseshoeing, though the latter part
does not fail in this particular.

232 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

The plowman sad disjoins the ox that mourns his brother's fate,

And leaves the rooted plow, his work half done.

Move him not now, nor stream through rocky bed,

That pure as amber freshens all the plain.

His flanks are all relaxed, and his dull eye

A stupor covers, and to earth his neck

Down rushes with the heavy weight it bore.

" What profit, then, then* service and their toil ?
No change of food affords relief,
And art, implored, destroys."

I have endeavored, briefly, it is true, to sketcli the history of
veterinary medicine in antiquity, with what success it must be left
to the reader to judge. The works which we have already alluded
to remained the fountain th" t supplied nourishment to compiling
authors for nearly a thousand years: for it is not until the middle
of the thirteenth century that any work of original importance was
added to our literature. In the tenth century, the Emperor Con-
stantine Porphyrogenitus, 911-951 a. d., instigated a compilation
which included about all the works which had until then aj)peared.

Schraeder, in his biographical lexicon, says of him that "he
was the son and successor of the Greek Emperor Leo. To him we
are indebted for about all we know of veterinary medicine uj) to his
time. He favored and nourished science with all his energy, caused
public education to be given and schools to be erected, which he
made subservient to the uses of the state. He gave his whole at-
tention to the academy at Constantinople, and sought to increase its
usefulness with all the resources at his disposal. As author and
polyhistorian, he gathered books from all parts of the earth, praised
the diligence of compilers, and caused most valuable extracts to be
made from innumerable writings upon history, agriculture, and
medicine, a task which had never before been undertaken, and even
veterinary medicine was not neglected."

Haeser * says of this part of the work, which was entitled the
" Hippiatrica," that it consisted mostly of the letters of Absyrtus,
Emulus, Hierokles, Pelagonius, Theomnestus, Tiberius, Anatolius,
Archedemus, Hippasius, Tetrippus, and Stratonicus. It first ap-
peared in a Latin translation, under the title " Yeterinaria Medi-
cinse," libri II, Joh. Ruello, interp., Paris, 1530. An edition in the
original Greek text was published at Basel, 1537, under the title
" ToDV L'mnarpL'xpiv ^t^Xia Sua)." Translations of the latter appeared
in Italy, 15-13 ; France, 1563 ; Germany, 1571. It is of general in-

* Loc. cit., p. 546.

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICIXE. 233

tercst that Leontius asserts in tlie Latin edition (the phice is want-
in^j^ in the Greek) that in the apparent peat-like ipizooties, horses
which icere healthy were carefulbj separated from those which were
diseased^ and their protection was sought hij bringing them iipon
good pastures. Xo such regulation is to be found in any work of
antiij[uity against the frequent pest outbreaks of disease among hu-
man beings.

We have now, in a very cursory numner, traced the history of
veterinary medicine, or better, empiricism, to the tenth century,
whicli may be said to begin the '" Stalihneisters," or master of the
horse period. This period continued to the opening of the schools,
and in all truth may be said to be still with us ; for every one well
knows the taste among men occupying such positions to write ])rae-
tical books '" on the care and treatment of the horse." While I
would not deny more or less practical and empirical ability to men
occupying these positions, I must em]iliatically enter an earnest pro-
test against an American absurdity which leads otherwise intelligent
citizens to assume that such persons know anything of disease, and
which results in calling in to attend sick animals the first conven-
ient stable-keeper, blacksmith, or cow-herd ; that because such men
have gained a certain sort of practical knowledge with regard to
the care of our domestic animals in health, it is justifiable to assume
that they know anything of them in disease. Xo greater error ex-
ists than this, and it has unfortunately extended itself into human
practice, much to the cost of a suffering humanity. Experience is
indeed valuable, but experience alone has proved a ledge upon
which many a man has been wrecked. Times come when your
practical man, your man of boasted experience, can do nothing but
stand with fcjlded hands and wait. Such times come only too fre-
quently to the man of still greater experience, and that backed up
by a most elaborate education and reflective ability. AVithout edu-
cation, without that systematic drilling and practice which can only
be obtained in well-regulated schools and hospitals, experience is
worse than nothing ; it results in nothing more than the most absurd
guess-work. What idea can a man have of inflammatory processes
in the lungs, kidneys, brain, or liver, M-ho scarcely knows the seat of
those organs, much less anything of their anatomical construction ?
In all truth, it is the most abject form of cruelty to give over a suf-
fering dumb animal (alas I it is too often the case with human beings
also) to the tortures or futile endeavors of one of these " experi-
enced " quacks. Fortunate would it be for humanity, fortunate for
our dumb animals as well, were disease and its treatment the simple

234 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

thing wliicli sucli actions on the part of those intrusted with their care
would lead iis to assume that it was. On the contrary, the study of
disease is one of the most difficult tasks which the human intellect
has to cope with, and, while many men pass through life with the
reputation of successful practitioners, still it is but the limited few
who gain entrance to the " holy of holies," and acquire much inti-
mate acquaintance with disease itself. That an occasional quack is
rewarded by success is not to be wondered at, when we take into
consideration the recuperative powers of Dame l^ature herself. !Noth-
ing is more amusing, more saddening, than to hear self-important
practitioners hoast of their cures. It is very, very hard, as many dis-
tinguished men have admitted, and as every man who has devoted
time to experiment in pathological and therapeutical research, but
especially the latter, knows, to positively decide whether the im-
provement which one sees in a given patient is due to the recupera-
tive powers of ^Nature, to a weakening of the active properties of
the cause of the disease, or to the action of drugs which have been
offered.

The best and most skillful practitioners are but handmaids., ser-
vants, to Nature, and he is the best practitioner who most scrupu-
lously holds to the rule, " hands off," and wnth religious regard aims
to support the ever-active recuperative power, efforts, of the physio-
logical functions. It is seldom given to the attendant upon organ-
isms afflicted with inner diseases to effect radical cures / this boon
is, however, occasionally awarded to the surgeon. Only the quack
proclaims to have the radical panacea which can cure all and every-
thing. But to return to our subject :

The period which we are now considering in the history of vet-
erinary medicine is marked by the appearance of several works of
great historical importance. The first of these was the "Hippi-
atrica" of Jordanus Rufus, " Marescallus Major" to the court of
Frederick II of Sicily. The king is reported to have assisted on
the work. Rufus seems to have known but little of the writings of
his Greek and Roman predecessors, but, according to Haeser, was
not unacquainted with several works of Arabian origin. His mind
appears to have been remarkably free from the superstitions of his
time. He describes quite a number of diseases, among them lami-
nitis, vulgarly called founder, glanders, tetanus, etc.

Schraeder * says of him : " He was born in Calabria, in the
twelfth or thirteenth century, and was from a noble family, and,
like many gentlemen of his position, busied himself with training

* Loc. cit., p. 368.

TOE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 035

horses, and the treatment of their diseases. That lie must liavc been
an important personage, and much esteemed by his patnjn, is attested
by the circumstance that his names appear among the signers of
the king's testament: ''Ego Jordanus maguus justitia ruis Rufus
de Cahibria imperialis MarescaUus major interfui his et subscribi
feci." (Frederick reigned from 1^12 to 1250 a. d.) Rufus's work,
'' De Medifina Ecpiorum," appears to have been written with the
advice and consent of the king, but it has been incorrectl}' asserted
that the latter himself wrote it. It appears, from Rufus's own
words, that the king had already died at the time of its publication,
which accordingly must have taken place subsequent to 1250. It
was written in Latin, but at an early date was honored with transla-
tions into Italian, and in ISIS violin, professor in Padua, gave out a
Latii\ edition. None of the ancient Latin works upon this subject
afford more pleasure to the reader than this of Ruffus's. From it
one can easily perceive that he was a person of considerable expe-
rience, far exceeding any of his successors in ability for a period of
nearly four hundred years. We do not find in his writings any of
the superstitious fables or astrological nonsense which encumbered the
works of his predecessors; he was an earnest student of Nature, and
erave his conclusions with earnestness and directness. It is certain
that he knew little of Yegctius, or of the collected writings of Greek
authors ; at least, he made but little use of them. Many of his di-
rections are not without value even in our day. Many names which
he gave to diseases have been adopted into other languages. Hazard
possessed several manuscripts, and especially a French translation of
his writings. The contents of one of these manuscripts on vellum,
from the fourteenth century, is given as follows : 1. The Creation
and Nativity of the Horse. 2. His Capture and Training. 3. The
Care and Treatment. -4. The Recognition of the Parts of the Body.
5. The Diseases. 6. The Medicines and Remedies.

The invention of printing gave a great im])etus to the publica-
tion of works of all kinds — to a degree, in fact, which we of this
day and generation can scarcely appreciate. In this regard the pub-
lication of medical works kept even pace with those of theology and
other bninches of learning. In our own field of study there ap-
peared a work of rare value ; one, indeed, which marks a turning-
point in the development of veterinary medicine. Up to this time
there had been no book on the diseases of animals since the days of
Aristotle which endeavored to enter at all into the study of their
anatomy based on special dissections. This ground was first broken
by an Italian work entitled " Dell' Anatomia et dell' Infirmita del

236 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

Cavallo," di Carlo Ruini, senator of Bologna, 1598. This work
contains numerous illustrations, finely executed, when we take into
consideration the period and the condition of equine anatomy. It
remained unequaled for nearly two hundred years, when its place
was in part taken by the really magnificent '* Cours d'Hippiatrique "
of Lafosse,^Z5, Paris, 1T72.

Carlo Ruini* was born and died in the sixteenth century, at
Bologna, Italy, the exact date being unknown. His grandfather
was a professor of note at the university of that place, lecturing
upon jurisprudence. Kuini also studied the same subject, and, as
stated on the title-page of this book, became senator in his na-
tive city. But little is known of his life, but in the preface of the
book in question it is said that from early youth he displayed a
great fondness for horses. The original edition of this work ap-
peared in 1598, and the printing and paper are marvels of perfec-
tion. Uffenbach gave out a German translation, and several from
French sources soon followed. The book served as a fountain from
which subsequent compilers drew much information, using also the
illustrations, which, however, frequently lost much credit in the
copies made of them. The first part of the book treats of the anat-
omy of the horse, and the numerous illustrations testify to the dili-
gence of the author in dissections. The second part treats of the
diseases of that animal, and is based in no inconsiderable degree
upon Euffus and other authors. As little as the authorship is in
general to be questioned, yet it is very doubtful if the " Anato-
mia del Cavallo " is from Ruini's hand. " I harbored this doubt,"
says Schraeder, " very early in my study of this book, and the more
I have reflected upon it the more have I become confirmed in my
doubts. It is my opinion that some young doctor had at his own
instigation, or perhaps incited by Ruini, studied the anatomy of the
horse, and drew the illustrations, and had them engraved upon cop-
per, which could not be done save at considerable expense, which
the wealth of Ruini made possible."

Ercolani, one of the most learned veterinarians of Italy, and
celebrated for his researches into historical veterinary literature,
questions the above assertion, and gives full credit to Ruini.

I have casually mentioned the brilliant contribution to veterinary
literature, the " Cours d'Hippiatrique" of Lafosse^^^. While Rui-
ni's work was the first illustrated book of any account which had
until then appeared, that of Lafosse was the first book with colored
plates which appeared upon equine anatomy. The work is divided
* Schraeder-Hering, loc. cil., p. 369.

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICIN'E. 037

into three parts, ami is embellished with a fine copjier print of the
author. The first part treats of the anatomy of the horse ; the sec-
ond, of its diseases and their treatment ; the third, of horseshoeing.
It is impossible to doubt the influence of Ruini, when one thought-
fully compares the plates and the arrangements of both these works.
At this period two men, father and son, occupied most prominent
positions among the veterinarians of France. I must beg leave to
nourish the opinion, heretical as it may seem, that it was an unfor-
tunate thing for France, unfortunate for the development of veteri-
nary science, not art, that the first veterinary schools established at
Lyons and Alfort, France, were not established under the direc-
tion of the younger Lafosse, rather than under that of his great
rival, Bourgelat. Bourgelat was a horseman, eminently practical /
hence we see horseshoeing and all practical routine assuming a
jilace in French veterinary medicine, at the cost of the scientific in-
vestigating spirit, which would not have been the case had the more
scientific and original but not the less practical Lafosse been the
guiding star. I wish to call particular attention to this opinion, for
here in America we are in great danger of losing the true union of
science and practice, before the great practical common sense that
our people are so fond of assuming to themselves. "We have not yet
learned, at least so far as the study and development of medicine is
concerned, that experience is a dear task-master. I would not have
it inferred that I would neglect the practical — I am too much of
an American for that — but true practice must ever stand upon the
results of scientific research ; upon an empiricism based upon some-
thing else than the trrtditions and errors of our forefathers ; the
things which have been, but which have never at the same time
been subjected to the skeptical crucible of the experimental, scien-
tific researcher.

As the two Lafosscs. especially the son, exerted such an influ-
ence on the development of veterinary medicine, a short notice of
their lives can not be out of place here.

"■ Etienne Guillaume Lafosse,* the father, was born in Paris,
and died there January 24, 1765, Little that is authentic is known
with reference to his life — he appears to have been lost sight of be-
hind the greater renown of his glorious son. Yet it was to him that
the son owed his careful education in the scientific and practical ele-
ments of his profession. The father had, however, given us some
idea of his ability by his investigations on the seat of glanders,
published in 1779, in a treatise entitled " Le veritable siege de la
* Schracder-IIcring, loc. eit.y p. 234.

238 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

morve (glanders) et les moyens d' j remedier " ; in 1750 he gave to
the Academy a brochure upon lycoperdon as a haemostatic, anti-
bleeding medicine ; and in ITSi published a work on horseshoeing.
Other writings upon horseshoeing and ^^ractice followed, several of
which, as also the above, were honored with translations into other
languages."

" Pliil. Etienne Lafosse, the son, was born at Montaterre, near
Paris, and it is said died at Yilleneuve, upon the Yonne, June, 1820.
He was the eldest son of the former Lafosse, and at thirteen years
of age decided to follow the calling which had been so honorably
followed by his father and grandfather." (It should be mentioned
here that this family has been one of the most noted among those
which have given worthy veterinarians to France, and that it is not
without honorable representatives at the present day.) "At the
conclusion of his school-days, his father required him to serve for a
time in his stables, where he acquired proficiency in the handling
and care of horses ; he then went into the forge for two years, and
at the same time devoted himself to the study of human anatomy.
He also received instruction in fencing, drawing, and music. Then
followed practical experience, gained by accompanying his father
upon professional visits, at the same time continuing the study of
equine anatomy. By visiting knacker establishments, and making
autopsies, he constantly enriched his collection of specimens. At
eighteen years of age he received an appointment to lecture upon
equine anatomy to the members of the light cavalry stationed at
Yersailles. He also did the same at the house of his father for the
students in the forge. In 1758 we find him stationed as army-
veterinarian, and accompanying the army in two campaigns into
Germany during the Seven Years' War. On his return he studied
medicine at Paris. In 1767 he built an amphitheatre, and gave
therein free lectures and demonstrations upon equine anatomy ;
these lectures enjoyed great and deserved notoriety, but in 1770 he
gave them up in order to bring to completion his great work, " Cours
d'Hippiatrique " ; the same cost Lafosse seventy thousand livres, and
gave him an immortal reputation, especially in foreign countries.
He did not, however, enjoy the same good fortune among his own
people, for, not only in this work, but also in his " Dictionnaire
d'Hippiatrique," 17Y5, he displayed a most active opposition to the
schools at Lyons and Alfort, or rather, against their founder, Bour-
gelat. He nourished a great ambition to become a teacher, or even
director, at one of these schools, but his severe polemics seem to
have completely shut him off from the desired end. Bourgelat was

THE HISTORY OF VKTEKIXAUY MEDICINE. 239

a far more politic character, and stood in lii^li favor witli tlie min-
istry, and his scholars gave him such ardent support that the
severe critique of his opponent passed him liarmlessly by. Tlie
disappointment to his ambition, in unison with sufferinfi^s caused
by a stone in the bhidder, made him sell his house in Paris and
remove to Russia, where he remained from 1777 to 1781. It is not
definitely known what positions he occupied while tliere. But in
no case could he find himself at home in the despotism ruling in
Russia, and soon returned to Paris, where he rapidly assumed a
position at court as veterinarian, and was also appointed to a simi-
lar position in the carabiniers and gendarmes. From his discon-
tent with the government, it is not to be wondered at that we find
him taking an active part in the acts of the Revolutit)n, which
soon followed : he was present at the storming of the Invalides and
Bastile ; became a member of the armed commission, division com-
mander, and municipal officer of Paris. But we do not find his
revolutionary ideas confined to politics alone ; his hatred against the
existing veterinary institutions and Bourgelat again found full vent,
and he easily saw reasons for the suppression of both, and the rc-
mt)val of the schools to Paris; among other things, he accused the
existing powers of supporting a costly and unnecessary menagerie,
besides unnecessary instruments, and of accumulating a debt, in
the years between 17S2 and 1785, of thirty thousand livres. La-
fosse was a hippologist par excelhnce^ and this exclusive devotion
to the horse wius used successful!}' in the arguments against his
polemic attacks on the existing institutions. Although the authori-
ties took so little notice of his polemics, yet Lafosse did not fail
entirely of public appreciation, for we find him appointed to sev-
eral important positions as inspector and examiner in connection
with the army. In all these he displayed his usual activity. On
the 29th of July, 1794, he narrowly escaped death upon the scaf-
fold. He then left Paris, occasionally revisiting it, however, and
retired to the country, where he busied himself in scientific studies,
occasionally appearing before the public In 17i>7 he read a pajier
before the National Institute, entitled " Memoire sur une maladie
epizooticpie vaccinique dans le Canton de Bray, qui a regni pendant
Tet^ de Tan V, jusqu'd la fin de vend^miairc an VI." Other i)apei-s
followed this of no less importance. In 179r» he was elected asso-
ciate member of the Institute, but, notwithstanding earnest endeavor
on his part and that of his friends, he diil not succeed in becoming
virtually a member. In 1819 he again vented his hatred against
the schools in a writing entitled " Nouvellc Theorie pratique d'equi-

240 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

tation." He possessed bis great activities until tlie close of liis days,
and frequently complained of the unthankfulness of his fatherland
— an ingratitude which, notwithstanding his failures, is still dis-
creditable to his countrymen, for if Bourgelat deserves a monument
to his memory for what he did for France, Lafosse no less deserves
one for his services to the world at large, for none of the literary
work of Bourgelat equals that which has given a world-wide repu-
tation to the greater Lafosse.

Other books, which have acquired at least a certain historical
importance, but which are of but little practical value, with a few
exceptions, at the present day, were the "Parfait Marechal" of
Solleysel, 1664, which was honored with translations into several for-
eign languages ; the writings of Saunier, mostly based upon books
which had preceded him; Diaz, in Spain, Yon Zind, Newcastle,
Winter von Adler's Flugel ; Marx Fugger, on Breeding ; the " Foure
Chiefest Offices of Horsemanship, whereto are added, Diverse Medi-
cines not Heretofore Mentioned," by Thomas Blundeville, of New-
ton Flotman, in Norfolk, England : London, 1609. (Blundeville is,
I believe, the originator of the term " Poll-Evil ") ; the " Hippono-
mia, or Vineyard of Horsemanship," Baret, 1661 ; " Master Peese,
Containing all the Knowledge Belonging to the Smith, Farrier,
Horse-Leech," etc. ; the " Complete Horseman," of William Hope,
1696; "The Farriers New Guide," by Gibson, 1719; Snape's
"Anatomy of the Horse," 1751 ; and a very remarkable book from
Stubbs, on the " Anatomy of the Horse," 1766. During this long
period the Continent of Europe and Britain had been frequently
overrun with animal plagues. Interesting as a condensed history
of these invasions would be, it is not my purpose to enter upon it
here, but gladly refer those who care to pursue this subject to
the very elaborate work of Mr. George Fleming, entitled "Ani-
mal Plagues," where it is treated in detail. Of these plagues,
the rinderpest and pleuro-pneumonia of cattle caused the most se-
rious devastations, and I shall presently have occasion to quote
largely from the above-mentioned "Animal Plagues," from the
writings of three men who played an important part in their sup-
pression, but better still, in instructing the people and governments
in the means of combating them ; instruction which is as applicable
to our day as it was when written, over one hundred years ago.

It is scarcely possible for the people in this country to form any
conception of the devastation and misery caused by these plagues in
Europe during the eighteenth century ; and not only these, but
plagues unknown to us, carried death and misery among the pec-

THE HISTORY OF VETERIXARV MnDiriyE. 241

pie themselves. AVai-s on wai-s, •\vitli all their accompanying evils,
lunl impoverished hoth the governments and })eople. Epidemic on
epidemic had almost broken all the himling ties of kindred and affec-
tion. Plague on plague had driven people to the last verge of hope
for sustenance and wealth, by robbing them of their animals, more)
especially cattle. " It has been computed that from 1711 to 1714 no;
fewer than one million five hundred thousand cattle died in Europe'
from cattle-plague." A competent authority tells us that between'
1711) and 1709 "not less than two hundred millions of cattle were!
destroyed by rinderpest alone." * These figures might easily be
aufirmented to a deffree almost bevond human concei>tion. In our
own day millions of dollars' worth of valuable animal property is
yearly swept away by these ravaging destroyers. Ignorance and su-
perstition prevailed among the people. Where should they look for
aid ? The doctors were powerless. The veterinary empiricism of
the day sank as an imbecile before the furious storm. The Church
cried that the Almighty was angry, and punishing the world for its
sins. " Come to me — I alone can save you ! " said an equally iinbecile
priesthood. The people went ! Instead of help, they found husks.
In spite of the invocations of anointed bishops, in spite of the sacred
and all-preserving charms which the Church affirmed were possessed
by the consecrated oils, or by the burning cross, or heated key of
the all-holy saints, Martin and Angelo, in spite of Inquisitional tor-
tures inflicted upon an already suffering animal world by these bar-
barians of the Church, in spite of all the powers of man, on went
the ravaging pests, carrying death and misery in their path.

Empirical curers, then as now, were to be had on all sides, but
their medicines were as empty of effect as their brains were of
knowledge. The so-called veterinary profession was as powerless
as the mighty Church ; priestly imbecile and veterinary quack joined
hands in producing nothing. "Woe, woe was on every side ! Hope
alone was all that poor humanity had to depend upon. Men felt
that they were indeed deserted by (rod, and that the Father of the
heavens was no more mindful of his children. But this was only
so in ajipearance.

AVe have arrived at the latter part of the eighteenth century,
and found — what? That no veterinary science existed; that no
veterinarians had added anything of much value, other than a few-
things of practical import, to human knowledge. But the medical
profession had not been idle. "While Luther was battling, as a son
of Mars, for the freedom of the human intellect from the trammels

• " AniiDal Plagues."
16

242 THE HISTORY OF VETERIXARY MEDICINE.

of an imbecile snperstition, and in part demoralized priesthood,
Truth was not without her able representatives in many fields of
science. Yesalius was following in the path of Luther, and bring-
ing things which had been, until then, hidden in an impenetrable
darkness, to the light of the world ; the human body was, for the
first time, subjected to the analytical power of the human intellect,
and the anatomist's scalpel was daily revealing truths before which
the superstitions and myths of thousands of years disappeared as the
mists before the morning sun. The Church shouted her anathemas,
but in vain. In spite of curse, hatred, persecution, and calumny, on
went the bark of truth, emphatically testifying to the wisdom of
the words of the Eastern sage, " Truth alone is the mightiest of all
things, and will live forever." Yesalius was a reformer of the truest
type ; but to progress, other elements are also necessary. They seek
to pull down, not to build up ; they serve to tear away the cobwebs,
which, as superstitions, prevent the new light from gaining entrance
into dark corners. The sun of revolution in medicine found its
representative in Paracelsus, a wonderful mixture of superstition
and common sense himself, but nevertheless a man who did no
small work in preparing the way for the truth to enter men's minds.
On went the march of investigation. " More ! more ! " was the cry
of a hungering humanity ; and the answer came in the great and im-
mortal Harvey's unlocking the keys to an unknown fountain, and
teaching men how the flowing blood was forced through their or-
ganisms. England then denied her child, to honor him in future
generations as among the " anointed " of the sons of men. Tlie
great Hunter laid the foundation of a new science, and made the
world a debtor, by laying the foundation of the first museum for
pathological anatomy. Boerhaave was teaching a mighty class of
scholars, whose fame was to make his great name still more famous.
Yan Zwieten laid the foundation of the first hospital in Yienna.
Glisson started the doctrine of the irritability of the tissues, which
found its more complete elucidation at the hands of Haller, im-
mortal physiologist, poet, philosopher, statesman, and naturalist.
Harvey and Haller must be looked upon as the fathers of modern
physiology. It is not an uninteresting fact that Harvey freed the
world of errors which had been held ever since its beginning, in the
same year (1620) that our "Pilgrim fathers" broke the ground in
favor of human rights on the "Western Continent. Haller, Lancisi,
Ramazzini, Bates, and others, did the work that an incompetent vet-
erinary profession could not do, by describing the animal plagues,
especiaUy pleuro-pneumonia and cattle-plague. Xot only did these

THE HISTORY OF VETKRI.VARY MEDICLNE. 243

men describe, tliey also made most careful observations as to the
manner in which these pests extended, and elucidated means of
prevention entirely applicable to our day, and which had we, in this
country, sense enough to study and follow, would save us untold
millions in the future. So true are the descriptions given by these
men, so far-seeing the instructions they give for prevention, that I
feel myself impelled to give them here.

Speaking of the animal pest which devastated Europe in the
eighteenth century, Fleming says : " The cattle-plague — rinderpest
— continued its ravages in all the countries named in the preceding
year (1712). In Knssia, it had enlarged its boundaries. In Ger-
many, it was reported at various places. It was still spreading in
Switzerland ; but in Holland its violence was excessive; it was said
tluit there alone, between 1713 and 1723, it destroyed two hundred
thousand cattle. In Italy it was steadily marching on, and causing
havoc on all sides. In Naples, Calabria, and liomagna, its advances
were causing the utmost apprehension and fear. The learned doc-
tor and j)hysician of Pojie Clement XI, Giovanni Lancisi, was sent
to investigate the nature and prescribe measures for the suppression
of the pest. To the ability of this man, while obeying his instruc-
tions, we are much indebted for an accurate description of the symp-
toms and posi-mortciii appearances of the malady, as manifested in
that part of the Roman dominions. His report is as follows : ' In
the middle of the summer of 1713 there was a rumor at Rome that
a large number of infected oxen from districts on the Mediterranean
were being driven from the market of Frusinoso to us ; wherefore
it was wisely decreed that no markets should be held, or any cattle
be driven into the place. But merchants introduced oxen into the
city S'Crithj h>j hij-icays^ hecause their Iwpes of selling thnn publicly
hadhein frustrated ; and these ^ heiny driven ahout in all directions^
and l>€coming mixed with our hitherto healthy stock, spread ahroad
the disease. For, ichen foreign merchants had doubtful or suspi-
cious cattle, which they could not sell in their own country, they
brought them to Home surreptitiously, and sold them for less tfian
the usual price."* " *

This pliilosopher and far-seeing jiatriot gives us such a high
opinion of his wisdom and truthfulness in his work on this plague,
that we nuist quote more largely from his report, lie had no doubt
whatever as to its being an inijiorted disease. As (piic-kly as pos-
sible, when its presence was discovered, all traffic in cattle was to be
prohibited, and the law enforced with the utmost rigor in the case of
* Fleming, "History of .\nimal Plagues," p. 198.

244 THE HISTORY OF VETERIXART MEDICIXE.

those who moved cattle about. But the disease was still raging ; " as
a neglected spark at first, it had at length set Italy in a blaze," and
was extending everywhere. Lancisi described the disease, dwelt on
its terrific character and the hopelessness of medical treatment, and
then recommended what he deemed the wisest course. " I advised
that every diseased animal should be killed ; for, I maintained that,
should they be left to a slow death, the cost of medicines, veterinary
surgeons, attendants, and other means, would be very great, and not
only this, but their very presence would assist in the diffusion of the
contagion. The Sacred College, however, ordained that this meas-
ure was too severe, and that remedies should be tried ; and, in tnith,
they were greatly influenced in this decision by the number of people
who pretended that they had infallible cures for the affection. But
the fact is," added Lancisi, •' that in the cattle, as in the human
plague, not every one who takes the disease dies of it. Some re-
cover, thanks to Nature, rather than to the remedies which are re-
sorted to." The attempts to cure the disease only resulted in failure,
and its indefinite extension. Edicts were issued, forbidding the
bringing of cattle from the Cam23agna into the district of Home,
under the penalty of death to a layman, and of the galleys for life
to an ecclesiastic. The sale of hides was interdicted, and the flesh,
horns, and fat of the animals were ordered to be buried in deep pits
and covered with quicklime. Measures were taken to prevent the
sale of diseased meats. Inspectors were appointed to visit the mar-
kets, and only those pieces of flesh which were stamped with a hot
iron by the inspector were allowed to be sold. Skinning the dead
carcasses was forbidden, as it might lead to the further extension of
the disease. The severity of the edicts was complained of ; " but it
is a fact," he adds, " that here^ where the laws were strictly enforced,
the plague was arrested much sooner than in other parts of Italy."

The various edicts issued by the Sacred College are given at
length by Lancisi. He thinks " they will be of great service to pos-
terity if a similar misfortune should ever again happen — which may
Heaven avert ! "

Posterity has heedlessly passed them by many and many times,
and has consequently paid the penalties of its neglect.

The last chapter of this invaluable work sums up his admirable
reflections upon this disease : " The steps which a wise government
should instantly take, whenever the pestilence may again appear
upon our borders, are these : all roads and by-paths should be care-
fully guarded, so that no ox or dog be allowed to enter the coimtry.
Any animal so entering should be forthwith destroyed and buried.

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 245

Should the pestilence, however, gain admission, the separation of
the sick from the healthy must be enforced by decree. Luhed^ in
my oj^inioHj by far the safcd course Is instantly to destroy tlie ani-
mal with the poh'-axe^ so that no infected hlood may escape on the
ground ; for, in attempting to cure the diseased animal, the veteri-
nary surgeon may convey the disease to healthy animals. The
healthy cattle nmst be removed from their former pastures, which
must be roirarded as contaminated. The diseased oxen should be
kept in stables, to which no one is admitted except the veterinary
surgeon or the herdsman. The fountains and vessels used by the
animals should be frequently cleaned with quicklime. The clothes
of the shepherds should also be fumigated. The dead carcasses, from
which not one hair is to be removed, must be buried in deep pits ;
any saliva or secretions which may drop from them on the way to
the pit are to be carefully removed. If any cows are infected, their
milk is instantly to be thrown into a hole in the ground ; and the
severest punishment should be inflicted on those who disobey this
order. The passage of all rustics and dogs should be forbidden."

That Lancisi's teachings liave not been entirely neglected is
shown by the following letter, written to Mr. Fleming while I was
a student in Germany:*

My dear Sir : I have just read your very judicious and reason-
able letter in the "Times," on the ''Cattle-Plague," and being here
at Berlin, the headijuarters of this outbreak, it may not be uninter-
esting to you to hear from me as to what I have seen.

The whole state, we will say, is divided into thirty-six depart-
ments, and these again are subdivided into districts ; over each
of these districts is an official veterinarian, known as the " Kreis-
Thierarzt," or district veterinary surgeon, and the same arrange-
ment is carried out over the entire Empire of Germany. All these
men are selected for their ability, and especially for their knowledge
of contagious animal diseases ; in the smaller towns the " Kreis-
Tbierarzt" is one of the men of the town, and has for so<'iety those
who are considered the leading men of the place. The " Departc-
ments-Thierarzt" is a much greater character; he is an unusually
well-educated person, who nmst be thoroughly posted in regard to
the laws of the empire relative to his profession and duties, and is
responsible to the local state authorities, as well as to the ministry,
for the faithful performance of his duties ; the " Kreis-Thieriir/.te "
are responsible to those of the departments. These officers all re-
ceive salaries from the state, varying from fifty to four hundred

• Published ia the " Veterinary Journal," 1879.

246 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICIXE.

pounds per year, and also are permitted to receive fees for their
official attendance in addition to their regular fees. They are fur-
ther favored in their practice bj their official positions, it being a
guarantee to the public of their competencv. Prussia does much to
encourage graduated students to continue their studies. This -win-
ter some thirty men, from twenty-five to forty years of age, are re-
ceiving about forty pounds each from the Government to pay their
expenses in Berlin, while they are attending lectures and studying ;
and at the time I write they are being examined for higher positions.
Every year a new set arrives ; so you will understand that our sci-
ence is properly encouraged on the Continent, and a man has some
incentive to work. In Prussia, to every 4*75 square miles (geo-
graphical) there is a veterinary surgeon, and to his care are confided
1,544 horses, 4,592 cattle, 14,221 sheep, 2,192 hogs ; and there are
(these figures apply to 1875) 1,290 veterinary practitioners. This
has no reference to the number of official veterinarians.

These few remarks will serve as an introduction to the remainder
of my letter. Early in January there was an unusual excitement to
be noticed around our school ; messengers were to be seen rapidly
passing between the offices of the Minister of Agriculture and the
school officials. It soon transpired that " der Teufel's los," as it was
expressed to me, or, in other words, the " rinderpest " was in Ham-
burg. It took but a short time to arrange mattei*s. Professor Miil-
ler, whom you know as an anatomist, and a great authoi-ity upon
this scourge, was dispatched to Hamburg with a high government
officer. Another great expert was sent to the Russian frontier ;
every department veterinary officer was notified by telegraph, and
in less than twelve hours an embargo was placed upon every head
of horned cattle in Germany. If I mistake not, your Government
was officially informed of the sailing of the Castor with infected
cattle from Hamburg, in sufficient time to have stopped her before
reaching London. She should have been stopped some distance
from that port, her hatches battened down, and the vessel and cargo
towed somewhere, sunk, and paid for by the Government. If this
was in reality the first infected cargo, then England would perhaps
have been preserved from a serious loss ; the future can alone prove
what the loss may be.

To return to the outbreak in Germany. The Berlin and all
other markets were most vigilantly watched, and no cattle or other
animals were allowed to be removed from them alive for slaughter
in the city. (All cattle moved at any time from the markets in
Berlin are moved only in large cattle-wagons ; the same is true of

THE HISTORY OF VETEIilN'AIiY MEDICINE. 247

every other marketable animal, e\i'ej)t horses. Glanilered horses
and suspected horses are invariably moved in wagons, either to the
school for inspection, or to the knackers, to be immediately killed.)
All cattle that had to be removed were tirst rigidly inspected, and
then conveyed in wagons, and put directly upon the cars; and bo it
was all over the country. Alluding to your remarks in the " Times,"
on the futility of inspection when the disease is latent, a fine in-
stance occurred here, which our mutual friend Professor Dieck-
erhoff unraveled with his customary ability. He was called to
"\Vest})halia, it being rej^ortcd that a cow there was suspiciously dis-
eased. On his arrival the cow in question had been killed, or had
died, but her illness was said not to have been rinderpest. It was,
huwever, reported that another cow was sick, and this animal was
immediately placed under lock and seal, and the case proved to be
one of rinderpest. As the story is interesting, it may be useful to
relate it in full : This cow had been bought in Berlin by a butcher,
who was a Jew ; it was there inspected and passed, put on the cars
with others, and taken to the town, the name of which I have forgot-
ten. The other cattle were at once killed ; but the butcher having a
child suddenly die, the remaining cow was sent to a friend for a day
or two, for him to keep, and during the interval the disease liad time
to develop. Professor Dieckerhoff traced the whole affair from
beginning to end ; the cow was killed, and rinderpest proved to be
present. If this cow had been killed with the others, the disease
might have been spread without the real cause ever becoming ap-
parent, or brought to light. I have purposely refrained from saying
anything about the action of the authorities in these special cases ;
in the investigation of some othera it Avas my good fortune to be
present. Early one morning about two weeks since, Professor
Dieckerhoff sent for me ; it was just daylight, and, witli him and
four other students, we started for a village, about thirteen miles
from Berlin, where a cow was reported to be sick. I should state
that the Government keeps a very nice " turn-out" and four horses
for this purpose, and Professor DieckerhofF has this clinic (at pres-
ent he has charge of the school hospitals) — taking four students each
time with him, your humble servant going when anything interest-
ing is likely to turn up. "We arrived in about two hours, the roads
being heavy ; we met the local officers and proceeded to the sus-
pected farm-house, but did not enter until we had proved our right
to do so ; the house being guarded, and not a person allowed to
leave or enter the premises, but to speak or pass things in or out
through a window. I omitted to state that Professor Dieckerhoff

248 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

and the renowned Hertwig had been there the previous day, and it
had been decided to allow another to pass, in order that the symp-
toms should become sufficiently developed to prove the existence
of the disease, the place being well guarded. During the night a
trench had been dug some forty feet long and some fourteen deep
in an entirely isolated wood, which we could reach without crossing
a public way. We removed the cow, made a necroscopical exami-
nation, proved our case ; her nine companions were brought after her
to the same place, with their chains and stable-utensils : the cows
were then shot, after the decision of the proper officers had been
given, and they with the utensils were at once buried — a military
guard over the place, another about the farm from which they were
taken, and also on the streets leading to the village ; the inmates of
this particular place being confined strictly to their own limits for a
time prescribed by law. JSTo cattle or farm animals were allowed in
the streets, and only persons permitted there with teams who had
received sanction from the authorities. All those who had had to
do with the infected cattle were most effectually disinfected ; while
those that buried them had no cattle themselves, and were not al-
lowed to go near any within the lawful time. I heard an officer say
that the pastor of the village must be carefully watched : that these
gentry were unfortunately apt to be spreaders of contagium, the
guards of ter allowing them to pass as favored persons, and then they
innocently, of course, must go to the stable, see things, and after-
ward go to another neighbor to mention the loss of neighbor So-
and-so. This has often been the case, I am told, in Germany. The
manure, the stall, and all things about the stable, are carefully cleansed
and disinfected under the supervision of veterinary officials. I was
surprised to see numerous military about the fields and streets, ap-
parently with no purpose, yet carrying rifles ; their duty, it seems,
was to shoot every dog, cat, or valiant chanticleer, which they might
see straying abroad or leaving the proper quarters. Doubtless the
Prussian course may seem tyrannical and severe — all the cattle are
killed, not only the diseased, but all belonging to the infested farm
or stable — but the law is, to my mind, essentially democratic ; it is
for the good of the whole, and the cattle killed and utensils de-
stroyed are paid for by the state at market prices.

The remarks of TIaller upon certain contagious animal diseases,
rnore especially the pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, which is of such
vital interest to the people of this country at present, and which
bids fair to become a most serious economical problem to American
statesmen, certainly more than warrants their introduction here. It

TUE HISTORY OF VETEIUXARY MEDICINE. 049

is not, liowever, iiia])propriate to the siil)jec't of this book to gwo a
short sketch of the life of a man uho has wiekled such a mighty
intellectnal iutiuence in the world's progress.

'' Albert von Ilaller * was born at Bern, Switzerland, in 1708, and
in early youth demonstrated a systematic spirit and a strong scien-
tific tendency. lie began to make for himself a private dictionary
as soon as he was able to write, in which he entered all words hith-
erto unknown to him, with their meanings, lie also made a dic-
tionary of a similar character as soon as he began the study of for-
eign languages, and when he began the study of history he followed
the same course. He often said that in his later years he found
valuable information in these works of his youthful days. AVhen
ten years old he had already shown his taste for poetry by writing
ludicrous verses about his teachei's, his poetic talent at this time
having a special bent to satire, which he, however, entirely gave up
in later years. In l~'2'-\ when he was fifteen years old, he went to
the Univei*sity of Tubingen, to study medicine under Duvernoi and
Camerarius. In the ne.xt year he wrote a polemic against an ana-
tomical assertion of Professor Coshwitz at Ilalle. He did not re-
main long at Tubingen, ;is he, with other students, had made a
shepherd so drunk with high-wine (Branntwein) that the latter lost
his life. In 172.') he removed to Lcyden, to study under the guid-
ance of the immortal Boerhaave. At eighteen years of age he ac-
quired his degree of doctor of medicine, visited England and France,
but had to flee from Paris, because it was found that he had made
dissections of human bodies at his residence. From Paris he went
to Basel and studied mathematics under Bernoulli ; but in 1729 he
returned to the place of his nativity, Bern, in order to practice his
profession ; at the same time he studied botany with great earnest-
ness. In 1734 he became director of the hospitals of his city, and
also had an amphitlieatre built in which he gave anatomical lectures.
Most of his poems were written at this time. In 1735 he had con-
trol of the City Library, which he himself used with the greatest
diligence. In 1730 he was called to Gottingen as Professor of Anat-
omy, Chemistry, and Botany ; he also explained the ' Institutions ' of
his master, Boerhaave, which he himself })ublished with commentaries
in 1730. At this period he still busied himself with botany, and pub-
lished several works of classical importance upon the subject ; he
also wrote a large number of important anatomiciil papers, besides
publishing an atlas of anatomy. But it is for his contributions to
physiology that Ilaller is as much noted as for any other of his mani-
* "Geschichte d. Mcdicin," Wundcrlich, Stuttgart, 1859,

250 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

fold accomplishments. His Urst appearance in this branch of sci-
ence was a polemical work on respiration in 1727. He demonstrated
that there was no air between the pleura costalis and lungs, against
the contrary assertions of Professor Hamberger. Haller's fame,
and with it that of the Gottingen University, increased each year ;
he laid the foundation of the Gottingen Scientific Society, and a
periodical, which is still in existence, devoted to science. After sev-
enteen years of unceasing activity his health broke down, and he
was obliged to return to Bern in 1753, where he took an active in-
terest and part in the government, and published numerous works
upon botany, anatomy, surgery, the practice of medicine — all of
them of classical importance. During the last years of his life he
scarcely left his library — sleeping, eating, working, and receiving
his friends and visitors there. His wife, children, pupils, and
friends were all kept busy aiding this wonderfully gifted man in his
work ; only in this way was it possible for a human being to give
to the world the almost incredible amount of literary work which
he did. Haller died, beloved and respected of all, at the place of
his birth, on the 12th of December, 1777." In 1877 his native
city fitly celebrated the one hundredth anniversary of the death
of this her greatest son, whose name and fame will be held immortal
so long as memory lasts and mankind continues to reverence the
noblest among the children of the world, who, though dead in form,
still live that immortality which is given but to the selected few.

I have previously mentioned that among the most important con-
tributions to veterinary literature in the eighteenth century was a
writing by Haller upon an epizootic disease of the cattle of Switzer-
land, an edition of which appeared at Bern in 1773, entitled " Me-
moire sur la Contagion parmi le Betail."

" In this year (174:5) * the immortal Haller published his inves-
tigations into the nature of an epizootic which had several times
been observed in Switzerland. The great physician supposed it
was the ' cattle-plague,' but no one can read his description of this
Swiss malady without surmising that it was a different disease, in
all probability the bovine contagious pleuro-pneumonia. Such an
authority needs no apology for being quoted here, especially as his
preventive measures are worthy of notice, and would probably have
saved this country a great loss had they been adopted in recent
years :

" 1. The first thing necessary is to determine the nature of the
disease. This knowledge is not easily acquired, for frequently it

* Fleming, loc. cit., p. 446.

THE UlL>TORY OF VETEItlNARY MEDICINE. "51

does not niaiiifest itself by any perceptible pymptotiis for a lon<i;
time. Tbe veritable cause of death is the work of nothiui; but cor-
niption, which often infects the intestines — corruption, which is the
consequence, not the cause, of the disease. The ravages wliicli this
disease caused among the cattle of the most enlightened nations,
before they knew its terrible character or the means to prevent its
progress, are without doubt to be attributed to the great difficulty
which is fre(piently met with in correctly recognizing it. In a gen-
eral way, it is described as manifesting itself by a violent fever, sliiv-
erings, staring coat, by loss of rumination ; but all these symj)toms
do not appear until the malady has already made deadly advances in
the interior of the animal. We are told that, for a certainty, a beast
taken out of an infected stable and transported to a perfectly healthy
atmosphere does not become sick until a month after it has been re-
moved from the diseased locality, and that it perishes from the veri-
table contagion which, without doubt, had been concealed during
the whole of this month in the body of the animal. It is also a fact
that the diseased cattle jump about for some weeks with vivacity ;
that they give their usual quantity of milk ; that they cat their for-
age with avidity ; that they work in harness, and yet that they carry
death in their intestines. The only indication of pneumonia {pul-
monie) wliicli is to be noticed from the commencement is a slight
cough, which affects the animal, notwithstanding every apparent in-
dication of good health. It is not for some days or weeks after the
animal has become infected that the disease shows itself by fever
and horripilation. The cough now augments, the animal moans, its
strength diminishes, it can not stand, and lies down very often ; it
has a difficulty in breathing ; the pulse is frequent ; the fever be-
comes intcnsilied. It is now that the appetite and rumination cease.
The disease prevails for some days, the fever increasing daily ; the
veins (?) beat with a force and quickness which is astonishing; a vis-
cid froth escapes from the mouth and nostrils ; the tongue is hot,
the breath heavy and labored, and its odor insupportable ; the eyes
are withdrawn in their orbits, the horns cold ; a diarrhoea of a bad
odor, sometimes tinged with blood, and a thorough total sinking
terminate the beast's days. Diarrha?a does not always take place."
" 2, AVhcn we open the cattle after death we find the lungs con-
stantly and infallibly affected. AVe might know this from the cough
and the difficulty of breathing which precede death. In all the
contagions which have reigned at Sulcus, Grandson, Trassy, and
elsewhere, the lungs have always been inflamed and attached to the
pleura, and abscesses often form between the lungs and this mem-

252 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

brane. I find the same observations in the best authorities who
have written upon the contagion, and particularly in the writings of
M. Bourgelat, who has made the treatment of these animals a par-
ticular studv. In many cows the lungs are found gangrenous ; in
others, they are filled with abscesses ; and in others, again, there are
vesicles filled with water, mixed sometimes with pus ; it is more
rare to find tartarized or cretaceous matters. There are constantly
inflammation and gangrene of the pleura, and we have never yet
killed infected animals and found the lungs in a perfect state. The
cough being the first symptom of this disease, it is present in every
animal affected. The lungs being constantly diseased, it is evident
that the disease of these organs is the essence of the contagion, and
that it is with perfect justice that the people of France and Ger-
many term it pneumonia. The alterations in the other viscera are
not so essential as those in the lungs. It is common, nevertheless,
to find the stomach inflamed and gorged with food. It is scarcely
altered when the animals are killed shortly after the commencement
of the disease ; but, when they have been slaughtered at the last
stages, or when they have died, the first compartment is inflamed,
the food is found but little affected by digestion, or it may be rot-
ten. The second compartment is equally inflamed, and filled with
forage which is undigested. The third compartment suffers the
most, and is often found inflamed and gangrenous, the food in it
being extremely compact and dry, and sometimes rotten (pourri).
The fourth or true stomach is frequently inflamed and gangrenous,
but the food is not hardened.

" From the first days of the malady the beast has eaten and ru-
minated ; and, as it would not be able to maintain either of these
functions if the stomach had become inflamed, it is very evident
that the disturbance of the stomach is a consequence of the fever,
and the putridity of the juices of the beast, and that it is not the
cause of the disease. The animal has been infected and the stomach
maintained its health for a number of days, and it is only by a cor-
ruption of the humors that it is found vitiated.

" 3. The time nature of a disease is known by the accidents which
accompany it in its duration, and by the changes which we observe
on the autopsy of the animal, when compared with the organs in
health. But the essential features of the disease ought to consist in
the symptoms which are manifested from the beginning, and which
have continued during life, and in the marks of corruption in the
interior, which are the actual causes of these symptoms. It requires
care not to be deceived by these accidents, which are a consequence

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY SIEDICIXE. 053

of the corniption of the hutnors, aiul are only most a])part'nt in the
latter sta«res of the disease. It is bi'licvcd that the contafrioii anionir
cattle is uii inflanimatory fever, a inali<^naut fever — a fever accom-
panied by an eruption of the skin — as well as an inflammation of the
stomach. It is evident that it is a disease of tlie lun«rs, which com-
mences by an inflammation, running often into gangrene ; at other
times into abscesses, and which terminates in phthisis. It is very
astonishing that among the number of modern doctors who have
written on a contagion existing for so many years, scarcely one has
observed that the seat of the disease exists in the lungs, or even that
these were attacked.

" 4. The doctoi-s have established their remedial measures to cure
tin's disease on the notion that they knew its nature. Those who
look npon it as an intlammatory fever recommend bleeding, and
remedies of a soothing and cooling kind ; those who admit a corrup-
tion of the blood have ordered febrifuge and stimulating remedies ;
and those who consider it a putrid fever counsel tlie administration
of acids ; and, in Brandenburg, wild apples have been recommended
as a specific. Others, again, liave proposed quinine, and others mer-
cury, while the people have had recourse in general to incongruous
compositions, and to old-fashioned recipes. The ancients looked
mueli to setons passed through the skin, in order to establish a long-
continued suppuration. But it has been discovered, by sad expe-
rience, in Holland and England, that these remedies ai-e impotent ;
all hope of curing this disease has been lost, and people are content
to mitigate it by inoculation. We pass in silence the ])retendt'd prc-
aervatives hj ichich it is supposed animals are insured against the
cofita(/ion, and to which no man of sense icould give any cimjidence^
seeing that they are useless against the p>lague^ the smallpox, and
other contagious diseases.

"5. A long experience has taught us tliat remedies are useless
against the contagion. The beginning of the disease is nearly im-
perceptible, and when the symptoms arc manifested the cure has
become almost impossible. The use of remedies is otherwise dan-
gerous, for the infection is really communicated by the breath and
exhalations. We have a proof of this in the foul smell attached to
the clothes of people who look after the diseased beasts. "We can
not hope to cure in a day a disease of so serious a character;
and thus the diseased creature, which lives in the same stable with
other cattle, and feeds and drinks with them, may infect them
during the time we are unsuccessfully attempting to cure it. These
same exhalations may also lodge in the clothes of those who go

254 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

about tliem, and thus become dangerous to the animals yet in
health.

'• We can not, then, hope for any good from remedies. For more
than two thousand years an infinite number of the most learned
men have given their constant attention to observing the effects of
medicines on mankind. We know well enough the value of sim-
ples, the properties which they have of stimulating or evacuating,
and their dose. But we have not nearly the same knowledge to
guide us when we deal with animals : few talented persons have
observed their diseases ; the art of curing them has been left to men
of low condition, who have no knowledge of the anatomy of the
lower creatures, and who have not informed themselves by the study
of nature or of good authors. The cattle-doctors invariably fol-
low the same routine traced out by the ancient veterinarians, and
their science (art) consists of divers receipts which they have found
among the papers of their predecessors.

" The structure of the stomachs of cattle is very different from
that of man; in general, the envelopes of their nerves are much
thicker, the sensations less active, the pulse less frequent, the arteries
more hard, the heart less irritable. All these peculiarities change
the effect of remedies in animals, in a way quite different to man ;
and it is only within a few years that convincing proof has been
afforded of the differences between the effect which a given remedy
has on man and the animals. The saffron of metals is a violent
emetic for man ; in the horse it only increases the transpiration ; a
dose of glass of antimony, which produces violent vomiting in man-
kind, simply purges the horse ; no poison will make a horse or cow
vomit. Because the effects of medicines, therefore, on the lower
animals are so little known ; because scarcely any one has observed
closely enough the diseases of cattle, or given definite rules for the
exhibition of the proper remedies ; because the use of remedies can
only tend to spread the contagion — for all these reasons it is pru-
dent to abstain from a dangerous tentative which promises but lit-
tle, and which may have the worst effects ; it is infinitely preferable
to oppose the disease by means which are more certain and com-
mendable.

'' 6. We hegin ly disabusing the pxiblic of the idea that the pneii-
monia {la pidmonie) is not a contagious disease. This outrageous
idea even comes from some savants. There are those, too, who rob
the plague of its contagious power. I do not pretend to say that the
skin of an infected beast preserves its contagious properties for a
long time after death ; experiments upon this matter, which deserve

THE HISTORY 01" VETEUIXAllV MEDICINE. 255

attention, have been made in France. It is necessary, nevertheless,
to remember that the j)hi<:jiie attaches itself by preference to the
wool and the hair of animals, that it may be transported b}' these
materials, ami that they will spread the contagion to other towns
and countries free from the contagion. It is, then, possible that
the poisonous exhalations of the diseased beast attach themselves to
the hairs of animals which go near it. It is at least certain, in our
country, that as often as the disease is manifested among cattle, and
when it has been traced to its source, it has been found that a beast
which has been purchased in the market of some suspected place, or
which had been brought from some suspected locality, has carried
the contagion with it to a new center. Sometimes, also, the cattle
of our regions have been pastured with those of a neighboring in-
fected country. It is very probable that at other times the air of
the infected mountains has spread the dangerous exhalations over
the country. We believe that we have ol)served that healthy cattle
which had smelled of those that were diseased have shown, a few
hours after, traces of the contagion. It is known that the ship from
Sidon brought the plague to Marseilles, and that the bull which was
taken from Hungary to Padua, in 1711, took with it the fearfid con-
tagion which first ravaged Italy, and then nearly the half of Europe.
It thus appears that the plague of man and the cattle-phiguc take
their origin in hot countries, that they can infect temperate regions,
and that they are gradually destroyed during the cold of some rig-
orous winter. That which is yet a better proof that the pneumonia
is perpetuated by infection, as the plague is, is the manner in which
we can confine it in suspected places, and by cutting off all commu-
nication between the stables which are infected and those which are
not. If this malady were generated spontaneously, like the ordinary
fevers of man, we would in vain barricade stables, in vain would we
slaughter the cattle of a village, and it Avould be useless to isolate
the mountains by barriers and guards. All the>e ])recantions would
not keep away a disease which has its origin in the blood itself of
the healthiest cattle. . . . The contagion, however, does not s])rcad
very far, and it does not infect a column of air for any great distance.
If the air were infected, if it w;ls able to carry afar the poison of
the disease, the barriers and other jirecautionary measures of man
would be unavailing. In this there is the greatest resemblance be-
tween the disease of cattle and the plague of man. The monks and
nuns of Marseilles were saved because they kept their convents
closed. The air was not, then, the cause of the disease, else the clos-
ing of the convents would not have prevented the pestilence from

256 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

entering. The police have often confined this disease of cattle to a
stable, or a small number of stables, and so prevented others being
attacked.

" It follows from all this that, on the one side, the disease arises
from infection, and, on the other, that there are no hopes of a cure.
There only remain, then, those resources which we may employ to
prevent infection, and for confining to the smallest possible limit
the loss which might happen when animals are first attacked by this
poison. These efforts should be directed to prevent the infection
being communicated from foreign countries to ours ; or, if it should
have penetrated, then to stop its extension from diseased to healthy
cattle. Above all, then, we should hinder the entrance of cattle
from a country where the pneumonia nearly always reigns, some-
times in one district, sometimes in another, and these precautions
ought to remain in force at all times, and be jjerpetual in regard to
those countries where the police is not strict, and from which the
disease might be carried to ours. The danger will alioays he great
if the trade in cattle is carried on without inspection. This precau-
tion is all the more necessary against the countries whose rulers
care little for the welfare of the people, and in which the people
have no confidence in the administration. The poor people of a
country, despairing of being aided by the Government, conceal with
extreme care the existence of the contagion ; to evade more onerous
consequences, they even inter their cattle in the stables ; and it
is very natural that they should endeavor to sell at modest prices
beasts the keeping of which would only cause the extension of the
disease among other cattle. In the countries where the ruler has
a paternal feeling for his subjects, where he is always disposed to
soften their losses, where he generously takes into account the ex-
penses necessarily attending precautions, and where he gains the
confidence of the people, the inhabitants at once denounce the
disease, submit to the necessary restrictions, and rely on the wis-
dom of their king for their preservation and the amelioration of
their hardships. A wise government ought to prevent the contagion,
and not wait U7itil it has invaded the country, hut check it at
its frontiers, where it is easy to do so. The police ought, then,
even in times of the greatest security, to taJce care that no animal
shall hecome diseased without responsible j^^ople heing informed.
Even in ordinary times every animal purchased or sold ought to he
vouched for, and should he marked on the horn with a particular
stamp for each village, which mark should he renewed whenever it
hecomes effaced ; so that hy this proof we may know what village

THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 257

it comes f/'o/n, and assure oursehrs of tlve health of that village.
For the same reason no cattle should be admitted to fairs or markets^
sold or exchamjed, without a voucher being given of perfect healthy
impressed and signed by the authorities, testifying to the health of
the animal and that of the place whence it came. For this purpose
inspectors are necessary. They should destroy cattle which are
brought icithout attestation and give the fe.sh to the p>oor ; there
are but few cases where less rigorous measures are needed.

