This book was donated to the
Don Mills Branch Library by

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RENNIE'S
AGRICULTURE

IN CANADA

MODERN PRINCIPLES OF

AGRICULTURE

APPLICABLE TO CANADIAN FARMING

TO YIELD GREATER

PROFIT

Bv WM. RENNI.E, Sr.

LATE OF THE O.A.C., GUBLPH

PUBLISHED BY

WM. RENNIE Co., LIMITED

TORONTO
1916

Copyright, Canada, 1916, by W'm. Rennie Co., Limited,
Toronto.

FOREWORD

In a country famous for her vast wheat fields
and whose chief industry is — and must continue
to be for many years — agriculture, the need of a
standard work on this important subject by a com-
petent writer is apparent. Of the few Canadian
writers with a practical knowledge of farming in
Canada, who havx attempted to blaze the trail for
the newcomer or help the old settler with advice
bom of long personal experience, none occupy such
a pre-eminent position as William Rennie.

Unusually successful in all departments of agri-
culture and with the gift of imparting information
on the most prosaic subject in a fascinating manner,
his personality was a potent factor in the elevation
of farm work to the science of agriculture. By pre-
cept and example he enriched farm life in this
country-, and did much to lift it from the deadly
routine which was rapidly depleting the rural popu-
lation of its young life.

The author came into national prominence by
winning the first Silver Medal presented by the
Agricultural and Arts Association of Ontario for
the cleanest and best-managed farm in the province,
while his brother, the late Simpson Rennie, who
occupied the Rennie homestead in Scarboro (Ont.),
won the Gold Medal.

At a critical period in the history of the Ontario
Agricultural College, Wm. Rennie was requested by
the Hon. John Dryden, then Minister of Agricul-

IV FOREWORD.

ture, to take charge of the Farm, demonstrate his
latest methods, as well as lecture to the students,
where he served for years with credit to himself and
profit to the College.

On many other occasions his wide experience and
expert knowledge have been of service to the
Government, when matters of vital importance to
Canadian Agriculture were under consideration.

In recent years, scientific agriculture has made
great strides, and much valuable information, the
outcome of later experiences and investigation, is
presented herewith. The book is invaluable to the
Canadian farmer, as it is the only practical work
on Canadian Agriculture extant. It embodies Mr.
Rennie's scientific principles of soil cultivation, rota-
tion of crops, etc., which can be followed with great
profit in any country. Every department of the
farm and home has been given the most careful
attention, and, if farmers will adhere to the easily
followed scientific instructions, they may reason-
ably expect a greater measure of success and a
saving of labor, which will add pleasure and profit
to their daily work.

The book is written in the simple, lucid style
which characterized Mr. Rennie's popular lectures
to students and to Farmers' Institutes.

W. R. Co.

INTRODUCTION

The man whose Ufe is spent on the farm finds
himself in the midst of surroundings conducive to
the development of all that is best in humanity.

Abundance of pure air and floods of sunlight
provide the essentials for maintaining the highest
standard of physical vigor; freedom from the noises
and excitement of the city tend to the formation of
habits of quiet thought and sober reflection ; special
dignity and importance are given to his calling bj'
the knowledge that something is being produced by
hisKiaily toil that is absolutely necessary to the con-
tinued existence of civilization; and, above and be-
yond all this, is the inspiration coming from the fact
that he feels himself in a special sense a co-worker
with Pro\'idence — Providence supphdng the mois-
ttu-e and the warmth that bring to fruition the seed
sown by his hand.

The young man or woman whose Ufe has been
spent on the farm has thus a decided advantage over
those whose homes are in the close streets of a great
city.

Life on the farm offers, too, freely and abund-
antly, opportunities such as are reserved to the
favored few in cities, for giving beauty to the home
surroundings and securing unlimited supplies of the
fruits of the garden and the vine. There is room
for lawn, for flowers, for graceful trees, and for the
growth of delicacies and luxuries which can be
plucked and used just at the time when nature has
brought them to the highest state of perfection.

W. R., Sr.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Foreword ">

Introduction v

CHAPTER I.
Beautifying the Country Home .... 9

CHAPTER II.
The Vegetable Garden 26

CHAPTER III.
Small Fruits 3"

CHAPTER IV.
The Orchard 45

CHAPTER V.
Farm Implements and Buildings .... 57

CHAPTER VI.

Underdraining 78

CHAPTER VII.
Cultivation of the Soil 84

CHAPTER VIII.
Cultivating and Seeding 89

CHAPTER IX.
Destroying Weeds 97

CHAPTER X.
Rotation of Crops 100

CHAPTER XI.
Grain Growing 107

CHAPTER XII.
Field Root Crops 115

CHAPTER XIII.
Exhibition Roots 129

Vin CONTENTS.

CHAPTER XIV. PAGB

Potato Growing 131

CHAPTER XV.
Rape for Fodder 134

CHAPTER XVI.
Corn for Silage 135

CHAPTER XVII.
Fall Cultivation 148

CHAPTER XVIII.
Cultivation for Spring Crops 150

CHAPTER XIX.
Alfalfa Clover 163

CHAPTER XX.
Pasture and Soiling Crops 168 •

CHAPTER XXI.
Three Year Rotation 170

CHAPTER XXII.
Fencing 172

CHAPTER XXIII.
Growing and Feeding of Live Stock . ... 177

CHAPTER XXIV.
Breeds of Cattle 186

CHAPTER XXV.
Cattle for Beef 193

CHAPTER XXVI.
Horses 200

CHAPTER XXVII.
Sheep 203

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Swine 210

CHAPTER XXIX.
Poultry . . .* 217

CHAPTER XXX.
Western Farming 233

CHAPTER XXXI.
System 243

RENNIE'S AGRICULTURE

CHAPTER I.

Beautifying the Country Home.

A farm home can be made attractive at ver}'
little cost. Many farm houses are too costly. If
one-quarter or even one-third of the cost had been
spent in laying out the grounds, and planting trees,
properly arranged, it would not only have added to
the comfort and appearance of the place, but would
have increased the value of the farm as well. In-
deed, the value of this cannot be reckoned in dollars
and cents. It should be the ambition of parents to
make home the brightest and most attractive spot
on earth for their family.

In improving the farm, one of the most important Decide the

. ,., , -, • i \-^ r Location tor

things IS to decide on the location and quantity oi orchard,
land to enclose for orchard, small fruits, vegetable lI^^°*°
garden, and lawn. Provision should be made at the
back for a small pasture for calves, poultr}-, etc.
See diagram of farm. Having decided on the loca-
tion, clear away all the old fences and rubbish of
every kind on the whole space intended to be en-
closed. If any grading is required it should be done
before commencing to cultivate. Do no more
grading than is necessary, as grounds have a more
natural appearance when they are somewhat un-
dulating. The portion intended for the lawn should
be heavily manured from the barnyard before plow-
ing. The whole enclosure should be plowed shallow,

10

rrnnie's AGRICUU'URK.

and thoroughly harrowed and cultivated alternately
until the land is cleared of all weeds and weed seeds.
The subsoil should be loosened about ten inches
deep with a stifif tooth subsoiler. See III. i.

Prepare a
Plan.

1. FOUR-HORSE SUBSOILER.

Then prepare a plan, and work to it the same as
a mechanic working to a plan prepared for a building.

J

Wind-Breaks.

BKAITIFVIXG THE COUXTRY HOME. 11

Every farmer will require a plan especialh' adapted
to his own place. In preparing this he should con-
sider the location of buildings and the whole sur-
roundings, with a view to getting the best possible
effect. Good ideas of what will best suit the cir-
cumstances can be obtained by securing an inex-
pensive book on landscape gardening.

A wire fence should be erected around the whole Enclosing the
of these grounds, and evergreen trees planted inside Hedges and
the fence. The most suitable tree for this purpose
is the Norway spruce, which will answer both for a
wind-break and hedge, but white cedar (arbor-
vita:) will make the most compact hedge. Trees
about twenty inches high are sufficiently large for
planting. Nursen,' trees that have been trans-
planted are preferable; the cost of these is about
SI 0.00 per hundred. For hedge work plant about
eighteen inches inside of the wire fence. If you
use cedar, plant the trees two feet apart, and if
Norway spruce, three feet apart. If planting for a
wind-break use Norway spruce, or pine, and plant
from eight to ten feet apart. These will grow up
with little attention, and soon become both orna-
mental and useful. For various reasons it is not
advisable to plant a double row for a wind-break.
In a few years the inside branches die for want of air,
and it requires so much nourishment to support a
double row that no vegetation will grow near the
trees. The evergreen should not be planted too
near the fruit trees, as the latter requires a fairly
free passage of air to drive away moths and other
insects that usually collect in close places. A single
row of evergreens, planted not too closely, will make
a more healthy and graceful wind-break, and will
not have the objection of preventing sufficient breeze
from passing through the orchard.

12

RENNIES AGRICULTURE.

Groups of
Evergreens —
Trimming
Evergfreen
Hedges.

In a country with long winters, and when the
deciduous trees are without their foliage, the home
is more attractive and comfortable when surrounded
with evergreens. One or two groups, properly
located in the grounds, improve the scenery. When
trimming evergreen hedges, slope the sides so that
the bottom branches will get a share of the rains and
dews. Cut the top even with the top wire of fence,
which should not be too high. In a long hedge it is
advisable to allow a tree in the hedge to grow
twenty-five inches higher every fifty or sixty feet,
and round the top. This improves the appearance
by taking off the plainness. See Home, North View.
At each side of the gates leave a tree about forty
inches above the hedge, trimmed round or any de-
sirable shape. For hedges, the most desirable are
the cedar and Norway spruce, and where the winter
is not too severe, the hemlock, with its drooping
branches, makes one of the most graceful hedges.
The cedar is of a slower growth, but makes the
most compact hedge of any of the evergreens.
Evergreen hedges should be grown close to a wire
fence, so that the branches will grow through be-
tween the wires. After being trimmed outside the
fence each autumn for several years, the branches
will have become so interwoven with the wires that,
even after the posts have decayed, the wires will
remain in place, and make the hedge thoroughly
stock proof, thus providing a useful and ornamental
live hedge which will last for fifty years or more.
There are many deciduous shrubs that make beauti-
ful hedges during the summer months, but on
account of casting their leaves in the autumn they
add no attraction to the grounds when most needed.
These also require the protection of a wire fence.
"Spirea VanHouttei" makes a beautiful hedge when
in bloom.

14

Avoid Straight
Drives and
Walks— Seed-
ing the Lawn.

rennie's agriculture.

In laying out drives and walks provide graceful
curves whenever possible. Avoid a straight walk
from the front door of the house to the road. Before
seeding a lawn, make sure that it has been cultivated
sufficiently to destroy all weeds and weed seeds.
The lawn can be seeded with success any time be-

3. BRUSH IIAkkOW.

tween early spring and the first of October. If
sown after this date, in Northern Ontario, the white
clover will not stand the winter. Sow the following
mixture: Two pounds white clover, five pounds
red top grass, three pounds Chewing's Fescue, and
five pounds Kentucky blue grass (mixed) per acre,
with half a bushel of barley. Sow all broad-
cast on the surface, after which give a stroke

BEAUTIFYING THE COUNTRY HOME.

with the harrow or Breed's weeder. After the
barley is up several inches, cut, and leave it on
the ground as a mulching. By keeping the barley
cut the lawn \\'ill soon have an attractive appearance.
Each spring sow a little white clover, and brush
harrow the lawn thoroughly to pulverize and smooth
the surface, which is usually made uneven by earth
worms. See III. j. Brush harrowing is preferable

15

4. CHAIN" HARROW.

to rolling. The chain harrow {see III. 4) does the
work still more thoroughly. Clover is of very great
importance in keeping up fertility on the lawn, as it
collects nitrogen to feed the other grasses, and keeps
the lawn green during the summer.

If the land has been thoroughly cleaned of weeds Cutting the
before seeding, it will require ver\- little attention in Grouping
after years. The portion used for amusements in
the summer evenings will require to be cut frequently
with a lawn mower. See III. 5. The balance
should be cut the beginning of June. This can be
done with a scythe, or a horse mowing machine. It
is better not to cut during the hot summer months.

Trees.

16

KENNIES AGRICULTURE.

Groups of trees on the lawn — say, one group in front
near the road, and the other at the back, give the
place a park-like appearance. A variety of ever-
green and deciduous trees may be planted in these
groups. A crab-apple tree, and a sweet cherry tree.

5. LAWN MOWER.

make useful and ornamental shade trees for the
lawn. Groups of flowering shrubs add greatly to
the attractions, but in order to get the best results
from them it is advisable to dig around them. In
grouping trees, or shrubs, and in making flower

BEAUTIFYING THE COUXTRV HOME- 17

beds, have no sharp angles, but round ofiF the
comers. This takes off the stiffness and gives the
place a more natural appearance. In arranging
groups do not plant three shrubs or trees in line.
It is much more natural to have them set irregu-
larly.

Trees, shrubs, and even flower beds, should be
some distance from the house. A plain lawn,
nicely kept, gives the home an attractive and quiet
appearance, and by having the trees planted some
distance from the home, sunhght can be given free
access to all the rooms of the dwelling. See III. 6.

In making a selection of flowering shrubs two Selection of
things must be observed, \'iz., select varieties suffi- ing^shmbs'*^
ciently hardy for the locality in which they are
required, and choose a collection that will bloom at
various times, from early spring until autumn. The
following are a few^ varieties that have proved
sufficiently hardy in Central Ontario, where the
thermometer reaches twenty-five degrees below zero :
Rose-colored and white-flowered Weigelia. large-
flowering Hydrangea. Tartarian Honeysuckle, Japan
Quince, Spirea \"an Houttei, Guelder Rose or Snow-
ball, purple Lilac, white Lilac, Japanese Snowball,
Mock Orange, and flowering Almond. They will
also provide a long period of bloom.

The size and shape of flower beds wiU depend Flower Beds,
upon circumstances. A family who are fond of
flowers will care for a larger and more varied collec-
tion than others whose tastes run in other lines, but
two or three flower beds on the lawn are necessary-
for variety. These should be of varied shapes, and,
to get satisfactory results from them, a collection of
autumn bulbs, especially tulips, should be planted
in October, and covered with leaves or stable
manure. Snowdrops and the Crocus are the first

BEAUTIFYING THE COUNTRY HOME.

to bloom in spring, and should, therefore, be included
in the collection. Rake off the covering on the first

19

signs of spring, and give the little beauties a chance
to show their colors. Tulips are the most popular
of all Holland bulbs for outdoor planting. Between

20 rEnnie's agriculture.

the single and double varieties it is simply a matter
of choice. Both make a magnificent display, and
Darwin tulips are excellent for late flowering or for
cutting for table decoration. A few Hyacinths in a
flower bed, in addition to their beauty, add a
pleasant odor. It is not necessary to continue the
list of bulbs suitable for outdoor planting, as full
illustrated lists may be had free from any seed store.
Fall-planted bulbs will continue in bloom from early
spring until the beginning of June, when the flower
beds should be refilled with bedding-out plants, such
as Cannas, Geraniums, Asters, Petunias, Phlox, etc.,
which will continue to bloom until late in the fall.
How to Make a Jt is not ueccssarv to buv either flower or vege-

Hot-bed. - - o

table plants when you can buy the seed for a mere
trifle, and by making a hot-bed, grow all the plants
required at little cost. See III. 7. The situation
for a hot-bed should be dr}' underneath, and shel-
tered on the north and north-west by some kind of
wind-break, and be fully exposed to the sun. It
should be built up from two to two and a half feet
high, and wider by one foot on each side than the
frame which, is to be placed on the heating material
that forms-^tl^ beds. This heating material should
be fresh mafitjir-e frpm the horse stable, with the usual
amount of litter: This is thrown into a pile, and,
in a few days, when fermentation has taken place,
it is turned over and carefull}' shaken out, and
formed again into a pile. This is left until the
second fermentation takes place. It may then be
placed in position for the hot-bed, shaped and
trodden down, so that it will remain uniform. If the
frame is six by nine feet, twelve inches high at the
back, and eight inches high at the front, facing the
south, the manure bed should be eight by eleven
feet. It is not necessary to cover the frame with

BEAITIFVIXG THE COUXTRY HOME. 21

glass; factory cotton is all that is necessary. Cotton
is much cheaper than glass and requires less atten-
tion. Have the sheet larger than the frame so as to
overlap a few inches. Have a roller about ten feet
long, and the cotton tacked to it, and to the upper
side of the frame. The roller will hang over the
ends and prevent the wind from moving the cotton.
The cotton can be rolled up to air the plants when
required. After the first intense heat has passed off,
cover the manure over with about six inches of soil.
The soil should have been prepared the previous fall
by rotting sod, and old cattle manure. When the
hot-bed is completed it is advisable to let it stand
two or three days until the heat moderates before
planting the seeds. The time to make a hot- bed in
Central Ontario is the beginning of April, so that the
plants will be ready to set out by the first of June.

The selection of flower seeds best adapted for varieties of
growing bedding-out plants is a matter of fancy. ve'^Itebies.**
As a rule, preference should be given to those that
bloom from the time they are set out, say the first
of June, until late in autumn. The following should
be included in the list: Petunia, Phlox, Salvia,
Verbena, and Geraniums. The latter can be grown
in a hot-bed from cuttings. For a full collection
of flower seeds, see any of the seed catalogues.

It is desirable that a portion of the hot-bed be
reserved for vegetable plants, for early planting,
say, tomato, lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, etc.
Melons and cucumbers can be started in a hot-bed
by inverting sods in the soil and planting seeds in
them. By leaving a few melon plants in the hot-bed
at the close of the season it will be both ornamental
and useful during the summer.

In addition to a hot-bed, ever}^ farm home should
have a cold frame {see III. 8) to start vegetable

22

RFvNNTES AGRICULTURE.

Cold Frames-
How to
Prepare Soil -
Covering
Frame.

plants, such as cabbage, cauliflower, tomatoes,
lettuce, etc., early in the spring. Early lettuce is
relished by most people and provision should be
made to have some ready for use in the home as
early in the season as possible. The work of pre-
paring the soil should be done in autumn, by digging
in a quantity of well-rotted farm manure, and
covering a foot deep or more with coarse stable

mitlillllll(nillJJl/JllJiliin/miiiilinii/,,„„i.,„(j.„„„n,,L.„,n„ ,n..,J

8. COI.D 1-RAME.

manure, to prevent the soil from freezing, so that it
can be planted early in the spring. Use- the same
style of frame as for a hot-bed. When wanted for
use, remove the manure and put the frame on the
soil, using the same manure to bank up the frame
on the outside. Cover the frame with cotton, pro-
vided with a roller the same as for a hot-bed. It is
necessary to have strips of wood three feet apart to
prevent the cotton from sagging in the centre.
Loosen up the soil with a spading fork before sowing
seeds.

The cold frame must be sheltered from the north
and west. By making due preparation, and sowing

BgAUTlFYIXG THE COUNTRY HOME.

21

Ije Time to Sow -
Flower Beds-

nial Flowers.

the seeds at the end of March, the plants will
ready to set out in the open ground by the end of Hardy Pe"ren-
May. These dates are for Central and Northern
Ontario. For more southern latitudes the' time for
sowing and planting in the open ground will vary
according to location. In addition to flower beds
of atmuals on the lawn there should also be a bed
of flowering perennials. These require very little
attention. Make the bed of irregular shape, with
rounded comers; dig in considerable farm manure,
and mulch every winter. Plant such flowers as are
hardy and showy, and that will bloom profusely.
The following is a Ust of hardy perennials to select
from. The common names only are given : Bleeding
Heart, Coreopsis, Hardy Phlox, Gaillardia, Garden
Pinks, Iris, Helianthus, Hollyhocks, Japanese Lilies,
Delphinium, Lemon Lily, White Garden Lily,
Oriental Poppy, Paeonies, Golden Glow, Sweet
William. The above list will provide a collection of
cut bloom sufficient to brighten the home all sum-
mer, in addition to the outdoor ornamentation.

Another attraction that may be added to the
lawn is a rockery placed in some shady comer.
This should be oval in shape and raised in the centre
with a few wheel-barrows full of rich mould. Spade
in sufficient well-rotted farm manure to prevent the
soil getting hard or forming a crust. When the bed
is in shape and raked, place five or six rustic stones
on it, not in line or in a formal sort of way, but
irregularly. The bed will then be ready for planting.

The first thing to plant is a collection of native
ferns from the woods. After the ferns are planted,
put in a few perennial flowers, such as the Japanese
Iris, Hardy Phlox, Arabis or Rock Cress, Bleeding
Heart, and Garden Pinks. This will look cosy, and
require \&rj little attention.

Rockery —
Planting Ferns
and Perennial
Flowers.

24

RENNiK s AGRicur/ruRr;.

Hardy
Climbers.

Summer

Flowering

Bulbs.

A few hardy climbers around the verandah of
the house gives the home an artistic appearance.
A few plants of Boston Ivy or Engelman's Ivy will
cover the walls of a house in a few years. The ivy
requires no other support than the wall to which
it will cling, be it stone, brick or wood, and
although it does not bloom it is very attractive.
The Clematis Jackmanii has a large purple flower,
and the Clematis Paniculata a small white fragrant
flower. These are both hardy climbers.

A border of summer-flowering bulbs dividing the
lawn from the vegetable garden is quite attractive,
and as the bulbs multiply each year the principal
cost is in the commencement. For the first row
next the lawn. Gladioli are suggested. The flowers
are bright, of various colors and charming appear-
ance. For the second row, Cannas, dwarf sorts,
will serve admirably; for the third row. Dahlias,
mixed colors, including the Cactus varieties. The
rows should be thirty inches apart, so that cultivat-
ing can be done with a horse. The bulbs require
to be taken up in the autumn and kept in a cool
cellar where they will not freeze. Should there be
any danger of frost, put a little sand or mould
over them in the early part of the winter.

This subject would not be complete without
mentioning the queen of flowers — the Rose. In
order to complete the floral department, plant a
row of hardy roses four feet from the row of Dahlias,
so that cultivating can be done with a horse. There
are such a large variety of roses I will name only the
following varieties as being suitable for outdoor
blooming, and would refer to the nursery or seed cat-
alogues for a larger collection : "Frau Karl Druschki,"
white; "General Jacqueminot," scarlet; "Paul
Neyron," pink; "Persian Yellow." For hardy climb-

BEAUTIFVIXG Tin; CorXTRV HOME.

ing roses, the three well-known varieties, "Gruss an
Teplitz," large flower, rich crimson color; " Dorothy
Perkins," rose color; and "Crimson Rambler," still
hold their own.

25

CRIMSON R.AMBLER ROSE-

CHAPTER II.

Value of Vege-
table Food in
Warm
Weather.

How to Prepare
the Soil for a
Vegetable
Garden.

The Vegetable Garden.

The vegetable garden should be looked on as one
of the important departments of the farm. A
succession of fresh vegetables from early spring is
necessary for the health of all classes in this country.
It is a wise provision of nature that the food we
should eat can be grown in the climate in which we
live. In tropical climates we find the people living
almost entirely on fruits and vegetables. Were
they to eat fattening foods they could not live long,
as such a diet would encourage disease. In our
temperate zone, where we have both heat and cold,
we should govern ourselves accordingly, and so
arrange that our diet during the summer season
will be composed largely of fruits and vegetables.
We know that our animals never thrive better than
in spring on fresh grass, without any additional food.
The lesson we learn from this is that a vegetable
food in summer is what we require; for outdoor life
in winter we need a more concentrated and heating
food. In Arctic regions the food of the natives is
principally the fat of whales and other sea animals,
called "blubber." This is necessary to supply heat
for the body.

It is advisable to have land for the vegetable
garden thoroughly cultivated in the early fall, and
an endeavor should be made to destroy all weeds
and weed seeds. This will save a large amount of
hand labor the following season. Before the crops
are planted is the best time to clear the land of weeds.
In October, when the land is in good shape, spread
twenty or twenty-five loads of farm manure per

THK VEGETABLE GARDEN'.

27

acre over the surface. Then rib the land with either
a double mould-board, plow, or ribbers attached to
the frame of a cultivator. Run all necessary cross
furrows so that no water will lie on the surface. In
the spring, when the land is required for planting,
the ribs can be levelled down b}- harrowing and
cultivating. If the soil is clay it should be loosened
ten inches deep with a subsoil plow {III. g) or a stiff-
tooth subsoiler (///. /). The above system of

9. SUBSOIL PLOW.

cultivation is recommended for market gardening.
The ordinary method is to spread on the surface of
the soil a heavy coat of manure, and bury it about
a foot deep with an ordinary plow, turning the crude
subsoil on the top, which will take a summer's cul-
tivation to make it available for plant food. This
system is in direct opposition to the laws of nature,
which is to keep the vegetable matter on the surface,
where the bacteria can act on it, and make it avail-
able for plant food as required. Half the quantity
of manure will give better results when it is incor-
porated Avith the surface soil by cultivating and

28

Ri;\"XlK S AGRlCUI/rURF;.

Vegetables for
a Private
Garden.

harrowing. If market gardeners consulted their
best interests they would seldom, if ever, use the
ordinary plow.

Asparagus is one of the earliest vegetables. This
should be planted in rows thirty inches apart, the
plants nine inches apart in the row % for hand culti-
vation. For best results the land must be thor-
oughly enriched with well-rotted manure the pre-
ceding fall, as asparagus is a gross feeder. Apply a
good sprinkling of salt in the spring. A good
variety of asparagus is the "Columbian Mammoth."
The roots can be purchased from any seed store.

Beans, dwarf or bush, should have a place in
every vegetable garden. The bean, being a "Le-
gume," is known to be one of the most nutritious
and best of flesh-forming foods. A succession of
sowings should be made from early spring until the
middle of summer. Plant in rows two feet apart,
and the seeds three inches apart in the rows and

T ■ « ' ■

»

J w u u u

U i

— II II

10. THE DTBBLKR.

about one and a half inches deep. The rule govern-
ing the depth of planting all seeds is from four to
live times their diameter. Two varieties suitable
to sow are the "Stringless Green Pod," having
green pods, and the "Round Pod Kidney Wax,"
which has a yellow pod.

Beets for early use should be sown as soon as the
ground is fit to work in spring, in rows two feet

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN'.

29

apart, and six inches apart in the rows. For winter
use it is ad\*isable to sow in June, as this will give a
crisper and better quality for use in the winter
months. By using a dibbler (see III. lo), beets, and
in fact, most seeds and plants, both flower and
vegetable, can be gro^vn at the desired distance
apart without any variation, and this gives a garden
an attractive appearance. For those who grow

11. HILI.-DROPPI.NG .SEED DRILL.

\egetables on a larger scale a hill-dropping seed-
drill is preferable. See III. ii. "Crosby's Egyp-
tian" and the "Eclipse" are two popular varieties
of beets.

Cabbage. — There can be no mistake in growing
a large quantity of cabbage, for should there be
more than are required for home use, the balance
can be fed at a profit to animals. The plants are
taken from the cold frame as soon as all danger of
frost is past, and planted in the vegetable garden
if wanted for summer use, but those intended for use
during the winter should be planted about the end
of June. Plant in rows two feet apart, with the

30 rennie's agriculture.

plants eighteen inches apart in rows. For an early
variety, " Early Winnigstadt" or "Copenhagen Mar-
ket" answers well, and for a late variety, "Fottler's
Drumhead" or "Danish Ballhead."

Cauliflower. — This is a plant that requires
abundance of moisture in order to get the best re-
sults. It is necessary to cultivate the soil every
two or three days, so as to conserve all the moisture
possible. As soon as the heads begin to show, tie
the top leaves together with strings to prevent the
heads from getting discolored. Among the reliable
varieties are "Earliest Dwarf Erfurt" and "vSnow-
ball."

Carrot. — Cultivation is similar to that for beets,
save that the plants should be four inches apart in
the rows, instead of six. "Oxheart" and "Chan-
tenay" are two satisfactory varieties for table use.

Celery requires a cool, moist atmosphere, and a
rich black muck is especially adapted for this plant..
The seeds should be sown in a cold frame or in the
open ground early in the spring. Celery plants are
made more stocky by cutting off the tops once or
twice before transplanting. The best results are
obtained by transplanting from the frame into plant
boxes, then transplanting in July into rows thirty
inches apart and eight inches apart in the row.
Plant celery in trenches about four inches apart.
When transplanting, firm the soil with the feet to
ensure a start. In four or five weeks begin to earth
up to give the plants an upright growth. For
blanching (whitening) first use a hoe, drawing up
the leaves with one hand and packing the earth
around the plants with the other. Subsequent
banking up can be done with the horse and plow,
with a straight mould-board. To prevent the earth
getting among the stalks, wrap twine once around

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN. 31

each plant. The last banking should be done ten
or fifteen days before the celer\' is required for use
or to be stored. In storing for winter use, dig^up
before the time of hard frosts and take immediately
to a cool cellar and set on the floor, with boards at
the sides. Bank up with sand or earth the same
as for blanching in the field. "White Plume" and
"Paris Golden Yellow" are two excellent varieties
for table use.

