Report to the Congress
on Ocean Pollution,
Overfishing, and
Offshore Development

July 1974 through June 1975

Public Law 92-532, Title II, Section 202 (c)

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

JUNE 1976

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in 2013

http://archive.org/details/reporOOunit

Report to the Congress
on Ocean Pollution,
Overfishing, and
Offshore Development

July 1974 through June 1975

Submitted in compliance with Section 202 (c),
Title II of the Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act of 1972
(Public Law 92-532)

June 1976

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ATMOSPi,

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE

Elliot L. Richardson, Secretary

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Robert M. White, Administrator

NT Of

For sale by the
Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 20402.

Price $1 .75

THE SECRETARY OF COMMERCE

Washington, D.C. 20230

President of the Senate September 20, 1976

Speaker of the House of Representatives

Sirs:

I am pleased to submit to the Congress the third annual report
on those research activities in progress during Fiscal Year 1975 that
are contributing to a better understanding of the marine environment
and the effect of man's activities upon it.

The report describes those programs which are responsive to the
research provisions of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972 under Title II, Section 202, concerning the long-term
effects of pollution, overfishing, and other man- induced changes in
ocean ecosystems. As summarized in this report, there are many
investigations in progress in this country and others that address
ocean pollution problems. However, the present state of knowledge
in many of the fundamental areas of ocean pollution research is far
from adequate and the task ahead is immense. Similarly, while progress
has been achieved over the past several years in reducing overfishing
by foreign and domestic fleets, major finfish and shellfish stocks off
our shores have been seriously impacted by overfishing. This report
presents an overview on the status and management of marine fish
stocks on a nationwide basis, and for this year provides a special
detailed description of overfishing problems in the East Bering Sea.

Han's activities that impact on ocean ecosystems are becoming
increasingly important to our Nation as we seek to develop new sources
of food, energy, and raw materials. Besides our concerns for over-
fishing of marine fish stocks, major research efforts also are
addressing the environmental consequences of outer continental shelf
oil and gas development, mining mineral resources from the sea floor,
and construction of offshore energy facilities such as powerplants
and deepwater ports. It is essential that both the immediate and
long-range effects of such developments upon the ocean ecosystem be
understood and considered. I am pleased that our Nation is con-
sciously addressing these concerns; however, many research efforts

iii

are still In their initial stages. While developing the marine
resources essential to our Nation's economy, it is equally important
to the health and preservation of the oceans that these research
efforts be prosecuted with deliberate speed. The research summarized
in this report has been undertaken to achieve this goal.

The oceans are one of mankind's most valuable resources. The
preservation of the health of the oceans for the benefit of succeeding
generations is a goal which 1 feel we must attain.

Sincerely,

Elliot L. Richardson

iv

CONTENTS

Chapter I. MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH ACTIVITIES:

AN OVERVIEW 1

Marine pollution research 1

Petroleum hydrocarbons 1

Heavy metals 3

Synthetic hydrocarbons 3

Major regional studies of ocean pollution 4

International marine pollution research activities 5

Overfishing 6

Offshore development 7

Offshore deepwater terminals 7

Coastal and offshore powerplants 8

Ocean mining 8

Offshore oil and gas development 8

Chapter II. OCEAN POLLUTION 10

Petroleum hydrocarbons 11

Marine oil pollution research programs ... 11

Private sector oil pollution research . 19

Heavy metals 21

Research on physiological and biochemical effects 21

Metals in seafood and sediments 22

Pollutant transfer studies 24

Synthetic hydrocarbons 24

Major regional studies of ocean pollution 28

New York Bight 28

Great Lakes studies 29

International marine pollution research activities 31

International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) 31

Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) 34

Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine

Environment (GIPME) 35

Chapter III. OVERFISHING . 37

Overview — status and management of stocks 37

Status of stocks 37

Management of stocks 37

East Bering Sea fisheries 43

History of Bering Sea fisheries 45

Present condition of East Bering Sea fishery resources 49

Consequences of overfishing 52

Effect of overfishing on man 53

Research and management 56

Effectiveness of research and regulation 58

Summary - East Bering Sea 59

Chapter IV. OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT AND THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT 63

Offshore deepwater terminals 63

Coastal and offshore nuclear powerplants 64

Ocean mining 67

Offshore oil and gas development 68

Environmental studies program 68

Agency roles 69

Current environmental assessment studies 70

Alaska 70

Continental U.S 83

Appendix A. List of References 88

Appendix B. Petroleum in the Marine Environment 91

Appendix C. Assessing Potential Ocean Pollutants 99

Appendix D. Title II of "Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act of 1972" (P.L. 92-532)— and

Amendments . . . 102

vi

CHAPTER I

MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
ACTIVITIES: AN OVERVIEW

The range of activities which impact the oceans and over which Congress
expressed its concern by approving the research provisions of the Marine
Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 is broad. During Fiscal
Year 1975 a large number of national and international research activities
were in progress which will contribute to a better understanding of the
marine environment and how it is affected by man's activities. This chapter
provides a brief summary of these marine environmental research efforts and
findings .

MARINE POLLUTION RESEARCH

Marine pollution research in this country has focused on petroleum
hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and manmade (synthetic) hydrocarbons. These
three classes of chemical compounds are present, in widely varying concen-
trations, in the oceans of the world; they may have toxic effects on
marine life; they may have a relationship to human health and well-being;
and they are likely to continue being introduced into the oceans in relation
to their production, transport, and use.

Petroleum Hydrocarbons

With respect to petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) in the oceans, one of the most
difficult tasks has been to assess the amounts added to the oceans each year
and the related pathways. A major report released by the National Academy
of Sciences (NAS) in 1975 estimated that the amount of petroleum hydro-
carbons entering the world's oceans through man's activities is approxi-
mately 5.5 million metric tons per year (mta) . About 40 percent of that
total is attributed to oil tanker operations and accidents. The remainder
is essentially of nonmarine origin such as automotive waste oil, industrial
waste oil, and other sources through river runoff and atmospheric transport
and rainout. Petroleum additions to the oceans from natural seeps in the
sea floor was estimated at 0.6 mta, giving an overall total of 6.1 mta.
The report projects for the early 1980s a decreased rate of global input
(4.6 mta) due primarily to stricter domestic and international controls on
offshore oil operations and tanker operations.

The Federal agencies conducting or sponsoring research on marine oil
pollution include : the National Science Foundation (NSF) , the Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA) , the Department of the Interior (DOI) , the
Department of Commerce (NOAA, Maritime Administration, Bureau of Standards),
the Coast Guard, and the Navy. Some States are sponsoring research efforts
on the potential effects of oil pollution in their coastal waters. In the
private sector, the Ford Foundation, the American Petroleum Institute, and

oil companies are among the organizations actively engaged in various
aspects of marine oil pollution research.

The National Science Foundation is sponsoring, within its Inter-
national Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) program, research concerning
the transfer and effects of oil and other pollutants in the marine
environment. In the Controlled Ecosystems Pollution Experiment (CEPEX) ,
a unique attempt to bridge the gap between field studies and laboratory
results, natural marine communities contained in large plastic enclosures
located offshore of British Columbia are being subjected to low-level and
long-term exposures of selected contaminants. The first CEPEX test
involving PHCs was started in the summer of 1974. In the IDOE Pollutant
Transfer Program, the research emphasis has been on the transport of
petroleum, as well as chlorinated hydrocarbons and trace metals, to the
ocean via the atmosphere, rivers, sewage and industrial outfalls, and
ocean dumping. Research also involves studies on the chemical form and
degradation of these pollutants in the marine environment. Biological
studies were designed to investigate the mechanisms of pollutant uptake by
organisms, to verify transfer through the food web, and to quantify the
role of organisms in pollutant dispersion. With regard to petroleum
hydrocarbons, participants in this program are looking at such problems
as intercalibration of instruments, standardization of results, atmospheric
transport, and differentiation between natural and man-introduced sources.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has major
programs underway at research facilities in Seattle, Washington, and Auke
Bay, Alaska, as well as sponsoring studies at Sea Grant institutions. The
overall objective of the programs is to examine both the acute and chronic
effects of petroleum hydrocarbons. Research personnel from NOAA, EPA
Region X, and the Washington State Department of Biology completed a
2-year interdisciplinary field study on the long-term chemical and biolog-
ical effects of a persistent oil spill from the grounded (1972) troopship
General G. C. Meigs in a cove on the northwest coast of Washington. NOAA,
through its Office of Sea Grant, also sponsored during FY 1975 various
university research efforts related to marine oil pollution. Work is in
progress to develop an oil spill trajectory model, study the physiological
and biochemical effects of oil on selected fishes, and provide information
on background levels of PHCs in sediments and in benthic organisms in
Prudhoe Bay and the Gulf of Mexico.

The Coast Guard continued development of forecasting techniques to
predict pollutant movements. In FY 1975 the agency delivered a high seas
containment barrier system to field commands, and completed development
of two different high seas oil recovery systems. Studies and field tests
also were completed on the risks, fate, and effects of petroleum spills in
the Arctic environment to support the need for developing the necessary
response and cleanup capability. Means to separate and monitor oil in
bilge and ballast water discharges from ships are continuing to be
developed. The Coast Guard further reports that operational evaluations
of a prototype multi-sensor airborne surveillance system have been highly
successful.

The Navy in FY 1975 sponsored research at various universities in the
fate of petroleum residues in marine food chains and biodegradation of
PHCs.

In the private sector, various research organizations, industrial
groups, and individual companies carried out research on marine oil pollu-
tion during FY 1975. The Exxon Corporation, under contract to NOAA and
the Maritime Administration (MarAd) , completed in 1974 a baseline study and
analysis of petroleum concentrations in the Pacific Ocean along tanker
routes between such distant points as southern California, Alaska, Honolulu,
Tokyo, Singapore, Wellington, Antarctica, and the Panama Canal. Surface
water in the Pacific Ocean was found to be predominantly of less than 10 parts
per billion (ppb) hydrocarbon (biogenic and PHCs) content, with higher values
found in the northeast sector such as the San Francisco /Cook Inlet tanker
route along which concentrations were in the 10-25 ppb range.

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals, when present in the marine environment in elevated
concentrations, can kill organisms or contaminate them to an extent that
they create a potential hazard to human health. It is necessary, therefore,
to establish the levels of pollutants which cause mortalities or interfere
with growth, behavior, and reproduction. It also is important to know the
long-term effects of exposure to sublethal concentrations of heavy metals.

The NSF Pollutant Transfer Program has active research underway to:
1) determine the mechanisms that are important in the transfer of heavy
metals into and within the marine environment; 2) determine important
physical, chemical, and biological factors affecting pollutant transfer
processes; and 3) identify principles governing transfer of heavy metals.
In the Biological Effects Program, investigations focus on biochemical and
behavorial responses of selected organisms to metals and other contaminants.

NOAA has studies underway to determine the effects of heavy metals,
such as arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead, zinc, and silver,
on the normal life functions of certain marine species. Results indicate
that some marine animals are extremely sensitive to minute amounts of heavy
metals. Research also is progressing in assessing the physiological
changes in various species of marine shellfish, crabs, lobsters, and fish
that are common to the Atlantic coast. NOAA also is conducting a major
program to determine baseline levels of metals in seafood. This survey
consists of measuring concentrations of trace metals and other chemical
elements in the muscle and liver in some 200 species of marine fish and
shellfish from the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts, and from the Gulf
of Alaska.

Synthetic Hydrocarbons

The major groups of synthetic hydrocarbons that are likely to have an
impact on the marine environment are pesticides (such as insecticides and
herbicides) and industrial compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) . Many of these compounds are toxic at low concentrations. Many

resist chemical and biological degradation, and thus persist and accumulate
in the environment.

The pesticide DDT, although no longer used in the United States except
for restricted purposes that require special EPA permits, is still manu-
factured and used in other parts of the world for pest control. Therefore,
it remains a global problem, although now somewhat reduced in magnitude.
Recent research in this field has focused on other persistent chlorinated
hydrocarbons such as aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, heptachlor, and toxaphene.
Even greater amounts of toxaphene may be applied in the future. because of
restrictions now placed on the others mentioned. Experiments with minnow
fry showed that death occurred at 2.5 ppb. Fry bioaccumulated toxaphene
6,000 to 14,000 times the concentration in water.

Another class of toxic pesticides is the organophosphates , residues
of which have been found in tissues of estuarine fishes from the Atlantic
Coast and Gulf of Mexico. The large quantities of organophosphates now
being applied and their many degraded forms (metabolites) which are
biologically active make them an important subject of research. The mode
of action of these compounds is to disrupt nerve-impulse transmissions in
the nervous systems of animals by means of enzyme inhibition. Progress
has been made in determining the effects of these enzyme-inhibiting
pesticides on estuarine and marine organisms.

Polychlorinated biphenyl, an industrial compound used in a variety
of ways, including heat transfer systems, electrical devices, plastics, and
paints, is present in oceanic water, sediment, and biota. In the United
States, about 40 million pounds of PCBs are produced each year. Studies
show that all PCBs are toxic to certain estuarine marine animals and in
tests of longer duration it was demonstrated that PCBs accumulate in liver
and fatty tissues in amounts that can exceed 100,000 times the amount
normally present in their environment.

The introduction of synthetic hydrocarbons into the marine and estuarine
environments is being more stringently controlled. More information is
required before the total impact of these materials can be predicted and
effectively controlled.

Major Regional Studies of Ocean Pollution

In FY 1975 comprehensive environmental studies were continued in the
New York Bight region and the Great Lakes.

In the 15,000 square-mile New York Bight region, a study was carried
out by NOAA in 1974-75 to determine the effects of existing and projected
pollution loads from nondumping sources, such as sewer outfalls, land
runoff, rivers, and atmospheric transport. The results of this preliminary
study showed that the volumes of pollutants from the Hudson and Raritan
Rivers far exceed those contributed by ocean disposal operations in the
Bight. The investigation has determined that dumped sewage sludge con-
tributes less than 6 percent of the total heavy metal input to the Bight.

Municipal wastewater discharged directly into the rivers and the Bight,
and urban runoff, contribute the bulk of the microbial load on the Bight.

In addition to the New York Bight project, other regional studies of
a smaller scale have been carried out in San Francisco Bay,
Prince William Sound, Puget Sound, and the Great Lakes. The International
Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) , a joint United States and Canadian
study of Lake Ontario and its drainage basin, is now in the analysis phase.
Work is continuing on the analysis of IFYGL data to provide descriptive
summaries of the distributions and variability of measured parameters,
statistical relationships of the parameters and processes observed, and
simulation and prediction models of the physical, chemical and biological
processes occurring in the lake. This analysis phase is expected to be
completed in FY 1976.

International Marine Pollution Research Activities

The international programs of marine environmental research continued
to make progress during FY 1975. Among these are the International Decade
of Ocean Exploration, the NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern
Society (CCMS) , the Integrated Global Ocean Station System (IGOSS) , and the
Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment (GIPME) .

The IDOE Environmental Quality Program of NSF supports basic research
on ocean pollution. Current projects include the Geochemical Ocean Sections
Study (GEOSECS) , the Pollutant Transfer Program (PTP) , the Biological Effects
Program (BEP) , and the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment.
In GEOSECS, scientists are now analyzing nearly 40 different geochemical
parameters of water samples taken from about 250 selected locations in the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Geochemists from the United States, Belgium,
Canada, France, Germany, India, Japan, and the United Kingdom are participat-
ing in the study, which should provide an improved understanding of the
diffusion of material in the oceans, the stirring and mixing that goes on
in the deep ocean, and the exchange of water and gas with the atmosphere.
In PTP, the objective is to find out how pollutants reach the ocean and
what happens to them once they get there. Researchers are tracing the
pathways of iron, manganese, copper, cadmium, and mercury into U.S. coastal
waters. The BEP is using laboratory studies to evaluate the effects of
metals, PHCs, and chlorinated hydrocarbons on marine organisms.

The NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society is
directing a part of its resources toward oil spill problems. This effort,
led by Belgium, is known as the North Sea Pollution Project. The current
major tasks of this project include the development of a North Sea diagnostic
model and encouraging member countries to conduct research on: (1) the fate
and effects of oil pollution and (2) methods to control oil spills.

The IGOSS Marine Pollution Monitoring Pilot Project, cosponsored by the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) , has for its objective a coordinated international effort
to collect data on PHCs in selected parts of the world's oceans. The areas
designated for initial study are in the North Atlantic, waters around Africa,

the Norwegian Sea, waters around Japan, and the northern part of the Indian
Ocean. The primary U.S. effort in IGOSS has come from the Federal agencies,
specifically NOAA, U.S. Navy, and Coast Guard ships. Efforts are underway
to broaden the scope of U.S. participation.

The GIPME program of IOC is intended to provide an international frame-
work within which national and regional programs on various aspects of
marine pollution may be coordinated in order to contribute to a continuing
evaluation of global marine pollution problems. This goal is to be achieved
through strategies outlined in the GIPME Comprehensive Plan, the first steps
of which are to conduct baseline surveys and to promote research on sources,
transfer processes, and effects of pollutants on marine ecosystems. The GIPME
International Coordination Group held two sessions during FY 1975 and made
substantial progress toward completion of the Comprehensive Plan and guide-
lines for the conduct of regional baseline studies of marine pollutants.

OVERFISHING

About 10 to 15 major finfish and shellfish stocks of commercial and
recreational interest to the United States have been overfished, primarily
by foreign distant-water fleets. Other stocks are in imminent danger of
being overfished by both foreign and domestic fleets, while others are
intensively harvested.

Recently negotiated fishery agreements have improved protection for some
stocks off U.S. coasts. For example, in the area of the International
Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) , the 1976 overall
quota of 650,000 metric tons negotiated in June 1975 is to allow for recovery
of depleted stocks in about 7 years. Despite gains in stock conservation
as a result of negotiations with the U.S.S.R. and Japan, the major groundfish
stocks in the northeast Pacific and East Bering Sea, however, continue to
deteriorate.

In the past 20 years there has been a substantial buildup of the fisher-
ies in the East Bering Sea. Fishing effort on some fish stocks has risen
sevenfold in the last 10 years. Successional fisheries on two of the major
fish stocks, the yellowfin sole and pollock, have been mentioned. Yellowfin
sole stocks remain at low levels because of earlier intense fishing, and
pollock now show signs of being overfished. Moreover, pulse fishing, in
which large mobile fleets exert massive fishing pressure on localized
grounds for a few years and then move on to other grounds, has seriously
affected other stocks including shrimp, ocean perch, and sablefish. Sub-
stantial catches of pollock have indirectly affected other fish stocks.
The bycatch in this fishery, consisting of sole, halibut, ocean perch, and
other bottomfish, has hindered the recovery of these stocks to former
abundance levels. Effective management of living resources in the Bering
Sea must be based upon knowledge of the biological, chemical, and physical
factors affecting the organic production in this region. Of particular
interest is the dynamic variability of the food chain and its effect on the

exploitable resources. Where several harvested species are involved in
systems of competition and predation, maximizing the yield is only possible
by managing the entire ecological complex.

In response to declines in adult stocks of bluefin tuna in the eastern
Atlantic and stocks harvested by longline and surface fisheries in the
western Atlantic, the International Commission for the Conservation of the
Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) in 1974 adopted regulatory measures proposed by the
United States to restrict the minimum weight of bluefin taken and limit
the level to be taken. In August 1975 the Congress passed the Atlantic
Tunas Conservation Act of 1975 to implement ICCAT.

At the 1975 International Whaling Commission (IWC) meeting a number of
decisions were made affecting the establishment of catch limits for world
whale stocks. A halt was agreed to on all fin and sei whaling in the North
Pacific, and, for the first time, all oceans were included under the IWC
quota system and catch limits were set for fin and minke whales in the
North Atlantic.

OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT

In addition to ocean pollution and overfishing, Section 202 of P.L.
92-532 refers also to "man-induced changes of ocean ecosystems". This
phrase encompasses offshore development activities such as deepwater ports,
powerplants, ocean mining, and outer continental shelf (OCS) oil and gas
extraction.

Offshore Deepwater Terminals

While over 40 percent of world oil shipments are carried in supertankers
larger than 100,000 deadweight tons (dwt) , the United States has only two
ports, both on the west coast, that can handle that size vessel. One solu-
tion to the problem is to emplace oil reception facilities offshore to
accommodate supertankers. To assure the protection of the coastal environ-
ment from potential adverse effects of such deepwater terminals, Congress
passed the Deepwater Port Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-627), which established a
licensing and regulatory framework for governing deepwater port development
and operation beyond the territorial seas of the United States.

In implementation of the Act, the Department of Transportation, in
consultation with NOAA and EPA, issued the guidelines to assist license
applicants in preparing deepwater port applications and the environmental
review criteria for use by the Secretary of Transportation in evaluating
these applications. These guidelines and criteria were issued in mid-1975.
All proposals for deepwater terminal construction will be subject to rigorous
assessment of potential environmental impact by a number of Federal and
State agencies in compliance with these guidelines.

Coastal and Offshore Powerplants

The concept of locating floating nuclear powerplants (FNPs) in offshore
waters continues to undergo careful study. The Nuclear Regulatory Commis-
sion (NRC) issued Draft Environmental Impact Statement is the most recent
summary document that evaluates not only the environmental impacts due to
construction and operation, but the broader implications of siting FNPs in
the coastal zone. According to the DEIS, the principal environmental
effects of constructing and operating FNPs along the coastal zone are
societal impacts which include: the migration of workers to the area
and attendant need for housing, services, and educational facilities;
increased water traffic along the shore zone; and the offshore appearance
of the station, which is regarded by some as not visually pleasing. The
severity of coastal or nuclear powerplant impacts on marine life will be
highly dependent on individual site characteristics and construction methods.
There are options available to minimize the extent of unavoidable adverse
effects, provided careful planning is employed early and assessment studies
are conducted beforehand.

Ocean Mining

In order to assess the presently unknown environmental impacts of deep
ocean mining and to develop appropriate environmental safeguards, NOAA
developed plans for a two-phase Deep Ocean Mining Environmental Study (DOMES)
Program. Phase I objectives include the establishment of environmental
baselines at representative mining sites, development of a first-order
prediction capability for environmental effects, and development of pre-
liminary environmental guidelines for industry and government. Industry's
tests of prototype deep ocean mining systems are to be monitored during
Phase II in order to evaluate actual environmental impacts and to verify,
and modify as necessary, prediction techniques and guidelines. During
FY 1975 preliminary measurements and research applicable to Phase I were
initiated in the North Pacific manganese nodule areas prior to the commence-
ment of Phase I during FY 1976. The results of the DOMES Program are
expected to facilitate the orderly development of deep ocean resources by
industry in an environmentally compatible manner.

Offshore Oil and Gas Development

An important element of the Administration's program to achieve self-
sufficiency in energy for the Nation is accelerated development of the
extensive oil and gas reserves lying under the outer continental shelf.
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) , which administers the OCS Lands Act,
has incorporated into its proposed leasing schedules provisions for the
support of environmental studies in the regions where leasing of tracts on
the OCS is anticipated. Studies commenced in FY 1974 in the coastal area
off Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, in the northeast Gulf of Alaska, and
in FY 1975 in the western Gulf of Mexico. In FY 1975 BLM expanded the
Alaskan environmental studies program to include virtually all regions of the
Alaskan continental shelf. BLM assigned responsibility for managing the
program to NOAA. After an intensive planning effort, field studies began
in the Beaufort Sea and two basins of the Eastern Bering Sea in April 1975.

Also during FY 1975 a lease sale was held in the Gulf of Mexico off the
coast of South Texas after an environmental baseline study was completed by
the University of Texas, Texas A&M University, NOAA, and the U.S. Geological
Survey (USGS) . In FY 1975 preliminary steps leading to the conduct of
environmental assessments were also begun for three additional OCS areas :
the Mid-Atlantic region, Southern California, and Georges Bank.

CHAPTER II
OCEAN POLLUTION

Coastal waters receive polluting materials from a variety of point and
nonpoint sources. Materials are introduced into the coastal environment from
polluted rivers and streams, land runoff, barge and other vessel dumping,
discharges of shoreline outfalls, wastes discharged from submerged pipes,
deballasting and bilge pumping, vessel casualties, shipping operations, and
atmospheric transport. The open ocean, while relatively insulated from the
myriad sources of pollutants affecting estuaries and the nearshore areas,
is beginning to show signs of man's impact. The mid-ocean areas evidence
elevated petroleum hydrocarbon levels, particularly along heavily trafficked
tanker routes, as well as elevated concentrations of heavy metals and
synthetic hydrocarbons, carried to remote oceanic regions through the
atmosphere. Oceanic currents also play a role in transporting polluting
materials from nearshore regions to deeper waters.

For both the nearshore and deepwater regions, the basic informational
needs are essentially the same. These include: (1) sources and quantities
of anthropogenic materials reaching the marine environment; (2) pathways of
such materials into and through the food chain; (3) the toxicity of the
materials to marine organisms and to man through the consumption of seafood;
and (4) the persistence of the pollutant in the marine environment. In
addition, research must be focused on both the acute or immediate effects as
well as the longer-term or chronic effects on marine organisms. While there
are many investigations in progress in this country and others, the task
ahead is immense and the present state of knowledge in many of the fundamental
areas of research is far from adequate. The problems of ocean pollution will
require continuous and systematic study by all countries capable of making
a contribution.

