“\ Piblamieal May th ep thical a oe Si A (oe Aas a3 LAWES AGRICULTURAL tacky bes < "Rothamsted Panetinental Station Harpenden ¥ REPORT 1918- 20 with the Supplement ‘to the ce dar ao ; The Yields t per Acre, etc. 3 ‘ Telegrams. se Se 3 ‘Telephone Station No. 21 Harpenden Harpenden (Midland) Laboratory, Harpenden © “Guide to the Experimental Plots” “HARPENBEN ' ne PRINTED BY dD. J. JEFFERY, VAUGHAN ROAD r ; 1929" Rothamsted Experimental Station Harpenden REPORT 1918-20 with the Supplement to the “Guide to the Experimental Plots” =~ ——————— containing The Yields per Acre, etc. LAWES AGRICULTURAL TRUST Telegrams Telephone Station Laboratory, Harpenden No. 21 Harpenden Harpenden (Midland) HARPENDEN PRINTED BY D. J. JEFFERY, VAUGHAN ROAD 1921 Price 2/6 (Fereign Postage extra) Rai i ii P rezcin at == “ys ~ , 4, . = = a “ A, =e J, = if Y =a" 7. Ws", = ¥ = \V rn fn ae TAT OUCENi a AR . iM) 1) Wa z cn i en Rear —_—— \ t iy Bl — =! ! /&4 NA ss 13'3 Sze | aE = ia ca er . foaotires " = ) 2 ha re) ee) ‘ee id B ii ips JR 4 ANS ed) : fl Tonio amie i 25) WEES Qi Se “a id vl ae atl He ; = z =e ; . i feb ert 7 | ie oa | a i i a i ae —} iam f If ne Se = a | DeeseS itn 2a ) a | ae i ; ” oi | aa) at Egzal i WN tr “fl j Z KKK (Se ce tiny a xy ah Eh, ~ Lec naa RK CER saps THE NEW ROTHAMSTED LABORATORIES, ERECTED 1914-1916 Contents — Experimental Station Staff Books published from Rothamsted General Account of Rothamsted Report of Work done 1918-20 Expenditure on Crops Stubble Cleaning Efficiency of Labour Value of Tractor ea Cultivation Experiments Fertiliser Investigations ... Organic Matter in Soil Soil Population Weed Flora Physical Conditions Entomological Investigations Mycological Investigations War Work at Rothamsted Summary of Papers published : I.—Scientific Papers CROPS AND PLANT GROWTH: Botanical Department... Statistical Department é Chemical Department—Rain Soil C hanges SOIL ORGANISMS: Protozoological Department ... Bacteriological Department ... Chemical Department ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS: Physical Department ... PLANT PATHOLOGY : Entomological Department Mycological Department Il.—-Technical Papers Botanical Department... a Experimental Plots and Pots Artificial Farmyard Manure ... Partial Sterilisation General Agricultural Problems Nos. i-vi vil Vill 1X-Xlil XIV-XVI XVIll, XIX NX1, XXii XX11i-XX1X oe, FO pu Toe al XXXLI-XXXV XXXVi, XXXVil XXxVi-lv xlix lv Ivi-lxi RECENT BooKs BY THE ROTHAMSTED STAFF Crop Results— Notes on Seasons Tables of Results Trustees and Members of Council Experimental Station Staff Diteevor: EF: J. RUSSELL, D-SCAE-R:S. INSTITUTE of PLANT NUTRITION and SOIL PROBLEMS Bacteriological Laboratory— Head of Department Assistant Bacteriologist ... Laboratory Attendant Botanical Laboratory— Head of Department Assistant Botanists Laboratory Assistant Laboratory Attendant Chemical Laboratory— Head of Department Assistant Chemists Laboratory Assistants Laboratory Attendant H. G. THORNTON, B.A. P: H: AoeRay- BA. ANNIE MACKNESS WINIFRED E. BRENCHLEY, D.SG2 eres VIOLET G. JACKSON, M.Sc. KATHERINE WARINGTON, B.Sc. GRACE BASSIL 7 LIZZIE KINGHAM H. J.. Pages B.SGaAg iG G. C. SAWYER R. M. WINTER, M.Sc. N. N. SEN Gupta, M.Sc. A. OGGELSBY, A. H. BOWDEN, G. LAWRENCE, F. SEABROOK LyLaA IVES Laboratory for Fermentation Work— Head of Department Assistant Chemist EH. RICHARDS, B.SC (Elveden Research Chemist) Laboratory for Antiseptics, Insecticides, etc.— Head of Department Assistant Chemist Physical Laboratory— Head of Department Assistant Physical Chemist Laboratory Assistant F, TATTERSFIELD, B.SGysks la W. A. ROACH, Bac; A. Rxe Ss. Aslee B. A; KEEN; BiSc.48. InstP. (Goldsmiths’ Company’s Physicist) E. M. CROWTHER, M.Sc., Ae) W. GAME ‘ Protozoological Laboratory— Head of Department =. D. WARD CUTLER, M.A. Assistant Protozoologists LETTICE M. Crump, M.Sc. H. SANDON, B.A. Laboratory Assistant .... MABEL DUNKLEY Statistical Laboratory— Head of Department. .2°)ReA] FISHER, M.A. Assistant Statistician ... WINIFRED A. MACKENZIE, B.Sc. (Econ.) INSTITUTE of PLANT PATHOLOGY Entomological Laboratory— Head of Department oes, M.A. D.Sc: Assistant Entomologists... J. DAVIDSON, D.Sc. H. M. Morris, M.Sc. Assistant ... Bee ... NORA MARDALL Mycological Laboratory— Head of