" 8. Notwithstanding all these precautions, the extent of the
frontiers, the want of care on the part of nei^i^hboring nations, the
exhalations from the infected mountains where the disease is rag-
ing, the greed of gain, and the desire to purchase at a low price, as
well as the other failings of a police so difficult to enforce in Inunan
society, are all causes which may aid the contagion in insinuating
itself into some village or on some mountain. In this unfortunate
case it only rests with us to smother the flame in its first commence-
ment, and to i)revent its extension. Every j)erson who may have
any knowledge of the disease, or even any s^ispicion of its existence
among cattle, should be held liable to a penalty if the nearest magis-
trate is not at once informed ,' also, ichen a non-suspected beast be-
comes diseased or dies, the proprietor or other instructed person
should gin' information, and the p7'op>er authorities should then pass
on the tidings. Whoever conceals any suspected case should be se-
verely punished. Every precaution should then be taken to extin-
guish the disease.

" 9. The first of these precautions is the prompt separation of
the diseased beast from healthy ones. So long as it is suspected, it
ought neither to be allowed to drink, feed, pasture, nor dwell with
the healthy. It should be kept in a separate stable, or in an in-
closed paddock, and those who attend it should wear clothes appro-
priate to the purpose, never even approaching healthy animals.
The trough out of which this animal drinks ought not to be used for
healthy ones, the dung should not be spread on the ground or carried
away, but should be buried in deep pits and well covered with
earth, and these places should be surrounded with pahngs, so that
no healthy beast may be able to smell it.

" When the infected animal has been killed, or when it has died,
it is necessary to aerate the stable for three months at least, and to
remove and bum the thatch, and all the wooden movable articles ;
to dig up the ground to the depth of a foot, and rei)lacc it with
other earth, and cover the whole with lime. The healthy should
not go near the forage which the diseased may have been eating,
17

258 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

and whicli might be infected by its breath, though it may be given
to horses. Every animal dying of the disease should be opened in
the presence of proper persons skilled in the veterinary art, and a
report of the ])ost-mortein appearance should be made. If the dis-
ease is made out to be a non-contagious one, the owner may be per-
mitted to use the flesh and remove the skin. But if there is found
the slightest cause for suspicion in the lungs, the skin ought to be
cut crosswise, and buried in a grave six feet deep, which should be
filled with lime. Palisades should be fixed around it, so that no
animal may come near it. If the disease is really a pneumonia, it is
preferable not to doctor it, but to kill without delay the first ani-
mals which, from their cough, would lead one to suspect the dis-
ease, or those which have been in the same stable with the sick ;
because we may set down as lost, without exception, every animal
which has been in a house with a pulmonic beast. Experience has
only too often demonstrated that they take the disease one after the
other, and all die.

•' 10. When many stables are infected in the same village, the
danger is yet greater, and it is here that it is necessary to redouble
our efforts to prevent the extension of the contagion. All the in-
fected stables should be carefully closed and excluded from all
communication with the watering-places and pasturage ; in seri-
ous cases, to make more certain, we should kill all animals which
have been in the infected places, no less those in apparent health
than those in which the disease is manifest. We are driven to
this severe course because we can never be assured that those ani-
mals which have come out of the suspicious places have escaped the
contagion. This apparent cruelty is the only means to be employed
for preventing the contagion from penetrating into other stables and
into neighboring villages, and from spreading over the whole country.

" The case is yet more dangerous when the contagion manifests
itself on a mountain where a certain number of cattle find their
subsistence during the winter. It has happened that the cattle of
the plains have remained in health, but those on the neighboring
mountains have been infected, and thus the herds of the republic
have been encircled by contagion. In these unhappy circumstances
it should be recommended that the mountain-passes be closed, and
all communication cut off from the infected pasturage. Inspectors
ought to make a visit every fifteen days to the mountains, where
cattle belonging to the subjects of the state are kept, in order to
examine with great care if any beasts are in a suspicious condition,
or if, without exception, they are healthy.

THE niSTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE. 259

" In those instances wliere the infected mountains of our neigh-
bors abut too closely on our own, these last should be most strictly
guarded, and it should not be for less than a year after the disease
has disappeared that any communication should be allowed ; as ex-
perience lias amply demonstrated that cattle not suspected of the
disease have been attacked by the contagion by grazing on mount-
ains in the neiiirhborhood of those infected. Sometimes we are
obliged to exercise a greater degree of severity by destroying the
hogs which, according to custom on the mountains, feed with the
cattle. The contagion which destroys the cattle does not affect
either pigs, sheep, or horses; but it is always to l)c apprehended
that these may carry some of the contagion or their infected breath
to these animals, and may thus spread the disease.

" It is only by these precautions, which should be constantly in
force, that it is possible to contine the contagion to a village or
mountain, and to keep the country free from infection."

That these explicit instructions of the great Ilallcr have not been
without their })roper appreciation, may be seen from the following:

Professor Putz * (of the Veterinary Institute at Bern) says :
'' It is not difficult to determine what regulations are indicated,
from a truly scientific stand-point, to suppress the contagious lung-
plague of cattle. In order to effectually eradicate the generation of
infectious material, the sole generator of tlie pest, there is no more
radical method than the complete killing out of the infected herd.
A view of the questionable conditions in Switzerland Siitisfactorily
demonstrates how advantageous it would be were all the nations
of Europe to adopt this plan. In the canton of Bern, noted for
its richness in cattle, for about one hundred years (since Ilaller) this
scientific procedure has been successfully carried out, and it has
finally become universally adopted by the numerous cantons of the
Swiss Republic. The law (of February 8, 1872) for the suppres-
sion of contagious animal diseases, especially the contagious pleuro-
pneumonia of cattle, says, article 2i, ' In Switzerland no cattle that
have been diseased with the contagious lung-plague (Ansteckenden
Lungenseuche) can ever again be allowed to become an article of
traffic' " In M;issachusetts the same course was adopted, at a cost
of some seventy-five thousand dollars to the people of the State, but
the result has been, that while the disease has prevailed, and still
prevails, in neighboring States, not a single case has again appeared
in Massiichusetts.

* " Die Lungenseuche," etc., by Professor Tutz, " Vortrage fiir Thierarzte," Scries i,
Heft 6, V. 7.

260 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

As is well known, England has been repeatedly invaded by
the rinderpest, which has caused the people to lose millions of
pounds in valuable cattle ; while legislation has been wofully im-
perfect in this regard, owing to the unfortunate influence exerted
by the London Yeterinary School in times past ; still Britain has
not been without patriotic and excellent advisers. Among the
most noteworthy was a Mr. Bates, surgeon to George I, who wrote
in 1714, but his advice seems to have fallen upon barren ground
in later years. Bates was appointed by the Government to study
the disease, and to devise means for its prevention. He writes,
after examining a large number of diseased animals: "We then
ordered some of the sick cows to be housed, and several sorts of
cattle to be kept with them, to see whether the contagion would
affect any other species. The next day I made a verbal report to
their Excellencies of all the several opinions and discourses which
I have had about it, and left them debating what method to take ;
at last I was called in, and ordered to consider it again the next
day, and to deliver them in writing what would be proper to be
done. Accordingly, I drew up and gave them the following pro-
posals :

" 1. That all such cows as are now in possession of Messrs. Rat-
cliffe, Rufford, and Pullen, be brought, killed, and burned ; or, at
least, that the sick be burned, and the well kept secured on the
grounds where they now are, that such of them that sicken and die
of the distemper may be bunied.

*' 2. That the houses in which the sick cows have stood be washed
very clean, and then smoked by the burning of pitch and wormwood,
and be kept empty three months, at least, before other cows be put
therein.

" 3. That the fields where the sick cows have grazed be kept
two months before any other cows are suffered to stand or graze
upon them.

" 4. That persons looking after such that are ill should have no
communication with those that are well.

" 5. That the same methods be observed if any other of the cow-
keepers should get this distemper among them ; and that they all be
summoned, and told that as soon as they perceive any of the cows
refuse their food, or have any other symptoms of this distemper,
they immediately separate them from the others, and give notice to
such persons as your Excellencies shall appoint, that they may be
burned ; and the places where they have stood or grazed ordered
as before.

THE HISTORY OF VETKUINARY MEDICINE. 261

" 6. That the cow-keejxTs be re<|iiired to divide their cows into
small parcels, not more than ten or twelve in a field together; and
that they be allowed such satisfaction for complying with these pro-
posals as your Excellencies shall think fit." *

These suggestions were accepted and acted upon, forty shillings
per head being allowed for the sick cows killed by the authorities.

'' Some of the cow-keepers a})peared not content with this ar-
rangement, and, beUeving that the disease would become general,
designed to have their cows sold at some distant markety which the
gentlemen having notice of, appointed several butchers to watch
near their grounds, and count their numbers every morning, with
orders to follow such as were sent to market, and to prevent their
being sold by telling the people what they were.

" Another great obstacle at fii-st was the cow-keepers not admit-
ting the disease until they had lost several cows, for, as soon as it
was known that any man had but one sick, no one would buy his
milk, and to those who kept many cows the loss was considerable.

" Nor was there ever wanting one or other who gave tJuim hopes
of cure.

" It was endeavored to impress upon the cow-keepers that they
would receive remuneration for their losses : ' Tliis had a pretty
good effect^ hut here in Englaiul^ where every man is at liberty to
dispose of his cattle a^ he pleases^ nothing hut making them sensible
that it loas each man^s particular interest to comply lalth these
methods^ could do.'' "

The entire loss by this invasion was estimated, including ex-
penses, at £31,174: Is. Id.

In 1717, Jolin Morley, of London, published a satirical poem of
this invasion, which may not be without interest :

"As soon as Britain had sustained
That fatal loss which heaven had gained,
And parties squabbled to a maduess
About their sorrows and their gladness,
A plague unprophesied succeeded.
That only reached the horny-headed,
And like a fatal rot or murrain
Turned all our bulls and cows to carrion.

"The farriers now their skill employed,
But still the cows in number died,
And with their horns and hides together
Were burnt, without reserve of leather.

* "Animal Plagues," p. 211.

262 THE HISTORY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE.

"Some cunning hucksters, who had cows
Old, dry, and lean, not worth a souse.
Though sound in health, but scarce deserving
Of pasture, to prevent their starving.
They wisely knocked 'em on the head
By night, when neighbors were in bed.
Next day assigned their extirpation
To this new fatal visitation :
So bore 'era to some distant pit
Or ditch, for such a purpose fit ;
There, to the terror of the isle.
Consumed 'em in their funeral pile.
Then like true hypocrites, put on
A mournful look, as if undone,
And claimed the sum of forty shilling
For every cow of heaven's killing —
A generous bounty, that destroyed
More cattle than the plague annoyed."

THE establishme:n"t of the vetee-

INARY SCHOOLS.

There is no doubt tliat many of tlie nations of antiquity had
some kind of hospitals for the care and treatment of diseased ani-
mals. We have stated, in a previous part of this work, tliat veteri-
narians were appointed to watch over the health of the animals used
at the circus of Rome, but in this regard the Oriental nations took
a high rank from their great veneration for all forms of animal life.
Wise says : * " The peculiar humanity of the small and despised
community of modern Buddhists, in the country of their ancient
greatness, induced them to keep up brute hospitals — Pingra-Pol —
which are still to be found in ditferent parts of llindostan. Trevin-
nier informs us that he found three or four such houses in Aman-
dabab in 1772 ; and Scavoneur gives an account of the Banian hos-
pital which still exists at Surat.f " This curious institution is
supported by one anna per cent on the rupee of the merchants' clear
gain, to which are added the tines for certain venial offenses, under
the supervision of the chief Banians. In 1770, when trade had de-
cayed, the revenue waa upward of six hundred pounds a year ; and
BO careful were they of the animals, that bread and milk were pro-
vided for two that could not crop the grass. The ]ios})ital grounds
extended over twenty-five acres, and were surrounded by a high
wall, and supplied with sheds and wards for the accommodation of
the animals.

" At the present time there are no hospitals for the cure of hu-
man beings when sick, or maimed, or old, because they were sup-
posed to be provided for by the Goveniment ; while places are
prepared and persons engaged to attend the sick and aged of the
inferior animals — proving how much the essential is sacrificed to an

* 7yv. ril., Tol. ii, p. 395.

f " If proper inrpiirr were directed to this building," writes Princcp?, " I dare .«a.v it
would be discoviTC'l to be a lining example (the only one that has braved twenty centu-
ries) of the humane arts of Asoka, recorded, at no great distance, on a rock in Guicrat."

264 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

affected refinement of feeling. ISTiebulir found the hospital con-
taining horses, mules, cows, oxen, sheep, goats, monkeys, a variety
of sick and maimed beasts, poultry, pigeons, and birds ; also an old
tortoise, which was known to have been there seventy-five years.
In sickness the animals are attended by properly instructed indi-
viduals with the greatest care, and here they find a peaceable asy-
lum for the infirmities of age. When an animal broke a limb,
or was otherwise disabled, its owner brought it to this hospital,
where it was always received without regard to the caste or na-
tion of its master. There they remained for life, and the only
work they were required to perform was drawing water for the pa-
tients of the hospital. Above-stairs were depositories for seeds
of many sorts, and flat, broad dishes for water for birds and in-
sects.

" In 1823 Sir Alexander Brown visited the brute hospital at
Surat. It is situated in the suburbs, between the inner and outer
wall, surrounded by houses and a dense poj^ulation. It occupies a
court fifty feet square, to w^hich is attached a large area to admit
cattle to roam about, and is strewed with grain and straw, to prevent
the inmates wanting either food or bedding. They receive animals
of all descriptions, from all countries, as the more numerous they are
the more they increase the reputation, happiness, and prosjDcrity of
those who support them. In the hospital Sir Alexander found the
old, lame, or disabled animals consisted of buffaloes, cows, goats,
sheep, cocks, and hens ; some of the latter had lost their featliers.
There were cages to protect the birds, but most of them were empty,
and a colony of pigeons were fed daily. One of the houses, twenty-
five feet long, has a boarded floor elevated eight feet, under which
the Buddhists throw a quantity of grain (the oftener the better for
themselves), as a work of charity, which in the hot and stagnant air
gives life to a mass of vermin dense as the sand of the sea-shore."

The Yeteeinary Instftutions of France.

It is impossible for me to give more than a very incomplete ac-
count of the veterinary institutions of Euroj^e, there being no mod-
ern history of veterinary medicine ; hence I have been obliged to
collect such information as I could from different articles in maga-
zines in my possession, though I have derived great aid from the
article entitled " Yeterinaire " in D'Arboval-Zundel's " Dictionnaire
de Medecine," etc., Paris, 18T7. I have also been fortunate in pos-
sessing two reports of German veterinarians of unquestionable abil-
ity, Hertwig and Miiller, who visited France at different times in the

THE VETERIN'ARY INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE. 205

interest of their own Ciuvernineiit. I have myself visited several
of the German schools, and also that at Alfort, France.

The Continental schools for the stndy and development of veteri-
nary medicine were not founded by the respective governments bo
much to educate men to practice their profession, as to provide men
capable of studying the nature of those fearful pests which had re-
peatedly brought poverty to the people, and even threatened nations
with ruin, and to discover means for their prevention.

In this regard the French schools took a slightly different course
from those of Germany, giving more attention to the practical at
the expense of the scientific in their education; this reproach is not,
however, applicable to the French schools of our day, especially
those at Lyons and Toulouse, although that at Alfort has contrib-
uted no insignificant amount of scientific work, especially that of
the veterinary physiologist Colin, and M. Bouley, the inspector-gen-
eral of the schools. At the time when the first veterinary schools
were established in France, that nation was approaching the proud
position of leader in medical science and culture, which she held for
half a century. Bichat, a giant among giants, founded a new sys-
tem of anatomy, and died at the early age of thirty-one, a martyr to
the cause of science and a benefactor to the world. Cniveilhier, the
author of a noted M'ork upon pathology ; Laennec, the author of per-
cussion and auscultation ; Broussais, the vampire of medicine, so
called on account of the extent to which he advocated bleeding ; and
many others, all tended to make Paris a haven toward which men
desiring knowledge in this branch of science longingly turned ;
longing, not like some American women to go to Paris to die, but
for that M-isdom with which her intellectual fountains were so re-
pletcly filled.

It was but in the order of things that the first veterinary school
of the world should be started by a Frenchman, and in France.
This honor belongs to an "advocate," Claude Bourgelat, 1712-'79.
This young man was educated to follow the profession of law, and
studied at Toulouse. Having by his talent won a Ciise which after-
ward appeared unjust to him — we wish some of our young American
lawyers would follow his example I — he resolved to retire from that
profession, and, having from early youth nourished a passionate
fondness for the horse, resolved to encourage this tiiste ; in order to
do this, he became an officer in a cavalry regiment for a short time,
and then chief of the riding academy at Lyons, which soon acquired
great notoriety under the guidance of its enthusiastic teacher. The
earnest spirit of the young riding-master could not content itself

266 TDE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

with studying the outward forms of his equine favorites alone — he
must know more ; he must know of the inner powers, the machinery
of which this wonderful whole was composed. He therefore gave
himself most diligently to the study of equine anatomy as M^ell as
physiology, these studies being encouraged by his friend Pouteau,
one of the most eminent surgeons of Lyons. At the same time he
devotedly studied the writings of earlier veterinarians, and published
two works — "Kouveau Newcastle," 1747, and the "Elements of
Yeterinary Medicine," 1750. Bourgelat has mistakenly been called a
reformer of veterinary medicine ; on the contrary, his was the spirit
which gave cause to the birth of scientific research in a branch of
medicine which until his time had been nothing but the crudest
empiricism. The real science in veterinary medicine did not find
birth till many years after Bourgelat's death. He broke the bonds
of quackery and superstition to a degree, and gave science room and
opportunity to develop. In one thing Bourgelat was indeed wiser
than Lafosse, in that he extended his studies beyond the horse, see-
ing the necessity of studying the anatomy, physiology, and pathol-
ogy of all the domestic animals ; but Lafosse was his superior in intel-
lect, in that freedom of mind which evinced itself in his taking an
active part for the freedom of his countrymen in the Revolution.
On the 5th of August, 1761, through the influence of his friend
Bertin, he received permission to found a school in Lyons, the aim
of which was to study the diseases of all the domestic animals. The
Government supported him with the assistance of 50,000 livres, pay-
able in equal portions for six consecutive years. This school was
opened to students the 2d of January, 1762, in a small house, for-
merly used as a hotel, in a suburb of Lyons called " La Guillatiere."
It soon acquired Continental celebrity, and among the students of
its first year we find the names of three Danes, three Swedes, three
Austrians, three Prussians, three Sardinians, and ten Swiss, all sent
to study the elements of the new medicine by and at the expense of
their respective goveriiments. The branches at first taught were
zootomy, especially that of the horse (exterior), horsemanship, phar-
macy, special pathology, surgery, and the principles of sanitary
police.

Scarcely was the foundation of the school successfully accom-
plished, before France was again the seat of the ravages of the de-
vastating animal plagues, which gave its students an opportunity to
display the value of systematic education, crude as it then was, over
the still cruder but futile attempts of a puerile empiricism. The
students, guided by the teachings of their master, were so successful

THE VETERINARY INSTITCTIONS OF FRANCE. 267

as to attract the attention of tlie king, Louis XV, wlio in an order
dated June 30, 1704, gave to the institution tlie title of a " lioyal
Veterinary School." A month previously the king had honored
Bourgclat with the title of " Director and General Inspector of the
Veterinary School at Lyons," and all other such institutions which
should be founded in France. The intimate relation which Bourge-
lat bears to the early history of the first two veterinary schools of
France and the world, makes it almost impossible to treat them
separately. Such was the success above alluded to, of the students
of the Lyons scliool, in combating the ravages of the animal pests,
that the French Government determined to establish a second insti-
tution of a like character. It seems ever to have been the aim of
the French Government to make Paris the center of French learning
and civilization ; hence it was but natural that a point in the vicin-
ity of that city should be selected as the site of the second school.
Therefore, on the 27th of December, 17G5, a tract of land in the
village of Alfort — opposite what is now called Charcnton, at pres-
ent connected with Paris by a horse-railroad, and also by steamboats
on the river — was purchased for the sum of 32,000 livres, and Bour-
gclat called to be its director, which position he occupied until his
death. Like the majority of men who give their lives for the devel-
opment of science, and in service to their countrymen, Bourgclat
died poor, but not unforgotten, as is attested by the immortality
with which his name is reverenced in France, and the monument
lately erected to his memory by his veterinary successors in France
and other parts of the world. From the first, the Government did
more for the support of the school at Alfort than that at Lyons,
for, while the latter school received but 8,333 livres per year for
a period of six years, we find the Alfort school receiving some
12,000. The Abbe Rozier succeeded Bourgclat in the direction of
the school at Lyons, which for many years underwent all sorts of
vicissitudes, but finally received its full share of acknowledgment,
and is at present a most dangerous rival to that of Alfort for the
honors with which fair Science wreaths the hrows of her ancresfiful
children.

Ilavemann,* afterward teacher and director of the Royal Veteri-
nary School at Hanover, wa.«i sent by that Government to study vet-
erinary medicine at Alfort at this time. While there he wrote the
following letter, describing the condition of things, to the master
of the Royal Horse at Hanover :

* " History of the Veterinary School ot Hanover, from 1777 to 1877," p. 45.

268 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERIXARY SCHOOLS.

" Alfort by Charenton, Auffust 29, 1777.

" The Koyal Yeterinary School has, besides the director, M.
Bourgelat (who, however, does not instruct any more, but resides
generally in Paris), three teachers. The first, who is known as di-
rector and professor, educates in practice and pharmacy ; the second
teaches materia medica and botany, and the third anatomy. The
majority of the students complete their course in three years, and
take them in the following order :

'■^ First Summer. — Exterior of the horse.

" First Winter. — Osteology and myology.

" Second Summer. — On the selection of horses, their care, etc.

" Second Winter. — Splanchnology.

" Third Summer. — Materia medica and botany.

" Third Winter. — Xeurology, angiology, and adenology.

" Those students who are blessed with a good memory, and who
are able to leara anatomy in two winters, end their course in two
and one half years, while many require four. Here no other hooks
are in use than those B our gelat himself has written ujjon the subject.
The books must be learned verhatirn from beginning to end; in
order that this may be complete, one of the older students, who is
selected by the director and bears the title of ' chef,' reviews the
students each week, and explains and illustrates the various points.
TVhen the course is ended, the whole is again repeated before the
director, and he who can rattle his books off best receives the pre-
mium of a case of instruments valued at fifty livres.

" Those who have ended their course practice operative surgery
upon the horses which are to be used for anatomy, and also practice
horseshoeing in the forge. When not confined by the hours devoted
to study, the students may practice in the forge at pleasure. In mak-
ing shoes and farriery the instruction is given by a ' chef.' Scarcely
any instruction is given in pathology, or the director does it in a
very cursory manner when treating of other subjects ; the director
seldom detains the students by the sick horses in order that they
may study the patients, or to explain their diseases to them, w^hich
can have no other result than that the students do not learn to diag-
nose diseases, and but few appreciate this great necessity. The
medicines are prepared by the students and given by them to the
patients. This is done by those who have ended their course, four
such being weekly appointed to this purpose. At present there are
about seventy sick horses in the hospital, and for each the daily fee
is thirty-five sous (forty cents) for medicine, care, and feeding. The

THE VETERINARY LNiSTlTUTlONS OF FRANCE. 269

director has exceedingly little to do, and one pei-son can as surely
give as good instruction to the students as all three professoi-s. The
students are controlled very strictly. Aside from Sundays and
Thui-sdays, no students can leave the grounds of tlie school without
permission from the director. Everything is arranged by the ring-
ing of a bell — getting up, study, attending to patients, eating, and
retirinj;. Each student must be in the dissectinjr-room at 7 a. m. in
the summer, and 8 in the winter. A chief calls the roll and reports
each one who is absent. Each student must remain in this room, or
at least on the grounds, and before 11 no student can go toliis room.
At 2 r. M. the same course is gone through with, and at G the stud-
ies are ended. The students are kept under severe military regula-
tion, and the 'chefs' arrange the service of the sub-officers. There
are about eighty students here, of whom twenty arc destined for the
cavalry regiments ; these have special barracks outside the school,
and are under their own officer ; the rest are lodged in tlie school,
and, inclusive of meals, pay yearly 3G0 livres. The king pays the
professors. Each student, when he goes into the court-yard, must
wear the school uniform, which consists of a blue frock with yellow
buttons, upon whicii is a lily suiTounded by the words ' Ecolc roiale
veterinaire.' The uniform of the ' chefs ' is distinguished by a
double golden ' tresse ' upon the collar. The botanical garden is
prettily arranged, and contains 0,700 plants. Xotliing seems to have
been forgotten which can add to the comfort and beauty of the
school."

In 1705 the French Government considered the erection of a
school at Toulouse for the soutli of France, but it was not until 1825
that the idea came to realization, Dupuy being its first director.
This school was intended to give especial attention to the study of
diseases of cattle, and if one may judge from the efforts of Toussaint
in reference to " charbon," this intention has been most successful.

" Alexis Casimir Dupuy * was bom at Breteuil, the 27th Sep-
tember, 1775, and died September, 1S40. He was the son of the
postmaster of his village. It is without doubt that his intimacy
with horses .ind other animals in his youth was the cause of his de-
voting himself to the science which he so faithfully served. Ilis
first education was received at the college at Beauvais, and later at
the college of 'Louis le Grand,' at Paris. In 1792, when seven-
teen years old, we find him, with many other young Frenchmen, in
the ranks of the revolutionists ; he took part in the battle of Je-

* Schracdcr-IIering, loc cit., p. 111.

270 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

mappes, where lie displayed so much courage as to be honored with
the standard of his regiment. In 1795 he retired from the army
and entered the veterinary school at Alfort. Having passed the
requisite examination successfully, we find him, in 1798, acting as
assistant at his Alma Mater, and, after passing successfully the re-
quired competitive examination, received the professorship of Bot-
any, Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Materia Medica. In 1805 he ac-
quired the title of Doctor of Medicine, after having devotedly given
himself to the study of the necessary branches ; his dissertation
treated upon ' Purulent Abscesses and Tumors.' At this time he
was very intimate with Dupuytren, so well known in the history of
French medicine at this period. He gave his chief attention to the
study of pathological anatomy, recognizing the fact that all talk
about disease is but mere words, unless one knows intimately of
what disease consists. The first product of his investigation in this
important branch of medicine was a work which gave rise to much
discussion, upon ' Tuberculosis, which is generally called Glanders,'
Paris, 1817. Dieterichs, who studied with him in Paris, says that
he ' sought to find tubercles everywhere, though no one with healthy
eyes could see them, and that he would gladly have seen every dis-
ease classed under this one name, so enthusiastic was he in this
direction.' His own countrymen seem to have recognized his zeal
in this direction."

With the opening of the Toulouse school, he was called to be its
director, but his mind was so exclusively scientific that he does not
seem to have had the attributes necessary to successfully fill such a
position, for in 1832 he was discharged, even without a pension.
He then removed to Paris, and engaged in practice and the publi-
cation of books, but his endeavors do not appear to have been re-
warded by success, for he left his family in such a destitute con-
dition that the Central Veterinary Society of Paris felt themselves
obhged to institute a collection for their benefit.

During the extension of the empire under Napoleon I the estab-
lishment of three other veterinary schools was considered, but only
one came to a positive result — that at Turin, Italy, which is still in
existence.

The French schools have from the beginning enjoyed a creditable
independence from those of medicine, though not without attempts
aiming to unite these two branches of medical education. At first
they were under the control of the Minister of the Interior, but
later have been controlled by the Minister of Agriculture, Com-
merce, and Industry, assisted by an inspector-general, that position

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTIUNS OF FRANCE. 271

being occupied by the accoinplisheJ M. Bouley, member of the
Academy, etc. In the year 1777 the French Government pubhshed
very detailed regulations for the guidance of the schools, which have
suffered but few modifications to the present day, although their
organization as part of a common institution of the land was not
fully completed until May 10, 1673, when a decree to that efiect
was issued.

In accordance with this decree, the students are classed as " Aleves
internes," or regular students, " eleves externes," and " auditeurs
libres " ; of these, the first form by far the greater majority. On
account of the similarity of organization, a visit to one of the three
national schools will give an observer a very good idea of them all.

The number of professors is the same at each of the three schools,
being six, and an irregular number of '" chefs de service," or assist-
ants. The professors and assistants receive their appointment from
the minister, after having demonstrated their ability by public com-
petition for the vacancy in question. These competitions are made
known to the public in appropriate publications, some six months
before they are to take place. Each competitor must be a French-
man by birth or naturalized, and a graduate of one of the national
schools. If the competition is for a place as assistant, the person
must bring a certificate that he is free from military duty, or that
he has permission to present himself for the purpose.

The competition is generally divided into five sittings or parts:
at the first, the competitors have to present an essay upon some sub-
ject in connection with the vacancy which is open ; in the second
and third, they have to deliver oral dissertations of a like character ;
in the fourth, in connection with any subject belonging to veterinary
medicine ; in the fifth, they must show their practical ability in
different branches of the profession. The tasks for the second,
third, and fourth sittings are made known to the candidates twenty-
four hours before each sitting. The candidates for the positions of
" chefs de service " must make known their intention of competing
one month previous to the date fixed for competition. In the year
1871 the budget ordered for the support of the veterinary schools
was G73,000 francs; and in 1873, G56,500. No perquisites are
allowed the professors fur examinations, the money received for the
same being added to the school funds ; in the place of this the pro-
fessors receive 500 francs a year in addition to their regular pay.
At Alfort, all officers of the school have free lodgings found them,
each professor having six rooms, two being situated on each story of
a three-storied building. Each assistant has three rooms at his service.

272 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

In 1876 the corps of professors at Alfort were as follow :

M. Keynal (since retired and pensioned), Director and Lecturer
on Veterinary Jurisprudence ; M. Gouboux, Lecturer on Descriptive
and General Anatomj', Histology, Physiology, and Exterior; M.
Baillet, Lecturer on Breeding, Hygiene, Zoology, and Botany ; M.
Saunier, Lecturer on Physics, Chemistry, Materia Medica, and Pharma-
cy ; M. Colen, Lecturer on General Pathology, Therapeutics, Surgery,
Parasitic Diseases, and Horseshoeing ; M. Trasbot, Superintendent
of Clinic, Lecturer on Special and Surgical Pathology. The " chefs
de service " were M. Baron, assistant to and repeater upon those
subjects upon which M. Baillet lectures. He also conducts the ex-
cursions to the model farm situated about a mile from the institu-
tion, as well as to the cattle and horse markets of Paris, and botani-
cal excursions ; M. Barrier, assistant to and repeater of the subjects
lectured upon by M. Gouboux, also teacher of histological micro-
scopical practice ; M. Nocard, assistant in the clinic and surgery,
and demonstrator of autopsies ; M. Baillet, assistant in clinic and
surgery.

The course of study occupies four years, the lectures lasting one
hour and a half each. The sessions are divided as follows :

First Session ( Whiter). — Anatomy, physics or chemistry, bota-
ny or zoology. These subjects are reviewed by M. Barrier during
the session.

Second Session. — Chemistry or materia medica, exterior or gen-
eral anatomy. Reviewed by M. Barrier.

Third Session. — Anatomy, physics or chemistry, botany or zool-
ogy, general pathology, and therapeutics. Reviewed by M. Barrier.

Fourth Session. — Physiology, general anatomy, botany, micro-
scopy, and chemical analysis. Reviewed by M. Barrier.

Fifth Session. — Special j)athology, therapeutics, hygiene, general
pathology, agriculture ; clinic is held three hours each day on week-
days, and two on Sundays.

Sixth Session. — Special pathology and surgery, hygiene, phar-
maceutical practice, general pathology, therapeutics, parasitic dis-
eases, theories of oj^erative surgery, and agriculture. Clinic as be-
fore. These subjects are reviewed by assistants Baron, Nocard, and
Baillet.

Seventh Session. — ^Practice in operative surgery, special patholo-
gy and surgery, parasitic diseases, agriculture, forensic medicine,
sanitary police, and excursions to the cattle and horse markets.
Clinic as before. Subjects reviewed by MM. JSTocard and Baillet.

Eighth Session. — Practice in operative surgery, special patholo-

THE VETERINARY IXSTITCTIONS OF FR.VXCE. 273

gy and surgery, parasitic diseases, breeding, agriculture, toxicology.
Excursions to the model farm. Clinic as before. Subjects reviewed
by appropriate assistants.

The lectures on agriculture were then delivered by M. lleuze.
The subject of dissection luis not been mentioned in the above
course, because of the irregularity of the hours devoted to it.

The above plan is open to some criticism : one is at a loss to
understand why the word " or'' is placed between so many branches,
except that the lecturer will dilate upon one '• or " the other subject
at the lecture m question. Pathological anatomy is not mentioned,
but is treated at the same time with general pathology. Surgery
and special ])athology are united in one series of lectures, and the
important branch of obstetrics is not mentioned, although we have
reason to know it is not neglected. Professor Miiller says that
'' when one adds the number of hours devoted to lectures in the four
years' course of the French schools, he is surprised to find that they
are exceeded by the number required by the (former) three years'
course at Berlin.'' The number of professors at the French pcliools
is insufficient to do the work well that is requii'ed of them, and they
should be relieved by the addition of a greater number of special-
ists. We shall see this plan better carried out when we come to
speak of the school at Berlin, although there is room for still further
improvement there, so far as the clinic is concerned. At the French
schools the distribution of the studies over the educational term is
not conducive to the best interests of the scholars, too little being
required of them during the early part of their studies, and too
much toward their completion. This is equalized by the great
number of repetitions to which they are subjected by the a^ssistants.
Clinical practice and surgery assume an undue prominence in the
French system, to the cost of pathological anatomy and the funda-
mental elements upon which mcdicid science rests. It should ever
be remembered, in establishing a school for the education of men in
the principles of medicine, that the hiyhhj-prhed practical man
never advances science an iota / he is a money-getter, not a servant of
his race ; this has been most empJiaticall y emphasized hy the schools
of Britain, where practice has hen the on^ desideratutn, and sci-
ence almost totally neglected. The union of both in one person
makes the perfect practitioner in veterinary as well as human prac-
tice. One might suppose that the clinic of the Alfort school would
sofEer from its being so distant from Paris, but this does not appear
to be the case, the country around being well populated. At the
time of Miilier's visit, which was during the vacation in the sum-
is

274 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

mer of 1876, the clinic was restricted as rauch as possible on ac-
count of the absence of students, yet there were forty horses and
twenty dogs in the hospital. A free clinic is also held daily at the
school, and is visited by fifty or sixty patients each day. The sta-
bles have room for about fifty horses, and the dog-hospital accom-
modates the same number of patients. The school is provided
with a special room for operations, with raised steps, arranged in
a semicircle, for the students to stand upon. The pharmacy dis-
penses the medicines used at the schools, and gives abundant op-
portunity for the students to become expert in the knowledge and
preparation of drugs. The stables are excellently arranged in the
form of a horseshoe, the operating saloon being the center or toe ;
two forges also join it, one on each side, the full clinic being held
in the space between the wings. The collection of surgical imple-
ments at this school is very complete and well arranged. The
school fails in not having the ambulatory clinic, common to the Ger-
man schools, by which students obtain an acquaintance with much
outside, especially herd practice. This is in a measure made up for
by the visits which the French students make to the governmental
model farms in the vicinity of the schools. The two rooms devoted
to the practice of dissection are of middling size, high, and well
lighted and ventilated. The anatomical lectures are held in one of
these rooms, and there is an amphitheatre for the students to stand
upon. Between these rooms is the room of the professor, overlook-
ing both by means of windows. The students at Alfort belonging
to the first and third sessions have separate rooms for anatomical
practice, and also have different lectures. Those of the first session
hear lectures upon osteology, sjmdesmology, and myology, and those
of the third the remaining parts of anatomy. The practice of anat-
omy by the students of the first session is not begun until they have
heard lectures on osteology, the dissection practice being limited to
muscles and ligaments. The contents of abdominal, thoracic, and
cranial cavities are passed to the students of the third session.
The students of each class are forbidden to visit the rooms of the
other. Both classes are divided into sections of twelve to fifteen
students, half of the students of the first and third classes practicing
dissection for one week, when not attending lectures, and then the
other half, and so on alternately during the winter months. Each
section has at its disposition one cadaver, and they are distributed
to students of each section as above mentioned. During the week
eight cadavers are generally given to the students, and one is used
by the professor. Besides these, some twelve to fifteen cattle are

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE. 275

pnrcliiised each year for the study of anatomy. Forty to fifty liorees
and ten or twelve cattle are also purchased each winter for the study
of operative surgery, and the practice is also kept up in summer.
In the coui-se of the year some two hundred and fifty horses are
used for these purposes at Alfort. They are hout^ht by the school —
the students payin<^ no additioiud fees or buying themselves — and
are supplied by a company in Paris, at about forty francs per liead,
the same company again receiving the remains after the scliool is
done with them. The amount appropriated by the Government for
these purposes alone is some eight to nine thousand francs per year,
exclusive of the amount paid for cattle. During the fourth session
the study of microscopical anatomy takes place ; for this purpose the
students are divided into sections of twelve, and practice one week
at a time, the specified hours and turns coming round about once a
month. The school possesses six microscopes, so that, unless a stu-
dent possesses one himself, two students must be appointed to each
microscope. The anatomical museum does not make the favorable
impression which one might expect from the long existence of the
school ; it fails in richness of material and systematic arrangement.
The number of normal skeletons is very email, scarcely six being
observable. Among them is the skeleton of a thorough-bred horse,
which was killed on account of having its forearm shattered by a
ball at the time Fieschi made an attempt upon the life of Louis
Philippe. The collection contains numerous dried preparations of
muscles and ligaments, among them that of a liorse upon which is
seated what was once a man and groom at Alfort, who desired that
liis body should be preserved in this way. The most interesting and
instructive collection is that of the teeth of the domestic animals,
arranged so as to show their condition at each year of the animal's
life. There are also many interesting artificial preparations of
papier-mache and wax. The pathological collection contains a very
extensive array of preparations illustrating those processes as they
take place in rinderpest. Not more than ten specimens of mon-
strosities were observable. The individual preparations are tastefully
mounted, but the systematic arrangement is poor. A zoological
collection is being begun, owing to the distance of the school from
the museums at Paris. A large, well arranged botanical garden
helps to make up the appurtenances of the school. The institution
has also excellently arranged stables for some twenty-five cows, two
hundred sheep and swine. The library of the school contains over
ten thousand volumes, mostly French works, however ; it was
greatly enriched at the death of the noted veterinary author, llu-

276 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE YETERIXARY SCHOOLS.

zard, wliose library of some forty thousand Yolumes was pretty well
distributed among the three French schools. The school has a special
librarian, who also serves as curator of the museum. Students are
allowed to read the books at certain hours, but are not permitted to
leave the room while there, or to take books to their rooms. Xone
but the professors can take books to their residences. The school
also possesses a well-arranged riding academy, having some twenty-
five hoi'ses, and a riding-master for the instruction of the students.
It also has a room fitted up for the students to practice music.

The Students. — It has been previously mentioned that the stu-
dents are divided uj3 into three classes^ viz., the internal or regular
students, the free students, and those known as external students,
who come and go as they please. In the summer of 1876, Miiller
reports that there were at Alfort 275 regular students, 35 external,
and 12 free students — the latter being mostly foreigners. The
"eleves externes" are generally students that did not present them-
selves at the end of the fourth year for examination, and are study-
ing, of their own free-wi]l, the fifth, or those who have been put
back one year and lost the support of the Government. For admit-
tance, a student must not be under seventeen or over twenty-five
years of age. Each student must present a certificate of birth, and
the attestation of a doctor that he has been properly vaccinated, or
has had the small-pox, and that he possesses a healthy physique, espe-
cially that he is free from scrofula ; also an attestation from the supe-
rior officer of his locality — mayor or prefect — that he has a good moral
character. Students over twenty years of age must also bring a cer-
tificate that they have fulfilled their military duties, or been freed
therefrom. Their acceptance is dependent upon the consent of the
minister having control of the schools. The students present them-
selves at the schools for the first time about the beginning of Octo-
ber (6th ?), and are then subjected to a matriculatory examination,
which consists in writing on dictation something in the French lan-
guage, and analyzations of portions of the same ; in arithmetic they
must have a knowledge of its principal elements, of the decimal sys-
tem, and arithmetical and geometric proportion ; in geometry, a
knowledge of its principal elements ; in geography, a general idea
of the geography of the world, and a special knowledge of that of
France. They also have to write an essay, or something like it,
upon history and geography. Special favors are given to those ap-
plicants who possess the title of " bachelier es lettres et sciences."
For a certain number of students, the " eleves internes," the Gov-
ernment supplies lodgings, the school at Alfort affording accommo-

TUE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE. 277

dation for 275, and generally all these places are occupied. These
students pay a yearly fee of six hundred francs for education, lodg-
ing, heating, light, board, washing, etc., and the other two classes
pay a yearly fee of two hundred francs.

Those students that have passed the necessary uiatriculatory ex-
amination, and for whom there is not the necessary lodging-room,
have the right to enter as external students, not being then subjected
to internal regulations of the school ; but few, however, take advan-
tage of this privilege, most of them preferring to wait another year
for financial reasons, rooms, etc. The exclusion from the " inter-
nat," or school boarding-house, is considered the severest punishment
which can come upon a student. Only one third of the " eleves in-
ternes" pay this six hundred francs from their own means; two
thirds of them are the recipients of so-called " demi-bourses," or
stipends, which equal the fees paid by the other third. To receive
them, however, the student must first have been at the school six
months, and have demonstrated his worthiness by appropriate con-
duct, diligence, etc. These stipends are paid every half-year, and
as a rule are enjoyed by the students during their whole coui-se of
study, being only withdrawn in case of gross misconduct or want
of proper knowledge, in proportion to the time the recipient has
studied.

There are three sources from which these stipends come, viz., the
prefects of departments, the Government, and the military funds.
Each department has two stipends to pay toward the support of one
of the veterinary schouls. There are certain regulations to be com-
plied with for the reception of the militaiy stipends. The *' eleves
boursiers militaires," or military students, receive, aside from the
benefits of the " internat," clothing, rent, the necessary books and
instruments, and a small amount of pocket-money, in addition to
which the Government pays the examination fee of one hundred
francs; whereas the other students having the benefit of the " in-
temat'' have to pay all such expenses. The military administration
provides for sixty stipends, all of which were enjoyed by Alfort pre-
vious to 187G, but they are now so divided that Alfort receives
thirty and the schools at Lyons and Toulouse fifteen each. The
military students, after becoming twenty years of age, are re(piircd
to sign agreements by which they promise to serve in the army for
five years, but are, during their course of study, generally free from
military regulations. The number of students at Lyons and Tou-
louse is somewhat less than at Alfort. The whole number of stu-
dents at these schools is, in general, about 600, so that each year

278 THE ESTABLISHMEXT OF THE VETEEIXARY SCHOOLS.

would give to France somewhere about 150 newly graduated veteri-
narians. (The number of civil veterinary surgeons in France was
in 1860, 2,760 ; in 1871, 3,036 ; in 1875, 3,019.) Every two or four
students at Alfort have a room in which they sleep only, otherwise
they are in the study or lecture rooms the whole day ; each year-
student having a separate study-room appropriated to his use, ex-
cept that the third and fourth year students have a study-room in
common. They are allowed certain hours for recreation, in which
they are permitted to visit one another in the different study-rooms,
or to roam over the court and garden of the institute. The meals
are taken in a common room {I'efectoire) at fixed hours, and are
good and sufficient. Each Sunday a " bill of fare " is posted in this
room for the ensuing week, which has been inspected by the direct-
or, and indorsed by him. The students are continually under the
eye of certain officers — " surveillants " — who have their discipline in
charge during the hours of study. On Sundays the students are
permitted to go outside the school, the roll being called at 11.30 p. m.
On the first Sunday of every month they are allowed to remain out
until 12.30, that they may attend the theatres in the city. They are
only allowed to receive visitors at certain hours, and in rooms near
the gate appointed for the purpose. On entering the school one is
immediately struck with the peculiar blue frock worn by all the stu-
dents, which would, however, give a far better appearance of uni-
formity were they obliged to wear the same form of hat or cap.

There is no state examination at the French schools as in Ger-
many ; on the contrary, the students are subjected to repeated ex-
aminations by the assistants, and at the end of each session by the
professors in their respective branches. The result of these sessional
provings is, that students found unsatisfactory are put back for a
year in their course, and lose the advantages of the " internat," or
are sent from the school. The final examination for the diploma
of the French Government is simply a more extended sessional
examination. Of late, the professors have been ordered by the
Government to prove the students in the branches of the first two
sessions of their course. This examination is further distinguished
from the ordinary sessional in that each student must attend to two
sick animals in the hospital and perform three operations. (It
should be mentioned here that in the French schools, other Conti-
nental schools also, the students have a certain number of patients
under their entire charge during the whole course of their hospital
practice, being simply guided and questioned by the clinical teach-
ers. This amounts to the same thing as being in practice while

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF FRANCE. 279

studyinf]:, and offers the great advantage of a competent advisor
and consulting assistant.) Aside from an anatomico-pliysiological
essay, the examination is entirely oral. Each professor hands in an
account, with reference to each student examined, in the form of a
number, which is inclosed and sealed ; these numbers are then added
together in a somewhat complicated manner.

Ilertwig, who visited the French schools in 1S71, in speaking
of the veterinary condition outside the schools, says that the civil
veterinarian is entirely dependent upon his practice for a livelihood,
there being no civil official veterinarians, as in Germany, occupy-
ing positions for which they are paid by the Government. Miil-
ler, who visited the school in 187G, and whose report I have mostly
followed, also says the same thing ; " but that in some depart-
ments there are so-called ' arrondisseraents' which receive from the
communal funds from three to six hundred francs per year, but
they are not connected directly with the Government, and their pay
is yearly resumed." A revision of the " Laws and llegulations of
France for the Prevention and Suppression of Contagious Animal
Diseases" has lately been made by the Government (1879), but I
have failed to see any indication of the division of that country
into departments and districts, with its appropriate government
veterinarian, as we shall see is the case in Germany when we come
to speak of the veterinary institutions of that country. Such may
be in contemplation, however, and will be a great gain for the pro-
fession in that country. There are, however, municipal and local
veterinary officials stationed as inspectoi'S of markets, horse-fairs,
and the like. Notwithstanding most earnest remonstrance on the
part of the veterinary profession of France for many years, tlie
Government has not yet taken the steps it should for the protection
of the holders of its own diploma, by enacting laws for the suppres-
sion of quackery, which renders the task of gaining an honest living
unnecessarily difficult for the graduated members of the profession,
for the quack is ever ready with infallible cure-alls, and is ever such
a glutton and an unprincipled wretch that he will work for any fee,
no matter how small ; and, on the other hand, frequently gets fees
for services rendered which a graduated man would scarce have the
effrontery to ask. All that the Government does is to make known
in a public print that the veterinarian is the holder of a government
diploma when he settles in a district to practice. These conditions
are made still more onerous by the large number of graduates which
are yearly turned out from the schools. "In 1871 the department
of the Seine, inclusive of Paris and the school at Alfort, and several

280 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

military veterinarians, had 115. Of these, four were attached to
the Ministry of War, two to the omnibus companies, one as in-
spector of the horse-market, two as inspectors at the slaughter-
houses, one to the market-police, and one to the court stables.

" The military organization is, on the contrary, well arranged,
and the army veterinai'ians are well placed, both in regard to their
rank and pecuniarily. According to the decree of 1860, the French
army had in all its departments 337 veterinarians, who enjoyed the
following positions : 4 principal, 120 first class, and 128 second
class, and 25 assistant veterinarians. The yearly pay of the chiefs
was 4,000 francs, and that of the assistants 1,800. When the chiefs
were retired, they received a pension of 2,340 francs, which could
be increased to 3,744. Two of these veterinarians were members
of the commission ' d'hygiene hippique ' at the Ministry of War,
and a third was veterinary to the Guards, and resided in Paris. A
fourth was stationed as superior veterinarian at the cavalry-school
at Saumur, and a fifth in a similar position with the troops and
royal stud in Algeria, under the rank of ' etat major.' The other
three classes have also the rank of officer, with corresponding pay :
for the first class, 1,700 francs as minimal, and 2,760 as maximal ;
the second class from 1,400 to 2,800 francs ; and the assistants from
1,300 to 2,112 francs. On the other hand, the value of veterinary
science has been from the early days of schools well acknowledged
by the members of the Academy and other scientific societies in
France, and members of the profession have taken no second rank
among the scientists of France and the world. At the present day
the literary-scientific horizon of France has no more refulgent lights
than Chauveau, Toussaint, Bouley, Colin, Megnin, and other mem-
bers of the veterinary profession."

The Yetekinaey Institute at Vienna, Austria.

With the termination of the school-term for 1877, this institution
began a second centennial existence, and it is to be hoped its pros-
perity and usefulness will go on increasing as the years pass on.
The school is known as the " Eoyal Military Veterinary Institute of
Vienna." Professor Dr. Roell, its late director, gave a complete
sketch of its history for the first hundred years of its existence in
the " Oesterreichse Vierteljahrsschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Vete-
rinarkunde," vol. xlviii ; to which are added lithographic illustra-
tions of the grounds and buildings. This periodical (quarterly) has
been issued by the faculty of the institute since the year 1851, and
contains many articles of value. The establishment of this school

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTE AT VIENNA, AUSTRIA. 281

was preceded by tlie openinp^ of a scliool for the treatment of the
diseases of the horse and operative practice in 17»)4, with the con-
sent and support of the Government, by an Italian named Luigi
Scotti, who, in company with an apothecary named Meno;mann, was
sent by Maria Theresa to Lyons to study the principles of veterinary
medicine. I)urin<2; this visit to France Scotti received 420 guldens
each year from the (xovernnient. On their return they presented
the Government with a proposal for the erection of a school, and
recommended a course of two years, considering the study of
anatomy as the most important subject. They recommended that
tiie students be taken from among the experienced smiths of the
army, that could read and write, and felt confident that they
could make competent vetennarians in the time mentioned. Ac-
cording to their plan of instruction, general anatomy, osteology,
and exterior, were to be taught in the fall, as well as horse-
shoeing, upon which great stress was laid ; in winter, myology and
practice in horseshoeing ; and in spring and summer, a knowledge
of the useful plants, their preparations and use. The second year
was little more than a repetition of the first, with the exception
that the students were made acquainted with disease and its treat-
ment by hospital practice. There were but two teachei-s attached
to the school, which was opened January 12, 17G7, the whole being
under the supervision of a military ofticial, who attended to the gen-
eral order, cleanliness, and deportment of the students. The pur-
pose of the school was limited to the education of better qualified
smiths for the army, and only army horses were treated therein.
The students were taken for the full two-years' course, and only at
the exjiiration of the same were new students taken.

While this horse-school was still in active operation, J. Gottlieb
Wolstein, surgeon, and a selected military farrier by the name of
Schmid, were sent by the Minister of War to Alfort, to carefully
study the principles and practice of veterinary medicine as there
taught. Both of them were paid by the Government, as well as hav-
ing an allowance for the necessary expense, in return for which they
were obliged to bind themselves for life to serve the Government,
and on their return "Wolstein was named as professor and Schmid as
assistant,

Schraeder* says : " Job. Gottlieb AVolstein, Doctor of ^ledicinc
and Surgery, was bom at Flinsberg, in Silesia, March 14, 1738,
and died at Altona, near iraml)urg, July 3, 1820. lie at first gave
his attention to the study of surgery for nine years at Vienna, and

* Loc. eil., p. 476.

282 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

in 1769 was sent to France by the Austrian Government to study
veterinary medicine under Bourgelat and Cbabert, where he at the
same time studied human medicine in the Paris hospitals, as well as
taking an active interest in the work of Lafosse between the years
1772-'73. In 1773 he visited London, and, on his return to Austria,
Denmark, Mecklenburg, Holland, and in 1779 took the degree of
Doctor of Medicine and Surgery at Jena. The school at Vienna
bore witness to the practical abilities possessed by Wolstein. In the
year 1795 he received his discharge from the Yienna school, but it
is not known whether it was owing to his free-thinking tendencies
(for he was the first Protestant who received an appointment in the
state service of Austria), or to other circumstances. Wolstein was
a most extensive author, nearly all his works bearing testimony to
his clear-headedness and practical ability. Among other things, he
was the first to establish the causal connection between an accumu-
lation of fluids in the lateral ventricles of the brain of the horse,
causing the condition known in German as " DummkoUer " ;
French, "immobilite" ; Latin, "amentia." He also wrote a book
upon the " Scientific Breeding of Human Beings."

On his return to Austria he gave the Government his ideas with
reference to the formation of a veterinary school, and on the 23d of
July, 1777, he received from the Government 13,740 florins toward
the erection of the school ; and on the 26th of December, 1877, the
Government issued the instructions for the regulation of the school,
which was soon opened.

The personnel of the school at this time consisted of one pro-
fessor, one superior assistant, two assistants, and a number of half-
invalided soldiers, necessary to the care of the animals in the hos-
pital ; also one inspecting officer, and one farrier. The school and
hospital were placed under the control of the Minister of War, and
the supervision given to a brigadier. In the buildings were pro-
vided lodgings for the teachers of the school, and seventy army
farriers, as students. To the school belonged a botanical garden,
an anatomical saloon, a lecture-room, dispensary, laboratory, and
library ; a smithy with four fires ; four stables, with room in each
for seven horses ; fifteen separate stalls (probably boxes), and a
small stable for cattle and sheep. The instruction was divided as
follows, and extended for two years :

Professor Dr. Wolstein lectured upon the theoretical and prac-
tical application of the principles of medicine to the diseases of the
horse.

First Assistant Schmid lectured upon horseshoeing, and demon-

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTE AT VIENNA, AUSTRIA. 033

ptrated and supervised operative surgery, and represented Wolstein
when the latter was unable to be present.

Assistant Toegl (1779) demonstrated anatomy, and Men<^mann
controlled the pharmacy, and lectured upon medical botany and
pharmacy. The military students came either from cavalry regi-
ments or were selected by the school from among young smitlis who
displayed unusual ability. The students must be under thirty years
of age, unmarried, natives of Austria (Hungary also ?), of pei-fect
physi(|ue and good moral education, and be able to read and write
in the (rerman language.

The admittance of civil students was dependent upon the judg-
ment of the teachers, who were made responsible for the ability and
character of the same.

P>om 177S to 1790, 178 military, 137 civil, and 144 foreign
students graduated at the school.

During this period, 4.2<)8 army horses were treated, of which
3,6l)5 recovered, 201 were discharged uncured, and 252 were killed.
In 1806 numerous changes were made in the buildings and some in
the curriculum, the intention of the school being to educate superior
and ordinary farriers for the army, '•Kurschmieden " (farriers edu-
cated in the principles of medicine), veterinary surgeons, and ordi-
nary farriers. The course was still continued at two years : in the
tirst year, horseshoeing, anatomy, pharmaceutical chemistry, physi-
ology, exterior of the horse, breeding ; in the second year, therapeu-
tics, pharmacology, and veterinary police. The military students
were compelled to work from G to 11.30 a. m. and from 3 to 0 p. m.
in the forge. The personnel of the school was increased by a pro-
fessor of pathology an<l another of anatomy. The school was lim-
ited to forty military students — thirty-five from the cavalry regi-
ments, and five for the royal studs. In 1809 it ions ordered that
nil mriAt h' taught which hlongs to veterinary medimnt\ and not
limited to the horfte alone. In 1812 the school was united with
the university at Vienna, the military inspection being limited to
supervision of the military students. In the year 1823 a revision
of the school was again undertaken, which remained unchanged
until 1840, and suffered but few modifications until 1857. The aim
of the institute was to give full instruction in the principles of
veterinary medicine.

The form of instruction was appointed to the necessities of the
different kinds of students :

1. Common farriers, i. e., such who, after completion of their
course, were considered educated for the profession of horseshoers.

284 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

On tlieir admittance they were obliged to certify that they had
ah'eady served a practical apprenticeship, and be able to read and
write. The course of study extended over one year, during which
they received instruction in the theories of horseshoeing, and upon
the anatomy and physiology of the horse's hoof, the materia medica
and special therapy of the horse, and were obliged to visit the school
hospital.

2. Agriculturists. — The conditions of their admittance were a
good knowledge of reading, writing, and arithmetic, and proof of
having attended the necessary lectures at a public school of agricul-
ture. The course was limited to one year, in which they heard lec-
tures u^on the natural history of the domestic animals^ the j^rinci-
jples of h'eediiig^ the care of the domestic animals, and u_pon the
animal vests and their prevention.

3. Officers., Riding-Masters, and Masters of the Horse. — Officers
had to be furnished with certificates of permission to attend the
school ; the others with certificates of faithful performance of their
duties, and of their ability to read and write. The course also lasted
one year, and was limited to natural history, breeding, equine hygi-
ene, theory of horseshoeing, anatomy and physiology of the horse,
the management of breeding studs, exterior, and equine jurispru-
dence.