During FY 1975, the National Academy of Sciences released two major reports
concerned with ocean pollution. The report entitled Petroleum in the Marine
Environment!/ provides an excellent summary of what is currently known about
the subject and where future research efforts ought to be applied. A synopsis
of this report is provided in Appendix B. The second NAS report on marine
pollution issued in FY 1975 is Assessing Potential Ocean Pollutants!.' . The
result of a 2-1/2-year effort by a study panel and workshop, this report is
significant because it describes and tests a methodology for ascertaining
whether or not a given substance will adversely impact the marine environment.
The report is summarized in Appendix C.

Marine pollution research in this country has focused on petroleum hydro-
carbons, heavy metals, and man-made (synthetic) hydrocarbons. The rationale
for this is that these three classes of chemical compounds: (1) are already
present, in widely varying concentrations, in the oceans of the world;
(2) have or may have toxic effects on marine life; (3) may or may not have
a relationship to human health and well-being; and (4) will continue to be

10

introduced into the oceans more or less in direct relation to their produc-
tion, transport, and use.

PETROLEUM HYDROCARBONS

Petroleum hydrocarbons are introduced into the oceans as the
result of offshore oil production activities, oil tanker operations, vessel
casualties, coastal refinery operations, atmospheric transport, shoreline
discharges of municipal and industrial wastes, land runoff, and natural
submarine seeps. As stated in last year's annual report, the problem of
estimating input and flux of PHCs in the marine environment has proven to be
a most difficult task. The above-cited NAS study on petroleum in the oceans
provides a "best estimate" of 5.5 million metric tons annually, to the
oceans from man's activities. Petroleum additions to the oceans from
natural seeps in the sea floor cannot be measured with any scientific
certainty. The NAS estimate for this pathway was 0.6 mta, giving an overall
total of 6.1 mta.

Research on petroleum hydrocarbons is carried out in four general areas :
inputs, analytical methods, fate of PHCs (physical, chemical, and biological),
and effects of PHCs . While there are a large number of research activities
in progress in all these areas, the state of knowledge with respect to oil
in the ocean environment is still quite incomplete. For example, information
is lacking on such basic problems as how much oil enters the marine environ-
ment and from what sources, how to distinguish between PHCs and biogenic
hydrocarbons, and how to assess oil spills in an adequate manner.

Marine Oil Pollution Research Programs

Many governmental agencies and private organizations are currently
involved in research on oil pollution in the marine environment. Federal
agencies that conduct or sponsor marine oil pollution research activities
are: the National Science Foundation; the Environmental Protection Agency;
the Bureau of Land Management; Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS) of the Department of the Interior; the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Maritime Administration, and
the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) of the Department of Commerce; the
U.S. Coast Guard of the Department of Transportation; and the U.S. Navy of
the Department of Defense. Coastal states are also conducting or sponsoring
research on various aspects of marine oil pollution. In addition, the
National Academy of Sciences, Ford Foundation, Battelle Memorial Institute,
American Petroleum Institute (API) , various oil companies , and other
organizations carried out during the reporting period studies of the dis-
tribution, fate, or effects of oil in the ocean. The nature of research
programs and activities by these public agencies and private organizations
is briefly summarized.

National Science Foundation. As part of its IDOE program, NSF sponsors
basic research programs on the transfer and effects of pollutants,
including oil, in the marine environment. In the Controlled Ecosystems
Pollution Experiment, which started in 1973, natural marine communities

11

contained in large plastic enclosures located offshore of British Columbia
are subjected to low-level and long-term exposures of selected contaminants.
The first CEPEX test involving petroleum was started in the summer of 1974.
Preliminary findings showed that at low concentrations of PHCs (approximately
10-20 ppb) there was an enhancement of primary productivity (phytoplankton) .
However, more recent studies have shown that water extracts of fuel oils
in concentrations of 40-60 ppb caused a rapid population decrease followed
by species shifts in these lower trophic levels. The population decrease
occurs at the same time the hydrocarbon concentrations in the -water column
decreases. This could be the result of adsorption of the PHCs to particulate
matter, including the dying plankton, and consequent settling to the bottom.
Another tentative conclusion from the CEPEX project is that the effects of
metals and petroleum on bacteria are short-term due to rapid adaptation
(in days) of the populations to imposed stress. No work is underway to
study the effects of contaminants on benthic organisms.

The CEPEX effort is unique because it is an attempt to bridge the gap
between laboratory results and field observations of the fates and effects
of selected contaminants on marine organisms in their natural environment.

Also as part of its IDOE program, NSF initiated in 1972 the Pollutant
Transfer Program. While NSF's earlier Baseline Program (1971-1972) indicated
levels of contaminants in water, sediment, and biota, it did not provide
information on the pathways or mechanisms controlling the rate of pollutant
transfer from the source and within the ocean environment. The goals of
the Pollutant Transfer Program are: 1) to identify important transfer
pathways and mechanisms; 2) to evaluate major environmental factors that
affect transfer processes; and 3) to develop principles governing transfer
of pollutants.

During the first 2 years, primary research emphasis in the Pollutant
Transfer Program has been on the transport of petroleum, as well as chlori-
nated hydrocarbons and trace metals, to the ocean via the atmosphere, rivers,
sewage and industrial outfalls, and ocean dumping. Research also was begun
on the chemical form and degradation of these pollutants in the marine
environment. Biological studies were designed to investigate the mechanisms
of pollutant uptake by organisms, to verify transfer through the food web,
and to quantify the role of organisms in pollutant dispersion.

A workshop sponsored by NSF in January 1974 reviewed the findings of the
program and presented recommendations for additional research on pollutant
transfer. It was pointed out that little or no research attention was
being directed toward pollutants other than the three major classes
(petroleum hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and synthetic organics) and that this
deficiency should be corrected. The workshop participants suggested that
more work must be done to determine quantitative fluxes of the three major
classes of pollutants. Also recommended was an analytical means to distin-
guish between natural and anthropogenic sources of heavy metals and petroleum
hydrocarbons in the marine environment. The NSF published in 1974 a review
of the initial 2-year research effort carried out under the Pollutant
Transfer Program. J/

12

Environmental Protection Agency. Research programs on the effects of oil
in the marine environment are carried out by EPA in partial response to
Resolution 12 of the International Conference on Marine Pollution (London,
1973) , which considered the need to establish water quality criteria for
the protection of the marine environment. As a part of the mission to
develop the scientific basis for the establishment of water quality criteria
for marine and estuarine waters, EPA is conducting toxicological studies on
the acute and chronic effects of pollutants, including petroleum and heavy
metals. To date the agency has conducted original investigations to deter-
mine the acute toxicity of six petroleum products on four test organisms,
determined physiochemical properties of water emulsions of test oils,
completed a thorough literature review on the relative effects of different
refined fractions of crude oil, and developed acute toxicity bioassay
procedures for oil and oil dispersants. EPA has continued developing
bioassay methods to assess chronic and acute responses of marine organisms
to oil pollution using a flow-through system. Besides examining measurable
expressions such as feeding rates, tissue reactions are followed carefully
in order to determine any possible relationships between physiological
responses and tissue aberrations.

Field and laboratory studies are being carried out to determine the
effects of oil spills on marine biota. Uptake of benzopyrenes by marine
mollusks is being studied in an attempt to find possible cause/effect
relationships between oil components and the incidence of cancer lesions
in these animals, as has been reported to happen in oil spill sites.
Laboratory experimentation is being conducted to determine the effect of
different concentrations of oil on eggs, larvae, and juvenile fish. Further
studies are being designed to determine the effect of petroleum on repro-
ductive physiology of fish. Also, EPA is supporting a project granted to
the University of Rhode Island to study the response of ecosystems to oil
stress. The experimental system is expected to simulate the conditions in
Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. As oil is applied to the ecosystem,
several physiological, ecological, and chemical parameters will be monitored
to follow the impact of oil on the ecosystem.

Department of Commerce. NOAA has major research programs at Seattle,
Washington, and Auke Bay, Alaska, to determine and understand the effects of
petroleum oil on marine organisms. The ultimate objectives of these
programs are to learn how well organisms tolerate various levels of exposure
to oil and to define the limits of this tolerance. This knowledge is
required where relatively low levels of oil are continually released to
the marine environment from sewage, industrial effluents (including offshore
drilling operations), land runoff, recreational or transportation activities,
and where oil remains after a large spill.

In FY 1975, a NOAA interdisciplinary team, working at the National
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Northwest Fisheries Center at Seattle
and at Auke Bay continued to examine both the acute and chronic effects
of petroleum hydrocarbons.

13

Acute effects of oil/water dispersions and water-soluble fractions on
different life stages of fish and shellfish were studied. Larval forms
were more sensitive to oil and oil fractions, particularly during molting.
The frequency of molting by crustacean larvae appear to make them
especially sensitive to contact with oil. Sensitivity of animals during
their different life stages may be more critical than differences in sen-
sitivities among species. Of the eight species tested, all had similar
median tolerance limits, fish and shrimp were the species having best
tolerances, but juvenile crab were the most resistant. Data suggest that
toxicity of oil fractions is related to the amount of naphthalenes or
chemically similar compounds present. The toxic fraction is volatile;
after its evaporation, surviving fish recovered. Aftereffects of this
exposure are still unknown.

Chronic effects on marine organisms of sublethal levels of petroleum
and its fractions are being studied. Physiological and biochemical para-
meters are estimated to detect changes in the organisms and to determine
whether these changes could affect the survival of the species. The
studies document the role of such variables as temperature, concentration
of oil or oil fractions, manner of exposure, and size, age, and sex of the
animals. Some species of crabs lost their legs when they were exposed to
oil during molting. When salmonids were fed high levels of oil, they
had abnormal liver cells and structure that suggest possible metabolic and
functional alterations. These factors may be involved in the observed
decreased growth rate when the fish were fed high levels of oil. Salmonids
contain enzymes that permit the breakdown of aromatic hydrocarbons. This
ability suggests possible adaptation to the presence of petroleum oil if
the initial exposure is at a level that allows time for activation of the
enzymes. The enzymes and other mechanisms formed metabolic products in
various organs of the body. Their effects and degree of accumulation are
still unknown.

Research personnel from NOAA, EPA Region X, and the Washington State
Department of Biology completed a 2-year interdisciplinary field study
on the long-term chemical and biological effects of a persistent oil
spill from the grounded (1972) troopship Geneva! G. C, Meigs in a cove
on the northwest coast of Washington. The only organisms that appeared to
be affected were sea urchins, which had recovered by the end of the study,
and algae, which (except for the species Laminaria andersonii) also had
recovered by the end of the study period. Intertidal plants and animals,
fresh oil, and weathered tar balls were analyzed to follow changes in
content of paraffin (aliphatic) hydrocarbons during the period.

Accumulation of petroleum compounds in tissues of fish and shellfish
appears to be affected by types and levels of petroleum compounds, methods
of exposure, and species exposed. The species that were tested metabolized
the aliphatic (paraffin) compounds. Pink salmon fry rid themselves of most
of the accumulated naphthalenes even though the fish remained in con-
taminated water. After exposed shellfish were removed to clean water,
juvenile king crab rapidly cleansed themselves of the petroleum compounds,
but scallops and shrimp had a much slower rate of cleaning.

14

The accumulation in fish of the aromatic compounds such as naphthalenes
and anthracenes was related to chemical structure of the compounds. The
larger the size of the molecule the slower the excretion rate of the
compound and the greater the possibility of higher levels accumulating.
Thus, anthracene compounds remain a longer time than benzene compounds.
Benzene disappears so rapidly that it is rarely detected after the animal is
removed from exposure. The potential of excreted compounds, whether parent
compound or its metabolic products, for recycling and accumulation in other
animals is unknown.

In addition to the work being done at Seattle and Auke Bay, the NOAA
Office of Sea Grant sponsored during FY 1975 various university research
efforts related to marine oil pollution.

Sea Grant researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
are developing a model to predict the trajectory of oil spills given the type
of oil, volume of spill, and spill location. The model will predict the
size, shape, and movement of a spill as a function of time. This informa-
tion can be used to develop appropriate methodology for effective nearshore
and offshore cleanup systems. It will also be useful to decisionmakers,
relative to the siting of deepwater ports and terminal installations.

A Sea Grant-sponsored study at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is
focused on the physiological and biochemical effects of oil on selected
fishes. Researchers have shown that chronic and acute exposure to environ-
mental levels of petroleum hydrocarbons alters the carbohydrate and lipid
metabolism of those species under study. In anticipation of such stresses,
baseline studies are underway at the University of Alaska to assess back-
ground levels of petroleum hydrocarbons in the sediment and dominant benthic
organisms in Prudhoe Bay. These data will be used to assess the environ-
mental impact of offshore development in this area. Similar effects studies
at Louisiana State University are designed to determine the impact of
petroleum hydrocarbons on commercially important species, including shrimp
and oysters. Special emphasis is being placed on rates of uptake and
release of petroleum hydrocarbons and their effect on growth and recruitment
of young oysters.

Also within the Department of Commerce, the Maritime Administration
continued to carry out its pollution abatement research and develop-
ment program and sponsored a sampling program designed to measure
hydrocarbon concentrations along heavily travelled tanker routes in the
Pacific Ocean. In its research and development program, MarAd is evaluating
vessel equipment and operating procedures and systems to enable U.S. vessels
to operate within specified national and international discharge standards
without undue economic penalty. Major R&D antipollution activities in
FY 1975 included the evaluation of on-board oil/water separation and
processing equipment, oil discharge control and monitoring systems,
improved tank cleaning procedures, segregated ballast designs, navigation
equipment, explosion suppression aboard tankers, and deepwater port
equipment .

15

Since 1971, Exxon Corporation, under contract to MarAd, has been
collecting and analyzing water samples along tanker routes in the Atlantic,
Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and in the Mediterranean Sea. This worldwide
sampling effort was designed to generate baseline data on the concentration
and distribution of hydrocarbons (including both petroleum hydrocarbons and
naturally occurring hydrocarbons) in the open sea. During the 1971-1973
sampling program in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, water samples were
obtained from Exxon tankers and from oceanographic research vessels and
were analyzed. More than 1,050 samples were taken along four main tanker
routes in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas. Samples were taken from
the top meter of the water column and at a depth of 10 meters. The results
of the 1971-73 program indicate that the median concentration of nonvolatile
hydrocarbons (C14 and higher) was 4 parts per billion (ppb) with values
from 1.3 ppb to 13 ppb falling within one standard deviation. These values
include hydrocarbons produced by marine organisms. In the South and North
Atlantic, most surface water was found to contain <10 ppb of nonvolatile
hydrocarbons. An occasional sample was found to contain 10-25 ppb. Some
higher concentrations were found near ports in the northern part of the
Mediterranean Sea and in the Indian Ocean near the Persian Gulf. However,
the higher values, according to the Exxon study, probably result from recent
input of petroleum from shipping activity near the immediate sampling
area. hJ

The Exxon-MarAd Atlantic Ocean survey was followed by a comparable
baseline study in the Pacific Ocean. This survey began in mid-1973 and was
completed in 1974. NOAA joined MarAd as a sponsor of the Pacific Ocean
survey by Exxon. The Pacific sampling program differed from that in the
Atlantic in that volatile hydrocarbons (C4 - C3) also were measured.
Analysis of some 850 surface and subsurface samples collected in the Pacific
Ocean was completed in FY 1975. The 1973-74 survey included tanker routes
between such distant points as Southern California, Adak, Honolulu, Tokyo,
Singapore, Wellington, Antarctica, and the Panama Canal.

Surface water in the Pacific was predominantly of <10 ppb hydrocarbon
content. Nonvolatile hydrocarbons showed a median surface water concentra-
tion of 2 ppb, with values from 0.8 ppb to 13 ppb falling within one
standard deviation. The highest values were found between San Francisco and
Cook Inlet, Alaska. Samples from the 2,800-meter depth showed median con-
centrations of 0.5 ppb. The median concentration of volatile hydrocarbons
was 0.09 ppb, with little difference between surface and the 2,800-meter
depth. North Pacific waters appeared to contain higher concentrations of
both volatiles and nonvolatiles as compared with the South Pacific. 5 /
Only the northwest sector and, in particular, the San Francisco/Cook Inlet
tanker route had hydrocarbon concentrations in the 10-25 ppb range. Tokyo
harbor water had a measured concentration of 25 ppb. 6 /

To identify the origin of the hydrocarbons, analyses are made of the
sample's complex compositions. Such analyses frequently indicate the
presence of one or more compounds that came from marine organisms. However,
petroleum-type hydrocarbons appear to dominate, even in samples where
hydrocarbons from marine organisms occur. Petroleum-derived hydrocarbon

16

compounds can originate from natural seeps or man's activity. Further
investigative work is needed to find a more definitive indication of hydro-
carbons derived from these sources .

The National Bureau of Standards is supporting NOAA in the OCS Environ-
mental Assessment Program now underway in Alaska. The NBS is carrying
out trace hydrocarbon analyses and is serving as a quality assurance
laboratory for hydrocarbon analysis in sediments, tissue, and fish. NBS
personnel participate in the initial sampling cruise made by each NOAA
laboratory or contractor that undertakes hydrocarbon analyses. The NBS
laboratory receives sample splits from all participating laboratories
and processes them to provide quality assurance and interlaboratory
correlation. The NBS is also developing methods and equipment needed to
conduct trace hydrocarbon analysis in sea ice and at the air-ice-water
interface.

Department of the Interior. Within the U.S. Geological Survey there
are ongoing studies on pollution by heavy metals and organic chemical
compounds in rivers, and coastal, estuarine, and continental shelf waters.
The input of pollutants from rivers has been measured at selected stations
for many years. The general "state of pollution" in estuaries, has been
studied in most west coast estuaries, some gulf coast estuaries, and one
east coast estuary. Ongoing studies have been accelerated in outer con-
tinental shelf areas of potential leasing for oil and gas development. The
field studies are complemented by laboratory studies that include organic
and trace metal geochemistry, origin of petroleum hydrocarbons, pollution
indexes, and fate and dispersion of contaminants. The effects of OCS
activities on aquifers that extend seaward beyond the coast also are being
studied by the Geological Survey.

The role of the Bureau of Land Management in marine oil pollution
research is in the context of the offshore oil and gas leasing program
which that agency administers. BLM activities in this area are described
in Chapter IV. Also described in Chapter IV are activities of the Fish
and Wildlife Service which is conducting studies to determine the effects
of acute and chronic oil pollution on migratory birds, including seabirds,
at its Patuxent, Maryland, Wildlife Research Center.

Coast Guard. Development of forecasting techniques to predict pollutant
movements is continuing. Coast Guard emphasis is fourfold: to develop
field guides for use by operating personnel in forecasting movement of oil
and hazardous substances in specific harbors of interest; to define
procedures for the preparation by trained personnel of general field
guides for any harbors; to continue to examine the potential of computers
to assist in the movement forecasting problem; and to define the models and
data base on movement mechanisms for petroleum products, cryogenic materials,
and other hazardous substances. Specific harbor guides have been developed
for New York, Puget Sound and San Francisco; guides for Galveston, San Diego
and Long Beach are now being completed. Several computer models are being
tested for accuracy and application to Coast Guard mission objectives. As
an input to the environmental impact analysis of proposed deepwater port
and offshore drilling sites off the New Jersey /Delaware coast, the Coast
Guard has provided the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) a statistical
movement guide for potential oil spill accidents.

17

An air-deliverable, high-volume pumping system for off-loading liquid
cargo from a stricken vessel was developed and delivery of eighteen opera-
tional systems to National Strike Teams was completed in FY 1974. A high
seas oil containment barrier system capable of air transport and deployment
was also developed. This system can contain oil in current speeds up to
1 knot and in 4-foot waves and can survive in higher currents and wave
heights. Delivery of fifteen operational systems to field commands was
completed in FY 1975. Development of two high seas oil recovery systems was
completed in FY 1975 and procurement of operational systems is scheduled
for FY 1976. The feasibility of two concepts to control and remove oil in
currents of up to 10 knots was demonstrated. Further work is underway to
demonstrate the feasibility of these concepts to function as total removal
systems. Research continued on the feasibility of using inexpensive cotton
wastes as a sorbent oil removal system.

Studies and field tests were completed on the risks, fate, and effects
of petroleum spills in the Arctic environment to support the need for
developing the necessary response and cleanup capability. Commercially
available oil recovery equipment was tested with oil in an ice tank to
evaluate its feasibility for use in an ice-laden environment. Two devices
demonstrated that they had potential.

The Coast Guard's Pollution Incident Report System (PIRS) continued to
provide valuable statistical data on oil discharges into the navigable
waters of the United States, the contiguous zone, and the high seas.

Studies are continuing in an effort to develop means to separate and
monitor waste oil in bilge and ballast water discharged from ships.
Current projects include laboratory and shipboard analysis of a centrifugal
oily water separator system and development of oil-in-water
content monitors. Prototype development of one or more of these monitors
is also planned. In addition, a test facility is being developed in Mobile,
Alabama to accommodate testing of oily water separating and monitoring
equipment for compliance with specifications proposed by the Intergovern-
mental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) . Data obtained at the
facility will be used to determine the validity of the proposed specifica-
tions, to support the U.S. position on the specifications before IMCO, and
to draft U.S. domestic specifications. These efforts continue to be closely
coordinated with MarAd, EPA, and the Navy.

Coast Guard operational evaluations of a prototype multisensor airborne
surveillance system have been highly successful. Several oil pollution
discharge violation cases during FY 1975 were directly attributable to
detections by the system of vessels discharging under cover of bad
weather and cloud cover. The prototype equipment is currently being
upgraded and installed in an HC-130 aircraft for long term operational use.
Future systems to fit smaller surveillance aircraft are under development.
Operational evaluations of fixed-site-spot and scanning sensors at several
harbor locations continue.

Systems to provide capabilities for the positive identification of the
source of spilled oil are being procured and distributed to operating

18

Captain of the Port units. Usage of these systems has resulted in an
ever-increasing savings in U.S. Government contingency funds that would
have been expended for spill cleanup had polluting sources not been
promptly identified and caused to recover the spilled oil. Sampling and
transmittal procedures and equipment for use by oil spill investigation
teams are being made available to Coast Guard field commands.

Energy Research and Development Administration. Battelle Memorial
Institute (Battelle-Northwest) continued their studies for the Energy
Research and Development Administration (ERDA) on the fate and effects of oil
in the marine environment. The studies were centered on determining the
effects of long-term, chronic exposure to oil on marine intertidal communi-
ties and individual organisms , and the ultimate fate of the oil in the
intertidal environment. Major progress was made in the development of a
flow-through exposure system that would enable researchers to deliver known
amounts of seawater-borne oil solution to organisms or communities for
periods of 6 to 12 months. The system was tested and detailed analyses
of the concentration and compound types present in the system were
conducted.

U.S. Navy. The Navy, through the Office of Naval Research (ONR) , in
FY 1975 continued to sponsor several research projects that examine the
microbial degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. The Navy is supporting
work at Texas University, Austin, the University of Maryland, Rutgers
University, Georgia State University, State University of New York
(Brockport) on microbial degradation of crude oils and other forms of
PHCs. In addition, ONR is funding research on degradation of PHCs under
low-temperature marine conditions at the University of Rhode Island.

A study at the Texas University Medical Branch is concerned with the
chronic effects of hydrocarbons on chemoreceptive membranes of marine
invertebrates. A similar effects study with bacteria is underway at
Harvard University. This investigation shows that chlorinated hydro-
carbons have a greater inhibitory effect on chemoreception than PHCs.

Private Sector Oil Pollution Research

In the private sector, various research organizations and industrial
groups are engaged in various facets of marine oil pollution research.
Some of the more significant investigations carried out during the FY 1975
period are described.

The Ford Foundation, as part of its Energy Policy Project, published
in 1974 a review of the ecological and technological aspects of marine
oil pollution. U The Ford Foundation document recommends that, because
of the large knowledge gaps and conflicting opinion surrounding marine oil
pollution, great caution be applied in making policy decisions involving
oil and the marine environment. The report urges more and better research
into the problem, particularly in the more neglected aspects, such as
sublethal effects, oil pollution in estuaries, background levels of biogenic
and petroleum hydrocarbons, and oil pollution and its relationship to
human health.

19

The oil industry sponsors research on marine oil pollution through the
American Petroleum Institute (API), individual companies, and regional
consortia. Recent API-sponsored field and laboratory research includes:
sorbent recovery systems; effects of oil and chemically dispersed oil on
selected marine biota; testing of oil recovery equipment; oiled waterfowl
rehabilitation techniques; shoreline protection and restoration methods;
biological effects of pelagic oil (tar balls) ; microbial degradation of
PHCs; sublethal effects on marine organisms subjected to chronic exposure
to oil; fate of oils in a water environment; and development and valida-
tion of techniques for the analysis of petroleum components in water,
sediments, and marine animal tissues. 8/

API has made a direct contribution to laboratory studies on oil in the
marine environment by establishing four reference oils for use by their
contractors. These four oils include a southern Louisiana crude, a Kuwait
crude, a Venezuelan Bunker C, and a #2 fuel oil. Limited amounts of these
reference oils are available at Texas A&M University at nominal cost for
other research workers.

The Institute has sponsored since 1974 a study of growth irregularities
and abnormalities in marine biota subject to long-term natural seepage. The
study site is Coal Oil Point, California, and the present contractor is the
Allan Hancock Foundation of the University of Southern California (USC) .
Findings to date indicate no adverse sublethal effects on selected benthic
organisms and no relationship between PHCs in sediments and either the
biomass or the abundance or presence/absence of any group or organisms.