Department .... W. B. BRIERLEY, D.Sc. Assistant Mycologists .... J. HENDERSON SMITH, MEBs CH. BB. Boa SisYeT. JEwson, B.Sc. MARY D. GLYNNE, B.Sc. Algologist af ... B. MURIEL BRISTOL, D.Sc. Laboratory Attendant .... GLADYS TEMPLE FARM and EXPERIMENTAL FIELDS Manager mr ve sd els . LSAMES Superintendent of Experimental Fields ... E. GREY Assistant Supervisor ... ... B., WESTON LIBRARY Librarian she és ... Mary S. ASLIN SECRETARIAL STAFF Secretary se se cet We BARNICOT Private Secretary ake ... CHARLOTTE F. 5S. JOHNSON Assistant to Secretary ... ELEANOR D. HARFORD Junior Clerk... ak ... ELSIE MCGREGOR Iéngineer and Caretaker ww -W. PEARCE Publications of the Rothamsted Experimental Station For Farmers “MANURING FOR HIGHER CROP PRODUCTION,” by E. J. Russell, 1917. University Press, Cambridge. ¢4/-. “GUIDE TO ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTAL PLotTs,” 1913. John Murray. 1/- “THE BOOK OF THE ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS,” by Sir A. D. Hall, M.A., (Oxon.), F.R.S., Second Edition revised by E. J. Russell, D.Sc., F.R.S., (1919). John Murray. 12/6. “WEEDS OF FARMLAND,” by Winifred E. Brenchley, D.Sc., F.L.S.; 1920, Tongmans, Green & Co. 12/6. For Students and Agricultural Experts “SOIL CONDITIONS AND PLANT GROWTH,” by E. J. Russell, 1921, Fourth Edition. Longmans, Green & Co., London. “A STUDENT’S BOOK ON SOILS AND MANURES,” by E. J. Russell, 1919. University Press, Cambridge. 6/6. “INORGANIC PLANT POISONS AND STIMULANTS,” by Winifred E. Brenchley, D.Sc., F.L.S., 1914. University Press, Cam- bridge. 6/-. ““AGRICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS AT ROTHAMSTED, ENGLAND, DURING A PERIOD OF 50 YEARS,” by Sir Henry Joseph Gilberey,A., L.D., F:R.S., etc., 1895.7. 3/6: “RESULTS OF INVESTIGATIONS ON THE ROTHAMSTED SOILS,” by Bernard Dyer, D.Sc., F.I.C., 1902. 2/-: “THE INVESTIGATIONS AT ROTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTAL STATION,” by Robert Warington, F.R.S., 1891. 2/-. “THE ROTHAMSTED MEMOIRS ON AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE.” The following are now available and may be obtained from the Station :— Vols. I to VIII, 1847-1912 ... 30/- each, postage extra. Vols. IX, X, 1909-20 ... ... 32/6 each, postage extra. For General Readers “THE FERTILITY OF THE SOIL,” by E. J. Russell, 1913. University Press, Cambridge. 2/6. “LESSONS ON SOIL,” by E. J. Russell, 1912. University Press, Cambridge. 2/6. INTRODUCTION. The Rothamsted Experimental Station was founded in 1843 a the late Sir J. B. Lawes, with whom was associated Sir J. H. Gilbert for a period of nearly 60 years. Lawes died in 1900 and Gilbert in 1901; they were succeeded by Sir A. D. Hall from 1902 to 1912, when the present. Director, Dr. E. J. Russell, was appointed. For many years the work was maintained entirely at the expense of Sir J. B. Lawes, at first by direct payment, and from 1889 onwards out of an income of £2,400, arising from the endow- ment fund of £100,000 given by him to the Lawes Agricultural Trust. In 1904 the ‘Society for extending the Rothamsted Experi- ments was instituted for the purpose of providing funds for expan- sion. In 1906 Mr. J. I. Mason built the Bacteriological Laboratory ; in 1907 the Goldsmiths’ Company generously provided a further endowment of £10,000, the income of which is to be devoted to the investigation of the soil, thus raising the total income of the Station to £2,800. In 1911 the Development Commissioners made their first grant to the Station. Since then Government grants have been made annually, and for the year 1919-20 the Ministry of Agriculture made a grant of £9,781 in respect of Plant Nutrition and Soil Problems, and £4 023 in respect of Plant Pathology. Viscount Elveden has generously borne the cost of a chemist for studying farmyard manure since 1913, and until his death the late Mr. W. B. Randall defrayed the salary of a biologist. The increase in the permanent trained and skilled staff has been considerable. In 1912 there were 9 members of the scientific staff, 3 of the office staff, and 12 assistants; in 1920 the scientific staff consisted of 29 members, in addition to 4 in the office, with 1 of the assistant staff, thus showing an increase of 25 during the years in question. The