4. Future Physicists (" Kiinf tige Physiker "), who could only
become practitioners of the third, and doctors of the second year's
course of the medico-surgical branches. The lecturers were lim-
ited to the theories of animal plagues and veterinary police for one
session.

5. a. Inspectors of Animal and Meat Markets. — On their admit-
tance they had to bring certificates of ability to slaughter well, and
be able to read and write. The course was limited to twelve hours,
during which they received demonstrations of the chief parts of ani-
mals used for food, and of the diseases which made them unfit for
that purpose, and lectures upon the laws and ordinances regulating
such business.

b. Cattle-drovers and Shepherds. — The course extended over two
months, and consisted of instruction in the care and feeding of ani-
mals, upon those things which could incite disease, of their preven-
tion, and upon the common diseases, and the first principles of treat-
ment necessary in case a veterinarian could not be had.

c. Hunters. — The instruction consisted of a popular form of
education upon the dog and its diseases, with especial reference to
rabies.

THE VETERINARY IXSTITl'TE AT VIENNA, AUSTRIA. 285

6. ''^Kiu'schiniede'''' {Farriers icith author it y to treat certain dis-
eases of the horse). — The course was two years, and all applicants
had to bring certificates of ability to shoo horses, and as to their
having faithfully served their allotted time in the army, and be able
to read and write. In the first year they attended lectures upon the
elements of physics and chemistry, equine anatomy and physiology,
and therapeutics and materia mediea ; in the second, the special
pathology and therapy of equine diseases, surgery, operative sur-
gery and obstetrics, exterior, breeding, forensic equine medicine
and practice in relation to the external and internal diseases of the
horse ; further, anatomy and physiology were again repeated.

Y. Veterinary Surgeons. — None hut graduated doctors or wound
doctors were admitted. The course. also lasted two years : the first
being devoted to natural history, dietetics, breeding, hygiene, anat-
omy and physiology of the domestic animals, general patliology and
therapeutics ; the second to special pathology and thera])eutics,
theoretic and operative surgery, exterior, breeding, forensic equine
medicine, contagious diseases and veterinary police, literature of
veterinary medicine, practical exercise in the hospitals, and repeti-
tion of anatomy and ]>hysiology.

The faculty consisted of five professors, receiving 2,000, 1,500,
1,200, and 1,000 florins each, with free lodging and other perqui-
sites ; also four assistants, receiving 700, GOO, 500, and 400 florins.

On the ITth of November, 182.3, the corner-stone of the new
school was laid with appropriate ceremonies, and in the presence of
many of the nobility and noted personages. In this year the com-
mencement of a library was begun in earnest by an appropriation of
three thousand florins, but at the present day a yearly sum is appro-
priated to the purpose. In the year 1835 an institution for experi-
ments with reference to the variola of sheep was added to the in-
stitution and continued until 18G4. In the year ISJf!) the institution
was separated from the university., and has since remained indejyetv-
denty sidject to the control of the Ministry of ^Yar. In 1871 the cur-
riculum again suffered revision, and wa.s placed in its present form ;
the purpose of the school being to educate civil and military vet-
erinarians, and also civil and military horseshoers j aside from
this it jnust do its vtmost to forward I'eterinary science, and is the
highest technical authority with reference to contagious animal dis-
eases and thiir suppression. The director also acts as adviser in all
things with reference to the military veterinary institutions at the
Ministry of V^at. The guidance of the school is dependent upon
the director and the military supervisor. The latter is directly sub-

286 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

servient to the Minister of War, and conducts tlie institute in its re-
lation to the military organization, supervising the internal arrange-
ments and the discipline of the servants and students. The director
controls the scientific-technical parts of the institution. The teach-
ers are represented by professors, docents, adjuncts, assistants, and
a teacher of horseshoeing. The number of professors is limited to
six, one of whom is director. The subjects taught are as follow,
divided among the following professors and assistants :

Director (1877), Moriz F. Eoell,* and Lecturer upon Animal
Pests, their Causes and Prevention ; also Conductor of the Inner
Clinic.

Professor Franz Miiller, Lecturer on Zootomj', the Theories of
Shoeing, Exterior, and Conductor of the Dog Hospital.

Professor Andreas Briickmiiller (recently deceased). Lecturer on
Breeding, Obstetrics, and Zoophysiology. Professor Briickmiiller
is the author of the only text-book extant on " Animal Pathological
Anatomy," which is too largely founded upon Pokitansky to be un-
critically followed at the present day, however.

Professor Franz August Armbrecht, Lecturer on Yeterinary
Surgery and Operative Surgery, and Conductor of the Surgical
Clinic.

Professor Leopold Forster, Lecturer on Special Pathology and
Therapeutics, Pharmacology, Pharmacognosy, Botany, Instruments
and Bandages, their Uses and Application.

Professor Franz Zahn, Lecturer on General Pathology, Patho-
logical Zootomy, and Forensic Medicine.

The lectures in Chemistry are delivered by Professor Dr. I.
Moser, of the Agricultural Academy.

Adjujicts. — Max von Paumgartten, Assistant Lecturer on Zo-
otomy, Exterior, and Theoretic Horseshoeing.

Eaimund Koezil, Assistant Lecturer on Path.-Zootomy, Forensic
Medicine, and Cattle and Meat Inspection.

Franz Konhauser, Assistant in the Medical Clinic, and Teach-
er of Special Pathology and Therapeutics.

Josef Bayer, Assistant in the Surgical Clinic, and Teacher of
Veterinary Surgery and Operations; also Lecturer on Yeterinary
Literature and History.

Johann Csokor, Assistant-Lecturer on Breeding and Zoophysi-
ology.

Assistants. — J. P. von Froschauer, to the Medical Chnic.

Josef Stengel, to the Surgical Clinic.

* Since retired and pensioned.

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTE AT VIENNA, AUSTRIA.

287

Franz Wildner, on Descriptive and Patholof^ieal ZoOtomy.

Over-Vcterinariaii F. Scliuller, Teacher of Horseshoeing.

Inspecting Veterinarians. — Ferdinand AVicher, for the Hospitals.

Anton Janich, for Horseshoeing.

Accountants. — Franz Miihhi, Superior.

Heinrich Liizlo, Assistant.

Other Perfions. — One gardener, two otficial servants, one porter,
three saloon-servants, one apothecary's servant, one watchman, two
drivers, three smiths in forge, three corporals, and forty-one soldiers
as servants in the stables.

The ground of the school covers a territory of 42,514 square
metres. It is ])lentifully supplied with fresh water. The stables
contain room for eighty horses, besides twenty-two boxes, with grain
magazines, rooms, and all necessary appurtenances. There is also a
stable for fourteen cattle, and the dog-hospital is fitted up with
cages for forty -four dogs. There is also a quarantine-stable for the
isolation of suspected or diseased animals, with five boxes. The
school has a tine botanical garden, lecture-room, laboratories, muse-
ums, forge, grazing-ground, and everything necessary to such an in-
stitution. The number of works in the library is 4,132, or 9,030
volumes, six to seven hundred florins being allowed for its repletion
each year. The books are all arranged, according to the subjects
treated, upon appropriate shelves.

At the end of the year 187G the anatomical museum contained :

Stuffed mammalia and monstrosities 160 spec

" birds 59

Skeletons : Mammalia 100

Birds 62 '

Amphibia and reptiles 10 '

Fishes 1) '

Individual bony specimens 3CG '

Teeth 428

Lipaments, cartilage, and muscle preparations 95 '

Intestines 156 '

Nerves 27 '

Blood- vessels IGO '

Lymphatics 8 '

Monstrosities in spirit 110 '

Embryos 129

Varia 115

Total 2,084

The pathological museum contains 2,762 specimens. The col-

288 THE ESTABLISHMEXT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

lection of surgical instruments is very complete, 224 new ones being
added to it in the last twenty years.

The collection of herbs, minerals, etc., used in medicine, and all
other appurtenances of a school of like nature, are kept full and in
perfect order.

During the years between 1823 and 1877, 100,558 animals (of
these 87,436 recovered, 8,787 died, and 4,281 were killed), with the
exception of dogs, were treated at the school, being 1,845 for each
year.

From 1857 to 1877, 20,241 dogs were treated in the dog-hos-
pital, of which 14,023 recovered, 4,725 died, and 1,463 were killed.

The Students. — The students belong either to the civil or mili-
tary professions. The first are either students of veterinary medi-
cine ])er se, or of horseshoeing. IS^either the Minister of War nor
his representative, the military supervisor, exercises any control over
them, they being subjected to the control of the directors, and all
regulations concerning them emanate from the " cultus " minister.
The conditions for admittance are :

1. At the military veterinary school the students are educated
in the entire principles of veterinary medicine.

2. "Whoever intends to become a student must subject himself
to a matriculatory examination. This examination is not required
of students that are graduates of the sixth class in a " gymnasial "
or " real " school.

(The matriculatory examination is limited to the following sub-
jects : German language, physics, chemistry, natural jiistory, geog-
raphy, history, and algebra.)

In the German language the student must write an essay in
good, clear orthography and good grammar, upon a subject of nat-
ural history.

Physics. — He must explain and demonstrate npon instruments
the ordinary phenomena.

Chemistry. — The elements of inorganic and organic chemistry,
with simple tests.

Natwal History. — General knowledge of the classification of
the three kingdoms.

Geography. — Physical geography in general, and the climatical
and geographical conditions of all parts of the world, and a special
knowledge of Central Europe, and Austria in particular.

History. — A knowledge of the chief historical events of the
world at large, and Austria in special.

Algebra. — Elementary.

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTE AT VIENNA, AUSTRIA. OgQ

This exiuniiuitiun takes place in the first week of October of
each year by a special commission named by the '' cultus " minister,
three members being professors of the school, and one each repre-
senting a gymnasium and real school. The examination costs five
guldens, and goes to the examiners. Students must not be over
twenty-six or under eighteen years of age ; consideration is some-
times taken in case of students whose studies have been uninten-
tionally interrupted in a scientific or agricultural academy. The
course extends over three years, of two sessions each, as follows :

First Tea?' {First Session). — Introduction to the study of veter-
inary medicine for two weeks, three hours each week ; zootomy of
all domestic animals, weekly, five hours; general chemistry, weekly,
three hours ; breeding, weekly, three hours ; theoretic horseshoe-
ing, weekly, two houi-s ; dissection and practical horseshoeing, ar-
ranged in the hours not taken up by other branches.

{Second Sessio)i.) — Topographical zootomy, weekly, five hours ;
organic chemistry, with especial reference to physiological and
pathologiciil chemistry, weekly, three hours ; breeding, five hours ;
medicinal botany, weekly, two hours ; dissection and practical horse-
shoeing, as before.

Second Year {Third Session). — General pathology and patho-
logical anatomy, weekly, three hours ; physiology with microscop-
ical practice, weekly, two hours ; pharmacognosy, materia medica,
and art of writing prescriptions, weekly, three hours ; clinic, daily ;
dissection, and the preparation of two anatomical subjects, in hours
to be fixed at convenience ; autopsies ; practical horseshoeing.

{Fourth Session.) — Pathological zootomy, weekly, three hours ;
physiology, with microsco])ical practice, weekly, two hours ; ob-
stetrics, weekly, two hours ; theoretic use of instruments and band-
ages, weekly, two hours ; clinic, daily ; autopsies ; practice in chem-
ical laboratory ; horseshoeing.

Third Year {Fifth Session). — Medical and surgical clinic, daily ;
special pathology and therapeutics, weekly, three hours ; veterinary
surger}', weekly, two hours ; practice in operative surgery, weekly,
three hours ; exercise in making reports of forensic cases and in
reference to veterinary police ; animal pests and veterinary police,
weekly, three hours ; cattle and meat inspection, weekly, one hour ;
horseshoeing.

{Sixth Session.) — Clinics, and other branches as before ; history
of veterinary medicine, weekly, one hour ; horseshoeing.

The school also has a special course of two years for medical men
and wound-doctors.

19

290 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

The Examinations. — The examination takes place at the end of
each year in the subjects which have been lectured upon or demon-
strated. The results are designated as " excellent " (" sehr gut " *),
" good," and " middling." Students who have received the last
censor may apply for a second examination, but those who have re-
ceived it in two or more branches are obliged to repeat the full
course for the completed year.

The professors are free to make examinations on any subjects
during the session.

Students who desire the state diploma as veterinarians must,
among other things, make an autopsy and correctly dictate the re-
sults ; also prepare certain anatomical specimens, and give in to the
appropriate professor certain written documents upon cases in con-
nection with forensic medicine and veterinary police.

Aside from this, the final examination consists in the student
attending a selected patient (a tough case selected by the teacher) in
both the internal and surgical clinic for three days, of which the
student has to make, unaided, the diagnosis, and attend to and direct
the treatment, and write a full description of the case, its history,
treatment, and prognosis. Further, he must make several surgical
operations upon a living animal, and demonstrate a subject in anatomy.

The partial examinations take place under the special professor
in each branch, with changes of professors, the last examination in
the presence of the whole examining body. All members of the
examining commissions are free to ask of the candidate any ques-
tions they please in connection with veterinary medicine or its col-
lateral branches. The examining commission consists of the pro-
fessors and a person named by the Minister of the Interior. If a
candidate has failed in one part of his examination, he may again
present himself at a time fixed by the commission, which can never
be in less than three months. If he has failed in two divisions of the
examination, he must be examined again in all parts of his studies, but
never in less than six months. The final examination costs fifty-four
florins. Foreigners are admitted by the consent of the direction, and
have a right to an examination for a diploma, hut not to jpractice in
Austria when not naturalised citizens. Foreigners have to pay
twenty guldens fee for each session before it begins. Single courses
of lectures may be arranged with the director. Certain rules of
conduct must be observed.

* The German " sehr gut '' is not correctly interpreted by the English " very good"
it being spoken with a peculiar emphasis, and used only in a sense of the English " ex-
cellent."

VETERINARY SCHOOLS OF HFLCHM, Rr>^SIA, SWEDEN, ETC. 291

Some fifteen years ago the scliool at Vienna enjoyed a very high
reputation in Europe. BriiekniuUer was then a first-ehass authority.
IloL'll hud made himself famous by his clinical ability, especially
with reference to jmlmonary disease, and is accredited with being
the first to systematically introduce auscultation and percussion of
the chest into veterinary practice ; but all things must fade: the pro-
fessors have grown old and lost some of their youthful energy, and at
present their places have not been filled by "young blood," so that
this once famous school is in a sort of semi-torpid condition. Nearly
all schools of medicine and science have to undergo these changes, so
that we may be sure that the Vienna school will ere long assume its
old rank among the bright sisterhood of European veterinary in-
stitutes.

Short Notices of the Veterinary Schools at Brussels, Bel-
gium, AND those of Russia, Sweden, and Norway.

The small kingdom of Belgium was by no means to be outdone
by her larger sisters, and ranks high among the Continental nations
in reference to its veterinary institutions. The Royal Veterinary
School was instituted in 1832, but not organized until 1835, and is
situated in the environs of Brussels ; one of the streets bounding
it on one side is named after Brogniez, one of its most distin-
guished professors, who added many valuable instruments to the
veterinary cabinet. Among other noted professors who have been
attached to this school we find the names of Thiernesse, AVehenkel,
and Dupont ; and, among the practitioners, Willems, the introducer
of inoculation as a prophylactic against pleuro-pneumonia in cattle.
The Bnissels school is modeled after those of France ; the fee for the
regular students (eleves internes) is fixed at TOO francs per year.
The preliminary education denuinded of students is higher than in
France, the consent of the minister being necessary to their admit-
tance. !Many young men study the natural sciences at this school,
who intend studying medicine at the university, thereby enjoying
the advantages of the " inteniat." The number of teachei-s is larger
than at the French schools, there being eight professors and four
assistants. The number of lectures is also greater. There are two
examinations — one at the end of the first two years, and the other at
the completion of the course, which extends over four years. The
hospital has room for about thirty horses, each one paying a fee of
two francs daily. The school has a visiting clinic, but no school
conveyance, the visits being made, however, at the expense of the in-
stitution. Three horses are weekly used for anatomical and opera-

292 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

tive practice by the students, and one for the anatomical teacher ;
they cost some eighty francs each ; about eighty animals are used
in this way each year. The anatomical museum is very rich in
specimens, and they are better arranged than at Alfort.

The four-year course is arranged as follows :

First Session. — Anatomy, dissection, physics, botany.

Second Session. — Botany, physics, repetition in anatomy, and
the two foiTner subjects.

Third Session. — Anatomy, dissection, physics, chemistry, with
reviewings upon the two latter.

Fotirth Session. — Anatomy of the domestic animals aside from
the horse ; physics, histology, chemistry, horseshoeing.

Fifth Session. — Clinic, pharmacy, general and special pathology,
anatomy, operative surgery, therapeutics and materia medica ; the-
ory and practice of horseshoeing.

Sixth Session. — Clinic, general and special pathology, anatomy,
pathological anatomy, therapeutics and materia medica, pharmacy,
with practice, operative surgery, horseshoeing.

Seventh Session. — Clinic, surgical pathology, horseshoeing, breed-
ing, topographic anatomy, operative surgery (theoretical and practi-
cal), pharmaceutical practice, forensic medicine, and sanitary po-
lice.

Eighth Session. — Clinic, surgical pathology, breeding, obstetrics,
meat-inspection, pharmacy, horseshoeing. Numerous repetitions or
reviewings of each branch of study take place during each session.

The regulations for the control of the Government veterinary
officials are about as follows — I say "about," for they are taken
from the law of 1851, and some changes may have since been
made:

Article 1. According to the requirements, there shall be one
or more Government veterinarians in each agricultural district.

These veterinarians are named by the Minister of the Interior,
on the proposal of the permanent deputation of the provincial coun-
cil, and the agricultural commission ; the minister fixes their residence,
and the territory over which they shall exert control.

Art. 2. The Government veterinarians are generally selected
from among those who have passed an especially satisfactory exami-
nation at the school.

Akt. 3. Each appointment is at first made provisory for a
period of tliree years, and only at the end of this term can the ap-
pointment become permanent.

Abt. 4. In those districts where the rewards of practice are in-

VETERINARY SCDOOLS OF BELlilUM, RUSSIA, SWEDEN, ETC. 293

sufficient, the minister may allow the veterinary official a support
whicli shall not exceed three hundred francs yearly, in addition to
that allowed by the local authorities.

Art. 5. The duties of the Government veterinarians are : 1. To
exert a careful supervision of the hygienic conditions uf the animals
in their district. 2. To watch over the healthy condition of the stal-
lions used for breeding, and to see that they arc adapted to the pro-
vincial regulations for the improvement of stock, 3. They must
carefully investigate all animals in their district with reference to
contagious or infectious diseases. 4. At the requisition of the gov-
enior of their province, they must visit public markets and fairs and
watch over the health of the animals.

Art. G. Such veterinarians as are members of the provincial
agricultural commission control, when required by the governor or
Bald commission, the official duties of the other Government veteri-
narians of the province.

Art. 7. It is their duty to notify the commissioner of the "ar-
rondissements," and the members of the agricultural commission, of
the presence of contagio-infectious diseases in their province. The
governor of the province receives his notification from the above-
named officials. In important cases the Minister of the Interior is
also to be notified by the General Inspector of Hygiene, who is
notified directly by the veterinary official.

Art. 8. The Government veterinarians are also obliged to ob-
serve the conditions of agriculture in their respective districts, so far
as their other duties will permit of, and to make reports to the Min-
ister of the Interior,

Art. 0. These officials must make official returns within the
first ten days of each quarter to the governor of the ]>rf»vince, with
reference to each case of an infectious or contagious animal disease
that has taken place during the past quarter in their district, and
also with reference to all other facts which are of importance to the
Government. These reports are collected by the Provincial Agri-
cultural Commission, and sent by them to the governor, whr» in his
turn sends them to the minister. The General Inspector of Public
Hygiene must return a yearly report of all cases of contagious ani-
mal diseases which have occurred in the kingdom.

Art. 10. The Government veterinarians liave exclusively the
control of the infectious animal diseases, and must always be called
upon to make such examination by the higher officers of the Gov-
ernment,

Art. 13. Such officials can only order the peremptory killing of

294 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

an animal when it is affected to an incurable (?) degree with the
following diseases :

Horses. — Glanders.

Cattle. — Anthrax, rinderpest, and plenro-pneumonia.

Sheejp. — Yariola, and in all animals when complicated with rabies.

The rank and advancement of veterinarians in the Belgian army
are as follow :

The veterinary inspectors rank as major; the first-class veteri-
narians as captain ; the second-class veterinarians as first lieuten-
ant ; the third-class veterinarians as second lieutenant.

In order to become a third-class veterinarian, the applicant must
have graduated well for a civil veterinarian ; must be twenty-four
years of age, and a citizen, or naturalized. No one can become
second class without having served creditably in the third for at
least two years. To become first class, he must have served in the
second for at least two years to the same degree. As inspectors,
three years' first-class service is necessary. To be first or second
class, the applicant must also stand a practical examination. The
inspectors are appointed by the king. Yeterinarians of all grades
receive, after ten years' active service, one fifth more pension than
army oflBcers having a corresponding rank.

Russia.'^

We are somewhat inclined to look upon the Russians as a sort of
lialf-civilized people, but the reverse is much more near to the truth,
at least so far as it has reference to the support given by the Govern-
ment to the advancement of science. In no way is this more true
than in relation to veterinary science, the need of which made itself
apparent very early in this century, on account of the wealth of the
nation in domestic animals, especially cattle, horses, and sheep. As
should be known to every one, rinderpest, the most terrible and
devastating of all animal plagues, makes its home upon the steppes
of Southern Russia, causing yearly a loss of thousands of cattle, and
frequently extending its ravages to neighboring countries. In 1877
the official returns of the losses caused by rinderpest are given as
217,768 cattle and 1,884 sheep; and the same authority gives as the
number of cattle in the empire, 25,918,600 : the loss from this cause
amounting, therefore, to 0'82 per cent.

Russia has three veterinary institutes, one each at Kharkov, Dor-
pat, and Kazan, all supported and regulated by the Government ; the
degrees given are doctor and magistrate of veterinary science. The

* Miiller, " Russische Veterinar Institut Magazin," vol. xxx.

VETERINARY SCHOOLS OF BELGIUM, RUSSIA, SWEDEN, ETC. 295

regulations for these schools suffered a complete reorganization soon
after the veterinary congress at Frankfort in the year 1872, the aim
of the Government being to make them second to none in Europe
from a truly sclent Ijic poiiit of view. The new regulations bear
date May 8, 1873. The schools are subjected to the control of the
cultus minister in the tirst place, and directly under the curator of
the educational district in which they are situated. The immediate
direction, however, consists of the director and council of the
school. At each institute there are three regular, one extra profess-
or, four docents ; of the last, one for pharmacy, one for agriculture,
one prosector who is also a docent, and an extra prosector and a
teacher of horseshoeing, with various assistant teachers. The direct-
or receives, aside from a free residence, 3,300 silver rubles yearly ;
the regular professors, 3,000 ; the extra, 2,000 ; the docents and pro-
sectors, 1,200 ; the assistants, 700 ; and the teacher of horseshoeing
the same, with residence. The director, professors, docents, and
prosectors must all have the qualification of a magistrate of veteri-
nary science. The docents of pharmacy and agriculture must like-
wise be of the same grade in their respective branches, but the
teacher of horseshoeing may have only the ordinary veterinary
diploma. Private docents are also permitted to lecture upon any
branch of veterinary science which they may select. To these last the
qualification of doctor of veterinary medicine is necessary, but each
aspirant must write an essay upon a selected subject, which must be
publicly defended, and also stand two test-examinations upon themes
selected by the council of the institute. The private docents have
no certain pay, but the same is regulated by the council, and they
have before them the privilcije of adding to their education bv study
in foreign countries at the Government's expense. The natural
sciences — mineralogy, botany, zoology, comparative anatomy (not zo-
otomy), physics, physical geography, and chemistry — are taught at
the schools l)y special professors, aj^pointed for the })urpose from
the university. The students also receive lectures upon religion on
appointed days. A high grade of preliminary education is demand-
ed of the students. The course is extended over four years. Three
thousand silver rubles are at the disposal of the council for each
school, as stipends for desirable students. The general censors are
excellent and satisfactory, which give the student the diploma of
doctor, but in case of extraordinary ability the council may give the
diploma of magistrate of veterinary medicine. A foreigner may
also obtain them by standing the same examination. The director
also possesses the grade and rights of a dean of a university, while

296 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

the professors, docents, and prosectors rank with those of the uni-
versities. The teachers are appointed by the council from can-
didates who have distinguished themselves in scientific research, but
must also demonstrate that they have the gifts necessary to becom-
ing proficient teachers. The allowance for each veterinary institute,
to pay the teachers, and other educational expenses, is yearly 35,700
silver rubles. To each institute is added a school for veterinary
assistants, the course being three years, and is limited to practical in-
struction by the teacher of horseshoeing, two clinical assistants, a
pharmaceutical assistant, and special teachers appointed for the pur-
pose.

Organization of the Royal Veterinary College at Copenhagen^

Denmark!^

The Royal Danish Veterinary School was founded in 1773 by
the talented veterinarian Alildgaard; it was again reorganized in
1858, and changed to a royal veterinary and agricultural high
school, and removed to the suburbs of Copenhagen. By this ar-
rangement, veterinary instruction can be directly carried out at one
school, and in it are also taught agriculturists, surveyors, gardeners,
and foresters, though the education of the latter is chiefly theo-
retical. Owing to the number of departments or sections in the
school, there is a better opportunity for more classes, and par-
ticularly for special instruction of each class in its own branch of
study.

This school is under the control of the Minister of the Interior,
and is presided over by a director, who does not teach, but who is a
member of the Privy Council. The present director is Dr. C. E.
Fenger. An agriculturist is also connected with the school as as-
sociate director.

The number of teachers is eighteen, ten of whom are appointed
by the Government for duty only in the school ; the other eight
belong, more or less, to the university, the polytechnic, and other
schools. The assistants are in addition engaged in teaching the
various sections, and there is also a pharmaceutist in the dispensary.
The following are the branches taught the veterinary student :

Anatomy, including dissection and physiology, by Dr. Bendz.

Internal pathology and clinical instruction, by Professor Bagge.

Chemistry and pharmacy, by Professor Barfaed.

Exterior zoutechny, hygiene, and theoretic farriery, by Professor
Prosch.

* "Veterinary Journal," ii, p. 123.

VETERINARY SCHOOLS OF BELUIUM, RUSSIA, SWEDEN, ETC. 297

Operative surgery, obstetrics, and surgical clinics, by Professor
Stocktleth.

Botany, by Professor Langs.

Physics and meteorology, by Assistant Fjord.

Zoology, by Professor Scliiodte.

Veterinary jurisprudence, by Assistant Bay.

Practical farriery, by Assistant Green.

The avera-re number of students attendinf; the school since 1858
has been yearly about two hundred and fifty, being mostly veterina-
ry and agricultural students. The students nnist provide their own
maintenance and lodging. A free education and scholarship can be
obtained if the student enters his name ; moreover, it is necessary
that he has received a certain specified general education, which is
considerably less than is required for matriculation at the univer-
sity. Latin is not required.

The scholastic year commences on the 23d of August, the annual
period of instruction consisting of two sessions of six months each.
Although the student is at liberty in the matter of attending lect-
ures, yet the instruction is so arranged that these may occupy a pe-
riod of six sessions ; as a rule, the period of study is four years
if the following plan is pursued :

First Session. — Physics and meteorology, six hours per week ;
inorganic chemistry, four hours ditto ; zoology, four to six hours
ditto ; shoeing practice, twelve hours ditto.

Second Scs.fion. — Physics and meteorology, two to three hours
per week for the first two months ; organic chemistry, three to four
hours ; botany, two to five hours ; anatomy and physiology, five
hours; zootechny, five hours; practical botany, one hour; practical
farriery, twelve hours ; practical grooming, twelve hours a week for
a month ; clinic, twelve hours per week.

Third Session. — Botany, seven hours per week for a month;
anatomy and physiology, five hours per week ; zootechny, four
hours ; theoretic farriery, two hours ; pharmacy and pharmacology,
two hours; pathology and therapeutics, three to four hours; sur-
gery, three to four houi-s ; veterinary jurisprudence, two hours;
practical botany, one hour per week for a month ; practical farriery,
eight hours per week; dissection, exterior, one hour; clinic, twelve
hours ; practical pharmacy, twelve hours.

Fourth Session. — Anatomy and physiology, five hours weekly;
zootecliny, five hours ; pathology and therapeutics, three to four
hours ; surgery and obstetrics, three to four hours ; veterinary juris-
prudence, two hours ; dissection, operative surgery, four hours ;

298 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

practical farriery, eight hours ; clinic, twelve hours ; practical phar-
macy, twelve hours.

Fifth Sessio7i. — Pathology and therapeutics, three to four hours
weekly ; surgery, three to four hours ; dissection, operative surgery,
four hours ; practical farriery, eight hours ; clinic and pharmacy,
twelve hours each weekly.

Sixth Session. — Ambulatory or visiting clinic ; veterinary juris-
prudence.

The veterinary examinations take place in April and October,
and are divided into two parts : the first of these is in pure natural
science only ; the second, in the other branches of veterinary medi-
cine.

Veterinary Medicine in Sweden.^

The first veterinary school in Sweden was founded by Hern-
quist, born in 1726. After passing his examination as a doctor in
philosophy at the University of Upsala, Hernquist went in 1T63 to
France, and, more especially at Lyons, studied veterinary medicine.
In 1774 he established the veterinary school of Skara, Sweden, and
was designated professor of it in 1778, remaining in it until his
death, 1808. He was a writer and practitioner of very high order.
One of the best of his pupils, Korling, took his place in 1814 ; and
in 1820, by order of the Swedish Government, he organized the
veterinary school at Stockholm, remaining director of it, as well as
that of Skara, until his death in 1855. The Skara school served as
a preparatory one for that of Stockholm, where the student, after
a stay of two or three years, underwent the examination for the de-
gree of veterinary surgeon. At that time, as now, the students
came from Sweden, Norway, and Finland, and during this period
a great number of men belonging to each of these countries gradu-
ated at the Stockholm school.

In 1867 it was fixed by royal ordinance that before a student
could enter that college he must have obtained the diploma of
graduate in letters from the university. This excellent measure for
the elevation of veterinary instruction was due to the initiative of
Professor Landberg ; and, instead of diminishing the number of
students, as some had predicted, it led to an increase. In requiring
from candidates for admission to this school an amount of prepara-
tory knowledge not demanded by any other veterinary school in
Europe, the Swedish Government has taken care to protect the
interests of its graduates and increase their income; the conse-
quence is, that the number of graduates has correspondingly aug-

* "Veterinary Journal," vol ix, p. 266, 1879.

THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 299

mented in quantity and quality. The candidate, twenty or twenty-
one years of a^je, being a graduate in letters, is received into the
veterinary school, and there he has to study for four or even six
years.

The school has four professors, each with an animal salary of
about £230; a lecturer, with a salary of £108; an assistant, or ad-
junct, and a teacher of farriery. Two of the professors, the assist-
ant, and the instructor in farriery, reside at the college ; the others
have a yearly lodging allowance of £28. The course of teaching
at present is as follows :

Anatomy, physiology, zoology, and pathological anatomy — Pro-
fessor Kinnberg.

2iooteclmy, sanitary science and police, and the amlmlutory
clinic — Professor Morell.

Surgery, obstetrics, farriery, and clinical surgery — Professor
Sjostedt.

Pathology, therapeutics, epizootics, pharmaco-dynamics, pharma-
cotechny, and special clinic — Professor Lindquist.

Botany, physics, chemistry, pharmacology, and j)harmacy — Lec-
turer Ericsson.

The assistant aids in the clinic, and the other official instructs in
the farriery.

In Sweden there are thirty Government veterinary surgeons,
who receive an annual allowance of £S0 and traveling expenses.
The regiments in garrison have a regimental veterinary surgeon,
with a yearly pay of £17»> ; and a battalion veterinary surgeon with
the rank of sub-lieutenant, who receives annually £112. Regiments
of the line have regimental and squadron veterinary surgeons, hav-
ing the grade of non-connnissioned officers, and a pay of £56 yearly.
The number of civil and military veterinary surgeons under the
Government is 170, and all, so far as their technical duties arc con-
ceniod, are under the direction of the medical authorities.

TuE Schools of Germany.

The School at Stuttgart*

This school was the last established among the German schools.
It was built on territory which had previously been occupied by the
Zoological Garden, the royal order for its establishment being dated
August 21, 1790. "Walz, Ilordt, and Ilaussmann were prominent

* " Die Koniglich. Wiirtemberg. Thicrarznei-Schulc." Historically considered by He-
ring. 1847. Rueff, 1871.

300 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

among the veterinarians of tlie state at this time, and were called
upon to advise and take part in it. The former was bj far the most
influential of the trio. He was born in Stuttgart, the 7th of De-
cember, 1771, and died there, February 4, 1834. He received his
first education in the gymnasium of his native city, and then in the
Karls School of Philosophy, where he studied natural philosophy
and the general j)rinciples of medicine, at the same time acquaint-
ing himself with pharmacy in the shop of his father. Having se-
lected veterinary medicine as his means of livelihood, he went to
Vienna, for a time enjoying the teachings of Wolstein ; then visited
the breeding establishments in Austria and Hungary ; thence his
travels brought him to Dresden, where he tarried at the Veterinary
School for a while ; then visiting the Universities of Jena, Erfurt,
Leipsic, and Halle, and finally at Berlin, where he remained for
nine months at the School of Veterinary Medicine. The reputation
which the school at Copenhagen acquired under Abildgaard drew
him to Denmark ; at the same time he studied medicine in the
hospital of the city under Bang and "Winslow. After three years'
absence he returned to Stuttgart by way of Hoya, Hanover, and
Gottingen, and on the 9th of September, 1794, received the po-
sition of an ofiicial veterinarian, having the supervision of the en-
tire veterinary system of the dukedom. He soon became a member
of the sanitary commission, and of many scientific and public associa-
tions. "Walz was one of the first who asserted that the cheapest and
best way to stamp out the rinderpest was to kill all diseased animals,
as well as those exposed to infection. The invasion began in 1795,
but so many difficulties presented themselves to the proper execu-
tion of these principles that it was not until 1801 that the pest was
finally got rid of, at a cost of some 40,000 cattle. His treatment of
the scabies of sheep has become one of the fundamental elements of
the veterinary practice. He took a most active part in advocating
a governmental veterinary school, his efforts being finally rewarded
by success ; his life was eminently successful, and he died respected
by all and mourned by many.

The conditions of admittance to the school were at first very
easy, requiring applicants to be —

1. Twenty years old.

2. A healthy physique, with sufficient strength.

3. Free from military duty.

4. The necessary educational qualifications.

5. Of good moral character.

6. Must know some trade.

TDE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 301

7. Must have means enougli to pay the expenses of their educa-
tion.

The school supplies sleeping apartments for quite a number of
students, and residence for a number of the teachers. It is titted up
with the auxiliaries to inf>truction, the same as other schools, but the
collections of skeletons and specimens in the anatomical department
are wonderfully large for so small an institute. The course of study
was at tirst tixed at one year, many students, however, remaining
over one, two, or even three sessions, themselves seeing the necessity
of a more complete education. In this regard, it may be Avell re-
marked that the tirst year in any medical school can do nothing
more than introduce a student to his work ; and if, at the end of a
four-years' course, he has progressed so far as to get a general view
of the field before him, and has himself really learnetl how to study^
how to select the chatf from the wheat, he may consider himself as
among the few who enter in at the strait gate which leadeth unto
knowledge. All this talk about " completing an education,'' or '" he
has a complete education," with reference to graduates from schools,
simply shows the ignorance of the speaker ; for, as I have pre-
viously said, it is only the Yirchows, the Franklins, the Darwins,
and Ilallers among men who get so far as to obtain firm hold of
the keys which are to unlock to them the treasury of knowledge
in the future, but not without untiring work and uncea.sing self-sac-
rifice, however. The rest never even get hold of the keys ; they are
and always remain pettifoggers, dabblers, or mere routiners and fol-
lowers in the path of the true lights which lead on to the j^erfcct
day.

The example of the students finally led to an increase of the
term of study to two years, after a lapse of twenty-five years from
the opening of the school.

The school had at first four professors (a vast improvement
over that at Hanover, which at first had but one, and for a long
time but two) and a teacher of horseshoeing. The course begins
every year on the IGtli of October and ends the 31st of August the
following year. Vacations come at Christmas and Ea.ster, but such
a number of students must always remain at the school as is requi-
site to attend to the patients in the hospital. The library contains
2,1*28 books, and is open to the students under certain regulations,
which are very easy to comply with : " They can keep a book out
for four weeks at a time, and are allowed all books except such as
are very rare or costly, which can only be used in the ruoms of
the librars.''

302 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

Patients treated hy the Students from 1821 to 1871.
Horses :

In the school hospital 18,091

Visited by students outside the school 5,896

Used for anatomy and operative practice ... 684

Asses and mules 45

24,716

Dogs :

In school hospital 5,270

Brought in by police 755

6,025

Cattle :

In school 270

Outside 16,794

17,064

Other animals 2,652

Autopsies 2,722

Whole number of animals treated in school for fifty years.. . 53,179

"Whole number of students in same period, 2,140. Of these, the
following are recorded as having emigrated to America :

L. Bickard, 1841-'42; Alois Ebach, 1865-'67; Will. Eberhardt,
lS38-'39 ; J. F. Erpf, 1831-'32 ; A. Fritz, 1841-'42 ; B. Fusseneg-
ger, 1844-'45 ; Aug. Gleich, studied winter of 1860 ; J. Haussler,
1840; G. Halm, 1842; L. D. Hess, 1824 ; Chr. Horz, 1849-'50 ;
A. Ibach, 1886-68 ; G. F. Liitze, J. E. Mack, 1864-'65 ; J. Eitters,
C. Shock, J. J. Schwarz, J. Stiefel, Chr. Troscher, C. E. Wolff.

The school at Stuttgart is, I hope, soon to be among the " have
beens." At one time it enjoyed quite an exalted reputation, but
since the retirement of Dr. Hering, Sr., it has steadily been going
into decline, and the students becoming fewer and fewer. This
is in part owing to a very injurious stand adhered to by some of its
teachers, and which was once quite general in Germany, viz., that
a school should give two different forms of education, and graduate
first and second class veterinarians — the first for the use of the state,
the latter for the people. The nonsense of such an idea should be
apparent to any one, but to no one so quickly as to a veterinarian.
Of one hundred students graduating from a given class and a given
school, and enjoying instruction uniting to the fullest possible de-
gree a scientific foundation and practical execution, not all w^ill be
successful practitioners, and but few suitable for state work, and
still fewer for the highest state work — perhaps one of the hundred
may make a really gifted and capable teacher. Let the education be
as perfect as possible : the world's test will do the winnowing.

It will not do to leave even this brief notice of this school with-

THE SCHOOLS OF GEllMAXY. 303

out duly iioticiug the man who did more to ^ive it fame than,
in all })rol)ability, all the othei-s c'ond)iued who have taught withiu
its walls. About the thirtieth year of this century really marks the
birth of the scientific tendency in veterinary medicine. At this
time (Germany was far beyond any other country in the quality of
the work she was giving to the world, so far as veterinary medicine
was concerned. Gurlt, llaubner, Ilertwig, and Ilcring were the
four, among others, who took part in this work. Of these four,
Eduard Ilering was by no means the least. He was born in Stutt-
gart on the 2<Hh of March, 1709. laying recently, he enjoyed the
well-merited fruits of his years of labor, as pensioner of his (iovern-
ment, but a free man, nevertheless, for the services of such men are
not to be counted by a few dollars paid yearly in supporting them
in comfort in their old age. It is impossible for me to give even a
brief account of the literary work of this man. It covers three
finely printed pages in the historical sketch I am now using. He
was the best historian living on veterinary literature, and in this re-
spect may be ranked with Schrader, Iluzard, and Ercolani, the four
being the only men who have been especially noted in this regard,
lie also edited the " Kepertorium der Thierheilkunde," 1S40 to
date, a journal in which he endeavored to give to German readers
a digest of all imi>ortant matters and articles which came to pass in
connection with their profession in other lands. His ''Special Pa-
thology and Therapeutics," and his " Book for norsemen," are still
well worthy of study ; the latter is beautifully illustrated by the
celebrated Baumeister, also professor at the school, and is bought
up so closely as a work of real art that it is impossible to get a copy,
it being out of print for many years. His work on opei'ative sur-
gery should be translated into English, it being much more j)ractical
and condensed than the two-volume verbose and indistinct work
of Pcuch and Toussaint ; a compendium, critically revised, would
be a grand thing, but deliver us from the original 1 But the one
act which has given Ilering the most fame, the one act which
did more for the elevation of veterinary medicine into a science
than all the work of all the other jirofessors at the school, the
one act which has made his name immortal as a discoverer of a
new fact, was that Ilering was the first to ex])crimentally demon-
strate the velocity of the circulation in the living organism, pul>
lished in " Tiedemann und Trevirarnus Zeitschrift fiir Physiolo-
gic," Heidelberg, 1828.

304 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE YETEEIXART SCHOOLS.

The School at Hanover.^

On the 15tli of April, 1777, the first steps toward the erection of
a yeterinary school were taken into consideration by the king, or
rather elector, who was at the same time George III of England,
and Kersting, the superior veterinarian of the court at Cassel, a
neighboring province, was invited to visit Hanover to advise about
the opening of the school, and take charge of it. Kersting's popu-
larity was so great at the court of Cassel that he could not obtain
permission to leave for Hanover, and was obliged to run away. As
Kersting was by all means the most important German veterinarian
of his day, a short sketch of his life is not out of place here :

" Johann Adam Kersting was the descendant of a Huguenot
family, and was born at Liebenau, in Lower Hesse, in 1726, and died
at Hanover, March 2, 1784, from the effects of a wound caused by the
kick of a horse, at a time when he could ill be spared, being but
fifty-eight years old, and full of bodily vigor and mental activity.
His father was a farrier, wound-doctor, and veterinarian. At fifteen
years of age the son went into the forge of his father at Cassel,
where he soon displayed unusual abilities. Among others, he be-
came acquainted with a clock-maker, and took so much interest in
the work of the latter that he himself constructed a clock and hung
it up in his fathei-'s forge, which so incited the wrath of the latter
that he knocked it in pieces, declaring he would have no such non-
sense interfering with the proper work of his son. The son also
busied himseK in studying the diseases of the horse, and practicing
their treatment ; and we find him, in 1745, as farrier accompanying
a squadron of Hessians into Scotland in favor of the Stuarts. He
accompanied the Hessian prince of the day during several wars as
farrier, and at the close of the Seven Years' War studied medicine
in Gottingen for a time. During the war in Silesia (1757) he was
thrown from a baggage-wagon, with such force as to lose both sight
and hearing, the former not returning for a period of two years.
During his blindness he attended to the publication of the first edi-
tion of his book, " Sicherer und wohlerfahrener Huf und Eeit-
schmidt " (" Sure.and Well-experienced Farrier and Rider"). Dur-
ing a winter's quarters at Brunswick he again studied medicine
diligently. At the end of the war he settled at Cassel, as farrier
veterinarian to the court, where he busily pursued his studies, espe-

* These remarks are taken from " Die konigliche Thierarznei-Sclmle zu Hannover,"
during the first hundred years of its existence, by K. Giinther, director and professor, to
which the reader is referred for all minute details.

THE &CHOOI.S OF GERMANY. 305

cially of anatomy, and soon acquired a rej)utation wliieh extended
into neighboring provinces. That he acquired no inconsiderable
skill ill anatomical dissection may be divined from the fact that he
discovered ami very minutely described the mendjrane of Deccmet
in the horse, on the inner part of the cornea, and connnunicated the
same to Ilaller in a letter vehich is among the collections at the Han-
over school. lie soon received students from the adjoining prov-
inces, other governments sending young men to study under his
guidance at their expense. It was but natural that, on opening the
discussion for the erection of a veterinary school at Hanover, the
attention of the Government should be directed to him as the man
best fitted to successfully conduct the venture. Ivei*sting's sudden
departure for Hanover, against the will of his elector, gave rise to a
most interesting discussion between the two Governments, that of
Cassel declaring him to be a deserter, and demanding his return,
which was not, however, conceded, Kersting declaring himself to
be no slave but a free man, and in debt to no one. Kersting was
a man of irreproachable character and lively temperament, an in-
defatigable worker, sharp and logical thinker, and close observ'er
of the phenomena of disease. In this regard, a remark which he
makes upon glanders is not without public interest, when we con-
sider how long ago it was made, and how ignorant many people still
are with reference to this disease, thinking that when no nas;il out-
flow and ulcere are present there is no glanders. Kersting says, after
giving the usual characteristics of the disease: 'I must concede,
and it is true, that a glandered horse can present these phenomena,
but not in the beginning of the disease. For a horse may have
glanders for a whole year, and, according to circumstances, still
longer, without its having ulcers in the nose, and at the same time
have a good appetite, smooth hair, and be in good condition.' "

Kersting received 300 thalere (8-25) pay, a free residence, and
the title of superior veterinarian to the Hanoverian court.

Ilavemann, who had been sent to Alfort, at the expense of and
by the Government, was appointed as assistant teacher, at the same
pay. There seems to have been an extreme prejudice existing
among the people at this time against those persons who had any-
thing to d<; witli cutting up animals, for the king was obliged to
issue a royal order, by which any slurs or other ill-treatment of the
teachers, students, or servants at the school for this cause would be
punished. The course at the school under Kersting was limited to
one year, though many of the students remained through two, hear-
ing the same lectures a second time. It was as follows :

20

306 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

WiNTEE SESSiOiSr. Befove noon. — 8 to 9, horseshoeing, dailj ; 9
to 10, instruction npon the internal and external diseases of the
horse, four days each week ; 10 to 11, clinic.

Afternoon. — 1 to 2, dissection, daily ; 2 to 3, anatomical lec-
ture, four days per week. General examination upon all subjects
twice weekly ; 3 to 4, dissection.

SuiMMER Session. Before noon. — 8 to 9, horseshoeing, daily ; 9
to 10, internal and external diseases, daily ; 10 to 11, clinic.

Afternoon. — 2 to 3, osteology, exterior, physiology, hygiene,
obstetrics, materia medica, pharmacy, bandaging, etc, one day each
per week.

On Kersting's death, the direction of the school passed to Have-
mann, who had for a time been stationed at one of the royal studs,
which he left with great regret. He was a man of extreme mod-
esty, but nevertheless proved himself to be a competent and pleas-
ant teacher. There was but little change in the course or manner
of instruction. Havemann was requested to give his views upon
veterinary education to the Government ; and this man of the last
century embodies some ideas therein which are not unworthy of ap-
preciation in this country, which, to-day, in spite of self-conceited
Americanism, is no further advanced, so far as veterinary science is
concerned, than Hanover was then : " According to my ideas, tiet-
erinary medicine would receive a much more rapid development if
the education were made entirely free to the children of the land, as
there are so few veterinarians to he had. Applicants must not only
be able to write legibly, but must give reason to hope for their fu-
ture success by diligence and a natural adaptability to the profession.
Those who have not these two necessary qualifications must be dis-
missed the schools, for, while it is an undoubted truth that capable
veterinarians are of much benefit to the public, so is it beyond all
doubt that empirics and quacks are nothing else than lashes to the
land, even though they be supplied with letters of apprenticeship,
saying that they have studied in a royal veterinary school an art of
which they have not acquired the least idea," In answer to the
question, "How long would it take a gifted and industrious man to
become an educated veterinarian % " he says, " One learns quicker,
another slower, but to all are necessary great capability, much work,
and these all demand time, and three years are none too little." But,
in spite of all this good advice, the course was not much extended by
the Government, or the conditions to admittance made much more
severe.

Hausemann succeeded Havemann as director in 1819, and had

THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 307

for assistant the veterinarian Freilerick Giinther. Little change was
made in the ])hin of instruction until 182S, except that the courses
were made longer. In 1828 Gunther introduced into the curriculum
forensic medicine and veterinary j)olice, materia medica, and the art
of writing and nuiking prescriptions, with several other essential im-
provements. A teacher for horseshoeing was also added to the school.
The period of study was extended to two and a half years, although
Giinther worked earnestly to have it three yeare. In 1847 Gunther
became director, and with it began a new era in the school. There
is no doubt that he was one of the most eminently practical men
that has ever graced the veterinary profession in any country ; per-
haps it would not be going too far to say that the scientific and
practical were united in him to a degree which has been but rarely
met with in the members of our profession. lie was an earnest ex-
perimenter, a close observer, and his greatest failure seems to have
been too much delay in publishing his results. No better hippo-anat-
omist has ever lived ; his work on the " Myology of the Iloree " has
never been equaled, and has been a source of assistance to all succeed-
ing authors. He was the tirst to discover the chief cause of roaring,
if not the only one, in atrophy of the laryngeal muscles, upon which
opening of the glottis depends, especially of the left side, and con-
nected it by experiment with diseased conditions of the left recur-
rent nerve. lie gave us the first book of any moment upon the
horse's teeth and their diseases, and invented numerous practical
(not useless) instruments for their extraction, etc. Xo one has fol-
lowed him in this direction, atul we remain just where he left us in
the middle of this century. His work on obstetrics was for a long
time the best which we had. Through his earnest endeavors and
untiring energy, the school-term wa-s finally fixed at three years, at
which it continued until 1877, when with all the German schools it
was extended to three and a half, and the conditions to admission
and receiving the diploma of the empire were fixed alike for all.

Gerlach succeeded Gunther as director, and under him the
school attained a still greater celebrity, but, as we have to speak of
him in e()nnection with the school at Berlin, we will defer further
remark till then. The grounds of the Hanover school are quite
extensive, the library replete with books and many valuable manu-
scripts and works of early German and other Continental veterinarians.
The buildings are many of them new, and all have recently suffered
renovation. The hospital is roomy, airy, and well lighted ; in fact,
the school has all the requisites necessary to such an institution of a
smaller variety, except a special physiologist and physiological

308 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

laboratory. The above-mentioned historical sketch, from which I
have taken these few facts, gives a list of all the students, their
place of birth, time of entrance, and whether they received a diplo-
ma or not, from the year 1820 to 1877 ; from which we see that
during that time 1,269 students were recorded upon the books : many
of these never stood their examination ; among the latter will be
found, in all probability, quite a number of " graduates of a German
school " (?) now practicing in this country.

The present corps of teachers is as follows (1877) :
Medical Councilors. — K. Guenther, Director ; Professor Bege-
mann. Professor Dr. Dammaun, Dr. Harms, Dr. Lustig, Dr. Rabe,
Dr. Brlicher, Dr. Eichbaum, Vet. Ernst (assistant).

The School at Munich.

Instead of offering an imperfect historical sketch of this institu-
tion, it seems more conformable with the purposes of this book to
offer to your consideration a translation of the following address,
" U])on the Necessity for the Reform of Yeterinary Education in Ger-
many, as proved hy the History of the Munich School,^^ by my friend
Professor Johann Feser, of that institution, delivered August 6,
1873 ; the more so as there is much contained therein of unquestion-
able importance to the people of this country, and further, that the
author is one of the most advanced thinkers as well as accomplished
scientists in the veterinary profession of our day :

" The veterinary schools have assumed no less a task than the
education of completely qualified veterinarians, for their graduates
have a manifold service to perform to states interested in the
breeding of domestic animals, which can only be well done by a
complete scientific and practical education, united to great diligence
and unceasing activity by the veterinarian himself.

" The veterinarian must not only be capable of performing the
practical duties of his profession when called upon by the public,
but he has much higher duties; he must at the same time act as
counselor and protector of the state, and that portion of its citizens
interested in the breeding and rearing of domestic animals, thereby
contributing to the nation's welfare by keeping distant and suppress-
ing those pests which carry death and desolation in their path.

" The chief task of the veterinarian lies in keeping the domestic
animals in health, and in exerting a favorable influence toward
their perfection hy aiding, as educated advisers, the progressive de-
velopment of breeding in the land {to which may well be added, and
in 'preventing many diseases of human beings caused by unsuitable

THE SCHOOLS OK GERMAXY. 309

animal jyroducfs \chich would otherwise he offered for consumption
as articles of food). The veterinary schools are 7wt, therefore,
founded for tfie education of mere curers ; they are not instituted
to send raw empirics into the land, for in such cases the aims of
veterinary medicine are by no means attained. Sucli empirics
were plenty enough long before the foundation of the veterinary
schools ; and only because of their utter uselessness to the state were
the veterinary schools founded, in order that veterinarians could be
had suitable to the higher purposes which the public necessities de-
manded.

" In order to prove the correctness of this assertion, it is neces-
sary to refer to the history of the veterinary schools. We must know
why these schools were really founded, what necessity they were
expected to fill, and how observing men thought this end was
best to be attained.

"To this purpose nothing serves better than the address deliv-
ered by Cothenius, body-surgeon to Frederick the Great of Pnissia,
before the Academy of Sciences on the 21st of January, 17C8, be-
fore there was any veterinary school in Germany. Cothenius first
demonstrated from the records of history that in antiquity, and fol-
lowing down to his time, devastating animal plagues had always ex-
isted, which produced immense misery to the people, and concluded
with the advice that only veterinary schools had the power to give
the means of freeing the nation from these plagues ; but he placed
great emphasis upon the necessity of an exact fundamental educa-
tion, giving a plan for their establishment which is well worthy
our present consideration, though elucidated over one hundred
years since. lie knew very well that at that time there was no thor-
ough plan of education, no veterinary science, and no teachers, and
that for the last purpose men of great ability were necessary, for
they were to teach subjects of which they knew nothing, and upon
which there were no suitable books of reference, or other assist-
ance, lie said: 'The first teachers must not be ashamed to be
themselves students ; their greatest honor must be the public admis-
sion of their own ignorance. The less they at present know, and
the more they feel the necessity of learning, the more have we rea-
son to hope that they will in time attain to that degree of perfection
which thov so much desire.' Thus we see that Cothenius well a|v
prcciated the only way by which veterinary science was to be suc-
cessfully developed. He looked upon this task from a purely scien-
tific stand-point, and well knew that progress was only to be at-
tained bv the methods and assistance of scientific research. To

310 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

this end he demanded not only macroscopic but microscopic anat-
omy, a physio-pathologic, therapeutic method of exact investigation,
and recognized the necessity of a well-ordered chemical labora-
tory. He laid emphasis upon the necessity of several teachers for
such schools. He recommended paying especial attention to the
study of the animal plagues, and laid great stress upon the value
of exact observation and experiment. He says : ' In the study-
room one can make no such observations. The teacher must, at
the time such pests prevail, go out into the country, and hold his
dietetic, pathologic, and therapeutic discussion in the afflicted sta-
bles ; he must observe the situation and character of the stables,
and cause better ventilation, cleanliness, and care of the animals ;
he must visit the fields, meadows, and drinking-places, in order to
ascertain if in them are not to be sought cither immediate or mediate
causes of infection, and what in every case is necessary to propose
for the better protection of the animals. He must gather all forms
of dew, and make therewith chemical and physiological experi-
ments, and must also have recourse to the microscope in order to see
if he can not discover some poisonous insects, which, either of them-
selves or with their semen, so pollute the vegetation as to cause the
generation of the pest or other infectious disease.' (In reading this
one almost forgets he is passing over words written more than one
hundred years since.) ' The teacher shall study the animal in all
its parts, its mode of life, procreation ; and, when necessary, shall
have recourse to the crucible and distillation to increase his knowl-
edge. He must separate things into their minute parts, unite and
make new bodies, and seek to attain a sort of despotic power over
nature.' "

This is what was thought in the last century by the founder of
veterinary medicine in Germany. The schools Tnust he useful nurs-
eries of science^ and not produce mere empirics.

Let us see if the schools have fulfilled their task, and, if not, seek
to discover what has prevented them from doing so.

It is all the more our duty to do this, as the popular judgment
with regard to the results at the schools seems to be at present un-
favorable. Kot only the organs of the state and agriculture, the
interests of which are to be served by the educated veterinarian
from an economical point of view, but also the graduates of the
schools, concur, more or less, in this opinion, as was sufficiently
demonstrated at the Frankfort congress of German veterinarians in
1872.

It is especially the duty of the teachers at the schools to acknowl-

THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 311

edge tlicse evils, aiul to seek fur their removal, and I doubt not that
the governments will respectfully listen to our demands for reform.

1 pledge myself to Lave the strictest regard for the truth in the
t;isk I have undertaken, even though it may be unpleasant to some,
and to bind njyself to facts ; and, in proving the questions we have to
consider, to do it according to the strictest methods of science, and
to keep in mind only the attainable and practical parts of the ques-
tion.

With reference to the history of the Munich school, we shall
most speedily atain our end if we consider those causes which have,
at dillerent times, interfered with the production of good veterina-
rians. Then I will show that even in our day evil conditions still
exist, the complete removal of which is beyond the power of the
best teachers, notwithstanding all diligence and pei*severancc. The
proposals for improvement will then receive their consideration.