Sweet Com. — No garden would be complete
without a supply of sweet com for table use. Plant
after all danger of frost is past, in hills three feet
apart each way. Com requires continuous cultiva-
tion during the growing season to conserve moisture.
Desirable varieties are "Golden Bantam," "Early
White Cory" and "Stowell's Evergreen."

Cucumber plants for early use can be started in
the hot-bed and set in the open ground as soon as all
danger of frost is past. At the same time the general
crop may be planted by putting a few seeds in hills
four feet apart. Pick the fruit whether it is required
for use or not, as otherwise the \-ines will die off.
Excellent varieties for table use and pickling are
"Davis' Perfect," "London Long Green" and
"White Spine." Pick when the desired size.

Lettuce may be sown early in the spring in rows
two feet apart. Thin out for table use or for poultry
and allow a certain number to heart. If sown every
three weeks, fresh lettuce may be had during the
summer season. "May King," "Iceberg," "Han-
son" and "Nonpareil" are good varieties.

Musk Melons are greatly rehshed by most
people, and should be cultivated in every garden.
A light, warm soil is preferable, made rich with well-
rotted farm manure. The cultivation necessary is
the same as for cucumbers. Musk melons and

32 KK.\XIi;"s AGRICULTLKK.

cucumbers should be kept some distance apart,
otherwise they are hable to become inoculated.
The "Early Hackensack" is a rehable variety of
melon.

Water Melons. — The cultivation of the water
melon is the same as for musk melons. "Cole's
Early" and "Ice Cream" are delicious sorts.

The Citron, so well known for preserving, should
be given a place in all gardens. It requires to be
grown some distance from the water melons, to pre-
vent mixing. Give the same cultivation as for
melons. The "Red Seeded" is a suitable variety.

Onions. — Seed for these may be sown quite early
in the spring, as a few degrees of frost will not injure
the young plants. Sow in rows eighteen inches
apart. After the bulbs are about half an inch in
diameter, thin out. Leave the thinnings on the
ground to dry off, and they can be kept over winter
and planted for early use the following spring. The
thinnings can be used for what are known as
"Dutch or Bottom Sets."* The well-known varieties
are "Yellow Globe Danvers," "Red Wethersfield,"
and "Silverskin " for pickling.

The Parsnip is one of our most nutritious vege-
tables. Sow the seed early in the spring in rows
two feet apart, and thin to six inches in the rows,
lycave them in the ground until beginning of winter,
as they are improved by the early frost. A good
variety is the "Hollow Crown."

Peas, being one of the legumes, should form a
portion of our daily diet. Sow early in spring, in
rows two feet apart. Cultivate thoroughly. Make
two or three sowings at intervals of three or four
weeks. Varieties suitable are "Best Extra P'arly"
(for first sowing), followed by "Prosperity or Gradus"
and ' ' Improved Stratagem. ' ' The last two are large,
green, wrinkled sorts.

THE VEGETABLE GARDEN.

33

Pumpkins. — All the pumpkins required for table
use may be grown along with the com. The " Large
Cheese" is a good variety.

Radish must be grown quickly in order to be
crisp. Sow at interv^als from early spring until
autumn. To hasten vegetation, harrow or rake in
land plaster before sowing. Sow in rows eighteen
inches apart. Varieties: "Scarlet Tiunip, white
tip" and "French Breakfast."

12. POTATO DIGGER AND PICKER.

Rhubarb may be grown from seed sown early in
the spring, but more satisfactorily by di\'iding the
roots and planting in rows thirty inches apart and
the same distance apart in the rows. For this plant
the soil cannot be too rich. Mulch in \vinter.
"Johnston's St. Martin" is a good variety.

Squash. — The squash as a vegetable is increasing
in popularity. The cultivation is similar to melons,
excepting that the hills should be six to eight feet
apart. For summer and early fall use sow the
"Boston Marrow," and for winter the "Hubbard."

34

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Tomatoes. — These plants are supposed to be
started in a hot-bed or cold frame. For best results
transplant into flat boxes, and when all danger of
frost is past transplant (on a cloudy day if possible)
three feet apart each way. Reliable varieties are
the "Earliana" and "Livingston's New Globe."

Turnips. — For early turnips, sow in spring, in
rows two feet apart, and thin to eight inches. For
an early variety, "Early Snowball" is satisfactory,
and for winter use sow "Hartley's Bronze Top
Swede" about first of July.

13. DRILI. PLOW WITH POTATO DIGGER ATTACHMENT.

Potatoes. — In the cultivation of potatoes for
early market the largest profit is from the very
earliest, so that there has now come to be quite a
strife among farmers and market gardeners to be
first. In order to gain this, the soil, if not naturally
dry and warm, must be made so by under-draining.
In the autumn, give a good coat of farm manure.
Then put the land up in narrow ribs for winter. In
spring, harrow and cultivate the ribs down, and, on
clay land, loosen the subsoil ten or twelve inches
deep, and again cultivate and harrow thoroughly.

the; vegetable garden.

Then open the drills with a drill plow {see III. ij) four
inches deep and thirty inches apart (or plant in hills
thirty inches apart each way). Use medium sized
potatoes; spUt them, dividing the seed end; plant
eighteen inches apart in the row. Cover with the
drill plow, and in eight days harrow down. Keep
the surface pulverized with a Breed weeder or harrow
tooth cultivator. See III. 14. Cultivate frequently
while the potatoes are growing, to conserve moisture.
The last time the earth may be thrown towards the
potatoes, to cover any that may be exposed to the
sun. Do not hill up potatoes.

35

14. COMBINED HARROW, CULTIVATOR AND PULVERIZER.

Starting Hardy Sprouts. — Two weeks before
planting spread the seed potatoes on the floor in a
warm room, where there is plenty of sunhght, so
that the hardy sprouts will start. These should not
be injured. This method will insure an early crop.

Among the many early varieties that are being
cultivated, these two varieties still hold their own

36

REN N IE S AGRICUIvTURE.

as the earliest and best, the "Improved Early Ohio"
and the "Early Six Weeks."

Rotation in Garden. — In gardening, follow a
rotation as far as practicable. After early potatoes
are harvested sow peas and buckwheat to plow
under. This improves the quality and texture of
the soil.

IRISH COBBLER POTATOES.

CHAPTER III.
Small Fruits.

The same preparation of the land necessar>^ for
vegetables is required for small fruits.

The first of the small fruits to ripen is the strawberries,
wholesome and appetizing strawbern,-. Straw-

15. MEI.TON STR.AWBERRV.

berries should be grown in ever>' garden. The
surplus can always be disposed of at remunerative
prices. The plants can be set out at any time from
early spring until October. The soil should be
thoroughlv prepared, set in rows three feet apart
and eighteen inches apart in the row. Cultivate

38

RKNNIi; S AGRICULTURE.

Renewing
Strawberries.

The Melton.

Gooseberries.

Cultivation for
Fruits.

Red Currants.

frequently the first season to conserve moisture and
destroy all weeds.

Renew by setting out one-third of the whole in
new plants every year. An equal portion of the
old stock may be plowed under and used for some
other crop. This rotation will give superior fruit.
Mulch late in the fall with coarse farm manure.
Uncover the crown of plants early in spring, and
leave the manure for mulching. The varieties are
so numerous that it is difficult to make a selection.

The Melton (see III. ij) is regarded as one of
the best standard varieties at the present time. It
has a perfect flower, ripens medium early, and pro-
duces very large fruit.

While Gooseberries do not grow to the same per-
fection in this country that they do in Great Britain,
yet the following varieties give, as a rule, very good
results: "Downing," green color (see III. i6);
"Whitesmith," yellowish white; "Industry," pale
red. Plant Gooseberries in rows four feet apart
each way. Train the bushes in the form of a tree.

In the cultivation of fruits of all kinds there
should be an abundant supply of vegetable matter
incorporated with the surface soil to supply plant
food and act as a mulching to conserve moisture.
The cultivating should be done during the spring
months. In July sow red clover between the rows
of bushes, and some time during the following spring
spread between the rows some rotted farm manure,
and plow under lightly. Then harrow and cultivate
according to previous directions.

No farm home is complete without a supply of
Currant jelly. The planting and cultivation of
Currants is similar to the method followed in Goose-
berries, except that Currants may be grown in
bushes instead of on a single stalk. By this means

16. DOWNING GOOSEBERRY.

40

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Raspberries — -
Planting and
Pruning.

the wood can be renewed by cutting out the old
stalks. As a suitable red currant we would suggest
the old reliable "Fay's Prolific" {see III. 77); and
for a black variety the "Black Champion."

Raspberries come immediately after the straw-
berry season, and give abundance of delicious fruit

17. fay's prolific red currant.

at little cost. Plant and cultivate according to
directions given for other small fruits. Cut out all
the old wood and weak shoots each spring, leaving
not more than six stalks for fruiting. No suckers
should be allowed to grow outside the hills. From
the long list of red varieties the following might be
named: "St. Regis," for earliest {see III. 18), and

SMALL FRUITS. 41

Cuthbert" to follow. For a yellow variety use
'Golden Queen."

For Black Cap berries there will be no mistake BUck Cap

»> / Tit \ Berries and

in selecting either the Kansas {see III. ig) or Brambles,
the "Gregg." "Blackberries" (brambles) are gen-
erally relished on account of their peculiar aromatic
flavor. The cultivation is the same as for rasp-
berries, except that the rows should be seven feet

18. ST. REGIS RASPBERRY.

apart and the plants foiu^ feet apart in the row.
In selecting a variety there can be no mistake in
choosing either the "Snyder" or a newer variety
that is claiming first place — the "Eldorado."

If one fruit is more highly esteemed than another Grapes.
it is the Grape. Besides its deUcious fruit, the vines
can be trained on a trellis or an arbor, so as to be

42

How to Plant
Grapes.

RK.XXIK S AGRICUI/riTRI-:.

l)c)tli ornaniental and useful. To ensure success the
cultivation and pruning must receive attention.

Set out in the spring, selecting good, strong
vines. The soil must have been thoroughly cul-
tivated and subsoiled. Plant in rows eight feet
apart, and about sixteen feet in the row. Allow
grape vines to grow the first summer without prun-
ing. In the fall prune back, leaving three or four

19. KANSAS BLACK CAP RASPBERRY.

How to Train
Grapes.

buds at the bottom. The following spring allow
only two of these shoots to grow, and in the fall
cut them back to about four feet. The following
spring these two shoots may be fastened horizontally
to the lower wire of the trellis.

The uprights should be from ten to twelve inches
apart. In the fall the upright shoots should be cut
back to two or three buds, and only one of these
allowed to grow in the spring. In tying up grape
vines use some soft material, as tow or raffia.

SMALL FRUITS.

43

The cultivation of Grapes should be thorough, Cultivation of
but should be continued only through spring and
early summer. At the end of July some crop

20. NIAGARA WHITE GRAPE.

should be sown, and allowed to remain on the surface
as a mulching until the follo^^'ing spring. Vetches
and buckwheat mixed will be found suitable for this
purpose. The advantage of this method is that the

44 rEnnie's agriculture.

crop will use a large portion of the moisture of the
soil during the months of August and September.
This will allow the wood and fruit to mature earlier,
and in its proper season. This mulching also pre-
vents the frost from injuring the roots in winter,
and keeps the Grapes from starting to grow too earh-
in the spring. Plowing this under shallow, along
vvith well-rotted farm manure, in the spring, and
cultivating as in the previous year, will ensure an
abundance of matured fruit.
Varieties of During the past few years many new varieties of

Grapes have been introduced, and after a trial have
been found wanting. The following varieties can be
relied on: "Campbell's Early," the "Concord"
(black), the "Brighton" and "Delaware" (red),
"Moore's Diamond" and "Niagara" (white), (see

HI. 20).

CHAPTER IV.

Exposure of
Orchard.

Draining an
Orchard.

The Orchard.

It is considered that the most suitable location
for an orchard is a north-east by east exposure, for
the reason that the trees thus exposed are later in
blooming. Consequently there is less danger of
frost destroying the fruit when it is forming. Danger
from frost can, however, in a measure be obx-iated
by mulching in the autumn.

Before planting an orchard the land should be
underdrained, the drains placed thirty-five feet
apart, and arranged so that there will be a drain
between the rows of trees. If close to the trees, the
drains are liable to be choked with the rootlets. As
a further preparation, clover sod should be manured
and plowed down, in the fall, the same as for root
crops. (See cultivation for field roots, page 115.)

Early spring is the proper time to plant all fruit Planting an
trees. Plant an apple orchard in rows thirty-five
feet apart, and thirty-five feet in the row, set alter-
nately so as to allow more space for the trees.

Pears, etc., will do with twenty feet space, but Pears, piums
when only a few of each of these are required for home Trees,
use it is advisable, for convenience in cultivating,
to keep them in line with the apple orchard.

In planting any fruit, try to make the holes large
enough to admit the roots without cramping or
bending, and deep enough to bring the tree to its
natural depth. If the subsoil is clay, loosen, after
the hole is dug, with a spading fork, ten or twelve
inches, so that all rain water will filter down below
the roots of the tree when planted. Fine surface

46 , rennie's agriculture.

soil should be used for covering the roots, and this
should be carefully worked among them. If the
ground is dry, it is well to pour in some water when
the hole is partially filled. See that the ground is
firmly packed over the roots, by exerting the full
weight of the planter upon it, so that the roots will
not dry out. Fill the holes full enough to be even
with the surrounding surface after the fresh earth
settles. Never put manure in contact with the roots.
The young trees should be staked and tied, so that
the wind will not loosen the roots. When the trees
are planted they should be mulched with coarse
farm manure four or five inches deep, for a space two
feet more in diameter than the extent of the roots.
This keeps the earth moist and of even temperature.
The following spring a strip of eight or ten feet wide
in line with the rows of trees should be plowed
shallow, then harrowed and cultivated with wide
points (to clean the land and conserve moisture) at
intervals of two weeks until July. Then seed this
strip with either Alfalfa or Red Clover, to remain over
winter as a cover crop. In the following spring the
clover should be plowed under, harrowed and cul-
tivated until July, and again seeded with clover as
in the previous year. After three years of this
treatment the strip in line with the trees may be
seeded with alfalfa, and allowed to remain for two
years without plowing. This allows the alfalfa roots
to penetrate down among the roots of the trees and
perforate the subsoil.
Cropping A hoc crop may be grown between the rows of

Ro'ws^of Tries, trccs the first season after planting, followed with a
grain crop, seeding the second year with alfalfa.
The space between the rows of trees may be seeded
with alfalfa when the trees are planted. Provided
the land is clean and in good condition, the alfalfa

THE ORCHARD.

47

may remain for a number of years without plowing
down. The first growth can be made into hay, or
cut and fed green. All animals are fond of it. It is
advisable not to remove the after-growth. The

21. LOUIS PHILLIPPE CHERRY.

equivalent of whatever is removed from the soil
should be returned in farm manure, and spread over
the surface in winter.

The advantages from using alfalfa in an orchard
are that the plants collect a large amount of free

Alfalfa as a
Fertilizer.

48 rennie's agriculture.

nitrogen from the air and the roots go down several
feet, and bring up soluble mineral matter. Besides
this, they perforate the subsoil among the roots of
the trees, which is essential to the health of the
latter. A cover crop of clover and farm manure
prevents the trees from blooming too early in the
spring. Although the above directions are specially
applicable to the apple orchard, they are equally
beneficial for other fruit trees.

Following in the order, according to diagram
(page 102), cherries will come in order next to grapes.
Standard trees are more suitable than dwarfs for
horse cultivation. Reliable varieties of acid cherries
for preserving are "Montmorency" and "Louis
Phillippe" (see III. 21). The following are three
satisfactory sweet cherries for table use : "Napoleon,"
"Elton," and "Black Tartarian."

P'"«>s- The plum, the most delicious of fruits, has

suffered severely in past years from curculio and
black knot. The former evil may be combatted by
spraying with certain compounds which are dealt
with more fully in the section dealing with apple
culture. In the case of black knot the infected parts
should be cut out and burned. Spraying the trees
with Bordeaux mixture has a tendency to restrain
further contagion. For an early plum, the "Burbank' '
might be named; for second, "Lombard" is still
a favorite {see III. 22), and for autumn variety the
"Reine Claude" is one of the best.

Pears. Xhc cultivation of the pear is extending as the

value of the fruit is appreciated. The melting,
juicy texture, the fine flavor and delicate aroma of
the pear give it a high place among fruits. A pear
orchard, properly attended to, will yield large re-
turns, but pears require special care, particularly in
picking and packing, both for home use and for

THE ORCHARD.

49

22. LOMBARD PLUM.

50

REXNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Apples, for
Domestic Use

Commercial

shipping. Two reliable summer varieties are the
"Bartlett" and "Clapp's Favorite." See III. 2j.
For autumn, "Sheldon" is suitable, and for early
winter "Anjou" and "Clairgeau."

The apple orchard should be divided into two
departments; the first for domestic use, and the
second for commercial purposes. For home use,
in ordinary cases, two or three trees of the varieties
named below will be sufficient for summer and early
winter use. One of our best and earliest varieties
is the "Yellow Transparent." Then follows the
"Duchess of Oldenburg," "Snow," and "Wealthy."
The balance of the orchard may be reserved for
winter varieties, to be grown for export or the
supply of our own markets.

Ontario is specially adapted to apple growing,
Apple Growmg ^^^ production along this line is bound to become
increasingly profitable owing to the large export
demand,' and the growing powers of consumption
in our own western and city markets. Farmers
should, therefore, take advantage of the opportunity
open along this line and be prepared to supply the
markets available. In many cases it will be found
most advantageous to sell outright to shippers in the
autumn, but in a number of instances better results
are being obtained by farmers joining together and
handling their crops through a co-operative associa-
tion. The principal point to be borne in mind is the
necessity of so disposing of the crop that it will not
interfere with necessary fall work on the land, which
farmers cannot afford to neglect.

In planting out an orchard first decide on the
varieties, not more than two or three, which it is
intended to grow for commercial purposes, and see
that good healthy young trees are obtained.

For the commercial trade one of the best varieties

Plant Healthy
Trees.

THE ORCHARD.

51

23. CLAPP's FAVORITE PEAR.

KENNIES AGRICULTURE.

How to Graft.

Pruning Apple
Trees.

Spraying
Fruit Trees.

is the "King." See III. 24. This is a good shipper,
and commands a high price in the British market,
but is a scant bearer. Other standard varieties are
the "Spy," "Greening," and "Baldwin." The "Ben
Davis " is one of the most prohfic and also one of the
best shipping apples, but the quality is decidedly
inferior. As a long keeper it is without a superior.
Many "Ben Davis" have been planted, and should
the market become overstocked with this variety of
fruit, either "King" or "Spies" should be grafted
on the trees.

If there are, say, four main branches to form
the top, graft each alternate branch about three
inches from the trunk, and horizontal, to form the
top properly, and the balance the following year.
Do not cut off the whole top in one year.

The "Spy," when grafted, will bear in four or
five years, whereas on its own stock it will not bear
for fourteen or fifteen . Other varieties will bear in
three or four years after grafting. The "Tolman
Sweet" is one of the best varieties to graft on. Any
of the following varieties will give satisfaction for
export without grafting, viz., "Ontario," "Sutton
Beauty," "Baldwin," and "Greening."

Pruning fruit trees is an important matter. The
tiir.e to begin is before the tree is planted, when the
branches should be cut back and the top formed.
Pnming should be done when the leaves are opening
in the spring. When this work is attended to an-
nually and properly there will rarely be any large
limbs to cut off.

Not the least important work in connection with
fruit culture is protecting the trees and fruit against
insect pests. With the proper utensils and materials
this can be accomplished. First secure a good brass
spraying pump mounted on a barrel supplied with

THE ORCHARD.

53

THE ORCHARH.

55

an agitator. Set the barrel oti a cart, waggon or
hand-cart, select a nozzle which is easily cleaned,
and that will form a mist-like spray of the solution.
As a fine spray cannot be thrown any distance, it is
advisable to attach two nozzles to a bamboo pole
I see III. 2j) and the hose fastened to the other end
of the pole.

For the treatment of scab, caterpillars, codling Bordeaux

,-,,., Mixture.

moth, bud moth, canker worm, leaf blight, etc., use
poisoned Bordeaux mixture, by adding Paris green.
This combination will destroy all masticatory and
suctorial insects. The results are as good as if each
were applied separately. The following is the for-
mula: Copper sulphate, four pounds; lime, four
pounds; Paris green, four ounces; water, forty
gallons (one barrel). Dissolve the copper sulphate
by suspending it in a bag (made of coarse material)
in a wooden vessel containing about five gallons of
water. It will dissolve more quickly in hot water.
Slake the lime in another vessel, and strain through
coarse sacking or a fine sieve; dilute the slaked lime
in half a barrel of water, then pour the copper
sulphate solution into the barrel, with the diluted
lime. Add water to make the forty gallons; then
add the Paris green, which has been previously made
into a paste with water.

The first spraying should be done when the buds Time to Spray
are swelling. The second spraying when the blos-
soms have fallen. A third application may be
necessary if any scab should appear on the fruit or
disease on the leaves.

For blight, which frequently affects the leaves
of the potato plant, and later the tubers themselves,
use the same Bordeaux mixture that is recommended
for fruit trees, and for the potato beetle one pound
of Paris green to a barrel of water, placed on a cart

Spraying
Potatoes.

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

or other one-horse vehicle, so that while the horse
is walking between two rows of potatoes the wheels
will be on the opposite side of the rows, with the
rows thirty inches apart. A sprayer can be made
with one-inch iron gas pipe, so as to spray four or
six rows at a time.

26. SPRAYING PCTATOES 1 OR BLIGHT.

CHAPTER V.
Farm Implements and Buildings.

Purchase only such implements as are necessan-
and best suited for the different kinds of work for
which they are intended. An expensive implement
is not always the best. The rule should be to buy
onlv such implements as are required, and on no
account to buy an implement that is not required
on the farm. The whole assortment of implements
should be cared for in the best possible manner, with
a view to extending their time of usefulness.

The first thing is to provide an implement and
tool house (see III. 27), and the second to see that
ever}' implement and tool is under cover and in its
proper place when not in actual use. Exposure to
rain and sun is ruinous to implements, even to those
which are constructed of iron or steel. It is a saving
of time and money to keep all the farm machinen,',
implements, etc., under cover, and in their place,
and to keep even*' implement in good working order.
The implements and tools should be painted
occasionally, a work which may be done on mild
days during the winter season.

In one end of the implement house there should
be a cheap fan forge, with an anvil and a few black-
smith's tools. Most men, if at all handy, can do
ordinary- repairs on the farm, and save not only
expense, but also the time of going to the blacksmith
shop, which is often worth more than the cost of
repairing.

In addition to a blacksmith's bench and tools, in
the same end of the implement building there should

Piirchasing
Implements.

Implement
House.

Blacksmith
Forge and
Tools.

Carpenter's
Bench and
Tools.

FARM IMPLEMEXTSAND BUIL^I^■r,^

59

be a carpenter's bench, provided with such tools as
are necessary to do ordinary- woodwork repairs.
Extra sets of whiffle-trees should be kept on hand in
case of breakage, and hooks for all the spades,
shovels, scythes, forks, etc.

The location of the building should be convenient
to both the barn and house {see page 102), and at the
same time be isolated for safety in case of fire. The
size of the building must correspond to the require-
ments of the farm. For a farm of, say, one hundred
and fifty acres, a building sixty feet long by twenty-
six feet wide ised III. 28) will not be too large for all
the farm machinery, implements, waggons, sleighs,
carriages, cutters, etc. The building need not be
high. The floor should be low so that waggons and
implements can be taken out or put in by hand. An
earth floor slightly higher than the surrounding
ground is all that is necessar}'.

In a building sixty feet long, three doors are all
that are required, each nine feet wide, with the
spaces also nine feet. Hang the doors with pulleys
on an iron bar running the whole length. The doors
can all be opened without interfering with each
other.

The most important building on the farm is the
barn. The location of the bam has much to do
with the profits of the farm. Not only has the hand-
ling and storing of the crops to be considered, but
the housing of the live stock, so as to get the best
results at the least cost.

The first thing to be considered is the system of
farming to be adopted. If dairying, will it be home
dairying, or will the milk be sent to the factor^', or
is the intention to raise pure-bred stock? It may
be that the farm and location are suitable for sum-
mer grazing and selling the stock in autumn. In

Location and
Dimensions of
Building.

Doors with
Rollers.

Farm Bam.

Adapted to
System of
Farming.

60

KENNIES AGRICULTURE.

28. GROUND PLAN OF POULTRY HOUSE.

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

61

this case little or no stabling is required. The
method that many are following with good results
is buying stock in the autumn, fattening them during
the winter, and selling in the spring. This requires
considerable stable-room.

The different systems of farming require build- o^hlv^ng^Ltve
ings speciall}/ arranged, and, in giving the design stock dose
for a barn, it will have to be on general principles.
In the first place, it is desirable, for convenience, to
have the live stock under one roof, or in buildings
close together. Horses and cattle do all right in
stone or concrete basement, sheeted on the inside
with lumber. Sheep and pigs do better in separate
and wooden buildings. Whether a barn with an
end or side drive is preferable is a debatable question.
With an end drive through the centre of the building
there is a large amount of space lost, since the drive-
way comes under the highest part of the roof. In a
side drive, where the barn is over sixty feet long, it
ie necessar}' to have two drives.

For a farm of from one hundred and fifty to two size of Bam.
hundred acres, the barn should be sixty feet wide by
one hundred feet long, with twenty-four feet posts.
See Elevation 2q. The mows are twenty-seven feet
deep ; the dri\'eways twelve feet each, and the space
between twenty-one feet, half of which is for the
granan,'. The balance between the driveways is
convenient for turning the waggons on, by driving
in one way and out the other. When not required
for storing grain the barn can also be used for storing
chaff, which is too valuable to be used for bedding.

The whole of the ground floor of the barn should Flooring Bam.
be covered with two thicknesses of inch boards, ten
or twelve inches wide. First cover with inch hem-
lock nailed to the joists. Then cover with tar-
paper, then a layer of pine boards, laid so as to break

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

63

the joints. The boards also require to be nailed to
the joists to prevent rising caused by the steam from
cattle underneath. The tar-paper, in addition to
keeping vermin from eating the floor, prevents dust

30. DOUBLE H.ARPOOX H.W ] OKK.

from passing through. It is advisable to have as
few beams as possible.

The bam doors should be hung with rollers on Doors and
an iron bar. There should be sufficient windows for
light, and these so arranged that even when the bam
is filled with the crops a number of them will not be
covered.

64

RE N NIE S AGRICULTURE.

Curb Roof.

Sheeting Barn.

Filling the
Barn.

Unljitiing
Grain.

Entrance to
Bam.

Materials for
Walls and
Floors.

The roof should not be higher than is necessary,
which will save considerable in the cost. A curb
roof economizes space, and with this style the barn
can be better lighted. See Elevation 2g.

The sheeting for the outside of a barn and the
other farm buildings may be of pine boards, one inch
thick and ten inches wide, dressed on the outside.
The joints should be covered with battens, one inch
by two and a half, which should be nailed on per-
fectly perpendicular.

In order to save time and labor the storing of
crops requires special attention. There is no diffi-
culty in filling the bottom portion of the mows, but the
question is which is the most economical and practical
method of filling the top portions, particularly with
sheaves. The double harpoon fork {see III. jo)
is all right for hay and peas, but is useless for
sheaves.

The slings with double power pulleys {see III. ji)
handle both sheaves and hay or peas in a fairly satis-
factory way. One objection is that considerable
time is lost in the field in putting them in proper
shape. The rack lifter has many advocates, but
there is time lost in raising the load, and again in
lowering the rack and replacing it on the waggon.
Sheaves can be handled fairly satisfactorily by
havnng an extra man on a scaffold.

It is an advantage but not necessary for a base-
ment bam to be on the side of a bank. For the
driveways it is advisable to build a wall twelve feet
from the barn, and cover it with plank. This will
keep the embankment back from the basement wall
and allow more light and air into the basement.

The material for basement walls may be either
stone, brick or concrete, the latter being durable
and satisfactory. The floors should be concrete.