laboratery expenditure has grown and almost exactly balances the income, there being only an accumulated deficit which has resulted from refitting after the War. On the farm, however, the cost of the experimental work has latterly increased so much as to cause grave concern to the Com- mittee. After deducting receipts the figures for net cost are :— 1911-12 - £692 1914-15 - £595 1912-13 - £456 1915-16 - £284 1913-14 - £509 1916-17 - £397 1918-19 - Oct. Ist to 3lst March £217 « 1919-20 - I years to Sept. 30th £1,694 For the season 1920-21 the net cost will be nearly £2,000. The period reviewed in the present report has completed the recon- struction which began in 1913, and has progressed continuously since. As a necessary preliminary, the laboratories have been entirely rebuilt, and were opened in October, 1919, by Sir Arthur Griffith Boscawen, in the unavoidable absence of Lord Lee, then Minister of Agriculture. A library has been collected and now contains some 15,000 volumes dealing with agriculture and cognate sciences. The equipment of the farm has been completed, cattle sheds erected, a tractor and other machinery added, and cultiva- tions and cleanings necessarily neglected during the War have all been completed. The most important part of the reconstruction has been the reorganising of the work of the Station so as to bring it into touch with modern conditions of agriculture on the one side and of science on the other. The purpose of the Station is to gain precise know- ledge of soils, fertilisers, and the growing plant in health and disease, and then to put this knowledge into such a form that experts can use it. The work of the Station falls into two great divisions—the soil and the healthy plant ; and the insects, fungi and other agencies disturbing the healthy relationships and causing disease. The two Pvisions are linked. up in many ways, and every effort is made to find fresh relations between them. If farmers are ever to avoid the very serious losses they now suffer from plant diseases and pests, it will be by prevention rather than by cure. The method adopted is to start from the farm and work to the laboratory, or vice versa. There are four great divisions in the laboratory —the biological, chemical, physical and _ statistical— which may be regarded as the pillars on which the whole structure rests. But the method of investigation differs from that of an ordinary scientific laboratory where ‘the problem is usually narrowed down so closely that only one factor is concerned. On the farm such narrowing is impossible ; many factors may operate and elimi- nation results in conditions so artificial as to render the enquiry meaningless. In place, therefore, of the ordinary single factor method of the scientific laboratory, liberal use is made of statistical methods which allow the investigation of cases where several factors vary simultaneously. Thus in the crop investigations a large number of field observations are made; these are then treated statistically to ascertain the varying degrees to which they are related to other factors—such as rainfall, temperature, ete.—and to indicate the probable nature of the relationships. Thus the complex problem becomes reduced to a number of simpler ones susceptible of laboratory investigation. It is confidently anticipated that this method will prove effec- tive in bringing the full help of science to bear on the farmers’ problems. REPORT ON THE WORK DONE DURING 1918, 1919, and 1920. HE function of the Rothamsted Experimental Station is to gain exact information about soils and the growth of crops in health and disease. This information is indispensable to the teacher, indeed without a basis of precise knowledge no system of agricultural education could possibly stand: it is needed also by the advisory experts and by the expert farmer who wishes to improve on current good practice and secure better results than his predecessors. It is, however, essential that the information gained should be as correct as possible, and consequently every precaution must be taken to guard against wrong results. Wrong information has been responsible for many costly errors in the past: the deep drainage of the ’fifties and ’sixties, the burying of