The school at Munich has passed through two epochs since its
foundation. The tirst extends from its establishment in 1790 to the
year 1S52, and the second from that date to the end of the school
year 1872.

Nothing satisfactory can be said about the condition and results
at our school during the first epoch. Empiricism obtained a greatly
extended duration in Bavaria, while at the other veterinary schools
(German) it extended only to the second decennium of our century.
Many of the learned gentlemen present studied at our school during
this period and must confirm my judgment, that our institute had
until then never filled the place of a scientific veterinary school as
portrayed by Cothenius. Xothing but schooled " routiniei-s " were
produced, nor did they dare to produce anything else. They hid
themselves under a deceptive cloud, by boasting of their abhorrence
of speculative theories and of their great respect for practical things,
which by no means should be neglected, but by this means they nour-
ished an imbecile empiricism and sought to keep distant from all true
science. It was made exceedingly difficult for young men of better
preparatory education to gain entrance to the school ; in fact, they ap-
pear to have been intentionally avoided, so that any external incite-
ment to scientific work became impossible. The experimental
method suggested by Cothenius as absolutely necessary to the
sch(X)ls had no ])lace in the programme. The great reforms in
medicine in general, and every natural science, were passed heed-
lessly by, by the Munich school of that period. Instruction in natu-
ral sciences, the foundation of the study of medicine, was so neg-
lected that one feels almost ashamed to mention it. The few stu-

312 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

dents who gained admittance from the " real schools " were aston-
ished thereby, and scorned to make notes upon the nonsense which
they heard from the lecturer at the desks of the school. There was
neither chemical laboratory nor physical cabinet, but every "real
school " had these long before 1852, and all the attributes necessary
to good elementary instruction in natural science.

Let it remain so ! We will not follow this sad relation further.
You will believe me, however, that with the exception of anatomy,
the conditions were no more flattering with reference to the purely
veterinary branches than with the natural sciences upon which they
are founded. One would naturally assume that, although the scien-
tific side of our education was so much neglected, the students at
least received a good practical education. On the contrary, that
was not the case.

Let us see if we can not discover the causes of this neglect of
the teachings of Cothenius,

To this end we must again have reference to the general history
of the schools, and bear in mind the extravagances of the first French
schools, to which many evil influences may be justly attributed.

Two schools (Lyons and Alfort) were organized in France some
years before the foundation of any in Germany. The Alfort school
was larger than that at Lyons, and received from the beginning
great attention and care from the Government. The fittings of the
school exceeded those of the German schools, even in our day, and
every condition was present to attain the ends which should be re-
quired of a school except fitting teachers and promoting veterinary
science. Suitcible teachers are and ever will he the chief desidera-
tum / without them all donations of money are useless. This was
soon experienced by the French schools. Instead of proceeding in
the manner indicated by Cothenius, and first paying their attention
to the development of proper teachers, they sought at once to make
the world wise by a display of superficial knowledge. The students
were educpted in a manner to produce superficial but ready talkers,
but not to become methodical and educated veterinarians. The Al-
fort school especially sought to gain an acknowledgment of supe-
riority from other nations, which was, indeed, attained, but not with-
out great injury to herself. Chairs for agriculture, comparative
anatomy, natural sciences, animal painting, etc., were even then
attained, although the raw empirical material at command had by
no means been sufficiently culled out. The students must at once
be educated to be obstetricians, wound and eye doctors, coroners,
etc., in order to fill the wants of the country in this regard. They

THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 313

founded a menagerie filled mostly -with exotic animals, and gave
great attention to the breeding of sheep, rabbits, fowls, and even
silk- worms. To the formation of the so-called ''royal cabinet," stu-
dents and teachers were sent at great expense to the sea-coast to
•rather examiiles of different sea-animals. Thev studied the anato-
my of the dolphin and ray, and forgot that of the domestic animals.
This superficial learning of a little of many things was especially cul-
tivated by Bourgelat to the cost of a true scientitic method, and
found, fortunately, little imitation in Germany. But instead of pass-
ing quietly by these French extravagances, and copying them in
what good things they had, we fell into the opposite extreme of
developing one-sided empirics, the so-called " Rossiirzte " (horse-doc-
tors) and " Kursehmiede " (farriers). Every attempt of individual
men at the schools to introduce the true scientific method was ener-
getically combated, and the French schools quoted to strengthen
the ground of the opponents. Bojanus, medical councilor in Hesse,
enjoys the nnenviable reputation of having most successfully op-
posed all improvement. I can not refrain from telling you how
Bojanus would have the veterinarians educated and the schools con-
ducted, lie had a controlling power at the Munich school until
1S52.

Bojanus looked upon the education of i'>ractlcal men as the sole
task of the schools. They would fail of our purpose were they edu-
cated to be scientific veterinarians. (The English have most reli-
giously followed in this direction even to our day, and here in Amer-
ica a good practical ignoramus is in general more prized tlian the
man of genuine scientific attainments ; let it be understood, I claim,
a trnhj scientific man can never be aught else than practical.) Cer-
tain axioms were to be learned as articles of jiractical belief, the
students being reduced to mere mechanical machines. The state
needed only veterinary hand-workers (in some parts of France the
veterinarians are still spoken of as '* artistes vi'terinaires "), who would
follow the rules learned at school with blind confidence. Such a
practitioner never asks the cause of the phenomena which he sees
presented to him by a diseased organism ; he does not seek to enter
into the real nature of the disease, but is contented to know that dis-
ease is before him. He does not seek to arrange a special method
of treatment, but u.ses that which he has learned as something dis-
covered for all time. lie is all content when the patient recovers,
and asks not why, nor under what neccsi?ary laws, it lias taken place,
lie enters pul)lic life as a common artisan, and must always be
classed as such ; he never feels the power in him that is given to

314 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

the scientifically educated man, but is content with the bounds and
bars which surround him. The school was to take only such stu-
dents from the masses as were fitted to go back again to the same.
Their knowledge was to be limited to what was necessary to their
livelihood, and to read and write sufficient to support the memory.
1^0 other preliminary knowledge was considered necessary. They
were entirely wanting in a preparatory scientific education or spirit.

You will permit me to describe to you the method of instruction
which Bojanus would have introduced into the schools, especially
as two teachers of modern times (Director E,ueff, of Stuttgart, and
Professor Plug, of Giessen) would have us follow in the same di-
rection.

Bojanus writes: "It is the duty of the practical veterinarian to
cure the sick animals belonging to the public. His office, which
does not belong to the most respected, brings him constantly in
relation with the commonest people, to whose ideas and conceptions
he must adapt himself if he will not endanger his success and let it
pass over into the hands of quacks and herdsmen. He busies him-
self with disgusting work in dirty stables, and all his endeavors and
privations are rewarded with but a scanty income which scarcely
covers his necessities, and, at the most, permits him to enter society
as an ordinary artisan." Bojanus then goes on to say that "the
scientifically educated veterinarian is unsuited to such work, and
could not lower himself to the necessary level, and is therefore
never looked upon by the people as a j?raciical man, and, there-
fore, it is the duty of the schools to educate practical, not scientific,
veterinarians." These words of Bojanus justify us in concluding
that he knew right well the qualifications of a scientific veterina-
rian, but he intentionally put all he could in the way of their edu-
cation. On the contrary, Bojanus would have the teachers scientific
men in order that they might discover new methods of treatment
and give them to the students, who were supposed to follow im-
plicitly in these ruts in practice. To the end that the state may
have such teachers, Bojanus would have another form of school, a
higher, scientific school. In these were to be taken the candidates
for teachers' positions, with a complete scientific education from
the lap of the academy. Bojanus either did not see, or passed in-
tsntionally by, the fact that the state needs scientifically educated
veterinarians for the purposes of veterinary police and forensic
medicine, and for the perfection of the breeds of the domestic
animals. The second class of veterinarians were there only to be
curers, and a very small class of scientific veterinarians to develop

THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 315

ciire-methods for the benefit of the former. In this way there came
to pass the idea that two chisses of veterinary schools were necessary,
which occasionally finds an advocate even in onr day, althongh it
must be remarked that these people go higher in their demands for
a veterinary academy, and propose that not only teachers but a small
number of scientific veterinarians also shall be educated for the ])ur-
poses of the state.

If we return to the conditions in Bavaria, we shall iind that only
the poorest proposals of Bojanus came to fulfillment, and that no
one bothered himself about the education of scientific veterinari-
ans. According to the edict of 1810 for the organization of the
veterinary institutes of Bavaria, that only went out of power in the
last few ycare, it was found very convenient (at first, doubtless, ne-
cessary) to promote the forensic M. D.'s to veterinarians of the first
class, falsely assuming that the doctor, from his education, was well
adapted to be the highest veterinary authority, and that a short
visit to the lectures at a veterinary school would completely equalize
any want of knowledge he previously might have. The lectures for
this purpose in Munich lasted eight days. In two or three hours
were completed the lectures upon nutrition in the horse and rumi-
nants ; in one hour those upon operative surgery ; and in one to
five hours the elements of animal pests, or veterinary police ; one
to three hours were given to gaining practical knowledge in the
clinic. Only an idiot could assert that this kind of education would
sufiiee to the production of scientific veterinarians, for even in 1790
the full course of stuily for second-class veterinarians at Munich
extended over three full years.

The above description suftieiently indicates the hindrances in
the way to the education of scientific veterinarians in the first epoch
of our school, and no one need wonder that our science stood still
impotent in comparison to human medicine and that it could not
develop to that position which it was expected would be the case
with the foundation of the schools. Notwithstanding the diflicul-
ties which they had to overcome, it must be said, to the credit of
the profession, that even during tliis period many men of acknowl-
edged ability were to be found in the land ; but it is impossible to
place this to the credit of the school, but to the great diligence of
the individuals, who overcame the failures of their school educa-
tion. A not less praiseworthy service of these men was the fact
that they mercilessly exposed the weakness of the school, and finally
succeeded in bringing about the reform which took place in 1852.

After the Government of Bavaria had seen the failures in the

316 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

manner in whicli the scliool was conducted, and after it had re-
peatedly heard the grumblings of the agriculturists that mere em-
pirics were useless, a reform was decided upon, which, however,
failed of a scientific basis. The germ of the failure was that the
school still remained patterned after those of France, and was left
free from every connection with the medical faculty. It was as-
sumed that all scientific foundation in the preliminary education
was unnecessary, save what little was gained by students in a low
class of a " real " school, and the two lowest classes in Latin. The
teachers were too few, and, taken mostly from the old empirical
school, were not adequate to the education of veterinarians suitable
to the purposes of the state. Tliey were so poorly paid that they
were obliged to have outside occupations in order to live, so that
teaching and self-improvement became a matter of secondary im-
portance.

" I myself had the misfortune to study three years (1857-60) un-
der this Tcglme. The conditions at the school then were sad indeed,
for I will describe to you a time when we should have seen some-
thing of the development of the scientific spirit. The school did
not then have the least scientific character ; even the good of the
old school, the instruction in anatomy and dissection, was neglected.
The physiology which we heard was nothing else than what Schwab
had written many years before for the instruction of empirics. Kot
a single experiment illustrated the lectures. There was no practice
in the use of the microscope. The instruction in natural science,
over which so much talk was made, consisted in nothing else than
in learning by rote a few pages of j)Oorly compiled chemical analyses
from Gorup-Besanez's work upon that subject. There was a chemi-
cal laboratory which had just been erected, but only for the agi-i-
cultural experiment station, and exclusively for the use of students
of agriculture and forestry from the university. The instruction in
botany was very poor. Physics was not taught. The formulas for
the prepan.tion of medicines passed as traditions from student to
student, and I do not say too much in stating that not a single one
was con'ect. Pharmaceutical chemistry was lectured upon by an as-
sistant, but a second one coming after one lecture had been deliv-
ered, we did not attend them further, for we knew more chemistry
than he did. The pharmacognostical collection was poor, old, moldy,
and unsuitable for study or demonstration. The teaching upon the
action of medicines was nothing more than a mere phraseology,
which served to hide the ignorance of the teacher, but did not help
to instruct the students. The balance of the instruction bore the

TUE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 317

same character. The dependency and insufficiency of tlie institute
is well illustrated by one fact, which amply shows the requirements
which were necessary. In order to make a correct necroscopical
diagnosis, for instance, of liright's condition of the kidneys, it was
necessary to call in the assistance of a professor of pathological anat-
omy from the medical faculty of the university, and numerous valu-
able and instructive specimens sent to the school by practicing vet-
erinarians perished for want of proper aj)preciatiou. It is no wonder
that the congress of veterinarians atAViirzburg, in ISGO, pronounced
it a w;iste of time, trouble, and money, to allow the institute to con-
tinue its existence. I will cease, at this point, enumerating the sins
of the Munich school during the first half of this epoch, as it would
not be courteous to extend it to the present teachers."

Let us turn our attention for a moment to the other schools of
Germany, for I have endeavored to get at the true facts, so far as
was in my power. With the exception of Berlin, which, notwith-
standing a brilliant external reputation, had fallen into a stiige of
semi-torpidity, its teachej's having become old, and new power being
needed, and the school at Stuttgart, the schools at Dresden and
Hanover were in many instances worthy of being considered as
models. Dresden had suffered a complete renovation, and Gerlach
worked in Hanover. (In both these cases it was, however, the work
of single individuals which gave these schools what little advantage
they had. Ilaubner in Dresden, and, as Feser says, Gerlach in Han-
over; there was nothing general about it.) But neither of them
went beyond the education of clever empirics — in proof of which
may be noted the fact that, after the reformation of the plan of the
Dresden school, of which so much was spoken and expected, it was
found impossible to find veterinarians suitable for teachers, and the
chairs were only finally filled by going outside of Saxony, and at
great expense. (Here is a proper place for me to remark that, not-
withstanding the high position which I have clainu;d for the Ger-
man schools and other veterinary institutions, no one unacfpiainted
with the true conditions can realize how few men there are among
the graduates of the German veterinary schools at all fitted to be-
come teachers, and every one of these few, and every man who
has gained fame before them, have been obliged, at great cost to
their physiipie and demands upon means which in no case are too
plenty, to fill the great gaps in their c<lucation by studies at the
medical schools of Germiin universities. The number of men of
real value to the scientific advancement of veterinary medicine at
the schools of Germany is not more than sufficient to make a faculty

318 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

for one school. There are unquestionably men of practical ability at
these schools, but they are of that empirical character that does not
advance science an inch, but, with a terrible reverence for the tra-
ditions of the past, stand obstinately in the way of progress, and by a
great display of verbose repetition of other j^eople's work, make the
world think they know more than they really do. If there is a man I
fear, as an enemy to my profession, though j)ersonally he may be a
good friend, it is the man of great experience, of great reverence for
the past, of good talldng abilities, hut without a parotide of origi-
nality or scientific spirit. Such men are more fitted for political
intriguers than teachers at a scientific school.)

After this diversion, let us return to Feser's remarks :
" Under the above retarding conditions, it is no wonder that
progress was checked, and all sorts of complaints found ready utter-
ance. Tlie agricultural papers and the organs of the state opened
up the subject continually, complaining of the insufficiency of the
veterinary profession in comparison with the demands which were
made upon it. The reflecting Bavarian veterinarians again joined
hands with the above-named forces, and loudly demanded reform
both in the manner of instruction and a more exacting preparatory
education. The battle for the improvement of the school finally
found its way into the Chamber of Representatives (1861), and re-
sulted in a free offering of means to help on the purpose. But, in-
stead of making a thorough reform, they contented themselves with
all sorts of corrective regulations. They burnished up the roof of the
school and whitewashed the fagades, instead of beginning anew and
laying a solid and enduring foundation. Ne^y professors were
added to the old, until the school had eight, which was more than
any other school in Europe. The clinic was improved, and many
other innovations made. Finally, the director was changed, but not
the system of instruction. The matriculatory examination still re-
mained the same ; the entire weight of instruction in the natural
sciences had to be borne by one man, who was at first without as-
sistance or sufficient material support, and at the same time had to
lecture on other strictly technical subjects. Physiology, the very
foundation of scientific medicine, was lectured upon in only two
sessions, before even the lectures on the natural sciences were ended,
and therefore lacked the necessary basis. Empiricism in the hos-
pital still continued. Microscopic practice was begun, but very im-
perfectly, and so was it with everything at this school as well as the
other German schools."

The cause of all these difficulties is easy of discovery. Pro-

THE SCHOOLS OF GERMANY. 319

fessor Carl Yoit lias done this in a very thorough manner. Accord-
ing to hiu), it is not so necessiiry to consider the improvement of
individual evils which are evident to us, but above all a change
is necessary in the direction of the school, without which great exer-
tions of both teachers and j)upils can never lead to promising results.
The causes why the Bavarian school has not developed into the in-
stitution which it was expected it would, are to be sought, mostly,
in the absolute neglect of those basal conditions upon which such a
school can alone thrive. Such a school, to thrive, must he j)laced
upon a scientific foundation. The first means by which this end is
to be attained is a general and exact preparatory education of young
men before they enter the schooh The preparatory education of
the students up to this time has been totally insufficient for them to
be able to comprehend well the teachings of their technical teach-
ers. To the study of veterinary medicine the same degree of pre-
liminary education is necesi^ary that is required for entering upon
the study of human medicine, and without this the best teaching
will be resultless.

" The second condition to improvement is, that all students
must be well grounded in the necessary natural sciences before
entering the school. It is absolutely certain that this should also
be of the same grade as for the students of medicine. The study
of the natural sciences in the school itself must be completed
before the technical branches of the profession are entered upon.
It is impossible for the student to comprehend the teachings in
physiology without a thorough anticipatory education in physics
and chemistry. The thorough study of the natural sciences is the
only means by which the student can leani to become a good experi-
menter, or learn to think logically, or understand the processes of dis-
eases and their products" (Yoit). The present students have never
learned to thinlc, because of the want of a thorough drilling in sci-
entific methods; it is this reason, and not because of want of disci-
pline, that has made the results of teaching at our school so futile.
" Or is it to be looked upon as a favorable result that out of twenty
students, only five, and of these only two Bavarians, successfully
passed their final examination after three years' study ? The evil
is to be sought in the system."

Only when a rigid education in the necessary branches of gen-
eral science is required as a preparation, can the teachers hope for
genuine success from the study of the strictly professional branches.
From men thus educated can we alone hope to select those fitted for
teachers.

320 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

These unhajppy conditions can only he equalized when the educa-
tional chairs are filled loith men whose education itself has heen
most strictly scientific, and when the students themselves have a simi-
lar exact foundation hefore entering the school.

" This has been well seen by the veterinary profession, as is illus-
trated by the following resolutions, drafted at the late Veterinary
Congress at Frankfort " :

I. "With reference to the preparatory education of the German
veterinarians :

" The same conditions must be exacted of students entering upon
the study of veterinary medicine, as of those entering upon the
study of medicine or special natural sciences."

II. With reference to the professional education of German
veterinarians :

" 1. To gain a good general knowledge of the elements of their
profession, a four-year course is necessary and sufficient."

" 2. The veterinary school must be an integral yet independent
branch of the universities."

The immense impoi'tance of the last resolution can not be over-
estimated. The intimate relation which our domestic animals bear
to human health ; the value of the studies of comparative anatomy
and physiology; the immense importance of .the knowledge of gen-
eral pathology and comparative pathological anatomy, are all things
which have not yet had their due degree of appreciation.

Further, the value of such a union in lessening the expenses of
veterinary institutions should by no means fail of earnest considera-
tion. The natural sciences can be heard by the students of both
branches of medicine in common, thereby doing away with the ne-
cessity of quite a number of special teachers at a veterinary school.
Such a union is only practicable, however, at universities situated in
large cities, for otherwise it would be imjDOssible to fill the veteri-
nary hospitals with the large number of animals necessar^'^ for the
students to gain practical knowledge and dexterity.

TUE YETEKLNAKY LVSTITCTIONS OF TRUSSIA. 30]

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF PRUSSIA.

The purpose of these sketelies of some of the veterinary schools
of tlie Continent is to atTt)r(l, if possible, tlic American people some
idea of tlio causes which led to their foundation, and of their weak-
nesses as well as their many good points. While I have entered
into details, as far as the means at my command offered me oppor-
tunity, of those of France and Austria, I have reserved those of
Prussia to the last, in order to notice them more in detail : first, be-
cause many of the regulations wliich m'c shall at present consider are
more or less connnon to the German Emj)ire ; and, second, because,
taken as a whole, I believe these institutions better capable of serv-
ing as a model for us to follow after, with necessary modifications
according to our peculiar conditions, than those of any other coun-
try. I do not claim for them perfection, as some people seem to
think, nor do I desire to ingraft them wholesale and inconsiderately
upon the institutions of this country, as some ignorant persons have
affirmed.

The Veterinary Institute at Berlin.

This school covers, so far as I am aware, the largest tract of land
of any of the European veterinary schools. It is situated on Loui-
sen-strasse, opposite the noted C'haritu Hospital, and occujmcs some six
acres of ground. It was founded in 17S0, but was not opened until
1790. The causes which led to its foundation w'ere the losses wliich
the nation had repeatedly suffered from devastating animal pests,
especially tlie cattle-plague, against which every endeavor of the state
had been utterly powerless. In the address, previously given, from
Professor Feser, of Munich, we have shown the part wliich Cothe-
nius took in the matter, although the idea undoubtedly originated in
the mind of the king, Frederick the Great ; the school was organ-
ized, however, under his successor, Frederick AVilliam II. The
school has been under the supervision of different ofUccrs of the
Government, being at first controlled by the chief ofiicial of the
royal stables, Graf Lindenau ; in 1817 it was transferred to the
Ministers of "War and the Interior; in 1817 to the Minister of the
Medical Institutions, etc., and finally, in 1872, to the Minister of
Agriculture, where it still remains. The instniction at the school
was at first very elementary, its purpose being to educate young
farriers, quite in contradiction to the express purposes for which the
school was supposed to be founded. Professors Neumann and Sick
conducted the instniction, the first having been sent to Alfort, the
latter to Vienna, to study veterinary medicine at the expense of the
21

322 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

Government. An apothecary, Tlatzeburg, lectured upon materia
medica, etc. The course extended over three years, the education
having an essentially practical tendency, and, as Feser says, the sci-
entific ideas of Cothenius seem to have fallen on barren ground here
at Berlin as well as elsewhere in Germany. Few clianges took
place previous to 1817, when complaints began to make themselves
unpleasantly common with reference to the total insufficiency of
the school to the needs of the country, the graduates being nothing
more nor less than somewhat better schooled empirics than the raw
material which had preceded them. William von Humboldt, Min-
ister of State to Frederick "William II, and brother to the great
naturalist, seems to have been well aware of these deficiencies, and
to have proposed a plan which, if it had been carried out, would
have placed this institution at an early day much further ahead than
it even now is as a useful adjunct of the state : he proposed to unite
it to the university ; but, alas ! the " horsey element " prevailed, and
his advice was passed heedlessly by through the opposition of the
Head-Master of the Royal Horse, Yon Jagow. Other untoward in-
fluences were also exerted by the great naturalist Kudolphi, who
afterward became director ; it is said that he desired to use the
school as a means of enriching the collections in the museum of the
university ; on the other hand, Thaer, the father of modern agricul-
ture in Germany, used an influence in that direction, so that these,
and probably other things, combined to nullify the sound ideas of a
statesman like Yon Humboldt.

l^evertheless, the discussion was not without benefit, for a re-
vision followed and many improvements were introduced, among
them the attachment to the school of one of the most important per-
sonages in connection with its history — Dr. Gurlt, afterward direct-
or. Gurlt was a scientist jyar excellence — a man wholly bound
up in study, investigations, and in making collections for the mu-
seum. The school gained great fame from his presence, but the
benefits he conferred upon it were not so much due to his powers
as a teacher as they were to his literary productions and the mag-
nificence and great number of his scientific collections. I believe
I do not exaggerate in saying that Gurlt was in reality the founder
of all our veterinary anatomy of the present day ; he certainly intro-
duced the true nomenclature of comparative anatomy, and more
than any other man established the relation of given muscles in the
domestic animals to those of man. He was also the chief worker in
the field of the periodic development of the foetus in animals, as
well as that of the monstrosities, and his collection of animal para-

TUE VETERINAUV INSTITUTIONS OF PRUSSIA. 323

sites in the museum of the school is probably greater than those of
any three schools combined. lie also gave us the tirst book of zo-
opathologieal anatomy, which has only been followed by Briickmiil-
ler. His last work, on aninuil monstrosities, issued when he was
nearly ninety years old, is an ornament to the })rofession, although
Gurlt's only connection with the school was as teacher and director,
he being an M. D. lie gave as the number of anatomical specimens
in the museum of the school in 18(i9 — (!,4:U8, which were mu.>tly col-
lected by him, and mounted under his supervision ; this number
has been steadily increasing under his able successor in ])athology.
Professor Schutz, so that, although I have not the catalogue number,
there must be at present in the museum some eight to ten thousand
specimens. His collection of fetal specimens, illustrating their peri-
odical development, is one of the ornaments of the school.

In 1823 another M. D., Ilcrtwig, was attached to the school
after studying veterinary medicine at the most prominent institu-
tions of the world at the expense of the Government. It was these
two men who raised this school to the high defjree of renown which
it enjoyed up to about 1850. Ilertwig has been one of the greatest
contributors to veterinary literature that has ever lived ; he is a con.
temporary of Ilering, Ilaubner, and, of couree, Gurlt, who with
Spinola, as practical author, served to make the German name so
famous in the middle of this century. His studies of rabies, sup-
ported by numerous experiments, opened a new light upon the sub-
ject, and have never been much improved upon ; these, with other
contributions to canine pathology, in unison with those of Gcrlach
and Fiirstenberg, have served to make up about all there is, or has
been written upon the diseases of the dog, other than a few practi-
cal hints gained from experience. Ilis work on nuitcria medica
was not excelled by any in human medicine in its day, and is
founded largely on personal experiments. His surgery and work on
operations are by no means antiquated. As the ycai-s increased with
these men, the school slowly pa.'jsed into decline ; its wonted activity
was no more, but no want is felt long in this world before the right
man is found to fill it. Ix'isering most beautifully jiictures this con-
dition in his obituary notice of Gerlach, who was called from Han-
over to fill this place : '' Slower and slower went the machine,
which was chietly to be sought in the increasing years of her once
active men, who were no more able to keep pace with the rapid
march of science, and who also nourished the opinion that new
things are not always the best. But the machine moved again with
new fire, partly with permanent and partly with transient powers.

324 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

for as well-organized a body as the Berlin school had been since
Langermann's time does not so easily come to a complete stand-still ;
but that such an evil condition should not really occur a new fire-
man was necessary — and he came. He made fresh fire, and we
soon saw the glistening sparks." As Gerlach was, in my opinion,
the most important character, the most original genius that has ever
appeared on the German veterinary arena, if not of the world, I
may be pardoned a short sketch of his life. I do this the more
willingly, as the memory of this man still waits due appreciation
in his native land, probably because of the intense severity with
which he sought to instill into drones the grand fire by which he
himself was impelled to sacrifice life, health, and friendship for the
good of his profession and country.

Andreas Christian Gerlach was born at Wedderstedt, in the
Harz Mountains, the 15th of May, 1811. His parents were honest
peasants, but had little means. His early education was received at
the hands of some childless relations who resided near Halberstadt,
who soon learned to love the pale, earnest boy as their own child.
The child saw one day an old veterinarian in the village busied
about some animals, which greatly excited his interest. He fol-
lowed the old man from stable to stable, from patient to patient,
and only returned late at night to the friends who had adopted him.
This childhood's experience seems to have determined his future
destiny. After his confirmation, his adopted parents sent him to
Halberstadt to school, without, however, having sufiicient means to
cover his expenses. Here began a time which indeed proved the
stuS the boy was made of, and which developed in him that char-
acter which drew little love toward the man in later years, but
which enabled him to overcome obstacles and trample under foot
an opposition as bitter as any man ever had to combat. He had
first to prepare for his entrance into the gymnasium, and lived in
the family of a poor artisan, who kindly gave him food. He sought
with great perseverance the company of students in the higher
classes, hoping to improve his knowledge thereby. Leisering, from
whom the above remarks are taken, says : " A doctor, with whom
he is acquainted, who lived at Halberstadt at this time, told him
some years back, after Gerlach had already become a noted man,
that it was not without much feeling that he recollected how the boy
Gerlach had come to him in his peasant clothing and begged, with
his eyes filled with tears, that he would give him free instruction
in Latin. . . . He finally completed his school-days at Halberstadt,
after enduring untold hardships and a continued battle for the food

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF PRUSSIA. 305

necessary to support life; but he had attained his end, and acquired
the necessary kno\vledy;e fur admittance to a veterinary school.''
He gained this knowledge at great cost, and therefore highly ap-
preciated diligence in others, lie was ever an advocate of higher
education for veterinarians ; ever on the side which tended to the
advancement of his profession ; from first to last he was a scientist
and a student. He graduated from Berlin in 1S33, and until lS-1-4
practiced his profession at the i)lace of his nativity in Saxony, lie
there published a pamphlet upon " Anthrax in Sheep," which soon
attracted the attention of the Government, and led to his being
called to Berlin, first as assistant and then as teacher. In lb5*J he
received the honorable appointment of Director of the Veterinary
School at Hanover, which he came near losing, however, as he
placed as absolute condition to his acceptance that he should have
the title of " professor,'' which had never before been given to a
veterinarian, and which in Xorth Germany does not mean, as it does
in these glorious and free United States of America, anything
from a genuine man of genius at a university down to a shoeblack,
dealer in old clothes, or vender of (|uack medicines. Ilis promotion
to professor was soon followed by that to privy medical councilor.
" He was in Prussia not alone the first veterinarian who received
the direction of the veterinary school (previously it had always been
given to medical men of note), but also the first veterinarian who,
without being also an M. D., received the titles ' medical ' and
* privy medical councilor,' " Between 1859 and ISTO were made the
greater part of those original researches, which have gained accept-
ance not only in veterinary but human medicine. He was the first
to obstinately deny the abiogenesis (self-develojnnent) of glanders.
To his investigations is also owing the excitement with reference
to the transmissibility to human beings of the tuberculosis of cattle.
To the extreme obstinacy with which he defended these opinions
is due much of the opposition which he received from the profes-
sion. In 1870 he became director of the school at Berlin, and began,
or rather went on, developing the work of his life — the further intro-
duction of the scientific method into veterinary instruction. So far
as the future of the profession in Germany is concenied, I think that
Gerlach's last act was l>y far his greatest — that is, the introduction
of a specialist as physiologist to the school, and the erection of a
proper laboratory and experiment station. I myself lived through
this, and no one better knows the bitter opposition which conserva-
tism and selfishness put in the way of the purposes of this man, whose
only desire was to improve the school and serve well his country.

326 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

Gerlacli was said to be a verj one-sided man by those who felt
the power of his opposition ; but this was only true in so far as it
had reference to a man who was bending everything for the suc-
cess of an ideal object. He was an idealist of the truest type. His
entire character is expressed in the saying, " Be sure you are right,
then go ahead." He was a hard and exact student of his position
and responsibilities, and tried his best to fulfill them. He was not
generous, as the world calls it, to the opinions of others. In per-
sons occupying such positions, generosity, which in general soci-
ety becomes a virtue, is nothing but a weakness. Gerlach was ex-
ternally cold and autocratic, with the handsomest and cleanest-cut
face I ever saw ; but behind all this coldness was a heart warm and
generous, which went out to the hard-working student with almost
a mother's love. He paid but little attention to the opinions of
others, seldom consulted with the other professors, but, like a king
among men and like a Prussian as he was, ruled the school with an
iron hand so far as his powers would permit, l^aturally, men lack-
ing ambition, in whom the sparks of science found no fitting mate-
rial to ignite, felt ill at ease with such a man, and he felt discon-
tented with them ; hence, during his whole administration of the
school there was a healthy excitement kept up between these two
opposing forces. But, had Gerlach lived ten years longer, there is
no doubt who would have won. He died at sixty-six years of age,
at Berlin, August 29, 1877, of cancer of the stomach.

Gerlach died ten years too soon. At present, at the Berlin school,
the practical education bears no proper relation to the scientific.
The teachers are too bitterly opj)osed to one another, the one set
being purely scientific, the other representing the scholastic-empiric
school of which Feser speaks, which ruled absolutely until after the
middle of the century. The German Government showed itself
unequal to the occasion when Gerlach died. The manner of ap-
pointing professors, so far as the veterinary school is concerned, is
not so jus<- or good in Germany as in France. It is based too much
upon literary reputation, without taking into consideration that
ability to teach well, which is as necessary as extensive knowledge.
Another great evil in Germany, which all countries share more or
less, is fear of a young man. Other things being equal, the expe-
riences of years have value, but men of genius often gain more ex-
perience in a few years than the average man does in a lifetime.
The moment a man ceases to be progressive he is of little use to the
world. In appointing a new director at the school, there was fully
as much political wire-pulling as is exercised by candidates for mayor

THE VETERINARY INSTITLTIOXS OF PRUSSIA. 327

or governor in this country, and this in Germany, where Anieriean-
isni is sneered at. There was tliis difference, the wire-pulling was
done l>y men of unquestionable ability in some directions, but neither
one of the candidates was fitted to carry on the work of progress.
They were all good men, but unfortunately had too much of the old
school about them to meet the demands of the time. The Govern-
ment seemed to be entirely ignorant of the great failing of the
school, which is the surgical clinic, and everything pertaining to it.
An litter want of practical horsemanship runs through the whole
thing. The treatment of internal diseases leaves nothing to be
desired, but the exteraal treatment, in many cases, may be truly ex-
pressed by the English word '* botch." There had never been any real
practical surgery taught at the school. A great many operations are
made, but seldom handsomely. The opportunity to reform all this
was placed at the disposal of the German Government. But there
was no one to inform it, and how should the ministers know ? The
opportunity was there to reform the surgical clinic, but, what is still

more to the point, the man was there also. Dr. knew that a

school hospital is for the purpose of instructing students, and that
the curing of patients, so long as the interests of the owner are re-
spected, is a matter of secondary importance. The death-rate was
perhaps a little large, but the number of recoveries in desperate
cases more than counterbalanced it. Our clinical instruction was
really magnificent. lie knew, better than any one at the school, its
greatest failure, and studied night and day as to the best means of
overcoming it. One great mistake and waste of material at the
Berlin school, one which clearly demonstrates that from the begin-
ning the aim of education in a given direction was never understood
(it is the same at the French school), is the way in which the stu-
dents practice operative surgery. // is plain hiiU'henj, not sur-
gery. What sense is there in merely cutting certain nerves, opening
certain cavities, ligaturing an artery or two, upon a living animal,
though it be chloroformed I The students learn to cut, not to op-
erate. Is cutting the whole of surgery ? In human medicine they
learn to cut upon the cadaver, and it can be done equally well in
veterinary medicine. But I none the less believe in taking advan-
tage of our ability of practicing operative surgery upon the living
animal in veterinary medicine, when chlxyroformed. But if this is
limited to mere cutting, it is but butchery. To he practical, the
necessary number of horses should be procured by the school, prop-
erly groomed and fed ; the students to operate should be selected ;
they should be privileged to select their assistants from their col-

328 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

leagues ; then they should deliver a lecture before the class as to the
operation, its history, and ways of performing it, the reasons for its
performance in practice, the teacher correcting or suggesting as the
student proceeds. One such operation, and sometimes more, should
be done daily throughout the year. The cutting exercise can be
under the guidance of an anatomical assistant on the cadaver. These
operations should be performed according to the strictest rules of
surgery, and the different forms of treatment experimented with ;
the student operating should receive the animal operated upon as a
patient, and treat hira in the hospital as such ; the wounds should
be bound uj), the same as in practice, and every endeavor should be
made to improve the methods. All other operative surgery, either
as jDracticed at Berlin or in France, is a " botch" and humbug, cruel
to animals and degrading to the profession ; but the above plan is
dignified with a scientific purpose ; it may serve two ends at the
same time — properly exercise the student, and serve as an experi-
ment by which general surgery may be benefited, and some new
method find proof or contradiction. It is in unison with the true
purpose of a school, the perfect union of theory and practice, which
makes up the science of medicine.

Were this the only error of the Government in the management
of this school, it would be fortunate indeed. But, not satisfied with
making an error in one direction, they must equal it in another. At
the school was a young man of marked genius, of genuine scientific
spirit, who was ranked as prosector in anatomy, the only trouble
being that he knew too much, and was not to be brought into the
scholastic-empiric leading-strings. The non-progressive tricksters,
unable to control, resolved to get rid of him. As in England in-
cumbrancers have often been confined in lunatic asylums, or great
men banished by imbecile governments, so they sought to send him
to the Russian frontier to watch the rinderpest. A man of science
to act as an ordinary policeman ! was ever anything more ridiculous ?
Fortunately, other powers existed. Instead of banishment to the
Russian frontier, our young assistant received government aid to pur-
sue the study of comparative anatomy under Gegenbauer and Wal-
deyer. He was the man above all others to take Gurlt's place in vet-
erinary anatomy ; ay, more ! he recognized the practical needs, and
his lectures were models of scientific foundation applied to practical
ends. One would think that such a man could not fail of apprecia-
tion ; but such was not the case. He received a call to Dresden, and
the Prussian Government, blind to its own interests, the direction of
the school false to its duties to the profession, quietly let him go.

TOE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF PRUSSIA. 329

The Buildings.

As one approaches the school from " Louisen-strasse," he is struck
at once by the imposing building which marks the entrance, and
serves as a residence for most of the teachers. The front wall of
that part of the building, which serves as entrance to the grounds
in the rear, is embellished with busts of Aristotle, Absyrtus, Ka-
nuuzini, Liincisi, Lafosse, Pessiua, Bourgelat, Kersting, Cuthenius,
Langermann, "NVollstein, and Abildgaard, men intimately connected
with tlie birth of veterinary science. The accommodations for the
residences of the teachers are liberal in the extreme, and in many
respects the suites are really niagniticent. In this building are three
lecture- rooms, and one for chemistry and physics, with a])propriate
cabinets. The tine library, of some ten thousand volumes, espe-
cially rich in valuable historical works, is situated in this building.
The students are allowed to take books home and to keep them a
reasonable length of time. On passing through the corridor of this
building, the line grounds of the institution, with their winding
walks and grand shade-trees, make a most pleasing impression upon
the visitor.

The anatomy building and museum is, strange to say, almost
spoiled, so far as appearances are concerned, by being situated in
a hollow, when sufficient commanding ground was and is to be had
to show the truly fine architectural proportions of the building.
It was drafted by the celebrated architect Langhans, and the main
portion, which was built under his direction, is fretpiently pointed
out as an example of his genius. In the basement is the dissection-
room, with accommodation for two hundred students. Like many
older German buildings, it is miserably ventilated, but it would be
well lighted were it not for its abominable situation. The anatom-
ical lecture-room, which is also used for the same purpose by the
physiologist and pathologist, is without d(nibt the finest of its kind
at any school. It can seat some three hundred students, the seats
being arranged in an amphitheatre, the entrance being in the cen-
ter ; it is lighted entirely from above. The preparations are ele-
vate" 1 upon a table from the room below.

The Physiological and Pathological Institutes, two fine build-
ings, costing with their appointments some §00,000, are something
which no other veterinary school has in the world.

In the Anatomical Institute is situated also the microscopical
laboratory, with microscopes for the class, and every convenience
for work in this branch of stud v.

330 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE YETERIXAEY SCHOOLS.

As we turn to go toward the horse hospital we pass that for
dogs, with accommodations for about fifty, and fitted up with a
small laboratory for chemical and microscopical examinations. The
attendant resides in the building. The dog practice is very large
at Berlin ; one good feature is, that if a dog bites any one in the
city, he can report it to the police, and tlie owner tnust bring the
dog here to be watched for the requisite number of days with refer-
ence to rabies.

Tlie horse hospital has room for about one hundred and thirty
patients, many of the stalls being boxes; the stables surround a
court, in which the free clinic is held. A new and handsome stable
was added during Gerlach's direction. In this stable is the labora-
tory for clinical examination. The stables are fine and clean, but
they need the genius of an English or American head groom to
make them what they really should be. The fees for patients taken
into the hospital are in general fifty cents per day, which includes
every expense ; operations are all performed free of charge. There
is a special department for animals affected with contagious diseases,
or in which the same are suspected ; another for forensic cases, for
which a fee is asked in addition, as well as for the exact examination
of horses. In both cases a warrant is given, and the questionable
animal must remain at least three days, during which time it is
tested in every possible manner. Casual examinations cost nothing,
but no warrant is given. There are also special stalls for animals
with cerebral troubles, so that they can not injure themselves, so
far as it is possible to prevent it. There are two large halls for
operations. There is also a cow-stable, holding some forty head,
besides sheep, goats, swine, rabbits, etc., which are to be used for
experimental purposes. The servants of the school live in build-
ings on one side of the court. At one entrance of this inclosure is
the pharmacy, treasury, and some teachers' and assistants' residences.
The patients in the open clinic receive advice free, but pay for
medicines prescribed at the regular price of the drugs, without the
cost of preparation at the pharmacy. The students prepare all
medicines, under the guidance of the assistant to the teacher of
chemistry. The patients in the hospitals are divided equally among
the senior students, each of whom directs and looks out for them as
if in actual practice, being guided and questioned by the teachers.
Each day the students hear a special lecture npon some selected
patient, illustrating some special phase in the progress of certain
diseases. From the large amount of material at command, the
teacher is enabled to follow a certain course in these clinical talks.

TUE VETERINARY IXSTITCTIOXS OF PRUSSIA. 33 1

Practice and lectures upon auscultation and percussion form a very
strong point in the clinical instruction. There are, during the last
half year of a graduating class, two chusses of students in the hos-
pital, those of the lower acting as assistants to their seniors. On
the graduation of the latter, the othei*s then have a full year to
themselves, when the same coui"se is again pni-sued. Everything
necessary to absolutely perfect instruction is present at this school,
the ffuidin": <jenius to set things in the right direction being alone
necdeil.

The following statistics will give some idea of the practical dis-
cipline which this school offers to its students, and which is not
c(pialed by any other in the world.

In 1875 the following animals were received in the hosj^ital, or
treated elsewhere by the students :

In the clinic, 2,333 horses, 2 cattle, 2 sheep, 3 swine — 2,340.

In the dog-clinic (dogs, cats, etc., mostly dogs) — 3,308.

In the free clinic, 4,459 horses, 5 goats, 2 swine — 4,466.

Visiting clinic,* 208 cattle, 49 sheep, 11 goats, 191 swine — 519.
Grand total, 10,093 animals.

The number of herds also visited was thirty.

The number of surgical operations performed at the school was
542.

In 1876 the number of patients taken into the clinic, or visited,
was 11,537.

In one of the stables is the forge of the school.

The expenses of this institution, from the first quarter of 1878
to the end of the first quarter of 1879, were 157,670 marks, or $39,-
417.50; derived as follows :

From the hospital and students' fees 01,100 raarlcs,t or $22,797 60

" " state funds 00,480 " " 10,020 00

Total $30,417 50

The money granted by the state is more or less, according to
the needs of the institution ; and we see that, during this year, when
but little building was carried on, the oxiKjnses of the school ex-
ceeded the income by over $10,0(»().

All the teachers of the institution, na well as other officials and
servants, have free residence found them. All the professors and

* The institution ha^ four horso.o, and suitnblo vehicle?* for this purpose, and such
visits are made daily, four students at a time going with a certain teacher.
f A mark is a quarter of a dollar.

332 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

teachers have a fluctuating income of from 500 to 600 marks ($125
to $150) per year, from the examination fees of the students.
The salaries of the teachers are as follows :

1. Privy Councilor and Director Roloff, T,SOO marks, or $1,950.

2. Professor Miiller, anatomist, 5,100 marks, or $1,775.

3. Professor Schiitz, pathologist, 3,900 marks, or $975.

4. Professor Munk, physiologist, 3,600 marks, or $900.

5. Professor Pinner, chemist, 3,600 marks, or $900.

6. Professor Dierkerhoff, special pathology, history, and clinic,
3,300 marks, or $825.

7. Professor Dr. Moeller, materia medica, etc., and dog-clinic,
3,000 marks, or $750.

Teacher, Mr. Eggeling, surgery, etc., 1,800 marks, or $450.

All the professors have besides additional incomes from positions
held by them on the National Board of Health, or on the Yeteri-
nary Department of Prussia, or as lecturers at the University or
Agricultural Academy, or as inspectors in the province of Branden-
burg, or for a district in the neighborhood of Berlin.

There are a number of resident assistants, who receive each 1,200
to 1,500 marks, a portion of the examination-fees, and furnished
lodgings, fuel, gas, service, etc. Aside from these, professors 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, have each a junior assistant, being young graduates who
have received their diplomas the year before. These assistants re-
ceive a stipend (granted for the half-year, but generally renewed for
two to three half-years) of from 500 to 600 marks for each session,
being from 1,000 to 1,200 marks per year. Two of these assistants
have free lodgings at the school. The Professor of Chemistry has a
special assistant, who receives 1,800 marks yearly.

Other Officials.

1. Two secretaries, with salaries of 3,300 and 2,100 marks each.

2. A treasurer, with a salary of 3,000 marks.

3. An inspector, who superintends the servants, with a salary of
2,400 marks.

4. A messenger, with a salary of 1,000 marks. All these persons
are royal officers, and are appointed for life, and can only he dis-
missed hy verdict of the Court of Discipline.

5. A gardener, with a salary of 1,000 marks, who holds his office
by a contract with the directors.

Servants.— TheYQ are fourteen servants for the stables, the Ana-
tomical and Physiological Institutes, and the pharmacy, receiving
each from 60 to 75 marks per month. Also four women who do

TUE VETERINARY INSTITUTIONS OF PRUSSIA. 333

the cleaning, with from IS to 24 marks' pay per month. Tliey all
live upon the grounds.

The Students.

The students are divided into two classes, military and civil, to
which may be added certain '' hospitants,'' wlio are agricultunsts,
graduates of other schools, foreigners, or otlur persons desiring to
hear certain lectures.

The military students form by far the greater majority, and re-
side in a fine barracks, just outside the school-grounds, and opposite
the military school for horseshoeing, in which they all have to study,
and serve six months in practice, and pass an examination, before
they can enter the veterinary institution. They do not dress in
uniform, except at certain hours each week, or when called upon to
appear on dress parade. Each class has a superii.»r army veterinarian
over them, who is responsible for their attention to their studies,
and attendance at the lectures, and who questions them weekly in
order to keep posted as to their progress. Students who are inatten-
tive to duty are warned, examined, and, if their ill-conduct is per-
sisted in, are turned over to the army to serve out their time as
soldiers. This may take place at any time during the student's
course, even after he has failed in the second final examination, un-
less he may have already served his appointed time in the army.
Their general conduct is subject to the control of an army officer,
and they are kept under very strict discipline, being sometimes pun.
ished with confinement. The Government supplies them with a
small amount of pocket-money — 30 marks per month, I believe — be-
sides the necessary books, instniments, fuel, attendance, etc. ; in ad-
dition to which their building has lately been supplied with a verv
complete medical library, costing some $1,500, po that the army
students have not to go out of their building if they desire to read
up any special subject, either in human or veterinary medicine.
Each military graduate must serve two years in the army, as an army
veterinary surgeon, for each year's schooling. Their pay is not
large, nor do they rank so high, or receive the consideration which
similar officers do in other armies, especially in the English, but their
expenses are also smaller. They have the privilege, however, of
studying, and enjoying a stipend by which they can again visit the
school, and hear lectures and make the examinations for the high
civil positions, so that on completion of their army service they can
immediately apply for any vacancies which may occur. This privi-
lege is only granted to those who have passed the fii*st two grades in
the examination ; those having the best can undergo these examina-

334 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

tiocs in two years, the next in three, respectively. I can not give
the number of students at the Berhn school, but it is not far from two
hundred. A private letter informs me that there are to be one hun-
dred and twenty-five in the dissecting-room in the study of anatomy
this winter. The fees are very small ; for the three years I was there
as a student, and the extra year, including the examination-fee, they
were not over one hundred dollars. All material necessary for
study is supplied by the Government free of expense to the students,
including the use of the microscopes.

The course of study and terms of examination are the same for
all the schools in the empire, and were revised and published March
27, 1878. I consider they can well serve as a model for the founda-
tion of a school in this country, with but few modifications. There
is no matriculation examination for foreigners, but they must stand
the regular examination without change or favor. There is no need
of a matriculatory examination for Germans, as they are only taken
from classes of certain public schools, and the standard is fixed
much higher than in nearly all other Continental schools. The
school at Berlin will not, however, be what it should be until it is
united with the university, which will give it a greater number of
special instructors in the natural sciences, at but little extra expense
to the Government.

The following are the regulations for the admittance and exami-
nation of the students, and are taken from the " Central-Blatt fiir
das Deutsche Reich," herausgegeben in Reichskanzler-Amt, April
5, 1878 :

I. Centi'al 2>owers which can give the diploma to veterinarians :
The diploma for veterinarians for the German Empire can only

be given by the central powers (" Centralbehorden ") of such states
of the empire in which one or more veterinary schools are situated ;
consequently, at the present time, by the appropriate ministers of
Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Wtirtemberg, and Hesse. (There is no
independent school in Hesse, but the university at Giessen has a vet-
erinary department.)

II. Regulations with reference to the qualifications of candidates :
The veterinary diploma is only to be given to such candidates

as have satisfactorily stood the fixed examination.

The examination is divided into two inirts : 1. In the natural
sciences ; and, 2. In the technical branches of study.

The examination must take place at a German veterinary insti-
tute.

The examining body consists of the du'ectors and teachers of the

THE VETERINARY INSTITUTION'S OF PRUSSIA. 335

institute, with such persons as shall be ordered to be present by the
apjiropriute minister.

The composition of the examining commissions in the different
sections of the examination is regulated b}' the ministers.

The director conducts the whole examination.

The Examination in the Natural Sciences. — 1. Conditions for
competing. The candidate must testify :

{a.) That he has had the rcHpiisite education. He must have the
proper certificate of having been prepared to enter the first class
(''prima") of a gymnasium, or of a first class "real" school, in
which the study of Latin has been obligatory, or of such an educa-
tional institute as is recognized by the Government as of equal
standing with the above.

{h.) After having acquired the requisite scientific preparatory
education, he must have studied for three sessions (one and a half
year) at a veterinary or other high scientific school of the German
Empire.

The period for the examination in the natural sciences, as well
as the notification of the candidate of his fitness to take part in it,
is arranged by the directors of the respective schools.

The notification of readiness to participate in the examinations,
and the certificate of his having fulfilled the above conditions, must
be handed by the candidate to the directors and indorsed by him.
(The schools have especial forms for this purpose, on which each
teacher testifies to the regular attendance of the students at the
respective lectures and demonstrations.)

The following are the branches in which the candidates are to
be examined : Zootomy, inclusive of histology, physiology, botany,
chemistry, physics, and zoology.

The examination is oral, and public. Its aim is to ascertain if
the candidate has obtained sufficient knowledge in the above sci-
entific branches to warrant his proceeding with the study of the
strictly professional ones.

Only four candidates can be examined at one time.

The examining commission consists of the director as chairman,
and at least three associates.

A complete account is kept of the progress of the examination
by each candidate in each .section of the examination.

The examination in chemistry and physics, the " tentamen physi-
cnm " of the medical examination, or the })harmaceutical examina-
tion, may be taken as an ecpiivalcnt to the above examination in the
same branches at a veterinary school.

336 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

The results of the examination are to be indicated as follows :

A judgment is to be given on the results of the examination in
each of the above branches. The judgments are as follows : " Sehr
gut" (excellent), "gut" (good), "geniigend" (satisfactory), "unge-
niigend " (unsatisfactory), and " schlecht " (bad).

The judgment in each branch is to be given by vote of the ex-
amining commission. In a tie-vote, that of the director (chairman)
decides.

The candidate has passed his examination when he has at least
received the judgment " satisfactory " in each individual branch.

The conclusive judgment " excellent " can only be given when
the candidate has passed in the majority of the branches as " excel-
lent," and in the remainder as " good."

The conclusive judgment " good " can only be given when he
has passed in the greater number as " good," and in the remainder
as " satisfactory."

The conclusive judgment " satisfactory " can only be given when
he has passed in the majority as " satisfactory," and in no branch as
" unsatisfactory."

The conclusive judgment " unsatisfactory " is given when the
candidate has not passed in each branch with " satisfactory."

If the candidate has received the judgment " unsatisfactory "
in more than two branches, or as " bad " in more than one, or in one
as " bad " and another as " unsatisfactory," he can only receive the
conclusive judgment of " bad."

Repetition of the Examination. — When the candidate has re-
ceived the conclusive judgment of "unsatisfactory," he may be
allowed a second examination at the expiration of three months ; it
is only extended to those branches in which the candidate has re-
ceived the judgment of "unsatisfactory" or "bad."

When he has received the conclusive judgment of " bad," a
second examination can only be permitted him at the end of one
year, and is to be extended over all the above-named branches. A
second I'epetition of the examination can only be allowed a candi-
date with the consent of the minister.

The Expense of the Examination. — For the first examination,
twenty marks ($5) ; for a repetition of the same, ten marks (§2.50)
more.

The Technical Examination. — For admittance to this examina-
tion the candidate must present his certificate of having successfully
passed the examination in natural sciences ; and, secondly, he must
bring a certificate of having attended lectures for seven sessions at

THE VETEKINAUY INSTITUTIONS OF PRUSSIA. 337

a German vetL'riiuiry institute, or other German academy, and have
heard lectures on the succeeding subject^, whicli must be testified
to by tlie appropriate teachers: Zootomy and histology, inclusive
of practical study in both branches; physiolttiry ; botany (anatomy
and physiology of plants, classification, and ] tract ice in determina-
tion of species; the Berlin school has a special professor of botany
from the university) ; chemistry, inorganic and organic, with ])rac-
tical exercisL's ; physics; zoology; general ])atli()lugy and therajieu-
tics ; materia medica ; toxicology ; pharmacology, with practice ;
pathological anatomy, with necroscopical practice and attendance
at the demonstrations; special pathology and therapeutics; sur-
gery and aciurgy ; theory and practice of horseshoeing ; dietetics ;
breeding ; obstetrics ; exterior of domestic animals ; veterinary
police ; hygiene ; forensic medicine ; history of veterinary medi-
cine; clinical attendance, with practice; and visiting clinic.

I^otijicatwii of the Examination. — The period for the notifica-
tion, as well as for holding this examination, is tixed by the director,
with the consent of the minister. The notification must be accom-
panied with the proper attests from the teachers of attendance at
the lectures upon the above subjects, and a short description of the
principal events of the candidate's life.

The director fixes the period for the examination in the different
branches.

Sections of the Exaynination^ and the Regulations for the same.
— The examination is public, and is subdivided into the following
sections: 1. In anatomy, physiology, and pathological anatomy; 2.
In the medicinal clinic ; in the surgical clinic ; in operative surgery ;
in phannacology (practical and theoretical) ; 3. The conclusion.

The examinations in the different sections follow in immediate
succession.

No candidate can enter upon an examination in a section until
he has passed in the previous one.

In the examinations in anatomy, physiology, and pathological
anatomy, the candidate has to follow the following course: 1. To
demonstrate and open one of the cavities of the body in the pres-
ence of the examining body ; 2. To explain an ostcological and syn-
desmological preparation ; 3. To demonstrate and prepare an ana-
tomical preparation ; 4. To prepare and explain histological j>repa-
rations in the presence of the teacher; T). To give an oral disser-
tation upon a physiological subject ; 6. To make an autopsy of a
disea.'^ed animal, or one of the cavities of the same, or to demonstrate
a pathological specimen, and in both cases to reduce the results to

22

338 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

writing; further, to prepare and demonstrate pathological speci-
mens with the microscope.

The tasks in anatomy and physiology are given to the student
by lot. The commission for this examination consists of three
members.

In the clinical examination the candidate has — 1. To examine
an animal having an internal disease, and to make the diagnosis and
direct its treatment for three successive days ; 2. The same with an
animal having some surgical disease.

In both cases the candidate is isolated, and has to prepare a
written history of his patients and their diseases, their pathology,
treatment, and the probable results of the case.

The oral examination takes place in each case after the written
descriptions have been handed in. The candidate must prepare the
medicines exhibited to the patients.

The candidate has, further, to perform, demonstrate, and explain
three surgical operations upon a living animal ; also, to demonstrate
two fresh or dried officinal vegetable preparations, as well as to
recognize two chemical-pharmaceutical preparations, give their ele-
ments, formula, etc. ; also, to stand an examination in materia med-
ica, toxicology, etc.

The operations, as well as the above-named medicinal objects,
are selected by the students by lot. The examining body in each
branch consists of two members.

The conclusive examination can extend over all branches of
study, so far as they have not been the object of sj)ecia] examina-
tions in the above sections.

Only four candidates can be examined at one time, which must
take place under the supervision of the director and at least three
other members. Each member of the commission must occupy at
least ten to fifteen minutes with each candidate.