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

65

In building and arranging a basement for barn Light and Air
[see III. J2) intended for live stock, it is essential to
pro\-ide for light and pure air. See III. 2g. Accord-
ing to scientific experiments, light is a prevention of

31. HAY CARRIER AND SLIXG?.

many infectious diseases. It destroys bad germs,
such as those of consumption and diphtheria. It is
therefore important that we should arrange to get

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FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS. 67

all the light possible, not only into our cattle stables,
but into our dwelling houses. The floor of the base-
ment should be above the bam yard, the walls ten
feet high, with windows on all sides, so that the
stables will be nearly as light as it is out-of-doors.

Ventilation is all important. By properly ar- importance of
ranged ventilation the impure air is removed and
replaced by pure. This constant change of air in
the stables is absolutely necessary to preserve the
health of the animals. Many systems have been
tested during the past few years, but so far none
appear to be perfect in every detail. Perhaps the
nearest approach to a satisfactory automatic ventila-
tion is the stand-up pipe, with a cowl on top to face
the wind, which conducts the fresh air down and
into underground pipes leading into the stable.
The distributing openings may be near the ceiling.
As fresh air is charged with oxygen, it is consequently
much heavier than the impure air that has been
breathed by the animals, and will fall to where it
is required, while the impure air, being lighter than
the incoming fresh air, rises upwards through flues
which open into the stable at the ceiling, and run up
by a post through the roof. The portion above the
roof may be a round galvanized pipe, twelve inches
in diameter, with a flange around the top, and a
dome one foot above to cause a suction. The ob-
jection to this system is the cost. A second system
is to have the cowl on the bam {see Elevation 2g)
and the pipe leading down to the ceiling of the
stable. About twelve inches below the ceiling hang
a platform made of inch boards about five feet
square, for the down draft to strike on and be dis-
tributed. This system gives abundance of fresh
air, but is not of so even a temperature as if it first
passed through underground drain pipes. A third

w

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

69

Plan of
Basement.

I

and cheaper system is to have openings Hke fanhghts,
say twelve by thirty inches, at inter\'als around the
walls, close to the ceiling. Fit in the openings
frames hinged from the bottom, and made to open
inwards from the top about one-third, or say, at an
angle of about fortj'-five. These should be similar
to the upper lights used in our railway coaches to
supply fresh air. Tack muslin or cheap factor}"-
cotton on these frames. WTien the wind is blowing,
the draft will be along the ceiling, instead of on the
animals, and even when closed they will let in
sufficient fresh air to keep the ceilings and the
animals dry.

The following plan of basement (see III. 32) is
arranged for seven horses and fifty-two cattle, and
a loose-box. The stable is so arranged that box
stalls can be made in the cattle compartment by
using hurdles (temporary gates). There are horse
and cattle feed rooms, and also a root cellar on the
north side. The size of bam and basement can be
increased or decreased according to the requirements.
The stanchion used in some districts has the advan-
tage of a draw rod, which opens all the stanchions
in a row (see III. jj), which can again be closed as
soon as the cattle are free. The swinging stanchions
allow the cattle more freedom. See III. j6. Stalls
in cattle stables are not necessary. By having the
cattle dehorned they may be let loose for exercise in
the stable without being turned out of doors in cold
weather. Cast-iron basins are fastened on the par-
titions, arranged so that one basin will supply two
animals. For details see the plan of basement (34).

For location of the sheep pen, see farm diagram sheep Pen.
(page 102).

As cattle do not thrive on the same pasture along Keep Cattie
■ with sheep, it is advisable not to keep both, imless ^if.^^^*"

70

RENNIK'S AGRICUIvTURE.

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

they can be kept in separate pastures. For winter
feeding, sheep (particularl}^ lambs) give good re-
turns when properly managed. In the first place,
they require a dr>' building with plenty of light and
fresh air. See Elevation 35.

In deciding on the size of a building, allow from
twenty to twenty-five square feet for each animal,
according to the size. For the best average results
there should not be too many together. A flock of
sixty sheep will require a building thirty by sixty
feet, with a passage on one side of five feet, leaving

71

Plan of
Building.

26. SWIN'GIXG STANCHIOX.

an inside space of fifty-nine by twenty-three feet for
the sixty sheep. This should be divided into four
compartments {see Ground Plan jy) of fourteen by
twenty-three feet each in the clear, w^hich is ample
for fifteen sheep. The centre is a plain partition,
while the other two answer the double purpose of
partition and feed rack. See III. j8. The bottom
of the rack is a plank, sixteen inches wide, raised
from the floor eight inches, and on each edge a six-
inch board is nailed, projecting above the plank four
inches, to form a trough. Another six-inch board
is made stationar\', and parallel to form top of rack,
leaving a space between of two and a half feet. The
uprights are inch boards, eight inches wide and three
feet long, nailed at the bottom and top, leaving

72

REN N IE S AGRICULTURE.

Portable
Racks.

Spaces between of seven inches for the sheep to put
in their heads and feed. Whether it be grain, roots,
or coarse fodder, each sheep secures an opening and
cannot be moved by another. The rack has an
opening at each end. The entrance next the passage
is for feeding, and the other is to- clean out the refuse
into the yard. See Plan 37.

Portable racks made on the same principle are

.i7. GROl-XD PI.AX OF SHEEP HOUSE.

Scale rV inch to the foot.

Construction of
Sheep House.

convenient for feeding sheep in the yard or field.
See III. 38.

An earth floor is all that is necessary for sheep.
From floor to ceiling should be ten feet. The length
of posts are sixteen feet from the ground to the
plate, and with a curb roof leaves ample provision
for clover, hay and other fodder. The stone or
concrete foundation should only rise a few inches
above the surface on which the posts stand. The
outside sheeting may first be inch boards, put on
horizontally and covered with tar-paper. Then

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDIXGS.

cover with ten-inch boards and two and a half
battens, same as on the barn. It is important for
the health of the sheep that they receive plenty of
light. See Plan 55.

The ventilation for the sheep house is just as im-
portant as that for horses and cattle, and should be
on the same principle. Sheep manure should not be
allowed to accumulate in the pen. The gas from it
is ver\' iniurious to the health of the animals.

7Z

Ventilation.

Illll lllll II

38. FEED RACK.

Piggery.

Not the least important of the farm buildings is Pigs in Con-
the pigger}-. The number of pigs that can be S^u^'!"* "^^
profitably kept on a farm depends on circumstances.
Pigs are more profitably fed in conjunction with a
dairy. They make greater gain and give a better
quaUty of pork when fed skim milk along with
middUngs and other foods.

In deciding on the size of a building for a pigger\', size of Piggery,
►estimate four or five feeding pigs to consume the by-
-products of each cow, say forty-five feeding pigs for
ten cows {see Elevation jp), and for space estimate
pwenty square feet for each pig weighing from one
mndred to two hundred pounds each. A pen eight
)y ten feet — that is, eighty square feet — is sufl&dent
for four pigs not exceeding two hundred pounds
ich
While the pig is by many considered a filthy a Clean
[animal, yet, when proper pro\dsion is made, there is

74

RENNIHI'S AGRICULTURE.

FARM IMPLEMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

75

none more cleanly. In summer there is no difficulty
in keeping the pens clean when the pigs have an
outside yard, but in winter, when they must be kept
inside where it is dr\' and warm, care and attention
are necessar\'.

While other animals are protected against the l'^^^^*''""'*
cold with a coat of hair or wool, the pig has almost Protection,
no covering. For that reason it requires special
protection in order to get the best returns for the
food consumed. The doors leading to the outside
yards must therefore be closed in winter.

It is necessary at the back of pens to have a Gutters inside
gutter, which should be three feet wide and three
inches deep. It is advisable to have the entire floor
of the piggery made of cement, the beds raised two
or three inches and covered with two-inch plank for
protection against cold and dampness. The beds
should have a three-inch scantling nailed on the
edge to keep in bedding. The two seven-feet pens
for brood sows (see Ground Plan 40) should be
covered entirely with plank; also have a plank
eight inches wide nailed to sides horizontally eight
inches from the floor, to prevent the sow lying on
her young pigs.

It is important that a piggery should be con-
structed so as to be both dry and warm in winter. A
wooden building on a stone or cement foundation is
considered the most satisfactory. The building
should be double sheeted on the outside, with tar-
paper between, also sheeted on the inside up to the
ceiling. The posts may be twelve feet high from
the foundation, which is level with the floor, viz.,
eight feet to the ceiling and four feet above. For
the health of the animals it is necessary to let in aU
the light possible. See Elevation jg. The size of
building given in plan is thirty-two feet wide by

Wooden Build-
ing on Stone or
Cement
Foundation.

76

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Convenience in
Feeding.

fifty-seven long. This allows three feet for the
gutter in the rear, ten feet in depth for the pens, and
five feet for the centre passage. The floor of the
pen may be sloped to the gutter while the beds are
elevated four or five inches, so that any filth that
may accumulate can be swept into the gutter at the
back.

The trough is made V-shaped, and for this cement
is the most durable. The partition over and in

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40. GROUND PLAN OF PIGGERY.

Scale rV inch to the foot.

Style of
Building.

Ventilation.

Convenience of
Buildings.

front of trough should be on hinges, so that, for
convenience in feeding, it can be swung to the inside
edge of the trough.

The roof should be the same style as the barn
and sheep pen, for light and uniformity.

The ventilation should be on the same principle
as the basement of barn. See page 66.

Farm buildings constructed according to the
plans and specifications given are economical, con-

KAK.M IMPLKMENTS AND BUILDINGS.

77

sidering the advantages for convenience and health
of the animals.

Painting farm buildings outside gives them a J^H'jH'K Farm
more attractive appearance, besides adding to their
durability. In the erection of buildings it is advis-
able to have all the lumber dressed on the outside.
In painting, the first thing to decide is the color.
This should not be too bright. A drab with the
trimmings, viz., cornices, window and door casings,
a shade darker, is quiet and attractive. The follow-
ing mixtiu'e makes a satisfactory drab, and is not
expensive, viz.: Seventy-five pounds of mineral
drab and twenty-five pounds of white lead, mixed
with boiled linseed oil, and thinned with creosote
or benzine. The darker shade for the trimmings
can be made by adding lamp-black or mineral red.
For a brown color, use pulverized brown, material
mixed with linseed oil to the consistency of cream,
and thin with creosote or benzine.

It is preferable to decide on a certain color and BuUdings, etc.,
have all the buildings, etc., to harmonize. ° armomze.

The following is the formula for the paint or Piintuseifor
whitewash used on the Government buildings in the mentBuTidUigs.
United States: Slake half a bushel of good stone
lime in boiling water, keeping it covered while
slaking. Strain and add half a peck of salt dissolved
in warm water, three pounds of rice boiled to a thin
paste, and half a pound of clear glue dissolved in
warm water. Mix all together, and let it stand for
several days. Keep in a kettle, and apply as hot
as possible with a brush. It can be colored by
adding ochre, lamp-black, blueing, or any other
color to suit.

CHAPTER VI.

Underdraining.

Having dealt with the immediate surroundings
of the home, the dwelHng, lawn, garden, orchard and
buildings, let us now turn to the fields, on the pro-
duction of which the maintenance of the home
depends.

JAPANESE CLEMATIS — PANICULATA. (See p. 24.)

In the old days field work was hard and there
was little to relieve the drudgery. To-day, with
modern implements, and by applying the principles
of science to the practice of agriculture, we accom-
plish greater results with less labor and make farming
as an occupation at once more interesting and more
profitable.

UNDERDRAINING.

79

Subsoil ing
Clay Lands.

Proper drainage of the land forms the very basis
of successful agriculture. The soil may be ever so
rich, but ^vithout sufficient drainage, either natural
or artificial, its production can never reach the limit
)f what is possible.

It is seldom necessary to drain high, dry land.
Deep subsoiHng before seeding for either hoe or
grain crops on such land gives very good results,
especially on a clay subsoil. It improves the
physical condition of clay soils by allowing the
surface water to percolate into the subsoil and the
air to circulate freely. A sandy or gravelly subsoil
does not require loosening.

The bacteria, or germs, necessary to decompose
the vegetable matter can act only in dr\', warm soil.
Therefore, to get the best results, it is necessary to
underdrain wet lands, as they are usually too cold.

Underdraining removes the surplus water in
early spring, and, by causing this surplus to per-
colate through the soil to the drain, makes the land
porous, and thus tends to retain moisture during the
period of drought when it is needed.

For underdraining there is nothing more suitable size of Drain,
than the ordinar>^ round tile. Careful judgment
should be used in the selection of the size of this, as
the cost of underdraining is governed largely by the
size of tile used.

For a main drain, in ordinary cases five or six-
inch tile may be used for the lower end and four-inch
for the upper portion; two and one-half iifch to
three-inch tile should be used for the laterals, or
branches.

Drains should be from two and one-half to three
feet deep. The distance apart between the laterals
is governed by the quantity of water to be carried off

Where Drains
are Needed.

Effect of
Underdraining.

Depth of
Drains.

HO

KENNIES AGRICULTURE.

Distance
Between
Drains.

and the quality of the subsoil through which the
drains run.

In a tenacious clay soil, forty feet apart would be
considered an average distance between laterals. In
a porous soil these may be from sixty to seventy-live
feet apart.

Construction
of Drain.

Connecting to
Subsoil Plow.

41. DRAINING SPADE.

In commencing to drain, open up the land With
an ordinary plow by passing three or four times in
the same track. The subsoil can then be loosened
with an ordinary subsoil plow See III. g.

In hitching to the subsoil plow, fasten a chain
six or seven feet long to the point of beam and move
the*chain back on the beam as the drain is deepened.

42. CRUM.MER.

Putting the
Earth Out of
the Drain.

The evener or double tree will require to be six or
seven feet long so that the horses will travel outside
of the earth thrown out, one on each side.

The earth thus loosened will require to be thrown
out after every round made by the subsoiler. This
is done with narrow shovels until the drain is the
required depth.

The bottom of the drain should be dug with a

I

UNDERDRAIXING.

81

narrow draining spade (see III. 41) made speciall\- SeVrain**"**™

for this purpose. The loose earth is thrown out

with a "crummer." See III. 42.

y^ To secure the proper grade for the bottom of a Grading.

drain, one method is to use several cross-heads made

from strips of one-inch boards three or four inches

43. DRAIN- INC.

wide. Place the cross-heads so that the cross pieces
are in line. The proper grade is ascertained by
using an ordinar\- spirit-level. When ready to lay
the drain, set a standard, or the handle of the
crummer, on the bottom of the drain, and mark in
Une with the tops of the cross-heads. This will give
a true grade for the tiles. See III. 43.

82

RP^NNlliS AGKICULTURK.

A Satisfactory
Method.

A second method is to fasten a spirit-level on a
straight-edge about eight feet long. First find the
grade that can be secured and mark the level
accordingly, which will decide the grade on bottom
of the drain.

44. CONNECTING TILES IN DRAIN.

Laying Tiles. When laying the tiles, turn them so that the

joints fit close and make sure that they are firmly
laid. For connections, make an opening in the
main drain tile with a steel chisel, fitting the lateral
tight. Tiles made with connections are more con-
venient. See III. 44.

UNDERDRAINING.

83

In covering, put sods or the black surface soil Covering xiies.
next to the tiles. The reason for this is that the
surface soil is composed of vegetable matter and
will prevent the subsoil from getting in at the joints.

If the drains are properly laid, the least per-
ceptible fall will be sufficient to carry off the water
without clogging. A correct diagram of all drains
should be made and kept for future reference.

Diagram
Important.

/^

EARLY SOY BEAXS.

Worn-Out
Land.

How to Restore
and Maintain
Fertility.

Causes of
Worn-Out
Land.

Application of

Vegetable

Matter.

Advantages of
Humus.

Humus All
Important.

CHAPTER VII.
Cultivation of the Soil.

Many farms in the older sections of the country
have become exhausted by too deep plowing, which
has buried the vegetable matter with the crude
subsoil, and thus made it unavailable for plant food.
This practice is contrary to the laws of nature.

In our new and fertile lands we find the vegetable
matter on the surface — where it properly belongs.
By shallow plowing, thorough cultivation, and a
systematic rotation of crops, the fertility of the soil
can be maintained indefinitely.

Worn-out land is really land on which the
vegetable matter (humus) has been buried, or de-
stroyed by continuous cropping with grain.

Such land can be renewed only by applying
vegetable matter on the surface and incorporating
it with the surface soil so that it will decompose and
form what is termed humus.

Humus has a distinct value apart from the plant
food it contains. It absorbs and retains moisture
much more readily than any other soil ingredient,
so that a soil rich in humus will withstand drought
without drying out and becoming hard.

Humus aids in the decomposition of mineral
matter in the soil. It also fixes ammonia of animal
matter and thus prevents it from being lost by
leaching or evaporation. It improves the texture
and mechanical condition of a heavy soil, making it
lighter, more porous and less adhesive or sticky. On
a sandy soil, humus serves to bind together the loose
particles of sand and so prevents the soil from drift-
ing, and arrests the excessive leaching of plant food.

CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.

85

r

Mineral fertilizers such as gypsum, lime, salt,
etc., may be used on a soil that is well supplied with
\-egetable matter to change it into available plant
food quickly; but as these are only stimulants and
contain little plant food in themselves, their con-
tinued use exhausts the soil of its supplies of vege-
table matter, and the result is a more rapid and
complete exhaustion of fertility.

Without humus the soil loses its retaining power,
and when these mineral fertilizers are dissolved they
either evaporate or leach down beyond the reach of
most plants.

Science has proved that there is sufficient mineral
matter in all ordinary soil to supph' the necessary
amount of phosphates required in growing crops for
hundreds of years, provided a systematic rotation of
crops is followed whereby clovers or some other
deep-rooted plants are grown every third or fourth
year to penetrate the subsoil and act on the crude
mineral matter, making a certain portion available
for plant food to supply the following grain and
other crops forming the rotation.

The practical florist can give in a lesson the
value of humus. He understands that the best soil
he can use for growing plants successfully is rotten
sod, and none is better than the original sod from
land that has not been plowed or mixed in any way
with the crude subsoil. The florist cuts this sod
three or four inches thick, piles it up for a time and
then turns it over frequently, thereby exposing it to
heat, air and moisture — the three essentials for rot-
ting vegetable matter. After the sods are thor-
oughly rotted and mixed with decomposed farmyard
manure, they are ready for use, and flower pots may
be filled and the plants set in them and watered.
The plants will grow and develop perfectly with

Mineral
Fertilizers
Only
Stimulate.

Liquid

Minerals are
Lost without
Humus.

Exhaustless
Quantities of
Mineral
Matter.

Value of
Native Sod.

86

RE^NNIE S AGRICULTURE.

very little attention, as this kind of soil will hold
water like a sponge and will not get hard or crack
open. This illustration will furnish valuable in-
formation for the women folk in growing house
plants.

The method followed by the old-time florist was
to take soil, regardless of vegetable matter, have it

45. A BEAX CROP IN WESTEKX ONTARIO.

analyzed to find exactly what proportions of nitro-
gen, potash, phosphoric acid, etc., were required for
plant growth. After the soil was thoroughly pre-
pared with the necessary fertilizers incorporated in
it, the pots were filled with plants and watered,
same as the soil made from rotted sod. The results
are entirely different. The soil prepared with fer-
tilizers without humus will require watering at least
every other day, otherwise it will get hard and
compact and the plants will die for lack of moisture.
If it is kept thoroughly watered, the fertilizers will

CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL. 87

soon become dissolved and leach down beyond the
reach of the plants and so become useless.

From the above illustration we understand that
the fertility of the soil depends largely upon the
amount and quality of vegetable matter it contains.

When we speak of worn-out land we do not mean Wom-Out

^ 11-1 Land Means

the quality of the subsoil, as that undergoes little Lack of
or no change. The whole difficulty is in the lack of """ '

46. LAND ROLLER.

I

vegetable matter on the siuiace. When this is
destroyed by deep plowing and lack of a proper
system of rotation, the soil will become hard and
crack open unless there is rain every few days
throughout the summer months. Soil which lacks
decomposed vegetable matter is of a light color,
while a rich soil, filled with hiunus, is dark.

In adopting a system of rotation of crops, a bare Bare summer

., . Fallow.

summer fallow need not be included, because plow-
ing, harrowing and cultivating the land several times

88

RKNNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Cultivation

Makes

Vegetable

Matter

Soluble.

Renewing
Worn-Out
Lands.

Minerals,
Converted.

during the summer season adds nothing to its fer-
tility, and is particularly destructive to the humus.

Summer fallowing temporarily puts the soil in
better condition by improving the tilth, thus making
the plant food already in the soil soluble, so that
a crop of wheat or any other grain will grow luxur-
iantly, but a large portion of plant food is lost
through leaching and evaporation. In addition to
this there is the loss of one season's crop and also
much of the cost of labor spent in cultivating the
land while under summer fallow.

Vegetable matter and nitrogen are the two most
essential elements in improving the fertility of the
soil, and both are easily supplied by adopting shallow
plowing and growing an abundance of alfalfa and
red clover, or other leguminous plants that are
adapted to collect free nitrogen from the air and
deposit it in the soil.

The roots of alfalfa and red clover act upon the
crude mineral matter and convert it to available
plant food.

CHAPTER VIII.

Cultivating and Seeding.

To prepare worn-out land for a systematic
rotation of crops, plow in the spring, not more than
four inches deep, then roll with a hea\y roller. ///.

Preparing for
Rotation.

47.

rorHH C'JLTIV.

46. This will press the shallow furrow on the subsoil
and connect the moisture from the subsoil into the
furrow by what is known as capillary attraction.
Moisture rises from the subsoil to the surface by the
heat of the sun drying the surface soil and the fibre
of decomposed plant roots. This is called "capil-
lar\' attraction."

90

Preventing
Evaporation.

Ronnie's agriculture.

To prevent the moisture from escaping through
evaporation, the connection must be cut off below
the surface. This is accompHshed by keeping the
surface cultivated, thus forming a mulch which
keeps the soil moist. Decomposition is also
hastened in the same way by the three essentials for

48. STIFF TOOTH CULTIVATOR.

Cleaning Land
of Weeds.

rotting vegetable matter— "heat," by plowing in
warm wxather; "air," by shallow plowing; "mois-
ture," by rolling and harrowing.

If there are any thistles, couch-grass or weeds
of any kind, they will soon start to grow under this
treatment. When nicely started, cut them off two or
three inches below the surface wdth wide points on
the cultivator, either the "spring" or "stiff -tooth"

CULTIVATING AND SEEDING.

91

(Ills. 4J and 48), then harrow, shaking out the roots
to dry in the sun. In about ten days repeat the
cultivating and harrowing.

The land should now be in a good condition for S*^^^
growing a green crop to plow under later, to supply
vegetable matter. Sow, with a grain drill (///. 56),
the following- mixture: 1 bushel of peas or vetches,
half a bushel of buckwheat, and four pounds of
Essex rape, to the acre.

^-feai*^^^-*«^^-

49. PLOW WITH REVOLVIXG COULTER.

When the grain is in bloom plow the whole under Plowing under

about four inches deep, using a chain attached to
the beam of plow and the end of evener or double
tree, forming a loop to draw the green crop tmder
the furrow. A revolving coulter (///. /f.g) is pre-
ferable to the common straight cotdter. Roll and
harrow immediately the land that has been plowed.
In about ten days the green crop will be sufficiently
rotted to allow the use of the cultivator followed by
the harrow.

If any or all of the land that has been treated
according to the foregoing directions is wanted for
fall wheat, apply farmyard manure at the rate of
ten or twelve loads per acre. The manure should

Green Crop.

Preparing for
Fall Wheat.

CULTIVATING AND SEEDING.

be well rotted so as not to interfere with cultivating,
which is preferable to plowing before sowing.

In order to pulverize the manure and spread it
on the land evenly, so that it will not interfere with
the cultivation or drilling in of the grain, it is ad-
visable to use a manure spreader. See III. jO. This
machine spreads the manure much more evenly
than it can be done with a fork and does the work
very much more quickly.

If the manure is not sufficiently rotted and inter-
feres with the cultivator it should be gang-plowed

93

Manure
Spreader.

51. ADJUSTABLE SPIKE-TOOTH HARROW.

under shallow, then rolled and harrowed. If the
subsoil is a tenacious clay it should be loosened with
a subsoil plow {see III. g) or a stiff-tooth cultivator
(see III. 48) . If the subsoil is ver\' hard it may be
necessary to cross cultivate in order to break up the
subsoil to a depth of about ten inches before sowing.
If the subsoil is sand or gravel, deep subsoiling is not
necessary.

It is advisable to sow fall wheat with the grain Sowing
drill to secure a uniform depth. Finish off with a
spike-tooth harrow (///. 51) or a Breed weeder.
This prevents water from lodging in the creases made
by the grain spouts and freezing in winter, which
is liable to injure the wheat plants. With the fore-
going preparation a good w^heat crop may be reason -

FaU Wheat.

94

REN nib's agriculture.

Increasing the
Fertility of the
Sou.

ably expected and a fair start made in a systematic
rotation.

While the green crop and farmyard manure
which has been prepared and worked into the surface
soil will provide the necessary amount of vegetable
matter and nitrogen for the wheat crop, provision
should be made for increasing the fertility of the soil
by seeding the fall wheat with clover to provide a
further supply of vegetable matter and nitrogen
(two essential elements of fertility). Three pounds
of timothy seed may be sown with the fall wheat.

52. WHEELBARROW GRASS SEEDER.

Sowing
Timothy Seed.

Sowing Clover
Seed.

Harrowing
Fall Wheat in
Spring.

Sow the timothy seed in front of the grain spouts
so that it will be scattered between the rows of
grain. If sown behind the grain spouts the timothy

with the grain

and is

seed will fall in the creases
liable to be choked out.

Clovers require to be sown in the early spring
with a grass seed sower (see III. 52) at the rate of
about eight pounds of red clover and three pounds
of alsike clover seed per acre. ^

After the clovers are sown and the land is dry
it is an advantage to harrow across the rows of wheat

CULTIVATING AXD SEEDING.

95

to pulverize the surface soil that vsdll have formed
a crust during winter.

Another method of preparine: exhausted land Restoring

^ ,. ■ ^ I ,^ I , , « Exhausted

lor a systematic rotation is to plow the land shallow Land,
with either a single or two-furrow gang plow as soon
as the crops are off in the early autumn, then roll
and harrow immediately.

In about ten days cultivate and harrow to en-
courage the growth of any weeds or weed seeds that
may be in the soil. Cultivate a second time in
about ten days with the wide points to cut off all
weeds, then give a stroke with the harrows to shake
the weeds out to dry.

Destroying
Weeds and
Weed Seeds.

S3. SET OF RIBBERS.

In October spread ten or twelve loads of farm- Manuring and
yard manure per acre as far as can be had, and
cover same by ribbing the land with a single or
double mould-board plow; or a still better method
is to use a set of three "ribbers" (///. 55) attached
either to the frame of a spring-tooth cultivator or a
stiff-tooth subsoiler.

With this implement one man and three horses Gang or Rib-

•1 -I 1 TtT 1 c oers on Sub-

can nb seven or eight acres per day. With nve soUer Frame,
ribbers and four horses ten acres can be ribbed each
day. Make ribs about twenty inches wide so that

96

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Eyes of Weeds
are Near the
Surface.

Deep Plowing
Transplants
Perennial
Weeds.

Plowing Down
Weed Seeds
Pollutes the
Sou.

they may be easily levelled down in spring by
harrowing and cultivating. Land prepared in this
manner will be in the best possible condition for
early spring sowing.

All the buds or eyes on thistle roots and other
perennial weeds are near the surface of the ground,
and the roots that run down deep into the subsoil
are only feeders and have no buds or eyes to start
a new plant.

By plowing say seven inches deep all the buds
are left in the furrow and will sprout and grow
quickly — several plants from each root. Thus, in
many cases, deep plowing multiplies the plants in-
stead of reducing their number.

Plowing down weed seeds is ruinous to the land,
as many varieties of weed seeds will, if excluded from
the air, retain their vitality in the soil for fifteen
and twenty years

CHAPTER IX.

Destroying Weeds.

The correct method to adopt for increasing soil
f ertiUty and ridding the soil of weeds and weed seeds,
both annual and perennial, is shallow plowing and
thorough cultivation early in the autumn, using the
wide points on the cultivator and harrowing al-
ternately.

All seeds near the surface will germinate and
grow quickly and the roots of perennials will send
up shoots. The simplest method of exterminating
these is to cut them off below the surface when
about three inches high or before the leaves are
fully developed.

This work can be done expeditiously with either
a spring or stiff-tooth cultivator with wide points
regulated to cut two or three inches below the
surface. See Ills. 47 and 48.