Another API-sponsored project at USC involves the development of a
computerized model capable of describing and perhaps predicting the actual
exposure of marine animals at all depths to major PHC fractions found in an
oil spill. Work on this contract is scheduled for completion in early 1976;
the final report will include a description of the oil spill simulation
model and validation of the model. For validation, USC investigators have
been comparing model predictions against known spill data from Santa Barbara,
controlled experimental spills in the Chesapeake Bay, and the accidental
spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia (1970). API reports that some
impressive correlations between computer predictions and actual spill
trajectories have been obtained.

The JBF Scientific Corporation is under contract to API to conduct four
planned oil spills about 60 miles off the coast of Massachusetts. The
objective is to obtain physical and chemical data on the dispersion of oil
slicks in the water column by natural forces. This project supplements
the USC oil spill model project. It will provide information for model
development and verification in areas previously identified by the USC
researchers as data-deficient.

API also sponsored a followup study of the West Falmouth area affected
by the 1969 spill of No. 2 fuel oil. The contractor is the Woods Hole
Marine Biological Laboratory. This study has shown that the bottom fauna
have substantially recovered, although the number of species in the affected
marsh area is lower than at the control marsh. The offshore area is nearer
to total recovery than the marsh areas .

20

HEAVY METALS

Environmental stress caused by the introduction of heavy metals can alter
the ecosystem and limit the recruitment, abundance, and distribution of
living marine resources. Heavy metals can kill marine organisms or so con-
taminate them that they are a hazard to human health. To provide a basis for
environmental management , it is necessary to learn what levels of heavy
metals can cause mortalities and what levels limit development, growth,
reproduction, and other physiological processes at various stages in their
life history. Heavy metals that accumulate in various tissues and organs
are of concern to humans who eat these marine species.

Research on Physiological and Biochemical Effects

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Studies were underway in the laboratory to determine how heavy metals —
such as arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, nickel, zinc, and silver — affect
the normal life functions of certain marine species. These experiments,
when correlated with contaminant levels in the environment, will indicate
the marine animals that are extremely sensitive to minute amounts of metals
and also the animals or communities that are likely to flourish where traces
of specific metal contaminants are present. Another area of research
interest was the long-term effects that heavy metals may have on marine
organisms .

Experiments to measure physiological and biochemical changes in various
species of marine shellfish, including lobsters, and fish common to the
Atlantic Coast have been continued. Results have shown, for example, that
different metals have different effects on different early life stages of
the American oyster. Eggs are more sensitive than larvae to mercury and
silver, less sensitive to copper and zinc, and equally sensitive to
nickel. 9-10/ On the other hand, juvenile bay scallops are less sensitive
than oyster eggs to mercury and silver, but more sensitive to cadmium and
arsenic. 11/ This shows the need to understand how heavy metals affect all
life stages of a number of species before firm conclusions can be drawn
regarding the effects of heavy metals on marine ecosystems. When exposed to
low concentrations of heavy metals for 1 to 4 months, a number of juvenile
and adult fish, mollusks, and crustaceans showed differential stress
response. These responses included altered rates of oxygen consumption,
biochemical dysfunction, changes in blood components, and rapid uptake of
metals (silver, cadmium, and mercury) > 12-16/ Histopathological examina-
tions of certain fish species were also undertaken.

Environmental Protection Agency

Experiments have been made to assess the effect of an array of metals on
early life stages of several marine organisms. Differences in toxicity of
the same metal appear within the same groups of organisms and between groups.
Studies also have been made to determine cadmium and copper uptake by
shellfish in long-term exposure tests.

21

National Science Foundation

NSF also supports research on the biological effects of heavy metal
pollutants on marine organisms and ecological communities . Both laboratory
and field experiments are included. Laboratory work is concerned mainly
with effects of pollutants on single classes of organisms. Field studies
are integrated into the Controlled Ecosystem Pollution Experiment
of IDOE. This cooperative research project of international scope involves
trapping water and natural communities in large plastic enclosures (10 m
diameter by 30 m deep) and assessing the effects of added pollutants on
marine ecosystems — the long-term effects influencing the stability of marine
populations. The initial CEPEX enclosures are in Saanich Inlet, Vancouver
Island, British Columbia. CEPEX is described under International Marine
Pollution Research Activities.

Metals in Seafood and Sediments

Federal agencies and university researchers are making considerable
effort to quantitate how much trace metals humans contribute to the marine
environment and to evaluate the potential threat of these metal additions
to marine organisms and the people who consume them. A number of programs
are measuring concentrations of trace metals in marine organisms. Some of
these are monitoring programs and others are basic research efforts to
understand the cycling and transfer processes of metals in the marine
environment .

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NOAA has the major Federal Government program now underway to determine
baseline levels of metals in seafood. This effort, known as the Resource
Survey, has been underway since 1971. The goals and objectives of this
program are to:

1. Define occurrences of microconstituents (trace metals) in marine
fish and fishery products,

2. Assess significance of the amount of metals in seafood in relation
to human consumption,

3. Influence the establishment of sound regulation or guidelines, and

4. Establish an information base to assist other organizations with
related responsibilities.

Initially, a preliminary resource survey was made to measure the con-
centrations of 15 elements (mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, selenium,
silver, chromium, copper, zinc, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, manganese,
antimony, and tin) in muscles and livers of 204 species of marine fish and
shellfish (85% finfish and 15% shellfish) from seven major geographical
areas (North and Mid-Atlantic, South Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, California,
Pacific Northwest, Alaska, and Hawaii). Data from this survey will identify
potential problems relative to certain trace metals in particular species

22

and geographical areas. The second phase of the study — detailed surveys —
has been initiated to confirm the extent and nature of potential problems.
These surveys will determine: (a) levels of trace metals; (b) their
relationship to size and sex of organisms, season, and locale; and (c) the
necessity or possibility of managing the problem. The third phase of the
program will be to relate consumer intake of trace metals in fish to
consumer intake from other food sources. All samples for the first goal
have been collected, and 85 percent of the analytical data have been
collected. An interim report of the resource survey, which has just been
released, describes the approach used in planning and carrying out this
survey and includes analytical data representing approximately the first
third of the survey samples assembled ,±2J

NOAA personnel participated in two dumpsite studies in 1974 and 1975
to collect sediments and deep-sea fish samples for heavy metal analyses
in the vicinity of Deepwater Dumpsite 106. This site, located 90 nautical
miles east of Cape Henlopen, Delaware, in water depths of about 2,000
meters, is used for the disposal of industrial wastes.

Sediment samples were collected and analyzed for heavy metal content.
It was determined that at most stations having water depths of about
2,000 meters there was relatively little heavy metal present when compared
with sediment samples collected inshore in polluted areas such as the
New York Bight Apex. However, it was noted that these sediments had
somewhat more heavy metals than sediments collected from the outer reaches
of the continental shelf in the Bight. This may be due either to dumping
operations or to materials being carried down the Hudson Shelf Valley.

The data from the two cruises provide information on the distribution
of heavy metals in sediments and fishes from deeper waters. It is possible
that future industrial and domestic wastes may be dumped at sites beyond
the continental shelf-slope break. The information at hand provides a
preliminary baseline.

Environmental Protection Agency

EPA is sponsoring studies to determine the influence of dredged material
and sediment pollution on trace metal assimilation by organisms and to
document the history of heavy metal pollution in estuaries. EPA has also
issued a grant designed to answer specific questions concerning the fate
and impact of trace metal pollution in marine waters.

Interagency Program

The National Shellfish Sanitation Program, conducted by a group of
Federal, State, and private sector research organizations, is sponsoring
a Chemistry Task Force which is attempting to establish environmental levels
of four trace metals (lead, copper, zinc, and cadmium) in approved shell-
fish growing beds along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts of the
United States and Canada. This represents an attempt to determine back-
ground concentrations of these metals in different growing areas so that

23

metal contaminated shellfish beds can be readily identified. Once this
is known, efforts can be made by appropriate State and Federal agencies
to identify and eliminate sources of unnatural inputs of these metals to
these growing areas. To accomplish this task, standard procedures have
to be followed by all participants. During 1975 the Task Force published
a brochure entitled Chemical Procedures, Collection, Preparation^ and
Analysis of Trace Metals in Shellfish. (Department of HEW publication
#FDA 76-2006) . These methods will be used by all participants to
(1) establish background levels of trace elements and (2) identify areas
where contamination may have occurred.

Pollutant Transfer Studies

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

Research is underway in NOAA to determine (1) the cycling of heavy
metals in estuaries and coastal waters of the Southeastern United States
and (2) the effects of these metals on biota common to the region.
Research completed to date includes studies on the influence of environ-
mental variables on the concentrations of trace metals in marine
oiganisms 18^22/ and on the flux of trace metals in the estuarine environ-
ment .±$z2^L/ In addition, research began during the past year to determine
the lethal and sublethal effects of copper on marine biota. This work is
directed toward determining which chemical forms of copper are most toxic
to marine organisms in the estuarine environment and then designing
bioassay experiments in the laboratory which will expose the test organisms
to these specific chemicals .

SYNTHETIC HYDROCARBONS

Insecticides, herbicides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are
synthetic hydrocarbons that threaten the marine environment. Many such
compounds persist in the environment and are toxic at low concentrations.
These chemicals, particularly the chlorinated hydrocarbons, accumulate in
aquatic food chains and could adversely affect not only such organisms as
fish and fish-eating birds, but also man, the ultimate consumer.

The EPA is carrying out a major research program on the effects of
synthetic hydrocarbons on marine ecosystems at the Gulf Breeze Environ-
mental Research Laboratory (GBERL) in Gulf Breeze, Florida. Activities at
GBERL during FY 1975 included: (1) evaluating the impact of pesticides
and PCBs on marine ecosystems and continuously updating methods to appraise
overall ecological effects; (2) determining the pathways and mechanisms of
microbial degradation of pesticides in the marine environment; (3) assaying
new pesticides and pesticides involved in EPA's reregistration process for
effects on specific marine organisms and populations of "indicator"
species; and (4) establishing water quality criteria for pesticides and
PCBs by utilizing information obtained in items listed above and by
studying effects of the chemicals on sensitive life stages and behavior
of selected organisms. Specific research projects and findings during
FY 1975 are described in the following.

24

The chemical, toxaphene, has been the most widely used insecticide
in the United States in recent years , accounting for over 50 percent of
total organochlorine insecticides applied to crops. Even greater amounts
of toxaphene may be applied in the future because of restrictions on related
insecticides such as DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, heptachlor, and chlordane.
Increased usage of toxaphene may present environmental problems. For
example, preliminary data obtained by GBERL during FY 1975 indicate that
newly hatched sheepshead minnow fry, exposed for 28 days to five concentra-
tions of toxaphene ranging from 0.2 to 2.5 ppb suffered potentially harmful
effects. The fry survived exposure to 1.1 ppb, but died when exposed to
2.5 ppb. Hatching time and growth appeared to be unaffected by 0.2 to
2.5 ppb of toxaphene. Fry bioaccumulated toxaphene 6,100 to 14,000 times
the concentration measured in water.

Research has continued to assess the potential effects of other pesti-
cides such as heptachlor, hexachlorobenzene (HCB) , and DDT. Acute
bioassays to determine effects of heptachlor on various life stages of
the sheepshead minnow indicated that the 96-hour LC^q27J for fry was 3.6 ppb;
for juveniles, 10.5 ppb, and for adults, 16.3 ppb. Tentative analysis of
data from tests that included the reproductive portion of the life cycle
indicates that safe concentrations were 18 to 27% of concentrations lethal
to half of the juvenile fish in 96-hour tests.

Twenty-eight-day bioaccumulation studies were conducted to determine the
effects of HCB on the American oyster and the pinfish. Each test was
followed by a 28-day depuration period to record the rate of loss of HCB's
four isomers. Maximum concentration factors were 210 in oyster meat and
125 in pinfish muscle. After a 7-day depuration period, no HCB was detected
in oysters or pinfish. A 96-hour flow-through bioassay was conducted to
determine the LC50 of DDT to juvenile brown shrimp. These data were
required to better evaluate the environmental effects of proposed DDT
applications to crops in Louisiana. The LC50 for DDT in this test was
0.14 ppb.

The recent discovery that wastes from a manufacturer of the chlorinated
hydrocarbon insecticide Kepone have contaminated the lower James River,
necessitated a new research effort to evaluate the impact of this pollutant
on this estuarine system. Experiments will attempt to reveal the level of
concentration of Kepone in organisms that are commercially harvested in the
James River estuary. These organisms constitute a direct route of this
potential carcinogen to humans. Studies will also focus on the loss of
Kepone from organisms transplanted to clean water, the direct toxic effects
of Kepone on individual organisms, the potential ecological hazards in the
James River estuary, and the fate and persistence of any harmful compounds
in the estuary. These data will aid in the assessment of the problem and
in developing effective corrective action.

Another group of synthetic chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCBs, are manu-
factured by one company in this country. These complex mixtures have been
used as transformer oils, condenser dielectrics, plasticizers, printing
components, and other industrial products. They are stable and persistent

25

and, like DDT, are widely prevalent in the environment. They are found

in ocean water, sediment, and biota. In the United States, about 40 million

pounds of PCBs are produced each year.

Tests indicate that all PCBs are toxic to certain estuarine organisms
and their degree of bioaccumulation is significant. A study is underway to
determine the amount and modes of input of PCBs in the Los Angeles Bight.
Preliminary results indicate that atmospheric fallout is a significant
source (up to 30%) of the local input of PCBs. The rate of input and solu-
bilities of one tested form differ from those of other forms of PCBs. In
addition, caged mussel experiments indicate that the rate of depuration of
PCBs is approximately the same as the rate of uptake.

Recently, the U.S. manufacturer of PCBs voluntarily restricted their
distribution. However, studies show that both freshwater and marine
organisms continue to accumulate these chemicals in their fatty tissues.

In the area of methodology for synthetic hydrocarbon research, it has
long been recognized that long-term, sublethal exposures of organisms to
pollutants provide valuable information in assessing the potential stress
of contaminants to estuarine and marine organisms and ecosystems. Such
studies have been limited by: the inability of many species to mature
and reproduce under laboratory conditions; relatively lengthy time require-
ments for entire life cycles; the high costs of necessary environmental
controls; and the lack of information on the nutritional requirements of
larval stages.

Two recent developments may improve this situation. First, it has
been determined that the sheepshead minnow, an estuarine fish of the
Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, is suitable for both partial chronic and chronic
(egg-to-egg) bioassays. The fish is easily held at high population
densities in the laboratory and produces numerous eggs. Generation time
for this species is short (3 to 4 months) and its small adult size (average
male length is 48 mm) provides for relatively inexpensive bioassays. The
susceptibility of this species to organochlorine chemicals is similar to
that demonstrated by other estuarine fishes. Tests utilizing this fish,
therefore, should yield significant information on the effects of toxicants
on the estuarine community.

Second, laboratory experiments conducted over the past several months
indicate that small, estuarine shrimp-like crustaceans called mysids may
function as reliable, practical bioassay animals for use in conducting
life-cycle studies for the purpose of determining sublethal effects of
contaminants. Based on tests using cadmium, the mysid demonstrated
sensitivity to this toxicant an order of magnitude greater than previously
exhibited by other estuarine biota.

Thus, in terms of laboratory maintenance, life-cycle time requirements,
and representativeness of response, the mysid appears to be an organism
quite suitable for long-term bioassay studies. Its utilization apparently
can conserve time and resources and aid in the establishment of water
quality standards and effective water pollution control procedures.

26

NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service conducted research to
determine the levels of DDT and PCBs in three Pacific Coast species of
fish (lingcod, albacore tuna, and striped bass) and on menhaden fish and
products (meal, oil, solubles, and stickwater) from the Middle Atlantic,
South Atlantic, and Gulf of Mexico. DDT and PCB levels in 58 out of 60
samples of the three Pacific Coast species did not exceed 1.0 ppm which
is well below the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) action level for raw
fish of 5.0 ppm for both compounds. A pronounced decrease in DDT and PCB
levels in menhaden was noted over the 5-year period 1969-74. This decrease
is probably due to the restricted use of DDT in agriculture and PCBs in
manufacturing .

NOAA Sea Grant research on the environmental impacts of synthetic
hydrocarbons has concentrated primarily on the effects of persistent
chlorinated hydrocarbons (pesticides) on food chains in the Great Lakes.
Scientists at the University of Wisconsin are analyzing the accumulation
and impact of these compounds (i.e., DDT, PCB, DDE, dieldrin, aldrin, and
HCB) and their major degradation products (metabolites) on phytoplankton
and zooplankton in Lake Michigan. Several microbial strains in the
sediments of the lake were found to actively dechlorinate or degrade the
PCBs. A project just beginning is focusing on the effects of various PCBs
on the morphology, development, and survival of lake trout. Early results
suggest detrimental effects are substantial. In a more positive vein,
another contaminant, 3-triflouro-methyl-4-nitrophenol, has been deliberately
placed into the tributaries of Lake Michigan in a successful effort to
control the sea lamprey. PCBs have become a severe contaminant problem
in Lake Michigan, with levels in some large lake trout and salmon reaching
50 parts per million (ppm) , ten times the safe levels for consumption set
by the FDA. Sea Grant scientists have found that salmon and trout con-
centrate PCBs at one hundred thousand to a million times the levels found
in surrounding waters. In effect, the fish feed as the PCB sinks, taking
in these compounds very rapidly and eliminating them very slowly. The
compounds are taken up through the gills, fins, and skin.

Other Sea Grant-sponsored studies have examined the effects of PCBs
on monkeys and have shown that animals fed half the recommended safe FDA
levels in their diets (2.5 ppm) suffered severe health problems, developing
acne, hair loss, swollen eyelids and lips, enlarged livers, and stomach
ulcers within two months. The infants of PCB-fed females are small and
contain comparable levels of PCB in their fatty tissue. Detectable levels
persist in both mothers and infants for 1-1/2 years. Though man is not
likely to consume this level of PCBs on a continuous basis in his diet,
the research does raise questions about the safe levels set by the FDA
since the monkey's metabolic pathways are similar to man's.

At its Great Lakes Fishery Laboratory in Ann Arbor, Michigan, the
Fish and Wildlife Service determines the identity, severity, areas
of distribution, and changing trends of contaminants (DDT, DDE, and PCBs)
that are a potential threat to the fish and fisheries of the Great Lakes.
FWS also determines the toxicity thresholds of contaminants in physio-
logical and biochemical systems of the Great Lakes fishes and invertebrates.

27

The NSF/IDOE program is studying synthetic organic compounds in its
pollutant transfer and biological effects programs. Light halocarbons,
including Freon and dry cleaning solvents have been measured in air and
in the surface waters along the coasts. The transport routes for heavier
halocarbons including DDT, toxaphene, and PCBs are surface runoff, rivers,
and the atmosphere, depending on their volatility. Toxaphene, a pesticide
used in growing cotton, is presently transported to the Atlantic Ocean
in concentrations 100,000 times greater than DDT. The biological effects
of synthetic organic compounds are also being studied. The decreasing
levels of DDT and PCBs off California are leading to better reproductive
success of marine animals and birds. In the laboratory, different life
stages of crabs and shrimp are being exposed to PCBs and polychlorinated
naphthalene (Halowax) with deleterious effects at the 10 ppb level. The
ability of marine bacteria to degrade PCBs is also being studied.

In summary, new information on the effects of synthetic hydrocarbons is
becoming available, particularly in regard to single species. The intro-
duction of these compounds into the marine and estuarine environments is
being more stringently controlled. More information, however, is required
before the total impact of these materials can be predicted and effectively
controlled. Specifically, knowledge of the ecosystem response to synthetic
hydrocarbons, both singly and in combination, must be broadened before the
environmental stress caused by these compounds can be properly evaluated
and controlled.

MAJOR REGIONAL STUDIES
OF OCEAN POLLUTION

New York Bight

The New York Bight, a 15,000-square-mile area of the ocean extending
from the tip of Long Island, New York, to Cape May, New Jersey, and out to
the edge of the continental shelf , is the ultimate repository of about
4 million metric tons of industrial wastes and 5 million metric tons of
sewage sludge annually from the New York/New Jersey metropolitan region.
Although ocean dumping of industrial and municipal wastes accounts for a
significant fraction of the contaminants entering the Bight , at least five
other sources or pathways of pollutants are important. They are: sewer
outfalls, dredging and dredge spoil disposal, land runoff, the Hudson and
Raritan Rivers, and atmospheric transport. .

In the early 1970s NOAA initiated the Marine Ecosystem Analysis (MESA)
program, which consists of multidisciplinary investigations of the ecology
of a given marine environment and the changes in that natural system which
result from human activities and natural forces. The New York Bight was
selected as the first U.S. coastal area to undergo a comprehensive study
under this program.

28

In FYs 1974 and 1975 most of the resources of the MESA New York Bight
project were directed to an investigation of the immediate problem of
dumping of wastes in the Bight. However, work was also initiated to:
(1) determine the effects of existing and projected pollution loads from
the other major sources; and (2) investigate the nearshore ocean processes
such as currents, wave patterns, and sediment movement in order to improve
coastal zone management and coastal engineering decisions.

While ocean dumping is the most visible and probably most aesthetically
displeasing activity contributing to the overall contamination of the
New York Bight, it is only one of many contaminant sources. Sewage sludge
provides a source of nutrients when dumped in the Bight, but the quantity
introduced in this manner is small compared to the river input. Regarding
heavy metals, MESA researchers have concluded that the Hudson and Raritan
estuaries are the likely major sources of metals to the Bight, followed by
the dredge spoil dumpsite. The exception to this is mercury of which 70
percent of the total input is attributed to shoreline wastewater discharges.
Dumped sewage sludge contributes less than 6 percent of the heavy metal
load. Unchlorinated municipal wastewater and urban runoff from combined
sewer overflows contribute the bulk of the microbial load. There is no
evidence of shoreward movement of dumped sewage sludge, and MESA scientists
have concluded that, at present levels of sewage sludge dumping, there is
no threat to shoreline communities .HU Nevertheless , some areas of the
Bight are heavily polluted and large sectors are closed to shellfishing
due to ocean dumping and other pollutant sources. The MESA project is
sponsoring a study by Manhattan College on contaminant inputs to the New
York Bight. A report from this study is expected to be issued in 1976.

Great Lakes Studies

The International Field Year for the Great Lakes (IFYGL) is a joint
United States and Canadian multiyear program that includes an intensive field
study of Lake Ontario and its drainage basin. The 1-year data collection
effort was completed in March 1973. Data on physical, chemical, and
biological properties were collected from ships, buoys, towers, and air-
craft by radars and rawinsondes and at meteorological and hydrologic
stations.

The IFYGL studies were conducted on both a whole-lake scale and on a
fine scale for the nearshore and selected tributaries to determine distribu-
tions and variability in specific sections of the lake. The whole-lake
scale studies provide information on the balances of physical, chemical,
and biological properties in terms of input, output, and storage. The
fine-scale studies provide information on the mechanisms by which effluents
are transported and distributed. Studies of harbors and embayments are
providing information on the fate of effluents discharged into these waters
as a function of the physical characteristics of the shore area and the
lake.

The IFYGL data and analysis results will provide a basis for determining
the distribution and fate of pollutants in Lake Ontario. Mathematical
models are under development and test to simulate the important processes

29

in determining the impact of man's activities on the lake's future state
and its value as a resource for various uses. Much of the information
collected during IFYGL may be applicable to the other Great Lakes.

The IFYGL Water Movement Project is investigating the water movements
and mixing processes involved in the distribution and variability of pollu-
tants. These studies include: analyses of physical properties, development
of diagnostic and simulation models of the deep lake and coastal circula-
tion, and the effects of diffusion and of internal and surface waves.
Analyses of IFYGL data are yielding significant results on these physical
parameters and the hydrodynamic models show promise of useful simulations.

The occurrence and accumulation of hazardous materials in the lake and
the biotic system are being investigated through a series of transport
pathway studies. Hazardous materials, such as radioactive materials,
pesticides, organics, etc., were sampled on a limited basis to determine
the magnitude of their input and very detailed mapping of chlorophyll a.
was undertaken on a weekly basis to measure the eutrophic status of the lake.

A fish survey was conducted during IFYGL as a first step in an ongoing
program to guide management initiatives aimed at restoring the fish stocks
of Lake Ontario and the other Great Lakes. Both nearshore and deep lake
surveys were conducted to determine the species and distribution of fish
still inhabiting Lake Ontario. A species distribution study has been com-
pleted and a long-period study of the relationships of the lake biota and
the physical and chemical properties of the lake is underway.

Work is continuing on analysis of IFYGL data to provide descriptive
summaries of the distributions and variability of measured parameters,
statistical relationships of the parameters and processes observed, and
simulation and prediction models of the physical, chemical and biological
processes occurring in the lake. This analysis phase is expected to be
completed in FY 1976. These products will have almost immediate utility in
making decisions relative to use of the lakes as an effluent dumping ground,
as a source of water for public and industrial use, as fish and wildlife
habitat, and as a recreational resource. They also will increase our
scientific understanding of the Great Lakes as a total system.

Another joint Canada-United States activity concerned with Great Lakes
water quality is the implementation of the 1972 Great Lakes Water Quality
Agreement. The Agreement establishes certain water quality objectives to be
achieved by both countries. The International Joint Commission (IJC) , estab-
lished in 1909, was designated by the two governments to coordinate activities
under the Agreement. This task was delegated, pursuant to the Agreement, to
the Great Lakes Water Quality Board, which is located at Windsor, Ontario.
Basically, the mission of the Board is to coordinate joint activities,
monitor progress under the Agreement, report annually to the two governments
on such progress, and make recommendations to help achieve the objectives of
the Agreement.