A special written report must be made with reference to the
examination of each candidate in each branch, and indorsed by each
member of the commission.

The judgments are given in the same manner as before. The
repetition must take place in the next year, and may extend itself
to all branches of study.

A second repetition of the examination can only take place with
the consent of the minister. The written part of the examination
and the written attests of the examining commission must be placed
before the minister for approval. The costs of this second examina-
tion are sixty marks ($15), and the repetitions fifteen marks each.

TUE VETERINARY INSTITL'TIOX.S OF TRrSSIA. 339

If a cainliJate retires from the examination, a proportionate part
of the fees fur the sections he has nut been examined in ^^•ill he re-
turned.

(The fees for the examination of the military stndents are paid
by the war department.)

Conclusive Judgment. — This is given after the examination in
all the sections luis taken place. It is given by vote, and is influ-
enced by the judgments obtained in the sectional examinations.

The judgments are the same as for the sectional examinations.

The chancellor of the empire is empowered to absolve a can-
didate from single conditions of the examination upon reasonable
grounds.

The names of the graduates are published in the official organ,
from which these regulations are taken.

The military students arc absolved from the examination in
horseshoeing, having passed it before entering the school.

The course is extended over seven sessions (three years and a
half), and. as the military students must first serve for six months
in the military school for farriers, their course of study is in reality
extended over four years.

The course of study at the veterinary schools of Germany is as
follows :

First Session ( Winter). — Introduction to the study of veterinary
medicine ; physics ; inorganic chemistry ; general zoology ; zootomy ;
dissection.

Second Session {Summer). — Organic chemistry ; botany ; zoology
of the vertebrata ; histology and embryology ; physiology (1) ; chem-
ical practice in the laboratory ; practical histology'.

Third Session ( Winter). — Physiology (2) ; exterior of the domes-
tic animals ; breeding ; dissection in anatomy ; lectures ; practice in
the pharmacy ; repetition of lectures in chemistry and physics.

Fourth Session {Summer). — General pathology and therapeutics;
pharmacognosy ; pharmacology, toxicology, and practice in the art
of writing and combining prescriptions; practice in pharmacy;
horseshoeing.

Fifth Session ( Winter). — Special pathological anatomy ; special
pathology and therapeutics ; s]X.*cial surgery ; operative surger}',
with practice; clinic fur large animals ; clinic fur small animals.

Sijcth Session (Summer). — Dietetics ; obstetrics ; animal pests,
veterinary ]iolice ; microscopical practice in pathological anatomy ;
clinics ; visiting clinic.

Seventh Session ( Winter). — Forensic medicine ; history of vet-

340 PRTJSSIAX REGULATIONS FOR COXTAGIOUS DISEASES.

erinary medicine ; clinics ; visiting clinic ; practice in writing legal
papers with reference to veterinary police and forensic medicine ;
repetitions in anatomy and physiology.

There is room left for an eighth session in the schedule, which
it is to be hoped will be soon added to the curriculum.

THE PRUSSIAN LAWS AND REGULATIONS FOR THE
SUPPRESSION OF CONTAGIOUS ANIMAL DISEASES.

The first attempt at the organization of a veterinary police, and
drafting regulations for the suppression of contagious animal dis-
eases in Prussia, dates back to 1803. It has been the object of
constant improvement, and it seems that a translation of the prin-
cipal parts of these laws can not be without value to the people of
this country. "We have nothing in a condensed form to which our
legislators can refer when drafting regulations for the su2?j)re8sion
and prevention of contagious animal diseases ; and as these questions
are sooner or later to take no insignificant part in national legisla-
tion, their appearance here is justified.

The supreme supervision of the veterinary institutions of Prussia
rests with the Minister of Agriculture, who is assisted by a resident
director, and a board of assistants, composed of lawyers and eminent
agriculturists. In addition to this there is a veterinary council, the
duty of which is to give the decisive opinion with reference to all
technical points in relation to veterinary questions. The active
members are selected from the teachers at the veterinary school and
the department veterinarian of Berlin, with Professor Yirchow and
other eminent medical counsel.

In Prussia there were (1879) 36 department veterinarians, 12 so-
called veterinaiy assessors, who rank higher than the above, 16 fron-
tier veterinarians, and 407 district veterinarians. These ofiicers have
fixed remuneration for their official work, and their traveling ex-
penses ; with the exception of the frontier veterinarians, they are
almost all permitted to practice ; the latter receive about $800 per
year, and enjoy no very enviable positions, from the difficulties and
exposures, as well as the comparative isolation of their positions.
Each district is further supervised by an " imperial president." The
department veterinarians are named by the minister, with the advice
of the council, from among those district veterinarians who have

RINDERPEST. 341

especially distiiiguislied themselves in the execution of their duties ;
the latter have to pass special and severe examinations, both oral
and written, with reference to the duties required of them at the
veterinary school : those <j;raduates who have received the two high-
est judgments, "very good" and ''good" as students, are allowed
to present themselves for examination as district veterinarians in
two and three yeai*s, respectively, from the time of their qualitica-
tion as veterinarians,

Attachetl to the German army as veterinarians are 14 corps and
523 other veterinarians ; of the latter, each horse regiment has a
superior veterinarian ('' Oberrossarzt "), the others being subject to
him. The number of civil veterinarians in Prussia (1ST5) wius 1,29G ;
the territory over which they were each estimated to exercise con-
trol was 4-75 square geographical miles, and the number of animals
over which they each were estimated to watch was 1,544 horses,
4,592 cattle, 14,421 sheep, and 2,192 swine.

Only those persons that have graduated at a Gennan veterinary
school are allowed to present themselves to the public as veterina-
rians. Persons falsely representing themselves as such are punished
with a fine of 100 thalers ($75), but, if unable to pay this, with cou-
liuemeut in jail for a period of six weeks.

The Laws and Regulations for Eixderpest.

" AVheu this disease breaks out in any of the states composing
the empire of Germany, or in a country which is in direct connec-
tion with them, the individual goveniments of the empire are em-
powered and required to place in active execution all the regulations
which are intended to prevent its introduction ur further extension
in the land, as follows :

'• 1. The restriction and prevention of the introduction or trans-
port or commerce in living or dead cjittle, sheep, goats, hides, hair,
and other raw animal products, in fresh or dried condition ; also raw
feed, straw, junk, old clothes, harness, stable utensils ; also the exe-
cution of a stringent frontier quarantine.

" 2. Quarantining single farms, localities, or districts from inter-
course witli the surrounding country.

"3. Killing of all animals, inclusive of healthy ones, and the de-
struction of all things which may act .'is vehicles to the infectious ele-
ments, when disinfection will not be found sutHcient for the purpose.

''4. Disinfection of the buildings, vehicles of transport, and
other objects, as well as pei^sons, that have been in any relation
with the diseased animals.

342 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

"6. Expropriation of the necessary territory for burying the
killed animals, and of such things as may act as infectious vehicles,
and burying the same.

" Eemuncration is given by the state for such animals as may
be killed by the authorities, and for the land which has been taken,
and also for the animals of those owners that have given a timely
notice of suspicion of the disease among the cattle to the authorities ;
the price to be paid for the same is to be fixed by impartial assessors.

" This remuneration is, however, not awarded for animals which
perish from the pest within ten days from the time of its introduc-
tion, or from the time when the animals introducing it have been
driven over the frontier.

" It is the duty of every one who has gained knowledge of the
outbreak of the disease among animals, or of the death of a single
one, or even of the suspicion of either, to notify the police officials
without delay. Any neglect in giving this notice by the owner of
animals who may have the disease in his stables, shuts him oS. com-
pletely from all remuneration for animals which have died of the
disease or have been killed by the authorities.

" The residents of jDest-infested localities are obliged to support
the Government officials in the execution of the laws.

" The railroad companies are obliged to disinfect all cars which
have been used for the transport of cattle, or other animals, imme-
diately after using, for such a time as the danger exists of the intro-
duction of the pest itito the land, or while it is present in any part
of the empire itself. The companies are empowered to charge a
special fee (twenty-five cents) to the shipper for each wagon used
for such transport.

" The government of each state is responsible for the exact
execution of the foregoing regulations. It is also bound to send in
official reports to the central Government.

" The government of each state must at once notify the central
Government and the other state governments the moment they are
obliged to forbid the introduction of animals from other countries,
or when they are obliged to change the regulations, or when they
declare them ended.

" The restriction of traffic in animals between the diiferent states
of the empire is inaugurated when the pest has broken out in any
single state.

" When the pest breaks out in a given state, the central Govern-
ment is to be at once notified, as well as public notification given
that the requisite regulations are in force, in an appropriate man-

RINDERPEST. 343

ner. The profjjress of tlie clisea^c must be frequently reported to
the central Government.

" It is the duty of the Chancellor of the Empire to watch over
the jiroper execution of these laws. The chancellor is empowered
to make such special regulations as the urgency of the csise may de-
mand, but must notify the ditferent state governments of the same.
The dilferent state governments are obliged to support one another
in the execution of these regulations.

" The military may be called in to helj) carry out the regula-
tions. The central Government pays the expenses of the latter."

Special Begulatioiis to prevent the Introduction of the Pest from
Foreign C b w\ tries.

" TThen the pest breaks out in distant parts of a foreign country
which is in connection with Germany, either by railroad or canal,
60 that animals could be transported in a short time into the land,
then all cattle, sheep, swine, or other ruminants from those regions
are strictly forbidden entrance. This regulation extends to all prod-
ucts from animals in a fresh condition, with the exception of but-
ter, milk, and cheese. Traffic may be allowed in completely dried
hides, wool, hair, and bristles, as well as melted tallow in casks,
completely dried bones, horns, and claws, which nnist be entirely
free from all fleshy parts.

"Kuminants from non-infested districts of the country in ques-
tion may be allowed entrance at certain points, fixed by law, under
the following conditions :

" (a.) An official attestation must be given that the animals came
from a place which has been free from the pest for at least thirty
days, and that no pest rages within a distance of twenty kilometres
of the place whence they came.

*'(J.) Their transport must have taken place through sections
entirely free from the pest.

" (c.) The imported animals must be strictly examined at the
frontiers by an official veterinarian, and have been found absolutely
free from all disease.

'' These regulations may be modified when the animals are des-
tined for a city having a public slaughter-house, and when the rail-
road connects directly with the same. The importation can only
take place in each individual case with the consent of the Govern-
ment, and in each case is to be governed by special police regulations.

" All that has been said with reference to importation bears equal
relation to transport through the land, or any portion of it.

344 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

" "When tlie pest breaks out in a foreign country, but in the vi-
cinity of the frontiers :

" If the outbreak takes place in a region within forty to eighty
kilometres of the frontier, the impoi"tation of animals and animal
products, as above, is to be strictly forbidden along the frontier for
a distance corresponding to the threatened danger.

" Persons whose occupation brings them in relation with cattle,
can only pass the frontier at certain places, and must there and then
be subjected to disinfection.

" No exception to the above regulations can be made without the
consent of the Government.

" When the pest approaches the immediate neighborhood of the
frontiers, all transport is absolutely forbidden across the borders,
and a military cordon may be formed for the requisite limit.

" The passage of passenger trains and posts can only take place
subject to appropriate regulations.

" If the quarantine is broken, then all quarantined animals are
to be immediately killed and buried, as well as articles which may
serve to spread the disease.

" Such objects, as well as men, must be at once transferred back
over the boundaries, if the quarantine has been broken, unless the
authorities feel confident of the thorough disinfection of the same.

" The following regulations are to be enforced in all places along
the threatened frontiers which lie within fifteen kilometres of the
limits :

" A cattle-inspector is to be appointed in each village, who must
make an exact register of all cattle present, and of every change in
number or locality which takes place.

" These registers are to be revised weekly by the village authori-
ties.

" The authorities are to be at once notified of any case of disease
among the cattle of a village."

Regulations with reference to Rinderpest in Germany.

" As soon as a suspicion of the presence of rinderpest, or the
death of an animal from it, takes place within the empire, or when
two cases of death occur with suspicious symptoms within eight
days, in any place, the regulations for its suppression come into
force.

" Under such circumstances the owner of cattle can neither
slaughter nor kill the sick animals, or bury or remove any that may
have died, before the nature of the disease has been determined.

RIXDERrEST. 345

Until the latter lias taken place, the dead animals are to be so kept
that neitlier men nor animals can come in contact with them.

" The local police must call in the services of a competent vet-
erinarian as soon as they have been notified of the existence of either
of the above conditions, in order that the nature of the disease may
be determined. If no cadaver is to be had, the authorities may kill
an animal for the p\irpose. The results of such examination must
be reported in writing.

" If the disease is ascertained to be rindcrj^est, every effort must
at once be made to discover the way in which it was introduced.
The General Government is to be at once notified, as well as the
public. From this time all control regulations come into action.

" If there exists but a very strong suspicion of the presence of
the disease, a temporary (piarantining of the infested locality is to be
ordered, until the presence of the disease is confirmed or the sus-
picion removed. In doubtful cases a high veterinary official must
be called in.

" The exhibition {offering) for sal^, or recommendation of pro-
phylactic or healing nmeilies for rinJerjhsf, is to be scDcrehj pun-
iahed. Disinfection materials are not included in the above.

" On the outbreak of rinderpest, the holding of cattle-markets
witliin a circuit of twenty kilometres of the infested locality is to
be forbidden ; and, if the circumstances require it, all cattle or other
markets, or large gatherings of men, are to be forbidden ; also all
traffic in animals or their products. The animals necessary for food
can only be sold subject to the control of the veterinary police.

" In the infested district or locality it becomes the duty of every
one to notify the authorities of every case of disease, of whatever
nature, among cattle, with the exception of external injuries.

"The place (farm or stable) in which the pest has broken out is
to be isolated and controlled by watchers, who must n(»t enter the
grounds, or have intercourse with the residents, nor allow any one
to pass in or out, except those especially legitimatized, nor can any-
thing, living or dead, be allowed to leave the grounds. Tlie guards
must be matured individuals, and must wear ap]U'«)])riate badges.

" No one can enter the grounds except those employed in the
suppression of the disease, or ministers, doctors, or nurecs, when
necessary to the fulfillment of their occupations. On leaving the
premises such persons must be subjected to disinfection. Signs
must be placed upon the boundaries of the premises with * Rinder-
pest ' upon them.

'* A relatively local quarantine must be placed over the town or

346 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

village in wliicli the infected premises are situated. The residents
of the place may have intercourse with one another, but can not leave
it except with special permission, and this is only to be granted to
those who have no connection with cattle.

" All animals, with the exception of horses, mules, and asses,
must be confined to their stables ; if found running about free, they
are to be at once killed. Only the above animals can be used for
draught or traveling purposes. The removal of all objects, such as
hay, straw, manure, or other vehicles of infection, is forbidden.

" When the disease spreads over the greater part of any locality,
an absolute isolation of the place is to be ordered. It is to be
surrounded by guards (in this case military), and all forms of in-
tercourse strictly forbidden among the inhabitants, except that of
necessary persons about their occupations, such as doctors, etc.
Schools and public meetings must be forbidden, the beer-houses and
hotels closed. The streets leading through such a place are to be
guarded. If the place is located upon a railroad, no trains can be
stopped there, even though the place be a regular station, imless the
latter is so situated outside the place that no communication with it
is possible.

" All sick or suspected animals are to be at once killed. Cattle
are always to be considered as ' suspected ' as soon as they have stood
in the same stable with diseased ones, or have had the same servants,
drinking-utensils, etc., which have been used about the sick ones.

" The central powers can order the killing of healthy animals
when warranted by the circumstances. In large cities, and in
slaughter-houses which are under the control of the veterinary po-
lice, the sale of the skins and flesh of cattle which have been found
healthy in both a living and slaughtered condition may be allowed.
The slaughtering must take place under the supervision of the vet-
erinary police, and only in special places. The flesh and inner or-
gans can only be removed after they have entirely cooled off, and
the skin"} when they are completely dried, or have lain in lime-
water (1 to 60) for three days previously.

" The animals which have been killed by the authorities are to
be buried in places distant from the public ways, and where no
cattle can gain access. Such places are to be fenced in, and to be
planted with a vegetation which grows rapidly and sends down deep
roots into the earth. The excavation must be so deep that at least
six feet of earth hes upon the cadavers. The persons employed in
this service must be residents of the place, and such as do not own
cattle themselves, or come in contact with them. TThen the work

RIXDERPEST. 347

is completed tlicy must be subjected to disinfection. Horses or men
must be used for the removal of the cadavers, and the conveyance
used for this purpose must be thorougldy cleansed and disinfected.
The animals removed must be so placed upon tlie vehicles that no
part of them can touch the ground, or any blood, hair, etc., drop
from them upon it on the way to the burying-place. The hides of
the slauglitered animals must be so cut as to destroy their value,
and the cadavers saturated in crude petroleum or carbolic-acid solu-
tion.

"■ A stable in which diseased animals have lived must be at once
thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. The manure is to be burned,
or saturated with disinfectants. Nothing in the stable is to be re-
moved from it."

Regulations after the Pest has come to an End.

" The pest may be considered ended in any locality when all the
cattle have been killed, or are dead, or when three weeks have
elapsed since the last case of death, or slaughtering of diseased ani-
mals, or such as liave cohabited with them, and when the thorough
disinfection of the infested stables has taken place.

" The disinfection must be begun and executed according to the
circumstances, so soon as all the animals have been removed. It
must also take place if all the animals have been killed, though not
a single case of pest has been found among them.

" The disinfection can only take place upon official notice, and
under the supervision of the proper officers. The disinfection be-
gins with again opening the stable, which must take place within
twenty-four hours after the removal of the animals, and care must
be taken to give the air the freest possible circulation. The manure
is to be carried out and burned, or taken to places where no cattle
can gain access within the next three months, and deeply buried.
The tluids in the drains, or yards, are to be disinfected with sulphu-
ric acid and chloride of lime, and then led into deep holes and cov-
ered up. The surface of the plastering upon the walls is to be
scraped off; the walls must then be whitewashed. The wood-work
is to be washed with liot potash-water, and, in a few days, washed
with chloride-of-lime solution. The floor is to be taken out and re-
placed ; if of earth, dug out one foot deep and replaced with fresh
earth ; if of pavement, replaced with new, or the old must be com-
pletely cleansed and disinfected. "Wooden floors must be taken out
and burned, or thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. The cribs,
utensils, etc., must be cleansed and disinfected. After all this has

348 PRUSSIAN EEGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

been done, the stable must be opened freelj to the air for fourteen
consecutive days. In disinfecting, only such persons can be em-
ployed as have no cattle, or have nothing to do with them. They
can not leave the premises until the work has been completed, and
must then change their clothes and be thoroughly disinfected. The
clothes used by them must be thoroughly washed, etc.

" Even after complete cleansing and disinfection of an infested
stable have taken place, and after all restrictions have come to an end
in the locality, new animals can not be bought and put in them in
less than three weeks from the time the place was declared pest-free,
and then only with the consent of the authorities.

" Grazing-places which have been used or passed over by diseased
or suspected animals can only be again used after the lapse of at
least two months.

" The Government can only give permission to use the places
which have been taken for the burial of the killed or dead animals.

" No cattle-markets can be held at such places within three weeks
from the time they have been declared pest-free."

Most stringent regulations exist, controlling the disinfection and
cleansing of freight-cars by the railroad companies every time they
have been used for the transj)ort of any species of domestic animals.
This cleansing must take place under the supervision of a state
official. The disinfection must be effected either — 1. By means of
scalding-hot water, after thorough cleansing ; 2. By scalding-hot
water and caustic potash — 500 grammes to 100 litres of water ; 3.
Or, by other disinfectants which are acknowledged as sufficient by
the Government.

All utensils, unloading-platforms, etc., must also be subjected to
the same course.

The Prussian Regulations for the Suppression of Anthrax;
THE Foot-and-Mouth Disease of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine ;
THE Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia of Cattle ; Glanders of
the Horse, Mule, and Ass ; the Yariola of Sheep ; the
Genital Disease of Horses and Cattle (" Maladie du
CoiT ") ; Scabies of the Horse and Sheep, and Rabies of
all Domestic Animals.

Of the Notification of their Presence^ or the Suspicion of the same.

" The owner of domestic animals is obliged to at once notify the

local police authorities of an outbreak of either of the above diseases

ANTHRAX, ETC. 349

in Lis stables, and of all suspicious phenomena 'wliicli justify the ex-
pectation of the presence of such a disease.

" The same responsibility rests with those intrusted by the owner
with the care of the animals ; further, those persons who accompany
animals in transit ; and especially is this the case when strange
animals are intrusted to their care and introduced into the stables,
yards, or pastures of the owner.

" Veterinary surgeons, and all those persons who make a prac-
tice of treating the diseases of animals, inclusive of those employed
at knacker establishments, are obliged, under penalty of the law, to
notify the proper authorities, either of the outbreak of any of the
naiiied diseases, or of the appearance of any phenomena which at
all justify a suspicion of their existence.

" It is the duty of the local police to at once notify the official
veterinarian, when they have received notification, or in any other
way acquired knowledge, of the outbreak of an animal pest, or of
the suspicion of its existence, in order to have a technical opinion
upon the same.

" The state veterinarian must ascertain, and report in writing,
the nature, condition, and cause of the disease, and plainly state
whether it is an infectious disease or only a suspicious case.

" In peremptory cases, the veterinary official may at once pro-
ceed, without waiting for authority from the j^olice authorities, and
order the immediate (quarantining and isolation of the diseased or sus-
pected animals, and in necessary cases appoint a guard over the same.

" AVhen this is the case, the causes for action must be given by
the veterinary official in writing to the owner, or his representa-
tives, as well as to the local police authority.

" The selectman, or other supervising officer of the town or local-
ity, must order the temporary guarding of the infected or suspected
stable, or locality, upon requisition of the official veterinarian.

" In order to confirm a suspicion, the local police authorities
may condemn and slaughter a suspected animal ; the results of the
autopsy must be reduced to writing (upon the official blanks) by the
state veterinarian. If the presence of a contagious disease is con-
firmed, the police have to at once order the execution of the neces-
sary regulations, and give notice thereof according to the prescribed
forms.

"The owner may also call in the services of an approved veteri-
narian in all those cases where a suspected animal is condemned
and killed by the authorities, in order to establish the true nature
of the disease.

350 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

" In those cases where a difference of opinion as to the nature
of the disease in question exists between the veterinarian of the
police and that of the owner, the police may call in the services of
a department veterinarian, who must make his report in writing ;
the opinion of the latter is decisive, and the police must proceed ac-
cordingly.

" Official veterinarians have to supervise all cattle and horse
markets, or all gatherings where animals are brought for the pur-
pose of sale or barter.

" The district veterinary authorities are authorized to extend the
same regulations to cattle, horse, or animal fairs or exhibitions."

It is the duty of the veterinarian to at once notify the police,' in
all cases, of the presence or suspicion of infectious or contagious dis-
eases among animals so collected, which is to be followed by order-
ing into action the appropriate regulations. If there is danger in
delay, the veterinarian is authorized to anticipate the action of the
police by isolating and guarding the diseased or suspected animals.
The expenses of the supervision of cattle and horse markets or fairs
by the official veterinarian must be borne by the directors of the
same.

Restriction of the Travel or Use of Animals.

" The isolation, guarding, or police supervision of an animal, or
animals, affected with a contagious disease, or in which such is sus-
pected. The owner of such an animal is obliged (upon demand)
to make such arrangements that it can not leave its confinement
while under observation, and that it is kept free from all contact
with other animals.

" Restrictions as to use, or the transport of diseased or suspected
animals, or the products from the same, or of such objects as have
been in relation with the diseased or suspected animals, which may
give rise to the extension of the disease.

" The use of common grazing-grounds is to be forbidden ani-
mals from different stables ; further, the use of common drinking-
places, and all intercourse between diseased or suspected animals in
any way.

" Dogs are forbidden to run about free.

"When the official veterinarian has proven the presence of
a contagious disease, the stables, farms, villages, or localities in
which said animals are kept may be, according to circumstances,
subjected to quarantine, so that no connection may be had with
them, or with objects which could serve as vehicles of the infec-
tious elements. The quarantine can only extend to a town, or vil-

ANTHRAX, ETC. 351

lage, or district, when the nature of the pest is sueli as to threaten
with dauij^er the greater number of the animals (of a susceptible
species) of the locality. The owner is obliged to do all in his power
to support the execution of the regulations.''

Inoculation. — " The inoculation of animals exposed to infec-
tion can only take place in those cases allowed by law, and under
the prescribed restrictions. The inoculation can only take place
under the observation of the state veterinarian."

A nth rax. — Charhon.

"When the presence of anthrax has been determined in the
manner fixed by law, or when there is reason to fear an exten-
sion of the disease, tiie police authorities are empowered to put in
action the regulations for its suppression without waiting, in each
case, for the opinion of the state veterinarian."

Iit'<julatlons against its Extension. — " The police authorities
and the state veterinarians are obliged to make known to the
owners, and those persons who have the care of, or that may
come in contact with, animals diseased with anthrax, the danger
which alwavs exists of its transmission to human beinjrs, and to
warn them to have care in their relation with such animals.

" In the stables where such animals are, care must be taken that
the proper disinfectants are always on hand for the use of persons
who have the sick animals in charge.

" The sick animals must be at once isolated from the healthy
ones, and the stables quarantined. It is the duty of owners of the
animals to make such arrangements as will insure the complete car-
rying out of the above regulation, so that no contact can take place
between healthy animals and the sick ones, their excretions, or tlie
utensils used about them. No other persons than those engaged in
the care of the sick animals must be allowed admittance to the
stables. The stables in which the sick animals are isolated must
be kept dark, so as to keep flies away, and daily subjected to a slight
fumigation with chlorine-gas.

'* When the disease acquires a pest-like extension, the local
authorities are authorized to subject all the animals in the infected
place, or places, of the same species as those infected, to stable
quarantine. It is the duty of the owners to 8uj)port this regula-
tion. The quarantining may be limited to single divisions of the
animals in question, when the official veterinarian considers such a
course warranted by the circumstances. The sick animals, in such
cases, are to be isolated in special stables from the healthy ones.

352 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

" All slaughtering of the diseased or suspected animals, or the
sale or use of any parts of the same, the milk, flesh, or hair, is to be
forbidden. All those animals are to be considered as suspicious
which have been in relation with diseased ones within a period of
four days. The performance of surgical operations upon animals
diseased with anthrax, or in which the same is suspected, can only
be made by approved veterinarians, and after the diseased or sus-
pected animals have been carefully isolated.

" The cadavers of anthrax-diseased animals, or of such as have
been killed, can only be opened by approved veterinarians, and
then only with the consent of the police. Skinning of the cadavers
is to be strictly forbidden. Until the cadavers have been thor-
oughly destroyed, they must be kept isolated and securely covered
with earth, straw, or some such material, and carefully guarded, so
that other animals, and especially flies and insects, can not come in
contact with them.

" The regulations herein mentioned in the first part are not to
be applied to such animals as are subject to the control of the state
veterinary schools or academies, where they are kept for the pur-
poses of such institutions.

" The cadavers are to be destroyed as quickly as possible, when
convenient by chemicals or by burning ; but, when this is not the
case, by deep burying, after the hide has been so cut as to destroy
its value. The flesh is to be spoiled by saturation with petroleum,
tar, or some such material. The place of burial is to be determined
by the local police. The cadavers can only be transported in closed
wagons, or so covered that no part of the body is exposed, and so
that no dropping of blood or excretions can take place. The burial-
places must be dug out so deep that at least six feet of earth lies
upon the cadavers. When the latter are covered with lime, the
holes need be no deeper than to permit of three feet of earth cover-
ing the cadavers. The burial-places must be paved with stone, and
must remain in this condition for a period of three years ; where
this is impossible, they must be so inclosed that no animals can gain
access to them. During this time such places must not be used
either for agricultural or grazing purposes. These last regulations
have equal relation to wild animals which have perished or been
killed from anthrax.

" Excrements, blood, and other refuse from animals diseased
with or which have died of anthrax, as well as the manure, hay, and
straw in their stalls, must be either burned or buried. "When the
disease acquires an enzootic extension, a weekly examination of the

ANTHRAX, ETC. 353

animals in the infected locality may be ordered by the police ; it
must be performed by a state veterinarian. When the invasion is
ended, the police have to see that proper cleansing and disinfection
of the premises take place.

" The action of the above regulations ceases —

" 1. In isolated cases, when the diseased animals have recovered
or are dead or have all been killed, the cadavers removed, and the
locality thoroughly cleansed and disinfected.

" 2. In enzootic outbreaks, when fourteen days have elapsed
since the last diseased animal died or has been killed, and after
cleansing and disinfection have taken place according to law."

The ^^Foot-and-Moidh Disease " of Cattle^ S/ieepy Goats, and Sioine.

" When an outbreak of this disease has been confirmed under
conditions which threaten its rapid extension among the above-
named species of our domestic animals, the police may at once order
into action the necessary protective regulations without, in every
case, waiting for the opinion of the state veterinarian.

" The police authorities nuist notify the public, in the manner
fixed by law, of the first outbreak of this disease among the animals
of a district. At the same time they must warn the people against
the danger of infection from the consumption of uncooked milk
from diseased animals.

" The infected localities must be made known to the public by
means of inscriptions, ' Foot-and-Mouth Disease,' at prominent
points.

" The police must place the following restrictions upon the
owner and inhabitants of the infected localities : The diseased ani-
mals— swine, sheep, and cattle — or such as are in the stables with
them, must be restricted to the same. Healthy animals of the above
species from non-infected stables may be used for agi'icultural pur-
poses. But they can not leave the grounds of the owner without
special permission from the police, which, as a rule, is not to be
withheld when the animals to be removed are to be at once slaugh-
tered. Until the invasion has been declared at an end, the manure
from the infected farm can not be removed across or upon ways
which are passed over by animals of the same species from other
farms or places.

"Raw food can not be removed from the infected stables. Hides

can only be removed in a completely dried condition. The owner

can not allow strangers, or pei*sons uninterested in the care of the

sick animals, into the stable ; and also must have care that those

23

354 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

persons Laving tlie sick animals in charge do not leave the place
without first washing their hands, and changing the clothing and
shoes they have used about thetn. Dealers in animals and butchers
are forbidden to enter the infected grounds.

" The grazing of the sick animals, or those in the stable with
them, is to be forbidden when the situation of the fields is such that
grazing them is connected with danger of the extension of the dis-
ease to other animals. The sick animals and those with them may
be confined to their stables by the police, when it is impossible for
the owner to comply with the restrictions necessary to the preven-
tion of the disease extending.

" The sale of the milk in an uncooked condition for human con-
sumption is forbidden.

" When the disease has acquired an enzootic extension, all animal
markets, except those for horses, are to be forbidden in the locality,
and, when the circumstances require it, in adjoining localities. In
such cases the police may forbid ruminants being driven through
the streets of the infected district. The removal of these animals
from them can only take place with the consent of the authorities.
This permission shall not be denied when the animals are from non-
infected stables, and are destined for immediate slaughter. In these
cases the removal of manure can only take place from the infected
stables unc^er the control of the police. Signs bearing upon them
'Foot-and-Mouth Disease' must be placed upon the roads approach-
ing the infected district.

" "When the disease appears among animals at grass, the police
must make such restrictions and post such guards that animals from
these herds can not be driven off or others upon the infected pas-
tures. When this is impossible, the diseased animals must be re-
moved to places where they can be properly confined, and the graz-
ing-places isolated or plowed up with horses. Such grazing-places
must be indicated with the previously mentioned inscriptions.
Strangers and cattle-dealers are to be kept distant from them.

" When the disease appears among droves or animals in the way
of transport, it is the duty of the police to prevent the droves being
driven farther, and the animals quarantined.

" It is the duty of the authorities to see that the infected stables
or fields are properly cleansed and disinfected when the disease has
been declared at an end.

" The disease may be declared at an end when no new case
transpired within fourteen days from the healing, or removal of the
last case in the infected localities, and when the cleansing, etc., has

ANTHRAX, ETC. 355

been carried out accordin*::^ to law. The termination of the disease
is to be made known to the public in the appropriate organs."

Contagious Pleuro-jmeumoma of Cattle.

'' Tlie investigations of the official veterinarian with reference to
an outbreak of this disease must take place (as a rule) in the pres-
ence of the head man of the locality, or of an officer detailed by" the
local ]>olice for that purpose.

''If the existence of the disease is proven, or if strong suspi-
cions of the same exist, it is the duty of the veterinarian to as-
certain how long the suspicious phenomena have been noticed, if
the diseased or suspected animal has been in relation with other
cattle, if animals have been recently slaughtered from the same sta-
l>le or farm, or removed, when and where the suspected animal was
bought, and who the former owner was. The results of this ex-
amination are to be at once communicated to the police and the local
officers, in order that they may put the necessary laws in execution.
If the corresponding police regulations have not been ordered, and
the police representative was not present at the examination, it is
the duty of the official veterinarian to at once order a preliminary
separation and isolation of the diseased and suspected animals. It is
also the duty of the veterinarian to notify the owner or his represent-
ative in writing of these regulations. In necessary cases the official
veterinarian can require the presence of the head man of the town."

The Regulations in Case of Suspicion. — "The cattle of a farm
(or locality) which has been heretofore free from the disease are sub-
ject to the police observation when it has been confirmed ; that,
among the cattle, individuals are found which have been in re-
lations with animals having this disease within the last eight weeks ;
when the cattle in which the disease was suspected, before the
official examination, have been slaughtered, removed, or otlierwise
done away with. The police have to make a memorandum of
the number and characteristics (marks) of the animals in the sus-
pected locality, and to make such regulations that the owner or
his representative can not remove any cattle without the permission
of the police. It is the duty of the police to see that these regu-
lations are executed.

" After the lapse of four weeks, the police must order the otli-
cial veterinarian to make a second supervision of the cattle in the
suspected locality.

" If the official veterinarian can not at the time positively assert
that the disease exists among the animals, but if the examination

356 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

has confirmed the existence of suspicions phenomena which jnstify
the fear that an outbreak of the disease may take place, it is the
duty of the police to subject the stable to quarantine. The other
cattle of the place must be confined to the limits of the owner's
property. No cattle can be removed from the place, nor can food
materials be removed which may endanger the extension of the dis-
ease. The police may allow those animals which have not been
quarantined in the stable to be used for work in the fields of the
owner, or to graze when the fields or the ways to them are so situ-
ated that the cattle of other owners can not possibly be exposed to in-
fection. These regulations come to an end when the official veteri-
narian declares that suspicious phenomena no longer exist,"

In case the disease comes to an outbreak : " When the disease
has been confirmed, it is the duty of the police to give public no-
tice of the same in an appropriate manner. The infected locali-
ties are to be made known by inscriptions, ' Pleuro-pneumonia,'
being placed at prominent places.

" All the diseased or suspected animals must be discovered as
soon as possible. All cattle in the infected locality (farm or stable)
are to be looked upon as suspicious, inclusive of those which are
found in isolated stables. It is the duty of the police to kill at once
all animals which the official veterinarian shall pronounce diseased.
If a perfectly secure isolation is possible, the police may restrain
the above proceedings for a period of fourteen days, if the owner
urgently requests it. The suspected animals at the infected farms
must be subjected to quarantine. The removal of cattle or food
from such farms must be forbidden so far as there is danger of the
extension of the disease, though they may be used for work if such
can be done under proper restrictions. If the disease acquires a
considerable extension in a district, no cattle are to be allowed to be
driven from it, or introduced into it. In such case the holding of
cattle-markets must be forbidden, and, in necessary cases, in neigh-
boring places also.

" If the disease breaks out among cattle which are constantly
kept upon pastures, it is the duty of the police to order the diseased
animals killed ; such places must be so guarded that no cattle can
be driven on or from them. Such pastures must be indicated by
appropriate signs. If it is impossible to isolate such pastures, then
the remaining cattle must be removed to more suitable quarters. If
the disease is found among droves, or in cattle on the cars or in
canal-boats or other means of transport, then the police have to
order the diseased ones killed, and the remainder isolated.

AX Til RAX, ETC. 357

" In onler that the slaughtering of suspected or quarantined
cattle may immediately take place, the police are permitted to allow
their removal by rail or other closed conveyance, to such slaughter-
ing-places as are under the control of the state. This can only take
place where no possibility exists of their coming in contact with
other cattle. In such cases the police must give timely notice of
the arrival of the suspected cattle. The cattle must be slaughtered
subject to the supervision of an official veterinarian. This liberty
is not extended to already diseased animals.

" If suspected animals are removed in opposition to the above
regulations, or found in places where they have been forbidden, it
is the duty of the police to kill them at once. Animals which are
condenmed to be killed by the authorities must be slaughtered
under their inspection within the limits of the place (farm, etc.)
where they are found. The lungs of the slaughtered, and bodies of
those animals which have died, must be destroyed. They may be
skinned upon the named grounds. The flesh of the slaughtered
cattle can be removed after it has been cooled oflf. The hides can
only be removed from such places after they have become com-
pletely dried, unless they are directly delivered at a tannery.

" The cleansing and disinfection of the infected stables must be
controlled by the police, and must take place before the restrictive
regulations are relaxed. The police and veterinary official must re-
turn reports with reference to the execution of the laws.

'" The disease is to be declared at an end when all the cattle have
died or been condemned to slaughter ; when all the sick cattle have
been removed, and no new case has occurred within four months
from the last case of disease ; when no case of disease has sliown
itself among the cattle of the infected locality for a period of three
months after the last possible infection could have taken place. No
cattle can be removed from such places, save for the purpose of im-
mediate slaughter, until after the lapse of six months.

"• The police are to notify the public that the invasion is ended,
after the disinfection has been properly effected.''

Glanders.

" The examination of animals (liorse, mule, ass) by the official
veterinarian must take place, as a rule, in the presence of the head
man of the place, or a special representative of the police. If the
presence of the disease is confinned, or if there is a strong sus-
picion of the same, it is the duty of the veterinarian to ascertain
how long the suspicious phenomena have been noticed, if horses have

358 PRUSSIAN REGULATIOXS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

been lately sold from tlie place, or removed ; if tlie diseased or sus-
pected animals have been in relation with other horses ; if so, where
the same were bought, and from whom. The results of this exami-
nation are to be at once communicated in writing to the local police
and the head man of the place, in order that the requisite regulations
maj be placed in operation.

"If the regulations are not yet in active operation, and the rep-
resentative of the police was not present at the examination, it is the
peremptory duty of the official veterinarian to at once separate and
isolate the diseased or suspected horse. The veterinarian must also
at once notify the owner, or his representative, of these restric-
tions. A memorandum must at once be taken of the character-
istics and appearance of the diseased and susj)ected animals, and of
those horses which, although not yet diseased, have been in rela-
tion with them and others exposed to infection. The papers are to
be at once sent to the police, so that the regulations may be ]3ut in
force."

Protective Begulations. — " The public are to be notified by the
police in the usual manner. This notice may be dispensed with in
places of over 50,000 inhabitants with the consent of the Minister of
Agriculture."

When Glanders is proven. — " If the presence of the disease is
confirmed in a horse, it is to be at once killed. It must be done in
some isolated place. In the transport to such a locality care must
be taken that the diseased animal does not come in contact with
others of the same species."

Wheyi the Suspicion of Glanders exists. — " In the following
cases the suspected animals may be killed :

" {a.) When it can be proved that the suspected animals have
been in relation with diseased ones.

" (b) "When a suspicious nasal outflow, hard and swollen glands,
especially the intermaxillary space, suspicious nodules in the skin,
suspicious tumefaction of one or more limbs exists ; especially when
one or more of these phenomena are present at the same time ; or
when, at the same time, difficulty of respiration or staring hair is
present with some of these phenomena.

" (<?.) When, after the lapse of three months, the isolated horse
can not be declared free from suspicion by the official veterinarian.

" {d.) When suitable room can not be afforded for the isolation
of the suspected horse, or when other reasons exist to render inse-
cure the danger of further extension of the disease.

" When, in the above cases, the owner desires the animal to be at

ANTHRAX, ETC. 359

once killed, and this regulation is in the public interest, it is the
duty of the police to comply therewith.

" If the isolated horses are used contrary to the restrictions, or
found in places forbidden them, they are to be at once killed.

" Horses in which susjjicious phenomena have been diao;no8ti-
cated must be subjected to stable (juarantine until killed, or until they
are declared free from suspicion by the official veterinarian. The
owner must supply the necessaiy conveniences for such a purpose.
Such animals can not be removed from the stable without the con-
sent of the police. The grooms appointed to the care of the isolated
horses must be made aware of the danger of the transmission of the
disease to mankind. They must be forbidden any interference with
other horses, and must not be allowed to sleep in the infected sta-
ble. The racks, utensils, and other objects in the quarantined stable
can not be removed except with the permission of the police. If
necessary, such objects should be appropriately branded."

Horses In which Infection is to he suspected. — "All horses
which have stood in the same stable with glandered or suspected
animals, or which liave been in relation with them, but in which
at the time no suspicious phenomena are perceptible, are to be
isolated in special stables by the police. These horses must be sub-
jected to inspection by the official veterinarian every fourteen days.
This regulation is not to be applied to large towns or cities where
several approved veterinarians reside, when the owner brings the
horses in question to the veterinarian every eight days for examina-
tion ; the officer is to report to the police, in writing, the results of
each examination. So soon as a suspicion of glanders is confirmed,
the horse is to be at once confined and isolated. So long as the
horses thus subjected to observation are considered healthy, they
may be allowed to be used within the limits of the place in ques-
tion. Special permission from the police is necessary when the
horse is to be taken outside the limits of the place ; this can only bo
given when the use required of the horse is of such a nature that it
is not necessary to put him up in any other stable or shed. Such
police control is to be extended over at least three months. During
this period, the horse in question must not be brought into other
stables, or farms, or places, than those indicated by the police. If
such permission is given, the police control must be extended to
such places. If the police regulations are not strictly followed by
the owner, the horse is to be immediately quarantined in its stable.
It is the duty of the local police to see that the official veterinarian
subjects tlie quarantined horses to an examination at least once a

360 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

month. If the disease extends, if circumstances exist which make
such an extension probable, the police may order a special supervis-
ion, bj the official veterinarian, of all the horses owned in the place.
" The cadavers of horses diseased with glanders are to be either
chemically destroyed, or buried after the skin has been so cut as to
utterly destroy its value. The burial-places must be so deep that
at least four feet of earth covers the buried bodies. The selection of
the burial-place rests with the police. These regulations are not
applicable to horses at veterinary schools or other government es-
tabhshments, where they are requu"ed for educational or experi-
mental pui'poses. The disinfection and cleansing of stables in which
diseased animals have stood must take place under police super-
vision. A record of the same must be kept in writing.

• " The disease is declared at an end when all glanders-diseased or
suspected horses are dead, or when the latter have been declared
free by the veterinarian of the state. When no suspicious phenom-
ena have presented themselves during the course of the pohce con-
trol. When the cleansing and disinfection have been performed
and attested to.

" It is the duty of the police to make this known to the public
in the usual manner. This publication is not necessary in the large
cities and towns, where the presence of the disease, or its suspicion,
is not made public."

Variola Ovina.

" The outbreak of this disease in a flock of sheep is to be made
known, without delay, by the police, in the usual manner. The in-
fected place is to be indicated by appropriate inscriptions at promi-
nent points. The police have at the same time to quarantine all the
sheep at the infected locality. So far as circumstances will allow,
the visibly diseased are to be isolated from the apparently healthy
sheep. The owner of the sheep has to supply the proper conven-
iences for this purpose, and assist in carrying out the regulations.
The passage of such quarantined sheep to the pastures is only to be
permitted when the situation and nature of the pastures are such as
to forbid the extension of the disease, or such that police regula-
tions can attain this end."

The owner of the sheep has also to comply with the following
regulations :

'•' The removal of the manure from infected stables in such ways
or to such places that it would endanger the infection of sheep
from other places is to be forbidden, unless this danger can be
obviated by other police regulations. Hay and straw from the in-

ANTHRAX, ETC. 361

fected stables can not be removed. Shepherds and other persons
who have been in relation with the diseased sheep can not be em-
ployed in the care of those of other owners, or other sheep which
are not diseased. They can only leave the place after careful wash-
inof and change of clothing. Strangers and butchers must not be
admitted to the infected stables. Common washing-places can not
be used for the diseased sheej). Diseased sheep can only be washed
by pei'sons who are to be forbidden coming in relation with other
sheep within the succeeding ten days. The wool from such sheep
can onlv be removed from the place when closely packed, and then
only with the permission of the police.

" Sheep are to be placed under police observation in those cases
where an outbreak of the disease can not be securely determined,
but when the official veterinarian declares the case to be decidedly
suspicious. This observation is to be given up when, after the lapse
of fourteen days, the official veterinarian declares that no suspicious
phenomena have been seen in the sheep.

"When the situation of the individual outbreak is such that a
complete isolation of the diseased sheep is pronounced impossible
for any length of time, or when the general interest demands the
speediest possible termination of the outbreak, it becomes the duty
of the police to occasion the speediest possible inoculation of all the
sheep in the district. The police must strictly attend to the neces-
sary restrictions. Such inoculations can only take place under the
supervision of an official veterinarian.

" When the disease breaks out in flocks in transit, they arc
to be at once subjected to quarantine. No inoculation of sheep
by owners can take place without the consent of the police. The
notification of such intention must be handed in at least eight
days before the inoculation is to take place. The district police
nmst at once notify the public that such inoculation is to take place,
and, so far as the district is not under their control, they must notify
the neighboring police of the fact. The above-given regulations are
then to ])e applied to the inoculated sheep in the same manner as if
the disease had broken out in a natural way.

"The slaughtering of such diseased sheep for human consump-
tion is forbidden.

"The cadavers of sheep which have died, or been killed, on ac-
count of variola, must be chemically destroyed, or, where this is
impossible, buried. The burial-places must be so deep that at least
four feet of earth lies upon the bodies. Such sheep may be
skinned, but the skins can not be removed except with the permis-

362 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

sion of the police, and then only when perfectly dry, or for direct
delivery to a tannery.

" The infected stables or pens must be cleansed and disinfected
according to law.

" The disease may be declared as ended when the official veteri-
narian has declared all the sheep at the infected place free from the
disease.

"The regulations are, however, to be held in force for two
months after the disease has been declared as ended. Sheep in full
wool can only be removed from such places after four months from
the time the disease was declared at an end. At the cessation of
all restrictions, the same must be made known by the police in the
usual way."

Rabies of the Domestic Animals.

Dogs. — "Dogs in which signs of rabies appear, or which indicate
suspicious phenomena, must either be at once killed by the owner
or those having them in charge, or be placed in secure confinement
until tlie police have determined what is to be done with them.

" When a human being or an animal is bitten by a dog which is
suspected as being rabid, or been in any relation with such, which
renders infection probable, the suspected dog is not to he killed, hut
he safely secured, when such can he done without further danger,
until the police decide upon the course to take.

" The transport of a dog in which rabies is suspected, with the
purpose of confinement, must take place in a closed vehicle, or the
dog must be securely muzzled and well chained with two chains be-
tween two conductors.

" It is the duty of the local police to immediately cause the ex-
amination of a dog suspected of rabies by an official veterinarian,
or, when time would be lost in waiting for the attendance of the
latter, by an approved veterinarian.

" If there is a well-founded suspicion that the suspected dog had
been in relation with a rabid or suspected dog, the dog must be se-
curely confined and watched for a period of six days, if the exami-
nation of the veterinarian does not at once confirm the suspicion.
If the dog lives over this time, and no suspicious phenomena ap-
j)ear, he is to be discharged.

" If a dog suspected of rabies is at once killed, or if it dies during
confinement, it is the duty of the police to order a jpost-mortem ex-
amination by an official veterinarian, if there has been any proba-
bility of men or animals having been bitten by the same, or if the
said dog has been roaming over the country.

AXTDRAX, ETC. 863

" If the presence of the disease is confirmed, it is the duty of the
police to make it known to the public in the usual way. Dogs in
whifh the disease has been diagnosed, must be at once killed. It
is further the duty of the police to at once kill all dogs which have
been bitten by the rabid dog, as well as such as have been in rela-
tion with it so as to render tlie possibility of infection iinmincnt.

'' When a rabid or suspected dug is known to be freely running
over a section of the country, it is the duty of the police to order all
other dugs in the district securely confined. All places in which
the rabid or suspected dog has been seen are to be looked upon as
dangerous, as well as a territory extending four kilometres be-
yond them. If the suspicion is unfounded, the confined dogs are
again to be freed from the restriction ; if, on the contrary, the
suspicion becomes confirmed, the restrictions are to be extended
over a period of at least three months. If dogs are found free in
opposition to these restrictions, they may be at once killed by the
police. In such places where dogs are obliged to wear muzzles,
these restrictions need not be called into force. These restrictions
are further not to be extended to dogs which are used for draught,
when they are firmly harnessed to wagons, and are securely muzzled ;
shepherds may also be allowed to use their dogs. So long as the
disease has acquired no considerable extension, dogs may be used
for the purpose of hunting, on the condition that they be securely
muzzled and led by chains or strong cords, at all times and places
except those where they are hunted."

Cats. — These are to be killed.

Other Domestic AnimaU. — "Other animals which have been
bitten or in such relation with a rabid or suspected dog as to render
infection probable, must be placed under technical observation for
the time fixed by law, unless the owner prefers to kill them. The
duration of this observation is, for horses, three months ; cattle,
four months ; slieep, goats, and swine, two months. So long as the
animals are pronounced healthy by the official veterinarian, they
may be used for work. But if they display phenomena which serve
to confirm the suspicion of nibies, it is the duty of the owner to
notify the police thereof. The latter have to order the examination
of the animal in question by an official veterinarian ; if he confirms
the suspicion, the animal is to be confined to its stable. If the dis-
ease becomes confirmed, the animal is to be killed by order of the
police. No attempt at treatment can be undertiikcn under penalty
of the law."

Regxdationfi icith reference to all Animals. — "Xo rabid animals

364: PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

are to be slaughtered, skinned, or used in any manner, nor is the
milk or other parts of them to be sold. The cadavers of animals
which have died or been killed on account of rabies are to be either
chemically destroyed, or, after the skin has been destroyed, buried.
Autopsies upon such cadavers can only be made by approved veteri-
narians. It is the duty of the police to select the spot where such
dogs shall be buried, or otherwise destroyed. The straw of the
kennels, wooden utensils used about them, and wooden dog-kennels
must be burned. Stall-utensils of other animals which have been
rabid, and killed, must be cleaned with hot lye-water. Iron utensils
must be highly heated. The stables must be cleansed, the walls and
floors cleansed with hot lye-water and chloride of Hme."

Dismfectants.

' ' Potash and Soda. — Potash-lye is to be prepared by cooking
one part crude potash with ten of water, and by adding gradually
one part of slaked lime. Instead of potash, four times the quantity
of wood-ashes may be used. Soda-lye is to be prepared in the same
manner. These preparations are more suitable for cleansing wood-
work.

" Freshly-slaTced lime is to be used in a dry form for covering
cadavers, or as lime-water for washing over walls, mixing with ma-
nure or other refuse. Hides may be disinfected by placing them in
a strained solution of one part lime to sixty or eighty water.

" Common Salt and Saltpeter. — Hides, flesh, intestines, bones,
horns, claws, etc., may be treated with these salts, by laying them
in layers or piles thoroughly mixed with them, or by placing them
in a strong solution of the same.

" Chlorine may be used in different ways :

" As gas, in the disinfection of stables. Gas is easily and quickly
prepared by pouring double the weight of muriatic acid upon chlo-
ride of lime, or equal parts of sulphuric acid upon the same. Or it
can be prepared by pouring strong (commercial) muriatic acid upon
a quantity of small pieces of peroxide of manganese, or by pouring
strong sulphuric acid upon a powdered mixture of three parts com-
mon salt and two of peroxide of manganese. A solution of chlo-
ride of lime can be made by mixing one part of the same with ten
of water.

" Hypermanganate of potash and soda are mixed with water,
and four to five per cent solutions used for washing the hands, in-
struments, etc.

" Carbolic acid is not to be used where animals destined for

ANTHRAX, ETC. 365

slaughter or milk purposes are being kept, on account of its pene-
trating odor. It is only soluble in water to two per cent, but a com-
plete solution is unnecessary for disinfection purposes. In the dis-
infection of wooden or iron objects, a mixture of the crude acid
with four to six parts water or oil is suthcient. Coal-tar or wood-
tar also act as fair disinfectants at times.

'" Heat. — Dnj heat in closed 7'oams, when the temperature has
been raised to 70° C, makes a very good disinfectant for clothing,
wool, liair, bones, etc.

" Hot ivater and steam are valuable in destroying the germs of
infection.

'■''Fire is to be used to destroy contaminated wood-work, and
cleansing various iron utensils.

" A free exposure for a long time to the circulating atmosphere
is often valuable in so widely dispersing the infectious elements as
to nullify their action."

Disinfection with Reference to the Different Contagious or Infec-
tious Animal Diseases.

Anthrax. — " The infectious elements of this disease possess a
great degree of tenacity. They are not securely destroyed by des-
iccation, or by the dry dissolution of the cadaver in the earth.
Chemicals used in disinfection must be of the strongest concentra-
tion. Great heat, chloride of lime, and freshly-slaked lime (thick)
are amonoj the best. The beddin^r and manure of diseased animals
must be burned. Blood or other fluid elements from the diseased
animals must be treated with chloride of lime or freshly-burned
lime ; four or five per cent carbolic acid solutions are suitable for
the disinfection of the hands, instruments, etc.

Foot- and- Mouth Disease. — " The infectious elements are quite
movable and easily destroyed ; therefore, the disinfection of infected
stables may be limited to a thorough cleaning.

Contafjions Pleuro-jmeinnonia. — " The infectious elements are
movable, and come from the diseased lungs with the expired air,
filling the atmosphere around the diseased animals, and being again
taken up by the others in the stable. AVhere the nature of the
conditions will allow it, the stables are to be treated with weak
chlorine-gas ; this is not necessary with animals at the public
slaughter-houses. In staliles where the hay and straw are situ-
ated over diseased cattle, the superficial parts must be careful-
ly removed, and not used for feeding cattle after the diseased
ones have been removed. Stables in which only animals that have

366 PRUSSIAN REGULATIONS FOR CONTAGIOUS DISEASES.

gone through with the disease are confined, do not require disin-
fection."

Glanders. — " The infectious elements retain their vitality a long
time, and are very tenacious. Stables or rooms in which glandered
horses have stood, the racks and other paraphernalia which are used
about tbe diseased horses, must be carefully cleansed and disinfected.
Clothes and brushes, etc., used about the diseased horses must be
burned ; chains heated hot ; but harnesses, etc., may be thoroughly
cleaned and disinfected."

Variola Ovina. — " The infectious elements soon lose their vi-
tality on exposure to the moving atmosphere ; hence are easily dis-
turbed. The manure and the walls of the pens, however, retain
it a long time, and are to be treated accordingly."

Rabies. — " The straw, wood-work, utensils, muzzles, collars, etc.,
must be burned. The other disinfection is according to the usual
course."

PART III.
THE MEAXS OF PREYEXTIOX.

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM.

AsroE from those animal diseases which are transmissible to
man, there are contagious animal diseases which are limited to spe-
cial species. We have now well domesticated with us one of the
very worst of these evils — contagious pleuro-pneumonia of cattle.
It is not my purpose to enter into any historical notice of this dis-
ease, either in Europe or this country. Its first most extensive rav-
ages were felt here, in Massachusetts, between 1860 and 1SG8, the
disease being finally crushed out at a cost of some sixty thousand dol-
lars. In September, 1879, I received a letter from one of the com-
missioners of the State of New York for the suppression of this dis-
ease, in which he says that over five hundred diseased cattle had
already been killed by the autliorities, and some seven hundred
more, which were either suspected or had surely been exposed to
infection, causing an actual loss, exclusive of the ofiicial expenses,
of not less than fifty or sixty thousand dollars.

Tliis disease has now spread over many of our seaboard States,
being domesticated surely as far north as Connecticut, and as far
south as Northern Virginia. It has not as yet been sufficiently
proved that it has crossed the Alleghany Mountains, but, unless
our people wake up to the urgencies of the case, it will surely ex-
tend to the herds of the AVest, and then we can give up all ho[)c of
ever becoming free from it. A peculiarity of this disease, which it
enjoys in common with glanders, is the insidiousness of its course
during its early stages. An animal may be diseased for weeks, or
even months, without showing any striking indications that a dis-
ease having such a truly devastating character is progressing within
it. During all this time it is capable of infecting others. The fol-
lowing report, taken from the " Turf, Field, and Farm," January

368 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

16, 18S0, will give an idea of what the authorities in New Jersey are
endeavoring to do, and have done.

Eepokt by the Sukgeon-in-Chief to Genekal Steeling, the Gov-
ernor's Agent for the Prevention of the Spread of Pleuro-
pneumonia IN the State of ]N^ew Jersey.