When the weed plants are growing they derive
their nourishment from the soil through the roots,
but after the leaves are fully developed they collect
a certain amount of nutriment from the atmosphere.
Care should, therefore, be taken that they are cut
down before the leaves are developed. After the
land has been cultivated and harrowed in the manner
described, a hot smnmer sun will kill all the weeds
thus cut off.

If this operation is repeated at interv^als of two
weeks until September, the land wiU be quite cleared
of all perennial weeds and annual foul seeds that
were on or near the surface. WTien land has been
treated in the manner described in the foregoing
paragraphs it vnU be in good condition to grow a
grain crop of any kind.

To Clean the
Land from
Weeds and
Weed Seeds.

Hasten
Germination.

Best Imple-
ment to Use.

When to Cul-
tivate.

Cultivate and
Harrow at
Intervals.

98

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Manure and
Rib for Spring
Grain.

Ribbing
Preserves
Plant Food.

Spring
Cultivation.

Advantages of
Ribbing.

Ribbing North
and South.

Quality of
Seed Grain.

If it is decided to sow grain in the spring, instead
of fall wheat, coarser manure may be spread over
the surface and ribbed in October with a double
mould-board, plow, or ribbing attachment on a
cultivator frame.

Ribbing prevents the soluble plant food from
leaching away during the winter. When the land
is "ribbed" the rains and melting snows run off in
the furrows without interfering with the manure
and humus which are preserved in the centre of the
ribs. Make the ribs about twenty inches wide.
When land is ribbed in the fall it allows the frost
to break up the subsoil and loosen it. Run across
furrows wherever necessary to carry off all surface
water and make proper outlets for same, so that
there will be no pools of water standing on the land
intended for seeding. .

In the spring, if the subsoil is a sandy loam, the
ribs are harrowed and cultivated down with a spring-
tooth cultivator; if the subsoil is clay it will be
necessary to use the stiff-tooth subsoiler to loosen
the subsoil ten inches deep. The ground should be
harrowed before the grain drill is used.

Grain crops, such as wheat, oats or barley,
should be sown as early in the spring as possible.
When the land has been ribbed and cross furrowed
in the fall it is in a fit state for seeding very much
earlier than land which has not been ribbed.

An advantage is gained by running the ribs
north and south, so that the sun will shine into the
furrows and dry out both sides of the ribs.

Use only sound and well matured grain for seed.
When every kernel is fully developed and the land in
a high state of cultivation, the following quantities
are quite sufficient per acre: Barley, one and one-
half bushels; wheat and oats, one and one-quarter
bushels.

DESTROYING WEEDS.

99

The best method of sowing clover and timothy
seed A%'ith grain, when the grain drill is used, is to
sow the clover and timothy in front of the grain
spouts, or tubes, so that it will be scattered on the
surface. After sowing, give a stroke with the
harrows or Breed weeder crossways to smooth
the surface. - See III. 66.

Do not roll until the land is thoroughly dr\', even
if by that time the grain is two or three inches high.
If the land is rolled in the early spring when it is
damp, a crust is liable to form which will encourage
capillar}^ attraction and so cause the moisture in
the soil to rise to the surface and become evapor-
ated. Rolling after the land has been thoroughly
dried prevents this, as the lumps of earth on the
surface are then pulverized, thus forming a mulch
which prevents evaporation.

To further increase the humus in the soil cut the
clover early the following year for hay, say about
the middle of June. When the second growth is
coming into bloom, plow under about four inches
deep, using a revolving coulter and chain as before
described. Roll, and harrow thoroughly.

In about two weeks the sod will be sufficiently
rotted to cultivate with a spring-tooth cultivator.
By cultivating several times with mde points, and
harrowing alternately during the summer and early
fall, all weeds and weed seeds should be destroyed.

In the autumn, spread over the surface ten or
twelve loads of farmyard manure per acre and rib as
before described. In the spring, when the ribs have
been levelled down, the manure and rotted clover sod
will have become thoroughly incorporated, making
the very best quality of vegetable matter for growing
crops of all kinds. Land treated in this manner will be
in good condition to grow abundant crops continuous-
ly, provided a systematic rotation of crops is followed.

Sowing Clover
and Timothy.

When to RoU.

How to
Increase
Fertility and
Eradicate
Weeds.

Sod will Rot in
Two Weeks.

Manure and
Rib.

Clover and

Farmyard

Manure.

Make Vege-
table Matter
Available.

A Four Years'
Course.

Dividing Farm
into Sections.

CHAPTER X.
Rotation of Crops.

To secure the best results from the farm, certain
principles must be adhered to in order that the
fertility of the soil may not only be retained but
increased, and that at the least possible cost. In
order to do this one of the first steps to be taken is
to adopt a system of rotation which will be best
suited to the circumstances. Location must be
considered as well as the kinds of soil and the number
and kinds of animals to be provided for.

It is essential that a crop of clov^er sod be plowed
under every three or four years, in addition to all
the manure made on the farm, in order to supply
the amount of vegetable matter required for the
proper growth of cereal and other crops.

It is not only necessary to fill the soil with
vegetable and animal matter, but these must be
made available for plant food before the crops can
derive any benefit from them. This is accomplished
by thorough cultivation in warm weather, as vege-
table matter will not decompose when cold.

The following rotation is the best for mixed
farming, and was followed with marked success by
the writer for a number of years on his own farm,
and during the six years he was farm superintendent
at the Ontario Agricultural College.

The farm proper is divided into four sections
(see Diagram 54) instead of many small fields, as is
the usual custom, and is cropped as follows: —

First and second years (Nos. 1 and 2 sections),
grass, including hay and pasture; third year (No. 3

ROTATION OF CROPS.

101

section), hoe crops — corn for silage, rape, potatoes,
mangel wurzel, etc., the balance in peas; fourth
year (No. 4 section), grain, cereal crops, such as
wheat, barley and oats, all of which should be seeded
down with the following mixture: Red clover seed,
seven pounds; alsike clover seed, three pounds;
timothy seed, four pounds per acre, mixed.

In this four years' rotation several variations
may be made. If more grain is required and less
meadow and pasture, a portion of No. 2 section may
be plowed shallow after the grass is cut, or pastured,
early in August, then rolled and harrowed im-
mediately.

The harrowing should be done thoroughly, as it
is by having a line tilth on the surface that moisture
is conserved in dry weather, and this is one of the
most important essentials in rotting sod quickly.

Many farmers do not appear to understand the
proper mode of harrowing; when harrowing twice
in a place they invariably return in the same track
instead of half-lapping so that all the land may be
harrowed evenly.

The three essentials to decompose vegetable
matter quickly and form humus are heat, air and
moisture, and these are supplied by plowing in July
and August when the weather is warm for heat,
shallow plowing will let in the air, and the moisture
can be conserv'ed in the sod by first compacting it
with a hea\y roller, thus drawing the moisture from
below by capillary attraction, then harrowing to
prevent evaporation from the surface.

Under this treatment sod will rot quickly, and,
if cultivated with the wide points on the cultivator,
and harrowed alternately until the fall, the land will
be cleaned of weeds, and a large amoiuit of plant food
will be made available for fall wheat or spring grain.

Variation of
Rotation to
Meet
Requirements.

Harrow Sod
Thoroughly to
Conserve
Moisture.

Harrowing-
Half-Lapping.

How to Rot
Sod Quickly.

Cultivate and

Harrow

Alternately.

HOW TO RESTORE & MAINTAIN SOIL FERTILITY,
SYSTEMATIC ROTATION OF CROPS.
A FOUR YEARS COURSE

ISO ACRE FARM.

N9I SECTION.

FIRST YEAR

HAY OR PASTURE

30 ACRES.

N9 4 SECTION.
FALL WHEAT
SPRING WHEAT

BARLEY.

OATS.

30 ACRES.

N9 2 SECTION.
2nd YEAR

Hay. Pasture
OR Grain.

30 ACRES.

N9 3 SECTION.

Peas.

SJc>Af^ Beets.

Carrots. TUrHips.
Potatoes,

CORN.

30 ACRES.

SOOTH. HIOHW/W.

54. DIAGR.\M Of TARM.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

103

The following year the whole of No. 2 section,
including the sod left from the previous year, and
the stubble land, may be plowed with a two-furrow
gang-plow (///. jj) by adding a third horse for the
sod.

If the land is too dry and hard, use a single plow
with wheel to regulate the depth (///. 4q). By
keeping the humus on the surface there will be no
difl&culty, after a few years, in plowing sod in the
summer, as humus will not get hard. Hasten de-
composition, as before described, by having the
ground rolled and harrowed immediately after
plowing.

Early fall is the best time to clean the land of
weeds and weed seeds for the next season's hoe
crop, and with proper implements the work of fall
cultivation can be done thoroughly while there is
no crop on the ground. The broad-share cultivator
and harrow should be kept going alternately at
short interv^als until October. By that time the
land should be in fine tilth and free from weeds or
weed seeds that may be near the surface.

All the farm manure that is on hand should be
spread on the surface at the rate of about fifteen
two-horse waggon loads per acre and covered by
ribbing the land with the attachment (see III. 55)
on the cultivator frame, making the ribs about
twenty inches wide.

The manure will then be in the centre of the ribs,
which will prevent it from leaching and being lost.
The decomposed vegetable matter in the ribs will
act as an absorbent and prevent the liquid manure
and ammonia from escaping.

The furrows tend to drain the land and allow the
frost to act on the subsoil. If the ribs are run
north and south the land will dry several days

Plow Sod and
Stubble Land.

Plowing in
Summer.

Fall Cultivation
— Best Time to
Clean the Land.

Manuring and
Ribbing Before
Winter.

Advantages o:
Ribbing.

Ribbing North
and South.

ROTATION OF CROPS.

105

Manuring in
Winter.

sooner in spring. Cross furrows must be run wher-
ever necessar>' to carr}^ off all surface water.

If there is not sufficient mantu-e on hand in the
fall to coA-er the whole of this section, the portion
that is left ^\-ithout manure should not be ribbed,
so that it can be manured on the surface during the
winter. In -spreading manure in the winter, when
the ground is frozen, double the usual quantity
should be put on the knolls or small hills, as a certain
portion will leach to the lower land.

In the event of weed seeds being in the green |^^/ Green
manure it is ad\"isable to stack it in the bam yard,
from winter until autiunn, in order to destroy all
seeds. There is little loss of fertiht}' where the
following method is adopted: Make a heap thirty
or more feet square; keep the sides plumb; mix all
the manure made on the farm; should be six or
eight feet high. This will make a valuable compost
heap. All the rainfall on this small surface \\411 be
absorbed in the manure. Keep the top level.

On rolling land it is advisable to manure and rib
in the fall, so that all the liquid in the manure will Land,
be absorbed in the rotted sod contained in the ribs.
This completes the fall work on section No. 2,
which is to be followed with a hoe crop in section
No. 3.

After making due allowance for the hoe crops,
including com, rape, turnips, potatoes, mangel
wurzels, etc., in this section, the balance is sown
with peas, the highest portion of the section pre-
ferred, as a pea crop is usually followed with fall
wheat. If this sod land was thoroughly cultivated
the previous autmnn, manured and ribbed, in the
spring these ribs will require to be levelled down by
cultivating, harrowing and subsoiling ten inches
deep. This will keep the soil dry and warm — a \er\
desirable condition for growing peas.

Manure and
Rib RoUing

High Land for
Peas.

106

KENNIES AGRICULTURE.

Preparation for
Field Roots and
Other Hoe
Crops.

Advantage of
Sowing Peas
with the Grain
Drill.

Depth to Plant
Seeds.

The portion of land intended for mangel-wurzels,
sugar beets and carrots should be prepared by
thorough cultivation, manuring and ribbing accord-
ing to the foregoing directions so that the soil will
be in good condition for early cultivation in the
spring. It is important that those seeds be sown
early in the spring, about the end of April or early
in May. Farm manure as a rule should be applied
previous to the hoe crops, as it promotes rank
growth, which is desirable for fodder corn and roots.

It is advisable to sow the peas with an ordinary
grain drill (///. 56), which will plant the seed at a
uniform depth and so ensure the plants making an
equal start. If the seeds are not planted at a uni-
form depth, the crop returns become a question of
the survival of the fittest, the rank, luxuriant plants
choking out the others.

As to the depth to plant peas, in all seeds, a good
rule to follow is to plant to a depth of four or five
times the diameter of the seed. Two to three and
a half bushels should be sown to the acre, according
to the size of the peas. As peas are large and do not
stool from the root like other grain, it is necessary
to sow them more thickly.

CHAPTER XI.
Grain Growing.

Peas should be harvested before they are quite Hwresting
ripe, as the straw of peas is of exceptional value for
feeding to animals, rating next to clover hay, which
is the highest in nutritive value of all fodders. The

56. GRAIN DRILL.

most satisfactory- implement for harv^esting peas
is the "pea harvester" with bunching attachment,
which can be attached to any mowing machine
(///. jj). The peas should be drawn into the bam
soon after being cut, say within one or two days.
A shower of rain will do much harm to the straw,
and long exposure to the sun will make the straw
brittle and unfit for fodder.

GRAIN GROWING.

109

Peas may be successfully threshed with the
ordinan- threshing machine b>' placing pulleys on
each end of the cylinder shaft double the circumfer-
ence of those ordinarily used. This will run the
cylinder at half speed, while the rest of the machin-
ery is on full speed. Take all the spikes out of the
concave except four.

Because of the prevalence of the pea bug, or
weevil, many farmers have given qip tr\4ng to grow
this valuable crop. In sections of the countn,-
where the pea bug prevails, the seed should be
treated with carbon bisulphide to destroy the bugs.
This should be done early in the fall while the insects
are in the embryo state and before they have done
any material injmy to the peas.

The following method of treatment is ver\'
effective and easily followed. Use an air-tight box
that will hold ten or twenty bushels. Fill the box
with peas and set a dish on top of the peas containing
one pound of carbon bisulphide, which is sufficient
to treat fifteen bushels, close the lid, making it as
air-tight as possible, and leave for three days. At
the end of the three days the carbon bisulphide will
have evaporated and penetrated all the peas in the
box, completely destroying the insect germs that
are in the peas mthout injuring the peas. Care
should be taken to keep away any flame, as the ma-
terial is ven,^ inflammable. If all the farmers in a
neighborhood would imite and treat their peas, it
would not be necessary to repeat this every year.

As soon as the peas are taken off the land should
be plowed shallow with the two-furrow plow, rolled,
and immediately harrowed; cultivated and harrowed
alternately until it is time to sow the fall wheat.

The rotted sod, farm manure and pea stubble
will supply the nitrogen and other elements neces-

Threshing
Peas.

How to Destroy
the Pea Bug.

Method of
Treatment.

Cultivation of
Pea Land for
FaU Wheat.

Elements of
Fertility.

no

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Subsoiling
Clay Land.

Time to Sow
Fall Wheat.

Quantity to
Sow.

How to Destroy
Smut Spores.

Prevent
Heating.

Smut Spores
Feed on Plant.

sary for the healthy growth of a crop of fall wheat
or any other grain crop.

Before the fall wheat is sown the land should be
subsoiled nine or ten inches deep with four horses
on the subsoiler {III. i), unless the subsoil is of a
sandy or porous nature. Harrow before and after
sowing.

For Central and Northern Ontario the time to
sow fall wheat is the end of August or beginning of
September. In Southern Ontario the seed should
be sown from the tenth to the fifteenth of Sep-
tember.

Sow fall wheat with the grain drill at the rate
of one and a quarter bushels per acre, using only
good, clean and thoroughly matured seed.

The seed should, before sowing, be treated with
formalin if it shows any traces of smut. A simple
and effective method is to make a solution in the
proportions of half a pint of formalin to ten gallons
of water. This is sufficient for twenty-five or thirty
bushels of wheat. Having prepared the solution,
spread the wheat on the floor and sprinkle the
formalin solution over it with a watering can; the
wheat should be shovelled over while being sprinkled,
so that every grain will receive a portion of the solu-
tion. After sprinkling, dust the wheat over with
slaked lime so that it may be sown with the grain
drill.

Do not put the grain into bags many hours before
sowing, as this will cause it to heat and seriously
injure its vitality. Every germ of smut must be
destroyed, otherwise it will develop and produce
smut the following year.

It has been proved by botanists that the smut
spores cling to the kernel and when it germinates
the spores feed on the plant, finishing with the grain.

GRAIX GROWING.

Ill

SO that the kernels become smut instead of grain.
These same principles hold good with oats and
barley.

While it is important to have the soil and other
conditions as favorable as possible, the best results
cannot be obtained unless a variety of grain is sown
that will give the largest yield and the best quaUty.
The sowing of a productive variety \\nll make all
the difference between profit and loss.

Every farmer who has had experience in the
growing of wheat will remember varieties which
excelled all others for some years but had to give
place to something new (often being self -hybridized) .
There is no doubt that grain would not depreciate
so rapidly if only the best grains were so^vn each
year. Indeed, in many cases the same variety has
been used on the same farm year after year %vith
ever improving returns.

It is well to note that in order to obtain the best
results the land must be in good condition and the
grain sown must be carefully selected, both for
productiveness and milling quahties.

Wheat should be cut when the grain is in the
firm dough state, as according to analysis this pro-
duces the finest quality of flour. With the improved
har\'esting machinery of the present time there is no
excuse for allowing the grain to become over-ripe
before it is cut.

The only harvesting machine in the early part
of the last century was the sickle; after this came
the scythe with the bow, followed later by the grain
cradle, after which a crude style of reaping machine
was brought into use. Several inventions followed,
but with all of them a man had to put the grain off
the platform with a fork or rake. The next im-
provement was the "self -raker."

Sow the Most
F*roductive
Varieties of
Grain.

Hybridized
Varieties.

Results from
Good Cultiva-
tion and Seed.

When to Cut

Wheat.

Improvements
in Harvesting
Methods.

GRAIN GROWING.

113

Following it was the "Marsh Harvester," on
which two men rode and bound the grain as it was
elevated. To-day we have the wide-cut self-binder
complete (///. j8), a machine that will bind and cut
the heaviest crop of grain and do the work in the
most perfect manner.

In setting up grain to dry, the long ''shock"
or "stook" is preferable (///. 5p). The sheaves
are set up firmly in pairs, ten or twelve in a shock.
The shock should stand with ends facing north and
south, so that both sides will be exposed evenly to
the sun. Wheat should stand a week in the field
after being cut, so that it may dry out thoroughly
and the grain become hard.

As previously shown, great progress has been
made towards perfecting har\'esting machinery. An
equal advance has been made in threshing machines.
In the early days of this country all the grain was
threshed with the flail or trodden out by oxen or
horses on a floor.

In the \\Titer's younger days he has threshed
all winter with the flail, from the time the land
froze up in the fall until seed time in the spring.
The first implement in the shape of a threshing
machine was simply a cylinder set in a frame with
beaters instead of spikes, and the grain had to be
separated from the chaff" with a simple hand fanner.

Later there was a succession of improvements,
until now we have the self-feeding thresher and
separator that will thresh and clean the grain ready
for market, and do the work as fast as two men can
fork the sheaves into it. See III. 60.

Marsh-
Harvester
Principle of
Elevating Used
To-day.

How to
"Shock'
Grain.

Improvements
to Threshing
Machines.

Writer's Early
Experience in
Threshing.

The Modern
Thresher.

I

CHAPTER XII.
Field Root Crops.

Sod land that has been plowed shallow in the y^J^fr^^oe'"'
early autumn and thoroughly prepared according Crops,
to previous directions, also manured and ribbed, is
in the most desirable condition for root crops,
especially mangels, sugar beets and carrots, that
require to be sown as early in the spring as the soil
is sufficiently dry and in fine tilth. The first opera-
tion in spring is the levelling of the ribs by harrowing
and cultivating. If the soil is of a sandy and porous
nature, five or six inches will be sufficiently deep to
cultivate, but clay soil should be loosened ten inches
deep with the subsoiler (III. i), cultivating both
ways (crossing) to loosen the subsoil, so that all
rain water will percolate into the subsoil and allow
the air free access into the soil to warm it and assist
the bacteria to act on the vegetable matter and
make it available for plant food. Another object
in loosening clay soil is to allow the rootlets of deep-
rooted plants free access to feed on the mineral
matter contained in the subsoil. When roots are
fed on the farm the quality of the farmyard manure
is improved very materially for growing succeeding
crops.

After subsoiUng, harrow and cultivate until there shaUow pnUs,

_ ,.■•., , ,, .. , _,_, ., , , Made with

IS a fine tilth; then roll if dry. While good results Ribbers on the
are produced from sowing on the level, still the subsoUer
writer prefers shallow drills, which are made with ^'^*™*-
a double mould-board drill plow with marker (see
III. ij), so that the drills are of equal width. This
is an advantage for horse hoeing. Drills for all
root crops, including potatoes, can be made with

FIELD ROOT CROPS.

117

three ribbers attached to the frame of the stiff -tooth
subsoiler. This effects a great saving in labor.
One difficulty in using the ribbing attachment for
making drills for hoe crops is in keeping them
straight and even, which is important to the proper
regulation of the horse hoe (scuffler). See III. 6j.
This may be overcome by uncoupling the pole at
the castor wheel, and instead of the horses guiding
the drillers they are kept in place by the use of a
lever. See III. 6i. This is a ver>' useful implement.
It is first a subsoiler, second a stiff-tooth cultivator,
third a spring-tooth cultivator, fourth a ribber,
fifth a driller for making drills for mangels, turnips,
etc., also for opening drills for potatoes and covering
same three drills at a time.

In making drills, have the mould-boards set
wide, so that the furrows will meet at the top, with-
out going deep, as the composition of the drills
should mainly be rotted sod and farm manure, which
makes a complete composition for growing roots
and com. The drills for m angel- wurzels and other
field roots should be twenty-eight or thirty inches
wide. The quantity of mangel-wurzels and sugar-
beet seed advisable to sow is four pounds per acre.
Less seed will do, but in order that there should be
no blank spaces it is better to sow plenty of seed.
With carrots, three pounds per acre is quite sufficient.

As soon as the drills become dry after sowing,
roll them with a heavy land roller. This will assist
capillary action, so that the moisture from below
will rise to the surface. Then, to prevent evapora-
tion, the surface must be loosened. A very satisfac-
tory implement for this work is the Breed
weeder, which will cover four drills. It is advis-
able to raise the two teeth (about two inches) which
come in the centre of each drill, so that the seed

Making Drills,
and Sowing
Field Roots.

Cultivation
After Sowing to
Cause Soluble
Plant Food.

118

REN'NIES AGRICULTURE.

will not be disturbed. This is done by putting a
thin piece of wood — say two laths — under these
teeth and over the others about the centre of the
teeth. There are several advantages to be gained
by keeping the surface loosened even before the
plants appear above the ground. The air is thus
let into the soil and moisture is conserved. Bacteria

61. CULTIVATOR FRAME WITH RIBBERS.

Thinning, and
Varieties of
Field Roots.

is also thereby allowed to act on the humus, and
make it available for plant food, so that as soon as
the plants commence to grow they are provided with
a full supply of soluble food.

Commence thinning mangel-wurzels when the
plants are from one inch to one and a half inches
high, leaving the plants about twelve inches apart
in the row. It is scarcely ever necessary to stoop
and use the fingers. The work can be done with the

FIELD ROOT CROPS.

119

hoe that is made for the purpose See III. 62. This
hoe should be kept quite sharp and square at the
comers. The operator walks at the side of the
drill and draws the soil on the near side and pushes
the soil at the far side, and with the corner of hoe
cuts out imnecessar\- plants, lea\-ing only one plant
in a place. A man who understands how to do this
work properh' will hoe and leave in good shape half
an acre per day. Carrots take more time, as they
require to be left closer, not more than eight to ten
inches apart. The Breed weeder is the only imple-
ment required until the plants are from two to three

■62. TLRNIP HOE.

inches high; then the "horse hoe" (see III. 63) should
be used frequently during the growing season. On
no account should a crust be allowed to form on the
surface. For breaking up the crust the combined
harrow, cultivator and pulverizer is a satisfactory^
implement. See III. 14. All root crops should be
cultivated on the level. Even potatoes should not
be hilled up when growing, as this throws the rain
water from the plants.

The mammoth long red varietv of mangel- Varieties of

, . " AjAi Mangels,

wurzel, as a rule, is the heaviest cropper. Ihe sugar-Beets
giant yellow intermediate is a close rival. These *"
will average, under favorable conditions, thirty tons
per acre. It is generally supposed that the yellow
mangels are the most nutritious, but, according to
analysis, there is ver>' little difference. The sugar
mangel is the richest of all. One objection to the

c^

FIELD ROOT CROPS. 121

long red is that when harvesting and putting in
the cellar many of them are broken, which injures
their keeping qualities. The broken or bruised
roots should be fed first. The best variety of
sugar-beet for farm purposes is the giant variety.
It is a hea\y cropper, one which will average under
favorable conditions between twenty-five and thirty
tons per acre. It stands well out of the ground, so
that it is easil}' har\-ested. Sugar-beets are more
nutritious than any other field root, and will keep
longer.

64. STORING ROOTS IN PIT.

In Central and Northern Ontario the time to when and How

.to Harvest

har\''est mangel-wurzels and sugar-beets is from Field Roots,
the fifteenth to the twenty-fifth of October. When
pulling, it is preferable to twist the tops off by hand,
as when topped ^^'ith a knife they are more liable
to decay. For convenience in loading into the
waggon, throw four drills into a row, providing
there is no danger of frost; allow them to remain
on the ground for twenty-four hours after being
pulled and topped, as this will improve their keeping
quality. If there is any indication of frost they
should be either housed or covered every night, as
three or four degrees of frost will injure mangel-
wurzels and sugar-beets after they are pulled.

122

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Storing and
Ventilating
Field Roots.

Pitting, Cover-
ing and Venti-
lating Roots.

When putting roots into a cellar it is advisable
to run them over a slatted chute, so as to riddle out
the earth. No tops should remain on the roots, as
they will soon decay and injure the roots. Where
the roots drop into the cellar they are liable to heat
unless an opening is made (funnel-shaped) nearly
to the bottom. There are two important matters
in connection with the successful storing of roots.
The first is to keep them sufficiently cool; the
second to prevent them from freezing. To accom-
plish this, stone or cement basements underneath
barns should be sheeted on the inside of wall, and
also sheeted overhead or under the upper floor.
The principle of ventilation in a root cellar is the
same as that required to cause a draught in a stove.
The openings above are useless without small
openings below, similar to a damper in the front of
a stove. For this purpose a number of small drain
tiles should be put in the bottom of wall next to
cattle stable, and near to the top of the wall have
large openings, which should remain open all winter.
The outside windows should be kept open every day
until the winter sets in — say the beginning of
December. About the 25th of December it will be
necessary to bank up the windows with stable
manure to keep out the frost.

When there is not sufficient cellar room the
balance of the roots may be pitted successfully.
Mark out pit of the required length, about six feet
wide, and excavate three or four inches. The earth
should be laid along the sides. Dumping carts are
move convenient than waggons for unloading roots
into pits. Build the roots up to a point four or five
feet high (see III. 64), then cover with straw about
three inches, and with earth six inches. This cover-
ing is sufficient until the end of November, then re-

FIELD ROOT CROPS. 123

cover with an addition of three inches of straw and

twelve inches of earth. In order to get sufficient

mould it is advisable to plow around the pits a

number of furrows not exceeding nine inches in

depth, as the siu-face soil which is composed of

vegetable matter is more impervious to frost than

clay. To make provision against excessive frost it

is advisable to cover pits, the last of December, with

stable manure to the depth of about ten inches. To

ventilate a pit set three-inch drain tiles on top, with

one end resting on the roots. Place about eight

feet apart near the bottom of the pit, two-inch tiles,

so as to cause a draught. Fill the tiles with straw

in December.

For field culture the white intermediate carrot Varieties, Cul-
tivation and
is unquestionably the most profitable variety for the Harvesting of

farmer to grow for feeding purposes. The nutritive ^"° ^'

value is equal to any of the white varieties, and it is

much more easily harv^ested than the others. Under

favorable conditions this carrot will yield from

twenty-five to thirty tons per acre. The cultivation

of carrots is similar to that for mangel-wurzels and

sugar-beets, with the exception of thinning. The

carrot plants should be from eight to ten inches

apart in the row. The time to harvest is the last

week in October. In harv^esting, the tops can be

readily taken off with an ordinar\^ hoe, while the

roots are still in the ground. Then, w4th an iron

plow without the mould-board, or a subsoil plow

(see III. g), the roots can be turned out. The plow

should be run only sufficiently deep that the share

will cut the points off the roots. This work may

be done first and topping done afterwards with a

knife. A very little frost will injure them after

being pulled, so that it will be necessary to cover

them at night if there is any danger of frost. Car-

124

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Swede Turnips,

Improved

Varieties.