30

In addition to the basic 1972 Agreement, the IJC was requested by the
two governments to conduct studies of: (1) the water quality in Lakes Huron
and Superior; and (2) pollution of the Great Lakes from agricultural,
forestry, and other land use activities. The work of the Upper Lakes
Reference Group was well underway in FY 1975 and the Group expects to issue
its final report on pollution in the upper lakes to the IJC in mid-1976.
The objectives of the Reference Group on Great Lakes Pollution From Land
Use Activities are to:

o Assess problems, management programs and research, and to

attempt to set priorities on the effects of land use activities
on Great Lakes Water Quality;

o Inventory land use and land use practices, with emphasis on
certain trends and projections to 1980 and, if possible,
to 2020;

o Study small number of representative watersheds to permit

extrapolation of data to the entire Great Lakes Basin and to
relate contamination of water quality which may be found at
river mouths to specific land uses and practices; and

o Diagnose degree of impairment of water quality in the Great
Lakes, including assessment of concentrations of contaminants
of concern in sediments, fish, and other aquatic resources.

This investigation is expected to require 5 years (1973-78) .

INTERNATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION RESEARCH ACTIVITIES

Four major international cooperative programs of marine research are
reviewed. Among these are the International Decade of Ocean Exploration
(ID0E) Environmental Quality Program, the NATO Committee on the Challenges
of Modern Society (CCMS) , the Global Investigation of Pollution in the
Marine Environment (GIPME) , and the Integrated Global Ocean Station System
(IGOSS).

International Decade of Ocean Exploration

The National Science Foundation's IDOE program supports basic research
on ocean pollution. Projects study the movement of pollutants into the
ocean, the effects of these pollutants on marine life, and geochemical
indicators of ocean mixing and diffusion.

The Geochemical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) effort began with
collection of water samples at 121 carefully picked locations in the
Atlantic and 130 locations in the Pacific. Scientists are now analyzing
nearly 40 different geochemical features of these samples. This data will
provide a better understanding of the diffusion of material in the oceans,
the stirring and mixing that goes on in the deep ocean, and the exchange

31

of water and gas with the atmosphere. Geochemists from 14 United States
universities are taking part in GEOSECS. Scientists from Belgium, Canada,
France, Germany, India, Japan, and the United Kingdom are also participating
in the program, or are carrying out similar efforts coordinated by U.S.
investigators. GEOSECS investigators are now preparing a final data report
of shipboard analysis and several detailed geochemical atlases.

The main concern of the Pollutant Transfer Program is to find
out how pollutants reach the ocean and what happens to them once they get
there. The air is a major route for chlorinated and petroleum hydrocarbons
and trace metals destined for the sea. Most of the airborne trace metals
over the open ocean and Antarctica are from normal weathering of the earth's
crusts. Concentrations of several trace metals (zinc, copper, antimony,
lead, selenium, and cadmium), however, are far higher than those predicted
to be of crustal origin.

The major routes for pollutant transfer to coastal waters are rivers
and sewage and industrial outfalls. Wastes from these sources subject
estuaries to the most severe man-induced stresses in the marine environment.
Researchers at the Skidaway Institute of Oceanography are tracing iron,
manganese, copper, cadmium, and mercury through salt marsh estuaries out
to the continental shelf off the southeastern United States. On the west
coast, scientists are trying to identify how lead in different chemical
forms enters the Southern California Bight. They are now sampling dissolved
and particulate lead in the ocean near sewage outfalls and in rain and
storm runoff.

The Biological Effects Program is using laboratory studies to
evaluate the effects of metals, petroleum, and chlorinated hydrocarbons
on bacteria, phytoplankton, zooplankton and more complicated marine
creatures. Scientists ran acute toxicity tests to find how sensitive
various organisms are to specific pollutants. By reducing the fatal
dosages the researchers can determine the effects of pollutants on impor-
tant processes like respiration, reproduction, and photosynthesis.

In these preliminary tests, heavy metals (e.g., mercury) and chlorinated
hydrocarbons (e.g., PCBs) were generally more toxic than petroleum hydro-
carbons for most tested species. Crude oils from Kuwait and Louisiana,
and Number 2 fuel oil were toxic to phytoplankton in extremely small
concentrations (15-150 parts-per-billion) .

The effects of pollutants on communities of organisms are the concern
of scientists in the Controlled Ecosystems Pollution Experiment (CEPEX) .
Scientists from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada are
studying the natural marine communities captured in large plastic enclosures,
These large cylindrical bags (8 ft. x 52 ft.; and 33 ft. x 96 ft.) are
suspended in Saanich Inlet, Victoria, British Columbia.

Planktonic organisms trapped inside the enclosures went through an
ecological sequence common to waters surrounding the enclosures . Experi-
ments using the small er enclosures included measuring the effects of low
concentrations of copper, mercury, and petroleum hydrocarbons. The results

32

of the copper experiments showed that low concentrations (10 and 50 ppb)
of copper caused an immediate mortality of plankton species, followed by
the development of bacterial and plankton populations that appear to
tolerate these low copper concentrations. The mercury experiments were
similar to those of copper. Mercury, however, was toxic to these organisms
at lower concentrations (0.25-1.0 ppb), and the effects were not as rapidly
detectable as those of copper. One interesting result showed that bacteria
exposed to either of these metals showed an increased tolerance to the
other metal.

Preliminary findings from the petroleum hydrocarbon experiments were
even more striking than those of the copper experiments. At low concentra-
tions of PHCs (approximately 10-20 ppb) there was an enhancement of primary
productivity among certain marine organisms. However, more recent studies
have shown that water extracts of fuel oils in concentrations between
40-60 ppb caused a rapid population decrease followed by species shifts
in these lower trophic levels. The research suggests that the PHC con-
centration in the water column decreases within a few days after introduc-
tion. This could be the result of the adsorption of these compounds to
particulate matter, including dying plankton, which carries them to the
bottom where they are degraded by bacteria in the sediment.

General implications resulting from the CEPEX project indicate that
the effects of metals and PHCs on bacteria are transient and short-term
due to rapid (days) adaptation of the populations to imposed stress.
Phy top lank ton, likewise, adapt to stress quickly (less than 15 days).
Some physiological measurements (respiration, excretion rates) have shown
very little relation to pollution stress in zooplankton. Other indices
of metabolic well-being (egg production, feeding rate) are sensitive
indicators of stress at sublethal levels. In general, small zooplankton,
regardless of species, are more sensitive than larger organisms. The
consequences of pollution on organisms at high trophic levels , for the
most part, remains unresolved.

In 1969 the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) , accepting an
initiative proposed by the United States, added a social dimension to its
activities by establishing a Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society.
The North Atlantic Council directed CCMS to examine ways to improve
the exchange of information among member countries relative to creating a
better environment and to consider specific problems of modern society with
the objective of stimulating action by member governments.—'

CCMS identified oil spills as a problem of urgent concern and therefore
gave it early priority. CCMS activities are organized by individual member
countries of NATO, each acting as a "pilot" for one or more activities.
Belgium accepted the role of "pilot" on the problem of oil spills, as a first
step in the broader project of coastal water pollution. In late 1970 the
Belgium Government convened in Brussels an international conference on oil
spills. A significant outcome of this conference was a resolution by the
NATO Foreign Ministers committing their governments to work toward the
elimination of intentional discharges of oil and oily wastes into the

33

sea by 1975, if possible, but no later than the end of the decade. This
NATO/CCMS resolution was adopted as the goal of the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization (TMCO) International Conference on Marine
Pollution held in London in October 1973. The outcome of that conference
was the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships,
1973, which is now open for ratification.

Belgium, as "pilot country", together with the United Kingdom and the
Netherlands, initiated a North Sea Pollution Project. The major effort in
this project is development of a North Sea diagnostic model which was com-
pleted in 1975. The basic CCMS North Sea model has also been modified for
application in the estuaries of the Tagus River in Portugal and the Po
River in Italy. At the end of FY 1975, the CCMS nations were considering
possible followup efforts to the North Sea Pollution Project.

Integrated Global Ocean Station System

The Marine Pollution Monitoring Pilot Project is part of the Integrated
Global Ocean Station System Program cosponsored by the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of UNESCO and the World Meteorological Organiza-
tion. The purpose of the Pilot Project is to bring together and coordinate
the national activities of various countries, and to develop common
methodology into a global organization on marine pollution monitoring.

Initially, the Pilot Project was to be limited to the monitoring and
assessment of petroleum hydrocarbons, but with the possibility of adding
or extending the project eventually to cover other pollutants. Oil was
selected as the initial contaminant because: 1) it is recognized as a
worldwide problem; and 2) many nations have an interest and varying
capabilities to participate in some way.

An Operational Plan for the Marine Pollution Pilot Project was designed
around the recommendations made at a Marine Pollution Monitoring Symposium
and Workshop held in May 1974 at the National Bureau of Standards .^2J
Specifically, the Pilot Project was designed to collect data on the
following:

o Oil slicks and other floating pollutants visually observed
from participating ships

o Floating particulate petroleum residues (tar balls)

o Dissolved or dispersed PHCs in surface waters

o Tar on beaches

The areas that will be concentrated on initially by the Pilot Project
are areas of the North Atlantic, waters around Africa, the Norwegian Sea,
ocean areas around Japan, and the northern part of the Indian Ocean. These
areas were selected to take into account the regions of offshore oil

34

production, oil transportation routes, and ocean current patterns.
However, observations from all ocean areas are encouraged. Data collected
by participating countries will be made available to a spectrum of ocean
users.

Efforts are underway to coordinate and encourage the participation of
U.S. Federal agencies, academic institutions, and private industries in the
Pilot Project. To provide for U.S. participation in the project, and to
ensure compatibility with ongoing activities and programs, the U.S. plan
will be implemented in phases. The first phase, which began in early 1975,
consists of developing reporting procedures for visually observable pollu-
tants, obtaining sampling information from ongoing programs, and receiving,
archiving, and disseminating data.

To date, the primary U.S. effort in IGOSS has come from the Federal
agencies, specifically NOAA, U.S. Navy (Military Sealift Command), and
Coast Guard ships. The Coast Guard has provided data on visual observa-
tions of oil slicks and tar balls. For the past two years, Coast Guard
vessels have been routinely sampling coastal surface waters while
occupying Ocean Weather Station Hotel and on fisheries patrol. This
program is an attempt to determine the source, quantity, and possibly
the residence time of tar balls in the marine environment. The Coast
Guard Research and Development Center has managed the Tarball Sampling
Program and has developed a method for determining the areal distribution
of tar at various locations in the open sea.

Data input from the private sector so far has been limited to that
from Exxon Corporation which has supplied results of petroleum dissolved
hydrocarbon analyses of water samples from its open ocean sampling
program.

The IGOSS Marine Pollution Monitoring Project did not get underway
until late in FY 1975 and not many observations were reported in that year.
However, the project has demonstrated that some cooperation could be
obtained at the national level for a pollution monitoring program.
Probably more important, the project has established a reporting network
for the receipt, analysis, and dissemination of marine pollution data.

Global Investigation of Pollution
in the Marine Environment

GIPME is a program of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
whose purpose is to provide an international framework within which national
and regional programs on various aspects of marine pollution may be coordin-
ated in order to contribute to a continuing evaluation of global marine
pollution problems. This goal is to be achieved through strategies outlined
in the Comprehensive Plan, the first steps of which are to conduct baseline
surveys to acquire data on pollutant inputs, distributions and pathways, and
to promote research on transfer processes (including atmospheric transfers)
between major reservoirs and the effects of pollutants on marine ecosystems.
The coordinating body for GIPME is the International Coordination Group
(ICG) .

35

The ICG held its Second Session (GIPME II) at the United Nations head-
quarters in New York, July 15-19, 1974, and approved a draft plan for
implementation of GIPME. Proposed at the session, was the establishment
of a Working Committee for GIPME. Its tasks would be to: (1) revise and
update, when necessary, the implementation plan for GIPME: (2) develop and
maintain an up-to-date comprehensive statement of the "health of the
oceans"; (3) coordinate those GIPME projects requiring concerted action
by the member states; and (4) facilitate and expedite, when necessary,
international arrangements for field and laboratory studies conducted under
the auspices of GIPME. It was recommended that this proposal be considered
at the IOC's Ninth Assembly to be held in late 1975.

The Third Session of the ICG (GIPME III) was held in Paris during the
period May 28 to June 4, 1975. At that session the ICG considered (1)
further modifications to the Comprehensive Plan, and (2) a draft report
of an IOC/ICES working group on baseline study guidelines. The latter
document will, once it is approved, serve as a common international frame-
work for conducting marine baseline investigations.

36

CHAPTER III

OVERFISHING

Marine fish stocks are a renewable natural resource that can be
utilized by man through commercial or recreational fisheries. These
stocks are capable of providing a maximum sustainable yield; that is, the
largest average catch that can be taken annually. Overfishing is the
continual taking of an amount larger than the maximum sustainable yield,
with the eventual result that the stock is no longer capable of yielding its
maximum and is in a depleted condition. In the past, certain fish and
shellfish stocks of interest to the United States have been so over-
fished that substantial reduction in fishing effort must be achieved
so that the stocks can naturally rebuild themselves over a period of years
to a maximum sustainable yield level. The status of stocks and problems of
overfishing are reported to the Congress each fiscal year by the Secretary
of Commerce as required by the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972. The first report covered the period from enactment of the Act
in October 1972 through December 1973. It provided a general discussion of
overfishing and its long-term effects on marine biological populations and
communities. The second report covered Fiscal Year 1974, July 1973 through
June 1974. It presented an overview of progress in conserving marine
fisheries resources, and discussed in detail overfishing problems in the
Northwest Atlantic, including a history of New England fisheries and manage-
ment of fisheries resources in the northwest Atlantic through the Inter-
national Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) . It
documented the recent development of a two-tiered management regime under
ICNAF designed to restore certain stocks to former abundance levels. This
third report covers Fiscal Year 1975, July 1974 through June 1975. It
presents an overview on the status and management of marine fish stocks on
a nationwide basis and gives a detailed description of overfishing problems
in the East Bering Sea.

OVERVIEW—STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF STOCKS

Status of Stocks

About 10 to 15 major finfish and shellfish stocks of commercial and
recreational interest to the United States have been overfished, primarily

by foreign distant-water fleets. Other stocks are in danger of being
overfished by both foreign and domestic fleets. Numerous others are
intensively exploited. Table 1 summarizes the present condition of certain
stocks.

Management of Stocks

Traditional international law gives all nations equal rights to fish
anywhere on the high seas. This was a workable arrangement for harvesting
the fish resources of the oceans until recent times. During the last 15
years, improvements in fishing technology and the greatly expanded need of

37

Table 1. — Status of selected finfish and shellfish stocks

Finfish species overfished (excluding tunas and billfish)
Primarily by foreign fishing:

Atlantic mackerel

Haddock

Atlantic sea herring
Yellowtail flounder
Pacific halibut
Pacific ocean perch

Alaska pollock
Sablefish (black cod)
Yellowfin sole
Pacific sea herring
Pacific hake

By foreign and U.S. fishing:

Summer flounder

Alewife (a river herring)

Blueback herring (a river

herring)
Atlantic salmon
Total finfish biomass

Primarily by U.S. fishing:

Atlantic menhaden

Pacific barracuda
Pacific mackerel
Pacific sardine

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight

Southeast U.S. coast
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Gulf of Alaska, East Bering Sea
Northwest U.S. coast, Gulf of Alaska,

East Bering Sea
East Bering Sea
East Bering Sea
East Bering Sea
East Bering Sea
Southwest U.S. coast, Northwest U.S. coast

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight,
East Bering Sea

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight,

Southeast U.S. coast
Southwest U.S. coast
Southwest U.S. coast
Southwest U.S. coast

Finfish species in danger of being overfished, or of which some stocks
are overfished

Primarily by foreign fishing:

Red hake
Silver hake
Rockfishes (excluding
Pacific ocean perch)

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest U.S. coast, Gulf of Alaska, East
Bering Sea

38

Table 1. — Status of selected finfish and shellfish stocks (continued)

By foreign and U.S. fishing:

American dab

Cod

Grey sole

Scup or porgy

Winter flounder

Pacific salmons

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight
Northwest U.S. coast, Gulf of Alaska,
East Bering

Gulf of Mexico

Primarily by U.S. fishing:

Menhaden
Shellfish species overfished

Primarily by foreign fishing:

Shrimps East Bering Sea

By foreign and U.S. fishing:

Sea scallop Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight

Primarily by U.S. fishing:

Pandalid shrimps Northwest Atlantic

Shellfish species in danger of being overfished, or of which some stocks
are overfished

Primarily by U.S. fishing:

American Lobster Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight

some countries for fish protein have increased harvests and damaged many
stocks worldwide. The United States now is party to 8 international multi-
lateral fisheries treaties and 12 bilateral agreements, and periodically
engages in negotiations with foreign nations to improve protection for fish
resources. Management actions to improve stocks and prevent overfishing
have been carried out under the international fisheries management regimes
listed in table 2.

International actions and agreements, despite their desirability, have
failed to prevent overfishing of some of the most economically valuable
species of ocean fish. For example, all finfish species or species groups
listed as overfished or nearly overfished in table 1 (except California
barracuda, Atlantic menhaden, and Pacific sardine) are subject to fishing

39

Table 2. — U.S. participation in international fisheries
management regimes

Northwest Atlantic and Mid-Atlantic Bight:

International Commission for the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries
United States - U.S.S.R. Western Mid-Atlantic Agreement
United States - Poland Western Mid-Atlantic Agreement
United States - Canada Reciprocal Agreement
United States - Romania Western Mid-Atlantic Agreement

Northeast Pacific and Alaska:

International Pacific Halibut Commission
International North Pacific Fisheries Commission
International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission
United States - Republic of Korea Fisheries Agreement
United States - U.S.S.R. North Pacific Fisheries Agreement
United States - U.S.S.R. King and Tanner Crab Agreement
United States - Poland Northeastern Pacific Agreement
United States - Japan King and Tanner Crab Agreement
United States - Japan Fisheries Agreement
United States - Canada Reciprocal Agreement

U.S. Distant Water Fisheries:

Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission

International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas

United States - Brazil Shrimp Agreement

Marine Mammals:

International Whaling Commission
North Pacific Fur Seal Commission

Other:

United States - U.S.S.R. Claims Agreement
Western Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission

regulation under international agreements. The regulations include catch
quotas, and limits on fishing gear, on time and area of fishing, on size
and sex of catch, and on bycatch. Success in preventing overfishing of
stocks by international agreements has been limited by a combination of
factors, including: voluntary membership, agreements by consensus (these
are rare and require lengthy negotiations) , lack of authority to control
access and allocation, lack of effective enforcement and effective sanctions,
and failure to deal with social or economic issues in formulating agreements.

40

Recently negotiated fishery agreements have improved protection of some
stocks off U.S. coasts, particularly stocks inhabiting waters adjacent to
New England and the Middle Atlantic States. New conservation measures
achieved, however, will not ensure quick recovery of depleted stocks. For
example, in the Northwest Atlantic the ICNAF 1976 overall quota of 650,000
metric tons negotiated in June 1975 will allow for recovery of depleted
stocks in about 7 years. Table 3 shows best estimates of time required for
full recovery of certain stocks now regulated in the ICNAF Convention Area
off northeastern United States. The recovery times are based on the assump-
tion that the 1976 quota of 650,000 tons will be maintained for 7 years.
This is the estimated period for recovery of the total finfish (less
menhaden, billfishes, tunas, and large sharks) and squid biomass.

Despite gains in stock conservation through negotiations in 1975 with
Japan and the U.S.S.R., the condition of major groundfish stocks in the
Northeast Pacific and East Bering Sea continues to deteriorate. The time
and area closure negotiated under bilateral agreements will help protect
halibut and, to a lesser extent, pollock in the East Bering Sea and Pacific
ocean perch in the northeastern Pacific. Established quotas should prevent
catches of several nontarget species from increasing, keep the sablefish
catch of the U.S.S.R. and Japan at an acceptable level (if the Republic
of Korea and Taiwan do not increase their fisheries), and reduce catches of
Pacific ocean perch and other rockfish in the Gulf of Alaska and Pacific
area off Oregon and Washington. Even though some measures of control
have been placed on the foreign fisheries, total groundfish catches in
1975-76 could exceed U.S. best estimates of the maximum sustained yield
by one-third of a million metric tons in the Bering Sea and over 40,000
tons in the Washington-California region. By reducing the overall catch
about 30 percent, stocks of many species might rebuild to preforeign-
fishing abundance in 5 to 10 years. A cessation of fishing probably would
allow rebuilding of these stocks in 3 to 6 years. As long as substantial
foreign fishing continues, some species (Pacific ocean perch, halibut, cod)
may never be restored to previous abundance levels because of the quantity
incidentally caught in fishing for other species.

Marine Mammals. At the 1975 International Whaling Commission meeting
a number of decisions were made affecting the establishment of catch
limits for world whale stocks. A halt was agreed to on all fin and sei
whaling in the North Pacific, and, for the first time, all oceans were
included under the IWC quota system and catch limits were set for fin and
minke whales in the North Atlantic.

The Commission approved quotas of 32,578 whales for 1975-76, a reduction
of 8,537 from that of the previous year. The quota included Brazil and
South Africa land stations, North Atlantic minke whales, and North Atlantic
fin whales. These were not included in last year's quota. The Commission
also adopted the New Management Scheme that establishes three categories
of whale stocks based on the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) : An Initial
Management Stock more than 20 percent above its MSY level; a Sustained
Management Stock not more than 20 percent above nor more than 10 percent
below its MSY level; and a Protected Stock that is 10 percent or more
below its MSY level. Commercial whaling of Protected Stocks will not be

41

Table 3. —Estimated time for stock to recover to maximum-sustainable-yield
biomass level in waters off United States from Maine to North Carolina
(ICNAF, Subarea 5 and Statistical Area 6)

Species

Years to recover,
beginning in 1976

Cod

Haddock

Redfish

Silver hake

Red hake

Yellowtail

All flounders (except yellowtail)

Sea herring

Atlantic mackerel

Other finfish (about 20 species)

All finfish and squid (total biomass)

more than 7

5

3 to 5

3 to 5
more than 7
7

more than 7

4 to 5

5 to 6
7

permitted. Regulated commercial whaling will be permitted on Sustained
Management and Initial Management Stocks subject to advice by the IWC
Scientific Committee.

Atlantic Bluefin Tuna. Two species of bluefin tuna are taken commer-
cially in the Atlantic. The northern bluefin is widely distributed
throughout the Atlantic; the southern bluefin is taken only in the
South Atlantic. Countries with a northern bluefin fishery include Canada,
France, Italy, Japan, Norway, Spain, and the United States.

Concern over the status of the northern bluefin tuna was expressed in
1970 and 1971, when the International Commission for the Conservation of
the Atlantic Tunas became aware that substantial quantities of very
small bluefin were being caught off Northwest Africa. Also noted were
significant reductions in adult stocks of bluefin in the eastern Atlantic
and stocks exploited by longline and surface fisheries in the western
Atlantic. ICCAT noted declines in the total bluefin catch in 1972 and 1973,
Total Atlantic catch had declined from a peak of some 40,000 metric tons in
1964-65 to less than 13,000 tons in 1973. The ICCAT Subcommittee on Stock

42

Assessment concluded that without controls on fishing, the adult bluefin
stock might decrease enough to have serious consequences on recruitment,
which could take drastic controls in future years to remedy.

At the 1974 ICCAT meeting, the United States proposed two regulatory
measures for Atlantic bluefin. These were adopted by the Commission to
take effect in August 1975. They are: (1) prohibiting the taking and
landing of bluefin weighing less than 6.4 kilograms (14 pounds), excepting
specified tolerances for incidental capture, and (2) limiting the fishing
mortality of bluefin to recent levels for a period of 1 year.

In August 1975, the United States passed the Atlantic Tunas Conserva-
tion Act of 1975. This implemented the ICCAT Convention. Under this
authority, the Secretary of Commerce promulgated regulations for U.S.
bluefin fisheries, including: separate annual quotas for fish in the
range of 14 to 115 pounds and for those over 300 pounds; a daily bag limit
of four fish per angler when seeking fish in the range of 14 to 115 pounds;
and a prohibition on fishing for tuna less than 14 pounds or in the 115-
pound to 300-pound range, although allowance is made for incidental catches
of those fish by both purse seiners and anglers. Canada, France, Japan,
and Spain have acted to carry out ICCAT recommendations. However,
significant gaps in scientific knowledge related to stocks of northern
Atlantic bluefin may complicate U.S. efforts to extend the 1975 ICCAT
management program in the near future.

EAST BERING SEA FISHERIES

The Bering Sea (fig. 1) supports some of the largest and most valuable
living marine resources in the world. This sea is characterized by having
a broad shelf region in its northeastern sector off Alaska and a deep-
water basin in its southwestern sector where depths reach 3,500 meters.
The East Bering Sea, the area over the broad shelf and slope, sustains
sizeable populations of fur seals, salmon, herring, pollock, crabs,
bottomfish, snails, and clams. The annual value of these resources to
their fisheries has been estimated to exceed $300 million. The principal
nations fishing these resources are Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the United
States. Other nations whose nationals fish the East Bering Sea are the
Republic of Korea and Taiwan. U.S. fishing activities are concentrated
on a relatively small number of species (salmon, king and tanner crabs,
and halibut). Except for halibut, the abundant bottomfish in the East
Bering Sea are virtually unused by U.S. nationals. There are subsistence
fisheries by natives along the Alaska coast on herring, salmon, and
marine mammals (whales and seals).