249 Washington Street, Jersey City, N. J., )
December 15, 1S79. \

Sir : In compliance with your instructions, I have the honor to
submit my report of the details and operations under my charge as
Yeterinary Surgeon-in-Chief of the Bureau.

I found it necessary to organize a staff of six qualified veterina-
rians to assist in carrying out the provisions of the law entitled
"An Act to prevent the spread of Epizootic, Contagious Pleuro-
pneumonia among Cattle in New Jersey." (See Chapter 89 of the
Laws of the State of New Jersey, approved March 13, 1879.)
Much work having been done in Bergen County, and no disease
having been found, and reports having come to the office that the
disease was present in Hudson County, the inspectors were assigned
to work there.

Every herd has been carefully examined, and when the disease
has been found, the animals have either been destroyed or the sta-
bles quarantined and the stock carefully watched. The dairymen
had been in the habit of pasturing their stock indiscriminately on
the public commons, this being a source of spreading the disease.

It became necessary to take some steps to control it. With that
object in view, the Police Commissioners of Jersey City were con-
sulted, and they caused an order to be issued prohibiting the driv-
ing of all cattle through the streets, unless accompanied by a permit
issued from this office. On July 7th it became necessary to quar-
antine Essex County to facilitate inspections, which, when com-
pleted, showed, as a result, that the stock was, with a few excep-
tions, healthy. The other counties have only been inspected in
localities where the disease was reported to exist, and the herds in
the immediate neighborhood have been examined to ascertain the
extent of the spread of the malady. Having been made aware of
the existence of the disease in Pennsylvania, and arrangements hav-
ing been perfected, four veterinarians were dispatched to the west-
ern frontier of the State, one to be stationed at Bull's Island and
one at Trenton, these to examine all cattle arriving between Cam-
den and Phillipsburg, and two at Camden, to examine all stock ar-
riving between that point and Salem, with instructions to return all

A NATIONAL VETErJNARY POLICE SYSTEM. 369

stock found infected witli contagious pleuro-pncunionia. On Au-
gust IS, 1879, regular examinations were commenced on that bor-
der, and the results obtained have shown the necessity of the meas-
ures taken.

Four months' inspections have discovered sixteen lots of diseased
cattle containing 217 head, forty of which were found infected with
contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and, with the rest, sent back to Phila-
delphia.

These are only the positive results obtained ; the farmers have
been greatly benetited by receiving a nnich better grade of cattle
than heretofore, as the dealers buy only healthy stock, knowing by
experience that it would be useless to attempt to pass any other kind.

IIoio the Work is heing done. — Finding a strong feeling of an-
tipathy existing among the people against the introduction of radical
measures, and with a view of obviating that feeling, the inspectors
were instructed to exercise discretion and extend courtesy toward
those with whom they came in contact while in the discharge of
their duties, and to report all interference on the part of the people
to this office, where the case would receive due consideration.

This course, I am happy to say, has been productive of excellent
results, as far as removing all feeling of opposition and inducing
cattle-owners to look upon the inspectors as a source of protection.

The Method of makbig Inspections. — In order to facilitate the
work, a detective, who is thoroughly acquainted with the city, pre-
cedes the inspectors, locating the stables, number of cattle, etc.,
which he reports to this office. The inspectors are then provided
with lists of the same, with jirinted forms of quarantine notices, and
instructed to proceed to the places, make a careful examination, and
if any diseased animals are found, to mark them by clipping the
hair from the right gluteal region, forming the letters P. P., with
a cross-cut through the skin between with a sharp scalj)el, while
those standing contiguous to, or having been in contact with them,
being thereby rendered liable to develop the malady, are simply
marked with the Jettere and isolated to await further developments.

The stable is then quarantined by placing a printed notice on
the building, and at the close of the day's labor the inspectors return
to the office where, upon printed forms, a report of the number, lo-
cation, and condition of each herd is made, which is placed upon tile
for further reference. As soon as compatible we then proceed to the
infected herd, make a careful rcinspection, and determine what
should be done under the circumstances. The owner being first con-
sulted by stating to him the case with its probable results, and if it is

24

370 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

necessary to kill in order to prevent the spread of tlie malady, he is
so informed, and the animals are taken out, destroyed, their hides
slashed, and the carcasses, if in the city limits, carted away by the
offal contractor ; if not, they are buried.

The remaining animals, though showing no diseased condition,
are looked upon with suspicion from having been in contact with
the infection, and when in proper condition are sent to the butcher,
where they are slaughtered under the supervision of an inspector.
In some cases where the animals are in a safe locality, so that
there is no danger of the disease spreading, though having passed
through a slight attack of the malady, but evidently making a rapid
recovery, it is considered prudent to keep them in quarantine until
they can be fitted for the butcher, and the flesh utilized for human
consumption.

After the manure, litter, and all material having a tendency to
retain infection has been removed from the stable, it is then thor-
oughly disinfected, and ninety days afterward, if the owner is de-
sirous, the quarantine is removed, and new cattle allowed on the
premises.

Dealers. — One of the worst difficulties we have been called upon
to overcome is the dealer, a sharp, shrewd, unscrupulous, unprin-
cipled person, who studies to take advantage of the unsophisticated
dairyman, and even the Bureau, whenever the opportunity presents.
His favorite method is to go to a stable where diseased animals are
known to be kept, procure one in the early stages of the malady,
take it to a healthy herd, where its presence will soon occasion an
outbreak, when he will stand ready to purchase the diseased animals
at his own price and put them upon the market to be used for beef.

Investigation has shown that such a course has been jDroductive
of a great deal of trouble, and we have considered it necessary to
restrict them in their manner of dealing, in order to arrest the
spread of the malady. With that object in view, we have intro-
duced a system of granting ^^^';?i2Y5, requiring all those desirous of
moving cattle to call at this office, where they are required to give
their name, number, or residence, number of cattle and where they
wish to take them. If, upon consulting our books, the person does
not appear as having cattle that have been previously inspected, an
inspector is directed to the place, who makes an examination, and
if the animals are found free from disease, as well as the place where
they are destined to go, a printed form of permit is granted from
this office allowing their removal.

By this means they may be traced at any time, and any effort

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEil. 371

on the part of the deiiler to traffic in unheahhy animals is prevented.

This course proves a positive protection to the purchaser, as
well as requiring the dealer to traffic only in healthy stock and
secure biin a good reputation, however much lie may desire other-
wise. All cattle leaving infected j)laces must be accompanied by
a permit which admits of their being taken only to places of
slaughter, where, under the supervision of an inspector, they arc
destroyed, and a proper disposition made of the carcasses.

lie Inspection. — When cattle have assumed a risk, but not act-
ually presenting s}nnptoms of the malady, and while awaiting its
incubation, it has always been the custom, in this as well as in
European countries, to practice occision ; but, believing that pro-
ceediug to be an expensive experiment, we have adopted the rule
of allowing the animals to remain in provisional quarantine ; and
from time to time making reinspcctions, by which means we are
able to keep the stable under surveillance during the incubative
period, when, if the disease does not appear, the quarantine is raised
and the stock declared healthy. This manner of proceeding being
a departure from the rule adopted in European countries, is looked
upon with disfavor by foreign veterinarians, notwithstanding expe-
rience has taught us that it has been productive of a great saving to
this State, Several stables, containing a number of cattle, were
during the spring months quarantined in consequence of finding
one or more diseased animals in them, which were removed and de-
stroyed, and the stables subjected to an occasional reinspeetion until
six months had elapsed, when, no further disease being manifest,
the quarantine was raised and the premises declared free from all
contagious disease. After carefully computing the cost of conduct-
ing these reinspcctions, and couqxiring it with the necessary expense
following the destruction of the cattle, there is a handsome balance
in favor of the former method.

Miatahn Theories. — Nine months' constant intercourse with
"epizootic contagious pleuro-pneumonia" has established the fact
that many erroneous ideas have been allowed to creep into the
minds of the people in regard to the nature, character, means of
]irevention, etc., of the malady, and foremost among them is inocic-
hition.

A so-called preventive means of avoiding the spread of the mal-
ady is practiced with varying success. The following are the views
of two eminent authorities on the subject.

Professor Liautard, Dean of the American Veterinary College,
says :

372 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

" The prophylaxis of inoculation, efficient as it may be in an
epizootic outbreak, certainly has no claims for adoption in connec-
tion with the disease as it now exists, for it would only prove one
of the surest methods of spreading the malady, while our aim should
be to confine it to its present quarters, and then eradicate it at what-
ever cost the method may entail."

Referring to the subject, Clater says :

"■ Inoculation has been practiced with questionable success. Ex-
periments professing to be for the object of testing the efficacy of
direct inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia have been recommended
and practiced with great looseness. The peculiarly subtle character
of a contagious disease is not sufficiently weighed with care. It is
a very general practice to recommend and adopt the remedy after
an animal has succumbed to the affliction. We contend, therefore,
that inoculation in such cases is no test of efficacy, as with the exist-
ence of pleuro-pneumonia upon the farm, no one can arrive at a safe
conclusion whether the consequence of the malady has really re-
sulted from a direct cause or from the artificial means employed.

"All the profitable terminations of pleuro-pneumonia have been
witnessed in its unmolested march through a herd when inoculated ;
hence our disbelief in the sufficiency of the evidence at present be-
fore us."

The results of investigation are so conflicting, indefinite, and at
variance with seeming facts, that it is not by any means established
that any degree of success has ever been obtained by its use.

There is not a single instance, so far as we have been able to
learn, where it has been resorted to until after the malady had act-
ually attacked a herd, when more or less of its number might rea-
sonably be supposed to have assumed a risk.

Now, since all authorities are agreed to the fact that its incuba-
tive period ranges all the way from ten to ninety days, we can not
see how its application could affect an animal when applied at about
the time it should be assuming an acute character, unless we can go
a step further and claim for it a curative effect. In the face of the
fact that the malady often exhausts itself with attacking but one or
two animals out of a herd of many and the rest suffering immunity ;
also that the disease often breaks out in the same herd after inocu-
lation has been performed, as well as the negative results following
its use in England, Belgium, Australia, and other countries where
the disease has existed for a long time — we think there is but little
doubt, notwithstanding it has a few advocates, that it has thus far
proved inert to accomplish the desired result, and that we must

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM. 373

look elsewhere for a more substantial means of eradicating the
disease.

Careful investi«!^ations recently prosecuted from this office in-
duce us to fully coincide in the above view of the subject.

In this month's issue of the " Veterinary Journal/' Mr. George
Fleming, in an editorial article, takes strong ground in favor of the
treatment which he bases upon the result of experiments conducted
at Edinburgh, Scotland, by a Mr. Rutherford, recently from Aus-
tralia, lie also claims advantages following its application tliere,
which are at variance with the true facts in the case. "\Ve have
made some eflfort to obtain information as to how it is received
there, and find it is looked upon with a good deal of disfavor,

AVe also know that, notwithstanding it has been practiced for a
number of years, the country is still overrun by the malady. Sup-
pose its introduction did confer immunity, we believe it would still,
owing to its cost, be impracticable. We have in this State 236,000
head of cattle, all of which it would be absolutely necessary to in-
oculate to use this method, and when we consider the time required
to reach the herd, and consumed in introducing the virus, with the
cost of the necessarily diseased animals which have to be destroyed
in order to obtain a supply of virus, we may safely compute it at
fifty cents per head, establishing a first cost, to either the State or
the individual farmer, of not less than $118,00(> ; besides, it would
be necessary for the first few years to treat the offspring of that
immense number of stock, entailing an increased expense.

Other Diseases. — Many reported cases, in young stock, upon in-
vestigation, prove to be the result of the presence in the bronchial
tubes of the parasite Stron/julus filai'lce^ species Micruris. In
some localities it exists to an alarming extent, causing a severe mor-
tality.

Its symptoms being similar to pleuro-pneumonia, it is usually
mistaken by the farmers for that disease. It readily yields to scien-
tific treatment; but, owing to the immense loss it entails, should
receive legislative consideration. Ilog-cholera, likewise, exists in
the southern part of the State, and is creating a good deal of alarm,
but, not coming within the provisions of the act under which we
are working, has received but little attention. It is a subject that
also calls for legislative action.

Nt'W FacU. — That we meet forms of pleuro-pneumonia varying
in degrees of vinilence is beyond question, and to that fact may be
attributed the difference of opinion in regard to the efficacy of in-
oculation. "When, as frequently found, the malady will run through

374 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

a herd, causing perhaps the loss of but one or two out of a large
number of animals, and affecting the remainder to so slight a degree
that the layman can scarcely appreciate it, we must admit it differs
widely from that form which (under similar circumstances) causes a
mortality of fifty and sometimes sixty per cent. To the former type
may be traced the cause for the disputed question. Does an animal
once affected ever recover ? We are inclined to the negative side
of the question : after having destroyed a number of cases that have
passed through a mild attack of the malady, we have found upon
examination lung lesions generally in an encapsulated form.

These cases we are willing to admit are perfectly safe to mingle
in a herd, so long as the capsule walling up the disease-germs re-
mains intact, but if it should break down, a condition we may very
reasonably look for, and those germs be allowed to escape, shall we
not have another outbreak ? If it is true, as claimed, that the dis-
ease-germs are imprisoned and lie dormant in the lung for months,
even years, the question very naturally presents itself, Do they in
the mean time lose their infecting principle? Until this vexed
question is settled beyond doubt, we advise as a means of preven-
tion the destruction of all such cases.

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

Ja3ies C. Coelies, D. Y. S.

To General W. H. Sterling, 249 Washington Street, Jersey City, N. J.

The following is a summary of the work accomplished : I^umber
of cattle inspected, 40,309 ; diseased, 572, of which 315 were de-
stroyed.

It will be seen from this report that " dealers " in cattle are a
source of great trouble to those intrusted with the execution of laws
against contagious animal diseases.

I wish also to express my earnest opposition to inoculation, so
far as it may be advocated as a preventive means for this country.
Were it absolutely necessary that every head of cattle in this coun-
try should have the disease, either in a natural or artificial form, in
order to put a stop to its ravages, then this procedure would be jus-
tifiable. At present it is not. The disease has not as yet acquired
any very devastating extension, although, from the want of really
competent veterinarians, it is doubtful if we know exactly to what
degree it has extended in all the States where it is now domesticated.
We shall know in time to our cost. Were our people so educated
that they could really appreciate the truly devastating character of
this animal pest ; were our legislators at all adequate to the demands

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM. 876

we Lave a right to make upon thom, there would not be an isolated
case of lung-plague in this country in six months from this time.
Alas I unity of action is the last thing to bo expected of an Ameri-
can Congress. While political pettifoggers are squabbling over party-
bones, the people are being daily robbed of millions of dollars by
the ravages of different animal pests, and that other pest, equally
dangerous, quacks.

If all the cattle having this disease could be at once killed and
paid for by the Government ; if all suspected animals, which in-
cludes all which have been in contact with them, could be isolated
and quarantined, or else at once killed, and sold for flesh ; if it were
possible to subject all cattle entering our territory from Canada or
from across the Atlantic to an appropriate quarantine — then we
might soon be rid of this destroyer, and keep it foreign to our
shores. This is impossible at present. "We have not the necessary
laws, and it is still more doubtful if we have at our command the
necessary number of qualified veterinarians.

I wish to say a word about cattle-inspection at points of delivery.
In one sense of the word it is useless. Unless an inspector knows
that a given lot of cattle have come from a suspected locality, he has
no more right to condemn them for pleuro-pncumonia contagiosa
than for an ordinary pneumonia before an autopsy has been made.
Many people seem to think that it is easy to recognize this disease
in the living animal, whether one knows the history of the case or
not. In truth, no two animal diseases present so many difficulties
in the way of recognition of their true character as this disease
and pulmonary glanders. The differential diagnosis between a de-
veloped case of lung-plague in cattle and tuberculosis is by no
means difficult, although many would have it that it is so. All cat-
tle, or other animals destined for transport, should have a "clean
bill of health" signed bj' a State veterinarian at the place of pur-
chase, and attested to by the proper legal official. This should be
an invariable nde of animal transport. With this precaution, and
careful regulation of the cattle during transport, there is but little
danger of the spread of such diseases from one point to another. It
is evident that, if the laws in the respective States were different
in this regard, all action would be made null and void. All pneu-
monias are not pleuro-pneumonia ; yet, how is the inspector at the
place of destination or final shipment to distinguish one from the
other, unless he knows the history, or has condemned one to necro-
scopical examination ? The truth is, but few veterinarians in this
country really know the pathological character of an ordinary bovine

376 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

pneumonia. Cattle are so phlegmatic, they can endure so much,
that but very few of them die from this disease ; yet it is a fact of
pathological interest, at least, that the fully developed simple pneu-
monia of cattle is the only form among our domestic animals which
bears a strong resemblance to the cheesy pneumonia of man.

Mr. John Gamgee says that "England loses two million pounds
sterling annually from this disease." *

Fleming says : " The losses from only two exotic bovine mala-
dies (contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and the so-called 'foot-and-
mouth disease ') have been estimated to amount, during the thirty
years that have elapsed since our ports were thrown open to foreign
cattle, to 5,549,780 head, roughly estimated at £83,616,854. The
late invasion of ' cattle-plague,' which was suppressed within two
years of its introduction, has been calculated to have caused a money
loss of from five to eight millions of pounds. But these examples
and estimates, after all, give but a slender idea of the devastation,
misery, embarrassment, and loss that have been due to ignorance,
apathy, and neglect of the teachings of veterinary science, which
must, nevertheless, claim the merit of having conclusively demon-
strated that the most formidable diseases can be readily repressed,
or altogether abolished, though not by attempting to cure them, and,
having done this, nothing more remains than to indicate the steps
necessary to make the legislation of a wise government effective in
its dealings with animal plagues in general." f

It is scarcely possible for us to comprehend the monetary loss
this disease has caused since its history began, not to speak of the
misery it has brought upon many poor people.

There is at present but one rule for its treatment : No temporiz-
ing. Immediate slaughter, and redemption by the Government.

We have, fortunately, not yet been visited by the rinderpest.
Should that day ever come, there will be mourning in the land —
Columbia weeping for her property, and little comfort will she get
from church or State, unless we mend our ways and act more intelli-
gently.

The people of this country have no idea as to the real nature of a
contagious animal disease. To this end it may be possible that they
need the presence of this destroyer. The horse epizootic of 1871
and 1872 was certainly infectious enough, but this disease is equally
infectious, and so much more devastating that it is impossible for
words to fitly express it. It is not slow and sneaking in its prog-

* " Report on the Cattle Diseases in the United States," Washington, 1871.
I " Animal Plagues," introduction, p. xxxiv.

A NATIONAL VETERINAKY POLICE SYSTEM. 377

ress. It breaks loose in a ni^lit ; ay, in an hour; and, like a (lemon
incarnate, it frequently sweeps the bovine family before it. Russia
loses millions every year from it. Germany scarcely passes free
from its ravages for any single year, though they are at present
very quickly stamped out. In 1878 she lost 2,500 cattle, having a
value of about half a million dollars. England lost some twenty-tive
million dollars' worth of cattle in the last great invasion which she
suffered in 1805, 1800, and 1807.

AVe have in this country the " Texas disease " of cattle, the real
nature or causes of which we at present know very little about. It
produces no inconsiderable loss each year, however, and the States,
the frontiers of which border on lands where this disease seems to be
domesticated, have been obliged to make laws regulating the traflfic
in cattle. The Agricultural Connnissioner pretends to give some
statistics with reference to the losses the people suffer from swine-
plague. In 1870 it was reported that the loss from this disease
alone amounted to some 820,000,000. The report for 1878 gives
$30,000,000 as the amount of loss to the country from all conta-
gious animal diseases. These are estimates — nothing more. It is
absolutely impossible to gain any reliable statistics in a country
where there is no system of veterinary laws or an efficient veteri-
nary police. The value of reliable statistics, with reference to the
extension of contagious disease among our animals, can not be over-
estimated. Until we have them, it will be useless to hope for much
conformable legislation. Every observing citizen must at once per-
ceive the immense tax which these diseases impose upon the nation.

It is highly probable that, were the real facts known, their rav-
ages have cost the people more in the last hundred years of our ex-
istence than our national debt amounts to.

Every one should know that, if not absolutely preventable, yet it
is possible for a competent veterinary police to reduce these losses to
a very low minimum.

Cxermany, with its efficient code of laws and veterinary police, is
continually proving this ; while Britain and ourselves as frequently
give proof of the incapacity of our respective Governments in this
regard.

Xo preventioii can be hope<l for until we have the neces.sary
implements to work with. These implements are a national code
of police laws, corresponding to the results obtained by modern sci-
entific investigation, and an efficient body of educated veterinari-
ans to execute them. With reference to the latter, men of very
ordinary education can do the " pole-axe " business ; the graduates

378 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

of our present American veterinary colleges being equal to that,
while they are utterly incapable of doing the higher state-work —
i. e.j making researches into the causes and nature of disease. This
is no reflection upon them personally. It is upon conditions which
do not give men desiring them suitable opportunities for acquiring
an education which would fit them for this work. At present, how-
ever, we have to do with the question of a national code of veteri-
nary police laws. This word " national " is a peculiar bugbear to
many people in this country, who can not rise above party affilia-
tions or sectional jealousy. Ifatioyial does mean centralization —
nothing else. The question to be considered — and in politics it is a
truly scientific one — is, how much centralization is necessary for the
good of the whole country, and how much individuality can be al-
lowed the respective States, without their interfering with the rights
of each other. We have in this country a singular phenomenon. We
have multiplied the sacred rights of the individual to such a degree
that the masses have scarcely any rights left. We are continually
in fear of trampling upon the rights of the individual. In doing
this, we forget that the masses have still greater rights. IS'o indi-
vidual has any right to pursue a course or suffer considerations
which endanger the property or interfere with the rights of the
masses. Unfortunately, instead of " the masses," we act as if one
individual is alone to be considered. It is this "right of the British
freeman " which has been the chief obstacle to the suppression of
contagious animal diseases in Britain. I do not think our American
citizens are such obstinate and ignorant sticklers for their individual
rights as Englishmen. In conversing with a number of intelligent
farmers in the vicinity of Boston, where pleuro-pneumonia had pre-
vailed in times past, I found that they were mostly entirely unac-
quainted with the true purposes of the laws for the suppression of
this disease. As is well known, Massachusetts deported herself
most energetically and creditably at this time, successfully extermi-
nating the disease, and keeping it from her borders ever since.
These farmers seemed, however, to have the idea that they, or their
neighbors, or town, had been most unjustly treated. They had
never gained the idea that, by slaughtering all the cattle of a few
owners, those of the majority were saved, and the town spared a
much greater loss. The rights of the individual are as nothing
when those of the masses are endangered ; yet it is the duty of the
latter to amply remunerate the former for the loss they have caused
him to incur for their 2>i'otection. This is the sole and only prin-
ciple which should guide legislators in drafting laws. Especially is

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM, 379

this true with reference to those we are now considering. This prin-
ciple is ecpiuUy applicable to our respective States. Without such
centralization — i. e., without sotne one controlling, inciting, directing
])ower — nothing was ever yet acconij)lished. The question of regu-
hition is to tind the proper relation of such a power to the other ele-
ments or powers by which it is surrounded, that the greatest good
for all concerned may result from their united action. This prin-
ciple is one of true politics. "Whether it be true repul)licanisin or
democracy I do not know, and care even less. Tiie family can
not well exist without its head. The ship can not pursue her coui-se
over the sea without her responsible captain. No business has ever
succeeded without its competent and accountable head. " Too many
cooks spoil the broth " is a homely but true saying. As a nation,
we stand at present impotent before the ravages of the infectio-
contagious animal diseases. AVe shall never get much beyond this
impotent stage if we adhere to the State-rights doctrine with refer-
ence to the suppression and prevention of these diseases. This doc-
trine requires special notice at the present moment. "We are ap-
proaching a period in our history when the different State Legisla-
tures will be called upon to make some kind of laws and regulations
with reference to this question. Reflecting men, those best compe-
tent to judge, are also endeavoring to urge the General Government
to do likewise. The real question, which must be discussed with
cool and unprejudiced brains, is, Which step is the more likely to be
of most lasting benefit to the people of the whole country, as well as
those of sinjrle sections I Dr. Bowditch, in his valuable essav, " Pub-
lie Hygiene in America," tells us that we have at i)resent (1876)
twenty-one States without either law or regulation looking to the
suppression or prevention of these diseases. In ten States there
were some, and sixteen were reported as indefinite, while from one
State it was impossible to gain any information. Our markets are
all without the supervision of competent inspectoiv, notwithstanding
the great danger to the poorer classes, more so than the rich, of dis-
ease of a disturbing if not fatal chamcter, from the consum]>tion
of diseased meat. No State in this Union, so far as I know, has a
State veterinarian in the true sense. In some there is a veterinarian
attached to some agricultural society ; in others, to a cattle com-
mission. The few regulations which exist in some States are totally
inadequate to the purpose. They almost entirely fail in properly
defining the duties of the public. Quacks are in no way made re-
sponsible for the proper notification to the authoritii-s of the pres-
ence of a suspected contagious disease in a given animal. In fact,

380 THE MEANS OF PREVEXTION.

our laws are of such a nature that, while in some cases, as in pleuro-
pneumonia, they allow of quite satisfactory action, because of the
very limited extension of the disease, in others, as glanders, they are
next to useless, because of the great extension which the disease has
already acquired among our horses. One of our greatest errors is,
that we have made no use of the few competent veterinary practi-
tioners in the country. Our laws serve only to make one man very
prominent without being of the service to the State that they
should be. It is in the interests of the peoj)le that the veterinary
profession be made of use, and not that a single veterinary com-
missioner, in unison with several citizen members, have the en-
tire work to do. It can not be done, as is sufficiently proven in
Massachusetts, where we have an old and well-tried veterinarian
on the cattle commission. While they did kill out plem'o-pneu-
mouia, it has been sufficiently demonstrated that they are next to
powerless in fighting glanders single-handed. We seem to think
that, having organized a " cattle commission," our work is done ;
as if there were no other animal diseases worthy of consideration !
Finally, in some States they attached a section with reference to
glanders, and with that we have thus far rested content. Such a
system is next to useless. It can never lead to any reliable statis-
tics. These laws or regulations in the different States have very
little in common. In many States they are simply dead letters,
there being no competent authority to see them properly exe-
cuted. " What is everybody's business is nobody's." In no one
sense is the saying, " In union there is strength," more strictly true
than in combating contagious animal diseases. It may be positively
asserted that, if we adhere strictly to the principle of State-rights
in this regard, all our endeavors to prevent and suppress these dis-
eases will be weak and of but httle avail.

All must admit that the manner of viewing any given subject
is not the same even among a few individuals. How much less
likely is this to be the case among large bodies jealous of each
other ! These great differences of opinion are largely dependent
upon a difference in information and education by the individual
members ; and, secondly, upon a varying degree of appreciation of
the nature of a threatened danger. A large amount of reading and
reflection is necessary before men are competent to logically legis-
late on any given subject, and on none more so than that we are at
present considering.

Hence it is that in some States we should have more or less
suitable laws with a corresponding execution of the same, while in

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM. 3S1

others quite tlie contrarv would be the case. Only M'hen a coin-
inon chm«;er exists, or when there is some ccntriil and controlling
power to spur men on to their duty, and warn them of their dan-
ger, do we have energetic and uniform action. The results of this
condition of things may be made more a])i)arent by supposing that
pleuro-pneumonia is present in two or more adjoining States. The
authorities of one of these States, thoroughly aware of the dangers
to which her bovine population is exposed, and not regardless, we
may hope, of their duty to sister States, have made ample provision
of money, and drafted a]ipropriate regulations for " stamping out "
the disease. The}' have selected special persons to execute the same.
On tlie other hand, the authorities of an adjoining State have de-
cided to follow the temporizing policy. They seem to fear a primary
outlay, not appreciating that a small outlay, well expended, at tirst,
may save an immense expense in the future. The regulations of
this State, and the manner in which they are executed, are of that
form which serve to express a fear of the ill-will of the people.
Her legislators seem to have their attention more earnestly fixed
upon influences likely to interfere with the next elections, rather
than on their duties to the people. They appear to utterly ignore
any responsibility with reference to their duties toward adjoining
States. They make of their State a hot-house from which pesti-
lential germs may be disseminated, not only to adjoining States, but
even to those more distantly situated. Of what use, then, is all the
outlay of time, money, and labor by the authorities of the first-
named State i To prevent the disease extending over her borders,
she must treat her sister State as an enemy. She must place an em-
bargo, not only on all cattle from that State, but upon all passing
throriffh that State. She can allow no cattle to cross her frontiers
from a State where the laws are less stringent, or poorly executed,
without first subjecting them to inspection, and frcijucntly to quar-
antine. Were this regulation carried out along a long line of traffic
through different States, it requires no stress of the imagination to
perceive the great disturbances which our trade in domestic animals
would suffer. In the case of glanders it will be absolutely impos-
sible to keep it properly confined within narrow limits, unless we
have the same laws and regulations for every State in the T'nion,
and equally stringent execution of the same. Otherwise, such
horses can be nm backward and forward across State boundaries, or
the result will be that the disease will acquire an undcsiral)le exten-
sion in those States where the laws are lax, or where they are but
dead letters for the want of proper execution. The people of such

382 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

a State will then suffer losses which thej richly deserve. We find it
necessary to have national laws to prevent the introduction of con-
tagious human diseases from foreign countries. Is it not equally
necessary that we have such a code of laws as will best protect the
animal property of all the people in this country to the same degree,
and not (as will be the invariable result, if we leave the States
to make their own laws) have such codes, as to offer but incom-
plete protection to the people of any State ? The universal testi-
mony of all men who have busied themselves with the suppression
of contagious animal diseases is, that it is rendered doubly difficult
because of the ease with which owners can get rid of diseased or
suspected animals. Dealers are, in general, only too willing to take
advantage of such opportunities to get cheap bargains, and they are
equally regardless of the interests of the community in transporting
them. A man sick with a contagious disease gladly stays at home.
But if a person practicing as a veterinarian informs most owners of
the presence or the suspicion of a contagious disease among their ani-
mals, the owner's first endeavor is to get them off ; and experience
has proved that many of them care very little about the danger of
infection to which they subject the property of other men. This is
absolute testimony to the necessity of regulating the duties of em-
pirics and quacks in the practice of veterinary medicine, as well as
owners. The duties of graduates must naturally also be regulated
by law. With reference to the trustworthiness and public spirit
of owners, a most interesting example occurred in connection with
trichinosis in swine within a few weeks.

A gentleman came to me one afternoon, and in a very bombas-
tic manner requested me to examine two pieces of pork. These
hogs had been fattened by himself, and, as he expressed it, were
" blooded Berkshires." It was, or is, his custom to fatten two each
year, and present pieces of " home-fed pork " to his friends at Christ-
mas. One piece was free, but the other was very badly trichinous.
On showing them to the gentleman upon a hot table attached to the
microscope, so that he could see the worms squinn about, he called
me a " swindler," and intimated that I had introduced them surrep-
titiously into the specimen. Convincing him of his error, however,
he somewhat recovered his temper, and remarked that he certainly
could not think of presenting such pork to his friends, and that some
would have to go without their present this year. " But there is no
law against my sending it to market, is there ? " To which I am
sorry I had to answer that there was not, nor could I prevent it ;
but that I thought the rendering establishment the best place for it.

A NATIONAL VETEUIXARY TOLICE SYSTEM. 383

The answer, and tlie manner in which it was given, were sonietliing
really worth recording. " Thank God, there's some freedom left in
Massachusetts ! " said this pattern of Boston aristocracy ; for the gen-
tleman is one frequently })ointed out as an example of honesty and
Christian virtues. '* Thank God, there's some freedom left in Mas-
sachusetts'' for a -wealthy man to sell pork which, if a little under-
done, can cause the serious illness of persons consuming it, or even
death ! Is there not need for laws to prevent the sale of improper
food by technical examination? If a person of this man's worldly
standing has no moral responsibility, what have -we to expect from
the ordinary owner of hoi'ses, cattle, etc. ? Every one at all ac-
quainted with the internal arrangements of the German Empire
must know that there is far more jealousy betw'een the different
kingdoms of which it is composed than there is between the differ-
ent States composing our Union. Notwithstanding this, these gov-
ernments have seen the absolute necessity of an imperial code of
laws for the suppression of the contagious animal diseases, experi-
ence having proved the state laws hitherto in existence insufficient
for the purpose, there being here and there a dissimilarity which re-
sulted in evil consequence to the people of one state or another.
"We need not copy literally the German laws, but we can study
them and adapt them to our uses. It is high time that active steps
were taken, in this country, in this direction.

To this end our national Congress should either select a commis-
sion of honest men, or authorize the President to select such from
among the leading stock-raisers of the country, one from each of
our great geographical sections. This commission should select
three of the ablest approved veterinarians in the country, and two
able and non-partisan lawyers. These five men should be paid to
make a study of the veterinary police laws and institutions of such
countries as are worthy of consideration, and should then draft a
national code of laws and regulations in strict accord with the re-
suits of tlie best scientific research, and with exact regard to logic
and cxplicitness in language. These laws should be accepted by
Congress and by the respective State Legislatures. Such a plan in
no way interferes with the right of States to make such special
laws and regulations, in addition to tlicm, as their local needs, posi-
tions, or other requirements may demand ; and furthermore, as will
presently be seen, our plan will provide each State with a competent
and trustworthy body of men to execute the laws. From these
three, and others, if they desire, should be selected a person to be
known as Yeterinarj' Inspector-General of the United States. This

384: THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

position should never be disgraced by being filled by political favor-
ites of congressmen, secretaries, or commissioners. The present
Commissioner of Agriculture would gladly have the appointment
given over to his dispensation. Fortunately, Congress has not yet
seen fit to give him such a liberty. A man must, at least, know
something of the duties of the office to be filled, if he is to appoint
an incumbent. This position must be filled on its merits, and by
public competition before the members of the National Board of
Health in the first place ; but when the time comes, the incumbent
should be elected by vote of the trustees and teachers of the national
school, from among the State veterinary inspector-generals of the
country. No teacher or professor of the school should ever be
eligible to the office so long as they were connected with that insti-
tution. In no other way should it be possible for any man to gain
the position. Science is the search after truth. A scientist who
uses the ways of politicians to gain a position does not deserve the
name. Science is open as the day. Politics is as dark and intricate
as the passages of a coal-mine, and about as dirty. Science is not
politics, as we see it displayed in America. There is such a thing
as political science, but it has not yet been introduced into our legis-
lative halls. The great men of science have been the truest servants
of mankind. Scientists are patriots, not demagogues or political
hucksters, ready to sell their birthright for a mess of pottage.

The "Veterinary Inspector-General of the United States should
be attached to the National Board of Health, as should all State
inspector-generals to State boards. The whole system of veterinary
sanitary police should be part and parcel of one grand national sani-
tary system, working in the interests of true preventive medicine.

These officers should hold their positions until sixty years old,
unless incapacitated for work by sickness. They should be liberally
paid ; and, in case of retirement, their pay should be continued to
them during life. The nation and the States need all their energies
and time.

On his death, if leaving a widow or minor children, the former
should have at least two thirds of the husband's pension during life,
and the children a proportionate share until sixteen years of age.
The State inspector-generals should be selected by public compe-
tition of approved veterinarians before the members of the State
Board of Health. In each State there must be county, district, mar-
ket, and other local veterinary officials. These men must first have
passed a special examination, instituted for the purpose, with refer-
ence to sanitary police duties, at the National Veterinary Institute.

A NATIOXAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM. 385

Until such an institution is organized, the competitions should take
place before the members of the State Board of Health of each
State. They should receive a certain amount of pay per year for
othcial work, and in no case should they hold office after becoming
sixty years old. They should not be subject to pensions, as their
official ]iositions should assist them in practice by guaranteeing to
the people their superior education. Local insjiectors, while belong-
ing to the force, such as market and milk inspectors, should be paid
by the respective local authorities. State inspectors, ordered to at-
tend horse or cattle fairs or markets, should be paid for the time of
service by the respective associations. The State should fix the
price, -which should be liberal, and allow for all traveling and inci-
dental expenses.

We can not expect any intelligent appreciation, on the part of
the public, of the value of such a sanitary system, unless we can
present them with reliable statistical information on the subject.
Without statistics we can not tell to what degree such diseases are
domesticated in a given State, nor can we judge of our success in
combating them from year to year. To this end, returns should be
made quarterly by the district and local veterinary officials to those
of the county, and semi-annually by the latter to the State Inspector-
General, who should make an annual report to the inspector-general
at Washington, who in his turn should prepare a condensed annual
report of the condition and work done in the whole country — the
same to be a part of the report of the National Board of Health.
It must not be forgotten that this work of inspection is never to be
limited to contagious diseases of animals alone, but that most espe-
cial attention must be given to the study and observation of those
diseases and conditions which are either known, or are supposed, to
exert harmful or dangerous influences upon the health of mankind.
The true veterinarian is fully a.s much a guardian of the public
health as the medical hygienist. The curing of sick animals is by
far the most insignificant part of his work. Prevention is the true
strength of veterinary science. In this regard the veterinarian is
of far more importance to humanity than the medical practitioner.
The tables are exactly turned about in the two branches of medi-
cal science. The doctor is strongest in practice, the veterinarian in
the prevention of diseases.

By the plan which we have proposed for a national veterinary
police code and organization, it is self-evident that the extension of
any disease over the country, or from one State to another, can be
very strongly combated. In case a contagious animal disease — we

25

386 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

will assume the rinderpest — breaks out at any place, say Columbus,
Ohio, the law requires the owner, attendant quack, empiric, or regular
practitioner, to at once notify the next veterinary official of the
State of the suspicion or actual appearance of the disease. If the
former is very strong, or becomes at once confirmed, he at once no-
tifies the inspector-general of his State, who at once notifies every
official veterinarian in the State, and the inspector-general at Wash-
ington. The latter notifies each State general inspector, who in
his turn notifies the State veterinary officials. What is the result ?
An absolute quarantine of every head of cattle in this whole country.
Not a single one can be moved without the permit of an official
veterinarian. All transported cattle are watched from place of ship-
ment to destination. Extension, under such circumstances, is re-
duced to the lowest possible limit. The same is true of every other
contagious animal disease. Smuggling or remov^al across State
boundaries of suspected or diseased animals becomes useless, for
notification is at once transmitted from the one State to the other.
There is no opposition between the authorities of different States.
The laws are the same. The officials belong to one organization.
They are appointed for a term of years. Truly, every one must see
that in this case we have unity in purpose and strength to execute the
laws. State rights are respected, individual rights honored, yet both
State and individual receive the fullest amount of protection for
their animal property which it is in the power of science to bestow.
I have said that the national veterinary inspector should be attached
to the N^ational Board of Health, and that the whole ' veterinary
sanitary organization should be a part of a grand national system of
preventive medicine. We have a National Board of Health. Oth-
ers have expressed their ideas of its work, therefore it may be
allowed me to close this section of my book with some of my own,
crude as they may appear.

The National Board of Health was called into being simply on
account of the yellow fever. Its work, uj) to the present time, has
been chiefly limited to the study of that disease, and in seeking for
means looking toward its prevention. This much-needed work
should be amply supported, and obstinately persevered in, but we
may be sure that many years will elapse before any marked success
will crown our efforts. Success will come, however, if the Ameri-
can people can keep their balance long enough not to cry out for a
false economy, which is the last cry one should hear in this impor-
tant branch of our Government. The work of a National Board of
Health has, however, scarcely begun when it is limited to yellow

A NATIONAL VETERINARY POLICE SYSTEM. 387

fever. Such an iiistitutiou must be the focal stimulus wliicli shall
gradually cause the organization of one grand national system of
preventive medicine. It nnist seek to incite reforms where they are
needed, and among these none is more important than one stand-
ard medical examination for the country, and one similar course of
study at every medical school in the land. Xo good work can ever
be done except as the result of organized effort. Centralized, that
is, cohcentrated effort, is always rewarded by better results than
isolated, s|X)nidic endeavor. Many of our States are still without
effective boards of health, as is also the case in many large cities or
towns. In only one State, Massachusetts, have we anything like
State medical officers. In this State we have the " medical examin-
ers " taking the place of that useless inheritance from England, the
" coroner." In effective work it is absolutely necessary that the
whole country become subjected to one code of sanitary laws,
suitable to the general needs, while in every State, county, city,
or town, such special laws must be made, and are in general, as
the local needs demand. These special laws and regulations should
always bear a proper relation to the general. It is the drafting of
the latter which will devolve upon the national board. Once hav-
ing such laws and regulations, the next thing is their execution.
To this end competent sanitary officials are necessary. These ap-
pointments should never be made until candidates have pa.ssed a
special examination, to be fixed for the purpose by the National
Board of Health for the whole country — the examination to consist
in (piestionings upon the pathology, etiology, etc., of the diseases
included among those generally spoken of under the headings of
preventive medicine. The examinations should be made by the
members of the respective State boards of health. The organization
of the sanitary system in eacli State should be similar to that wliich
I have [)ortrayed with regard to a veterinary organization. These
positions should be points of ambition for our best young men.
They should receive pay for official work. In cases where the ne-
cessities of the public demanded their whole time they should Ixj
liberally paid, and open to a pension in the same manner as above
considered. We should therefore have a National Board of Health
in connection with State boards, which sliould be in connection with
local boards and health officers. These officials must be thoroughly
educated in the principles and practice of modern research, and in
patliological anatomy and necroscopy. The professional members
of the State boards of health should be appointed by the Governor
from among the most competent of the sanitary officers. They should

388 THE MEANS OF PREVEXTIOX.

all be paid, and hold office until sixtj years of age, or during activity.
Those members who are required to devote their whole time to the
service of the State should be pensioned on retirement. The State
can never afford to be a " bummer." Men who can afford to work
for honor alone are seldom fitted to serve the State well. This
principle of working for the State for honor alone, so common in
certain positions in this country, can not be too strongly condemned.
It is death to young men, and equally detrimental to the public
good. A State which is too poor to pay competent men for the
work it requires of them is too poor to exist. It had better secede
out of this Union, or be merged into another which is capable of
paying for work well done.

Boards of health are too much limited to gathering statistics.
Again, these statistics are often too much limited to those of the so-
called infectious diseases. The latter class of statistics has a very
subordinate value. It matters but little whether one thousand or
ten thousand men perish from a given infectious disease, so long as
the cause is present, yet unknown, and prevention thus far impos-
sible. It is far more necessary that observations and experiments
in these two directions be made than that exact statistics be gathered
annually. Statistics as to causal influences, however, can never be
too highly appreciated. These accumulated statistics have one good
purpose : without them, in this country, it would be impossible to get
means enough from the Legislatures to carry on the necessary studies
and experiments by which we may in the end hope to find means
of prevention. Boards of health should always have the necessary
means to carry on an experiment station, and to amply reward
specialists for experimental researches in any desired direction.

There is, however, another form of statistics, the careful collec-
tion of which would send a thrill of horror over the human family,
and it is from this form that we may, in the distant future, expect
very valuable results. To obtain them we need far better practi-
tioners, much less prejudiced thinkers, than we at present have in
the medical profession.

I allude to statistics with regard to the really preventable dis-
eases of life ; the diseases due to ignorance, not only on the part of
the diseased, but of practitioners as well. An ignorance of duty
with reference to the latter, for the medical adviser who treats only
is simply fit for confinement among idiots. I allude further to the
diseases due to the ignorance of the people in the employment of
quacks, and further to the still more to be condemned American
craze, the use of those disgi'aces of our civilization, legalised patent

A NATIONAL VETEUINAUV POLICE SYSTEM. 3S9

life-dist/'ot/ers, discoveries of the devil ur his agents^patent medi-
cines.

Another disease wliieli requires statistical attention is tubercular
consumption. It kills more jK'ople in ten years than any invasive
disease of the present day is likely to do. Our climate has been
made to play a much too important part among the causes of this
disease. Climate, employment, etc., all play the sufficient or pro-
ducing causes, but very seldom the primary cause. The primary
cause is to be sought in the senseless inbreeding of weak lungs from
genenition to generation among human beings, until at j)res(jnt tlie
very irritation of normal breathing is often sufficient to send a child
into an early grave from tubercular consumption. The medical
profession acknowledge the iulluences of our climate. Perhaps they
can see the other also. But truth is ever unpleasant ; and to tell
parents that their children dare not marry at all, or dare not inter-
marry— to tell young lovei-s they dare not marry, because they
Would condemn their children to an early grave — would seriously
interfere with one's yearly income. TF/zo of the medical prof ession
stands up as a man of truth and proclaims to th<i world that con-
sumptives dare not marry, or that children (f families with, such
tendencies must not intermarry ? TV^e must outrhreed this tendency
to weak lungs by sensible and exact marriage, or we shall find still
more reason to condemn our climate than we now have. AVhy do
these men study medicine \ It is certainly not to think, not to
speak, the truth. To make a living, regardless of the good of hu-
manity. Medical practice has fallen to a business in this country,
instead of being conducted as a science. Can these men think ?
Can they observe what every breeder of fine cattle has long since
known \ I scarcely believe it. Blind I blind I Education is a
rayth ! Ignorance only exists ! To think, the evidence of true
education seems to be the thing we nmst seek after. We may find
it among the lost arts. Until then, humanity loill go on damning
its children, for a longer or shorter time, to a living Jiell of misery
and pam. There is hut one cure for consumption ((piacks to the
contrary) : Consumptives, descendants of consumptive fami/ies, dare
not intermarry.

Syphilis is a disease of similar character. It can scarcely be
rooted out from an organism when once its terrible germs have
gained access. Does the medical profession do its duty in this
regard ? Docs it tell young but unfortunate patients? that they dare
not marry ? " Marry, doctor ? " *' Oh, yes." " Perfectly cured ? "
" Oh, yes." But the child produced not only brands the medical

390 THE MEANS OF PREYEXTION.

adviser as a liar, a stupid and irresponsible ignoramus, but publislies
the father's " cured " condition (?) to the world. Statistics would
indeed teach a valuable lesson with regard to these inherited dis-
eases and disease tendencies. After these numerical statistics have
been gathered, still another form of no secondary importance de-
mands our attention. It is not enough to know the number of
deaths which occur in a country from a number of given dis-
eases. "We do absolutely nothing, except to establish an annual per-
centage with such figures. To complete the work, it is necessary
that all natural influences should be most carefully observed by com-
petent men. "NYe must have accurate reports with reference to the
condition of the ground-water in all sections of the country, its tem-
perature, and seek to accurately define the relations of the same to
typhus and typhoid diseases. We must know the influences exerted
upon the eruption and extension of diseases by the water-courses
and prevailing winds. AYe must know what diseases prevail mostly
or most severely in the valleys and upon high and exposed table-
lands, as well as wooded districts or low and marshy lands. We
must know accurately the influences exerted by changes of tempera-
ture, seasons, wet or dry, and the connection between the diseases
of the different species of the animal kingdom. "When all this is
done, our National Board of Health should publish, once in every
ten years, pathological geographical maps, with reference to the
extension of all forms of disease in the United States ; not one is to
be excepted, whether due to transmitted influences, to infection, or
to external influences. This, with the annual reports, in unison
with investigations at the hands of competent experts, and the work
of the veterinary department, constitutes, in my mind, the work of
a national organization for the purposes of preventive medicine.

A NATIOXAL VETERIXARY INSTITUTE.

In the preceding parts of this work we have endeavored to make
our readers individually appreciate that mankind is constantly threat-
ened with several serious and in many cases fatal diseases, from con-
tact with diseased animals in life, or from the consumption of flesh,
milk, or other materials derived from them. "We have also shown
that the prevention of these evils, as well as the ravages of the strictly
contagious animal diseases, can not be attained, or hoped for, with-

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 391

out a well-organized system of veterinary jiulice, and a carefully
drafted code of laws and regulations. It sh(»uld be evident to every
one that this much-desired prevention, and the collection of those
valuable statistics, in a trustworthy manner, by which the people
can alone determine as to the extension which the contagious and
infectious animal diseases acquire each year, do not come within the
province of the medical practitioner. AVe have shown that, in the
majority of the States, no laws exist for the suppression and preven-
tion of contagious animal diseases, and in no State are they what
they should be, or at idl conformable to the latest results of scientific
research. This work can only be well performed by the veterinarian
who has been thoroughly schooled in the principles and methods
of scientific medicine at a well-regulated institution. It is the same
in medicine. The thirst for knowledge for itself is the sole incen-
tive to original research. Monetary rewards are not gained in the
medical laboratory which is devoted to the study of physiology and
pathology. The practitioner who is always boasting of his cures,
who prides himself in a knowledge of the by-gones, if not too lazy;
who always treats the earnest endeavors and researches of some
brother practitioner with scorn ; who echoes the popular voice, by
speaking of him as a theorist, " a very learned man, but fails in
not having had my practical experience," is to be invariably put
down as a humbug and first-class ignoramus. The man of expe-
rience alone is always an ignorant man in the light of science.
How often do the boasted men " of great practical experience "
fail ! They sink into a well-deserved oblivion before the genius of
the first-class practitioner, who unites in himself the two elements,
theory and practice, the one inseparable union which shall endure
forever. Scieiitia est potentia ("Science is power"). Without
science, i. e., without theory, where would the world be now ? Sci-
ence holds the keys to the money-vaults of the world. She opens
to our view the hidden treasures of the earth. She adapts to our
uses the raw materials which she teaches us to win from nature.
She has given us all the means of comfort and luxury which we
have ; but, greater than all these, she is the fair goddess whose rules
and teachings, faithfully applied, lead to health. Science alone can
discover the means of prevention — crude experience, empiricism,
never ! The workers in the many fields of science have been among
the noblest l)encfactor8 of the human race, and among these none
have excelled those of medicine for their untiring devotion aiid self-
sacrifice. These men constantly neglect the very laws which they
are begging humanity to follow ; no devotion is too great to dampen

392 THE MEANS OF PEEVENTION.

their zeal ; every means, even to unnecessary experiment upon them-
selves, which have too often led to sacrifice of hf e, have been donated
to the service of humanity. With right France immortalizes the
name of her Bichat, Germany her Yirchow, England her Hunter,
Holland her Boerhaave, Austria her Rokitansky. With right and
justice, and a grand appreciation of the value of such men to the
world, as well as their native countries, do the Continental govern-
ments support them in the days of their activity, and relieve their
minds from all anxiety for the future of themselves and their imme-
diate dependants, by properly pensioning them when the period of
decay comes on.

All hail, then, the day when veterinary science shall find a fitting
place wherein to develop among the people of this country !

To the purposes of prevention and suppression of the ravages
and extension of the diseases which have been considered, it has
been frequently observed that veterinarians are necessary. Having
portrayed their work, it becomes us to consider how we can best
produce them. The material is ready, the field planted. We have,
I truly believe, better material, young men, to work upon than any
other country in the world. All they are waiting for is the means
by which they can acquire a suitable education. It is the duty of
the people to supply these means. But, to this end, there must be,
somewhere in the country, a properly endowed, organized, and regu-
lated institution for the study of veterinary medicine. There are
several ways by which veterinary schools have been established, but
only two of these are worth a moment's earnest consideration ; still
there are two others which it becomes our duty to consider, in order
that we may be made well aware of their utter fallacy. The first
two plans, which we will not at present consider, are — 1. State
schools, controlled and regulated by each State, to which we will
oppose a national school, answering all the purposes of the nation ;
but, instead of being controlled by the Government, regulated by a
board of trustees and its teachers, the former to be elected from a
national association, which should be organized for the purpose.

There are two plans which are to be condemned and combated
as evils, the nature of which the people of this country have not as
yet any conception of, but of which they must gradually learn. The
first of these is an irregular number of chartered, uncontrolled, irre-
sponsible institutions in each State ; and the second is known as the
subscription plan, which may be rightly included in the first, but
for special reasons deserves individual treatment.

The first of these — that is, one or more chartered, uncontrolled,

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 393

and in many instances irresponsible seliools in each State — needs no
exercise of the imaginative power in order tluit we may study it in
all its bearings. It is more than amply illustrated by the condition
of medicine in this country at the present time. In 187G we had
tifty-nine uncontrolled, chartered medical schools iu this country.
In some States the executive powers were not content with charter-
ing one, but willingly increased the number conformably to the
pleasure of applicants: as, iu New York State, there are seven; in
Ohio, six ; and in the District of Columbia, one. But, not even
content with thus disgracing the science of medicine to a most mer-
cenary business, we find in some cities three or more schools, as is
shown by the followiiig cutting from a daily paper :

" The city of Chicago contains six medical schools — allopathic
and homceopathic — and, according to the ' Times,' they turn out
graduates with greater rapidity, and of poorer quality, than any
other medical colleges yet known. Xo preliminary education is
absolutely re<piired as a condition of admission. An attendance
upon two courses of lectures, each of twenty weeks, suffices in some
of them to secure a di})loma, under which the holder is authorized
to begin practicing upuu his fellow-citizens. The ' Times ' further
alleges that in some instances diplonuis have been obtained for
money, or through the personal influence of friends who were on
good social terms with the professors."

It is a very singular phenomenon, in a country the people of
which place so much stress upon the value of public schools, and
where the State controls them, and requires every child to have an
education, and where the quality and quantity of the education given
at schools of certain rank is guaranteed by the State, to see all re-
sponsibility avoided by the State, with reference to the academical
or collegiate education of our youth ; this lack of responsibility even
extends itself to the medical schools, whether connected with col-
leges or individual institutions. While no very harmful results,
other than superficialness and snobbishness, have been brought for-
ward with reference to the universities and colleges from this neglect
on the part of the State, it is quite the contrary with reference to
the schools of medicine. As to the universities and colleges, it may
be truly asserted tliat, were they State institutions, strongly funded,
and free from the curse which is making America the laughing-
stock of nations — politics ; and were teachers appointed on their
merits, not on account of their connections, science would have been
much further developed than it is now.

Some singular results may be observed to follow this neglect of

394: THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

its duties by the State with reference to the medical schools. If a
young man is a graduate of a certain high-grade public school, and
applies to a merchant for a position, with his certificate of gradua-
tion, the latter, if at all posted, is able at once to form an approxi-
mate idea of the degree of education the youth has acquired, and of
his fitness for the position he has to offer him. On the contrary, if
a young graduate of a medical school settles in one's neighborhood,
and hangs up his sign as an " M. D.," how much do we know ?
Absolutely nothing, save that we may generally assume he has a di-
ploma. But until we see it, until we find out, not only from what
city he came, but frequently from which school in said city, and
not until we have ourselves investigated into the character and re-
sponsibility of said school, do we know whether the " M. D." of the
young man is worth more than the tin it is painted upon. The
State takes no responsibiKty in the matter. She is absolutely neg-
lectful of her duties. Many of the fifty-nine medical schools in this
country deserve no other destiny than to be immediately closed by
law as common nuisances — ^i. e., producers of unqualified vampires,
destined to prey upon an innocent and trusting community. This
neglect of the higher education on the part of the State, and leaving
it entirely to the charity and public spirit of the community, is a
great mistake, and one which tends largely to the detriment of the
development of science in this country. It is one of the greatest
evils of a popular form of government that no great improvement
or reform can ever take place until the people have first become in
a measure educated up to it. This retards all movements, unless
they are so essentially practical that the results by which the public
are to be benefited " stare them in the face." The rewards of science,
however, are only developed slowly, and by the labor of countless
workers. In monarchical or parental forms of government the above
is not the case. As soon as the government sees that a certain thing
is necessary to the welfare of the nation, it does it, irrespective of pub-
lic opinion, which is invariably slow to see the reasons for changes,
especially when the benefits follow slowly. With reference to their
medical institutions, there is scarcely a Continental country from
which we could not learn an immense deal. The governments are,
in this thing at least, true to the interests of the people, when they
control the schools and regulate strictly the quality and quantity of
education of each graduate. With us, as is well known, the contrary
is the case — " the more the merrier," seems to be the motto of our
States with reference to the establishment of medical schools ; and
imtil public opinion itself demands a change, we may be sure none

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 395

will take place for years to conic, unless our own poor endeavors,
unaided as they have yet been, succeed in leading the way to a re-
form which shall extend to the medical schools, l>y the establishment
of a veterinary institute upon ]nn-ely scientific principles.