Preparation of
the Soil for
Swede Turnips.

rots are grown chiefly for feeding to horses and
milch COWS, but for cows the Jumbo sugar-beet is
taking the place of the white carrot, on account of
the saving in labor in hand-hoeing and thinning.
Horses are also as fond of sugar-beets as carrots,
and the sugar-beets are quite as nutritious. The
same method of keeping mangel-wurzels and sugar-
beets during the winter is required for the keeping
of carrots.

There are many varieties of swede turnips grown
at the present time. These have been improved
from the original "Skirving, " work which is carried
on extensively by growers of swedes. The type of a
root is fixed by growing seed from a certain type for
a number of years. While some of the newer
varieties are large and smooth, their quality for
table use may not be equal to that of some others.
As a rule, the bronze top varieties are superior to the
purple top for table use. In some sections of the
country the practice of growing swede turnips for
export to the United States for table use has become
quite an extensive business. The wisdom of doing
this is another matter, for, aside from the ready
cash derived, we must consider the fact that it takes
about double the nutriment from the soil to produce
a crop of turnips than it does for a grain crop.
Again, the farmer should consider the great loss of
fertility to the soil by selling and shipping the whole
product instead of feeding it on the farm and re-
turning it again to the soil, as only a small per-
centage is retained by the animals for the production
of beef or milk.

In preparing soil the previous fall for swede
turnips, while it is preferable to have the land
manured and ribbed, it is not so important, as
turnips do not require to be sown as early as mangel-

FIELD ROOT CROPS.

wurzels, sugar-beets and carrots. It is advisable to
have swedes follow a clover sod which has been
thoroughly decomposed and which has been manured
in the fall or during the winter with about fifteen
waggon loads of farm manure per acre, thoroughly
incorporated with the surface soil. Before making
the drills, if the subsoil is clay it should be loosened
about ten inches deep with a subsoiler (///. /) .

125

65. HORSE DRILL FOR SOWING FIELD ROOT SEEDS.

In order to do the work thoroughly it is advisable
to first set the subsoiler eight inches deep, then across
about two inches deeper. This method is most
thorough. The next proceeding is to harrow and
roll the land before making the drills, which are
made the same as for mangel-wurzels, shallow, and
twenty-eight or thirty inches wide. The time to
sow swedes is from fifteenth to the twenty-fifth of
June. If sown earlier they are liable to be more
woody and are subject to the turnip louse {aphis).
The quantity of seed necessary is from two to

126

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Quantity of
Seed per Acre,
and Conserving
Moisture.

Fall Turnips,
for Early-
Feeding.

When and How
to Harvest
Swedes and
Store for
Winter.

three pounds per acre, and is best sown with the
ordinary horse seed drill. See III. 65. In twenty-
four hours, if the drills are dry, roll them down with
a heavy roller, so as to hasten capillary action, and,
as with mangel-wurzels, pulverize the surface to
conserve moisture. If the surface is kept pulverized
with a Breed weeder there will be no difficulty in
getting a catch, even if there is no rain. Thin the
same as mangels, with a turnip hoe. This work
should be done early, while the plants are in the
second rough leaf. To secure best results, level and
thorough cultivation should be continued during
the growing season.

There are many varieties of fall turnips, and
while their nutritive value is not equal to the swede,
yet they have certain qualifications that recommend
them. Some, being more rapid growers, can be
sown later, as a catch crop, after a crop of early
potatoes or on clover sod. The last of June or the
early part of July is not too late for some of these.
They should be sown in shallow drills, and cultivated
and harvested in the same manner as swedes for
early feeding. Some farmers prefer to sow them on
the level, using an ordinary grain drill, each alternate
spout being stopped. They then feed them off on
the land in the fall. Sheep and young cattle thrive
well on this excellent food, and it will be found par-
ticularly advantageous when pastures are dry and
scanty. This soiling crop gives stock a good start
for the winter. Among the ordinary fall turnips
the most suitable varieties are the yellow Aberdeen,
greystone, and the ordinary white.

In Northern Ontario the time to harvest swedes
is the last days of October; the first week in
November answers in Central Ontario. There are
various methods of doing this work when help is

FIELD ROOT CROPS.

127

128 rennie's agriculture.

plentiful. The old method of pulling and topping
by hand, throwing the roots of four drills into one
row for convenience in loading into the waggon, is
preferable. In many cases, however, other methods
have been adapted in order to save hand labor. One
of these is to top the turnips with an ordinary hoe
and drag them out of the ground with the harrows
by harrowing across the drills, letting the harrows
half lap if necessary. This method answers well in
sandy soil, but in clay soil the turnips are consider-
ably injured in the process, and, as a rule, there is
more earth clinging to the roots than is desirable.
Another method is to top with the hoe and cut oiT
the roots with an iron plow without the mould-
board, and having the wing of share wide and sharp
to cut off the tap roots. Still another method, and
one generally followed in many sections of the
country, is to use a heavy hoe or mattock, both to
top and to root. Turnips should be left on the
ground for a day or two after being pulled, as they
are not so easily injured by frost as other roots.
Indeed, it has been found that three or four degrees
of frost rather improves their keeping qualities.
The same directions for storing mangel-wurzels,
both in cellar and pits, hold in the storing of turnips
for the winter.

I
1

CHAPTER XIII.

Exhibition Roots.

It may be interesting to many, especially yoimg ?*'^*"i ^'***
people, to know how to grow monstrous roots for Exhibition,
exhibition purposes. It is like feeding and preparing
animals to win prizes — more for glor\' than for profit.
However, it is interesting to demonstrate that one
small mangel-wurzel seed planted, say, on the 10th
of April, will, by the 10th of October, ^vith proper
care, develop into a root weighing over sixty pounds.
The first thing to be done in the preparation of soil
is to imderdrain it ; then early in the autumn prepare
a clover sod as before described for mangel-^-urzels
and sugar-beets. In October, subsoil the rotted soil
ten or twelve inches deep; then give a hea\y coat
of well-rotted farm manm-e. Incorporate this thor-
oughly with the surface soil fwhich is simply rotted
sod) by cultivating and harrowing several times.
Make shallow drills five feet apart, by plowing two
or three rounds to each drill. Shape the drills with
a garden rake. After this cover all the surface with
thoroughly rotted manure. The seed should be
sown early in April, on the drills, at intervals of
three feet. Sow five or six seeds together. After
the plants have grown one or two inches, thin out to
three" plants, and eventually to the one most \'igor-
ous. Follow the above plan for mangel-wurzel and
sugar-beets. Carrots and parsnips may be sown
two feet apart. In order to get turnips full grown
for exhibition they should be sown early in May, and
afterwards thinned as indicated for mangels. Sow
salt and land plaster (gypsimi) over the whole
siuface. Loosen the surface soil frequently dining
the whole season, and on no account allow a crust to
form on the surface. In growing mammoth roots
and vegetables for exhibition, much valuable know-
ledge may be gained by the grower.

CHAPTER XIV.
Potato Growing.

The most suitable soil for potatoes is a thoroughly cultivation and
rotted clover sod. This is prepared by plowing Potatoes,
shallow in the autumn, then rolUng, harrowing and
cultivating alternately until October. Then cover
with well-rotted farmyard manure, and rib as in the
preparation for mangel-wurzels. In the spring the
cultivation must be thorough. If the soil is a cla^^
it should be subsoiled as deep as possible to let in the
air, warm the soil, and assist in the decomposition
of vegetable matter. The drills are opened out with
a drill plow, with marker thirty inches wide (see
III. ij), or with ribbers attached to the frame of
the stiflf-tooth subsoiler (///. 48). The drills should
be made about four inches deep. Plant medium-
sized potatoes, cut in sets, ^vith from two to three
eyes in each. Drop the sets in the drills twelve
inches apart; then cover with the drill plow or
ribbers, and after ten days harrow down nearly level,
and smooth with a Breed weeder (///. 66). The
weeder should be used freely at this stage, and even
after the potatoes have made considerable growth.
Use the horse hoe frequently during the growing
season. The cultivation should be on the level, and
on no account must the potatoes be banked up, but
the last time this work is done the teeth of the
scuffler may be changed so as to throw the earth
towards the potatoes, and thus prevent their being
sunburnt.

While there are machines for cutting potatoes How to Cut
for seed, and some of them do the work fairh- well, and Time to
the ordinary- farmer is content to cut the sets by ^'*°*"
hand. To do this work properly, cut off the stem

132 rexnie's agriculture.

end of the potato first. This will invariably have
one or two eyes. Then revolve the potato in one
hand and cut with the other, so as to leave one or
two eyes in each set. Split the seed end; by ex-
periment this has been found to give the best all-
round results. The time to plant early potatoes
depends largely upon circumstances. If wanted for
the early market it is necessary to have the land
thoroughly prepared the previous fall. Plant soon
after the middle of April in Central Ontario. The
soil being cold so early in the season, in addition to
deep subsoiling lime may be used to advantage in
warming it so as to make the plant food available.
In all cases it is advisable to plant early varieties
early in the spring, so that they will be matured
before the hot, dry weather, and in good time for the
early market. It is better not to plant late varieties
until the end of May, in order that they will keep
on growing during the hot weather and be ready
to harvest by the tenth of October. To recom-
mend, from the long list of varieties grown at the
present time, the best to plant, is a difficult and un-
satisfactory task, as those varieties which are so
popular at the present time may, in a few years, be
far behind some other varieties now unknown. The
Early Rose may be considered an exception, for this
variety, which held first place for many years, is
to-day still a close rival for first place as an early
potato. The Early Six Weeks and Early Ohio are
among the first of extra early varieties. Among
the late varieties the Delaware stands among the
first.
Digging, There are many kinds of implements used in

storing digging potatoes, ranging from the spading fork to

the combined digger and picker. See III. 12. The
common plow% however, is generally used. The

POTATO GROWING.

133

potato-digging attachment for the drill plow (see
III. ij) works fairly satisfactor}^ Potatoes will
keep much better during the winter if, after digging,
they are pitted in the field for ten days, that they
may sweat; cover the pit with straw and a light
covering of earth. The straw prevents the earth
from mixing with the potatoes. Store for the
winter, and ventilate according to the directions
given for the mangel-wurzels. Potatoes pitted
during the winter are usually firmer and of better
quality in the spring than those stored in cellars.

EARLTKST SIX WEEKS POTATOES.

CHAPTER XV.

Rape for Fodder.

F"idrn*'of **"* Dwarf Essex Rape is a succulent fodder plant
Rape. that should be grown more extensively in this

country than it is, as it grows luxuriantly and is of
great value for fodder. An ordinary crop will yield
over twenty tons per acre of a most nutritious food.
By sowing, say, half an acre or more early in May, it
will be ready in July for the lambs at weaning time,
and also for young growing pigs, and can either be
fed on the land or hauled to the stables. The
general crop should be sown from the 20th of June
to the 1st of July. The same preparation of the soil
is required as that necessary for a root crop. Rape
grows to the greatest perfection when sown in drills
the same as turnips. The drills should be twenty-
five inches apart. Two pounds of seed per acre will
be found sufficient. The cultivation is similar to
that of turnips, excepting that hand-hoeing is not
necessary. Rape can be grown successfully as a
catch crop after early potatoes or grain are harvested.
All animals do well when fed a daily ration of rape
during the fall, but it is objected to for milch cows
because of the taint given the milk. In order to
keep rape for early winter feeding it should be cut
about the 20th of November with an ordinary
scythe and forked into small heaps, and hauled to
the stable as required. When frozen, leave in the
stable to thaw out before feeding.

CHAPTER XVI.
Corn for Silage.
In the preparation of land for corn we must take Preparing the

t^ t' , . , . . Land for Corn.

into consideration that this plant is, to a certain
extent, semi-tropical, and is better adapted to a
warmer climate than ours. However, by preparing
the soil with a \'iew to keeping it warm during the
growing season, we may expect good results. In
the first place, the land (well-rotted clover sod) must
be either naturally or artificially drained, and
thoroughly cultivated and manured the preceding
fall, and ribbed the same as for roots. If the land
was manured in the winter it will be necessar\' first
in the spring to gang plow it shallow, say three or
four inches deep, so as to incorporate the manure
with the surface soil. Then harrow and cultivate
thoroughly before sowing it; if a clay subsoil, loosen
not less than ten inches deep. Then harrow and
cultivate until the land is in fine tilth.

In Central and Northern Ontario, as a rule, the Time and
best results are obtained by sowing silage corn the com to Grow
last week in May. There are many varieties to °' '*^^'
choose from. When making a selection, every farmer
will have to be governed according to soil and
locality. In Southern Ontario a later and larger
variety can be grown than is possible further north.
It is useless to grow a variety for silage which will
not be in a firm, dough state by the 15th or 20th
of September. The flint varieties are invariably
earlier than the dent varieties. For Northern Ontario
I would name North Dakota and Compton's Early,
both of which are flint varieties. The former is
white and the latter yellow. From the roots of these

136 rEnnie's agriculture.

(and most other flint varieties) grow up a number of
shoots. For Central Ontario larger and heavier
yielding varieties may be grown, viz.: Wisconsin
No. 7 White Dent, Leaming, and White Cap
Yellow Dent. These, being dent varieties, do not
throw up any shoots. Under favorable circum-
stances they will yield from 15 to 20 tons per acre.
One-fifth of the weight will be ears, while the bulk
yield of the flint varieties named is rather less in
the total than the dent varieties. The proportion
of ears is about the same. For cutting and feeding
green the sweet varieties are considered preferable.

67. HAND CORN PLANTER.

Mammoth Sweet is one of the heaviest yielders and
is of fair quality.
Sowing and There are several methods of sowing or planting

Corn. corn, each of which has advantages under certain

conditions. If the land has not been thoroughly
cleaned of weeds and weed seeds the previous fall
it is advisable to plant in hills, so that the land can
be cultivated both ways. This can be done by the
use of a corn marker, marking both ways. Drop
four or five kernels in each cross, either by hand
or with a hand planter. See III. 6j, The American
check row planter is expensive, but does the work
most satisfactorily. When planting in hills forty

■

1

1

1

138 Rl^NNIE'S AGRICULTURE.

inches apart, about fifteen pounds of seed per acre
is sufficient. When the land is fairly free from weeds
and weed seeds, corn can be sown with an ordinary
grain seed-drill {see III. j6), stopping all the spouts
but two, leaving six spaces (forty-two inches)
between the rows of corn. A drill with an odd
number of spouts, say eleven or thirteen, is pre-
ferable, as the teamster will not be so liable to make

69. CORN CULTIVATOR.

a mistake. A careful driver should make the drills
perfectly straight and even and sow twelve acres
per day. Tw^enty pounds of seed com per acre
is sufficient. As soon as sown the land should be
crossed with a light harrow or a Breed weeder, then
on the angle and again across, until the corn is up.
After this use the weeder lengthwise, covering two
drills at a time, raising the two teeth in line with

I

CORN FOR SILAGE.

each row of corn (as before described). When the
corn is a few inches high, start the two-horse com
cultivator. See III. 6g. Use the narrow point first,
so as to loosen the soil several inches deep. This is

70. CORN HOE.

139

r

followed with the Breed weeder to make a fine
tilth, kill weeds, and assist the bacteria to act on the
humus and make it available for plant food. Com,
being a gross feeder, requires a large amount of
soluble food, which can only be prepared by thorough

71. CORN' PL.\TFORM.

cultivation. The weeder and the two-horse corn
cultivator should be used alternately until the com
is too high to work over. Then it becomes necessary
to use a one-horse hoe or scuffler {see III. 6j), which
should be continued until the com is about six feet
high. After this a cultivator with harrow teeth is

140

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

When and How
to Harvest
Corn.

all that is required to pulverize the .surface. See III. 14.
All cultivation may cease after the corn is in tassel.
The time to harvest corn for silage is when it is
in the firm, dough state. Until recent years most of
the corn was cut either with the reaping hook or
corn hoe. See III. jo. On account of the scar-

12. CORN CUTTING AND SII.O.

city of labor these methods have been almost dis-
carded. At the present time the most common
implement is the corn harvester. See III. /j. With
this implement a man and team can cut and bind
in bundles six acres per day. Whether or not the
corn should be taken to the silo immediately after
being cut depends on its condition. If rather green
and full of juice it is better to lie on the ground after

142 Ronnie's agriculture.

being cut for half a day or more to wilt; otherwise
the silage will be sour. Com to be put in the bottom
of a silo should be nearly matured. If the corn gets
frozen, the sooner it is put into the silo the better.
If it becomes over-dry, water may be added after
the silo is about half filled. A low platform,
attached to an ordinary waggon, is what is required
for hauling corn to the cutter at silo. See III. yi.
There are several types of silage cutters, any of
which will be found satisfactory. The self-feeding
table is an advantage, and the blower is an improve-
ment over the carriers, although it requires more
power. To elevate from eight to ten tons per hour,
thirty feet high, requires an engine of not less than
twelve horse power. See III. 72. The most suitable
length to cut corn for silage is a debated question,
but it is generally conceded that a half-inch cut is
about right.
Corn and other j^ addition to com, which is preferable to all

Silage Crops. ' ^

other fodder crops for silage, are the clovers, which
make a good quality of silage. Clover is specially
adapted to feed with corn and other carbonaceous
foods. Alfalfa gives the largest yield of any of the
clovers, and being a perennial, it can be cut in
succession for a number of years. Alfalfa and
orchard grass, or brome grass, make a better
balanced ration than any individual plant (including
corn), and being perennial, they will stand for years,
and give an abundance of succulent food without
any expense for cultivation, except a top dressing
every winter with good farm manure. The time
to cut and put in the silo is when the clover is in
bloom. The first cutting of alfalfa and orchard
grass or brome grass is usually heavy and difficult
to cure for hay, but it can be put into the silo as
soon as cut (and partially dry) to prevent clogging

CORN FOR SILAGE.

143

74. ROUND STAVE SILO.

144 rEnnie;'s agriculture.

in the blower pipe. The second and third cuttings
can be cured for hay or pastured, but not too close.

The silo is no longer an experiment. In those
sections of the country where corn cannot be grown
successfully, every farmer should build a silo and
fill it with some green crop adapted for his section,
say peas and oats mixed and cut green. This will
make an excellent quality of silage for winter
feeding.

In filling a silo with corn or any other fodder
crop, care should be taken to keep the surface level
and well tramped, particularly around the sides,
as this will assist in excluding the air. After fer-
mentation commences the silage will settle rapidly.
As soon as the silo is filled — or say, all that is to be
put in at that time — scatter salt over the top, then
cover with five or six inches of chafiF or cut straw,
and sow over it barley or oats. Water every day
for a few days, and tramp thoroughly over the
surface, especially on the sides. The grain will soon
grow and make a close air-tight covering which will
prevent the silage from spoiling. A cloth saturated
with any cheap oil, or paint, makes a good covering,
but the cloth will not last more than two or three
years.

It requires five or six weeks for silage to cure and

be ready for feeding. In the meantime it is well to

have sufficient corn shocked, either in the bam or

outside, to cut daily as required for feeding.

Construction of There are several styles of silos in use. To

Silos. -^

decide which is preferable will depend to a certam
extent upon circumstances. The round, wood stave
silo {see III. 74) has certain advantages. It is simple
in construction, and is the cheapest. The cost will
be about seventy-five cents per ton — that is, a silo
of one hundred tons capacity, will cost about

CORN FOR SILAGE. 145

seventy-five dollars. Most farmers will have no
difficulty in constructing a round stave silo. The
staves are cut generally two by six inches, the length
varying according to the height of the silo. For a
thirty-foot silo, use staves sixteen and fourteen feet
long, joined altei:nately, so that the joints will not
be opposite each other. The joints are made by
sawing a groove in the ends and fitting in a piece
of hoop iron. It is advisable to have a cement
floor in the silo. The hoops may be made of heavy
band iron (or three-quarter inch round), each hoop
in two sections, arranged so that they can be tight-
ened or loosened as required. In making connec-
tions, use a block of wood or casting. See III. J4.
Openings eighteen by twenty-four inches each,
three feet apart, can be cut after the silo is built, to
throw out the silage. Cut in a slant, so that they
will fit closely. The first door should be near the
bottom. A number of half -inch holes may be bored
to allow the surplus moisture to escape. The stave
silo has the advantage of being portable, so that a
farmer on a rented farm can take it with him at the
expiration of his lease.

The stave silo, where permanently located, can
be improved ver>' materially by bricking it up inside
fom" inches thick, the same as wells are bricked, and
plastering inside with cement. This makes the silo
air-tight and frost-proof, which are two very im-
portant factors necessary to secure and maintain a
good quality of silage.

For a silo that is durable and satisfactory in
every respect, the cement silo can be recommended.
See III. 72. As a rule these are built round. Iron
rods can be built in the walls to bind the structure
together, so that an opening can be left from top to
bottom, instead of using doors through which to

146 rennie's agriculture.

get the silage. These openings, eighteen inches
wide, are closed when the silo is being filled by
setting in inch boards, ten or twelve inches wide,
with an overlap to break the joints. Set them
against cleats nailed to the frame of opening, two
inches back from the inside face of the wall, so that,
when set in place, the boards are even w4th the wall.
These boards are set in as the silo is filled, and taken
out and tacked about four feet above as the silage
is taken out from the top. This is a very convenient
way of getting the silage out. There is an advantage
in a long silo, so that a partition can be built across
in order to make two compartments, one of which is
about double the size of the other. The silage of
the large compartment can be for winter feeding,
and the smaller for summer use. It does not require
a mechanic to build a cement silo. It is scarcely
necessary to give details in this work, as the manu-
facturers of cement supply full instructions to their
customers how to construct silos and other farm
buildings. The cost of building a cement silo is
from one dollar and a quarter to one and a half per
ton capacity.

When building a cement silo the walls may be
filled with field stones, which will lessen the cost
very materially, but the stones must be kept two
inches from the sides of the silo, otherwise the silage
next the stone is liable to be injured and the wall is
weakened.

In estimating the capacity of a silo, allow forty
pounds per cubic foot for a silo twenty-five feet
deep, and forty-five pounds for a silo thirty feet
deep.

In taking out silage, commence at the top and
keep the surface level. A heavy rake is the most
suitable tool for the purpose.

1

CORN FOR SILAGE.

147

The amount of silage to winter full-grown
animals is about four tons each, in addition to other
fodder.

Some are under the impression that corn shocked
in the field and cut or shredded as required is equal
in feeding value to silage, and according to analysis
there is little difference, except that there is less
water in the dn,- com; but in practical experiments
in feeding there is a ver\' great difference in favor
of silage.

YELLOW DENT CORN.

CHAPTER XVII.
Fall Cultivation.

Fall Cultivation Having given the cultivation, harvesting and
Hoi Crops. storing of the hoe crops grown on No. 3 section in
the rotation for mixed farming, it will now be in
order to give the fall cultivation of the land after
corn and roots, which is to be followed by spring
grain.

If the corn land is free from weeds, all that is
required is to rib the land with the drill plow or the
ribbing attachment on the frame of a cultivator, as
shown in previous illustrations, making the ribs
twenty or twenty-one inches wide, so that there will
be a row of corn roots in each alternate rib.

If the land is not perfectly free from weeds, the
land may be cultivated across with a stiff-tooth
cultivator to turn out the corn roots, so that the
land may be harrowed and cultivated with the wide
points, then ribbed, so as to put all the corn roots
and surface soil in the centre of the narrow ribs.

By so doing the soluble fertility is prevented
from leaching away during the winter, as the rains
and melting snows will run off in the furrows without
carrying away any of the humus.

Another advantage is that this allows the frost
into the subsoil to loosen it. I^and ribbed in the fall
will dry out much earher in the spring, and will
make a much better seed-bed.

Root land cannot always be cultivated in fall,
on account of the tops. Especially is this true of
turnip land. If there should be an occasional thistle
or any other weed, it may be cut off with a hoe or
spud; but, if at all possible, cultivate all root land
with the wide point before ribbing in the fall.

FALL CULTIVATION. 149

The month of September is a specially good time
to cut off all perennial weeds below the surface. By
so doing the top is prevented from nourishing the
root, and the next growth will be destroyed by the
frost. This severe drain on the roots will weaken
them, and a hea\'y crop of grain or clover the follow-
ing season will be comparatively free from weeds.

All root land should be ribbed (not plowed) in
the fall, about twenty inches in width, and across
the turnip drills,* so as to incorporate the tops evenly
with the surface soil. Run furrows (with the
double mould-board plow) in the low portions to
carry off the surface water. Land which is ribbed
will keep much drier than land which is plowed in
ridges of, say, fourteen feet wide. Besides the follow-
ing crop will be much more abundant, as it will be
more uniform.

When root or com land is plowed in the fall the
following crop will frequently be lodged in the
centre of the ridge, where a double portion of
vegetable matter has been gathered, and in the
furrows where the vegetable matter has been turned
off there will not be half a crop. These are facts
which are within the experience of every farmer.

When and How
to Sow Spring
Grain, Clover
and Grass
Seed.

Seeding and
Care of
Meadow and
Pasture Lands.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Cultivation for Spring Crops.

See Diagram 54, page 102.

We will now deal with No. 4 section of the
farm plan, which is all for grain.

Spring grains follow the hoe crdps, corn and
roots, which received all the manure made on the
farm the year previous. This has been kept on the
surface along with the rotted clover sod from the
previous fall, and gives us two or three inches of
available plant food of the very best kind, suitable
to grow an abundant crop of grain and clover.

The fall wheat was sown the previous fall, after
peas, and seeded with timothy at the same time the
wheat was sown; the red clover and alsike being
sown in the spring, with a grass seed sower (III. 52),
at the rate of seven pounds red clover and three
pounds alsike per acre.

As soon as the land is dry, cross-harrow the fall
wheat to break up and pulverize the crust that has
been formed by the melting snows and spring rains.
This will improve the wheat and insure a catch of
clover.

Spring wheat and oats should be sown as early
as possible in the spring, following corn and roots.

The ribs that were made up in the fall are first
harrowed and cultivated down. If the subsoil is
clay it should be loosened nine or ten inches deep
with the stiff-tooth subsoiler, using three or four
horses. Again harrow to a fine tilth. Then sow
the wheat or oats with a grain drill at the rate of
one and a quarter bushels per acre of good sound
grain. The seed should be treated for smut in

I

^^~ rennie's agriculture.

exactly the same way as that described for fall
wheat on page 110. Clover and grass seed should
be sown at the same time, in the following propor-
tions : Seven pounds red clover, there pounds alsike,
and four pounds timothy. Sow these in front of the
grain spouts, so that the seeds will be sown on the
surface and the grain spouts will throw the seed
between the rows of grain, where they will not be
liable to be choked out. After the grain is sown,
harrow across with a lever harrow {see III. yd) or
Breed's weeder, to smooth the surface. Do not roll
until the land is thoroughly dry, even if by that time

76. LEVER HARROW.

the grain is three or four inches high. The roller
will then pulverize the lumps of earth without
making a smooth surface, which would encourage
evaporation of the moisture in the soil.

For the best results it is not only necessary to
cultivate the soil on scientific principles, but it is also
equally necessary to sow selected grain from a
variety that will give the largest yield, and that of
a good quality.

While barley requires to be sown early in the
spring for best results, it will not stand so much
cold and wet as spring wheat and oats. It is advis-
able, therefore, to sow the latter first and the barley
later.

CULTIV^ATIOX FOR SPRING CROPS.

153

The land is prepared for barley the same as for
wheat and oats, viz., by harrowing and cultivating
down the narrow ribs made in the fall. While it is
necessary to loosen the subsoil for other crops, it is
more so for barley, as this crop will very soon turn
yellow in cold, wet soil. Sow with a grain drill at

n. HAY TEDDER.

the rate of one and a half bushels per acre of the
heaviest yielding variety known.

Barley ground should be also seeded with the
same mixture as wheat and oats, so that the whole
section (No. 4) will be in grass the following year.

While it improves the quality of barley to cover
the shocks with caps at harvest time, it is a question
whether or not it pays to do so; but the same caps
may be used for the clover, and this is a great ad-
vantage in a wet season.

154 kRNNlU's AGRICULTURE.

As soon as the grain crops are harvested, and
before the stubbles are horse-raked, if there should
be any portion of the clover and timothy rather
thin through the grain lodging, or from any other
cause, it is advisable to scatter seed over these places
by hand, or with a grass seeder. By fall these parts
will have made sufficient growth to stand the winter,
and thus a uniform crop will be assured the following
season.