The distribution and movement of animal populations in the East Bering
Sea are strongly influenced by seasonal extremes in climate. Ice covers
most of the shelf area during winter and limits the accessibility and
availability of resources to fisheries and limits the northern distribution
of marine mammals. It forces several of the fish populations to seek warmer
waters along the continental slope of the southeastern Bering Sea. These

43

175°E 180° 175° W 170°

165°

160°

155°

U7M slope
| | shelf

deep basin

Figure 1. — Bering Sea physiographic divisions.

44

temperate waters result from the influx of relatively warm Pacific Ocean
waters between the Aleutian Islands. As the ice retreats northward and
the East Bering Sea shelf waters warm in spring and early summer, there
are pronounced movements of fish onto the shelf and northward. During
this warming, whales make their annual trek through the Bering Sea to Arctic
waters and fur seals return to their rookeries on the Pribilof Islands.
The spring to early fall period is one of intensive feeding and fattening
for many animal populations and is also the time of major harvest by man.

The trawl fisheries on bottomfish follow the seasonal movements of
the fish. Crab fisheries take place during the spring and summer. Salmon
are harvested during the early summer by the inshore gill net fishery as
the adults are returning to their natal streams to spawn. It is also
during the summer that surplus fur seals are harvested on the Pribilof
Islands.

History of Bering Sea Fisheries

The earliest commercial Bering Sea fisheries began in the 18th and
19th centuries and were directed toward sea otters, fur seals, and
whales. Sea otters were nearly exterminated. Fur seal populations were so
severely reduced by almost unrestricted harvesting that an international con-
vention was formed in 1911 to protect them, whaling operations began in
the middle of the 19th century in the Gulf of Alaska and off the Aleutians
and later extended into the more productive grounds of the northern Bering
Sea and Arctic Ocean. These operations ceased when the whalebone market
collapsed in 1909.

Commercial salmon fisheries began in the Bristol Bay region about 1884
and by 1914 extended northward to the Yukon and Kuskokwim river systems.
These fisheries developed rapidly so that by 1917 and 1918 the annual catch
in western Alaska was some 26 million fish. After these peak years, the
annual catch fluctuated greatly with changing economic conditions and
biological factors, and was as low as 3.6 million fish in 1935 and as
high as 26 million fish in 1938. Before and during World War II the salmon
fisheries were confined, for the most part, to commercial operations in
inshore waters of the East Bering Sea and to a native subsistence fishery
in the rivers and lakes. In 1936 and 1937, foreign distant -water fleets
undertook a brief exploratory salmon fishing venture in the East Bering Sea
not far from Bristol Bay.

The harvest of Bering Sea bottomfish began in the late 1800s when U.S.
nationals started fishing the cod banks of the southeastern Bering Sea.
Cod fishing was fairly intense from 1905 through 1915, and this activity
persisted until shortly after World War II. The first U.S. and Canadian
commercial fishery for halibut in the East Bering Sea began in 1928, but
initially landings were small and infrequent. Research investigations on
Alaskan stocks of halibut were begun in 1925 by the International Fisheries
Commission established through the 1923 "Convention for the Preservation of
the Halibut Fishery of the Northern Pacific Ocean Including Bering Sea" to
which the United States and Canada were parties. In 1930, a new convention
expanded regulatory power of the Commission and international management of

45

the halibut fishery began. From 1928 until about 1952, the East Bering
Sea halibut fishery was small. Between 1952 and 1962 the catch of halibut
increased under management. From 1962 to the present, catches have
decreased despite efforts by the International Pacific Halibut Commission
to reverse this trend. The first really sizeable bottomfishing in the East
Bering Sea occurred in 1933-37 when foreign distant-water fleets harvested
some 121,000 metric tons of fish for fish meal and oil. This initial effort
was followed by a fishery in 1940 and 1941 for the production of frozen
fish. Distant-water fleets also began fishing king crabs in the East
Bering Sea in 1930 and fished continuously from 1932 to 1939, when the
annual catch reached slightly more than 2 million crabs. The fishery was
interrupted by World War II.

The exploitation of East Bering Sea fishery resources increased rapidly
after World War II. Distant-water fleets resumed bottomfishing in 1954,
and by 1961 the total harvest of bottomfish, herring, and shrimp exceeded
860,000 metric tons (fig. 2). The short history of these foreign fleet
fishing operations from about 1960 to present is characterized by success-
ional fisheries in which intense fishing effort was directed towards one
major stock, and shifted to another stock when the first stock was
reduced to low yields. The most notable example is the yellowfin sole -
pollock succession (fig. 3). Intense fishing of yellowfin sole began in
1958 when some 44,000 metric tons were landed for fish meal and frozen fish.
By 1961 the catch peaked at some 600,000 metric tons, which far exceeded
the maximum sustainable yield. As the catch of yellowfin sole sharply
declined in subsequent years, the fleets redirected their efforts to
pollock, which has been the mainstay of the trawl fisheries since 1965.

Foreign distant-water crab-processing and fishing vessels resumed their
operations in the East Bering Sea in 1953 after a lapse of 13 years. In
1964 foreign fishermen took 9 million king crabs totalling 99 percent of
the fishery's harvest. Over a period of 10 years, their harvest of king
crabs was reduced to zero as a result of bilateral agreements which con-
trolled overfishing by sharply reducing foreign catches, eliminated the
hazard of sunken gill nets which were most destructive to the crab resource,
and permitted the expansion of the United States fishery for king crab
to the point where it is now the sole fishery for the king crab resource.

A new development in salmon fisheries after World War II was expansion of
the foreign fishery for high-seas salmon into the North Pacific and Bering
Sea and its effect on salmon originating in western Alaska and northward.
This development led to the International Convention for the High Seas
Fisheries of the North Pacific Ocean (United States, Canada, Japan) of 1952,
which prohibited the use of nets by high-seas salmon fisheries east of
longitude 175° W in the Bering Sea and North Pacific. However, this
treaty only partially protected the Alaska salmon. They continued to be
intercepted west of the provisional line during their ocean movements.
High-seas fishery catches of salmon of western Alaska origin since 1960
have ranged between 1 and 7 million fish per year.

46

-i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i — i i i i i i "i i r

Catch of bottomfish, herring, and shrimp

2400--

2 2100

o

o 18004
| 1500-

0 1200--

n

1 900
o 600

300--

I I I I I I

I f 1 1 T -\

l 1 I I I l I I I

30--

25--

20--

15--

10--

5--

25--

20--

15-

10-

5--

Catch of crabs

Total catch of crabs.

Tanner crab catch-

/ r"'\ \ I

King crab catch

-f-H — I — I — h

I I I I I I

Harvest of male fur seals

■o

c

Si
o

SI

V-

100-

80-

60-

40-

20-

+

+

I I I I
1970

1 — I — r
1975

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

Figure 2. — Catch statistics for selected East Bering Sea fisheries since 1945.

47

2,000

~ 1,500

§ 1,000

3
O

CJ

500 -

A

i r

1955

so

o

1960

Figure 3. — Example of successional fisheries and shift of fishing effort
from depleted to more abundant populations. A, East Bering Sea trawl
fisheries. B, North Pacific whale fisheries.

48

Whales also were involved in postwar fishery developments. In 1963
whaling in the North Pacific and Bering Sea intensified beyond any previous
level, whales were caught by fleets that could be rapidly deployed and
a successional fishery ensued in which one whale stock after the other was
overfished (fig. 3). By 1965, the International Whaling Commission had
placed whaling moratoriums on most major whale stocks (blue, bowhead, fin,
gray, humpback, and sei) in the North Pacific and the Bering Sea.

Present Condition of East Bering Sea Fishery Resources

In the past 20 years there has been a substantial buildup of the fisheries
in the East Bering Sea. Fishing effort on some fish stocks has risen seven-
fold in the last 10 years. Successional fisheries on two of the major fish
stocks, the yellowfin sole and pollock, have been mentioned. Yellowfin
sole stocks remain at low levels because of earlier intense fishing, and
pollock now show signs of being overfished. Moreover, pulse fishing, in
which large mobile fleets exert massive fishing pressure on localized
grounds for a few years and then move on to other grounds, has seriously
affected other stocks including shrimp, ocean perch, and sablefish.
Substantial catches of pollock have indirectly affected other fish stocks.
The bycatch in this fishery, consisting of sole, halibut, ocean perch, and
other bottomfish, has hindered the recovery of these stocks to former
abundance levels. The picture has one bright spot. The king crab resource,
once depressed by overfishing, and the tanner crab resource now appear to
be at high levels of abundance. An overview of the present condition of
major fishery resources in the East Bering Sea follows.

Northern Fur Seals. Fur seals have been protected by formal international
agreements since 1911. These agreements prohibit the taking of seals at
sea by citizens (except aborigines) of Canada, Japan, the United States,
and the U.S.S.R. The northern fur seal breeds on only a few islands in
the Bering Sea and Pacific Ocean. The Pribilof Islands, belonging to the
United States in the East Bering Sea, are the breeding grounds for about
74 percent of the world's northern fur seal population of about 1.8 million.
The remaining 26 percent breed on the Commander Islands in the western
Bering Sea, the Robben Islands in the Okhotsk Sea, and several Kurile
Islands north of Japan; all are owned by the U.S.S.R. A small population on
San Miguel Island off California is also under U.S. control. The Pribilof
herd is managed by NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service. Mostly males
are harvested, but females are removed when they are deemed unnecessary for
the maintenance of the herd. Although there is no apparent danger to the
population, the abundance of males, and hence harvest, since the mid 1960s
has not been as high as in previous years (fig. 2). Ocean mortality of young
seals from natural causes is evidently higher than in the past and may be
related to reduced availability of food because of intense trawl fisheries
in the East Bering Sea.

49

Whales . The Bering Sea has 12 species of whales. Several of these
(bowhead, fin, gray, humpback, and sei) are now at critically low levels of
abundance, and the International Whaling Commission currently prohibits the
hunting of these species for commercial purposes. Quotas have been established
for sperm whales, the only major whale stock now harvested in the northern
Pacific.

Herring. The East Bering Sea herring came under intense fishing by
foreign fleets in 1968, and the yield has decreased since the catch peaked
in 1970. The abundance of the stock is now considered to be low. Quotas
have been introduced for the years 1975 and 1976.

Salmon . Five species of salmon (sockeye, pink, king, shum, and coho)
enter the Bering Sea from Alaska rivers and lakes. The sockeye is by far
the most important because of its large runs and its value as a canned
product. It has a 5-year cycle of abundance that accounts for periodic
peaks in the annual catches of salmon (fig. 2). The present abundance of
many of the salmon stocks of western Alaska north to the Arctic is generally
average or below average. For sockeye, 1975 normally would have been a
peak year, with large numbers of fish returning to the Bristol Bay drainage
system. However, the severe winters of 1969 and 1970 apparently caused
higher than usual mortalities of young sockeye. Therefore, the Bristol Bay
sockeye, which make up most of the annual catch of Bering Sea salmon, is
now in a short-term decline because of environmental factors.

Pollock. This is one of the most important resources in the East
Bering Sea. Since 1964, the catch of pollock has increased tenfold, reaching
almost 1.9 million metric tons in 1972. The catch of this species completely
dwarfs that of other fishes and represents over 80 percent of the total
bottomfish annually removed by foreign trawl fleets in the East Bering Sea.
Pollock is processed into frozen products (including minced fish) and fish
meal. Annual landings have been high in recent years (1971-74) and the
resource is now showing classic symptoms of overfishing. The catch per unit
effort has declined greatly since 1969, and the fishery has had to rely more
and more on young fish to maintain high catches (fig. 4). The removal of
vast quantities of small, immature, and first-maturing fish will seriously
affect the future of the resource and the fisheries. Despite these dangers,
the fishing effort on pollock remained high in 1974. The quotas now in
effect are still too high to arrest or reverse the deterioration of this
resource.

Yellowfin sole. This species was seriously depleted in the early 1960s
and shows no signs of recovering to its former importance in the East Bering
Sea. If well managed, the yellowfin sole would be among the most productive
fishery resources in the world.

Halibut . The halibut stock is small compared to several bottomfish
resources in the East Bering Sea, but is a valuable resource to North American
longline fishermen. However, present stock levels are so low that longliners
are finding it difficult to fish this stock economically. The incidental
catches of halibut by foreign vessels fishing for other groundfish species
in the Bering Sea are sufficient to prevent halibut stocks from rebuilding to
former levels.

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Other bottomfish. Several major stocks of bottomfish in the East Bering
Sea, such as Pacific cod, flathead sole, rock sole, and turbot, are either
fully harvested or becoming so. Others, such as ocean perch and sablefish,
have been intensely fished in the past and remain at low levels of abundance.

King crab. The stock of king crabs was reduced by intensive foreign
fishing in the mid-1960s. The stock now appears to be near full recovery,
due in part to steady reductions of foreign catch quotas negotiated through
bilateral agreements since the late 1960s and in part to better State
regulation of the domestic fishery. Possibly more favorable environmental
conditions in recent years have aided stock recovery.

Tanner crab. This resource is substantially larger than the king crab
resource and is judged to be at a high level of abundance.

Shrimp . Pink shrimp (Pandalus borealis) were intensely fished by distant-
water fleets during the early 1960s, and remain at very low levels of abun-
dance. There has been virtually no pink shrimp fishery in recent years. i

Snails. In 1971, foreign fleets began fishing for large snails in the
East Bering Sea. In 1973, the estimated catch of snails was 27,211 metric
tons or about 200 million snails.

Consequences of Overfishing

Intensive fishing in the East Bering Sea during the past 10 to 15 years
has greatly reduced the abundance of fish and shellfish populations. Pollock,
one of the most productive species, has been reduced to a critical condition
in which most adults have been harvested and the young are being removed
rapidly. What will be the consequences of the substantial reductions of
these fish populations? Will some stocks be reduced beyond recovery to
former abundance even if all fishing of affected stocks is stopped? Answers
are being sought through investigation of ecological systems in the East
Bering Sea and study of the long-term effects of fishing on these systems.

The ecological system of the East Bering Sea includes several species
of marine mammals, 300 species of fish, and a rich variety of starfish,
clams, crabs, snails, and other conspicuous bottom-living animals. These
relatively large animals are supported by a multitude of smaller organisms
that live in the upper-water layers and on and within the sediment of the
ecosystem, but others, such as fur seals and whales, are transients that pass
through and are supported by the system during some part of their life
cycles or annual migrations. During summer, fur seals feed heavily in the
East Bering Sea. Lactating females forage primarily on Alaska pollock, Atka
mackerel, capelin, codfishes, deep-sea smelt, herring, and squid, and then
return periodically to feed their young living in the fur rookeries of
the Pribilof Islands.

The salmon, fur seal, and other populations resident in the Bering Sea
are closely entwined in a mesh of interrelationships with each other
(predator-prey, competition, behaviorial, etc.) and with their physical and

52

chemical environment. Our knowledge of this complex ecological system is
still incomplete. We do have some information on the population character-
istics of several of the dominant mammals, fish, and shellfish in the system
and on their food habits, which together can elucidate possible effects of
overfishing. One major food chain in the East Bering Sea is that of plankton,
pollock, and fur seals (fig. 5). Pollock feed heavily on animal plankton,
and in turn the pollock make up a substantial part of the fur seal diet. This
food chain, although important in the transfer of considerable material and
energy, is just one link in a matrix of interconnecting food relationships
that is called a food web. Nonetheless, the food chain illustrates some
concepts (trophic levels and diminishing biomass as the food chain is
ascended) important to the discussion of overfishing.

In the Bering Sea, man has opted to harvest at two trophic levels in this
chain — pollock and fur seals. He attempts to maximize his yield of fur seals
through rational management, but at the same time overfishes pollock — a major
food item of the seal. As noted earlier, the harvest of male fur seals
has declined since the pollock fisheries intensified. This is perhaps
due to a decrease of available food and an accompanying increase in mortality
of young seals. The higher mortalities may result from two possible mechanisms.
First, lactating females may have to travel greater distances and be at sea
for longer periods to obtain sufficient nourishment for their young on the
Pribilof Island rookeries. Second, young seals, once they leave the rookeries
and are forced to forage on their own, nay have difficulty finding sufficient
food supplies at this critical stage. Thus, overfishing of populations at
intermediate levels in a food chain can be detrimental to populations at
a higher trophic level. A side effect of the pollock fisheries, although
not related to food supply, is the entanglement of fur seals in discarded
and lost fishing gear such as fragments of net. The incidence of entanglement
and of scars on seals from fishing lines and nets has been increasing each
year since the late 1960s.

The plankton-pollock fur seal chain (fig. 5) is a component of a major
food web of the East Bering Sea (fig. 6). The illustrated interrelationships
indicate one possible repercussion of overfishing, a succession or replacement
of species dominance in the population hierarchy. Man affects the Bering Sea
food web by harvesting many of its components: pollock, herring, halibut,
turbot, and cod. The partial removal of these populations has resulted in
a change in the system which we cannot quantify at this time, but can only
infer. Predation by adult pollock, halibut, and other carnivores has lessened,
and we might expect an increase in prey species such as capelin, sandlance,
and Atka mackerel. Consequently, a new order of species dominance may arise.
All that can be said definitely at this time is that perturbations in the
Bering Sea ecosystem may result in profound changes in the animal and plant
communities.

Effect of Overfishing on Man

Uncontrolled use of fishery resources in the East Bering Sea can result
in lower food production in the future. Both fishing effort and yields
have reached massive proportions, with serious effects on the fishery
resources. Man is reaping immense but diminishing benefits in a relatively

53

Figure 5. — Plankton-pollock-fur seal food chain.

54

Zooplankton

t

Phytoplankton

Juvenile pollock

Figure 6. — Components of a major food web in the East Bering Sea ecosystem.

55

short period of time at the expense of some steady harvest that in the long
run would provide more food. For example, the yellowfin sole resource was
overfished in the early 1960's. During that time the catch reached an
impressive 600,000 metric tons a year. Since then, the annual catch has
declined to less than 62,000 metric tons in 1973. The potential sustainable
annual yield of yellowfin sole is estimated at 120,000 metric tons or more.
To rebuild this resource to yield this potential may take 5 to 10 years at
recent catch levels. During the rebuilding period, the potential production
of this resource is lost to man.

East Bering Sea fisheries also are removing vast quantities of small
fish before they reach full growth potential. This seriously affects the
reproductive capacity of the stocks and thus lowers the potential yield and
economic return. Because of the reduction of large fish a greater propor-
tion of the catch now consists of small or young pollock suitable only for
fish meal. Another example is the salmon fisheries. Salmon are first
harvested on the high seas and later in the coastal fisheries when they
return to spawn. When they are harvested on the high seas, their full ocean
growth has not been realized. For example, the average weight of a chinook
salmon caught in the high-seas fishery may be only 5 to 6 pounds, 15 pounds
lees than those taken months later by the inshore fishery.

Another effect of resource misuse is the replacement of valuable resources
by resources that are less useful to man because of their availability or
undesirable characteristics as food. It is conceivable that replacement
populations could have greater production than the ones they supplanted,
but their small size and dispersion would make them difficult to harvest.
Also, in general, the lower a population is in the food chain, the more
variable and unpredictable is its production. Man may find some of these
replacement populations useful, and some scientists speculate that this has
happened. East Bering Sea tanner crabs, which are commercially valuable,
are believed to be on the increase, possibly due to the reduction of major
predators (cod, turbot, halibut) by the trawl fisheries. In the western
Bering Sea, Soviet scientists have noted an increase in pollock abundance
following the decline in the herring stocks, suggesting competition between
these species for food. (See figure 6.) The diverse consequences of
overfishing indicate man's need to understand the East Bering Sea ecosystem
so that he can rationally use it for maximum food production. A management
strategy that considers the total ecosystem is required.

Research and Management

Until the 1960s, the northern fur seal, salmon, and halibut were the
only living resources of the East Bering Sea that were subject to systematic
research and management. With the increase and diversification of fisheries,
research efforts expanded to king crab and then to bottomfish and tanner
crab. Our knowledge of these bottom-living resources grew rapidly. We began
to understand the population dynamics, life history, and seasonal movements
of some of the major species. Unfortunately, this knowledge has rarely
been used to implement rational schemes of harvest. In fact, some of
the original research by the principal fishing nations (Japan, United
States, and U. S. S. R .) was exploratory and aimed at developing or

56

expanding existing fisheries. We have now reached a point where there is
little opportunity for fishery expansion and must face the fact that most
of the major living resources of the East Bering Sea are fully used or
overfished.

Several international conventions and agreements regulate the fisheries
of the East Bering Sea, Aleutians, and Northeastern Pacific (table 4).
In addition to establishing quotas, areal and seasonal closures, size
limitations, and other regulations, these agreements include provisions for
exchanging scientific information and fishery statistics between the partici-
pants. U.S. fisheries on East Bering Sea crab and salmon are managed by
the State of Alaska. Foreign fisheries are managed by quotas agreed upon
through bilateral negotiations. A description of principal domestic,
national, and international agencies that are involved with research and
management of East Bering Sea fishery resources follows.

National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) . The Service is involved with
both research and management of East Bering Sea resources. Since 1969 its
scientists have made annual MAKMAP (Marine Resources Monitoring, Assessment,
and Prediction) program surveys in the southeastern Bering Sea to estimate
the abundance and other characteristics of bottomfish and shellfish popula-
tions and to determine the environmental factors affecting their distribution.
Results of these surveys, and those from analyses of fishery data, are brought
together in annual reports that describe the condition of specific resources
and provide the basis for recommendations for resource use. These reports
provide background information and guidelines for U.S. negotiators at
fishery meetings with other nations. Studies of newly developed fishing
gear also are made to reduce the bycatch of fish and shellfish in the major
trawl fisheries.

Research and management of the northern fur seals of the Pribilof
Islands have been ongoing activities of the Federal Government since the
1911 Fur Seal Convention. NMFS is responsible for these activities. Other
activities involve cooperative studies with several Federal agencies,
State of Alaska, and foreign fishery agencies. In 1975, NMFS made an
extensive survey of the bottom-living resources of the East Bering Sea for
the Bureau of Land Management. This baseline study provided the Bureau with
information for an environmental impact statement before large-scale oil
development and production occurs in the East Bering Sea. NMFS also
cooperates with the State of Alaska by providing it with research information
on crab and salmon for use in regulating the U.S. fisheries on these resources,
Another cooperative endeavor involves NMFS and fishery agencies of Japan and
the U.S.S.R. U.S. observers are allowed aboard fishing vessels of these
nations to collect data on the bycatch and on the biology of target species.

State of Alaska. The State's Department of Fish and Game is responsible
for research and management of the salmon and crab resources of the East
Bering Sea. The State also collects data on the landings and operations
of all Alaska fisheries.

57

International North Pacific Fisheries Commission (INPFC) . This Commission
comprises the Governments of Canada, Japan, and the United States, and
was established in 1953 "to promote and coordinate the scientific studies
necessary to ascertain the conservation measures required to secure the
maximum sustained productivity of fisheries of joint interest" and to make
recommendations for needed conservation measures. A cornerstone of the
Convention that established this Commission has been the principle of
abstention, in which each pertinent government agrees to refrain from
entering a fishery on stocks that already are fully used by one or more of
the Convention Parties, and that are under regulation to achieve maximum
sustainable yield. In this manner, salmon of North American origin have
been afforded a fair degree of protection from overfishing. INPFC also
serves as the principal scientific forum for deliberation on the condition of
Bering Sea fishery resources.

International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC) . The Commission has
been given the authority to regulate the North American longline fishery on
halibut for optimum yields and to perform research to meet this end. IPHC
makes annual surveys in the East Bering Sea to measure the strength of
incoming year classes to the fisheries, and has tagging programs to study
migrations and identify subpopulations.

Japan Fisheries Agency (JFA) . The Agency collects and collates catch
and biological data from Japanese fisheries in the East Bering Sea. Annual
surveys of bottomfish and shellfish are made by the Japanese Government.
Japanese scientists analyze fishery data and research findings, and present
results at international fishery meetings.

U.S.S.R. Pacific Scientific Research Institute of Fisheries (TINRO) .
TINRO is the principal fishery research agency of the U.S.S.R. in the North
Pacific and Bering Sea. It has responsibility for research on the shellfish
and finfish resources in this area. TINRO operates more than 30 vessels in
support of its fishery mission.

Effectiveness of Research and Regulation

Bottomfish and herring. NMFS scientists gathered evidence (status of
stock reports) on the deteriorating condition of many fisheries in the East
Bering Sea and in 1974 and 1975 recommended a substantial reduction in the
catches of bottomfish and herring. The background information and recommenda-
tions were used effectively by U.S. negotiators at meetings with the principal
nations using these resources. These nations agreed to set quotas and other
restrictions on their major fisheries. Although these quotas were not at
levels recommended by U.S. scientists, they were a positive step toward
retarding the depletion of specific resources such as pollock and herring.

Pacific halibut. Despite considerable research on this species, the
annual catch of North American longline fisheries in the East Bering Sea has
been declining since the 1960s, at which time large-scale foreign trawl
fisheries began to operate. The bycatch of juvenile halibut in the trawl
fisheries has been significant enough to reduce the halibut stock to levels
at which a directed fishery on this species is no longer economically feasible.