It may be axiomatically asserted that it is as much the duty of
the State to protect its people against incomj)ctently educated men
and imjwstoi's in medicine as it is to protect them against frauds in
other dci>artments of life. This can only be attained by the State's
regulating and controlling the entire system of education, and the
terms of graduation of the medical school or schools within its terri-
tory'. "While most parents display a creditable degree of anxiety
with reference to the education which a son is to ac(piire when fit-
ting for a mercantile position in life, it is only too true tliat many
parents look U])on a medical education as a sort of luxury, and, ut-
terly regardless of the welfare of their fellow-men, desire their son
put through the medical school in the shortest time and at the
least expense possible. While there is a certain degree of uniform-
ity in the printed catalogues issued by the fifty-nine medical schools
in this country, yet it is very doubtful if the conditions upon which
diplomas are conferred are held up to by all the schools. In fact,
experience goes to prove the latter to be the case. In most of them
the conditions necessary to obtaining the diploma read three years
of study, two full courses (one year) at some medical school, one of
which must be at the institution in question. In reality, we have
here a demand for but three sessions' study in a medical school. As
these three sessions are supposed to extend over a year and a half,
one is somewhat at a loss to know what the regulation three years'
study means. The regulations frequently say " three years' study
with some regular practitioner," which, if insisted upon, would
make the full term of study four and a lialf years ; and, as students
may graduate at twenty-one years of age, many students would be
but sixteen and a half years old when beginning the study of medi-
cine— too young by far for most youths to have actpiircd that edu-
cation and drillin": in the natural sciences bv which alone the studv
of the professional branches can be followed with any profit. The
" three years with any regular practitioner," whether he be of good
or irregular standing, may have l)ecn a necessity in the early days
of our history, but is to be looked upon now a« a disgrace to any
civilizecl nation. It is injurious to the young man, injurious to the
people, degrading to the profession, and puts incumbrances in the
way of the scientific advancement of the j^rofession, which will only
be overcome with immense difficulty, and at the cost of much ill-

396 THE MEAXS OF PREVENTION.

feeling and great self-denial. It can only succeed in building up a
class of self-conceited, scarcely semi-educated empirics, who, having
acquired a certain amount of practical experience in the company
of Dr. Old Fogy, the much-overestimated '-regular practitioner,"
look upon the school as an uncomfortable hindrance, which keeps
them from jumping into a lucrative jDractice, and which is only to
be used in order to gain the legitimizing " M. D." with as little
study and expense as possible.

There is not a strictly scientific medical school in the United
States. There are fifty-five too many. The needs of the country
demand about four large and well-regulated medical institutions ;
but as this is and will be impossible, it is necessary that we do our
utmost to reform the existing institutions. To this end, the State
must assume control of them, as it does of the public schools. The
corps of teachers should be selected by public competition, and it
must never be forgotten that not every man who can write well or
who has distinguished himself in original research is fitted by nature
to teach. The ability to logically and practically detail the results of
the world's knowledge is the requisite to be sought in a teacher ; if
these can be united with great original ability, all the better; but
at a school there must be teachers as well as investigators. There
should be in each State a board of health, the technical members of
which should also constitute the medical board of examination.
The members of such boards, as well as the teachers of the medical
school and other State officers in connection with science, should be
well paid. It is an American disgrace and misfortune that men of
great original ability can seldom aiiord to work for the State. Too
many such positions are filled by dilettanti — rich men's sons who
dabble in science, and take such positions for the honor of the
thing. Or else they are men who, having grown old and experi-
enced (?), are thought especially suited for such honorable positions ;
whereas the period of combativeness and activity has passed away
with them. A man is only of use to the world so long as he is com-
bative. The same is true of our colleges. Men of ability, but poor,
must seek a living elsewhere, and are obliged to turn their backs
upon the laboratories they would delight in, and upon institutions
they would honor, in order to prepare for their old age, while snob-
bishness and mediocrity too frequently fill the places they should be
honored with. Hence, we seldom find men of vast scientific ability
filling the chairs of American colleges. At the medical schools the
conditions are in general still worse. We find many of the teach-
ers struggling between their duties to a dangerously sick or dying

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 397

patient in one part of the city, and an impatient and neglected
class in the medical school at another part. The scenes of " hur-
rying to and fro" arc often ridicnlons in the extreme. It is self-
evident that the students must suffer. Too many medical schools
seem only to have been established to give a certain class of ambi-
tioiH men a false reputation, and a certain degree of imposability
before the people. Professor ^Esculapius AVormwood is always
going before the people as a very learned man, while in truth he is
generally a most consummate humbug, one of his most frcfpient
specialties being the removal of parasites, which, like himself, prey
upon the vitalities of his patients.

The publications in which most of these medical schools make
known their respective advantages are certainly as uncreditable to
scientific institutions as is the ridiculous race for students in which
nearly all the schools indulge. They are embellished with numer-
ous striking woodcuts of the main buildings, laboratories, etc., and
in more ways than one resemble the publications issued by hotel
proprietors at summer resorts. The promises and opportunities are
unexceptionable ; but, once having you fairly in their grasp, with
the fees secured, it matters very little in the one case about the
intellectual and in the other about the corporal food one gets.

As I have previously said, the States have not been content with
chartering one medical school within their respective limits. State
charters for medical schools seem to be far more easy of attainment
than liquor-licenses ; in fact, it is very questionable if our inquiries
as to the character of applicants for the latter are not more strin-
gent than those which are made with reference to those who would
originate a school for medical education. The law requires no abso-
lute testimony of character or ability on the part of persons desiring
to establish schools for medical education. Our legislators never
ask. Have we not enough such schools I They seem to assume that
the more we have the better, and look upon them from the same
stand-point as they do institutions for general charity.

Chapter XXXII, section 1, of the Massachusetts General Stat-
utes, reads : " Seven or more persons within this State, having asso-
ciated themselves by agreement in writing for education, charitable,
or religious purjioses, under any name by them aasumeil, and com-
plying with the provisions of this chapter [which say nothing as to
their individual fitness], shall, with their successors, be and remain
a body politic and corporate.'' The conditions are the same in
nearly all our States — at least, I know of no exception to the rule.
A friend writes me from Philadelphia : " As you are writing upon

398 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

the establishment of veterinary schools, it may not be inappropriate
for me to inform you that there are two so-called ' colleges ' in this
city, which are unfortunately chartered by the State. The men
composing these ' colleges ' are all quacks ; they do not attempt to
teach anything — were that possible for them — yet they sell diplo-
mas or degrees to men who wish to practice. It is said they do
pretend to require a sort of an examination before they issue these
valuable papers." ... In the city of jS'ew York there are three
chartered, non-regulated veterinary schools.

Let us endeavor to look for a moment at the results of this purely
American system of medical institutions :

1. From the want of uniformity and the lack of responsibility
on the part of many institutions, the " M. D." of the young graduate
is rendered next to worthless until we have made inquiries into his
antecedents.

2. Most of them being poorly endowed and in many cases beg-
garly institutions, one may observe a most disgraceful rivalry for
students, which is borne witness to by the business character of
their catalogues.

The entire reason for these disgraceful conditions is to be sought
in the lack of appreciation for true science which exists not only in
the profession, but with the people as well. The curse of America
is her overestimated " practicality." The most unmitigated of
humbugs is often spoken of as " a man of great practical ability."
Superficial betokens the Americanism of to-day. Sterling integ-
rity, which is said to have been a characteristic of our forefathers,
seems soon to be destined to a place among the lost arts. Fraud
prevails ! It is nourished, and, if successful, the stigma is soon
buried beneath the glitter of the externals. The American people
seem to love fraud. In no other country, unless it be England, can
disgraceful quacks and humbugs flourish in every department of
life as they do here. " A free fight and no favor," seems to be the
motto governing our legislators, who apparently have entirely for-
gotten that the people they are supposed to represent — which they
seldom do — are being consumed and plundered by these impostors.
Humanity, as a whole, is still a babe in " swaddling-clothes." It
still needs protection from itself. Only a few individuals have as
yet been able to stand alone ; and still fewer to furnish serviceable
props for others. The second cause of these evils, with reference
to the medical schools, must be charged to the State. "\Ye have
too many. Education in them has become a business instead of a
science. In no State should there be more than one medical school.

A NATIONAL VETEKINARY INSTITUTE. 399

It is a great misfortune that we can nut reduce the number to four
or live large, well-founded, scientifically-founded sectional institu-
tions, under one system of regulations for the wliole country. The
chartering of special schools for tlic j^roimiigatiou of any special
doctrine, as homceopathy, or for the education of special classes —
women — is to be most vigorously condemned. In the first place, the
fundament;ds of medical science are the same, and if, ou graduation,
a practitioner chooses to start off upon a theoretical side-track, it
matters not to the State. As for special schools for women, that is
another absurdity. If the women desire to enter into the struirirle
for existence, good : give them a free chance ; but, when they do
this, tliey must know that they descend from the reverenced throne
which American women in general sit upon, and that they have
forfeited all rights to any special consideration as women. They
must be ready to take the bitter witli the sweet, the rough with the
polished, the profane and vulgar with the chaste : unless they are
willing to do this, hack to their homesteads I The Tnistees of Har-
vard College deserve nothing 1)ut condemnation in refusing the
women admittance to their medical school. They say, " Endow
another and a special school " ; but they entirely fail to say a word
about its (jualifications and restrictions. They certainly know — not
to their benefit, I think — that the State will charter anything; but
they should also know that she as yet exercises no control over the
chartered organizations. Harvard snobbishness is probably endan-
gered by petticoatism ; else why this fear i Who is to protect the
people against incompetently educated graduates? That matters
not, so long as Harvard keeps to her exclusiveness. Let the women
be educated ; but, if the legislators and women of Massachusetts
have their senses with them, let them break down these doors of ex-
clusiveness and enter Harvard. The men (?) there will be even
more benefited than the women. It is possible that a true manhood
might get an opportunity to develop, when women have trimmed
the skirts of Harvard exclusiveness.

The first great step toward medical reform in this country is to
do away with the superfluous schools, by having but one in each
State ; by having them under the control of the State, represented
by its board of health as the examining body ; by introducing the
competitive system in the selection of teachers, and in opening the
schools to free teaching l)y young aspirants, from which the com-
petitors for the special branches are to be finally taken — in fact, in
making these scientific institutions, instead of empiric hot-houses,
grinding out yearly the largest possible number of half -educated,

400 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

half -drilled fledglings. There should be a delegation appointed by
the board of health of each State, with the consent of the respective
Governors, to determine upon a universal course of study, to be
extended over four years, and a national or universal system and
standard of examination, so that, other things being equal, the
"M. D." of each school should have a corresponding qualitative and
quantitative value. Should this much-to-be-desired end prove im-
possible of attainment, then there is but one course left. It will
then become the bounden duty of each State to jprotect the gradu-
ates of its own school as well as its people from the services of men
graduating from schools in a neighboring State, or States, where the
education is not recognized as equal to that in the first-named State.
Unless they do this, all regulation of the home-school is but non-
sense. A law will therefore have to be made, by which graduates
from inferior schools in other States must make the State examination
in a given State, before they can be allowed to practice as " M. D.'s,"
although the quack and empiric fields are still open to them. No
graduate should be allowed to practice in any State until he has re-
ceived a license for the purpose from the State Board of Health.
A careful record of all licenses should be kept for reference.

The practice of medicine, or the advertising of practice, or of
medicines, under false pretenses, should be most stringently regu-
lated by the State. Several attempts have been made in this direc-
tion in different States, but in only a few have they been at all suc-
cessful. Massachusetts holds a most unenviable position in this
regard. Legislators labor under a great mistake with reference to
the desires of the medical profession on this point. They assume,
unjustly, that in some way the profession desire to interfere with the
rights of the individual to have such medical attendance as he
chooses to select. While this is not the case; while the profession,
as represented by its best men, has no desire to institute a medical
monopoly, it is very questionable if the rights of so-called matured
persons can be allowed to interfere or trifle with the health of minors
or irresponsible persons that the accidents of birth have placed in
their charge. "While I may have a certain right, under civil law, to
poison myself by the use of tobacco or opium, I have no right to
teach my child the use of such drugs ; in fact, the law would pre-
vent it, were outsiders to become acquainted with such a purpose
on my part. It is the same with the employment of the empiric or
quack. But there is still another side of this question which seems
to have entirely escaped the attention of legislators. The graduate
of the school acquires his right to the title " Doctor," or " M. D.,"

A NATION'AL VETEULVARY INSTITUTE. 401

by hard labor and expense. He has, therefore, the riglit to a cer-
tain degree of protection, but only with reference to the title. This
is all he asks. The pepple are, in general, thoughtless and trust-
ing ; they scarcely ever stop to cpiestion the right of the displayer
or the advertiser to the title '' Doctor," or " M. D.'' The tir>t is
much more frequently usurped. It is unquestionably the duty
of the State to guarantee to the graduated student the exclusive
use of these titles ; and, also, to make them evidences of real worth
to the people, that tliey may then select whom they please, by for-
bidding the use of them to all other men but graduates who prac-
tice medicine. This in no way interferes with the freedom of choice
of the individual, nor does it restrain the quack or empiric from
practicing the healing art ; but it does reach the necessary end of
giving the people the means of distinguishing the accredited man
from the swindler, which is their right, and it will strike a heavy
blow against fraud in medicine. Forbid, under penalty of the law,
non-graduated men the use of the title " Doctor," or " M. D.,'' in
any way whatsoever, either by sign, card, or advertisement, and we
at once take away the charm by which they are alone enabled to
swindle the people.

In using the words empiric and quack, we should always make a
distinction. Not every empiric is of necessity a quack, nor is every
quack an empiric. It is the deportment of the person which makes
him a quack. There are empirics that have never graduated from
a school, or even studied at one, but whose conduct can well be
measured by the strictest code of medical ethics ; such men are not
and never will be quacks. Quacks are swindlers, misrepresenters
of facts — promisers of things, such as cures, which they know to be
impossible. While some empirics are not quacks, there are hun-
dreds of n)en claiming to be graduates of licensed schools who are
quacks of the blackest dye. It is impossible for the law to reach
these scoundrels. "We find them advertising cure-alls in every form.
This mania for specifics and curative compounds is, I am sorry to
say, gradually extending to members of the " regular " profession.
Practitioners' offices are becoming littered up with samjile bottles of

'' Dr. 's Viburnam " and other compounds, which, although

not patented, are nothing else than quack medicines, being adver-
tised in the same manner, having on one label the diseases it is suj>-
posed to be good for and on the other the dose. In fact, this evil is
becoming so extended, that practicing M. D.'s, either too lazy or too
ignorant to correctly compile a prescription, now frequently write
"Dr. 's Compound," "one bottle — take as directed." "What les-

26

402 THE MEAKS OF PREVENTION.

sons are we to draw from tlie foregoing pages with reference to the
establishment of veterinary schools in this country ?

1. It would be an unpardonable sin to .curse the people of this
country with another set of private, unregulated, irresponsible medi-
cal institutions.

2. Under such a system of schools the title " Veterinary Sur-
geon," or any other to be selected, would be, as it is now, worthless^
being assumed alike by graduated men, empirics, and veritable
quacks.

3. It neither protects the people, by giving them a reliable
means by which they can distinguish the approved man from the
impostor, nor does it protect the honest and hard work of the
school graduate.

4. It can never, until eternity, answer the manifold needs of the
country, or produce, what is more needed than in human medicine,
really scientifically qualified veterinary practitioners, who, while
capable of attending to the practical demands of the public, are no
less capable of meeting the scientific requirements of the State, in
taking an active part in the study of and prevention of those animal
diseases which carry misery and desolation to mankind, as well as
threaten their health and life in some cases.

Equally to be condemned with the above are private veterinary
schools supported hy subscription. They would not deserve any
additional consideration were it not that this plan has recently re-
ceived the indorsement of no less an authority than the Universities
of Pennsylvania and Harvard.

In considering the development of veterinary medicine, and the
foundation of the Continental schools, we have endeavored to im-
press upon the reader the fact that these institutions were estab-
lished by the respective governments, and have always been con-
trolled by them, thereby guaranteeing, so far as possible, the quality
of their graduates to the people. The result has been, that all these
institutions have been steadily improved, until at the present day,
and for some thirty years back, many of them have acquired the
right to be called scientific institutions, though veterinary medi-
cine has not, in my opinion, yet arrived at that stage in which
it can be called a science. This remark requires an explanation
from me. In the great veterinary schools of Europe the scientific
method of study and research has been more or less perfectly intro-
duced ; but it has been adopted, almost wholesale, from human
medicine. Veterinary medicine has never yet produced a great
medical thinker. "We have not yet got beyond good observers.

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 403

"Wlien we shall have produced a medieal dictator, a Virchow or a
Biehat, who will revolutionize all medical thought, or at least reform
it, it will be time enough for us to speak of an individual veterinary
science; and not till then will there he any such thing. Until then
we shall be nothing more than a parasite drawing our best nourish-
ment from human medicine — although, at present, we are making
brave etlorts to stand on our own feet.

Another fact, which is well worthy the attention of the citizens
of the most " practical " land in the world, is — }wt one of these Con-
tinentiil schooh j)af/it hi the American sense; i.e., they yield no
direct dividends. AVe have seen that the Berlin school exceeded its
income, in 1878-'79, by some $16,600. But, while yielding no di-
rect returns in money, their indirect returns have benefited their
respective countries and the world at large to such a degree that
we can not estimate it in dollars and cents. To the teachere at these
Continental schools do the veterinarians of Britain and America owe
the greater part of the material of which their text-books are com-
posed. To whom do we owe the greater part of our knowledge
with reference to the contagious and infectious animal pests ? To
whom but Continental veterinarians ! The names of Ilering, Ilert-
wig, Ilaubner, Roell, Bruckm tiller, Chauveau, Reynal, Bouley, Col-
lin, Leisering, AVehenkel, Schuetz, Feser, and many others, are fast
becoming as well known to English-speaking people, thanks to the
eflforts of Mr. Fleming, as they are to those of the Continent.

It is of the utmost importance to us, as American citizens, to in-
quire why it is thdt this valuable i)iformation has been gained by
Continental veterinarians, to the exclusion of those of Britain. The
answer is simple, and one which it is the duty of every American
to study earnestly.

These schools are so established, and the teachers so carefully
selected, and their present and future xoelfarc so iceJl carrdfor {for
they are moderately paid duriny active life, and liberally pensioned
ichen the period of decay comes on), that they can give their entire en-
ergii's to the prop'r instruction of students and to Hcifntifi*' research.

These grand results can never be hoped for in countries where
there arc only to be found jirivate, uncontrolled, and irresponsible
schools — in proof of which we have already noticed the nu'dical
schools of this country, and have yet to consider the veterinary
school at London, the representative one of Britain, on the sub-
scription principle.

In sketching briefly the history of some of the principal veteri-
nary schools of Europe, it must have been noticed that we omitted

404 THE MEANS OF PKEVENTION.

to speak of those of Britain. We neglected them for two reasons i
first, because the London school, which we select as the best repre-
sentative, has never yet deserved to be classed with those of the
Continent ; and, secondly, because it has been especially quoted as a
favorable example of the " subscription plan " for the support of
such schools.

In Britain we find directly opposite conditions to those of the
Continent. Here we find the Government strangely blind to the
interests and welfare of the people. America, the child, nobly fol-
lows the ignoble example of the mother. Britain has allowed her
noted and valuable flocks and herds to be repeatedly decimated by
pests without taking a single step to educate properly qualified vet-
erinarians. Here we find no state responsibility ; no state regulating
the standard of education at the schools ; no critical selection of
teachers ; no contribution to their support, by means of which the
discovery and improvement of methods for checking and preventing
the ravages of animal pests may be hoped for.

Being myself so bitter an opponent of both private and even
state schools for the education of veterinarians, it may appear fairer
for me to let a less partial judge speak for me on these matters.

Mr. George Fleming says : * "It was not, however, until 1792
that England had a veterinary school [established by Saint-Bell, a
Frenchman], but this was of a private and speculative character ;
deriving no benefit from the state [and conferring none upon it], but
allowed to push its own way from the fluctuating support or patron-
age of private subscribers and the fees of students." This school
succeeds, at present, in the American sense — it pays. The director
and some of the leading teachers — they call themselves professors,
without ever having done anything worthy of the name — enjoy fat
salaries, in return for which they energetically oppose every sugges-
tion for improvements which could only be to the advantage of the
Government and the people.

It is probably unknown to most of the readers of this book that
certain representative gentlemen of Pennsylvania, or, more correctly
expressed, PhiladeljDhia, as well as the authorities of Harvard Uni-
versity in Massachusetts, have lately displayed quite an active zeal
in the cause of veterinary medicine. It would have been better for
them, better for their States, inflnitely better for the whole country,
had they taken greater care to acquaint themselves with the history
of veterinary medicine and its results in other countries than Eng-
land, before giving to the public " An Appeal to the Citizens of

* "Animal Plagues,'' p. 1Y6.

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 405

Pennsylvania for the Foundation of a Yeterinaiy Department in
the University of Pennsylvania" (Philadelphia, 1S70).* The "Ap-
peal" is issued by the "Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals." It begins thus :

" To the Citizens of Pennsylvania.

"By resolution of the Board of ^Manapjers of the Pennsylvania
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, I have been re-
quested to call your attention to the pressing need there is, at the
present time, for some well-organized system of teaching veterinary
medicine and surgery to those who are willing and anxious to avail
themselves of such instruction. There is no veterinary college in
active operation in this State [and there is absolutely no call for
one ; in fact, the teachings of the history of veterinary medicine em-
phatically forbid it, as I shall presently show. — B.] In New York
State and elsewhere [where ?] much attention is being given [the
State of Xew York/»tv se gives none] to this subject, and the veteri-
nary practice of medicine is taught in some colleges [which produce
a cliiss of semi-educated wolves, called empirics]. During January,
1ST8, the Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania passed resolu-
tions looking toward the establishment of a veterinary department
as soon as money could be obtained to defmy the expense. The
Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals has
made a study [a very limited one] of the methods of effecting some
organization to bring about so desirable an end, and has held com-
munication with a committee appointed by the trustees of the uni-
versity having charge of this branch of science.

" The Hon. John Welsh, our minister at the court of St. James,
writes from London under date of February 26, 1S70, to Dr. Will-
iam Pepper, of this city : ' At this moment, the importance of well-
instnicted men in this [veterinary] branch of medical science is par-
ticularly prominent, for the opinions of the Privy Council in regard
to the American live-cattle trade are entirely controlled by them.
The diseases of animals are becoming of great interest to the pub-
lic, and for some years past the efforts of the English Government
have been directed toward 'stamping out' rinderpest, pleuro-pneu-
nionia, and other contagious diseases among cattle, sheep, and swine.
[With but very limited success, as can easily be seen by studying the
history of these efforta, and reading the correspondence and edito-
rials in the " Yctcrinarj' Jounial " of London, There is little better

* The criticL'sms which arc hero made are equally applicable to the attempt of Har- ^
Tard Unirersitj to establish the same kind of a humbug school at Boston.

406 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

organized effort in this direction in England than in this country.
Glanders runs free over the land, and quacks treat it on all sides as
thej do here, openly defying whatever law may exist against it. — B.]
At this time there seems to be great probability that the live-cattle
trade with the United States will be suspended, because one cargo
of oxen which landed here about a month ago had thirteen cases of
pleuro-pneumonia, although some eighty thousand were brought
here before, and some three thousand since, in good health.' " The
" Appeal " goes on, saying, " The offer made by the University of
Pennsylvania should not be permitted to fail for want of means to
carry out its wise and humane project."

Then follows the plan proposed whereby to raise the necessary
funds, which is fraught with still greater danger to the future of
American veterinary science than even State veterinary schools. In
fact, the gentlemen issuing this " Appeal " know so little about the
subject upon which they have written, that I must seriously warn
every public-spirited American against being influenced by them.
They have become filled with a grand idea, and then, with most in-
complete preparation, have, as the Germans would say, " let loose "
upon it :

" In order that the burden of this project may fall as lightly as
possible on the charitable-minded citizens of this Commonwealth, a
plan has been agreed upon [a poorer could not have been selected]
whereby each contributor may receive an ample equivalent for the
money he will invest in this laudable undertaking. [Where the
burden upon the charitable-minded citizens is then to come in, I, for
one, fail to see. Self-interest, not patriotism, not love of animals,
not interest in the development of science, and an honest pride in
the rejputation of one's country in this regard, is made the basis of
this ' Appeal.' ] It is proposed to establish a rule such as is in force
in connection with the Royal Veterinary College of London [a
school which has done nothing for students or for the advancement
of veterinary science in England, but, like 'a dog in the manger,'
has opposed every attempt at progress, as I shall sufficiently demon-
strate from the most trustworthy English authority].

" Each subscriber of one hundred dollars is to be known as a
life-subscriber, and is, in return for his subscription, to be entitled
to certain advantages. Thus : he is entitled to accommodation in
the infirmary so far as space will permit, and in preference to non-
subscribers [who, being of the poorer classes, are to be excluded,
and, as their animals also offer much better opportunities for the
clinical study of the student, the latter is to suffer, as he does in

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 407

London, for the benefit of the ' charitably-minded ' owner of fine
Ijorses, who finds it as cheap, or cheaper, to send a horse ' a little
off' to the school for a week or so, than to keep it at home], for
snch animals, his own proj)erty [an occasional horse belonging to a
friend will not be objected to, the professors are so accommodating ;
and if they are not, tliey will not know it], as may need medical or
surgical treatment, at a price to be fixed, closely approximating the
actual cost of feed and care. He may also demand free examina-
tion of ten horses or mules each year, as to soundness, with a view
to purchase. lie can also secure free advice in case of animals
brought to the infirmary, but which he proposes to keep in his own
stables or kennels. Rules and regulations looking toward the pro-
tection of the university and subscribers will be made, to prevent
abuse of these privileges, and firms will be permitted to register as
subscribers on the condition of one member only being named to
act as the representative of the firm, in its correspondence with the
authorities of the veterinary department."

The worthy President of the P. C. A. Society must have had
some adviser more interested in becoming a "professor" than in the
future of his profession, or the welfare of his brother practitioners,
when he penned the above lines. It is with extreme regret that I
feel myself, as a devoted servant to my countrymen, obliged to most
earnestly oppose the above " appeal and plan " in its most essential
parts. It contains many words of wisdom and tnitli, and is deserv-
ing the earnest study of every patriotic American ; but the above
plan, if carried out, would lead to the establishment of a school run
entirely in the interests of a select number of subscribers, opposed to
those investigations by which science is alone advanced, conserva-
tive in the worst form, opposing always the interests of its own
graduates by keeping up a constant opposition in practice which the
private practitioner is unable to compete with.

The " Appeal " is made nominally " to the citizens of Pennsylvar
nia," but it will virtually result, if at all successful, in an " a})peal"
to those persons who alone are by the " plan " to derive the benefits,
viz., the well-to-do and wealthy horse-owners and large firms of
Philadelphia alone.

What interests have the citizens of Pennsylvania or Massachu-
setts in an institution, the direct benefits of which are only accessi-
ble to the residents of Philadelphia or Boston, or their immediate
vicinity ? I could fill a small book with the testimonies of British
veterinarians of unquestioned reputation with regard to the futility
and in juriousness of the above plan, and the injury which the quoted

408 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

London school lias been to the British veterinary profession, but will
limit myself to some remarks from the most eminent veterinarian of
England. My esteemed friend and colleague, Mr. George Fleming,
expresses himself in the " Veterinary Journal," London, in an
editorial in the November number for 1879, vol. ix, p. 318, as fol-
lows:

" Our readers will have observed that for some months an agi-
tation has been going on among the members of the veterinary pro-
fession, chiefly metropolitan practitioners, with reference to the un-
fair competition maintained toward them hy the Royal Veterinary
College {London) known as the ' subscription system.^ As is well
known, and as so many veterinary surgeons find to their cost, that
school advertises that for two guineas a year it will examine twenty
horses for soundness, give advice with regard to an unlimited num-
ber, receive into the school-hospital and treat sick horses, as well as
sell medicine at cost price, shoe horses for a smaller sum than the
ordinary farrier can, etc., while for five guineas per annum an in-
definite number of horses will be examined, and all other privileges
guaranteed. In fact, it offers to do what no practitioner could afford
to do, and undersells its own students to such an extent that it is not
only impossible for them to compete with the cheap establishment,
but the bread is actually taken from their mouths by this so-called
Alma Mater of theirs. It has been said by some political historian
that the French Revolutions eat up their own children. The London
Veterinary School does this, and more ; for it first charges them
heavy fees for teaching, then starves and swallows them. The sys-
tem can certainly boast of a long history. The school was com-
menced as a subscription establishment by an obscure agricultural
society, nearly ninety years ago ; but then it only had ignorant and
illiterate farriers to compete with, and two guineas in those days
were very much more than they are now.

" Had the school never heen hegun on this system, there can he no
doiibt that later it must have heen established by the country for the
benefit of the country. In this case veterinary medicine would have
all along stood in a very different 'position to what it has done and
does now, and millions of pounds would probably have been saved.
The ' subscription system ' [proposed at Philadelphia] has undoubt-
edly proved a most serious drawback to veterinary science iti Eng-
land, as history proves. The school has done little if anything to
promote that science / it has never produced a scientific teacher, and
never will on its present footing / its teachers have been little more
than practitioners, whose principal functions were to ' doctor ' sub-

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 409

scribers^ horses, or to attend to suhscribers* interests ; the students
icho entered the school have suffered all along from tlielr and sub-
scribers^ infert'sts clashing^ and of clinical instruction there has been
none icorthy of the name, as the subscrif)ers'' horses could not be
made available, and no others were admitted loithin the gates : nei-
ther in the form of textbooks, nor in other ways, has the school bene-
fted the jynfession, Ayiy its kxistence as a scientific institution

IS IGNORED BV OTHER COUNTRIES.

" The teachers, to exist, have been compelled, it would appear, to
practice their profession beyond the ■walls of the school, and thus
neglect the students, who seem to be only a secondary consideration
in the speculation, and are chiefly valued as contributors of fees.

" A desire to get hold of money has been the bane of the school^
as it has been its chief aim / hence the degrading ' subscription
system,'' and the determination to continue and extend it, no mat-
ter icho suffers, whether it deprives the veterinary surgeon or the
blacksmith of their means of livelihood. [The universities of Har-
vard and Pennsylvania would plant this British parasite on our
shores, and, if the thing ' paid,' numerous other associations of
less responsibility and respectability would be sure ' to follow
suit and tnimp,' so easy is it in this country for everything and
everybody to get a ' charter.'] Surely the noblemen and gentle-
men who lend their names and patronage to these schools are
not aware of the fact that it is not a scientific i?istitution, nor
yet a college, but merely and mainly a great co-operative horse-
doctoring and horseshoeing concern, devised to benefit wealthy sub-
scribers, having nothing to do with the introduction of humane or
improved methods of treating diseases or accidents, and doing its
business on shamefully cheap principles ! [Certainly the trustees
of the universities mentioned must have been most lamentably de-
ceived or wofully ignorant when they consented to the adoption of
the subscription plan.]

"We may be told that the ' subscription system ' is necessary to
the existence of the establishment, and that without it it must per-
ish of inanition. If such a statement is correct — and we do not deny
its correctness — then it reveals a very discreditable state of affaii-s.
No other veterinary school in these islands re(|uircs to resort to such
ignoble stratagem to live ; no medical school does or dares to under-
sell practicing physicians or surgeons ; in fact, th' London Veterinary
College is the only medical or veterinary school in Europe which,
like a huge parasite, lives and grows at their expense, past and present.

" Not only does the subscription system most seriously injure the

410 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

practice of the metropolitan practitioner, it also affects the provincial
veterinary surgeon, as subscribers are all over the country, and avail
themselves of the degradingly cheap services offered by the school.

" It is impossible for any one who cares for the reputation and
advancement of veterinary medicine in this country, and the de-
served prosperity of its practitioners, not to sympathize with the
movement which has been begun, even at this late period.

" The cheap suhscription system has heen the curse of our science^
o/ad its malignant influence can he traced through long years and in
many directions. It is unprofessional, in every sense of the term,
is derogatory and damaging to veterinary medicine, most injurious
to metropolitan and suburban practitioners — its own alumni — in
every way disadvantageous to the students, and a discredit to the
governors of the school and the country. Had the profession not
been for so many years blind to its own best interest, surely the
action [for reform] now commenced would have been begun long
ago."

"When the above was written I did not know that a striking ex-
ample of the injurious effects of this suhscrijytion plan would be so
soon offered to public consideration. The following letter needs no
further comments on my part :

Harvard Veterinary School. — An Open Letter.

To the President and Overseers of Harvard College.

Gentlemen : A question which has been and still is troubling
the minds of the thinking members of the veterinary profession is,
" What purpose had Harvard in estallishing a Veterinary De-part-
ment in connection with the Medical School ? " Was it to educate
young men to become creditable members of a profession which
should rank as high as human medicine in the public mind, or was
it to run an animal hospital on a strictly business basis ?

The first sermon that I have any remembrance of listening to
was by that most eminent preacher. Dr. Bartol. I probably remem-
ber it on account of the striking nature of the text, which was,
" 'Twon't pay." Now, sermonizing is not exactly my forte ; never-
theless, I am going to try and show you that you have started upon
a course that " won't pay " in the establishment of your veterinary
school.

" 'Twon't pay " for you as the head of the leading educational
institution of our State to establish any new branch of education
upon anything but the best possible foundation. You would not
be American if you endeavored to open this department on any-

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 411

thing but a paying basis. Unless a thing paijs its expenses, it is an
utterly unpractical venture in this land of eminent practicality.

But medical schools and business enterprises can not be looked
upon from the same stand-point. A business enterprise is a private
affair, undertaken to make money ; if it " won't pay," it goes under.
A medical school is an educational affair ; whether it "pays" in
money or not is a matter of no importance whatever. It is a public
servant, just the same as the public schools. The only dividend the
public can expect to receive is that the graduates of the school are
thoroughly educated in both the scientific and practical parts of their
profession. Naturally, it remains for you, as the founders of this
movement, to endeavor to find some means by which you can make
such an institution pay its way.

To do this you have adopted the London plan of " subscrip-
tions," by which, for a minimum sum of money per year, you prom-
ise to render services to each subscriber which no private practitioner
could afford to guarantee to do for three times the amount. In
adopting this subscription plan you have yet to learn that you can
not, as overseers of a great public institution, afford to do what a
private speculative affair like the London School has done, though
not without the greatest opposition from its own graduates.

Gentlemen, you have yet to know that it " won't pay " for you
to draw down upon your most worthy and necessary undertaking
the opposition and ill will, not only of the few educated members
of the veterinary profession of the present day, but of all time, in-
cluding every man that graduates from your school.

The time will surely come when other members of the profession
will openly oppose the plan upon which you are conducting this
venture. Gentlemen, your advisers were bad. They knew no more
about the establishment of a veterinary school than an iron-foundry,
perhaps not half as much.

They had but one purpose in view, and that was self, not Har-
vard College or the State. I look upon this " subscrij)tion plan,"
as carried out by you, as disgraceful to Harvard College, and as
bound to exert a most baneful influence, by its example, on the
future of American veterinar}* medicine.

I have said your advisers were not the men they should be, and
I now tell you that it " won't pay " to let them conduct the school
in the manner thev arc now doinrr.

What are you trying to give us, gentlemen — a medical school for
the best possible education of veterinarians, or an institution for the
development of English " flunkeyism " on Ameriwin soil ? One

412 THE MEAJS'S OF PREVENTION.

would think tlie latter ! The people can rightly hold you responsi-
ble for the pubKc acts of your subordinates.

In the Boston *' Sunday Globe," of some two weeks since, ap-
peared an article upon your Veterinary Department, which I make
bold to assert was a disgrace to Harvard College, and outdoes the
advertisements of any of the noted medical humbugs and fraudu-
lent hospitals of quacks in Boston or any other city.

This advertisement reads thus :

SICK HORSES' PARADISE.

THE HARVARD USITERSITT VETERINARY HOSPITAL.

Accommodations for Patients in the New Building on Village Street.
Pronounced Success of the Latest Harvard Enterprise.

" ' Our borders is wery strict 'ere, sir, not to hadmit any one vith-
out permission. 'Fraid you'll 'ave to wait for the doctor, sir.'

" Thus spoke one of the grooms at the Harvard University Vet-
erinary Hospital to a ' Globe ' reporter yesterday, when he rang at
the office-door.

" ' Both of the doctors be avay just now, sir, but we hexpects
them back directly ' — and at that moment Dr. Charles P. Lyman,
F. E.. C. V. S., the professor in veterinary medicine and chief sur-
geon of the hospital, drove up and alighted from his English dog-
cart, while his English driver conducted his English horse into the
stable. Once inside, and the air of this excellent branch of fair
Harvard is oppressively English. It has been established a little over
a year, and actual work in the department, at least the hospital part,
has been in progress only since August 10th. Such an institution
is a novelty in Boston."

" Such an institution is a novelty " ; indeed it is, gentlemen — a
" novelty " which, as an American citizen, I am very sorry to see
engrafted upon Massachusetts soil.

Again, in the Boston " Herald " is an advertising column headed
" Horses, Carriages, etc." This column has become noted all over
the United States for advertisements of the very worst set of " horse
sharps " that infest any city in the country. Somewhere we have
heard that " a man is known by the company he keeps." You will
learn yet, gentlemen, that " 'twon't pay " to have an advertisement
of your school appear, as it does, in such a column iand in company
with such advertisements.

What does it show you, gentlemen ? It should demonstrate to
you the utter unfitness of the man for the place whom you have
honored with the position of head of this department.

A NATIONAL VETERINARY INSTITUTE. 413

Are you conducting this hospital fur the benefit of the school, or
for that of the veterinarians attached to it ? Undoubtedly you say,
" For the school ! " Then why allow tlictn to use the name of Har-
vard University in order to gain jirivatc practice ? Is such conduct
in accordance with medical ethics ?

In this '' Herald " advertisement, as well as those appearing in
other papers, you may read, '' Calls for outside visits will be attended
to promptly by day or night." I may be Quixotic, but it is my
opinion that no one coimected as teacher with such a school can, as
a ^professional, make such a use of his position.

Again : Is it an honorable thing for you to cut prices, for ser-
vices at your hosjntal, \00 per cent less than the regular lyractitioner
charges ; less than those your own graduates loill have to charge
in order to make a living, or to keep on collegiate terms with other
professionals ?

In this regard I would call your attention to the following :

RATES OF CHARGES MADE BT THE REGULAR

PROKESSIOS.

Single visits, medicine extra. ... $3 00

Repeated visits to any case —
cow, horse, or dog, each 2 00

All operations extra ; no horse

cast less than 6 00

These charges have reference to city

proper.

" RATES OP CHARGES AT VILLAGE STREET HOS-
PITAL."

Board, treatment, and medicine,
for sick horses per day $2 00

Board, care, and medicine for
surgical ca.ses — horse, per day, 1 00

Board, treatment, and medicine

for dogs per day 0 50

Board and treatment for cattle

per day 1 00

Examinations and advice at hos-
pital 1 00

"What is meant by " examination and advice at hospital " ? Do
you mean examination for soundness, for which the profession
charges $5 for each horse examined? In your contract with sub-
scribers for $10 per year you agree to examine ten horses and do
other professional work — in other words, you agree to do, for this
paltry sum, work for which any professional would receive $50 for
examinations for soundness alone.

Gentlemen, this looks very much as if you were trying to run
the veterinary pntfession of Boston and vicinity into the ground.

AVhat would vou think of a father who, after havinrr taui'ht a
son all about his business, and that son had started in business for
himself, should cut the prices of goods in this manner? You would
say it was abominable. Should the son pay for his instruction and
devote three years of his life to learning the trade when he might
be earning money at something else, you would say that the actions

414 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

of the father were more than abominable ; yet this is exactly what
you are doing.

When we see the University of Harvard, of which we rightfully
expected so much, taking a stand far below that of any of the pri-
vate schools of New York, or anywhere else, we can not find words
to express what we consider is but righteous indignation.

By public discussion of many writers the field has been prepared
for you, but you have only gathered the chafE and left the wheat for
others to gather.

The University of Pennsylvania is setting a good example by
proceeding slowly in this matter. She will beat you in the race of
providing a really good school unless you " tack ship " and " come
round " on a more " weatherly course." *

Every word which President Eliot spoke about the work of a
medical school in his late address at the dedication of the new
building is applicable to the Yeterinary Department ; but not one
is being applied. He spoke of the necessity of gathering funds
to pursue the work. With regard to this veterinary school, the mat-
ter has never been written up in the papers as it should have been
done ; no public interest has ever been awakened. Had the ques-
tion been taken up and publicly advocated, we know of what we
speak in saying that a permanent fund of at least $100,000 could
have been raised, and not with any great amount of labor.

The Yillage Street Hospital is a serious mistake, though it can
yet be turned to advantage for the school. The accommodations at
Bussy Farm are, or can easily be made, much better suited to a hos-
pital clinic than the city place. Charenton, Alf ort, is much farther
from Paris than Bussy Farm from Boston proper, yet the hospital
there is always full enough, and at Bussy there would be no diffi-
culty in getting from seventy-five to one hundred patients in the
hospital the greater part of the year. There are a class of patients
that can pay expenses, which no practitioner really wants, and which
are essentially fitted for school instruction. These you could easily
have, and without in any way antagonizing the veterinary profession.
In fact, they would cheerfully assist you.

At Yillage Street you have not the necessary conveniences for a
free clinic ; you should have a shed to protect the horses and men

* With reference to the University of Pennsylvania, it would seem that our words
have not fallen upon barren ground. Under the date of January 8, 1884, the dean of the
Veterinary Department wrote me : " /, like you, am absolutely opposed to any subscription
plan, and expect to run a large hospital and clinic without it.'''' From which we may as-
sume that it has been dropped for this school.

STATE VETERIN'ARY SCHOOLS. 415

from the weather, and a paved and un])aved run upon whicli to lead
horses in order to examine them for himeness. A pathological labo-
ratory is as necessary as an anatomical laboratory. This you have
not at either place. Nor have you a single num capable of teaching
pathological anatomy, the great weakness of veterinary medicine,
and jiractically adapting it to the needs of veterinary students. To
do this requires a practical knowledge of the diseases of animals,
and a most exact knowledge of human and zoopathology, so far as
the latter is written up. "With regard to the Village Street Hospi-
tal, the money is not wasted, for the building can be let for stable-
purposes, and yield a better income than the money it cost w<juld.
This income could be available to pay some of the expenses at Bussy.
The students nmst necessarily waste much time in going between
the three localities where they are to receive instiiiction.

The veterinary profession of the country earnestly desire the
success of your venture, but not as at present conducted.

Summing up, tlicTi, let me say : " 'Twon't pay" to take a dishon-
orable course in conducting your venture.

" 'Twon't pay " to allow your teachers to use the fair name of Har-
vard College to advertise themselves in order to gain private practice.

"'Twon't pay" to place the school before the public as a trans-
planted weed taken from English ground, with all the evils of Brit-
ish flunkeyism.

'Twill pay in every way to drop all these things, and act in ac-
cordance with the most exact principles of medical ethics.

'Twill pay to respect the feelings and position of every member
of the American veterinary profession.

Trusting these words will be received as they are written, in the
true interest of Harvard Veterinary School, and the future of the
veterinary profession, I remain your obedient servant.

STATE VETERINARY SCHOOLS.

Js the previous section, it has been my endeavor to show the
folly of private schools for the study of medicine, and that the evils
connected with them were lar^rclv due to nesrlect of its duties on
the part of the State.

We come now to speak of well-endowed — either by public spirit
or otherwise — institutions in each State, but in all respects con-
trolled by the State.

416 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

The question we have to consider is one of expediency, not of
State-rights. No one denies the right of each State to a veterinary
school if properly endowed and controlled. What I do, however,
emphatically assert is, that such a system is not in the interests of the
citizens of any one State, section, or whole country. There are some
thirty-eight States in our Union at present, with every prospect of a
constant numerical increase for many years to come. Being now
thirty-eight, if this plan were to be carried out, there would be that
number of schools. Even though these schools were regulated by the
respective States, one may positively assert that there would be even
less uniformity in reference to the term of study and examination
requisite than at present nominally exists in the numerous private
medical schools. It is useless to suppose there would be much if
any uniformity. The legislators in the different States would never
look upon these questions with such unanimity as to lead to any
great similarity between the schools. In fact, as the case at present
stands, there are scarcely any legislators, among the great number
of men at present occupying such positions in the different States,
that are sufficiently educated with reference to the history of veteri-
nary medicine to legislate sensibly upon the subject. Another ar-
gument, and one of the strongest, is, that unanimity in veterinary
schools is even more necessary than in human. Unless it exists —
unless the education and term of study are the same in each State —
how will it ever be possible to attain that oneness of purpose in all
States which we have shown to be absolutely necessary for the con-
trol and prevention of animal pests? This absolutely necessary
end will never be attained by State schools. State schools can turn
out good practitioners, but, for the above reasons, they would never
turn out men properly educated for State purposes. State schools
would mean State laws ; yet every one who knows anything admits
that State laws for the purpose we are considering would be almost
worse than useless. The manner of instruction would vary ; the
students would be led to look upon the pathology of the contagious
disease from too many stand-points. We should soon have the coun-
try divided up into about as many opposing cliques as there were
schools, each jealous of the supremacy of the other, and, although
State schools, we should find the contemptible rivalry for students
which now disgraces the medical schools. There being no hope that
the standard of education would be the same in each State, cer-
tain States would have to make laws to protect the graduates from
their own schools against the competition of graduates of inferior
schools in neighboring States. Further, there are not competent

STATE VETERINARY SCHOOLS. 4I7

men in the -whole worUl, who can he liad at any price, to furnish
teachers enough for two new aiul thoroughly organized veterinary
schools. In fact, even for one national school, we shall find it hard
to procure the recpiisite number of scientitically educated and com-
petent teachers. I have scarcely seen a veterinarian in this country
whom I would call to fill a chair in a veterinary tichool. There are some
who are well enough pi'actically, but when we come to seek the scien-
tific foundation, united with a healthy skejptlci»m (by that I mean a
critical mind, and with ability for original research, united to the great-
est necessity of all, ah'dity to teac/i), we shall find it hard to discover
enough English-speaking men the world over suitable to our purposes.
It has suddeidy dawned upon some people in power in this coun-
tr}' that veterinarians are necessary. In one State, at least, they are
already preparing a mill for grinding them out even faster than
they do doctor in the medical mills. This unenviable State is Iowa.
There they propose a State school which shall turn out graduates
after eighteen months' study. " These graduates nmst be eighteen
years of age, and have completed the entire course cf study.'''* To
illustrate how much these Solons know, and to prove my assertion
that but few, if any, legislators in this country are at present suffi-
ciently instructed upon this subject to legislate properly, we are in-
formed that the " sessions begin the first of March (each year) and
continue till the latter part of November, with a vacation of two
weeks in July." If one is to judge from the above, the students
are either not to study any anatomy, or the laws of Nature arc
different in Iowa from other places in the same latitude, for every-
where else the time especially devoted to the study of anatomy is
between November and March ; but here we see the school does
not continue in operation between November and March, or per-
haps these are hot months in Iowa, and putrefaction, etc., prevent
the students studying anatomy, so that it is studied in the months
between March and November, excepting two weeks in July,
when the students are probably dismissed on account of the ex-
tremely cold weather. The published "curriculum" of this school,
which appeared in a pamphlet called the " College Quarterly," is
one of the most amusing yet saddening proofs of human imbecil-
ity it has ever been my lot to read. This school was to be opened
March, 1880, yet in September, 1879, the writer of this "et/rrict^
Jum''^ uses the present tense, and tells us what the future stu-
dents are already doing; among other things, "hundreds of ani-
mals are presented at the liospital for examinations " held at the
school " one half day each week."
27

418 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

It will be remembered that the Berlia school has the largest
clinic of any school in the world, yet we never saw " hundreds of
animals " at any one day in the school hospital or free clinics ; al-
though the number upon the grounds on a given day might, inclu-
sive of dogs, be about two hundred and fifty. Yet a small Western
town (Ames, Iowa) is to furnish " hundreds " of patients for clinical
exercises which take place " one half day each weeTiP Among other
wonderful accessories of this school is a pair of " scales, capable of
weighing one twenty -thoiLsandth of a graiwrne " — a thing beyond the
present range of human ability. The faculty of this Iowa veteri-
nary abortion consists of seven persons, only two of whom seem to
know anything of medicine, and one only of veterinary medicine.
This latter prodigy is the graduate of a Canadian school, and I make
bold to say that the president of it would not dare affirm that he
gives an education suitable to prepare men for teachers. This man,
whom the editor of the " ]^ational Live-Stock Journal " describes
as " a young man with comparatively little experience as a veteri-
nary surgeon," is su^jposed to head this institution, so far as the vet-
erinary profession finds any representation. He is to teach the
whole of veterinary medicine^ which includes the following techni-
cal branches : General pathology, general surgery, special pathology
and therapeutics of all the diseases of domestic animals ; pathologi-
cal anatomy, special surgery, operative surgery and practice ; the
pathology of the contagious animal diseases and their prevention
(veterinary hygiene and police), forensic medicine (veterinary), ob-
stetrics, horseshoeing, veterinary history, and meat and market in-
spection— and conduct the clinics, and, according to the curriculum,
also attend to a " large practice, which the students will have the
privilege of assisting in." I have heard of such a thing as a " ser-
vant of all work" ; the great Boerhaave was the man^jfar excellence
in this regard so far as medicine is concerned, but we think even
his spirit must be tortured with envy at the supposed ability of this
young man " of comparatively little practical experience." The work
this prodigy is expected to do can not be well done by less than eight
specialists^ and they supported by eight more specialists in the dif-
ferent natural sciences wdiich are necessary to the comprehension of
the purely professional branches. If this school is not even a
" humbug " before its opening, then I fail to know the meaning of
the word. I must say that the adjoining States have no other
course than to order a severe quarantine against the graduates of this
school. The old-school empirics, the empirics of years, of which
we have so many, will be found far more worthy of confidence than

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCnOOL. 419

the eigliteen-year-oKl t^raduates of this veterinary sproutiiif^-honsc.
It seems to me that no other evidence is needed to show the fallacy
of State schools, for here we Jiave one in optima forma, chartered,
funded, and controlled by the State. Suppose the thirty-seven
other States should all follow suit, each after its own fashion I
Doubtless some would be found thinking one year's study would be
sufficient, others thinking two, while in some isolated cases ex-
tremely wise legislators might insist upon three; but I am not yet
ready to believe that our people have got very far beyond the idea
that " anything is good enough for a horse-doctor.'' At least, the
experiences of daily life continually couHi'm me iu that opinion.

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL.

For advocating this idea, the president of the Iowa abortion de-
clares me to be "visionary," whereas I think about all there is in his
contemplated school is the result of a vision of something else than
the teachings of veterinary history. Another remarkable critique
declares me to be " lacking iu a knowledge of public affairs " ; to
which, if he nieans American politics, I plead guilty, and trust I
may continue so.

Some four years ago, I was myself a firm friend of State
schools ; finally, the evils of such a system became so conspicuous
that I thought sectional schools would be better ; but the earnest
study of all the }X3culiar relations of veterinary science to the public
wants finally convinced me that they could only be most profitably
adjusted by one school. My whole purpose in educating myself es-
pecially for this work h:i.s been to serve my country to tlie best de-
gree possible. "What Continentiil governments do for the people, by
educating young men especially for the positions of teachers, and
sending them to study in foreign countries, I have done at my own
expense, not only of money, but almost of my life. Therefore I
feel I have a right to Bpeak as one having authority. Naturally, I
expect opposition, but my opponents should have alignments instead
of mere words or accusations wherewith to show I am wrong.
There is no need of being in a hurry in this matter. "Haste will
make waste," as surely as the people of the different States go heed-
lessly forward, and endeavor to inaugurate veterinary schools upon
erroneous principles, such as those adopted at Ilarvard and Phila-

420 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

delphia, but wliicli will produce au even more damaging failure in
Iowa.

To every man who would faithfully serve his race and his pro-
fession, there are two paths open. The one is the beaten one, full
of weeds, crooked ways, and cross-fences, in the form of adhesion
to old ideas and old ways. We may select this and seek to make it
better, to clean up the rubbish and let in daylight, so that truth
and right may have an opportunity to develop. This path may be
likened to a man who would rebuild and remodel an old house,
which he finds entirely unsuited to his desires and to the times.
This is generally found to be a very costly method. In reference
to the establishment of veterinary schools in this countrj'-, fortu-
nately for us, no such necessity exists. The old, to be culled over,
is all to be found in the older countries. Why, then, should we
begin where they began, as these Iowa, Harvard, and Pennsylvania
authorities are about to do ? Why not first take time to " look be-
fore we leap," and only begin when we have found out not only
where they now are, and accepting the best of that, but, cleared from
all their rubbish, endeavor to start with those advancements toward
which the best Continental schools are tending as fast as their anti-
quated incumbrances will allow? This is the other plan, and the
only one which the people of this country should pursue. That I
am an idealist is willingly admitted, but that I am " visionary " is
about as wide from the mark as possible. Every man who desires
to lead, must not only of himself do the best he is capable of, but
he will never attain that point unless he has an ideal better which
he is constantly aiming at. Who ever heard of a person, endeavor-
ing to spring over a ditch, jumping for the immediate edge of the
opposite shore? Truth is always ideal; we seek it continually.
Having made one form our own, we turn our attention immediately
in search of another. She is ever before us. Her history is more
unwritten than written. Perfection is always before us. She is
tlie guiding star, without which the human race would soon sink into
barbarism again. The common ruts, if continually followed, lead
on to a seK-conceited nonentity, pomposity, and ignorance. They
are always blocked up with false ideas and musty superstitions.
Truth and perfection are the twin sisters to clear this maze away.
Truth and perfection are both extravagant, and by too many always
declared visionary, impi-acticable. Their apostles have been cursed,
hanged, and burned at the stake. They are the men who have made
us what we are ; their lives and works constitute the history of the
world. Buddha, Confucius, Moses, Jesus, Paul, Loyola, Luther,

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCUOOL. 421

Spinoza, Galileo, Newton, Descartes, Knox ; the fathers of Ameri-
can independence, Washington, Paine, Jefferson, Otis, Adams, and
others; Yesalius, Bichat, and Yirchow in medicine; Darwin, Tyn-
dall, Huxley, in science ; and the fathers of America's second inde-
pendence, Garrison, Parker, Sumner, Whittier, and others, have all
been condemned in their own day and generation as visionary, im-
practical, extravagant ; and yet, one after the other, succeeding gen-
erations have raised monuments to their memory and pronounced
them most practical men.

The first bugbear which threatens our purpose is to be sought
in some secret meaning which is supposed to lie behind the word
" national.'' It is assumed by some that I desire to put my hands
in the public Treasury, and retire, to be the envy of the Kear-
neyites, a " bloated bondholder." Others suppose that by the
wi»rd "national" I mean a school endowed and controlled by the
Government at AVashington ; and they immediately see a whole
mountain of political evils overclouding their vision. Beyond
these views, no one seems yet to have proceeded, notwithstand-
ing five years' public advocacy and repeated restating of these
ideas.

The only sense in which I have ever used the word national is
in reference to a plan for a school which shall best serve the re-
quirements of the central Government, the State governments, and
the people individually, as if each one of these bodies were but a
single individual whose entire interests were to be served. Any
other definition of my meaning is but a perversion.

One school for the nation is what I am advocating, until the
necessities of the country shall require another.

Nothing more need be said of the evils of private or State
schools. It is to meet all these evils that I advocate one school.
The work of this scliool should be as follows :

1. To educate veterinarians who shall be equal, both to the de-
mands of the State and the public.

2. To supply a suitable number of qualified specialists who, in
the event of an outbreak of contagious animal diseases, or a suspi-
cious connection between those of animals and man, may proceed,
at the order of the National Board of Health, or at the request of
any State board, to the invaded district, and make there the neces-
sary researches and observations. These persons should always oc-
cupy the position of assistants, or tutors, at the school.

3. It should be an institution at which all manner of feeding,
inoculation, or other necessary experiments could be made, by

422 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION,

which alone there is any hope for finally arriving at the causes of
disease, or the means for their prevention.

4. It should be an institution where carefully detailed experi-
ments could be made with different kinds and mixtures, as food for
animals, in their relation to their use as beef, pork, mutton, milk,
etc., as food for human beings.

5. It should be an institution which the Government could always
use for any necessary purposes, or to which farmers or other persons
could send suspected food, dead animals, or portions of the same, or
other things in relation to their health, for experiment, research, or
proper investigation.

6. It should be an institution which would suppl}' men properly
educated to become veterinary teachers in the respective State agri-
cultural schools.

{a.) With relation to the veterinary instruction suitable to stu-
dents at agricultural schools, it is my opinion that it should be lim-
ited to anatomy and physiology of the domestic animals, hygiene
and dietetics, horseshoeing, a good education in relation to the con-
tagious animal diseases and their prevention, and forensic medicine,
which means examination as to soundness, etc. All instruction in
special pathology, or therapeutics, as well as surgery, is to be care-
fully avoided, for it only leads to the increase of the already too
extended number of empirics, or, what is still worse, quacks.

7. It should supply the necessary number of veterinarians for
State work of every kind.

While these are the principal demands which we have a right to
make upon such an institution, there are many advantages connected
with it which, although negatively stated heretofore, should now be
repeated in a positive manner.

While, in advocating 07ie school for the nation, I do not deny
the right of States to individual schools, yet I truly believe that
if such a school is founded in correspondence to the plan herein
stated, both State schools and private schools, chartered by States,
must soon suffer a speedy death, if ever allowed even a moment's
existence.