The following year No. 1 section (see Diagram 54)
will be in hay or pasture, as desired. If the soil is
in proper condition it will require no attention
further than to keep all live stock off it. In the
early spring, until the land is dry and the clover has
made a good growth, harrowing meadows and
, pastures in the spring, with a chain harrow, will

improve them. See III. 4. This pulverizes and
smooths the surface, and consequently hastens
vegetation.

In deciding on a mixture of grass seed, the first
thing to consider is the soil and purpose for which
it is required. For hay it is necessary to sow a
mixture which will mature at the same time. For
pasture, although it is not absolutely necessary, it
is preferable to sow varieties that mature at different
times during the summer.

In a rotation where the crop will be required
both for meadow and pasture, and where the land
varies so that some portions are dry while other parts
are wet, the mixture recommended previously will
give general satisfaction — that is, seven pounds red
clover, three pounds alsike, and four pounds timothy
per acre.

The first crop will be nearly all red clover where
the land is dry. The wet portions will yield only
alsike and timothy. The second year the crop will

CULTIVATION Kt)R SPRING CROPS.

155

be nearly all alsike and timothy, as the red clover is
a biennial, while the alstke and timothy are peren-
nials. Although it is not always necessary to mix
any of the grasses with the clovers, it is always ad-
visable to sow clovers with grasses. The latter are
nitrogen feeders, and must have nitrogen in the
soil, otherwise they will become sickly. It is well
known that timothy sown without red clover will
soon die out, whereas, if sown with red clover, it
will grow luxuriantly for several years after the
clover has died out.

As a fertilizer our common red clover is a most clover a Fer-
valuable plant. It collects the free nitrogen from e/and Flesh
the air and deposits it in the roots near the surface ^*"™*'^-
of the soil, through the bacteria of nitrification.
The tap roots strike deep into the subsoil and bring
up soluble mineral matter sufficient to develop the
plant, and this is made available to feed other crops.
Thus, by growing clover in a short rotation of crops,
the fertility of the soil can be maintained. Again,
the clover roots perforating the subsoil and decaying
there leave the subsoil more porous than it can be
made with any implement.

According to analysis clover hay, when properly
cured, is worth considerably more than any other
hay for feeding live stock of all kinds, including
horses and pigs. It is the best flesh former and
strength giver. It improves and balances the other
rations, so that there will be less waste when feeding
concentrated food.

The curing of clover is an important matter. It
should be cut when coming into full bloom, and
shaken out with a hay tedder (///. 77) soon after
being cut. When it is sufficiently dry, rake it into
wind-row^s and put into ricks. All that was cut in
the forenoon might thus be put up in the afternoon,

Ctuing Clover
Hay.

156

rennie's agriculture.

Growing
Clover for
Seed — Harvest-
ing and
Threshing.

or more, if the weather is hot and dry. The proper
place to cure both red clover and alfalfa is in the
rick. Hay caps (see III. 78) are very little used in
this country on account of the expense. They cost
about forty cents each.

The Province of Ontario is especially adapted
to the growing of both red clover and alsike for seed,
and an immense quantity is exported to Great
Britain and Europe annually. The seed from alsike
matures in the first growth. It is fertilized by the

78. HAY CAP.

honey bees distributing the pollen as soon as it comes
into bloom, also by the wind scattering the pollen
from the stamen to the pistil flowers.

For the best success in raising alsike seed it is
advisable that a few colonies of bees be kept in the
neighborhood, and then with the wind and bees it
may reasonably be expected that the clover bloom
will be well fertilized, and without fertilization there
can be no seed. It is a most important consideration
in growing alsike clover for seed to have it free from
weed seeds. "The Seed Control Act" passed by

CULTIVATION FOR SPRING CROPS. 157

Parliament in 1905 makes this absolutely necessary.
Ever\^ farmer who intends to grow alsike and red
clover for seed must first clean his farm of weeds.
This can be accompUshed by proper cultivation.
Plow the beginning of August about four inches
deep, then roll and harrow twice to form a mulch.
In about two weeks cultivate 3 inches deep; then
harrow; again roll and harrow to make a fine tilth
to encourage all the seeds in the soil to germinate,
Ever}^ two weeks cultivate with wide points, and
harrow alternately until October; then spread eight
or ten loads of well-rotted farm manure (free from
weed seeds) per acre. Rib the field as described
after a hoe crop.

In the spring, level the ribs down with a harrow
and cultivator, then drill in either oats or spring
wheat, one and a quarter, or barley, one and a half
bushels, per acre. Sow in front of the grain spouts
ten pounds of pure alsike clover seed per acre,
entirely free from weed seeds (even timothy seed).

The same treatment applies to red clover, which
should be sown at the rate of twelve pounds per
acre, also free from weed seeds. In the care of
clover, however, the ordinary jnixture of red clover,
alsike and timothy may be sown, and the first growth
cut for hay, while the second growth of red clover
can be kept for seed. The seed from red clover is
matured in the second growth, on account of the
fertilization being done by the young bumble bees,
which are not sufficiently developed for the first
growth of red clover, as they are all hatched in the
spring. (Only the queen biunble bees live through
the winter.)

To get the largest yield and the best quality of
red clover seed the first growth should be cut for
hay early in Jime, when the first clover heads appear.

CULTIVATION FOR SPRING CROPS.

159

This is necessary- in order to escape the red clover
midge, which has proved so disastrous to the raising
of red clover seed in most parts of Ontario for several
years. The larvae from the first brood of the midge
is deposited in the clover heads immediately they
appear and before the bloom shows (when the midge
are numerous very^ little bloom ever appears).
When the clover is cut at this time and cured for
hay most of the lar\'ae are destroyed, and, even if
any survive, the second growth of clover will be in

80. SELF-RAKE REAPER.

full bloom before the second brood of midge are de-
veloped. Occasionally we get a good crop of red
clover seed by cutting the first crop late — say July,
so that the second growth of clover will bloom
between the second and third broods of midge; but
this is uncertain, and has not nearly the same ad-
vantage as is gained by destroying the midge by
cutting early.

If the first growth has been pastured, the cattle
should be taken off by the 10th of June and the land

160

KENNIES AGRICULTURE.

gone over with a mowing machine (see III. yg) to
cut off any weeds, and also to give the clover an
equal start.

It is worthy of note that a heavy growth of clover
will check the growth of weeds and materially assist
in cleaning the land.

81. MOWER WITH CLOVER SEED ATTACHMENT.

Cutting clover for seed, both red and alsike, is
usually done with the ordinary mowing machine and
two men following to bunch, with the back of three-
pronged forks, putting the bunch aside to clear
the horses and machine. A second method is the
old self -rake reaper. See III. 80. With this
machine the clover is bunched and put aside without
any help.

A third method of cutting clover for seed is to

CULTIVATION FOR SPRING CROPS.

use the mowing machine, with a platform fastened
behind on which the clover drops. See III. 8i. A
man puts it off in bunches, using a fork or rake.

A fourth method is in using the pea-harvester
attached to an ordinary mowing machine. See
III. 57.

161

^2. HORSE RAKE.

The bunches in either method require to be
turned over occasionally so that the clover may dr^^
quickly and thoroughly. This work should be done
carefully, othenvise the best seed will be lost. The
crop should remain out a week or ten days after
being cut, or until it is sufficiently dry to be put into
the bam or threshed. The best quality of clover
seed, both alsike and red, is got by threshing it as
taken from the field.

The ciu-ing of timothy hay is, as a rule, an easier Cunng of^
matter than curing clover. The very best quahty
of hay is made by putting up in ricks and allowing it
to stand a few days, but this is not always necessary.

Timothy Hay.

162

re;nnie; s agricuIvTure;,

If the weather is dry and warm, shake out with the
tedder {see III. 77) soon after it is cut, and rake it
into wind-rows with a horse rake (///. 82). If the
weather is favorable timothy hay may be sufficiently
dry the day it is cut to be taken into the barn. It
is loaded on the waggon either with forks or with a
hay loader. See III. 8j. In conjunction with the
hay loader is the side delivery rake.

These are two great labor-saving implements for
handling hay. The rake turns the hay and leaves
it loose to dry out and in the best shape for the
loader to handle it.

A HEAVY CROP OF GOLDEN VINE PEAS.

CHAPTER XIX.

Alfalfa Clover.

Alfalfa is one of the most profitable crops that ^||^*gj*^
a farmer can grow. It is destined to revolutionize Quality,
farming in this country, being the great flesh-forming
and milk-producing plant. It is indispensable for
arriving at the best results in feeding animals, es-
pecially dairy cows and hogs. It gives the earliest

83. HAY LO.ADER.

and best quality of feed in the spring. It will keep
green and continue to grow during the driest
weather until autumn, supplying an abundance of
the most nutritious and succulent food during the
whole summer. As a fertiUzer it is the most valuable
crop known to science. Being a leguminous plant,
it is a collector of nitrogen, and on account of its
luxuriant growth all summer it collects a very large

164 rennie's agriculture.

amount of this. Furthermore, the roots penetrate
the soil several feet and act on the subsoil, bringing
mineral matter to the surface that would never be
reached by any other plant. When alfalfa is plowed
up and the roots decay the whole subsoil is per-
forated, so that the air and water have free access
to the same. Because of all this alfalfa is the
greatest of soil renovators. It has the advantage of
being a perennial, so that if the conditions are favor-
able it will produce three crops each season for many
years, and of the most nutritious kind, for all
animals. According to analysis this food is nearly
equal to bran in nutritive value. For convenience
in feeding green during the summer to horses,
cattle, pigs, etc., it is advisable to select a few acres
near the stables. See page 102.

The writer has had considerable experience in
growing and feeding this highly profitable fodder
crop, and the following explanation of his cultiva-
tion, if carefully followed, will lead to the successful
growing of this clover in any part of Canada where
red clover can be grown. If the land has not been
prepared the previous fall according to directions
for early crops, it may be prepared in the spring in
time to sow alfalfa seed. Plow shallow, roll and
harrow; in ten days cultivate and harrow. If the
soil is clay, loosen ten inches deep with a subsoil
plow or the stiff-tooth subsoiler. Again harrow;
then spread on the surface fifteen or twenty loads of
well rotted farmyard manure per acre; after which
cultivate and harrow until the manure is thoroughly
incorporated with the soil. Then sow fifteen pounds
of alfalfa seed to the acre with a grass seed sower
(///. 52). Sow at the beginning of June (without
any grain), also sow by hand five pounds of orchard
grass seed per acre. Then give one stroke with the
harrow or Breed's weeder.

i

ALFALFA CLOVER.

The orchard grass and alfalfa are both rapid
growers, and when mixed make a better balanced
ration, especially for horses and cattle.

165

(Treated) fUntreated i

84. ALFALFA CUtVER.

INCREASED RETURNS BY USE OF XITRO-CULTURE.

The first crop will be ready to cut in about two
months. Do not cut or pasture late in the fall.

After the first season it can be cut three times
for hay and four or five times for green feed. As
both alfalfa and orchard grass are perennials, there
will be no cultivation required for years except a

166

RENNiE s agriculture;.

Inoculation of
Alfalfa Seed.

Alfalfa Adapted
to Hillsides.

Fertilization of
Alfalfa.

Alfalfa Meal.

coat of farm manure each winter when the land is
frozen, to make up for the vegetable matter that
has been taken off with the crop.

In some parts of Canada alfalfa has not been a
success, owing, it is believed, to the want of the
proper bacteria in the soil; but nitro-culture, with
full directions how to apply it, is now being sent out
by the agricultural colleges to all farmers who make
application for it.

After a farmer once gets a start he has simply
to take surface soil from an inoculated field (about
two hundred pounds per acre) and sow it over a
field prepared for seeding. In this way the whole
farm may be inoculated in due time.

The writer has, however, tried alfalfa in several
districts in Ontario, with abundant success, without
any nitro-culture, simply by preparing the soil in
the way previously explained, and sowing only when
the soil is warm. The best months are May, June
and July. The necessary bacteria cannot work in
cold soil. See III. 84.

Alfalfa is specially adapted to hillsides that are
liable to wash and difficult to cultivate. Such land
should be seeded with fifteen pounds alfalfa and five
pounds orchard grass per acre. This makes a good
mixture to cut for hay or for pasture. For best
results the first growth only should be cut for hay.
After this the field will provide abundance of good
pasture during the summer season, and this is pre-
ferable to cutting two or three crops in one season.

Alfalfa is fertilized by the honey bees the same
as alsike. Either the first or second growth of
alfalfa can be allowed to ripen for seed, but the
second growth is preferable.

Throughout Canada alfalfa meal has come to
be recognized as an important food for bringing

I

ALFALFA CLOVER.

167

cattle up to fine condition, especially show animals.
It is also being used with good results for the same
purpose in swine and poultn.'. This meal is made
from alfalfa and sugar-beet molasses, in the propor-
tion of seventy-five per cent, alfalfa and twenty-five
per cent, molasses. There are a number of factories
engaged in the manufacture of alfalfa meal. The
hay must be kiln-dried before it can be ground.
There is certainly nothing added to the alfalfa by
kiln-dr}dng and grinding, nor to the sugar-beets by
being manufactured into molasses, except that the
food is more concentrated. Equal results may be
obtained by cutting the alfalfa hay and mixing with
pulped sugar-beets, and at a fraction of the cost.

V < < X]

■

t ; ^%

1 _/^ -*'iil

m4

Portion of Root op Alfalfa Plant.

Showing the tubercles or nodules
formed by the nitrogen-gathering
legume bacteria.

CHAPTER XX.

Pasture and Soiling Crops.

Pa^ref* ^^ laying out a farm it is advisable to have a

field near the bam for pasture and soiling crops.
Eight acres, perhaps, are sufficient for permanent
pasture. Adjoining this, about six acres might be
seeded to alfalfa and orchard grass for cutting and
feeding green (soiling). High, dry- land is prefer-
able. Before seeding for permanent pasture the
land should be thoroughly cultivated, and, if neces-
sary, underdrained ; then manured and ribbed in
the fall, so that it will be in good shape for spring
cultivation, which should consist in harrowing and
cultivating the ribs down level. Then, with a grain
drill, sow barley at the rate of half a bushel per acre.
At the same time sow ahead of the grain spouts the
following mixture of grass seed: Alsike, three
pounds; white clover, one pound; timothy, three
pounds; blue grass, three pounds; red top, three
pounds; total, twenty pounds per acre. After
seeding, level off with a light harrow or Breed's
weeder.

When the barley is about a foot high cut it with
a mowing machine (not too close), and leave it on
the ground for a mulching.

About two acres of the pasture land should be
planted with maple trees (see Diagram 54), both for
the purpose of ornament and shelter for the cattle.
It is advisable not to seed this portion the first year,
as the trees will make more rapid growth by keeping
the land cultivated for another year. Mulch with
farm manure. The silver leaf maple is hardy, and
will make more rapid growiih than the hard sugar
maple. The former is desirable in this case, as it is

PASTURE AND SOILING CROPS. 169

wanted for shelter as soon as possible. It is ad-
\-isable to plant the trees about twenty-five feet
apart, so that the whole surface of the soil will be
shaded and kept cool in the summer.

In addition to alfalfa and red clover for soiling, Additional
other crops may be grown for summer feeding while *" "*^ '°**^'
green, as a succulent food. It is essential to have a
sufficient supply of green food in order to get the best
results from all animals, including pigs, lambs,
calves, and especialh' milch cows. Peas and oats
and vetches and oats make an excellent mixture.
Fifty pounds of peas or vetches and thirty pounds of
oats (eighty pounds in all) should be sown to the
acre.

Sow one or two acres early in spring and a second
sowing three or four weeks later. If this is more
than is required for feeding green it can be cured for
winter feeding.

Near the end of ^la}" one or two acres of sweet
com can be sown, and kept thoroughly cultivated
for the same purposes. This should yield fifteen
tons per acre of a succulent food of the best quality.

Dwarf Essex rape is also a desirable soiling crop.
One or two acres of this may be sown beginning of
June in drills twenty-six inches ^vide, and thoroughl}'
cultivated. All animals are ver\' fond of rape, and
when mixed with other foods it gives the best results.
All soiling crops should be grown convenient to the
stables. For sheep, calves and pigs it is advisable
to have a separate permanent pasture near the bam.
See Diagram 54. For shelter, pigs require, in
addition to a group of maple trees, a building to go
into at will.

CHAPTER XXI.
Three Year Rotation.
Three Years' Having fullv explained a four years' rotation of

Rotation of i>j,i t-.- ,.,

Crops. crops, according to the Dtagram 54, which, with

certain variations, may be adopted on many farms
in this country with success, it will now be in order
to explain briefly the advantages and disadvantages
of a three years' rotation. For this purpose divide
the farm proper (that which is under cultivation)
into three sections. Omit the second section of the
four years' rotation {Diagram, page 102).

Cultivate as follows: One section in red clover,
for hay and pasture. This is plowed in August,
rolled, harrowed and cultivated at intervals until
October, according to various directions, then
manured and ribbed. This is followed with a hoe
crop and peas, then with a grain crop, again seeding
with clover.

This system is desirable when only a limited
number of cattle are kept in the summer, the object
being to feed cattle and lambs during the winter for
export or home consumption.

The advantages of this system are, first, the in-
creasing and maintaining of soil fertility by plowing
under the second growth of clover every third year,
and feeding all the roots, corn, fodder and coarse
grains. Secondly, the labor on the farm is more
evenly distributed throughout the year by this
system.

With a disconnected or outlying portion of land
it may not be convenient to manure and cultivate
in the regular rotation.

A three years' rotation may be followed by
leaving out the hoe crops and farm manure and

THIUSE YEAR ROTATION. 171

having two sections grass, hay or pasture, and the
third section grain, seeding with the regular mixture
mentioned in the four years' rotation.

The section that has been in grass for two years
is plowed in August and thoroughly harrowed and
cultivated alternately until October; then ribbed
and sown with grain the following spring, and again
seeded.

With this system soil fertility can be maintained
without applying manure.

In any rotation land should not remain in grass
longer than two years, on account of wire worms
and other insects multiplying and so injuring the
following crops.

Land intended for pasture only should be reno-
vated every few years by plowing in August, and in
order to destroy the wire worms which are almost
certain to be in the soil.

Harrow and cultivate alternately and continu-
ously until the winter, say November. The object
is, first to rot the sod, and second, to rid the ground of
wire worms by disturbing them late in the fall or
beginning of winter, so that they may be frozen and
destroyed. Seed again in the spring with the
pasture mixture of clover and grass seed mentioned
on page 168, seeding with any kind of spring grain
(barley preferred) sown according to prexnous
directions.

Fencing.

Few Cross
Fences.

Cross Fences
under Certain
Conditions.

Portable
Woven Wire
Fences.

Convenient
Portable Fence.

CHAPTER XXII.

Fencing.

Careful attention should be paid to the fencing
of the farm. The outside or boundary fence re-
quires to be a substantial structure so that it will
turn any animal ; at the same time it should not be
unnecessarily expensive.

Sectional or cross fences should be dispensed
with as far as possible, as the work of erecting and
maintaining these is expensive, and they are, more-
over, harbors for weeds. Even on a stock farm it
is not necessary to have more sectional fences than
are shown on the diagram of a farm laid out for a
four years' rotation of crops (///. 54, page 102),
which is the longest course advisable in order to
maintain the fertility of the soil.

In a three years' rotation, fewer sectional fences
are required, and where few animals are kept during
the summer all the inside or cross fences may be
dispensed with except those around the orchard,
lawn or private grounds, and that enclosing a small
field of permanent grass near the barn, to be used
for pasturage and cutting for green feed.

There are many styles of portable woven wire
fences offered for sale, several of which are cheap
and efficient. A good portable fence which is being
introduced into many sections of the country with
entire satisfaction is constructed by using one of
the many styles of woven wire fencing that are being
manufactured and sent out in rolls, each being from
twenty to forty rods in length.

The posts used should be about four inches in
diameter and seven feet long, with one end sharpened
to a point. Hardwood is preferable for this purpose.

FENCING. 173

The posts and wire may be drawn to the field on
a waggon. Holes should be made in the ground
about eighteen or twenty inches deep (with a round
iron bar sharpened at one end) in line with the
stakes that have previously been set for the fence.
Then take a post, and, inserting the sharpened
point, drive it down about two feet with a maul
or sledge while standing on the waggon; then drive
to the position for the next post, about thirty feet
off, and repeat the operation. A few minutes is all
the time required to set each post if the ground is
in a moist condition.

f

85. WIRE STRETCHER.

When the posts have all been set, unroll the Fasten woven

^ Wire to Posts.

woven wire, fasten it securel}- with staples to the
end post, and tighten with the stretcher shown in
III. 85, fastening the wire to each post with staples.

The woven wire costs from forty to sixty cents cost of
per rod, according to the style used. The posts
cost about fifteen cents each, or an additional eight
cents per rod.

A fence so constructed is easily removed. Simply Removing
draw out the staples and roll the wire on a barrel
to prevent it from being broken in handling; take
up the posts and put all under cover. This causes
the posts to dry hard and become much more
durable.

Portable Fence.

174

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Permanent
Woven Wire
Fences.

Prevent Posts
Decaying.

In the construction of permanent fences the
durabiUty of the posts is a very essential matter.
They should be of cedar, about six inches in diameter,
and long enough to be set about three or four feet in
the ground and extend about two inches above the
top wire of the fence. The portion which will be
underground should be dipped in lime-wash to pre-
vent rotting.

Posts should either be rounded on the top or
cut on a slant so that the rain will run off. They

49 INCH,

86. HORSE AND CATTLE FENCE.

Style and
Quality of
Fence.

Suitable Styles
for Different
Animals.

should also be painted on the top with some mineral
paint or cement wash.

The next consideration is the style of fence.
Woven wire is used more generally than any other.
Provided the wire is of good quality a fence made of
No. 9 wire, coiled spring steel, galvanized, will be
satisfactory. A fence made of this wire will expand
and contract with heat and cold without getting
out of shape, and will last for many years.

A suitable style of fence for horses and cattle is
shown in ///. 86, and for a hog, cattle and horse fence
see III. 8y. To prevent hogs from raising the fence
between the posts, fasten a wire to a piece of wood
about four inches in diameter and a foot long. Bury
this about twenty inches deep underneath the fence

FENCING.

and fasten the %\'ire that is attached to the centre
of block to the bottom wire of the fence. Place
these at such distances as are found to be necessary.

175

87. HOG, CATTLE AND HORSE FENCE.

For bracing or stretching wire in the construction
of woven wire fences, see ///. 88.

On hilly land there is a difficulty in constructing How to Fence

,. r . r r •' T^i- • L Hilly Land.

a satisfactory fence of woven ^vlre. Ihis can be

66. Bk.AClXG AND STRETCHIXG FENCE.

overcome to a certain extent by setting the posts
closer. A more satisfactor}' fence still can be made
by stretching the strands of wire independently and
putting the upright stays on either by hand or with

176 rennie's agriculture.

a machine made specially for the purpose shown in
• III. 89.
Ga^en'oates ^^^ sizes and styles of gates are now supplied by

the manufacturers of woven wire fences at reason -

89. LONDON FENCE MACHINE.

able prices. The frames are of wrought iron and
filled in with woven wire. They are both durable
and ornamental. ///. go.

BV

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90. WOVEN WIRE G.'VTE.

CHAPTER XXIII.
Care and Feeding of Live Stock.

It is estimated that eighty per cent, of the grain
grown in Ontario is fed on the farm. The grain
is the raw material; the stock, butter, cheese,
pouhry and eggs the finished product. It is im-
portant to produce the largest possible quantity of
grain per acre; it is equally important to see that
the best possible use is made of this grain in feeding
it.

The economic feeding of live stock is at the Economic

. . . , . Feeding.

present time receiving special attention at our ex-
periment stations, and during the past few years
much knowledge has been gained in the preparing
and balancing of foods for different animals, so that
rations may be composed of the proper constituents
and quantities most suitable for the desired objects
to be gained and at the minimum cost. With our
present knowledge we receive better results and at
much less cost than in former years.

The first object lesson we get from the "laws of J""*. .

J, . " Conditions.

nature is "June conditions." When the weather
is warm and the grass in a succulent condition the
best results are obtained from our animals, more
especially in milch cows.

Provision should therefore be made for a con-
tinuous supply of succulent food during the whole
year, both by carrying over a quantity of silage and
by growing soiling crops. Where alfalfa can be
grown successfully there will be no need of sowing
any other soiling crop for summer feeding. Where
alfalfa cannot be grown, a mixture of peas and oats,

178

RKNNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Autumn
Feeding.

sown at intervals, will give an abundance of succulent
food during the summer season.

In autumn, when the pastures are again green,
and with a supply of corn, the cows should, provided
they are kept comfortable, continue to give a full
supply of milk, even if fed little or no grain.

91. DEHORNING CATTLE.

Warm and
Comfortable.

No farmer can afford to have his animals exposed
to cold weather in the fall of the year. When the
weather becomes cold all animals should be com-
fortably housed, and not let out of doors except]
when the weather is warm, not even for exercise.
According to experiments, cattle do better when]

CARE AXD FEEDING OF LIVE STOCK.

179

kept in a warm and properly ventilated stable all
winter without being turned out of doors.

That the cattle mav receive dailv exercise inside Dehorning

Cattle.

it is necessar}^ to have them dehorned so that they
cannot injure each other. See TIL gi. Dehorning

YOrXG HOLSTEIV BULL.

has now become quite common throughout the
country. It makes the animals more docile and less
fretful; consequently they do very much better.
With the proper appliances, and an operator with
some nerve, the work is simple and expeditious.

180

REJNNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Exercising
Animals.

Water in
Stables.

Winter Feed.

Nutritive Value
of Fodder

Crops.

The horn should be cut off close to the head, other-
wise a nubbin of a horn will grow again.

With stables and stanchions arranged (as in plan
33), the animals can be turned loose with little
trouble. It is advisable to divide the cattle, when
loose, in groups of eight or ten each, with temporary
partitions between.

If there is no provision for a water supply a
tank should be kept filled in the stable, so that the
cold chill may be taken off the water by the heat
from the animals. By elevating the tank the water
can be carried to an}^ part of the stable with an iron
pipe or a hose.

The preparation of the food for cattle in winter
will have to be varied according to the supply on
hand. The first essential is clover hay, either alfalfa
or red clover. Clover is a flesh former, and gives
' strength to the animals. It improves and balances
the ration when mixed with other and more ^ con-
centrated foods. "' *

For economic feeding, corn silage is one of the
most profitable crops that a farmer can grow.
According to analysis, valuing alfalfa and red clover
hay at six dollars per ton, corn silage is worth two
dollars and fifty cents. Practical results depend
very much on the preparation of foods.

While dry fodder corn, according to analysis,
compares favorably with silage, yet in practical tests
there is considerable difference in favor of the silage.
While field roots are composed of from eighty-five
to ninety per cent, water, yet they are important in
the preparation of a succulent winter food. With
a supply of clover hay, straw and chaff, silage and
roots, prepared according to the following directions,
satisfactory results may be gained.

First, spread on the floor of the feed room a layer

I

i

182

Ri5NNiic's agriculture;.

Allow Several
Hours to
Moisten.

Quantities of
Mixture.

Alternative for
Deficiency.

Feeding Meal
in Mixture.

of cut clover and cut straw or chaff three or four
inches deep. Over this sprinkle a little salt, esti-
mating that each animal receive three quarters of an
ounce per day. Make the second layer of silage
about two inches deep; the third another layer of
cut clover and chaff, with another sprinkhng of salt ;
the fourth layer, pulped turnips, mangels, or sugar-
beets, about two inches deep; the above order to
be kept until the heap is about four feet high. The
pile should be tramped and kept perpendicular at
the edges. The size of the heap will of course vary
according to the number of animals to be fed.

It is advisable to prepare sufficient for a day,
and several hours ahead, so that the whole mass will
become quite moist by the liquid from the roots
soaking through the cut feed, and the fermentation
from the silage warming up the whole mass, making
it succulent like grass.

In preparing the mixture the following propor-
tions may be taken as a guide: Silage, twenty-five
pounds; roots, twenty pounds; cut clover and
chaff, fifteen pounds; total, sixty pounds. This
should be varied according to the capacity of the
animals.

As a substitute for clover hay, pea straw may
be used with satisfactory results, as this is also one
of the legumes. In case of a shortage of pulped
roots the cut feed may be moistened with water, and
in case of a shortage of silage, additional grain
should be fed. When feeding the above mixture
commence at one end, so that the quality will be
equal for each animal.

To get the best results from feeding grain it
should be ground and mixed with bran, and in case
of all the cattle getting grain it is advisable to put
the required amount on each layer 'of cut clover

CARE AND FEKDIXC, Oh' LIVE STOCK.