58

Winter closures to the trawl fisheries of areas having a history of high
juvenile abundance has been introduced in recent years to decrease the take
of juvenile halibut.

King and tanner crab. The king crab fishery, after being heavily fished
in earlier years, has been rebuilt through a combination of factors including
improved regulatory measures, expanded research studies of resource condition,
and possibly more favorable environmental conditions. The tanner crab
resource, which has not been overfished and is at a high level of abundance,
is being carefully managed to prevent overfishing. In 1964, the United States
declared these species creatures of the continental shelf. Thus by provisions
of the Continental Shelf Convention, they are under management authority of
the United States.

Northern fur seal. After being reduced to low levels of abundance in the
early part of this century, the Pribilof Island herd has been built up
again through research and regulatory measures. However, there is concern
over the unusually high mortality of the young seals in recent years.

Summary - East Bering Sea

The East Bering Sea is one of the most productive regions in the world's
oceans, containing an abundance of bottomfish, herring, shellfish, and some
of the largest marine mammal populations in the world. Man is exploiting
this region almost to its fullest, and has overfished some of its most
productive populations — pollock, yellowfin sole, and Pacific ocean perch.
Control over man's use of Bering Sea fisheries has not been successful. The
substantial depletion of many of its populations is affecting the East
Bering Sea ecosystem, and we can only infer from limited knowledge what the
effects may be. Is there a chain of events now underway that will result in
replacement in abundance of valuable populations by less valuable ones? Will
there be greater production of populations that are less available for
harvest or subject to extreme fluctuations in abundance? And what will be
the effects of ocean pollution? Until recently* research and management have
been directed toward single populations, such as pollock, salmon, and king
crab. We have disregarded the obvious fact that the productivity of each
population is the resultant of complex interactions with other species and
the physical environment. Little is known about the effects of sustained
catches on the Bering Sea ecosystem. Effective management of living
resources in the Bering Sea must be based upon knowledge of the biological,
chemical, and physical factors affecting the organic production in this
region. Of particular interest is the dynamic variability of the food chain
and its effect on the exploitable resources. Where several harvested species
are involved in systems of competition and predation, maximizing the yield is
only possible by managing the entire ecological complex.

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62

CHAPTER IV
OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT AND THE OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

Advances in technology are making it possible to place large structures
offshore and are increasing man's capability to remove minerals and fuels
from the sea floor. Four major categories of offshore development are treated
in this chapter: deepwater ports, nuclear powerplants, ocean mining, and
oil and gas drilling.

The emplacement of large offshore structures and mining in nearshore and
deepwater areas will result in certain impacts on the local marine environ-
ment. The significance of these effects is now largely unknown. Before
large-scale commitments of resources are made in offshore development
activities, it is essential that both their immediate and long-range effects
be understood and considered. The Federal and State governments, as well as
the private sector are responsible, under various environmental protection
laws, to assess and consider the potential environmental consequences of
offshore development operations. This chapter describes some of the more
significant research programs and activities carried out in this area during
FY 1975.

OFFSHORE DEEPWATER TERMINALS

Over 40 percent of all international oil shipments are carried in super-
tankers larger than 100,000 deadweight tons (dwt) . Only a very few American
ports are currently capable of receiving even moderately large tankers;
Puget Sound 200,000 dwt; Long Beach and Los Angeles 135,000 and 100,000 dwt,
respectively; and Portland, Maine 80,000 dwt. Most major U.S. ports can
only handle tankers in the 35,000 to 55,000 dwt range. This lack of deep-
draft harbor facilities precludes the United States from fully realizing
the economies of scale and the purported environmental safeguards in using
supertankers for shipping oil.

To assure the protection of the coastal environment of the United States
from potential adverse effects associated with development of offshore
terminal facilities, Congress passed, and the President signed into law,
the Deepwater Port Act of 1974. The Act established a licensing and
regulatory framework for governing offshore deepwater port development. A
deepwater port, as defined in the Act, is any manmade structure located
beyond the territorial sea and off the coast of the United States that is
used for loading or unloading oil for transportation to any State, the
District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, and the territories
and possessions of the United States.

In implementation of the Act, the Department of Transportation, in
consultation with NOAA and EPA, issued the guidelines to assist license
applicants in preparing deepwater port applications and the environmental
review criteria for use by the Secretary of Transportation in evaluating
these applications. These guidelines and criteria were issued in mid-1975.

63

All proposals for deepwater terminal construction will be subject to rigorous
assessment of potential environmental impact by a number of Federal and State
agencies in compliance with these guidelines.

Two industrial consortia, Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP), Inc., and
SEADOCK, Inc., are planning to construct deepwater ports capable of handling
700,000-dwt tankers in the Gulf of Mexico. LOOP intends to build a 3.5
million barrel per day capacity facility 18 miles off the Louisiana coast,
while Seadock is planning a facility with a capacity of 2.5 million barrels
per day 26 miles off the coast of Freeport, Texas. Each installation will
consist of an offshore marine terminal, a number of single-point mooring
buoys, and pipelines for transporting the oil to storage facilities on shore
(fig. 7). LOOP will utilize a leached subterranean salt dome for storing
oil, while Seadock employs a more conventional tank farm. Assuming that LOOP
and Seadock submit applications by the end of 1975, and that the applications
are both acceptable and processed according to schedule, Seadock should become
operational by 1978 and LOOP by 1979.

COASTAL AND OFFSHORE NUCLEAR POWERPLANTS

The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) , which was created by the Energy
Reorganization Act of 1974, estimates that by 1993, eight floating nuclear
powerplants proposed for manufacture could be available for siting
along the eastern coastal zone. If this new approach to powerplant con-
struction and siting proves to be environmentally feasible and publicly
acceptable, additional units may be constructed.

Offshore nuclear power stations are anticipated to consist of pairs of
floating nuclear plants within a breakwater structure. Recent changes in
concept have expanded the siting potential to include river and estuary
locations as well as the original offshore concept. The inshore concept was
incorporated to address two aspects: (1) the international legal difficulties
of siting these structures beyond the 3-mile limit; and (2) the very large
costs involved in constructing breakwaters in greater depths.

In 1975, an Interagency Steering Committee, chaired by NRC and including
those Federal agencies with regulatory and environmental responsibilities
for FNPs, completed work on simplifying the many procedural requirements
involved in the licensing of these installations. Basically, the objective
was to minimize duplication of effort and to expedite the licensing process.
The Committee identified the public hearing, safety, environmental, and
other procedural steps in each agency, and eliminated or combined certain
of these functions by interagency agreement, e.g., between NRC and Corps
of Engineers, EPA and NRC, and Coast Guard and NRC.

Recent documentation evaluates both the environmental impacts due to
construction and operation, and the broader implications of siting many
FNPs in the coastal zone (Draft Environmental Impact Statement issued by the
NRC (NUREG-75/113)). According to this DEIS, impacts include: the migration

64

TANK FARM

PUMPING
PLATFORM

MONOBUOY

Figure 7. — A, Diagram of single-point mooring deepwater port. B, Proposed
Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP) and SEADOCK deepwater ports located
southwest of the Mississippi River and south of Freeport, Texas, respec-
tively.

65

of workers to the area and attendant need for housing, services, and educa-
tional facilities; increased water traffic along the shore zone; and the
offshore appearance of the station, which is regarded by some as not visually
pleasing. The biotic effects appear serious, but by careful planning early
in the design stage these may be minimized. Emplacement of the breakwater
will destroy approximately 100 acres of bottom habitat and associated
organisms. Laying the undersea transmission lines will displace organisms
as a result of dredging and jetting. Also, siltation and turbidity resulting
from dredging and jetting activities may cause a temporary reduction in the
fish population, and may adversely affect sensitive marine ecosystems such
as coral reefs and seagrass communities. Laying transmission lines through
seagrass beds will destroy the grasses in the dredged areas, thereby removing
biota which are important contributors to the primary and secondary produc-
tivity of estuarine systems. Additional alteration and loss of flora and
fauna will result from the construction of turnaround areas, pumping stations,
bridge construction over tidal creeks, and construction of a switchyard.

Operation of offshore FNPs will adversely affect marine organisms by
entrainment, impingement, and release of chemical and thermal effluents.
Entrained organisms are subjected to stresses and damage due to heat, bio-
cides, and shear forces.

The biotic effects of operation of FNPs in the estuarine environment will
depend primarily on the type of cooling system. With a once-through cooling
system, the effects will be little different from the offshore FNP operation.
With a closed-cycle cooling system, the effects of entrainment, impingement,
and release of chemicals and thermal energy will be reduced.

Waste-heat effluent is a major environmental concern. Researchers
supported by the NOAA Sea Grant Program are studying the biological effects
of thermal effluent from coastal powerplants on selected organisms. At the
University of California, Sea Grant researchers have noted that the growth
rates of larvae and juveniles of the American lobster are significantly
greater in heated water. Heated effluents from a San Diego powerplant are
being used to culture the lobsters and have significantly reduced production
time and costs. At the University of Maine, heated water from the Maine
Yankee Nuclear Power Reactor at Montsweag Bay is being used to culture
mollusks. These animals also exhibited increased growth rates. The Maine
scientists are also measuring the uptake and excretion of radionuclides by
mollusks and the concentration of radionuclides in associated sediments.

The severity of coastal or nuclear powerplant impacts will be highly
dependent on individual site characteristics and construction methods. There
are options available to minimize the extent of unavoidable adverse effects
on marine life, provided careful planning is employed early and assessment
studies are conducted beforehand.

66

OCEAN MINING

Vast quantities of hard minerals of economic and strategic importance
to the United States are known to exist offshore and on the sea floor of
the deep ocean. Manganese nodules, which occur on the deep seabed, are
a potentially important source of copper, nickel, cobalt, and manganese.
The United States is highly dependent on imports for nickel, cobalt, and
manganese and imports an increasing amount of copper. For a number of
economic and political reasons , the Nation seeks to broaden its sources
of these economically and strategically important minerals. U.S. industry
has spent millions of dollars to delineate high value deposits , develop
deep ocean mining technology, and operate pilot processing plants. If
legal barriers can be lifted and environmental concerns satisfied, com-
mercial scale operations by U.S. industry could begin during the early
1980' s.

Because environmental concerns could significantly delay U.S. entry into
deep ocean mining, NOAA began addressing these in 1972 in meetings with
industry and other Federal agencies and by sponsoring research cruises.
During FY 1975, NOAA released plans for the two-phase Deep Ocean Mining
Environmental Study Program.

The objectives of Phase I are to: establish environmental baselines at
representative deep ocean mining sites in the North Pacific Ocean area of
commercial interest; develop first order prediction capabilities for
determining potential environmental effects of deep ocean mining; and
provide information for the development of preliminary environmental guide-
lines for deep ocean mining for use by industry and government.

During Phase II industry's tests of prototype deep ocean mining systems
are to be monitored in order to : observe and measure actual environmental
effects of deep ocean mining systems; verify, and refine as necessary,
models for the prediction of environmental effects; and modify, as necessary,
environmental guidelines.

During FY 1975 NOAA sponsored research in the North Pacific manganese
nodule area of greatest commercial interest in order to collect preliminary
information helpful in determining potential environmental effects and
facilitate planning for Phase I to be initiated in FY 1976.

NOAA also has continued to assess the needs for environmental studies,
such as the terminated New England Offshore Mining Environmental Study
(NOMES) Project, directed at environmentally compatible development of
offshore sand, gravel, and phosphorites. Although sand, gravel, and
phosphorites are available in abundance both onshore and offshore, increas-
ing attention is being directed to offshore resources because urbanization,
land-use controls, and environmental concerns are rapidly reducing supplies
near major areas of consumption. The resultant increased costs of trans-
portation for these bulk commodities are thereby creating inflationary
pressures. Meanwhile, a virtual moratorium exists in both State and

67

Federal waters partly because environmental risks have not yet been
adequately evaluated. Research being sponsored by NOAA through the Sea
Grant Program is providing basic information relevant to assessing such
environmental effects.

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS DEVELOPMENT

Except for large domestic reserves of coal, the oil and gas resources
under the U.S. continental shelf constitute the most important readily
extractable source of new energy supplies needed to meet the Nation's require-
ments in the near term. Our objective is to realize an energy advantage by
using our continental shelf resources in a manner that will eliminate or
minimize chances of environmental damage.

There is a national need for preparing to utilize our OCS resources. But
there has also been unanimous agreement among the Federal agencies, particu-
larly between the Bureau of Land Management and NOAA, on the importance of
obtaining offshore environmental data before oil and gas development . Programs
are underway, described later in this section, to obtain this information.
Only through careful planning beforehand can we assess the potential environ-
mental impacts and consider risks and ways to minimize them effectively.

Environmental Studies Program

With the proposed accelerated development of offshore areas for oil and
gas, a public concern has developed over the impact that offshore exploration
and production activities may have upon the coastal environments of these
regions. This concern has been recognized by BLM, which has incorporated
into proposed OCS planning documents provisions for the support of environ-
mental studies in the regions where leasing is anticipated.

The objectives of the BLM Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies
Program are to:

o Provide information about the OCS environment that will enable
the Department of the Interior and BLM to make sound management
decisions on the development of mineral resources.

o

Provide a basis for predicting how oil and gas exploration and
development will affect the marine environment.

o Provide data that may result in modification of leasing
regulations, operating regulations, or operating orders.

o Establish a basis for predicting the impact of oil and gas
activities in frontier areas.

The program of studies to be followed to meet the objectives described
above involves: 1) establishing environmental baselines in selected OCS
regions before oil/gas exploration, 2) monitoring the environment during

68

oil and gas exploration and production to detect changes, and 3) initiating
special studies to provide the information needed to understand and predict
the impact of development activities.

Agency Roles

The conduct of environmental assessment studies related to OCS oil and
gas development requires the coordinated efforts of many Federal, State, and
private agencies. It is only through such coordination of effort that the
expertise can be assembled for an adequate environmental assessment in each
region.

The primary Federal agencies involved in these studies are: the Bureau
of Land Management, U.S. Geological Survey, and Fish and Wildlife Service
of the Department of the Interior; and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration of the Department of Commerce. An abbreviated description
of each agency's role in the development of OCS oil and gas resources follows:

o The Bureau of Land Management is responsible for the leasing objectives
of the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953, as amended. Activities
include planning and preparing for leasing, making lease sales, collecting
bonus revenues, and administering the leases. The Bureau of Land Management
performs its leasing functions within the purview of three departmental leasing
and management goals: (1) orderly and timely resource development, (2)
protection of the environment, and (3) receipt of fair market value for the
mineral resources. Implementation of OCS leasing objectives by BLM includes
the preparation of Environmental Impact Statements in conformance with the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, oversight of OCS environmental
studies, and pre-and post-sale analyses to ensure receipt of fair market value.

o The U.S. Geological Survey has responsibility for appraising geologic
conditions and associated resources of the national domain, for classifying
the energy and mineral resource potential of Federal OCS lands, in accordance
with the USGS Organic Act of 1879 and the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
of 1953. Activities include basic geologic investigations and mapping,
general and detailed assessments of oil, gas, and mineral resource potentials;
supervision of mineral exploration, development and exploitation; and
collection of rentals, royalties, and related revenues. Emphasis is on the
geologic environment and the conservation of associated resources in support
of the leasing program to assure safe and efficient operations.

o The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration contributes to
the development of oil and gas resources of the OCS by conducting marine
environmental assessments with (1) field investigations of proposed lease
areas, (2) laboratory studies of the effects of hydrocarbons on living marine
organisms, (3) assistance in the preparation of Environmental Impact State-
ments, and (4) review and comment on completed environmental impact studies
of other agencies. The field and laboratory studies contribute oceanographic
and biological information to decisions involving OCS oil and gas development.
The various components of NOAA, together with its Sea Grant program, provide
a broad range of expertise needed for carrying out marine assessment studies,
particularly for research on the dynamics of sediment transport and in

69

physical, chemical and biological oceanography. NOAA also produces bathy-
metric maps for use in planning environmental study programs and making
environmental decisions, and its Environmental Data Service stores and makes
available to all investigators data pertaining to the OCS. The Special
Energy Research and Development Act of 1975, passed in June 1974, further
provided for the reactivation of three NOAA vessels "... for the purpose
of conducting surveys, investigations, and research connected with the
environmental effects of offshore energy-related activities". These vessels
became operational in FY 1975.

o The Fish and Wildlife Service participates in the development of OCS
energy-related activities by planning and executing biological programs to
assess the impact of offshore oil and gas development on fish and wildlife
resources and coastal ecosystems. Specifically, areas subject to OCS oil and
gas exploration, production, and transport are studied to obtain information
on potential environnmental impact on fish and wildlife resources in order to
provide guidance in the operation of the leasing program. Particular attention
is directed toward aquatic birds and mammals, endangered species, and coastal
ecosystems — beaches, estuaries, and marshes. Under a November 1972 Memorandum
of Understanding between the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Geological
Survey, and the Fish and Wildlife Service, and pursuant to a number of
legislative authorities and Secretarial Orders, the Service develops resources
reports on OCS areas under consideration for leasing; participates in tract
selection; provides input to and comment on environmental impact statements;
participates in development of special lease stipulations; and reviews and
comments on exploratory and development plans and placement of platforms,
pipelines, and other structures.

Current Environmental Assessment Studies

The outer continental shelf areas that are now under consideration for
leasing and that either are now or may in the future be included in the BLM
Environmental Studies Program are shown on figures 8 and 9. During FY 1975
environmental assessment study programs were in progress in Alaska, Texas,
and the Mississippi-Alabama-Florida coastal regions.

Alaska

A . Background

In May 1974, the BLM, anticipating a possible oil and gas lease sale in
the Northeast Gulf of Alaska (NEGOA) in 1975, requested that NOAA initiate
an environmental assessment program in the region. The first of these
studies began in July of 1974. in October of that year, BLM greatly expanded
the Alaskan program by adding eight other regions (fig. 9). In FY 1975
studies were initiated in two additional areas in the Gulf of Alaska (Kodiak
and the Aleutian Shelf) , two areas in the Bering Sea (Outer Bristol Basin
and the St. George Basin), as well as a region in the Beaufort Sea. In
discussions between NOAA and BLM, it was agreed that the Alaskan studies
should focus on:

1. Establishing an environmental baseline for the region, against which
potential development-related impacts might be detected and evaluated; and

70

8. — ,

Atlantic Coast

1 . North Atlantic

2. Mid- Atlantic

3. South Atlantic and Blake Plateau

Gulf of Mexico

4. East Gulf

5. Central Gulf

6. West Gulf

Pacific

7. Southern California Borderland

8. North and Central California

9. Washington-Oregon

Alaska Figure 1.1.

Figure 8. — Outer continental shelf areas under consideration for leasing.

71

156° 168° 180° 168° 156° 144° 132°

7 7 7 — 7 7 — 7 7 — 7 ) — 1 1 r

1 20° 11 2°

i i i < — ^ — * — T~T7 — <; — ^ T

Beaufort Sea

64°

60°

56°

Chukchi Sea- Hope Basin

*5

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52°

48°

<!»

Bering Sea- Outer Bristol Basin
Bering Sea- St. George Basin

1 L

Environmental Studies Initiated FY 75

Proposed Expansion FY 76
1 1 \

180°

Figure 9. — Alaskan continental shelf lease areas and
environmental assessment studies.

72

2. Providing a basis for estimating the primary impact of petroleum
development on the Alaskan marine environment.

Three months before the requested expansion, NOAA initiated a series of
planning sessions to define the scientific concept that should underlie marine
environmental assessment programs related to energy development. This effort,
completed in November 1974, formed the basis for subsequent planning for
studies of the Alaskan continental shelf, and ultimately for the structure and
content of the study program.

Following extensive planning and public comments on the study plan, field
studies began in the Beaufort Sea, Outer Bristol Basin, and St. George Basin
in April 1975. By spring 1976, the last expansion of this program - the
initiation of environmental studies in Norton Basin, Hope Basin, and Lower
Cook Inlet - will have been implemented.

B. Timing and Content of Studies

The program of leasing on the Alaskan continental shelf as of June 1975
calls for tract sales to be completed by the end of 1978 (table 5) . Although
environmental studies will continue beyond that date, the NOAA program office
is scheduling its study program to respond to the following five decision points
that lead to a lease sale: tract nomination, tract selection, draft environ-
mental impact statement, final environmental impact statement, and program
decision option document. After a sale, specific studies are expected to be
conducted at sites in those areas that are considered vulnerable to adverse
effects from oil and gas development.

The timeliness of the needed data is the major factor that influences
which types of programs are initiated first. For instance, a knowledge of
the populations and key species exposed to risk and an evaluation of the
geological and meteorological hazards are both required before tracts are
nominated. However, the detailed inshore circulation studies and the effects
studies on specific ecosystems are initiated later to respond more specifically
to the sale and influence the final stipulations.

Table 6 shows the approach used to study areas in Alaska, the types
of studies conducted, the times of initiation and duration, and their
relationship to leasing decisions and offshore development activities. The
timing and content of studies is reached through consultation with the
Department of the Interior, other Federal and State officials, and scientists
from all oceanographic disciplines. The studies are designed to answer six
general questions relating to oil and gas development. These are:

1. What is the existing distribution and concentration of potential
contaminants associated with petroleum development?

2. What is the likely nature of environmental disturbances associated
with petroleum development and where might they occur, based on an analysis
of the petroleum industry's development plans for each region?

73

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75

3. What hazards does the environment pose to. petroleum exploration and
development?

4. How are contaminant discharges moved through the environment and
altered by physical, chemical, and biological processes?

5. What are the biological populations and ecological systems most
subject to impact from petroleum exploration and development?

6. What are the effects of petroleum-related contaminants and environ-
mental alterations on individual organisms, populations and ecological
systems?

Answers to these questions are intended to determine the size and
productivity of the biological resources, to establish an information base
against which subsequent changes may be evaluated, and to formulate a basic
understanding of the interrelationships of the Alaskan OCS ecological system;
to answer questions regarding the movement of both oil spills and low-concen-
tration of contaminants, particularly into critical areas identified in the
biological programs; to understand how the possible release of hydrocarbons or
trace metal pollutants may affect the biological community; to ascertain the
nature, frequency and intensity of severe environmental events that are
prime hazards to petroleum exploration and development; and to integrate the
data into suitable systems that model both the static and dynamic aspects of
the environment.

The six questions, and the timing and content of studies designed to answer
them, are continuously reviewed and evaluated to insure that information
provided DOI is assisting decision makers in balancing the benefits of
petroleum development against consequent environmental risks.

C. Regional Settings

In the Gulf of Alaska, four potential lease areas have been designated:
Aleutian Shelf, Kodiak, Lower Cook Inlet, and Northeast Gulf of Alaska.
Coastal features include: fiords with narrow beaches, high cliffs, offshore
reefs and rocky islands, bays and sounds with barrier islands, and inlets
where mud flats accumulate from glacier-fed streams.

The continental shelf of this large region is gently undulating in relief
with clearly defined submarine valleys and a smooth steep continental slope
descending to as deep as 4,500 m west of Kayak Island. The width of the
shelf varies from as little as 50 km off Unimak Island to as wide as 240 km
offshore near Kodiak Island.

Circulation in the Gulf is dominated by the Alaska Current, which flows
counter-clockwise parallel to the coast and continues westward along the
Aleutian Chain. West of Yakutat Bay there are numerous eddies in this
current. Some of the water flows northward through the Aleutian passes
into the Bering Sea and the remainder returns eastward to form the Alaska
Gyre.

76

Environmental hazards that can affect human activities in the Gulf
include earthquakes, tsunamis, frequent and intense storms accompanied by
strong winds and high seas for extended periods, fog along the Aleutian coast-
line, sea ice in Lower Cook Inlet, movement at fault surfaces, and potential
submarine slumps and slides. The coastal zone from Prince William Sound
westward is prone to frequent and severe earthquakes, which represent the
predominant natural hazard to offshore petroleum development. During the last
70 years, eight seismic events have equalled or exceeded magnitude 8. The
largest recorded earthquake in North America, March 1964, was centered beneath
Prince William Sound.

The Gulf of Alaska supports major fisheries where both United States and
foreign fishermen are active. The outer oceanic region is an important feeding
ground for maturing salmon and steelhead, which pass through the Gulf en route
to spawning grounds in Prince William Sound, Cook Inlet, and the coastal
waters of Kodiak and the southern Alaska Peninsula. The near shore spawning
and feeding grounds are important to the many immature forms of deepwater
species. Intertidal benthic invertebrates are important in the food web of
numerous marine birds and mammals and, in some areas, include abundant species
of commercial value. In the western Gulf, tidal sand and mud flats provide
extensive habitats for large populations of intertidal plants and animals.
These organisms and offshore benthos provide abundant forage for the
commercially important crab and bottom fish industry. Waters in the western
Gulf are among the most productive in the North Pacific.

More than 100 nesting colonies of marine birds, several numbering in the
hundreds of thousands, inhabit the rocky cliffs of the Gulf. The intertidal
mud flats are stopover points for the millions of migrant shore birds that pass
through the region on their spring migration to nesting grounds in northern
Alaska.

Marshes bordering the Gulf are important nesting grounds for ducks, geese,
trumpeter swans, and numerous other water birds. The lagoons and bays of
the Aleutians and southwest Gulf are the wintering grounds for the world's
population of emperor geese. The Copper River Delta is the nesting ground
for the world's entire population of dusky Canadian geese. Some 100 different
species of shorebirds have been observed in the coastal marshes of Cook Inlet.
Bald eagles live in the region throughout the year and thousands of ducks
assemble along the shorelines during winter.