In one school we have but one standard of education, and that
the highest practicable. It may be argued that " opposition is the
soul of progress." To which I answer that the opposition should
be seated in the minds of the teachers, assistants, and tutors of the
school, as well as its numerous graduates, all of which would tend
to keep the school alive and active.

By having a uniform course of study, and only one grade of

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 423

graduation, the people have no difficulty in at once ascertaining as
to who is an accredited num.

Unless we have one form and grade of education for the wliolc
country, it will be absolutely imjx^ssible to ever have any eftectivc
veterinary police, or to have any uniformity in tlie laws, or to meet
the requirements set forth when considering this part of our subject.
It is really a scientitic question to decide, how all these ends can be
met by one institution. Yet it is possible. The first question is,
How can we have an institution, national in its purposes, yet free
from the evils of American politics i Naturally, it nnist receive its
charter from the central Government. Unless the institution can
serve the needs of the Government, it is absolutely useless. In dis-
cussing "'a national veterinary police code," I have shown the rela-
tion of the government to the schools, and said that the Veterinary
Inspector-General of the United States shouhl be a member of the
board of trustees, and one of the board of examiners. This gives
the Government a technical representative. If, however, such an
officer is appointed by political nepotism, then the less lie lias to do
with the school the better. He must be. selected in the way I have
said, or all our work is useless.

I propose, then, that an association be formed and chartered,
with the right to hold property, personal and real, to the amount of
two million dollars ; and that said association be called the i\^a-
tional Associntioii for ihe Promotion of Veterinary Science in the
United States. The work of this association is at first to be limited
to opening subscriptions for funds. In the eai-lier pages of this
book we have endeavored to make our readers cognizant of the
very near relation which exists between many animal disea-ses and
human health. Every man and woman of means in this country,
whose education will permit of their grasping the idea of preventive
medicine, should contribute accordingly to the foundation of this
institution. It is an object which should especially appeal to the
self-interest of every breeder and owner of domestic animals in the
country. The humanitarian, the enthusiastic friends of our domes-
tic animals, those interested in the reform of animal transport, are
all knocking at the wrong dr»or, and endeavoring to push an almost
immovable load up-hill without the aid of intelligent and highly
educated veterinarians.

The late Commodore Yanderbilt saw fit to endow a university.
We think a large veterinary institute an object which the country
has much more need of than more universities at present. It seems
strange that an object which should appeal at once to tlie^ generous

424: THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

spirit of every wealthy American should have been openly advocated
for a period of more than five years without finding a single pub-
lic supporter. The object is certainly noble ; the plan proposed is
not visionary, for it has found able support from several medical
men of eminence. Then why this apathy ? Is it because the vet-
erinary profession has not upheld it ? There is no such thing as the
veterinary profession in this country. There are a few isolated men
of variable degrees of school education, but these all seem more
afraid to tackle this subject, jyro or con^ than they would be of the
" rinderpest," which they would not fear much, in all probability,
as it would increase their yearly balances. Probably it is because
there is no money in it. " Millions in it " is the only thing which
could awaken a profession dead to all professional ambition, and
without the first spark of a genuine scientific spirit.

To form such an association, it is only necessary for a limited
number of representative breeders and patriotic citizens to call a
preliminary meeting at any of our large cities, there to draw up a
preamble, and a few regulations calling a large public meeting at a
later date. Hundreds of •responsible men are interested in this
undertaking, but all seem afraid to take the lead. Once having
formed a permanent association, a board of trustees should be se-
lected, so as to represent the great geographical sections of the coun-
try, and for a period of ten years each. They should themselves
select their own officers. The treasurer, who in the future should
be an officer of the school, should be the only paid man ; the others,
when all is going (if it ever will be), should receive only traveling
expenses. There is one position in connection with such an associa-
tion which will be replete with work, and that is the position of sec-
retary.

The locating of such an institution is a matter of immense im-
portance. All things considered, it seems as if the city of Cincin-
nati were esj)ecially indicated for this purpose. It is sufficiently
central in every direction. It is large enough to furnish all the
elements for a clinic. It seems to be more or less excluded from
the contemptible jealousies which are occasionally cropping out be-
tween our other large cities. While I am, in general, in favor of
uniting such an institution with a university, our conditions seem
rather to warrant us in keeping it an entirely separate institution.
Such a connection might save a little in expense, by the teachers
in several of the natural sciences being taken from the university ;
but, on the other hand, the natural sciences, with the exception of
botany, need to be peculiarly adapted to the use of veterinarians ;

A XATION'AL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 425

and as this work is still scarcely begun in any country, it is suffi-
ciently indicated that we should endeavor to found an institution
where they may be especially cultivated ; and, in selecting teachers,
we must endeavor to obtain men of real genius. It must never be
forgotten that we are not advocating a school for the production of
horse-doctors, but, on the contrary, an institution for the develop-
ment of those natural sciences which serve as the foundation for
the study of medicine, the development of veterinary science in all
its branches, and the education of scientifically qualified veterinary
practitioners.

The school mnst have the scientific spirit permeating all its ■work.
It is because our medical schools are almost all entirely wanting in
this particular that we have never produced a great medical scien-
tist. "NVe have developed the hand-work by borrowing the elements
upon which it is founded from German}- and France. What we
want is American science as well as American practice. Science
can never be developed except with state support. Sporadic up-
heaval may be witnessed from private endeavor, as may be seen in
England. It is absolutely necessary that the theoretic and practical
in a medical school be permeated, saturated with this scientific
spirit. No one who has not lived in such a spirit can realize how it
gradually stimulates even the drones among the students. It is like
the deacon and his wonderful trotters — the spirit of emulation grad-
ually extended to the deacon also. The students soon begin to think
and seek the causes of things ; researches, experiments, take more of
their thoughts, and, instead of learning practice by rote, they begin
to feel the desire to improve it, even a.s students. " The reason
why" becomes an innate part of their being. Unless this s]>irit is
shared by every teacher of such a school, in so much is it a failure.
Only men having this spirit, and the practical ability to let it be
seen in their works, are suited to be teachers.

Such an institution as we have in mind requires considerable
land, ten acres not being by any means too much. It will require
stables for hospital use — isolated stables to quarantine animals in-
fected with, suspected of, or kept for experimental purposes, with
contagious diseases. It will require a special dog-hospital, also a
special stable for the use of animals to be kept for feeding and other
experiments. It will also require buildings for the residences of the
teachers, servants, and pupils, as well as for the different educational
purposes.

In order that such an institution may fully fill all the demands
we have a right to make upon it, great circumspection must be ex-

426 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

ercised with respect to every move we make. Wliile there is no way
bj which we can prevent State schools, and, if we may judge from
the past, private schools also, so long as our legislators are as igno-
rant and heedless as they now are with reference to the proper
relations of our medical institutions, by which I mean schools,
practitioners, etc., we must make every effort to discourage their
estabhshment. We may be certain that the young veterinary aspi-
rants will go to that school which gives them the best education at
the least expense. There is but one way in which a national school
can hope to kill out private and State institutions of a similar char-
acter. That loay is to make it free to the students, ^j free I mean
conditionally. I would have the annual fees, including everything,
fixed at one hundred dollars, payable semi-annually. Each and
every student should be obliged to pay them. But the conditions
upon which each student may receive his education free, should be
that all students who pass a successful examination at the first trial
for the diploma of the institute should receive back all the fees paid
in, inclusive of the examination fee during the course of study re-
quired by the school ; any students failing in their first examina-
tion, or retiring from it, except for sickness, or not completing the
course, to forfeit all fees paid in. I am a bitter enemy to the prize
system, which selects one, two, or three students, who may acci-
dentally pass a better examination than their fellows ; but the above
plan, being open to all, is certainly in the interest of parents and
students, and should offer an extra stimulus to study. The prize
system is degrading, for an examination is seldom a just criterion of
the comp^ing student's ability ; the parrot students generally win
this prize, while the men of character and individuality win those
of the world. A school examination is a hard thing for men of
real character. It is generally too iniich hooh^ and not enough in-
clined to draw the real knowledge from the student. To carry out
this plan, and pay the expenses of the school in the manner which
we shall in part detail, requires a large interest-bearing fund, but
the income to the country at large will more than justify the invest-
ment.

The course of study must extend over four full years, of ten months
each, with an interval at the Christmas holidays. This may seem
excessive, in comparison to the two-session course of many Ameri-
can medical schools, but a proper education^ an education equal to
the demands of the time, and in the spirit of modern science, can
not be obtained in less. While, at the period of my studies at Ber-
lin, the full session was limited to three years, mine was the last class

A NATIONAL VKTERINARY SCHOOL, 427

to <,'railuate at the eiul of three yeai-s ; I found it necessary to remain
nearly a year longer to fill up the vacuums, which were perceptible
to myself, in my education to fit myself for the work I had under-
taken, and to feel warranted in claiming that I really had an edu-
cation with a scientific foundation ; and had not my health and
means both been pretty well exhausted, I should have certaiidy add-
ed a year more to my school-days. Still, they are n(jt ended ; the
real student is always at school, whether in his own laboratory, or
busy about }>ractice, or enjoying a vacation. The educated mind is
never without material for study, A scarcity of immediate objects
of interest is often necessary in order that time may be gained for
skeptical reflection. The Avord '' skeptic " is used in the sense of
critical, not in an anti-religions sense, as unreflecting people seem
always to thiidc necessary. The same is true of the word " radical,"
which means '• root," or one who endeavors to go to the root of a
matter ; but the highly educated representatives of the American
press seem to think it should only be applied to spiritualists, free-
lovers, or other similar eccentricities of weak-minded men and
women. Pardon these few digressive words.

An inexcusable mistake of all veterinary schools, and many medi-
cal as well, is, that the school-year for freshmen is arranged to begin
in the fall. Every teacher that has had experience, and who makes
a study of his work — that is, how he can best present his subjects to
the students (and no other men should ever be teachers), if capable
of making any practical observations upon the difticulties whicli
students have to overcome — must realize that to jump them into the
studies of a general first winter course, as they now ai*e, without
any preparation, is but a waste of time and source of anxiety to the
student, and aggravation to the teachers. The time for students to
enter upon the study of medicine should be fixed for about the mid-
dle of March, and the four-ycai*s session should end at the same
time. The studies of this first term, from March IStli to August
1st, should be osteolorpj, chemistry, ])hysies, and botany. The man-
ner in which osteology is at present taught in most schools is little
more than a farce ; the student learns the bones, it is true, their pro-
tuberances, museular insertions, and cavities, but beyond this ho
seldom gets. Bones are indeed a dry subject. This is all wrong.
There is no branch of medical study which can be made more inter-
esting and instructive than this, and, unless it is taught in a truly
scientific manner, tiie name might as well be stricken from the cur-
riculum of a school. It should first begin with the development of
bone-tissne in general, demonstrated by the teacher upon the board ;

428 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

this will all be repeated in histology, if the school is a respectable
one. The manner in which each bone develops, how the bone
grows, how the tuberosities and cavities are formed, the comparative
anatomy of each bone, its varying uses, and, what has not yet been
invented, wooden or hard-rubber skeletons, with elastic muscles, to
illustrate osteology^ as well as myology. I am opposed to the teach-
ing of elementary chemistry in medical schools ; this, elementary
physics and botany, should all be placed in the matriculatory exami-
nation ; but, so long as that is at j^resent impossible, we must do the
best we can, and give the students a very thorough education in
chemistry and physics. With reference to the former, each theo-
retic lecture should be repeated the next day by the students in the
laboratory, so far as it had direct relation to the practical uses of the
students. Theory must be made practical, or else it is not science.
It is but words — empty words ! A teacher who has not the genius
which enables him to apply the abstract sciences, such as chemistry
or physics, to the practical needs of the students, is unfit to teach.
In most medical schools this fact seems to be entirely lost sight
of. Chemistry is taught as chemistry ^er se. Many a man is suited
to teach chemistry for chemical students, but there are few who
have the genius to apply it to the practical needs of medical
students. To this end, the teacher of chemistry should have first
studied medicine, and have graduated as an M. D., or veterina-
rian, and then have studied and made a specialty of chemistry and
physics.

"With reference to botany. A good knowledge of its elements,
the classifications, and the determination of the species of plants,
must be insisted on in the matriculatory examination, else much
valuable time would be lost at the school. The botany taught at
medical schools is entirely out of place. Students no longer need
to go out in the woods to gather herbs. In pharmacognosy and
materia medica the endeavor should be to make the student thor-
oughly acquainted with the principal medicines in dried, crude, and
prepared forms ; but the teaching in botany should be limited to
vegetable anatomy and physiology, with microscopic practice, and
a careful comparison of the structure and functions of the vegetable
with those of the animal world. The students of to-day (and, I am
sorry to say, many teachers) do not realize how this course opens
the way to the study of the anatomy and physiology of the animal
world. It not only opens the way, but gives one such an introduc-
tion as to make the study of the latter branches doubly interesting.

I will not critically consider the whole course of study, but will

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 429

rather give a course of study to be extended over four years, as I at
present look upon the question :

I'lt'st Stusio/i {Spring and Sunu/ier), March 15th to August 1st. —
Introduction to the study of veterinary medicine, by the director ;
osteology ; chemistry, inorganic, theoretical, and practical ; physics ;
botany (theoretic, as described) ; zoology ; horseshoeing (practical).

ibW'ond Kit'ssion {Fall and M'lnter)^ October 1st to March Ijth. —
Zootomy* (lectures and practice); chemistry, organic, and practice;
materia meilica and pharmacognosy ; history of veterinary medi-
cine ; horseshoeing, theoretic, history.

Third Session {Spring and Suminer). — Physiology (part first) ;
histology, ■with ])ractice ; comparative anatomy and embryology ;
materia medica ; toxicology ; exercise in chemical laboratory.

Fourth Session {Fall and Wijiter). — Anatomy, lectures and prac-
tice ; pliysiologv (part second); nerve physiology; dietetics; hygi-
ene; breeding (theoretic, with especial regard to evolution) ; reviews
by assistants of chemistry, materia medica ; comparative anatomy
and physiology.

At the end of this session the students arc to be examined in
the above branches. Students failing to pass, to be put back one
year.

Fifth Year {Spring and Summer). — General pathology (with
sketch of the history of medicine) ; general therapeutics ; general
surgical pathology ; special surgical pathology ; special pathology
and therapeutics of the diseases of the domestic animals ; practice
in pliarmacy ; practice in writing prescriptions.

Sixth Session {Fall and Winter). — Clinic, percussion and auscul-
tiition ; pathological anatomy, demonstrative and microsco])ic ; oper-
ative surgery (theory and practice) ; special surgical pathology ; spe-
cial ])athol()gy and therapeutics ; exterior (lectures on form and
soundness) ; practice in pharmacy.

Seventh Session {Spring and Summer). — Clinic ; pathological
anatomy, as above ; obstetrics (theory and practice) ; veterinary
sanitary science and police (contagious animal diseases and their
prevention) ; forensic medicine ; operative surgery (practice).

Eighth S-'Ssion {F<dl and Winter). — Clinic ; physiology (part
first) ; general pathology ; sanitary science and police ; forensic
medicine ; meat and market inspection.

The work of this last session should be to fasten as much as pos-
sible the principles of medicine in the minds of the students, and

* All lectures upon special branches should be introduced with a short sketch of the
principal events in their development

430 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

give them time for reviewing. The members of the graduating
class should also be allowed to oversee the students in the anatomi-
cal laboratory — a certain number at a time — in order that they may
have a final opportunity to refresh their minds in this important
branch before appearing for examination.

This plan of study is doubtless open to improvement, but I ven-
ture to say that it is better than any at present followed. Its aim
is to unite theory and practice to the fullest possible degree.

At the end of the eighth session the students will appear for
their final examination. Written examinations — with the exception
of a portion of the clinical — are a farce. The aim of an examina-
tion is to ascertain the real ability of the candidates. Originality
of expression should be cultivated, and the teachers should endeavor
to place the ^'' jparrots^'' or book - repeaters, where they belong.
Grade examinations, "good," "better," "best," are another farce.
The school should have but one standard — either a student passes
a satisfactory examination, or it is pronounced xLiisatisfactory.
The fate of the "first men in their classes" in the arena of the
world is too often otherwise than that which is expected. All
students passing an unsatisfactory examination should be put back
one year, and forfeit all rights to the refunding of their fees for
any part of the term. The director should signify the special lec-
tures they must attend.

A list of each year's graduates should be published in the school
organ, as well as in the leading agricultural and sporting papers.
The secretary of the Board of Health of the State fi'om which each
graduate comes, as well as the presiding officer of his native place,
are to be notified of the candidate's graduation, which must be pub-
lished in a public print of the place. All State boards of health
should also receive an official list of each year's graduates.

The writer would also seriously recommend the idea of endeav-
oring to introduce into the country a more intelligent and trust-
worthy class of grooms and coachmen, and to this end would suggest
that the attendants in the stal^le be young men from fifteen to nine-
teen years old, who can read and write ; that their pay be merely
nominal, but enough to feed and clothe them, and that they have,
from the superintendent of the clinic, lectures on treatment, on
stable hygiene, and feeding, carefully illustrating the dangers of in-
considerate and inopportune feeding; fi'om the lecturer on horse-
shoeing, special general lectures on the care of the foot in health ;
and from the lecturer on physiology, some general lectures on physi-
ology. Such a course would, it seems to me, be nationally benefi-

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 431

cial, and pay not only tlic liiMrers, in years to come, but tlio com-
munity at large. These lectures should be open to the public at a
nominal })rice, and gentlemen could have the privilege of sending
their grooms or coachmen, and farmei-s of attending during the
winter months. Thus, and only by carrying out a plan such as this,
can we expect to build up our science in America.

"While I am so earnestly oi)posed to State schools, on account of
the seeming impossibility of ever arriving at a uniform system of
education for one and all of them, and a uniform grade of examina-
tion, yet I do not assert that one school, or institution, is sufficient
to cover the entire needs of the country. It ca?i supply the reipiired
number of veterinarians, and it can do an immense amount of scien-
tific research, but, to fulfill all the requirements which may be made
in this direction, another form of institution is necessary.

These are : research, experiment, stations, one in each State, at
the service of and under the control of the State Board of Health,
represented by the Chief Veterinary Inspector of the State. The
value of such an institution to the people of each State can not well
be appreciated in a country M'here no such thing exists. They
should be small, neat stables, with a quarantine stable for infectious
diseases ; they also should have a microscopical and chemical labora-
tory, and each should have about two acres of land with them. In
each State there should be meat inspectors, especially pork inspectors ;
part of the duty of the State veterinarian should be to give a course
of lectures each year upon these subjects, with the necessary demon-
strations. In case this official could not be spared for such a pur-
pose, the State should engage a competent man for the purpose from
among the veterinarians in the State.

With such an institution at its command, the Board of Health
can constantly make feeding experiments with suspected milk, or
with reference to tnhercuh>.sis of cows, or any other subject of im-
portance to the people of the State. "Without such an institution
at its command, the hands of such a board are more or less tied.

The National School should be at the command of the National
Board of Health, or National Inspector-General, for similar purposes.

TlIK TEACnERS.

Sooner or later "civil service reform" has got to be introduced
into our higher institutions of learning, as well as the Government.
With reference to the institution we are considering, it can not and
will not ever be successful if its teachers are selected and rewarded
as such persons now are in this country. Witli reference to the se-

4:32 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

lection of the first corps of teachers, were the school in readiness, I
must confess I am myself somewhat at a loss what course to pursue.
Still, I think that the competitive method in vogue in France, which
must be adopted in all future cases, could also be made available
here by giving public notice in this country, France, Germany, and
England, of the chairs to be filled, said notice to be given at least
nine months before the competition is to take place. In addition,
the duties, accommodations, and remuneration should all be dis-
tinctly declared. Foreigners should be allowed a certain fixed sum
for traveling expenses. Another plan would be to select a com-
mittee of three and send them on a search ; but this is really im-
practicable, in my opinion.

As opposed as Americans have ever been to the pensioning sys-
tem, it must be adopted in the scientific and higher schools of this
country before we can hope to make any progress in science. Mod-
erate pay during active life, and a fair pension for themselves or
their immediate family for a fixed period, and under fixed conditions,
is the only plan upon which we can ever hope to control the real
geniuses among scientists for educational purposes. There are but
very few men of original genius who would not gladly sacrifice all
hope of great earthly reward, and who would most joyfully devote
their whole services to the State, were they only secured a comfort-
able living during the active period of their lives, and a just pension
to themselves when old or worn out, to be secured to their widows
during life, and proportionately to minor children until sixteen
years of age. Americans may " kick against (these) pricks " all they
please ; come to it they will and must, be it anti-American or not.
There are a great many things that a bigoted and ignorant Ameri-
canism at present pronounces " anti- American " which a more intel-
ligent and liberal future will adopt. It is not a support for laziness
which we are demanding. It is the just rewards for genius. Every
man of any education and liberality knows that most men of true
scientific genius are scarcely fit to take care of themselves so far as
monetary matters go. They have no time for such trifles. The
costs in the end to the State, or to the association, which in this case
will have to assume them, will not exceed those which would accrue
from higher salaries during active life. Residences for the teachers,
servants, and pupils should be found on the grounds. For the two
former they should be free ; for the latter at a reasonable rent.
Every teacher should be retired and pensioned when sixty years of
age, no matter how active he may still be, and his place filled by
young power. Every vacancy must be filled by public competition

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 433

of the candidates before the teachers as a body, and some representa-
tive members of the board of trustees. It must never be forgotten
that genius for researcli united to great knowledge is not sufficient
to constitute a man a teacher suitable to the young (or old). Genius
for teaching, enthusiasm in teaching, and ability to apply one's
knowledge practically, is an absolute necessity. Without this ability
the most gifted genius is useless to a school as a teacher, however
valuable he may be to the country at large as an original investi-
gator. AVe must endeavor, to the best of our ability, to obtain men
uniting these three qualifications to a high degree.

TuE Students.

On account of the great extent of this country, and the variation
existing in the different States with regard to the standard of differ-
ent schools bearing similar names, a matriculatory examination will
be an absolute necessity. This should extend to a thorough exami-
nation in all English branches, which a graduate of a high-school
should have perfected himself in, as well as a knowledge of Latin
grammar, and ordinary translations. As to Continental languages,
there is no doubt that a knowledge of German, especially, and
French, is more indispensable to the veterinarian than to the medi-
cal practitioner. While much of the best foreign literature is soon
translated for the benefit of the latter, the veterinarian has to wait
years, and loses much of it altogether. It is impossible for the Ameri-
can veterinarian who docs not read these two languages to estimate
the great difference which exists between the German and French
reviews and those of England. As to the American, they are scarcely
worthy of the name. Again, a good rudimentary knowledge of
zoology, chemistry, physics, and botany is absolutely necessary to
the young student entering upon the study of medicine ; without
this he is constantly feeling his way in the dark. Each applicant
must be at least eighteen and not over twenty-five years of age.
Not every youth is fitted either to become a veterinary or medical
practitioner.

As I am now drawing my " Buchlein" to a close, I may be al-
lowed the liberty of ending it with a few remarks upon the general
principles of education, which I hope will not be without interest,
and perhaps benefit, to the reader.

The ground covered by the word education is covered by but
one other, and that is life. From the day of birth until we pass
away beyond earthly scenes we are in a constant process of educa-
tion. The history of the rise, progress, and development of educa-

28

434 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

tion is tlie liistorj of man. Commerce and intercourse have been
the two great factors. Education includes marriage, parentage, and
all life's responsibilities within its limits. Solemn subject, which
never ends but with life ! Subject — the beginning of which is so
subtile that no man dare indicate the moment when the first reflective
brain-action begins, other than that it begins with the worldly life
of the individual. It is the attribute of all the higher forms of ani-
mal life, differing only in degree and quality. The so-called in-
stincts are not alone the attributes of the lower animals ; man has
them also. They may be defined as action, which f oUows so quickly
on thought that thought and action, cause and effect, are not, even
by the individual, to be distinguished from one another. This re-
mark has no reference to those intellectual peculiarities which dis-
tinguish mankind from the lower animals. ]^o action takes place
in the animal organism without the irritation of specific nervous
centers. Hunger is among the attributes which we enjoy in com-
mon with the lower animals. The attempt to stay it is not instinct-
ive in the lower animals any more than with man. The manner of
staying it is different. In both species it is dependent upon a cer-
tain form of irritation of the trophic nerve-endings in the stomach
(perhaps intestines also), which is transmitted to certain centers in the
brain, and irritates them, causing reflection (in lower animals as well
as in man), and, as a natural result, the seeking for food.

There rules in the community an idea that the different grades
of intelligence — the so-called " gifts " (illustrated by the expression
" that one person is more gifted than another," one animal possessing
a greater development of its instincts than another) — are something
special ; some mysterious, spiritual force or forces, which such organ-
isms have received from the Creator. They seem to entirely overlook
the true conditions which lead to these differences. These differences
are founded upon variations in the anatomical structure of the centers
of intelliorence in different individuals. It is not known whether

o
chemical differences in the elements forming these centers are pres-
ent or not ; the anatomical variations, while axiomatically true, have
never as yet been demonstrated. This work belongs to the science
of the future. Changes in the anatomical structure of the nervous
centers of intelligence are immediately followed by variations in the
functions of these parts, and finally demonstrate themselves by
changes in the phenomena produced, varying in degree according
to the anatomical changes of the elements.

The unit of animal, as well as vegetable life, is the cell. Beyond
that we do not need to go. " Omnis cellula e cellula," says the

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL, 435

great master of medicine, Virchow. "While "we look upon the cell
as the unit of life, we have to pay our attention to the n?iit3 of
which it is composed. A cell is a mass of protoi)lasm, with or with-
out an inclosing membrane, with or without a nucleus or nucleolus.
Changes in this protoplasm cause variations in the functions of the
cell. The work of the cell, the part it tiikes in the animal or vege-
table economy, is dependent upon the composition — molecular rela-
tions and chemical nature — of its protoplasm. This is the consti-
tution of the cell. If the constitution is normal, the functions of
the cell are normal. If the relations and nature of any of the ele-
ments vary to any great degree, so that the influences of the varia-
tions, on the part of one or a group of cells, can not be equalized by
the action of the others, then the functions of the cell become ab-
normal to a corresponding degree. Abnormality can only take
place in three directions — viz., a plus, a minus, and an entire cessa-
tion of functional activity. The sum of the cellular functions con-
stitutes life. The variable phenomena of life, in different individuals
of one and the same family, are invai'iably dependent upon varia-
tions in the anatomical relations, or in the protoplasm of which the
cells ai*e composed, or in those organs in which such differences ai*e ob-
servable. This doctrine may be traced in the early medical writings.
We find it intimated by the grand Greek, Hippocrates, the father
of medicine. His four humors — blood, black gall, white gall, and
mucus — gave rise to the constitution of the individual. The tem-
peraments were dependent upon the relations of the humors to one
another. The cell being considered as a unit, an indefinite number
of these units, collected together for one purpose, form an organ, a
greater unit ; and the union of a certain number of these larger
units, each with its special functions, each with its work to do for
itself, for its own existence, as well as work to do for the benefit of
each of the organs united with it, constitutes the functions of that
complex unit — if I may l)e allowed the term — the organism. Con-
sidered as a unit, the organism does not differ from the cell. Its
constitution is dependent upon the anatomical relations and chemical
composition of its elements. Its functions are dependent upon their
normal relation to each other fur their perfect completion. Its tem-
perament upon the same, Man's organism has work to do to keep
itself in condition, as well as its part to keep the machine (unit) in
existence, which wo call humanity.

The diversity of intellectual " gifts" is neither special curse nor
special blessing. It is based upon variations in the structural rela-
tions, molecular proportion, or chemical conditions of the different

436 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

nervous centers situated in the brain. Cheerfully admitting that this
is a priori reasoning, yet I do not lose hope that the investigators
of some future day will be able to discover and describe some of
these changes. Why one child is bom brilKant and another weak
in intellect, from the same parents, and, so far as we know, under
the same conditions, is not dependent upon punishment from God,
but upon variations in the molecular construction, or chemical com-
ponents (?) of the protoplasm of the cells, or upon anatomical va-
riations of a coarser kind. The causes of these variations are gen-
erally present at the moment of the fructification of the ovum of the
mother or in the sperm of the father, or are due to influences which
are exerted upon the foetus while being carried by the mother.
The elements of these nervous centers in such conditions do not
suffer such marked changes that we have been able to discover them,
although it is true that exact investigation in this direction is but
in its infancy. In extreme cases, variations in cranial formation
may be present, but they are not necessary ; nor do they occur
when loss of intellect or disturbances take place during life from
over-exertion, shock, or other causes ; yet, in such cases, we must
assume that changes have taken place in the active elements of those
centers in the brain, a disturbance of which is indicated by the ab-
normal phenomena which have attracted our attention.

Every child is a unit — an organism composed of a certain num-
ber of small units, the organs, which themselves are composed of
untold numbers of still smaller units, the cells. The normal rela-
tions and actions of all these parts regulate the constitution of the
child. The functions of the brain do not differ from this rule ;
they are dependent upon its anatomical structure in part or as a
whole. It is impossible to make a child anything different intellectw-
ally than this anatomical structure of the brain will allow. This
is, however, somewhat dependent upon the relations of the brain to
the other parts of the body. Incomplete action of one or the other
of the important organs may, and does frequently, lead to changes
of importance in the brain, but in their nature so subtile as to escape
our present means of observation. While the brain functions of
the child are in reality thus limited, the limits are of such a nature
that in the normal child they are never attained. They will answer
aU the demands which can be made upon them, but the result is
always dependent upon their structure and appositional relations.
Why one child will he a veterinarian or a breeder of animals, another
a merchant, another a seaman, or a minister, or a student of some
one of the natural sciences, against the earnest wiU and wishes of its

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 437

parents, is neither dependent on "pure cussedness'' nor upon any
special influence of the devil or any of his agents, nor upon obsti-
nacy or ill-will, as many parents supjiose, but upon fixed and uii-
chanjreablo anatomical conditions in its brain. The same is true of
many unfortunates who from early childhood develop a tendency
to destroy and torture animal life, and who sometimes bring up as
murderers. The causes of such conditions arc in a measure at pres-
ent beyond our knowledge. They have been undoubtedly strength-
ened by heedless marriage. Marriage is indeed a solemn thing ;
the world scarcely realizes how solenm. Marriage, as in general
conducted, is a senseless thing. It is dependent upon fancy ; upon
certain supposed affinities, which do not exist save in tlic unreflect-
ing minds of excited lovers. Love itself is based upon certain centers
in the brain. Love and setisuality have no relation or connection
with one another. The thing called love^ which at best is l)ut mere
fancij^ may exist, but the genuine article is entirely free from it.
The situation of the two centers is widely separated. Some day
mankind will instigate as careful investigations into the pedigree of
each other with relation to inherited diseases as they do now in
endeavoring to trace a connection to some broken-down sprig of
Continental snobocracy. Some day we shall exercise as much care
in selecting our partners as we do now in selecting animals for breed-
ing. The purpose of marriage is to continue the race. For no
other purpose are we made male and female. The same is true of
every member of the animal kingdom. Tubercular consumption is
not only increasing in extension, but the average age at which such
people die is decreasing in the human family. We charge it all to
the changeableness of our climate. The climate, the irritations of
life, are simply sufficient causes to set the disease in motion. The
true cause is to be sought in the weak lung-tissues which we trans-
mit to our children. This weakness has been constantly and igno-
rantly increased at the expense and misery of the children produced.
"We talk about our boasted civilization. The breeders of cattle know
this fact, and exclude from breeding animals which, were they hu-
man beings, would marry if they took a fancy. "Were they to do
this, they would do what Inimanity docs for itself — condemn its chil-
dren to lives of misery and an early grave, llow does the medical
profession deport itself toward tliis question ? Is it true to the sci-
entific spirit of preventive medicine? No — a thousand times no!
Its members marry as heedlessly and headlessly as the people. Few
members of it dare enter a family and warn young couples, intend-
ing to marry, of their duties and the dangers to which they are un-

438 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.

questionably going to subject their children. Were children not
the result of marriage, it would then make no difference. The
Church '•' Out-Herods Herod." Her ministers neither set a becom-
ing example, nor do they warn, as prophets of the true God, the
people of their duties in this regard.

The purpose of marriage (natural) is to produce children. " So
God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he
him ; male and female created he them."

" And God blessed them, and God said unto them. Be fruitful,
and multiply, and replenish the earth." *

The science of parentage is an undeveloped branch of universal
science. It is still awaiting the appearance of its first prophet. Its
primers are as yet unwritten. Man scarcely knows the meaning of
the first letter of its alphabet. It is the science par excellence. All
others sink into insignificance in comparison with it. They all
form but stepping-stones to its development. Thousands and thou-
sands of years old, yet cultivated 'man does not know enough to
marry. The real duties of parentage are still too much for hu-
manity to bear and faithfully carry out.

Physical fitness is the indispensable necessity. The " affinities"
(an inexact term), a matter of secondary importance. Respect for
each other's intellectual capabilities, and interest in the life-work of
each other, is a far better foundation for a true marriage than the
fancy mistakenly called love, which now, too frequently, leads to
it. In every child, soon after birth, the elements of these charac-
ter-centers in the brain begin to assume a certain fixity of form,
which, under normal conditions, gradually increase with the years.
This fixity in the elements of the centers referred to gives occasion
to the idiosyncratic ability of the individual. This point is the pole,
the center around which the entire personality of the individual is
to revolve during life. Its develojpment, the ultimo of the science of
parentage. The study of it, by means of its developing phenomena,
the so-called " tastes " of the child, the imperative duty of every
parent and every teacher of youth. It is the ohjective jpoint upon
which each parent should fix his or her attention from the day of
birth to that of the maturity of each child. It is the magnetic needle
which Nature places in each child to indicate to parents the course
they should pursue in the education of the child. The development
of this one point is not, however, the single duty of parents in di-
recting the education of a child ; but, like a skillful general, who
supports his crack corps in a desperate attack with all his other

* Gen. i, 2*7, 28.

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 439

forces, so must parents support this special brain, intellectual affinity
of a child, for a certain occupation in life, by the most complete and
studied education in other branches, so that in every way its strong-
est point is ■well supported by collateral education. Such a child is
well fitted to fight the battle for existence when the years to begin
it come on. Many and many a gifted child has been made a good-
for-nothing man, " a rolling stone," from the ignorance or stubborn-
ness of parents who had not sense enough to know their duty, but
believed in the doctrine, which has cursed more men than it has
ever blessed, that the child must bend to the will of the parents.
A one-sided education is a poor thing. It too frequently leaves the
unfortunate man deeply buried in the " slough of despond." This
most earnest study of the developing characteristics of a child is tho
imperative duty of parents. The child is not the property of the
parents, to be used cither as a toy, an ornament, or a means to per-
sonal gratification. It is not an ohject hclonging to pa^'cnt^ to he
bent to their wiUs. On the contrary, it is a tintst received from
Nature to he sacrcdhj guarded. It is an i7idividual ichose develop-
ing will is to he respected as its peculiar and inherent right, hut
which is also to he studied, directed, and the lesson of self-control
gradually taught if, so that it may he fitted for the loork of life.
Morals are not '' gifts from God " ; they are the results of experience.
The comprehension of right can only develop with the intellect, and
the broader the latter is developed, the more sharply defined its action,
the more exact will be the child's idea of right. Right and wrong
are at first in no way moral sentiments to the child. They are at
first founded in a degree of fear or love of parents ; and the child's
opposing actions, looked upon by parents too frequently as the re-
sults of ill-will, are but the gradually developing will, individuality
of the child, coming into collision with the wills, it should be with
the matured judgment, of the parents. The gradual development
of this will in a proper direction is the highest duty of parents. It
is not to be controlled by them, but directed. The child is to learn
that the will of its parents — which is its first idea of moral law — is
to be followed with trust, not fear. lie is to learn that it saves him
from many evil consequences, nntil, by the development of his own
intellect, he becomes gradually able to distinguish between a right
and a wrong peculiar to himself, and the relation of his own organ-
ism to his surroundings, as well as the relation of each part to the
other parts of which it is made np. The right and wrong of an in-
telligent and developing understanding gradually takes the place of
a conflict between — to the child — non-comprehended forces and the

440 THE MEANS OF PREVENTION.-

matured understanding of the parents. The aim of education is to
prepare the child so that it 7nay take care of itself in the struggle
for existence. This axiom answers a question which many are ask-
ing, though but few seem able to answer. How many children may
a couple generate ? The answer is, No more than their means will
allow them to fully educate for this struggle for existence. Many
persons, who unfortunately marry without the least idea of their
new duties, are not fitted to have any children. Their own parents,
having been unsuited to this noblest of duties, have transmitted
their own incapacity to their children. " Yerily, the sins of the
fathers are visited upon the children" in more ways than we at
present are aware of.

Education ! "What is it ? What form does it take ? In my
opinion, education has three forms. First, the preparatory educa-
tion of the school and college days. Second, the so-called " cultiva-
tion " which is the result of one's general reading. Both of these
forms are but gleanings from the work of others. Third, educa-
tion proper, or that which the individual works out of himself hy
reflection upon what he has read, observed, and heard. It will be
at once seen, and daily experience proves it, that a cultivated man
is not necessarily an educated one ; nor is every educated man a cul-
tivated one, although this exception is more rarely the case than
the former.

We often read in the daily papers that the public schools of the
present day are too nmch inclined to develop philosophers, and not
enough toward practical ends. It would be a blessing indeed did
they seek to produce good, clear, radical (not in the sense of igno-
rant newspaper writers) thinkers. A philosopher is one who thinks
deeply upon any subject. He is quite frequently found, in a crude
form, shoveling coal or pegging shoes. The polished form sits often-
er in the professor's chair. The diamond is frequently spoiled in
the polishing. So it is with many crude but sharp thinkers. When
polished, the clearness is lost behind a multitude of words. Read-
ing and writing by no means constitute an education. People seem
to think they do, however. They are but the means. Ability to
think logically is the attribute of an educated man. A foolish per-
son may be taught to read and write, but no one would dare say
he is educated. They lack the one pearl of price — the ability to
think ; but the capability to read and write greatly increases tlie re-
flective abilities of an otherwise crude thinker. It is the essential
quality failing in our present humanity. The occasional individual
thinks, the masses never. One would suppose, judging from per-

A NATIONAL VETERINARY SCHOOL. 44I

sonal observation, that the alnlity to tliiiik must have been one of
the lost arts. Our aim should be to create gooil, logical thinkers —
men capable of observing closely, and drawing radical conclusions.
On that depends not only their individual success, but the advance-
ment of our country as a whole. Let us, then, all do our j)(n't in
pushing forward such a work. Among other things to this pur-
pose, none is more needed than a natumal institute for the scientific
education of veterinarians and the other purposes mentioned in this
book.

GEXERAL i:^DEX.

/I PAGE

AbejTTtus 223

A national veterinary institute 390, 419

A national veterinary police syjitcm 8C7

Agriculture, report of the Commissioner

ot 209

Albert, observations on tuberculosis in

cattle C7

American Government on tricbiniasia. . . 19
American pork, microscopic examination

of 20

more trichinous than European 26

Anthrax 103,843, 851

history of 103

etiology of 106

nature of inficiens 103

outbreak and extension of Ill

phenomena ot 112

patholo)fical anatomy of 113

prognosis 115

diagnosis 115

prevention 116

treatment 117

immunity from 117

in man 121

cause of, in man 121

symptoms and course 122

treatment of 1 24

Anthracoid disea'^es 124

Appeal to the citizens of Pennsylvanui.. 4'">5

Arjans, respect for animal life by the. . . 211

Aristotle, views of, on animal diseases . 222

Austria, the veterinary school of 280

B

Bacillus suis 42

Bacteria 79

Lecuwenhock on 79

classification of. 80

Mailer on SO

Ehrenberg on 80

Ilacckel on 80

Davalne and others on 80

PAGE

Bacteria, distinction from inorganic sub-
stances 84

development of. 85

dissemination of 66

nutrition and respiration of S6

cultivation of. S7

reproduction of. 88

action of 89, 94

Bates, on cattle-diseases in Britain in

1714 260

Berlin, veterinary school at 322

students at the 333

regulation-s at the 334

horse-abattoir at 155

Board of health, work of a nati<inal 386

Bollinger, on trichina? in American pork.. 27

micrococci in hog-cholera 41

on foot-and-mouth disease 55

on bovine tuberculosis 05

on antlirax Ill

on rabies 141

on chronic pulmonarj' glanders . . 166, 188

Boerhaavo 212

Bojanus 314

Bourgolat, Claude 265

Bowditch, on trichinaj 40

on tuberculosis fi'l

Brauell, on anthrax 104

Brown, Sir Charles, on animal hospitals

in India 264

C

Cattle, diseases of 62

Cato, Marcus Portias 229

Chaliert, on anthrax I'H

Cbaraka, on the me<lical student 213

Chicago Academy of Sciences, on trichi-

niD 120

Cholera, hog 41

cause of. 41

Roellon 42

Spinola on 42

44:4

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

Cholera, hog, virulence of. 43

influences of season and temperature

on 44

period of incubation of 44

symptoms of 44

pathological anatomy of. 47

microscopic observations in 48

diagnosis of 49

prognosis in 49

treatment of. 50

prevention of 50

losses from, in the United States 877

Clater, on inoculation in pleuro-pneumo-

nia 372

Cobbold, on trichina 3

Cohn, cultivation-fluid of 87

Columella, on contagium vivum 79

work of 230

Commission to prevent animal diseases. . 383

Constantine, Emperor, work of. 232

Corlies, J. C, letter on pleuro-pneumo-

nia 374

D

Damman, on trichinae 12

Davaine, on anthrax 105

Description of trichinae 5

Desmobacteria 83

Decroix, on hippophagy 154

Detmers, on hog- cholera 41

Delafond, on anthrax 104

Diseases of cattle 52

Disinfection 364

Dog, the diseases of the 137

Dupuy, Alexis C 269

E

Education, first principles of 433

Emphysema infectiosum 125

Epidemics of trichiniasis 36

Eulenburg, trichinae in Prussian pork. . . 16
Ewart, etiology of anthrax 109

Feser, Professor, on emphysema infec-
tiosum 125

Munich veterinary school 308

Fiedler, on trichinae 40

Fleming, George, on foot-and-mouth dis-
ease 54

on losses from animal diseases in Eng-
land 376

on hydrophobia 144

on glanders 162

on British veterinary schools 403

Foot-and-mouth disease, the. ... 54, 347, 353

France, veterinary schools of 204

Flirstenberg, on milk analysis 56

PAGE

G

Gadsden, Dr., on glanders 176

Galen, views of 228

Gamgee, John, on Texas fever 130

on pleuro-pneumonia m England 376

Gerlach, Professor, life of 324

on trichinae 9, 29

on glanders 163, 188, 190

on tuberculosis 62

Germer, Dr., on trichiniasis at Erie, Pa. 37

Germany, rinderpest in 344

Glanders 159, 348, 357

Eufus on 160

Euini on 160

Winter von Adlers Flugel on 160

Lafosse, on 161

Fleming, on 161

Gerlach, on 163

Koell, on 164

Leisering, on 164

chronic. Case 1 165

chronic. Case II 167

transmission to other animals 169

geographical distribution of 169

in the Franco-Prussian War 170

in Hungarj' 170

report of Massachusetts Cattle Commis-
sion on 170

letter of Dr. Lyman on 170

letter of Massachusetts Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals on. 173

letter of Dr. Liautard on 174

letter of Dr. Gadsden on 176

etiology of 178

experiments with the blood in 182

tenacity of the contagium in 183

natural infection in 183

disposition to 184

immunity from 184

phenomena of 185

incubation in 185

duration of. 185

acute nasal 185

pulmonary 187

Bollinger, on pulmonary glanders 188

pathological anatomy of. 189

tubercle in 192

infiltrations in 196

gelatinous mfiltrations in 197

diagnosis of 202

prevention of 202

prognosis in 202

in man 204

etiology of , . 204

acute, in man 206

chronic, in man 207

Gurlt, Professor, work of 322

GENERAL INDEX.

445

PAGB

n

Ilaubner, trephining sinusce of head in

glanders 166

IliiUer, work of 249

on pleuro-pneumonia 250

IIiinovtT, the school ut 804

JIar\-ard Veterinary School 4'H, 410

Havcmann, on the French schools 868

llorinif, work of. 803

Hermann, on rabies 142

Hortwip, I'rofessor, on foot-and-mouth

disease 55

work of. 323

Ilertwijf, Dr. Hugo, horse-abattoir at

Berlin 155

Herr, on trichiniasis 17

IJeusin^jer, on anthra.\ 104

Ililler, on trichinia-sLs 3

Hilton, on trichiniasis 3

Hippiatrique, Cours d' 161

Hippocrates, views of 220

the veterinarian 228

Hippophaej- 153

Hidtorj-, the, of veterinary medicine .... 209

Horse, the 153

planders in 159

Hospitals, animal, in India 263, 264

I

Incubation, period of, in hog-cholera 45

Infection 74

Inoculation for pleuro-pneumonia 372

K

Kerstinjr, Johann Adam, work of. 304

Klink, quicksilver in milk 60

Klopsch, trichiniasis 11

Krabbe, glanders on the Island of Bom-
holm 179

Kramer, trichiniasis 9

L
Lafosae, flls, on glanders 161

work of. \>:i$

Lafosso, the father 237

Lancbi, on the cattle-plapuo 243

Law, James, on hotr-cholera 41, 48, 60

Leidy, on trichiniasis 8

Lcuckart, on trichiniasis lo, 30

Leiscring, on tricbininsts 29

on glanders 164

Lesson tauffht by the medical institutions
of the United States 402, 403

European vctcrinarj- .ichools 403

Letter on Harvard Veterinary School... 410
Liautard, Dr., on glanders in New York. 174

on inoculation in pleuro-pneumonia. . . 872

PACK

Loring, Dr., on trichinse 18

Lyman, Dr., on glanders at Springfield,
Ma-sa 170

M

Man, ^'hinders in 204

Manu, laws of. 216

Massachu-setts, report of Board of Health,

on tricliiniiwis 20

statute for the incorporation of medi-
cal schools 397

Mayer, cultivating fluid of 67

Maladie du coit 34S

Medical schools in the United States 893

Medicine, regulating the practice of 899

Microbacteria 88

Milk, analysis of 57

Microscopic, the, examination of pork. . . 82
Morley, John, on tlie murnun in Britain

in 1717 861

Mueller, Professor, trichinae in American

hogs in Germany 18

Mueller, Dr., on tuberculosis 61

Munich, the veterinary schofjl at 808

N

Naegcli, on bacteria . . 81

on disinfection 102

0
Objects which may bo mistaken for tri-
chiniE 85

P

Paracelsus 242

Pasteur, cultivating fluid of 87

Pasteur, on inoculation 119

Payne, Dr. J. T., on trichiniasis 24

Pennsylvania, appeal to tlie citizens of. . 405

Philadelphia, vetcrinarj' school at 404

Pleum-pnoutnonia, views of Haller 250

views of Professor Putz 259

inoculation to prevent 372

laws to prevent 348, 355

Pollender, on anthrax 104

Police system, a national veterinary 867

Prevention, the means of 867

Prussia, the veterinary institutions of. . . 821
laws for the suppression of animal dis-
ease* 840

Purpura in the horw) 125

R

Rabies in the dog 139

in Franco 142

phenomena of 148

prevention of 1.52

laws with reference to 34S, 361

446

GENERAL IXDEX.

Eauch, on trichiniasis 10

Eats, trichinse in 30

Eegulating the practice of medicine 399

Eeich, tubercular meningitis in children. 66
Eeport of the government of New Jersey

on pleuro-pneumonia 368

Einderpest, German laws for its preven-
tion 341, 343, 344, 347

Eoell, on glanders 164

Euini, on glanders 160

work of. 236

Eufus, J., on glanders 160

work of. 234

S

Scabies, laws to prevent 348

Schimmrng, infection of the blood in

glanders 182

Schiitz,on gelatinous infiltration in gland-
ers 197

on atelectasis 198

Southern hogs free from trichinae 25

Spinola, on hog-diseases 42

Spherobacteria 81

State veterinary schools 415

Stuttgart, veterinary school at 299

Susruta, the medical student described by 215

Sutton, trichiniasis at Aurora, Ind 37

T

Taenia sagLnata 53

echinococcus 157

Texas fever of cattle 129

history of 129

definition of. 130

etiology of 133

stages in 133

phenomena of 134

pathological anatomy 135

microscopic examinations in 136

prevention of. 137

Toulouse, veterinary school at 269

Trichiniasis in man and animals 2

Trichinae in fat-tissue 7

in the various, muscles 8

intestinal 11

dispersion of. 13

in other animals than the hog 14

in swine 15

European hogs 15

American hogs examined in Euiope . . 17

in American pork 20

Trichiniasis, the disease in hogs 28

the disease in man 35

symptoms 36

BlackweU's Island 37

Erie, Pa 37

Brooklyn, L. 1 37

PAGE

Trichiniasis, the disease in man, Eoch-

ester, N. Y 38

Saxony, Germany 38

on the Jordan 39

ruling of a German judge with refer-
ence to 37

Tubercle in glanders 192

Tuberculosis 61

statistics 61, 71, 73

exjDeriments with reference to 62

Turner, trichiniasis in Scotland 40

V

Varo, on contagiimi vivum 70

Variola in sheep, laws to prevent 348, 360

Valentine, on foot-and-mouth disease. . . 55

Vegetius 230

Vesalius 242

Veterinary medicine, history of. 209

Veterinary schools, the establishment of. 263

of France 264

of Austria 280

of Belgium 291

of Eussia 294

of Denmark 296

of Sweden 298

of Germany 299

at Stuttgart 299

at Hanover 304

at Munich 308

of Pra«sia 321

of Berlin : 321

Veterinary police system, a national. . . . 367

Veterinary institute, a national 390

Veterinary schools of England 404

at Philadelphia '. 404

at Cambridge — Harvard 404

State 415

national 419

course of study at 436

teachers at 431

students at 433

Virchow, on trichinae in man 11

on anthrax 104

Virulence of virus in hog-cholera 43

Voit, Professor, on veterinary schools. . . 319

W

"Wagner, on trichiniasLs 41

Walz 300

"Welsh, Hon. J., on veterinary schools . . 405
"VN'iater von Adlers Flugel, on glanders . 160

"Wise, medicine in India 218, 263

"Wolstein, J. G 281

"Wortahet, trichiniasis on the Jordan .... 39

Z

Zenker, trichiniasis ._^ 10, 35

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Text-Book and as a Work of Reference.

By AMBROSE L. RANNEY, A. M., M. D.,

Adjunct Professor of Anatoiuy and late Lecturer on the Diseases of the Genito-Urinary

Organs and on Minor Surgery in the Medical Department of the

University of the City of New York, etc., etc.

8vo. Trofusely illustrated. Cloth, $4.00 ; sheep, $5.00.

'• This is a useful book, and one of novel desipn. It is especiiiUy valuable as brinpinjf
tojrether facts and inferences which aid wreath' in fomiing correct diagnoses in imrvous dis-
eases."— Boston Medico/ and Siinjical Jouriiai.

" This is an excellent work, timely, practical, and well executed. It is safe to say that,
besides Hammond's work, no D(X>k relating to the ner\'ous system has hitherto been pub-
lished in this country equal to the present volume, and nothing superior to it is accessible to
the American practitioner." — ifedtcal Herald.

" There are manv books, to be sure, which contain here and there hints in this field of
great value to the p"liysiciaii, but it is Dr. Kanney's merit to have collected those scaltered
items of interest, and' to have woven them into un harmonious whole, thcrebv producing a
work of wide 8Coi>e and of correspondingly wide usefulness to the practicing pnvsiciun.

"The book, it will Ix; perceived, Is of an eminently practical character, and, as 8uch, is
addressed to tho.-K! who can not atford the time for the'porusal of the larger text-books, and
who must read as they run." — Xew Tori: Medical Journal.

" Profi'ssors of anatomy in schools and colleges can not afford to be without it. We rec-
ommend the book to practitioners and students as well." — Virginia Medical Monthly.

" It is an admitted fact that the subject treated of in this work is one sufficiently obscure
to the ppifession generally to make any work tending to elucidation most welcome.

" We earnestly recommend this work as one unusually worthy of study."— -ff'//«/o Medi-
cal and Surgical Journal.

" A useful and attractive book, suited to the time." — Louisville Medical A'cicg.

" Dr. Ranney has firmly grasped the essential features of the results of tlie latest study of
the ner\-ous system. Ilia work will do much toward popukrizing this study in the profes-
sion.

" Wc are sure that all our readers will be quite as much pleased as ourselves by its careful
study." — Detroit L-incet.

" Our impressions of this work are highly favorable as regards its practical value to stu-
dents, as well as to educated medical men." — Pacific Medioit and Surgical Journal.

" The work shows great care in its preparation. Wc predict for it a large sale among the
more progressive practitioners." — Michigan Medical Aewt.

" We arc ao^uaintcd with no recent work which deals with the subject so thoroughly at
this; hence, it should commend itself to a large class of persons, not merely specialists, bus
tho(»<«\\ho a.-'pire to keep posted in all important advances in the science and art of modi-
cine." — Mart/I'll^ Medical Journal.

" This work was originally addres-sed to medical under-graduntes, but it will be equally
interesting and valuable to medical practitioners who still acknowledge themselves to bo
BtudcnU. It is to be hoped that their numlxjr is not small." — A>u> Orltans Medical and
!iurgi<-'il Journal.

" We think the author has correctly estimated the necessity for such a volume, and we
congratulate him upon the manner in which he has executed his task.

" As a companion volume t-^ the recent works on the diseases of the nervous system, it is
issued in good time." — Xorth Carolina Medical Journal.

" Dr. Rannev has done his work well, and given accurate information in a simple, road-
able style." — Philadelphia Medical Times.

New York : D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.

THE ANATOMY OF VERTEBRATED

ANIMALS.

By THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL. D., F. R. S.
l.vol., 12mo. Illustrated. 431 pages. Cloth, $2.50.

" The present work is intended to provide students of comparative anatomy Avith a con-
densed statement of the most important facts relating to the structure of vertebrated animals
which have hitherto been a-scertained. The Vertebrata are distinguished from all other ani-
mals by the circumstance that a transverse and vertical section of the body exhibits two
cavities completely separated from one another by a partition. The dorsal cavity contains
the cerebro-spinai nervous system ; the ventral, the alunentary canal, the heart, and usually
a double chain of gan^^liaj which passes under the name of the ' sympathetic' It is prob-
able that this synipathetic nervous system represesents, wholly or partially, the principal
nervous system of the Aiiiutlosa and MoUusca. And, in any case, the central parts of the
cerebro-spinai nervous system, viz., the brain and the spinal cord, would appear to be un-
represented among invertebratod animals." — The Author.

" This long-expected work will be cordially welcomed by all students and teachers of
Comparative Anatomy as a compendious, reliable, and, notwithstanding its small dimen-
sions, most comprehensive guide on the subject of which it treats. To praise or to criticise
the work of so accomplished a master of his favorite science would be equally out of place.
It is enouirh to say that it realizes, in a remarkable degree, the anticipations which have been
formed of it ; and that it presents an extraordinary combination of wide, general views, with
the clear, accurate, and succinct statement of a prodigious number of individual facts." —
I^ature.

THE ANATOMY OF INVERTEBRA-

TED ANIMALS.

By THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, LL. D , F. R. S.

1 vol., 12mo. Illustrated. 596 pages. Cloth, $2.50.

"My object in writing the book has been to make it useful to those who wish to become
acquainted witli the broad outlines of what Ls at present known of the morphology of the
lurertebrata ; though I have not avoided the incidental mention of facts connected with
their physiology and their distribution. On the other handj I have abstained from discuss-
ing questions of etiology, not because I maderestimate their importance, or am insensible
to the interest of the great problem of evolution, but because, to my mind, the growing
tendency to mix up etioloj;ieal speculations with morphological generalizations will, if un-
checked", throw biology into confusion." — From Preface.

THE COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF

THE DOMESTICATED ANIMALS.

By A. CHAUVEAU,

Professor at the Lyons Veterinary School.

Second edition, revised and enlarged, with the co-operation of S. Arloisg, late
Principal of Anatomy at the Lyons Veterinary School ; Professor at the Toulouse
Veterinary School. Translated and edited by George Fleming, F. R. G. S., M. A. I.,
Veterinary Surgeon, Royal Engineers.

1 vol., 8vo, 957 pages. "With 450 Illustrations. Cloth, $6.00.

" Taking it altogether, the book is a very welcome addition to English literature, and
great credit is due to Mr. Fleming for the excellence of the translation, and the many addi-
tional notes he has appended to Chauveau's treatise." — Lancet (London).

"The descriptions of the text are illustrated and assisted by no less than 450 excellent
woodcuts. In a work which ranges over so vast a field of anatomical detail and description,
it is difficult to select any one portion for review, but our examination of it enables us to
speak in high terms of its general excellence. . . ." — Medical Times and Gazette {London).

New York: D. APPLETON & CO., 1, 3, & 5 Bond Street.

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