183

and chaff. Different animals require varA'ing quan-
tities of grain according to circumstances. In the
case of milch cows, for example, those that give
forty pounds of milk per day require more grain
than those giving half that amount.

This has much to do with the results. Cattle
should be fed early in the morning during the winter
season, say between five and six o'clock. The cows
should be milked, stables cleaned out and cattle
bedded and watered before breakfast. They should
be fed no more than thev will eat in an hour and a

How and When
to Feed.

IfR^i""-!^*'^- " -*."~--^-.*^ ' '^!^'-^^-^ft ^ ■ ^^^B

94. THE BLACK AXD WHITE CATTLE-

half. If any food be left over it should be cleaned
away. When animals are not disturbed after being
fed in the morning they will rest contented until
noon. Xo animal should be fed between meals.
For best results and health of animals this is im-
portant.

For cows giving milk the following ration will ^MiiTcows.
jive satisfactory results, and at a moderate cost:
the morning feed the above mixture, prepared
directed. If no ground meal and bran have
;en put in the mixture, scatter over the ration
f'hen in the manger ground grain and bran mixed,
fcwo pounds of the former and one of the latter. At

184

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Feeding Store
Cattle.

Exercise In-
doors.

Commercial
Foods.

Flesh Forming
Foods.

Kind Treat-
ment.

Results of
Abuse.

noon, clover hay and mangels (whole), without
grain. The evening ration the same as that of the
morning. The feeder must, of course, use judgment
in varying the amount of feed to suit the individual
requirements of each animal.

Young cattle and cows not in milk require onl}-
the prepared mixture in the morning, clover hay
at noon, and the mixture in the evening. Total
cost, about seven cents per day, according to cir-
cumstances. This is sufficient to keep them in
good growing and healthy condition.

It is understood that the animals are to be com-
fortably housed, and not turned out-of-doors in
cold weather, otherwise it will require more grain
to keep up the animal heat.

Good results can be obtained without commercial
foods. A limited quantity of oil-cake and cotton-
seed meal may be fed to milch cows and beefing
cattle to advantage, provided the cost is in propor-
tion to the nutritive value of other foods on the
farm.

For the health and development of young cattle
they should be given foods that will produce flesh,
bone and muscle, viz., clover, bran, roots, rape, etc.
Fattening foods tend to disease and stunted de-
velopment.

While every provision may be made for the
comfort of the animals, and the feeding done strictly
in accordance with the above directions, the animals
will not give adequate returns for the food consumed
unless they receive kind treatment. This is particu-
larly noticeable with milch cows, say in the month
of June.

When on pasture and giving a large quantity of
milk, if brought from the field hurriedly by a dog, or
a person on horseback, and milked while excited,

CARK AXn FEEDING OE LIVE STOCK.

185

Fly-oa.

the average results will be about half the usual quan-
tity. Some of the more nervous cows will not give
one-fourth the usual quantity of milk, and, accord-
ing to analysis, there is less butter fat in the milk.
Any farmer who will abuse his animals, or allow them
to be abused, had better go out of the business. He
cannot expect to get returns for the food consumed.

Cattle must be kept free from vermin during Preparation of
the winter. They should be treated with about
three applications of seal oil (fish oil) and crude
carbolic acid, mixed, one gallon of the former and
live tablespoonfuls of the carbolic acid. Apply by
either spraying or with an ordinary cattle brush,
rubbing the cattle over the body. For about three
months during the summer, when the horn fly is
annoying the cattle, apply the above mixture once a
week and the fly will not trouble them. Cattle
which have been treated for the horn fly in summer
with this preparation are not aff'ected with warbles
in winter.

In considering the comfort of the animals, a
consideration which is essential to success is pro-
tection from the hot summer sun. They may be
kept in the house during the heat of the day. This,
of course, is attended with some additional labor. ,
Such labor can be avoided by having several groups
of maple and other trees, a quarter of an acre or
more in extent, on rising portions of the farm. Trees
planted about twenty feet apart give excellent
shelter to the cattle, besides being ornamental. The
advantage of having the trees grouped is that the
sun cannot shine in to heat the ground, and when
on rising ground there is usually a current of fresh air.

Single trees scattered over a farm giv^e little
shelter, and standing in growing crops they are a
decided injury to the crop.

Shelter in
Summer.

Scattered

Trees

Objectionable.

CHAPTER XXIY.
Breeds of Cattle.

In addition to the feeding and care of animals
there is the question of the breed that will give the
best returns. This is a debatable question, par-
ticularly as regards milch cows.

95. TWO WHTTE-FACED BE.M'TIES.

Hoistein. The large black and white " Holstein " {see Ills. g2,

g4) is no doubt the largest producer of milk, although
as a rule this milk is not so rich in butter fat as that
of some of the other breeds. Yet there are in-
dividual animals of the Holstein breed that give
rich milk and that have made remarkable records.

188

RKXNIE S AGRICULTURE.

&

■VJjj. ■

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

189

These animals have excellent digestive organs, and
can make the best use of food. A delicate feeding
cow is not a profitable animal.

While the quantity of milk can be increased by
judicious feeding, the butter fat will remain in
about the same proportion, but the flavor and color
of the milk is changed materially by certain foods.
Pumpkins fed in fall will give a rich tint to the butter.

WTien cows are exposed to cold weather the
butter will be white in color, even though the food
is of the best. Milch cows should be kept housed
in the winter in a stable with the temperature at
about sixty degrees, milked at regular hours, and
by the same person.

In the selection of a milch cow, consider the
following points: First, the "wedge shape" of the
animal; a head fine and long; neck thin; large
square udder, not fleshy; barrel deep and round.
There are other signs, but all of them fail in some
animals, since the ancestors have much to do in
stamping the off spring. There are other things to
consider in developing a milker. One is to have
the heifer come in at two years of age and milk for
at least one year.

The most popular dairy cow in Scotland is the
"Ayrshire." See III. gj. The Ayrshire has the
typical wedge-shape of the dairy animal. The
horns have an upward curve, the shoulders are thin,
and the loins broad. The prevailing color is a red-
dish brown and white. The udder is large, and the
cows are particularly hardy. After milking for a
number of years, Ayrshires can be fattened better
than any of the other dairy breeds.

For a fancy cow, and for making "gilt edge"
butter, the Jersey or Guernsey (see III. g8) stand at
the head. While the Jersey does not give as large

Increasing
Production.

Effect of Cold.

Selecting a
Milch Cow.

Popular Dairy
Cows.

Fancy Butter
Cow.

190

REXNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Jersey Cow.

Beef Breeds
not for Milk.

Decide on
Breed Best
Adapted to
Circumstances.

a quantity of milk as the Holstein or Ayrshire, the
milk is as a rule richer in butter fat and superior in
quality. The butter is also more marley, and does
not get oily in warm weather like that from other
breeds. Both the butter and cream command high
prices.

As to shape, the Jersey has all the characteristics
of a dairy cow — the deep, well ribbed body, and
udder and escutcheon large, with large milk veins
running well forward. The favorite color is a
solid fawn.

The Guernsey is a larger animal, with the butter
quality of the Jersey.

For dairy purposes the beef breeds are not satis-
factory. Some of them give a large quantity of
milk for a few months, but then as a rule they
commence to put the results of the feed on their
back instead of in the pail. The same is the case
with many of the cows that are cross bred between
the dairy and beef breeds. In using such cows for
dairy purposes it is advisable to milk them until
they cease to give a paying quantity of milk and
are ready for the butcher, then sell and replace
them with fresh milk cows.

In deciding on what breed to keep, one should be
governed according to his fancy, and the market
for which the produce is intended, whether a cheese
factory, creamery, or a home dairy\ If either, or
both of the former, the Holstein and Ayrshire will
give the largest returns. For a home dairy, with
an opportunity to work up a fancy city trade in
cream and butter, the Jersey or Guernsey will fill
the bill. There is an advantage in keeping pure-
bred animals over grades, as the calves are worth
much more.

After the first week calves that are intended for

BREEDS OF CATTLE.

191

the dairy should be fed skim milk, with a teacupful
of ground flax-seed and middlings. These should
be mixed before grinding. This prevents the mill
from clogging. To keep the calves growing, feed
liberally with bulky, succulent food, composed
largelv of clover, roots and silage. The heifers
should have their first calf when two years of age.

A VALU.ABLE FORAGE PLANT FOR MILCH COWS.

CHAPTER XXV.

Cattle for Beef.

The beef breeds of cattle are entirely different Beef Breeds,
from the "wedge-shaped" dairy breeds. In the
first place, their general form is broad, deep, smooth
and even, with parallel lines. Next in importance
is a thick, even covering of the right kind of meat
in the parts that give the high-priced cuts. Broad,

99. SHORTHORN" HEIFER — "XO.VPAREIL BUD II.'"

well-covered back and ribs are necessary, and no
other good point will compensate for the lack of
this quality. A good feeding animal should handle
soft and mellow and have a vigorous constitution,
which is indicated by a broad chest, well sprung ribs,
large heart girth, and general robust appearance.

The Shorthorn {see Ills, gg-ioo) has more admirers shorthorn
in this country than any other of the beef breeds, "' '™ '

194

RENNIE S AGRlCrLTURK.

CATTLE FOR BEEF.

195

and in cross breeding the prepotency of the sire is
more pronounced than that of any other of the beef
breeds. A marked change in market demand has
taken place of recent years, the consumers now
calHng for early maturity, with a plump carcass of
medium weight and minimum offal. Large, rough
and patchy animals are no longer wanted.

101. SAVE THE CAUTES.

The Hereford {see III. 102) is similar in conforma- Hereford,
tion to the Shorthorn, and, like the latter, have
been bred for beef; consequently they are seldom
kept for dairy purposes. Their native home is
Herefordshire, England. Their color is red with
white face and white points. Formerly the horns
were long and turned up. The present fancy is for

196

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

CATTLE FOR BEEF. 197

shorter horns and turned down. Herefords are
excellent grazers, and a herd of this breed has an
attractive appearance.

The Aberdeen Angus {see Ills. 103-4) is another of Angus**"*

103. ABEROEEX .\XGUS HEIFER — IsT PRIZE.

the popular beef breeds of cattle. As the name
indicates, the native home of the breed is Aberdeen-
shire, Scotland. The color is black, and animals are
without horns. For quality of flesh they have no
superior. They have been bred for beef; conse-
quently are not intended for the dairy.

198

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

CATTLE FOR BEEF.

199

There are other beefing breeds of cattle, viz., Galloway,
Galloway, Sussex, Devon and the Highland Cattle. ^frngWand"
These all have certain good qualities, but on account of
their smaller size have not become generally popular.

Calves of the beefing breeds require better care Care of Calves,
and feed than the dairy breeds. In order to get
the best and -quickest returns it is advisable to feed
them whole milk for one or two months. This
should be followed with good, succulent food, com-

105. PORTERHOUSE RO.AST.

posed of clover, rape, roots, bran and silage. Little
grain should be fed until the frame is developed.

With good comfortable stabling and abundance Buying steers
of fodder, roots and coarse grain, it is advisable to Fe'edf^!*'
manufacture the feed into beef on the farm by buying
two-year-old steers (of the beefing type) in the fall,
for winter feeding. For this purpose, select only
young animals, blocky, smooth, with wide backs
and loose hides, weighing between ten and eleven
hundred pounds. They should be finished in six
months, weighing then thirteen hundred pounds
or over.

CHAPTER XXVI.
Horses.

Horses on the
Farm.

Modern
Clydesdale.

Grade Mares.

English Coach
Horse.

Demand for
Coach Horses.

English Shire.

In rearing horses the farmer should have two
objects in view, viz., rearing for his own use, and for
the market. The ordinar}- farmer should confme
himself to heavy horses.

The modern Clydesdale {see III. io6) is a smooth
animal and of general good quality. There is an
advantage in starting with registered mares, so that
their line of breeding may be traced back for several
generations. If there should be a strain of the
fleshy, coarse-legged type, have nothing to do with
them.

For grade mares whose breeding is unknown
there should be used only a registered sire whose
ancestors are of the smooth type, and himself of
good quality from the feet up.

Another breed of horse suitable for the farmer
is the Cleveland Bay, or English Coach Horse.
This is a most useful general purpose animal for
the farmer and for the market.

At the present time there is more demand for
hea\^ coach horses than for any other type. In
selecting brood mares, give the preference to those
that are registered. Other things being equal,
select large and stylish animals, with good knee
action. Use only a registered stallion whose line
of breeding is of the right type, one full of quality
and knee action.

For heavy dray work the English Shire is the
most popular horse. In Liverpool and London,
England, it is quite common to see three of those

202

RRNNiE s agriculture;.

Hackneys and
Roadsters.

Care and Feed-
ing of Horses.

Summer
Ration.

monster animals, each weighing over a ton, hitched
tandem to a large dray (waggon).

The Hackneys and Roadsters are fancy animals,
too small for farm work.

The thoroughbred race horse, and the trotter,
are for the sport.

The mongrel cross-bred horse is usually a dis-
appointment.

The winter ration for farm horses that are work-
ing moderately should be cut clover, timothy, hay
and corn silage, mixed a few hours previous to
feeding. This should be fed morning and evening,
all that the animals will eat in an hour and a half,
with two pounds of crushed oats and one pound of
bran (mixed) at each feed. At noon give cut hay
and fifteen pounds of whole roots.

For summer ration, when horses are working
hard, give cut timothy and clover hay and silage
(mixed) , all they will eat in an hour and a half, three
times each day, with four pounds of crushed oats
- «iand one pound of bran mixed. Water before and
~y after feeding. Clover hay is a flesh former, and is
especially suitable for horses that are working hard,
but it must be properly cured and not musty.

It is advisable to moisten the feed with silage,
pulped roots, or lime water. Hay cut in a cutting
box should be cut long for horses, to prevent irritation
of the stomach.

CHAPTER XXVII.
Sheep.
This countn- is specially adapted for the rearing Vagous^i
of sheep, on account of the clear and dry atmosphere,
and sheep are not here subject to the diseases that
are prevalent in those countries where the at-
mosphere is more humid.

Breeds

There are breeds to select from which are suited
to the various circumstances and conditions. The
farmer must decide this question for himself.

If the farmer is prepared to give the necessary-
care and attention, the chances are that one of the
long- wool breeds will be most profitable; but he
must be prepared to house these in rainy weather,
or their wool, which is long and open, will hang on
the animals like a wet blanket, and this is very
injurious.

Select Accord-
ing to
Conditions.

Special Care
for Long Wool.

204

rEnnie; s agriculture.

Cotswold
Described.

Lincoln.

The largest of the long-wool breeds is the
Cotswold. See III. io8. Cots wolds are well pro-
portioned, and lay on flesh evenly. They have a
prominent crest of long wool on the head, and are
well covered below. An ordinary flock of Cotswolds
will yield an annual fleece of wool of from thirteen
to fourteen pounds each.

The next in order is the Lincoln. See III. log.
This is a more compact animal. The body is evenly

109. LINCOLN*.

covered with flesh and long curly wool. There is a
crest on the head. The annual yield of wool is equal
to that of the Cotswold.

The other long- wool breed is the Border Leicester.
See III. no. This is an attractive, upstanding and
lengthy animal, with clean head and legs, wool
usually in ringlets. One objection to these animals
is that they are liable to get bare below at an early

SHEEP.

205

age. rhe\- are noted for a good covering of flesh
on the back and ribs. Their average clip of wool
is about two pounds less than that of the Cotswold
and Lincoln breeds.

The EngUsh or Blue-face Leicester is more
blocky, with a heavier fleece, and is better covered
below.

110. BORDER LEICESTER.

The Downs, or fine-wool breeds, will endure
exposure to rain and damp weather better than the
long-wool breeds, on account of their fleeces being
more dense.

The Oxford Down (see III. iii) is a hea\y, com-
pact sheep, with medium wool, and a crest on the
head, with brown face and legs. This and the other
Downs are noted for a superior quality of mutton.
The average weight of wool from a flock is from
eight to nine pounds.

The Down
Breeds.

The Oxford
Down.

206

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Shropshires.

The South
Down.

Next in order of the fine-wool breeds is the
Shropshire. See III. 112. This is a very compact
animal, full of quality, both of flesh and wool. The
wool is of a fine silky texture, with which the entire
body is covered. The face and legs are dark. The
average weight of fleece is from eight to nine pounds.

The most compact and hardy of all these breeds
is the South Down. See III. 11 j. This is a smaller
animal than the other breeds, but the deficiencv in

111. OXFORD DOWN.

other Breeds.

size is made up in quality, both of flesh and wool,
which are superior to those of any of the other
breeds. The average weight of fleece is from seven
to eight pounds.

There are other breeds, as the Dorset, Hamp-
shire, Suffolk, etc., each having their special char-
acteristics.

For the first it is claimed that they will raise two
crops of lambs per year, but this is not practicable.

SHEEP.

207

Again, having horns, they are said to be able to take
care of themselves against dogs.

For the dog nuisance, lead is more effectual, and Shoot Dogs,
ever}' farmer who has a valuable flock of sheep
should keep a loaded gun in a convenient place, and
when he finds a dog chasing his sheep he should
shoot it, depending on the law for protection.

112. SHR0P>H1RK.

The feeding and exercise of breeding ewes re- Feeding of
quires special attention. In the autumn, when being ^''*^"
mated, they should receive extra food. Nothing is
better than a feed of rape each day. It is ad\4sable
to have lambs come earh' in the spring, provided
the ewes have a warm pen. The lambs should have
a compartment in the pen (arranged so that the
ewes cannot get in), and where they can receive
extra feed of pulped roots, cut clover, bran, bruised
oats and ground flax (mixed). The lambs should
be docked when a week old.

-08 rennie's agriculture.

Early Rape. Havc somc early rape ready for them by the

middle of July (weaning time), so as to keep them
growing and so develop a strong, healthy frame.

Dipping Sheep. Soon after lambing, the ewes should be shorn,
and both the ewes and lambs dipped with one of the
commercial dips (following the printed directions).
Ewes and lambs should also be dipped in the
autumn.

113. SOUTHDOWN.

Winter Care. In winter sheep require a dry and thorough!}-

ventilated building which is not too warm, but free
from draughts; not too many in a pen. See plan
of sheep house {III. jj). The breeding ewes should
have daily exercise, either in a yard or field.

Feeding Sheep. Feed moming and evening the following mixture,
prepared a few hours before feeding: Cut clover
(salted), pulped turnips, silage, and a little bran.
The quantity fed should be what they will eat in an
hour and a half. Noon ration: Pea straw or clover
hay, fed outside in racks. See III. j8.

114. SOUTHDOWN SHEARLING EWfiS.

Those farmers who prefer not to breed sheep, Winter
but to follow the system of winter feeding, should * ^"
buv a sufficient number of wether and ewe lambs
to fill the sheep house in the autumn. For the first
two months feed according to the directions given for
breeding ewes, then for finishing add to the mixture
a little chopped grain, peas, barle}' and oats. This
method as a rule is ver}- profitable. On no account
bu>- old sheep to feed, unless it is for soap grease.

115. H.^MPSHIRE LAMBS.

Swine.

CHAPTER XXVIII.
Swine.

During recent years all the popular breeds of
swine have undergone a change to suit the trade,
which now calls for juicy flesh instead of fat. The
big fat hog has had to give way to one of an entirely
different type {see III. 117), one with larger body

FIRST PRIZE RAM LAMBS.

and hams for the most expensive cuts, and less width
on back. See III. iig. The hog should carry its
width evenly from shoulder to tail, with light
shoulder and jowl, as these are cheap cuts.

The change noted was first brought about by
a desire to cater to the trade of Great Britain, which
demands pork of a fleshy and better quality. Our
home trade is also undergoing a change in the same
direction. The fat pork that was popular some

212

rennie; s agriculture.

Change of
Type.

years ago is no longer wanted. The fat on the back
must not exceed one and a half inches thick. What
is wanted is a fleshy hog, about eight months old,
and rather under than over two hundred pounds.

While great progress is being made in the change
of type, still, so far, none of our present breeds of
swine conform exactly to the ideal aimed at. To
fix a type will take years to accomplish, even by our

OXFORD DOWX SHE.ARI,IXG EWES.

most expert breeders, and whether this will be by
cross-breeding or through one of our present breeds
is difficult to say.
Feeding Swine. Hveu after wc havc got the typical hog the work
is only half done. The compounding and preparing
of foods to produce the best quality of flesh is yet
in the experimental stage, and will evidently take
some time before the results will be entirely re-
liable, so as to produce a uniform good quality of
flesh.

SWINK.

213

<

214

REXXIES AGRICULTURE.

Feed for
Young Pigs.

Feed for
Finishing.

Salt and Ashes.

Brood Sow.

In order to keep young pigs growing after being
weaned, the}- should be gi\ en a certain quantity of
skim milk, along with other feed, which at first should
be composed largely of middlings with a little ground
flax-seed. When about three months old, add bran,
pulped roots, and green clover or rape, and a little
ground grain, peas, barley and oats, mixed. In
winter, alfalfa clover should be cut and scalded for
them. Mix the whole together, and feed a limited
quantity morning, noon and evening. When the
pigs are five or six months old increase the grain,
and feed less of the bulk}' food.

For the last six weeks, in finishing, the morning
and evening rations may be largely of chopped
grain, including corn. Do not give more than they
will consume in one hour. At noon feed sugar-beets
or mangel- wurzels raw, without grain. This system
of feeding keeps the pigs in a healthy and growing
condition, and makes a juicy quality of flesh.

During the winter, when housed, hogs require
old sods, also salt and hardwood ashes, with proper
care and feeding. No animal on the farm will give
quicker returns than the hog. Neither will any yield
larger profits, provided too many are not kept and
skill is used in the feeding. The best returns are
obtained where hogs are used to turn to account
the by-product of the dairy, the gleanings of the
field, and products which would otherwise be
wasted. The free use of alfalfa, either in winter or
summer, will also greatly add to the profits which
may be made.

To get the best results from a brood sow she
should receive kind treatment, so that she will be
gentle and kind. This has a very good influence
on her offspring. With proper care the sow will
raise two litters per year, say March or April and

SWINE.

215

September or October, rearing on the average from
seven to eight pigs each time. As this means a
heavv drain on the system of the sow, she will re-
quire to be fed accordingly.

In winter, feed skim milk, bran, pulped roots
and chopped grain, morning and evening, and at
noon sugar beets or mangels only. Exercise is
necessar}% but she should not be turned out of doors
in ver\- cold weather. As a substitute for skim milk

Winter Food
and Exercise.

a FT

120. PORTABLE PIG HOUSE.

llll a barrel or milk can with hot water, stir in a little
middlings, oil-cake and chopped grain, and cover
over for a few hours. Pigs, both young and old,
should have in addition all the pure water they
wish to drink.

In summer, young growing pigs should have the Suimner Food
run of a clover patch, but when finishing for market
keep them in the house where they will be com-
fortable and clean.

for Swine.

216

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Portable Pig
Houses.

The brood sow should have the run of a clover
patch in summer. A small portion of the clover
field may be hurdled off and a portable pig house
(see III. 120) constructed to shelter the animals from
the hot sun and storms. Each brood sow should
have a separate enclosure and a portable house in
which to rear her young in summer. The same style
of house may be used for the young pigs during the
summer. In order to get the best results it is nec-
essary to provide shelter in the clover or rape pasture
during the summer season. A pair of horses will
haul the portable pig house wherever required.

T"" ''",'"■.--»»--- --..i .8 ?»

mk

^-Tjp ^B vjtt ^^j^ij&p' is^^ ^^*

— *^ir* :^^ i"^--

^^^

TRUE DWARF ESSEX RAPE.

CHAPTER XXIX.

Poultry.

Poultry are kept on most farms, but, as a rule,
receive indifferent treatment. Seldom have the
fowls a house to protect them from the storms and
cold weather, and they are allowed to roost out-of-

FEEDIN'G TIME. WHITE UEGHORN'S.

doors, on implements, fences, trees, etc., in all
kinds of weather. When a house is built for them
it is frequently quite unsuitable for their health
and comfort, so that the results are not satisfactory'.
For plan of hen house, with modem con-
veniences, see ///. 2 J and end view (///. 2S), show-
ing position of nest, roost, and feed trough. This is
on the south side of the implement house, and

Plan of Poultry
House.

218 RENNIE^S AGRICULTURE.

isolated from the cattle stables, which is desirable.
The size of the building here drawn is twelve feet
wide by fifty-two feet long. This can be made
shorter or longer according to the requirements.
There is a passage of three feet on the north side.
The balance is divided, with wire netting, into six
compartments, which are eight and a half feet
square. These are of ample size for ten or twelve
hens each. The roof over the passage is nine feet
high with a fall of six inches. This is covered with
inch boards, tar-paper and shingles, or ready roofing.
The main roof is seven feet high, next the passage,
and is covered with inch boards, tar-paper and
shingles, or ready roofing. The south side is two feet
high, sheeted on the outside with tar-paper and
boards. From the top of this lower wall to the
main roof are window frames three feet high. The
inside of the poultry house, including sides, ends
and roof, should be sheeted with matched lumber.
The inside of the poultry house should be white-
washed every spring. Take out the glass and tack
muslin or cheap factory cotton over the openings
at the same time. This will admit fresh air, and wall
not attract the heat from the sun during the summer
season. Some expert poultry men use cotton or
muslin instead of glass during both summer and
winter with satisfactory results. Openings near
the roof and covered with muslin or cotton are an
advantage in keeping the poultrv^ house dr>' in winter.
This admits fresh air and allows the foul air to
escape.
Watir^Troii^h ^^^ ^^^^ trough is placcd in the passage, and

provided with round uprights, two inches apart, or
sufficient for the fowl to put their heads between to
feed. They may be watered in the same way.
Nests, roosts and board for droppings should be

Water Trough.

220

rEnnie s agriculture;.

Winter Eggs.

Disposing of
Poultry.

How to Feed.

Care of Hens
When Laying.

moveable. The latter can be made to tilt into a
box or wheel-barrow in the passage. Every pre-
caution should be taken to make the poultry house
frost-proof in very cold weather. Artificial heating
is only required in one room for early chicks.

Pullets will commence to lay when eight months
old, say at the beginning of November, and continue
laying all winter, or during the time when fresh eggs
are a much higher price than in summer. In a flock
of fifty or sixty hens the difference amounts to con-
siderable. The object should be to raise early
chicks for laying in winter instead of summer.

Arrange to keep the pullets for two winters, and
with proper care and feeding they, will be in good
condition for table use in the months of May and
June, after their second winter's laying. At this
season of the year even old hens bring high prices.
The male chicks should be fattened and sold when
four or five months old.

At first feed bread crumbs or rolled oats, then
ground com, peas, barley and oats, mixed with skim
milk; also give ground bone and flesh, with green
vegetables or roots. When fattening, confine to a
small pen; furnish all the grit and pure water they
wish. Give all the feed they will eat, and keep them
free from vermin by using some insecticide or kero-
sene.

To get the best results from hens in producing
eggs, induce them to take plenty of exercise by
scattering their food, composed of corn, peas, barley, .
oats and wheat, among chaflf , so that they will have
to scratch for it. In winter they should receive a
liberal ration of cut clover, ground bone and fiesh;
also middlings, mixed with skim milk, and all the
vegetables they wish, such as cabbage, sugar-beets,
etc. Grit and pure water should be in abundant
supply at all times.

123. BRONZE TURKEY. A STATELY CHAP.

222

Dust Bath.

Trees for
Shelter.

When to Mate.

RENNiE s .'\griculture;.

The floor in the southern portion of the pen
should be covered with coarse sand, for the fowl to
take a dust bath. This is necessary to keep them
clean. In summer hens should have the run of a
paddock of green sward enclosed with a woven wire
fence.

The paddock may be planted -with groups of
evergreen and deciduous trees for shelter from the
hot sun in summer. In the plan (see Diagram 54),

MADE IN FOUR
SIZES.
390-400 Egg Standard Cyphers
Incubator.

MADE IN TWO
SIZES.
120-130 Egg Superior Hot-
water Ircubator.

124. MODERN' IN'CUBATORS.

provision is made so that the portion of lawn between
the house and hennery, nearly an acre, may be en-
closed for this purpose. Digging underneath the
trees will help the growth of the latter and make
dust baths for the fowl.

The hens selected for breeding purposes should
be mated about ten days before eggs are wanted for
hatching. After the breeding season is over either
kill the male bird or keep him l)y himself. Accord-
ing to experiments, hens lay more eggs of a superior
flavor and better keeping quality when kept away

POULTRY.

223

from the male. Hens should be set in a secluded
place and food and fresh water should be constantly
within their reach.