The Gulf of Alaska also provides important habitats for many species of
marine mammals. Harbor seals, sea lions, sea otters, whales, and porpoises
congregate in the nearshore waters and along rocky coasts. Over 2,000
sea otters inhabit Prince William Sound and the Barren Islands. Important
sea lion, sea otter, and harbor seal rookeries and haul-out areas occur
throughout the Gulf. Northern fur seals pass through the Gulf and between
the Aleutian Islands as they migrate between the Pribilof Islands in the
Bering Sea and their wintering areas to the southeast.

In the Bering Sea three potential lease areas have been designated:
St.x George Basin, Outer Bristol Basin, and Norton Sound. The continental
shelf, which accounts for 44 percent of the total Bering Sea area, is one

77

of the largest shelf areas. It extends to 600 km offshore and has an
average depth of less than 100 m. The deep ocean basin of the western Bering
Sea is over 4,000 m deep.

The major circulation pattern is counter-clockwise. The eastward flow
north of the Aleutians mixes with waters flowing northward through Aleutian
passes. Currents in Norton Sound are affected by freshwater from the Yukon
River, which empties through the major river delta system of Alaska. Bering
Sea water flows into the sound along the bottom.

Sea ice is major feature of the Bering Sea from late autumn until early
spring. Its maximum southern limit is from Bristol Bay to St. George Island
of the Pribilofs. The ice forms each year and contains many areas of open
water. Upwelling along the deep margin of the continental shelf brings
nutrient rich waters to the surface. The variety of habitats and high
productivity of the shelf region support many species of fish, birds, and
mammals. The biota vary with the change from colder water in the north to
warmer, more saline waters in the south. The largest eelgrass beds in the
world border this sea and provide food and protection for birds and fish
larva. The presence of ice affects the movement of marine life. Many
species congregate and thrive near the edge of the ice, move with the advance
and retreat of the ice, and provide food for concentrations of marine birds
and mammals. Walrus, seals, and whales normally stay near the sea ice. The
entire northern population of fur seals breeds on the Pribilof Islands.

Coastal marshlands along the south coast of the Seward Peninsula are
important stopovers for migrating swans, geese, cranes, and shorebirds. In
offshore areas, other marine birds feed in and beneath the ice edge and rest
upon it. The islands of the Bering Strait, in Norton Sound, and along the
southern coast of the Seward Peninsula support numerous bird colonies. The
colony at King Island is believed to contain more than a million birds. The
coastal lagoons and abundant plankton in Bristol Bay support one of the
densest populations of water birds in the world.

In Alaskan Arctic waters two potential lease areas have been designated,
the Beaufort Sea and the Chukchi Sea-Hope Basin.

The Beaufort Sea has a very narrow continental shelf, 48 to 96 km, and
depths less than 200 m. Water mass properties are influenced by circulation
patterns of the Arctic Ocean. Sediments from rivers and eroded coastal banks
are transported by longshore currents to form beaches and offshore barrier
islands. These barrier islands are the distinctive feature of much of this
coast.

Ocean currents in the Beaufort Sea generally flow westward between
Mackenzie Bay and Point Barrow, where the slow westerly drift is formed by
the clockwise Beaufort Gyre. Local winds can reverse the westward drift
and cause easterly currents in nearshore reaches. The wind affects water
levels more than tides and moves the ice pack either shoreward or offshore
toward the Arctic Basin.

The ice cover is nearly complete in winter except for leads and polynyas —
open water areas in the sea ice. Landfast ice extends from a few kilometers

78

to as much as 50 km offshore and is frozen to the bottom nearshore. The
moving winter ice pack shears against the stationary landfast ice to form
extensive pressure ridge systems that can exceed 9 m in height. High pressure
ridges have proturberances (keels) under the ices. These sometimes extend
30 m downward. The surface of the continental shelf in this region is affected
everywhere by dragging ice blocks grounding in the shelf sediments and forming
deep gouges in the sea floor.

Freezeup and breakup dates are variable and unpredictable. At Point
Barrow, freezeup may occur anytime between early September and late November.
Breakup has occurred as early as mid-June and as late as late August. The
shelf, beneath a surface layer as thick as 3 m, is probably underlain by
continuous thick permafrost.

The Chukchi Sea is a shallow body of water having average depths of
45 to 55 m. The surface of the shelf is affected by dragging ice blocks and
may be underlain by continuous thick permafrost. Much of the low-lying
coast is a somewhat broken, beadlike, series of lagoons. The shore is low
and marshy, has numerous lakes and small streams, and is underlain by
continuous thin to moderately thick permafrost.

Ocean currents flow predominantly northward from the Bering Sea through
the Bering Strait into the Chukchi Sea and Arctic Ocean. The northward
coastal currents and the westward drift along the southern margin of the
arctic ice pack establish a broad counterclockwise circulation in the Chukchi
Sea.

Sea ice coverage varies from year to year. Polynyas and leads are
present in both the polar and winter pack, and in summer there are open
water areas along the entire coast, especially in the southern part of the
region. The coast is subject to polar ice action as far south as Icy Cape.
Normally, polar ice is about 3 to 4 m thick at the end of winter. West and
south of Icy Cape the normal situation is one-year ice.

The variety and distribution of marine animals along the Arctic coastline
reflect the combined effects of ice movements, watermass properties, bottom
characteristics, and the availability of suitable food. The presence or
absence of ice affects movement and behavior of fishes, birds, and marine
mammals. Many of these species congregate near the edge of the pack ice
and move with it. Plankton, invertebrates, and fish that thrive at the
ice edge provide food for marine birds and mammals.

In the Chukchi Sea, nutrient concentrations are relatively high
especially in recently unwelled and deeper waters. The plankton in the
southeastern Chukchi Sea are very similar to those in the Bering Sea.

In the Beaufort Sea, the shallow coastal areas along and within the
barrier island chain are more productive than the open sea. During summer,
phytoplankton and zooplankton increase markedly in coastal waters and the
edge of the ice pack. However, there are few species and the Arctic food

79

webs are more simple than in temperate seas. In the intertidal zone, only a
few animal species can tolerate the moving sea ice and constantly shifting
beach sediments.

Nearshore waters are critical to most waterfowl in the Arctic; this
habitat is the first marine water open in the spring. Although the tides
do not fluctuate enough to create the broad intertidal areas associated with
high productivity elsewhere, coastal lagoons, marshes, barrier islands, and
coastal tundra provide important feeding, molting, and nesting areas. A
million or so eider ducks, old squaw, and other birds pass along the Chukchi
and Beaufort Seas coastal habitats on their migrations to the Arctic. Two-
thirds of the bird population of the Canadian Arctic islands pass through the
Beaufort Sea. Snow geese are known to nest in Alaska only on Howe Island
near Prudhoe Bay.

The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas provide habitat for marine mammals that fol-
low the edge of the pack ice in its seasonal advance and retreat. Polar bears,
walrus and seals are abundant along the edge of the ice pack and the coast.
Marine mammals are seasonally important in estuaries. In spring, whales
migrate north along leads close to the Alaskan coast; the bowhead and beluga,
in particular, stay close to the edge of the pack ice. Spotted seals haul
out in great numbers on beaches and are particularly conspicuous at Cape
Espenberg. In the winter, such animals as the walrus and many bearded
seals migrate south, while others such as the polar bear are found along the
shorefast ice. Fishery resources of the area are primarily benthic or
demersal. All five Pacific salmon are present, with pink and chum salmon
dominant. Salmon runs in the Chukchi Sea support a commercial fishery
centered in the Kotzebue area. The run of chum salmon to the Noatak River
alone exceeds one million fish in some years.

D. FY 1975 Activities

The first environmental assessment work carried out in Alaska under the
NOAA/BLM agreement was in the Northeast Gulf of Alaska (NEGOA) . Field
studies began in July 1974 and focused on (1) describing the physical and
biological components of the environment, (2) determining the transport
processes that influence the distribution of biological resources and
potential contaminants from OCS development, and (3) identifying the potential
geological hazards. Similar work in the Bering and Beaufort Seas commenced
in 1975.

Physical Oceanography. Cross sections and vertical profiles of tempera-
ture, salinity, and density were obtained throughout the year except for
intervals in late fall and mid -winter. Analysis indicated the sampling
scheme was adequate to resolve major hydrographic features in most regions.

Good agreement was found between the general circulation of the Northeast
Gulf of Alaska as inferred from density-field measurements and as generated
by a diagnostic model. The direct observations of the currents also agreed
well with the diagnostic model, particularly for the flow direction.

80

In our preliminary findings, the hydrographic data revealed the presence
of a warm layer, which is associated with the Alaska Stream, moving along the
bottom at the 150 m level. This layer clearly offers a relatively warm
region for benthic animals around the outer continental shelf. The bio-
logical implications of this warm band will be of significance to petroleum
development activities because bottom temperatures control the distribution
of demersal organisms.

The hydrographic data and general understanding of the wind pattern
suggest a relatively strong onshore motion of surface waters during the fall
and winter. Contrasted to this, the summer has weak offshore motion, thus
leaving the dominant flow along bathymetric contours. This suggests that the
study done for CEQ of oil spill trajectories for the Gulf of Alaska may be
in error when it predicted higher probabilities of oil going onshore in the
summer than in the winter.

Geology. An extensive program to identify geological hazards was under-
taken by USGS during FY 1975. Areas of surface faulting and sea floor
instability were mapped in some detail (fig. 10) .

Biology. In general, biological field work progressed well, although in
various instances investigations were thwarted by severe weather and
associated logistical problems. Brief commentaries on progress in the
biological study areas follow.

Birds. Substantial data on the distribution and abundance of birds in
NEGOA were collected despite the unfortunate loss of an airplane with all
aboard while conducting a survey. Data now available indicate a standing
stock of about 1.5 million birds in the NEGOA region during winter, and as
many as 48 million during the spring migration. The number of birds actually
dependent on the region may be substantially larger because population
estimates do not take into account turnover of individuals within the
population.

Marine Mammals. Studies during the first year concentrated on three
principal mammal species in NEGOA: the sea lion, harbor seal, and sea otter.
Research related primarily to the identification of areas of high concentra-
tions of these mammals, as well as areas of haul-outs. Data on the pelagic
occurrence of these species as well as other marine mammals, on food
dependencies, and on population dynamics will be collected in following
years .

Littoral Biology. The general objectives during the first year were
1) to determine the abundance and distribution of organisms living in the
littoral zone at selected locations and 2) to survey the literature concern-
ing the effects of oil pollution on these organisms in order to evaluate
potential impact of an oil spill to the littoral zone. Efforts were concen-
trated on the rocky intertidal region: cooperative ventures to study sand
and muddy areas have been initiated with agencies. At present, data are
still being processed, so few results are available yet. After more data
are received, computer-developed methods will be used to study species

81

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richness, community associations dominance, and seasonal patterns at selected
sites. Intensive monitoring of selected sites to provide detailed information
on recruitment and seasonal changes began in the spring of 1975.

Demersal Fish. The principal objective during the first year was to begin
an assessment of standing stocks and distribution of shellfish and demersal
fish living in or migrating through the area. In FY 1975, 95 locations were
sampled in the NEGOA region. Data from these stations are presently being
analyzed and interpreted in relation to historical information and other
related data.

Benthos. The specific objectives of the benthic first-year program were
to 1) conduct a qualitative and quantitative inventory of dominant species;
2) describe the spatial and seasonal distribution patterns of selected species
and 3) make preliminary observations of biological interrelationships between
selected segments of the benthic marine communities. Seven transects
extending from the coast to beyond 20C m were occupied during the first year.
Stations along these transects were established to coincide with the physical
and chemical oceanographic programs. Results from these studies provided
a general description of benthic species in the projected lease area and
defined biologically important taxa. Data analyzed to date indicate that
polychaetous worms are the most important infaunal group from these locations
while crustaceans and echinoderms are the most important epifaunal organisms
collected from the trawl surveys. Future years' efforts will be directed
toward feeding studies, and more intensive sampling at selected sites.

Zooptankton. Objectives during the first year's study were 1) to
inventory and census the numerically dominant or otherwise obvious species,
2) to describe spatial and seasonal distributions, and 3) to examine relation-
ships to hydrographic and biochemical parameters. Over 100 samples were
collected and processed between July 1974 and May 1975. Assemblages collected
were similar to those previously reported from the northeastern Pacific
and Alaska coastal waters. Statistical sampling studies conducted during
the first year indicated the level of effort required in future years to
minimize sampling variability. Vertical and seasonal distribution will be
examined in more detail in following years, as well as biological and
ecological interrelationships between net plankton and micronekton.

Chemistry. Chemical studies in FY 1975 focused on determining the
concentration and distribution patterns of hydrocarbons and trace metals in
selected components of the environment. Hydrocarbon analyses were under-
taken by the University of Alaska and the National Bureau of Standards on
benthic sediments and surface water. Biological samples were collected and
frozen for future hydrocarbon analysis. Samples from known natural oil
seeps and floating tar were also collected and analyzed for hydrocarbons.

Continental U.S.

During FY 1975, lease sales were held in the eastern Gulf of Mexico.
Environmental assessment programs were initiated in the coastal region off
Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida (MAFLA) and off the south Texas coast to

83

provide information for these sales and later leasing decisions. The MAFLA
sale was held in December 1973; the South Texas sale occurred in February 1975,

Planning for lease sales and the collection of environmental information
to support leasing decisions were also initiated in other geographic areas
during FY 1975. The lease sales held or planned for 1975 and 1976 (excluding
Alaska) are :

Sale No. Geographic area Sale

Eastern Gulf of Mexico (MAFLA) 12/73

35 Southern California 12/75

37 South Texas 2/75

38 Central Gulf of Mexico 5/75
38A " 7/75

40 Mid-Atlantic 8/76

41 Gulf of Mexico (Texas, Louisiana) 2/76

The environmental studies associated with these areas preceded the lease-sale
dates by several months to a year.

Environmental studies conducted in the coastal areas of the lower forty-
eight states have been managed and performed through contracts by BLM with
universities, private industry, and other government agencies. The planning
and implementation of these environmental assessment studies generally
progresses through several steps:

1. literature survey of previous work

2. public conference to solicit ideas on needed studies

3. design of program

4. solicitation of comments on design

5. initiation of field studies/baseline

6. initiation of field studies/monitoring

As with the Alaskan program, these studies are continuously reviewed
and evaluated to insure that the Department of the Interior's data needs are
being met in an adequate and timely manner. In addition to these environ-
mental studies, other studies, field and laboratory, have been funded to
supplement data from baseline and monitoring studies or to provide infor-
mation about special characteristics of a particular region that might be
influenced or be influential in determining potential impact from oil and gas
development .

The following discussion outlines the environmental baseline and monitor-
ing studies conducted during FY 1975 and summarizes other work that was
initiated during this time in support of these environmental studies.

84

A. MAFIA

A contract was let in April 1974 to the State University System of
Florida, Institute of Oceanography (SUSIO) to conduct an environmental
assessment study in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. This first sampling effort
provided a broad descriptive view of the environmental conditions in this
geographical region. Second-year efforts, which began in late spring 1975,
were directed toward continuing the broad-scale sampling program initiated
during the previous year, but conducted on a seasonal basis. Studies
emphasized the measurement of hydrocarbons and trace metals in the water,
sediments, and biota, with results generally showing low concentrations of
all elements. Sampling of the benthic epifauna and infauna provided a
general understanding of the benthic community: benthic site sampling was
intensified during the second year to increase the quality of benthic infor-
mation.

B. South Texas

Contracts were awarded to the University of Texas, Texas A&M University,
NOAA, and U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) in January-February 1975 to conduct
an environmental baseline study in the area of the south Texas coast. A
potential hazard to oil platform safety was identified when USGS studies
detected regions of bottom movement and instability.

Studies by NOAA, based mostly on historical records, demarcated trends in
shrimp and zooplankton abundance, composition of fish found at a specific
depth interval and general patterns of water circulation over the Texas
shelf, especially the surface layers.

The University of Texas examined the trace metal and hydrocarbon concen-
trations in the water and biota. They also studied the benthic communities
on the Texas shelf, finding a greater abundance of bottom-dwelling organisms
than expected. The amount of bioturbation nearshore was also quite
significant, suggesting that pollutants introduced into this environment
would be rapidly worked into the sediment.

Studies of trace metal concentrations in the sediments by Texas A&M
University revealed relatively low levels when compared to concentrations in
the shelf to the north. Causes of higher concentrations of cadmium and lead
in specific areas appear to be related to anthropogenic sources or natural
gas seeps.

d Other Continental Shelf Areas

No other baseline studies were begun in areas other than in MAFLA and in
south Texas. In FY 1975 preliminary steps leading up to the conduct of these
studies were begun for three additional areas: the Mid-Atlantic region,
Southern California, and Georges Bank.

Mid-Atlantic Region. In December 1974, the Estuarine Research Foundation
conducted a public conference for BLM at College Park, Maryland, to discuss
existing environmental information in the Mid-Atlantic region and types of

85

studies that are needed to provide baseline information to BLM. Following
this workshop, a study plan was prepared for the Mid-Atlantic and commented
upon by state and Federal agencies. In June 1975, a contract was awarded to
the Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences for the conduct of environmental
baseline studies. As in other areas, efforts will be directed toward the
determination of petroleum and selected trace metal concentrations in the
water, biota and sediments. Intensive studies of benthic communities will
also be conducted, including examination of present tissue health of these
organisms .

Complementary studies by USGS and NOAA are planned for FY 1976. These
will include synthesis of existing physical oceanographic and meteorological
data and work-up and interpretation of historical fish and benthic samples
collected by the National Marine Fisheries Service of NOAA.

Southern California. A workshop was also conducted in December 1974 by
the California Academy of Sciences for the southern California area. The
recommendations from that meeting were used to design the environmental
study plan for the region. A contract to conduct the environmental studies
was let to Science Applications, Inc. in June 1975. Two types of studies
off the southern California coast are being conducted: one effort emphasizes
the collection of baseline data in the intertidal region; the other effort
is a reconnaissance of the environmental conditions in the offshore areas.
A survey of the offshore region was felt to be necessary preceding the
design of a baseline program because the area is so diverse and so little
is known. A baseline program for the offshore area will be designed from
data collected during this initial survey. Offshore field baseline studies
thus are not expected to begin until late CY 1976.

Another contract was awarded in FY 1975 to study the area off the
California coast. The BLM signed an agreement with the University of
California at Santa Cruz in March 1975 to conduct surveys on the numbers,
distribution, and activities of marine birds and mammals in the area from
Point Conception to the U.S. /Mexican border. Information from this study will
aid in delineating geographical areas that are important to the preservation
of the numerous and varied bird and mammal populations.

Georges Bank. A workshop on the "Marine Environmental Assessment needs
on the Georges Bank related to Petroleum Exploration and Development" was
conducted in Bentley, Massachusetts in May 1975. This meeting was the
second step in the process of developing a study program for the Georges
Bank region. The first step was a literature survey by the Research Institute
of the Gulf of Maine in November 1974 entitled: "A Socio-Economic and
Environmental Inventory of the North Atlantic Region, Sandy Hook to Bay of
Fundy". Field studies for this area are not expected to be initiated until
late CY 1976.

D. Complementary Studies

Various other projects were initiated by BLM during FY 1975 that will
provide information supportive of the environmental assessment studies of
OCS regions.

86

In the Gulf of Mexico, two contracts were awarded to provide more infor-
mation on benthic communities. Texas A&M University is conducting surveys
of topographically high undersea features that are found in areas of offshore
development. These features possess unique biological communities that might
be affected by offshore development. Another contract was awarded to TerEco
in June 1974 to complete work-up of previously collected benthic samples from
the continental slope in the Gulf of Mexico. The additional information from
both contracts should aid scientists in their interpretation of data
collected from baseline cruises and so provide a better understanding of the
benthic community in the Gulf of Mexico. This information should assist BLM
in making leasing decisions that minimize environmental risks to this important
segment of the biota.

A BLM-sponsored study was initiated by the Atlantic Oceanographic and
Meteorological Laboratories of NOAA in the spring of 1975 to develop the
capability of predicting currents in the Gulf of Mexico for use in pollutant
trajectory computation. The study involves historical data compilation,
field studies, and the testing and refinement of a numerical model for
circulation patterns in the Gulf of Mexico. This effort is not expected to
be completed until May 1977.

87

APPENDIX A, List of References

1. National Academy of Sciences. 1975. Petroleum in the Marine Environ-
ment , a report by the Ocean Affairs Board on the Workshop on Inputs,
Fates, and the Effects of Petroleum in the Marine Environment, May 21^25,
1973, Airlie House, Airlie, Va.

2. National Academy of Sciences. 1975, Assessing Potential Ocean "Pollu-
tants ^ a report of the Study Panel on Assessing Potential Ocean
Pollutants to the Ocean Affairs Board, 438 pp.

3. National Science Foundation. 1974. Pollutant Transfer to the Marine
Environment^ Deliberations and Recommendations of the National Science
Foundation, International Decade of Ocean Exploration Pollutant Transfer
Workshop, January 11-12, 1974. 55 pp.

4. U.S. Department of Commerce. July 1974, Measurement and Interpretation
of Nonvolatile Hydrocarbons in the Ocean, {Part 1], Measurements in
Atlantic Mediterranean, Gulf of Mexico, and Persian Gulf, prepared by
Exxon Research and Engineering Company and Exxon Production Research
Company for the Maritime Administration, Washington, D.C., Contract
Grant No. C-l-35049.

5. U.S. Department of Commerce. April 1976. Measurement and Interpretation
of Hydrocarbons in the Pacific Oceans Final Report on Contract No,
4-35266, prepared by Exxon Research and Engineering Company and Exxon
Production Research Company for National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration. Jointly supported by NOAA and MarAd. 243 pp., p. 45.

6. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1974. Pacific Ocean Sampling Program-
Measurement and Interpretation of Hydrocarbons in the Pacific Ocean,
Exxon Research and Engineering Company and Exxon Production Research
Company, Reports (No. 2 July and No. 3 August) to NOAA, Washington,
D.C., Contract Grant No. 4-35266. p. 57.

7. Donald F. Boesch, Carl H. Hershner, and Jerome H. Milgram, 1974. Oil
Spills and the Marine Environment, a report to the Energy Policy Project
of the Ford Foundation, Ballinger Publishing Co., Cambridge, Mass.,

114 pp.

8. American Petroleum Institute. 1976. Environmental Research, Annusl
Status Report, February 1976, API Publication No. 4275, 29 pp.

9.

A. Calabrese, R. S, Collier, D, A, Nelson, and J, R. Maclnnes, 1973
The toxicity of heavy metals to embryos of the American oyster,

Crassostrea virginica, Mar, Biol, 18:162-166.

10. A, Calabrese, J, R, Maclnnes, D. A, Nelson, and J. E, Miller, Survival
and growth of marine bivalve larvae under heavy-metal stress, unpublished
data, NOAA, NMFS Middle Atlantic Coastal Fisheries Center, Milford
Laboratory, Milford, Conn.

88

11. D, A, Nelson, A, Calabrese, B, A. Nelson, J, ft, Maclnnes, and D, R.
Wenzloff , Biological effect? of heavy metals on juvenile bay scallops,

Argopecten iwadians^ in shortr-term exposures, Bull Environ, Contam,
Toxicol, in press,

12. A. Calabrese, F. P. Thurberg, M. A. Dawson, and D. R. Wenzloff, 1975,
Sublethal physiological stress induced by cadmium and mercury in the
winter flounder Pseudopleuronectes americanus. In Sublethal Effects
of Toxic Chemicals on Aquatic Animals, J, H, Koeman and J. J. Strik
(eds,), Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam, pp, 15-21.

13. M. A, Dawson, E. Gould, F. P. Thurberg, and A. Calabrese. Physiological
response of juvenile striped bass, Morone saxatilis, to low levels of
cadmium and mercury, unpublished manuscript. NOAA, NMFS Middle Atlantic
Coastal Fisheries Center, Milford Laboratory, Milford, Conn.

14. E. Gould. Alteration of kidney enzymes in winter flounder, Pseudo-
pleuronectes americanus , exposed to cadmium, in Proceedings of the
Symposium on Physiological Responses of Marine Biota to Pollutants,
in press. Academic Press.

15. F. P. Thurberg. Effects of silver on bivalve molluscs, unpublished data.

16. F. P. Thurberg, A. Calabrese, E. Gould, R. A. Greig, M. A. Dawson, and
R. Tucker. Response of the lobster, Homarus americanus, to sublethal
levels of cadmium and mercury, in Proceedings of the Symposium on
physiological Responses of Marine Biota to Pollutants, in press.
Academic Press.

17. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. First Interim Report
on Microconstituent Resource Survey, NMFS, Southeast Utilization
Research Center, Regents Drive, College Park, Md.

18. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. First Interim Report
on Microconstituent Resource Survey, NMFS, Southeast Utilization
Research Center, Regents Drive, College Park, Md.

18. R. T. Barber, A. Vijayakumar, and F. A. Cross. 1972. Mercury concen-
trations in recent and ninety-year-old benthopelagic fish, Science
178:636-639.

19. F. A. Cross and J. H. Brooks. 1973. Concentrations of Manganese, iron
and zinc in juveniles of five estuarine-dependent fishes, in Third
National Symposium on Radioecology, Daniel J. Nelson (ed.), U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, Oak Ridge, Tenn. (CONF-710501-P2) , pp. 769-775.