the surface soil by steam tackle in the ’sixties and ’seventies, and the waste arising from improper use of manures and feeding stuffs in Our own time, have involved the farming community in losses amounting in the aggregate to millions of pounds sterling and they could have been avoided had more accurate knowledge been available. It is for this reason that the Station is staffed with highly trained scientific workers accustomed to critical examination for the detection of errors and equipped with appliances capable of giving very accurate results. The rapid development of general science and engineering during the past thirty years calls for a corresponding development of ‘agricultural science so as to ensure that the farmer should derive the full benefit of any new improve- ments and at the same time be protected against proposed improve- ments which, as a matter of fact, are of no advantage to him. The farm on which many of these experiments are carried out is the old Home Farm of Rothamsted—289 acres in extent—which was taken over by the Experimental Station in 1911. It is bounded on the south side by a wood, in which a certain amount of game is preserved, and in every field there are large trees, which, while adding io the picturesqueness of the landscape, detract from the productiv eness of the farm. The soil is a poor stony clay (clay with flints). Under good management and moderate manurial treatment it is capable of yielding about 28 bushels of wheat and barley, 32 bushels of winter oats, 25 tons of mangolds, 6 tons of potatoes, and 10 tons of swedes per acre. Spring oats rarely succeed by reason of the spring droughts, which also adv ersely affect the yield of swedes. Clover is apt to make only moderate growth and to fail in patches over the field. The farm is thus one where the cultivator sees more of the difficulties than the profits of farming. It is, however, typical of much of the second rate land of England, and, as experience shows, the experimental results hold very generally throughout the country. For some time past attempts have been made to reduce the cost of production and to increase the yields. POSSIBILITY OF REDUCTION IN COSTS OF PRODUCTION. Full accounts of expenditure* are kept and these, when analyzed, give the following results per acre :— . 1913- 1+ 1917-18 1918-19 | 1919-20 ces. seal ini ee a Ss vi dale a aes Wheat . : i eae) 3 11 2 13 9 is l Oats ‘ ‘ sboctgtaae 9 9 14 | 14= abt 4s «i itey yan ioc tenet me ie | 13. 17 | 17 6 Roots : : wee. 13 meee | 37° 0 — Potatoes : ; OD 6 39 3 46 0) a7 9 Grass (Hay) . ar. 16 4-19 Gx 60 ely By » (Grazing) Zs 15 o,..'4 Suro Bee sd * By expenditare is meant the actual money expended on the crop. No allowance is made here for interest on cx apital or jor remuneration to the farmer beyond the sum of £100 per annum (rising to £175 in 1921) allocation for supervision and spread over 178} acres. 10 THE CASH RETURNS HAVE BEEN :— 1913-1914 1917-18 1918-19 | 1919-20 . x if ‘ ae __| (estimated) ; Las: % S past / Ey Wheat - . " : - 7 ; 18 0 l4 ] | 19 14 Oats . ‘ : - 4 5 1 1Z 0 31 1 15 1 Barley . ; é : : 6 6 Liao 24 12 AG. 13 Roots : : 4 oe 10 11 19 12 23 «9 —{ Potatoes -. ‘ ; : 23° Wf 35 4 57-8 27 «6 Grass (Hay) ' i : Aas — 1S 117 | 4 6 (Grazing) ; é 2”. 16 < feet | | _ + Clover. t Fed to Cattle. The great increase in cost since 1917 is due in the main to the rise in wages and to the reduction in hours, which has meant not only an increased cost, but a decreased output per hour. The decreased output probably arises from the circumstance that only part of the workers’ time on the farm is spent on actual crop production, the remainder being taken up with yoking and unyoking, attending to the animals, travelling from the farm buildings and back again, €ic., Jere, This ‘“ dead ’’ time is the same whether the working day is 8 or 9 hours in duration, consequently the whole reduction in hours falls on the *‘ working time.’’ If two hours of the day is ‘* dead ’’ time (and this is an under-estimate) a reduction of hours from 9 to 8 means a reduction of 11% in total time, but of 14% in working time. Further analysis of expenditure shows two great controllable items :—-(1) the cost of cultivation; (2) the cost of cleaning. Our experience shows that the tractor is likely to help considerably in reducing both items. The rapid development of the tractor on the farm is the direct outcome of the war conditions. Few farmers used tractors before 1916, but many have done so since, thanks to ihe activities of the Machinery Section of the Food Production Department. A 20h.p. ‘‘ Titan ’’ (Internat. Harvester Co.) was purchased at Rothamsted in May, 1919, this make being selected because it was known to be reliable on heavy land, and because no English firm was then in a position to guarantee delivery in a reasonable time. This machine has given satisfactory service; it has remained in good condition with only little expenditure on repairs. Its draw back is its weight, which is approximately 60 cwts., and which, of course, renders it unsuitable for spring cultivations. |For the season 1921, the Austin Company have placed at our disposal one of their new tractors which is much lighter, weighing only 30 cwts., and it is satisfactory to record that this British machine is so far doing very good work. The tractor has proved its value in four directions :— i. RAPIDITY OF WORK. On heavy loams such as ours it is essential that cultivations should be carried out quickly ; they are entirely dependent on the weather, and unless done when the conditions allow, they have to be postponed or curtailed considerably. The tractor hastens culti- vation ; it moves at the rate of 3} miles per hour instead of 11-24 miles, the speed of horses ; it ploughs 3 furrows at a time, and will go on working longer than horses. Our horse team takes up to a day and a-half to plough an acre; the tractor does it in 4 hours and ll lod does it better, for it readily works to 7 inches while the horse teams usually go only to 5 inches. The value of this additional speed has been shown in the rate at which the sowing of wheat over the whole farm has been completed. In the old days of slow horse cultivations, sowings could not be completed in October or November, and there remained always fields to be sown in January or February, according as the weather aliowed. Since the advent of the tractor, however, the work has been pushed well forward and the land has all been sown in November. The dates of completion of sowing are :— AUTUMN | SEEDING | OaTs. WHEAT. Horses only used .| 1915 | Oct. 16, 1915 Feb. 27, 1916 e e |) iSite weet, 1916 | Mar. 16, 1947 *, = om 1917 eee 2/7, 1917 | Jan: 4, 1918 Tractor used . Sf 1918°> shee, «=3Ss-- D,:«L918 | Nov. 26, 1918 2 eee .| siotoemeemeee 4.1919 | Oct. 30, 1918 ~ £4 1920 | Nov. 11, 1920 Many of our experiments show the vital necessity on this land of sowing at the proper time; the fcllowing is an example :— Wheat sown in time (Nov. 24th, 1915) 262 bushels +. 5; sown date (Heb. 17th t916)... 194 bushels Ik CLEANING STUBBLES IN AUTUMN. In the autumn of 1919 the arable fields were very weedy, as usual over wide tracts of England where cultivation had perforce been neglected for three years. Summer fallowing during 1920 would, of course, have been effective, but it was too costly ; instead, therefore, the tractor was liberally used for cultivating the stubbles during harvest, and much cleaning was done during August, September and October. The effect was very striking. The weed seeds germinated in the warm moist land ; the seedlings being very susceptible to injury were easily killed by cultivations ; and as the cultivation was carried out before instead of after sowing the crop, it was entirely beneficial and did no damage. In consequence, the land which had been foul in 1919 became tolerably clean in 1920 in spite of the fact that a second winter corn crop was sown. The autumn cleaning was repeated in 1920 and a third corn crop sown ; at the time of writing this remains free from troublesome weeds. The advantage of this method is to give us much more latitude in cropping than we had before. Under the old horse cultivation it was imperative to grow a root crop once in 5 or 6 years to keep down weeds, and we were always rather beaten in the struggle ; under the present method we can apparently grow any crops we please, unless a prolonged wet autumn should set in. This is illustrated by the Great Harpenden Field where the crops and yields per acre have been :— Harvest of 1914 Mangolds 18} tons, potatoes (varieties 7-10 tons) 1915 Wheat (25 bush.), barley (40 bush.) 1916 Wheat (26 bush.), oats (38 bush.) 1917 Wheat (23 bush.) Be 1918 Clover (weedy—l1l} tons) 1919 Oats (weedy), stubble cleaned (62 bush.) 1920 Wheat (clean—32 bush.) 1921 Wheat (still clean) Ill. COST OF WORKING. Our experience up to the present is that the cost of working with the tractor is less than with horses. For the Titan the figures for the cost of ploughing an acre of land have been :— | 1919 1920 | k | By | Bye By By | Tractor.