125. cypher's brooder — "b" style, for outdoors.

In preparing a nest, first put in the bottom a
thin sod, and over this a sheet of tar-paper. This
will keep away lice. After this some chaff is all
that is necessary. When only a few fowl are kept,

rORTAHTK HOVKR.

127. ADAPTABLE HOVER.

nothing more is required than a hen to do the hatch
ing and caring for young chicks.

When poultr}- constitute one of the special de
partments of the farm, and are kept with a view incubator
to making money, the incubator {see III. 124) has ^^"^^""^

Poultry a
Specialty —

224

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

Advantage of
Brooder.

advantages over the hen. If a hundred eggs are
ready for setting beginning of February, it might
be difficult to get the necessary number of broody
hens at that season, whereas the incubator can be
got ready in a few minutes, and the hatching done
quite satisfactorily. Manufacturers furnish printed
instructions with each machine.

The first two weeks is the most critical period
in rearing chicks. The self-regulating nursery

128. HATCHING CHICKENS BY ELECTRICITY.

ElECTrobaTor. — An Electrically Heated and Regulated In-
cubator, designed expressly for poultry keepers who require
small hatching capacity.

Economy in labor, convenience in location, no troublesome
fumes or gasfes. perfect distribution of heat in the egg
chamber; simplicity and accuracy of regulation. The de-
mand for these Incubators last season was quite unprece-
dented and gave every satisfaction. They are not toys, but
simple, economical, useful and satisfactory Hatching
Machines.

Breeds of
Poultry.

brooders or Hovers (see Ills. i2j, 126, i2y) are
particularly valuable for the purpose. For summer,
a simple outdoor brooder {see III. ijo) may be used.
There are long lists of distinct breeds of poultry,
each having its own special peculiarity and advan-
tage. The following breeds are specially noted as
egg producers: Andalusians, Minorcas, Spanish,

POULTRY.

225

Leghorns, Houdans, Dominiques, and several of the
Game breeds. The above breeds are of various
forms and colors.

Bv general purpose we understand it to be those
breeds of fowl especialh' adapted for early maturing
for table use and for winter laynng. The oldest of
these are the English Dorking. Later we have the
Bar Rock (see III. i2q), Buff Pl>Tnouth Rock, White
Wj'andotte {see III. iji), and Buff Wyandotte (see
III. 133). The latter is ver>- attractive, and likely
to become popular.

With proper management no branch of the
poultry- business will give larger and quicker returns
than duck raising. The Pekin variety (see III. 134)
is one of the best. The Aylesburj-, a pure white
duck, has many admirers.

The Pekin is of a creamy white color. This
duck mil lay over one hundred eggs in a season.

For breeding, put one drake with five or six
ducks, first of December. Do not set the first ten
or twelve eggs. A portion of the poultry house
see III. 28) is suitable for ducks, except that the
roosts are not necessary. Instead, keep the floor
of the pen covered with clean litter. Ducks require
only about half the space that hens do.

Ducks should have a portion of the lawn or
paddock for a run for exercise the same as hens, but
should be kept separated from other fowl by a woven
wire fence.

Duck eggs nlay be hatched under hens or with.
an incubator. The care and feed of ducklings is the
same as described for chicks.

Ducks should have all the fresh water they wish
to drink, but the trough should be protected by
uprights, so that they can only get their heads in
between. It is not necessar}^ that they should get

General
Purpose
Breeds.

Management
of Docks.

Lawn for
Exercise.

Hens TS.
Incabator.

Water and
Feed.

226

rh;n nib's agriculture.

i^h - ■■-■■'■■ ^^ If<4' ^^ >\

129. BARRED PI.YMOUTH ROCKS.

POULTRY.

227

into the water \vith their feet. They Should be
supplied with an abundance of green feed and grit.

Grain fed to ducks, old or young, should be
groimd and mixed with skim milk. Aim to have as
many early ducklings as possible, as these will com-
mand the highest price.

Ducks should be ready for market when between
nine and ten weeks old, weighing at that time from
four to five pounds each.

Ground Grain
and Skin Milk.

Time to
Market.

130. OUTDOOR BROODER.

In finishing ducklings for the market it is advis- How to FinUh.
able to give one feed each day of celer\- during the
last M-eek. This imparts a pleasant flavor to the
flesh.

The indi\'idual farmer must decide whether
geese should also be kept. Under certain conditions
these may be made profitable, and that would be as
a specialty. However, it may be said that, for the

Geese a
Specialty.

228

rEnnie's agriculture.

POULTRY.

229

best results, e\ery department of the farm should
be made a specialty.

The favorite breeds of geese are the Touloose, a ^^^^^^ "*
large gray, and the Emden, a large white. A young
goose will lay about twenty eggs in a season, and an
old goose from thirty to thirty-five. In mating, put
two to three geese with one gander.

Geese do not thrive in close confinement. They
require the freedom of a large paddock. The eggs

Require
Freedom.

132. EVERYBODY RAISES GEESE.

hatch in thirty days. The goslings require the same
treatment and feed as ducklings.

It is not necessar)' that they should have water Fresh Water,
in which to swim, but they should at all times have
a supply of fresh water to drink.

It is advisable to rush the goslings and sell them when to Seu.
as soon as well feathered, say when they are two and
a half months old. They should then weigh from
twelve to fifteen pounds each. This is the most
profitable time to sell.

The turkev is left to the last in this work. Of all The Turkey.

230

RENNIE S agriculture;.

133. BUFF WYANDOTTE.

POULTRY. 231

domestic fowl the turkey is the most noble. The
old gobbler is monarch of all he surveys.

The Bronze variety is the largest and most varieties,
popular. The WTiite Holland has also many
admirers.

A shelter should be pro\-ided for turkeys in
winter, but it must be roomy, and the roosts from
eight to ten feet high.

Turkeys will not thrive when closely confined, auow Freedom.
They should have the freedom of the farm-yard
during the winter. Turkey hens are not expected
to la}' until the end of March or the first of April.
For use, feed a little grain, peas, barley and oats,
mixed. In addition, give cut clover, moistened,
and roots.

In mating, put about a dozen hens with one Mating,
gobbler.

Young turkeys are rather difficult to raise at Young
first, but with a warm coop or brooder, ha\nng a " ^^^'
small pen attached, there need be no loss.

Turkeys hatched in June should weigh from when to Seii.
twenty to twenty-five pounds for Thanksgiving and
Christmas.

232

RENNIE S AGRICULTURE.

CHAPTER XXX.

Western Farming.

Having set forth the method of cultivation and ^^^t^*"***'*"
rotation of crops especially suitable for Ontario,
the Maritime Provinces and British Columbia, a
lesson on the Canadian West will now be quite in
order. This immense territory is bounded on the
south by the United States, on the north by the
Peace River District, on the west by the Rocky
Mountains, and on the east by the Hudson Bay.

135. BREAKING I'LOW.

The vastness of this extent of territory can
scarcely be comprehended. It is estimated that
there is within its bounds sufficient land to give
every inhabitant in the world at the present time
(1916) half an acre each.

Nearly the whole West is. well adapted to grain
growing, and especially spring wheat.

As conditions here differ from the eastern
Provinces, it is necessary to make some changes in
the mode of cultivation and the style of implements
most suitable for the countrv.

234 Ronnie's agriculture.

In starting on a prairie farm (in its natural con-
dition) in the spring, the farmer should plow early
three or four inches deep, using a breaking plow
(see III. ijj) with two or three oxen or horses as the
case may be. Roll soon after plowing, with a heavy
roller, then harrow to conserve moisture. See III. 46.
Sow a few acres with spring wheat soon as thoroughly
prepared. This may be used for bread the first
year. A few acres should also be sown with oats to
feed the animals, not later than the end of May.
Potatoes may be planted, and vegetables and swede
turnip seed should be sown for winter use.

It is important to keep the breaking plow going.
On this depends the following year's crops. Con-
tinue to roll and harrow after plowing to conserve
moisture. The sod will rot much sooner.

The portion that has not been cropped will
require to be back-set in the autumn by plowing
about one inch deeper then the first time; then
thoroughly harrow. The portion that was cropped
should be gang-plowed three or four inches deep, and
harrowed. This will level the land and leave it in
good shape for early seeding, which is important in
this north country where the summer season is
short.

Wheat, oats and barley, in the order named,
should be sown in spring soon after the snow is off
the land and the frost is out one or two inches.
Grain sown while the frost is in the subsoil will make
more rapid growth on account of the moisture
caused by the thawing out below. A new settler,
commencing with limited capital, usually sows the
grain by hand, but as soon as possible he should get
a grain-drill, so that the grain may be planted at a
uniform depth. This is especially necessary on the
prairies, where the roots of the young plants are
liable to get uncovered with the strong winds.

WESTERN FARMIXG.

235

236 KENNIIv's AGRICULTURE.

The most suitable grain drill to use, where it is
necessary to sow before the frost is out of the
ground, is the double disc drill. See III. ijj.

As soon as the wheat and oats are harvested the
stubble land should be gang-plowed three or four
inches deep, and harrowed with a lever harrow
which provides for the teeth to be set at an angle
(to prevent clogging). See III. yd. It is necessars"

137. DOUBLE DISC DRILL.

to level all land in the fall which is intended for
early seeding the following spring.

While the autumn is a very busy season of the
year, the fall plowing should not be neglected. With
a three-furrow gang plow, one man and three or four
horses (according to the nature of the soil) can plow
from four to five acres per day. See III. ij6. Rolling
coulters are preferable to the ordinary straight
coulters, as they are not liable to clog with the
stubbles.

Rolling dow^n long stubbles before plowing pre-
vents clogging. It might be stated in this connection
that the more stubble there is left on the land to

WESTERN FARMIXG. 237

plow under the better, as this forms vegetable matter
for plant food and conservation of moisture for the
succeeding crops. The upper portion of the straw
and chaff can be used for fodder.

A farmer cannot afford to bum straw, as it is
too valuable for the soil.

After the first or second year, five pounds per
acre of red clover seed should be sown with all the
grain crops and plowed under with the stubble in
autumn in order to keep up the fertility of the soil.
It would be advisable to sow two or three acres with
red clover the first year as an experiment. If the
clover does not grow it may be for the want of the
proper bacteria in the soil, and the following spring
sufficient nitro-culture should be ordered from one
of the agricultural colleges to treat a few pounds of
red clover seed, and this sown according to directions
received with the culture. Afterwards the inocu-
lated surface soil can be used to treat other portions
of the farm. Clover will not grow on low, wet land.

A three years' rotation would be suitable for the
West (after the soil has been treated with the clover
culture), viz., two years, grain; the second grain
crop being seeded with ten pounds red clover and
four pounds orchard grass. This gives hay or
pasture the third year. Early in the autumn plow
the clover sod about four inches deep ; then roll and
harrow thoroughly, so that the surface will be level
and in good shape to sow with grain early the follow-
ing spring. This system should keep up the fertility
of the soil indefinitely.

Not the least important matter in this western
country is the planting of trees on the west and
north of the home as a protection from the cold
winds in winter.

238

rivNnie's agriculture.

WESTERN' FARM I XG.

239

Flax is destined to be an important crop in the ?•«« Culture.
West. It can be grown to perfection on newly-
plowed prairie sod by the following method: Plow
the sod early in spring about four inches deep ; then
roll and harrow. In a few days cultivate with a
spring-tooth cultivator or disc gang plough. See Ills.
4j and ij8. Again harrow to make a fine tilth on
the surface.

139. PULLI.VG FL-^kX.

Flax should be sown the early part of May Seeding,
either with a disc drill or a broadcast seeder {see
III. 140), at the rate of half a bushel per acre. If
sown on the surface with the latter, harrow with the
lever spike-tooth harrow to cover the seed.

The time to harvest flax is when it is quite ripe. Harvestiiig.
It is not necessary to bind flax, but rather cut it
\vith a self-rake reaper (see III. 80) and handle it
loose. An average crop of flax seed is from 12 to 20
bushels per acre, according to the condition of the

240

KliNNIE S agriculture:.

Advantages of
Growing Flax.

soil. There is a cash market at a price considerably
more than wheat.

Flax rots sod better than the common method
of plowing in spring and back-setting in autumn,
and it is not so liable to get frosted as spring wheat
or oats. After the flax is harvested, all that is
necessary is to cultivate or disc and harrow the land
for wheat the following spring.

If labor were more plentiful there would be as
much money realized from the fibre as the seed, and
this would make flax growing a very profitable
business.

TicSOWERTHAt
SCATTERS EVENLY

140. BROADCAST SEEDER.

Semi-Arid
Lands.

In the West there are dry districts which require
special treatment in order to grow crops of grain
successfully. Shallow cultivation must be adopted
in order to keep all the vegetable matter on the
surface so as to conserve and retain moisture in the
soil. This is in accordance with the laws of nature.
Early in the spring the land should be gang-plowed
shallow, then rolled, and harrowed with a spike-
tooth harrow. Presuming that the surface is now
fine and mellow after this preparation, sow a mixture
of oats and peas, one bushel of each. (Vetches may

WESTERN FARMING. 241

be used instead of peas.) Sow with a double disc
seed drill. See III. 737. This style of a drill will
press a crease in the soil and plant the grain on the
firm soil below, which will start capillary action of
the moisture in the subsoil so that the grain will
get all the moisture necessar\' to start.

In order to prevent evaporation of the moisture
in the soil it will be necessary to loosen the surface
soil every week or ten days with a lever spike-tooth
harrow {see III. ^6) to form a mulching until the
crop shades the soil from the hot sun. Soon as the
peas or vetches, as the case may be, are in bloom,
plow shallow, turning the whole crop under the
furrow by attaching a chain to the centre of beam
of plow and the outer end of evener behind the
furrow horse, forming a loop. It will be necessar}'
to use a rolling coulter. After plowing, roll and
harrow.

This work should be done before harvest. After
harvest, spread a few loads of farm yard manure
per acre over the surface with a manure spreader.
See III. jo. Leave this manure spread on the
surface as a mulching and to prevent the soil from
drifting. In the following spring sow wheat or oats
early, soon as the frost is out of the ground about
two inches, with a double disc drill. The idea is to
plant the grain on the frozen subsoil so that it will
get abundance of moisture. While the ground is
thawing out, the manure on the surface will act as
a mulching and prevent the moisture from escaping.
It would be advisable to sow a few pounds of red
clover per acre at the same time as sowing the grain.
As there is not likely to be any of the proper bacteria
in those arid soils, it will be necessary to have the
red clover seed treated with nitro-culture, which
can be had from any of the agncultural colleges with

242 rEnnie's agriculture.

full directions for using. By plowing this clover and
long stubbles under in the autumn (shallow), using
the chain and rolling coulter, rolling and harrowing
as before described.

By following the above directions and adopting
a short and systematic rotation of crops, in which
red clover forms a part, there should be no difficulty
in keeping up the fertility of the soil.

CHAPTER XXXI.

System.

Whether it be in Ontario or in the West,
"system" is all-important on the farm as well as
elsewhere. There should be a system on the farm
the same as in the factory or in a business office.
Systematized work saves time and labor. While it is
necessar}' to rise early in the morning on the farm,
it is equally necessary to quit work at six o'clock
in the evening, so that there will be sufficient time
for reading and enjoyment. Every farmer should
subscribe for one or two agricultural journals, a
religious paper for Sunday reading, and a daily news-
paper, so that it will not be necessary for any
member of the family to go to the store or tavern
for the news of the day. Ever}^ member of the
family should have an opportunity of reading for
himself, or herself, and keep apace with the times.
The present age demands knowledge in all things.
Less manual labor and more thought would bring
many farmers better results than they now enjoy.

Ever>' farmer should also keep an account of all ^eep Accounts
his receipts and disbursements, and at the end of
each year take an inventory of all his stock, grain,
implements, produce, etc., on hand at their current
values. To this should be added the cash in the
bank and on hand, as well as all accounts and notes
receivable. This will show the total assets. From
the total the full amount of all accoimts and notes
payable should be subtracted, and the result will
show the farmer's present standing. It is also
necessar}' to keep a record of the results produced

244 rennie's agriculture.

by each crop. Any crop for which the returns do
not exceed the cost of production should be dis-
continued if the cause of loss cannot be removed,
and no animal should be kept unless it gives a profit
over the cost of food and labor necessary for its
maintenance.

In short, a farmer, to attain the highest measure
of success, must know how to produce the largest
quantity of grain or other crops per acre, how to
turn this to best account in the finished product of
the farm, and how to market that product to the
best advantage.

But if the qualifications demanded are of a high
order, the rewards are much more certain than in
other lines. Farming is a more interesting, health-
ful and independent calling than any other. While
the percentage of failures in business life is large, the
percentage of failure in agriculture is small. And
the ideal of a happy home alike chosen by poet and
artist is almost invariably found amid the green
fields and wooded slopes of the open country.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Portrait of Author Frontispiece

NO. PAGE

3. Brush Harrow 14

4. Chain Harrow 15

8. Cold Frame 22

1. Four-horse Subsoiler 10

2. Home — North View 13

7. Hot-bed 19

5. Lawn Mower 16

6. Mr. and Mrs. Wm. Rennie, St., at Home 18

— Crimson Rambler Rose 25

14. Combined Harrow, Cuhivator and Pulverizer 35

10. Dibbler 28

13. Drill Plow with Potato Digger Attachment 34

11. Hill-Dropping Seed Drill 29

— Irish Cobbler Potatoes 36

12. Potato Digger and Picker .". 33

9. Subsoil Plow 27

Small Fruits.

16. Downing Gooseberry 39

17. Fay's Prolific Red Currant 40

19. Kansas Black Cap Raspberry 42

15. Melton Strawberry 37

20. Niagara White Grape 43

18. St. Regis Raspberry 41

The Orch.ard.

23. Clapp's Favorite Pear 51

24. King Apples 53

22. Lombard Plum 49

21. Louis Phillippe Cherry 47

25. Spraying an Orchard 54

26. Spraying Potatoes for Blight 56

246 ILLUSTRATIONS.

NO. Buildings. pack

34. Basement Floor 68

32. Basement of Barn 66

30. Double Harpoon Hay Fork 63

29. Elevation of Barn 62

27. Elevation of Implement House 58

39. Elevation of Piggery 74

35. Elevation of Sheep House 70

38. Feed Rack n

28. Ground Plan of Implement House 60

40. Ground Plan of Piggery 76

37. Ground Plan of Sheep House 72

31. Hay Carriers and Slings 65

33. Stationary Stanchion 68

2)(i. Swinging Stanchion 71

Draining.

44. Connecting Tiles in Drain 82

42. Crummer 80

43. Draining 81

41. Draining Spade 80

— Early Soy Beans 83

— Japanese Clematis 78

Implements.

45. A Bean Crop in Western Ontario 86

46. Land Roller 87

51. Adjustable Spike-tooth Harrow 93

50. An Up-to-date Manure Spreader at Work 92

49. Plow with Revolving Coulter 91

53. Set of Ribbers 95

47. Spring Tooth Cultivator 89

48. Stiflf Tooth Cultivator 90

52. Wheelbarow Grass Seeder 94

54. Diagram of Farm 102

55. Two-furrow Gang Plow 104

56. Grain Drill 107

59. Oats in Long Shocks 114

58. Self-binder at Work in an Oat Field 112

ILLUSTRATIONS. 247

NO. PAGE

•<7. Tolton Pea Harvester 108

66. Breed Weeder 127

61. Cultivator Frame with Ribbers 118

— Earliest Six \\'eeks' Potatoes 133

— Haying at the O.A.C. Farm 130

65. Horse Drill for Sowing Field Root Seeds 125

63. Horse Hoe or Scuffler 120

60. Modern Threshing Machine 116

64. Storing Roots in Pit 121

62. Turnip Hoe 119

Corn Growing.

69. Corn Cultivator 138

72. Corn Cutting and Silo 140

73. Corn Harvester 141

70. Corn Hoe 139

71. Corn Platform 139

67. Hand Corn Planter 136

74. Round Stave Silo 143

68. Scuffling at the Ontario Experimental Farm 137

— Yellow Dent Corn 147

H.\RVESTI.VG.

75. A Field of Marquis Wheat 151

— A Heavy Crop of Golden Vine Peas 162

78. Hay Cap 156

83. Hay Loader „ 163

77. Hay Tedder 153

82. Horse Rake '. 161

76. Lever Harrow 152

81. Mower with Clover Seed Attachment 160

79. Mowing Machine 158

80. Self-Rake Reaper 159

Alfalfa.

84. Alfalfa Inoculated 165

— Root of Alfalfa Plant 167

248 ILLUSTRATIONS.

Np. Fencing. pack

88. Bracing and Stretching Fence 175

87. Hog, Cattle and Horse Fence 175

86. Horse and Cattle Fence 174

89. London Fence Machine 176

85. Wire Stretcher 173

90. Woven Wire Gate 176

Cattle and Horses.

92. A Young Holstein Bull 179

91. Dehorning Cattle 178

93. Guernsey Cow — "Murne Cowan" 181

94. The Black and White Cattle 183

97. Ayrshire Cow , 188

96. Holstein-Friesian Cow — "Finderne Pride"' 187

98. Jersey Cow— "Oxford Vixen"' ; 192

— Sorghum 191

95. Two White-faced Beauties 186

104. Aberdeen Angus Cow 198

103. Aberdeen Angus Heifer — 1st Prize 197

105. A Porterhouse Roast 199

102. Hereford Cow 196

100. Cow— Shorthorn "Durham" .*. 194

101. Save the Calves 195

99. Shorthorn Heifer— "Nonpareil Bud H." 193

106. Clydesdale Horse 201

Sheep and Swine.

108. Cotswold 203

110. Border Leicester 205

— First Prize Ram Lambs 210

109. Lincoln 204

115. Hampshire Lambs 209

111. Oxford Downs 206

112. Shropshire 207

113. Southdown 208

114. Southdown Shearling Ewes 209

— Oxford Down Shearling Ewes 212

120. Portable Pig House 215

II,LUSTRATIONS. 249

NO. PAGE

— True Dwarf Essex Rape 216

119. T>'pical Bacon Hog (Front View) 213

117. Typical Bacon Hog (Side View) 211

PotTLTRY.

127. Adaptable Hover 223

129. Barred Plymouth Rocks 226

123. Bronze Turkey 221

133. Buff Wyandotte - 230

125. Cypher's Brooder— "B" Style 223

132. Everybody Raises Geese 229

121. Feeding Time — White Leghorns 217

128. Hatching Chickens by Electricity 224

124. Modern Incubators 222

130. Outdoor Brooder IZJ

134. Pekin Ducks 232

126. Portable Hover 223

122. Waiting for Meal Tipie 219

131. White Wyandottes - 228

Western F.^rmixg.

135. Breaking Plow 233

140. Broadcast Seeder 240

138. Disc Gang Plow 238

137. Double Disc Drill 236

139. Pulling Flax 239

136. Three-furrow Gang Plow 235

GENERAL INDEX

Beautifying the Country home. page

Cold Frames — How to Prepare Soil 22

Decide the Location for Orchard, Garden and

Lawn 9

Hedges and Wind Breaks 11

Flower Beds 17

Trimming Evergreen Hedges 12

Hardy Climbers 24

How to Make a Hot-bed 20

Rockery — Planting Ferns and Perennial Flowers.... 23

Selection of Hardy Flowering Shrubs 17

Summer Flowering Bulbs 24

Flower Beds 23

Varieties of Flowers and Vegetables 21

The Vegetable Garden.

How to Prepare the Soil 26

Vegetables for a Private Garden 28

Small Fruits.

Cultivation for Fruits 38

How to Plant Grapes 42

Strawberries 2)1

The Orchard.

Commercial Apple Growing 50

Draining an Orchard 45

How to Graft 52

Planting an Orchard 45

Pruning Apple Trees 52

Spraying Fruit Trees £2

INDEX 251

Farm Implements and Buildings. PAf.e

Buildings, etc., to Harmonize 11

Construction of Sheep House 72

Farm Barn 59

Implement House 57

Location and Dimensions of Building 59

Painting Farm Buildings 11

Plan of Basement 69

Plan of Building 71

Style of Building 76

Ventilation IZ

Underdraining.

Construction of Drain 80

Depth of Drains 79

Grading 81

Laying Tiles 82

Size of Drain 79

Where Drains are Xeeded 79

Cultivation of the Soil.

Summer Fallow 87

How to Restore and Maintain Fertility, 84

Cultivating and Seeding.

Destroying Weeds and Weed Seeds 95

Increasing the Fertility of the Soil 94

Manuring _ 95

Plowing under Green Crop 91

Preparing for Rotation 89

Restoring Exhausted Land 95

Sowing 94

Destroying Weeds.

How to Increase Fertility and Eradicate Weeds.... 99

Quality of Seed Grain 98

Sowing Clover and Timothy 99

Spring Cultivation 98

Weeds and \\'eed Seeds 97

252 INDEX

Rotation of Crops. page

A Four Years' Course 100

Depth to Plant Seeds 106

Dividing Farm into Sections 100

Fall Cultivation Best Time to Clean the Land 103

Manuring in Winter 105

Plowing in Summer 103

Preparation for Field Roots and Other Hoe Crops 106

Grain Growing.

Elements of Fertility...^ 109

Fall Wheat 109

Harvesting Peas 107

How to "Shock" Grain 113

Improvements in Harvesting Methods Ill

Prevent Heating 110

Quantity to Sow 110

Subsoiling Clay Land 110

Threshing Peas 109

Time to Sow Fall Wheat 110

When to Cut Wheat Ill

Field Root Crops.

Making Drills, and Sowing Field Roots 117

Preparation of the Soil for Swede Turnips 124

Quantity of Seed per Acre 126

Spring Cultivation for Hoe Crops 115

Storing and Ventilating Field Roots 122

When and How to Harvest Field Roots 121

Exhibition Roots. t

How to Grow Roots for Exhibition 129

Potato Growing.

Cultivation and Drilling for Potatoes 131

Digging, Pitting and Storing Potatoes — 132

How to Cut Potato Sets and Time to Plant 131

Rape for Fodder.

Cultivation and Feeding of Rape 134

INDEX ' 253

Corn for Silage. page

Construction of Silos 144

Preparing the Land for Corn 135

Sowing and Cultivating Corn „ 136

When and How to Harvest Corn 140

Fall Cultivation.

Fall Cultivation after the Hoe Crops 148

Cultivation for Spring Crops.

Clover a Fertilizer, Subsoiler and Flesh Former.... 155

Growing Clover for Seed 156

Seeding and Caring of Pasture Lands 150

When and How to Sow 150

Alfalfa Clover.

Alfalfa — Its Desirable Quality 163

Alfalfa Meal ' 166

Fertilization of Alfalfa 166

Inoculation of Alfalfa Seed 166

Pasture and Soiling Crops.

Additional Soiling Crops 169

Permanent Pasture 168

Three Year Rotation.

Three Years' Rotation of Crops : 170

Fencing.

Convenient Portable Fence 172

Farm and Garden Gates 176

Fencing 172

Permanent Woven Wire Fences 174

Portable Woven Wire Fences 172

Style and Quality of Fence 174

Care and Feeding of Live Stock.

Autumn Feeding 178

Commercial Foods 184

Dehorning Cattle 179

Economic Feeding 177

254 INDEX

Care and Feeding of Live Stock -Con. page

Exercising Animals 180

How and When to Feed 183

Preparation of Fly Oil 185

Ration for Milch Cows 183

Shelter in Summer 185

Winter Feed 180

Breeds of Cattle.

Fancy Butter Cow 189

Increasing Production 189

Popular Dairy Cows 189

Selecting a Milch Cow 189

Cattle for Beef.

Beef Breeds 193

Buying Steers for Winter Feeding 199

Care of Calves 199

Horses.

Care and Feeding of Horses 202

Horses on the Farm. 200

Summer Ration 202

Sheep.

Dipping Sheep 208

Feeding of Ewes 207

Feeding Sheep 208

Special Care for Long \\'ool 203

Various Breeds of Sheep 203

Winter Care 208

Winter Feeding 209

Swine,

Brood Sow 214

Feed for Young Pigs 214

Feeding Swine 212

Summer Food for Swine 215

Winter Food and Exercise 215

INDEX 255

Poultry. PAGE

Care of Hens when Laying .*. 220

Feed and Water Trough 218

General Purpose Breeds 225

Hens vs. Incubator 225

How to Feed 220

Management of Ducks 225

Plan of Poultry House 217

Water and Feed 225

When to Mate 222

When to Sell 231

Winter Eggs 220

Western Farming.

Flax ' Culture 239

Semi- Arid Lands , 240

The Canadian West 233

System.

Keep Accounts 243

Svstem 243