20. F. A. Cross, L. H. Hardy, N. Y. Jones, and R. T. Barber. 1973. Relation
between total body weight and concentrations of manganese, iron, copper,
zinc and mercury in white muscle of bluefish (Pomatomug saltatrix) and

a bathyl-demersal fish Antimora rostrata, J. Fisheries Res. Board of
Canada 30 C9) : 1287-1291.

89

21. R, J, Huggett, F, A, Cross, and M, E, Bender, Distribution of copper
and zinc in oysters and sediments from three coastal plain estuaries,
in Proceedings of the Symposium on Mineral Cycling in Southeastern
Ecosystems, in press,

22. D, A, Wolfe, G, W. Thayer, and S, Marshall Adams, Manganese, iron,
copper and zinc in an eelgrass (Zostera marina) community, in Pro<-
ceedings of the Fourth National Symposium on Radioactivity, in press,

23. F. A. Cross, J. N. Willis, L. H, Hardy, N. Y. Jones, and J, M, Lewis,
1975. Role of juvenile fish in cycling of Mn, Fe, Cu and Zn in a
coastal-plain estuary, Estuarine Res. 1:45-65,

24. D. A. Wolfe. 1974. The cycling of zinc in the Newport River estuary,
North Carolina, in Coastal ecological Systems of the Intted States^
Part I. Heavy Metals, F, John Vernberg and Winona B. Vernberg (eds.),
pp. 79-99.

25. D. A. Wolfe. 1975. Modeling the distribution and cycling of metallic
elements in estuarine ecosystems, Estuarine Res, 1:645^-671,

26. D. A. Wolfe, F. A. Cross, and C. D, Jennings. 1973. The flux of Mn,
Fe and Zn in an estuarine ecosystem, in Radioactive contamination of
the Marine Environment } pp. 159-175, International Atomic Energy Agency,
Vienna .

27. The concentration at which after 96 hours of continuous exposure
50 percent of the test organisms are dead.

28. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. March 1975. NOAA Tech.
Rpt. ERL 321-MESA 2, Ocean Bumping in the New York Bight t 78 pp.

29. Russell E. Train. 1974. A new approach to international environmental
cooperation: The NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society,
Kansas Law Rev. 22 (2): 167-191.

30. National Bureau of Standards. Marine Pollution Monitoring (Petroleum),
NBS Spec. Pub. 409, Proceedings of a Symposium and Workshop held at
the National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, Md., May 13-17, 1974.

90

APPENDIX B, Petroleum in the Marine Environment

The National Academy of Sciences study Petroleum in the Marine Environ-
ment, issued in 1975, identifies deficiencies in what we know about
petroleum in the marine environment and what research and other efforts are
needed to reduce and prevent this form of ocean pollution. Pertinent
assessments and major recommendations of the NAS study are reviewed
relative to: the need for reliable data on the input and fluxes of
petroleum hydrocarbons (PHCs) in the marine environment, the need for
generally accepted standard methods for analyzing PHCs, and the need to
improve our understanding of the fate, or transformations, of PHCs in the
marine environment and their impact on the marine biota.

Inputs

As stated in last year*s annual report, the problems of estimating input
and flux of PHCs in the marine environment has proven to be a most difficult
task. The NAS study cited the lack of reliable analytical data on the
concentrations of PHCs in the volume fluxes of air, liquid, and solids.
Another contributing factor is the absence of generally accepted standard
methods for PHC analyses.

Other elements of the problem include insufficient data reported in the
literature to differentiate between levels of biogenic and petroleum hydro-
carbons, or to identify or quantify the various components making up the
general class termed petroleum hydrocarbons . Finally, the NAS study noted
that the volumes of PHC lost through industrial practices and accidents
in the territorial and high seas are probably reported on the low side.

The inherent difficulties notwithstanding, the NAS group undertook the
task of estimating the various inputs of PHC into the ocean environment. It
is emphasized that the results shown in Table Bl are based on the very
limited data presently available and on a number of assumptions which may
not be validated by future research.

Concerning future trends, the NAS study participants projected a de-
creased rate of global input (4.6 mta) for the early 1980s. 2/ This
prediction was based on the assumption that the anticipated global expansion
of oil development, transport, and use will be more than offset by such
positive steps as achieving maximum application of Load-on-Top (LOT)
operations for all tankers, effective international agreements, stricter
governmental controls on offshore operations and on atmospheric emissions of
PHC, and other factors.

1/ Workshop on Inputs, Fates, and the Effects of Petroleum in the Marine
Environment, May 21-25, 1973, Airlie House, Airlie, Virginia. Held under
the auspices of the OCEAN AFFAIRS BOARD Commission on Natural Resources,
National Research Council. Published by the National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, D.C. 1975, 107 pp.

2/ Ibid., page 14, table 1-7.

91

The study conclusions on PHC inputs were that research is required in the
following areas:

Atmospheric Transport and Deposition

o Reaction kinetics of various hydrocarbon compounds
entering the atmosphere

o Nature and fates of the various reaction products

o Nature and distribution of particulate materials,

including relationships among numbers, size distributions,
and mass fallout rates of particulates

o Techniques to differentiate PHCs from atmospheric rainout
cycle and biogenically related hydrocarbons which appear
to be two or three orders of magnitude greater than the
PHC atmospheric values

River Runoff

o Techniques are needed to quantitatively measure PHC on
suspended particulate matter, as well as PHC dissolved
in river water and that carried on the water surface.

Natural Seeps

o Satisfactory methods are not available for measuring
rates of flow from natural seeps

In order to reduce total PHC input to the oceans, the NAS study participants
suggested that additional effort in three areas would be appropriate:

o Improve operation and control of tanker shipping operations
with special emphasis on achieving maximum LOT operation.

o Improve control of municipal and industrial wastewater

treatment processes, and improve control and regulation of
PHC sources in sewerage systems.

o Reduce PHC emissions from automobiles and other internal
combustion engines.

Analytical Methods: Chemical

The NAS study points out that crude oils can contain many tens of
thousands of compounds and that crude oils from different regions of the
world can vary greatly in composition. Add to this the fact that many
terrestrial and marine organisms synthesize hydrocarbons (biogenic hydro-
carbons) , it becomes readily apparent that the analytical processes involved
in the measurement of hydrocarbons are complex and costly. As detailed in

92

Table Bl. -budget of petroleum hydrbcafbdris introduced Into the oceans 3/

Input rate (mta)a

Source

Best estimate

Probable range

Offshore production
Transportation
LOTD tankers
Non-LOT tankers
Dry docking
Terminal operations
Bilges, bunkering
Tanker accidents
Nontanker accidents
Coastal refineries
Atmospheric rainoutc
Coastal municipal wastes
Coastal, nonrefining,

industrial wastes
Urban runoff
River runoff

SUBTOTAL

Natural seeps

TOTAL

0.08

0.31

0.77

0.25

0.003

0.5

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.6

0.3

0.3
0.3
1.6

5.513

0.6

6.113

0.08=0.15

0.15-0.4

0.65-1,0

0.2-0.3

0.0015-0.005

0.4-0.7

0.12-0,25

0.02-0.15

0.2-0.3

0.4-0.8

0.1-0.5

0.2-1.0

a mta, million metric tons annually.

D LOT, load-on- top.

c Based upon assumed 10 percent return from the atmosphere.

the NAS report, there is no single analytical method that can solve all types
of problems concerned with the measurement of hydrocarbons in the marine
environment. In general, analytical methods for determination of hydro-
carbons in water are divided into those for low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons
(Ci -Cio) an<* high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons (Cn and higher) .

Several analytical methods are available for measuring low- and high-
molecular-weight and total hydrocarbons in samples of oil, water, sediment,
and animal tissue. The methods vary widely in their detection limits and
diagnostic abilities. They range from the measurement to a few parts per
trillion (101 ) of individual low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons in water to
the more simple gravimetric measurements of hydrocarbons in sediment and
tissues with detection limits of about one million times less (a few ppm) .
As the complexity of petroleum hydrocarbons increases with molecular weight,
the analysis of hydrocarbons becomes more difficult. However, some tech-
niques can partly characterize high-molecular-weight (Cn+ ) hydrocarbons.

3/ Ibid., page 6, table 1-5.

93

These include high^resolution gas chromatography and combined gas chroma-
tography - mass spectrometry CGC * MS), It Is important to point out that
more than one procedure is required to measure the whole range of hydros-
carbons in a given water sample.

Analytical techniques for differentiating between petroleum hydrocarbons
and biogenic hydrocarbons have not been perfected and are currently receiving
much research attention. Some of the analytical methods, such as gas
chromatography in conjunction with liquid column chromatography, can often
distinguish hydrocarbons from these two sources. Researchers * have determined
that hydrocarbons from marine organisms have a strong predominance of odd-
numbered C15 through C21 alkanes. Researchers are exploring ratios of these
carbon homologs, such as pristane (C19) and phytane (C20) » as a possible
means of distinguishing between biogenic and petroleum hydrocarbons.

The NAS report identified several problem areas that require further
development of methods. 4/

o Sample collection. Do samplers contribute or remove hydrocarbons
from the sample? What are the best sampler materials and how does
one obtain, for example, subsurface water samples without con-
tamination from hydrocarbons on the water surface or near surface?

o Preservation of samples. How is a sample best sealed to prevent
loss of the volatile hydrocarbons? How is bacterial deterioration
of hydrocarbons prevented?

o Very low concentration analysis. The hydrocarbon contents of the
open oceans are low, a few parts per billion. Current techniques
can detect approximately 1 ppb or less. More sensitive methods
and more diagnostic methods are required, to accurately measure
these hydrocarbons and to determine the portions from petroleum
and biogenic sources.

o Separation of petroleum from other hydrocarbons. Methods for

distinguishing petroleum hydrocarbons from biogenic hydrocarbons
in sediments, organisms, and water are needed.

Analytical Methods: Biological

The NAS study reviews the criteria that should be used in selecting
techniques for assessing the biological effects of oil spills or of
continuous oil additions to the marine environment. In general, better
methods are needed for determining the biodegradation of oil, the bio-uptake
of oil, and the influences various oils have on marine organisms in the
intertidal zone, benthos, and water column. A complicating factor is
that most marine organisms show natural seasonal variations that are
related to yearly cycles, as well as year-to-year variations. Natural

4/ Ibid. , page 31.

94

calamities can be caused in the marine environment by changes in salinity,
temperature, oxygen level, and the buildup of poisonous materials or gases.
These natural events, causing variations in species abundance and distri-
bution, make it difficult to detect those changes caused by petroleum
additions. Therefore, all of the important variables that may influence
biological response should be monitored following an oil spill.

Microbial degradation of oil can be assessed by adding low concentrations
of C-labeled hydrocarbons to raw seawater. After incubation under
controlled conditions, the amount of radioactive carbon dioxide produced
from radioactive hydrocarbon provides an index of the rate of oxidation
of the labeled compound.

Phytoplankton is responsible for the fixation of the energy utilized by
marine ecosystems. How oil in the water column affects their growth rates
must be determined for both spills and continuous additions. Assessing the
effects on phytoplankton is seen to consist of two phases: (1) field
studies to determine oil concentrations and if the observed concentrations
have a measurable effect on natural phytoplankton communities; and (2)
laboratory experiments to determine specific effects on selected species and
on communities. Two field study techniques appear useful. These are the
radioactive bicarbonate uptake method and the in situ cylinder or field
fencing method. In the latter, portions of the water column are isolated
in open-ended plastic cylinders that extend from the surface to the bottom
sediments. Oil is added to some; others serve as controls. Samples are
collected periodically and phytoplankton concentrations are determined by
microscopic examination. Laboratory procedures for maintaining cultures and
conducting growth experiments rely on well-documented bioassay and other
techniques.

Assessment of damage to larger organisms requires comparing analyses
made within several disciplines. These methods range from static bioassays
to flow-through bioassay systems to behavioral studies and, finally, to
specialized studies on tissues and enzymes. Concerning the relative merits
of the static versus the flow-through bioassay techniques, the NAS study
participants preferred the flow-through water systems.

The NAS report emphasized that field observations must always be
complemented by controlled experimental work in order to ensure validity of
interpretation. Scientists working in this area are urged by the study
participants to become acquainted with the complexities of biological studies
and to make every effort to design and conduct truly diagnostic experiments.
These studies should be interdisciplinary and they are expensive but
should produce useful results at less cost than many isolated investigations.

Fate

Knowledge of the physical, chemical, and biological transformations of
petroleum hydrocarbons in the marine environment is essential in order to
make intelligent estimates of the quantities in the sea at a given time
as well as their likely Impact on the marine biota,

95

When petroleum or petroleum products are released on the ocean's surface,
a variety of processes Immediately begin$ to act which alter the material.
Physical forces such as currents, winds, and waves cause dispersion and
spreading. Evaporation alone will remove about 50 percent of the hydro-
carbon in an "average" crude oil on the ocean's surface. 5/ Because most
of the components of petroleum are relatively insoluble in water, an
important mode of dispersion is the formation of emulsions. The eventual
fate of oil-in-water emulsions would appear to be dissolution in the water
column or association with solid particulate matter and eventual biodegrada-
tion or incorporation in sediments. Another phenomenon is the formation
of tar lumps, in which the heavier fractions agglutinate and form tar-like
lumps or balls. While tar lumps could be produced from natural crude oil
seeps, the NAS report states that there is "a suggestively strong correlation
between the observation of high levels of pelagic tar and known tanker
routes of high traffic." 6/

The biological factors affecting the fate of petroleum hydrocarbons in
the ocean are primarily microbial degradation and uptake by organisms.
Because of the many variables involved, it is impossible to predict with
either ease or accuracy the rate of oil removal by microbial action. In
some cases the rates have been fairly rapid; in other cases, immeasurably
slow. Nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations have been found to strongly
influence the rate of oxidation of oil in laboratory experiments. This
suggests that biodegradation processes could be inhibited in the open ocean
where one or the other of these nutrients might be limiting.

As for uptake by marine organisms, there are several possible routes.
One is through adsorption to particles which are ingested; a second is
through the gills; and a third is direct passage to the gut of animals
that gulp water. Once in the animal body, petroleum hydrocarbons are
either stored, metabolized, or excreted. So far there is no evidence
for food web magnification in the case of petroleum hydrocarbons in the
marine environment.

The NAS study participants identified the following research needs:

o Synoptic, systematic monitoring surveys over large portions of
the world oceans;

o More data on sedimentation rates of petroleum residues and
their transport along the sediment-Water interface;

o Analyses of concentrations in the water column down to 1,000 m in
order to estimate the pool of petroleum residues in the sea;

o Experimental studies of petroleum weathering in a natural marine
environment are needed;

5/ Ibid. , page 45,
6/ Ibid, , page 54,

96

o Improved techniques for studying microbial degradation are
needed in order to permit extrapolation of laboratory results
to field conditions; and

o More studies are needed concerning metabolic processes.

Effects

There are various levels of biological effects of oil. These effects
include the possibility of:

o Human hazard through eating contaminated seafood;

o Decrease of fisheries resources or damage to wildlife such as
seabirds and marine mammals;

o Modification of the marine ecosystem by elimination of species
with an initial decrease in diversity and productivity; and

o Modification of habitats, delaying or preventing recolonization.

The variability of effects that occurs among spills is determined by a
number of factors. If oil is spilled in a small, confined area, the effects
are more severe for a given quantity and type of oil than if released in
an unconfined area. The type of oil involved is very important. For
example, No. 2 diesel fuel oil contains more aromatic compounds than
unprocessed crude and is therefore more toxic. Oceanographic and meteoro-
logical conditions will influence rate of dispersion and thus alter the
dosage of a given spill. If the affected body of water is turbid, the
spilled oil tends to flocculate and settle to the bottom with likely
adverse effects on the benthic life. Season of the year is also a factor
determining whether the effect of a spill is severe or relatively light.
Finally, the method in which a spill is cleaned up can influence its
biological impact. The advisability of using dispersants has become a
controversial issue and these materials are now being studied by numerous
investigators .

In general, experience to date with oil spills shows that biological
damage can vary from comparatively light to nearly total immediate devasta-
tion of marine organisms. 7 / Estuaries, because of their high biological
activity, high turbidity, extremes of temperature and salinity, as well as
other factors, are the bodies of water that are the most vulnerable to the
serious effects of chronic oil pollution. Coastal petroleum development can
affect marine biological communities. While the amount of oil released
from oil platforms in the coastal waters of the Gulf of Mexico has not
resulted in serious harm to the fisheries, other activities of the petroleum

industry have resulted in adverse effects on the coastal ecosystem. These
include direct physical damage from dredging canals needed for pipelines,
physical displacements of marshlands and subtidal bottoms, and damage

7/ Ibid., pages 85-86.

97

caused by improper seismic operations. The NAS report points out that the
indirect effects of coastal petroleum development activities are even more
serious. These include accelerated erosion of wetlands, altered tidal flow
patterns, and consequent greater salinity intrusion into estuaries.

With regard to the studies of oil spills to date, the NAS report states
that the scientific evaluation of most spills is inadequate in all areas.
One major deficiency noted is the lack of an interdisciplinary approach.
In addition, most studies have been made in estuaries and, as a consequence,
little data are available concerning effects on the open ocean. There is
very little data on the effect of oil on pelagic species. Without more
research, it is clearly premature to conclude anything about the biological
effects of oil on the open ocean.

Conclusions regarding the effects of oil in the marine environment on
human health are based on limited information. Although it is known that
petroleum contains small amounts of cancer-producing agents (carcinogens)
and possibly small amounts of other harmful materials, the NAS study
estimates that the amounts of carcinogens known to be in petroleum that
could be ingested by eating marine organisms is no greater than that
acquired from eating other foods. Nonetheless, more studies should be
performed to determine how these materials enter the ocean and, subsequently,
man.

98

APPENDIX C. Assessing Potential Ocean Pollutants

An important and unique 2-1/2-year study on assessing potential marine
pollutants was concluded in early 1975 by a study panel of the Ocean Affairs
Board of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). The report, "Assessing
Potential Ocean Pollutants," 1/ represents the end-product of a series of
efforts which began in mid-1972 and which included several meetings of
environmental scientists to mark out the scope of the study, the participa-
tion of ten graduate student research associates to develop background
material, and a workshop held at Woods Hole, Massachusetts in late 1973 to
evaluate the background material and appraise the methodology. The project
was supported by the (1) Environmental Protection Agency, (2) National
Science Foundation, (3) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
and (4) Coast Guard.

The thousands of substances that enter the ocean system through
industrial, agricultural, or domestic activities have remained largely
unexamined. The overall objective of the NAS project was to seek out a
procedure for predicting which materials might jeopardize future ocean
resources.

The study panel selected six groups of materials for detailed examina-
tion: transuranic elements (those with atomic numbers greater than that of
uranium) ; synthetic organic chemicals ; municipal sludges and industrial
wastes discharged directly to the ocean; metallic wastes; medicinal wastes;
and marine litter. In addition to providing an assessment of the potential
impact of these groups of materials on the ocean environment, another
purpose served by their study was to develop and test a methodology that
could have general applicability.

As for the assessment results, the project participants identified two
of the materials studied — transuranic elements and hexachlorobenzene — as
clear potential problems, at least when the present limited production is
projected into the future. They determined that a number of others — low
molecular weight chlorinated hydrocarbons, acrylonitrile, iron and copper
wastes, open ocean litter, tetracycline, and technetium — present no
demonstrable hazard to open ocean ecosystems at present or foreseeable levels
of release. In the remaining cases (aromatic hydrocarbons, certain dumped
chemicals, and inshore litter) the group felt that some local adverse effects
were possible, but the area of uncertainty could be narrowed and the infor-
mation required to determine effects specified.

The transuranic elements are of great concern because of their high
toxicity, long persistency, and increasing production with increased risk of

1/ National Academy of Sciences. 1975. Assessing Potential Ocean
Pollutants, A Report of the Study Panel on Assessing Potential Ocean
Pollutants to the Ocean Affairs Board. 438 pp.

99

loss to the environment. These elements are those with atomic numbers
greater than that of uranium; all of their nuclides are radioactive. While
small amounts exist in nature, for all practical purposes, transuranics are
manmade. Although introduction of these elements to the marine environment
has not yet resulted in known hazardous exposure to humans , it cannot be
assumed that there have been no effects on marine organisms.

The study participants judged hexachlorobenzene to be a hazard because,
in spite of its low-volume use, it is persistent and organisms tend to
accumulate it and thus are chronically exposed to it.

Regarding a procedural framework, the group noted that four parameters
recurred repeatedly as critical for evaluation of a material's importance.
These were:

1) Rates of release into the environment;

2) Life-times in the environment (or residence times in regions
where accessible to biological systems) ;

3) Concentration factors in parts of the system (e.g., surface films
or estuaries) or into organisms (bioaccumulation) ; and

4) Levels of toxicity.

Each of these characteristics may be difficult to assess in certain cases.
For example, the group found it especially difficult to obtain complete
production and use rates for certain materials .

Some of the conclusions from the NAS study are:

1) It is impossible to predict environmental transport without
some data on quantities used and rates of release into the
environment ;

2) If sufficient data are available on uses and rates of release,
only a few well-chosen measurements are needed to make the rough
estimates of residence times and transport rates for a preliminary
assessment of potential impact;

3) The greatest uncertainty in assessing the impact of ocean
pollutants is the scarcity of data on their chronic toxicity;

4) Wastes should not be discharged into biologically active marine
areas ; and

5) Experimental research is urgently needed on the additive,
synergistic, or antagonistic effects among materials and natural
stresses.

100

The methods for this study have proved adequate to yield preliminary
assessments of the potential impact of certain materials on the oceans,
and to rank them in order of urgency for control measures or for further
investigations. The NAS researchers recommend that, with minor modifica-
tions, these same methods be applied systematically to other materials. The
first stage in this process should be a screening of potential pollutants.
Materials that are persistent and toxic, persistent and bioaccumulated, or
persistent and released in large volume, should have high priority for
attention.

101

APPENDIX D. --Title II of "Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act of 1972" (P.L. 92-532)--and Amendments

Annual report
to Congress.
**

Irrter-agency
agreements.

Federal-£tate
oooperatlon.

Appropriation,

**

TITLE II— COMPREHENSIVE RESEARCH ON OCEAN

DUMPING

Sec. 201. The Secretary of Commerce, in coordination with the Report to
Secretary of the Department in which the Coast Guard is operating Congress.
and with the Administrator shall, within six months of the enactment
of this Act, initiate a comprehensive and continuing program of
monitoring and research regarding the effects of the dumping of
material into ocean waters or other coastal waters where the tide ebbs
and flows or into the Great Lakes or their connecting waters and shall
report from time to time, not less frequently than annually, his
findings (including an evaluation of the short-term ecological effects
and the social and economic factors involved) to the Congress.

Sec. 202. (a) The Secretary of Commerce? in consultation with
other appropriate Federal departments, agencies, and instrumentali-
ties shall, within six months of the enactment of this Act, initiate a
comprehensive and continuing program of research with respect to
the possible long-range effects of pollution, overfishing, and man-
induced changes of ocean ecosystems. In carrying out such research,
the Secretary of Commerce shall take into account such factors as
existing and proposed international policies affecting oceanic prob-
lems, economic considerations involved in both the protection and the
use of the oceans, possible alternatives to existing programs, and ways
in which the health of the oceans may best be preserved for the benefit
of succeeding generations of mankind.

(b) In carrying out his responsibilities under this section, the Sec-
retary of Commerce, under the foreign policy guidance of the Presi-
dent and pursuant to international agreements and treaties made by
the President with the advice and consent of the Senate, may act
alone or in conjunction with any other nation or group of nations,
and shall make known the results of his activities by such channels of
communication as may appear appropriate.

(c) In January of each year, the Secretary of Commerce shall report
to the Congress on the results of activities undertaken by him pursuant
to this section during the previous fiscal year.

(d) Each department, agency, and independent instrumentality of
the Federal Government is authorized and directed to cooperate with
the Secretary of Commerce in carrying out the purposes of this sec-
tion and, to the extent permitted by law, to furnish such information
as may be requested.

(e) The Secretary of Commerce, in carrying out his responsibilities
under this section, shall, to the extent feasible utilize the personnel,
services, and facilities of other Federal departments, agencies, and
instrumentalities (including those of the Coast Guard for monitoring
purposes), and is authorized to enter into appropriate inter-agency
agreements to accomplish this action.

Sec. 203. The Secretary of Commerce shall conduct and encourage,
cooperate with, and render financial and other assistance to appropri-
ate public (whether Federal. State, interstate, or local) authorities,
agencies, and institutions, private agencies and institutions, and indi-
viduals in the conduct of, and to promote the coordination of. research,
investigations, experiments, training, demonstrations, surveys, and
studies for the purpose of determining means of minimizing or ending
all dumping of materials within five years of the effective date, of this
Act.

Sec. 204. There are authorized to be appropriated for the first fiscal
year after this Act is enacted and for the next two fiscal years there-
after such sums as may be necessary to carry out this title, but the
sums appropriated for any such fiscal year may not exceed $6,000,000.

"Administrator" means the Administrator of the Environmental

*Sec. 3(a) of the Act reads:
Protection Agency.

**P.L. 94-62, Section 2, amended Section 202(c) of the 1972 Act by striking "January" and
inserting "March". Section 3 of P.L. 94-62 amended Section 204 of the 1972 Act by authorizing
$1,500,000 for the transition period (July 1 through September 30, 1976). P.L. 94-326,
Section 3, amends Section 204 of the 1972 Act by authorizing $5,600,000 for fiscal year 1977.

102

^.U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976-210-801/443