| Horses. Tractor. | Horses. m uh =, 2 ee Labor eee gs | 7/7 10/2: 4. 8/9 12/6 Maintenance . P : --— 22/6 —- 28/3 ’ Oil, Paraffin and Petrol . 8.5. = LO — Depreciation and Repairs 6/3 —— 6/6 —- 21/6 32/8 25/10 40/9 | | Time taken : .| 4 hours | 15 days * Including Labour Items. IV. INCREASE IN EFFICIENCY OF LABOUR. In our district the standard rate of wages per week has been :— | Horseman. | Labourer. | eee | | per week. 1914 . é 18/- 16/- 57 1915. ; 21/- | 19/- 57 1916 (until May 19) . : Z3/— ee 21/- Ly 1917 (until March 23) ‘ 24/- / 22/- 57 (until Nov. 30) . : 27/- ie 25/- 57 1918 (until May 17) . ; 31/- 28/- 57 (until Sep.6) .. sl 33/- | 30/- 57 | : ( : oe ae { 48 winter 1919 (until May 19) 2] 32 | cet gagttines (until Oct. 6) 45/6 38/6 | {48 “wanter | 54 summer hive : + ( 48 winter ) | 4s | J 1920 (until April 19) : 8/6 38/6 h 50 taasewes ; wer = { 48 winter ) | 2 | 2] J (until Aug. 28) | 52/6 42/6 | Vanier ae (after Aug. 28) . | 56/6 46/6 | ae, SCE | 50 summer but the efficiency of the work done with the same implements has not increased. = 13 It would be difficult, even if it were possible, to reduce the rate of wages, but there is abundant room for an increase in efficiency. The American estimates* are :— ; * K. L. Butterfield, ‘‘ The Farmer and the New Day.’’ New York, 1919, p. 9. EFFICIENCY OF AGRICULTURAL WORKERS. United States ... Pee 1100 United Kingdom aay 43 Germany ve ae 4] France ... oe Se 31 Italy ati ave 15 The figures may not be absolutely accurate, but it is undeni- able that the British worker falls far behind the American in output. No British worker would admit that there need be so great a difference as the figures show, even if any need exist at all. The best hope for the future of the rural community is an increase in efficiency of the worker sufficient to allow for a fall in cost of production without a fall in wages. The tractor greatly increases the output of the worker. Its effect is shown by the figures for the following times of cultivation of an acre of land measured or estimated on our farm :- By 3V s No. of Tractor. | Horses. | Horses. —— = ——— ———'- Abs — _—— First Ploughing ; .|Titan®|4 hours | 15 days | — Cross Ploughing k ; | Astin) 2: 5, 7% hours 2 Cultivation ‘ ceo) 3 ‘ Mia, ole 4) | 3 Rolling 10 acres F 4 Ausemias 3 | 85 |, 2 Ps ie : . Titan | DL iss oe | 2 | | | THE POSSIBILITY OF EASING THE: WORK OF CULPIVATION. The tractor is purely mechanical in its operation and consumes fuel in exact proportion to the work done by the engine. — It is im- perative, therefore, that useless work should be avoided as far us possible. Farmers have long known in a general way that certain manures facilitate the working of the land, and we have this year begun measurements which we hope to develop, showing the saving thus effected in energy, i.e., in fuel, oil and wear and tear. One of the most effective agents in ameliorating heavy soil is chalk. “Since 1912 in several fields we have had large plots of chalked and unchalked land, each several acres in extent, and have kept records of the yields obtained. These show improvement in clover and barley, but not in potatoes, wheat, mangolds, ete. Over a six course rotation there is less financial return than might have been expected, though, of course, it is satisfactory so far as it goes. The ploughman always declared, however, that he could work more easily on the chalked than on the unchalked land. No measure cf this difference could be obtained with horse implements, 14 but it can be done with a tractor. The Hyatt Roller Bearings Co. kindly lent us a reliable high-class dynamometer with w fick were taken measurements for cross ploughing land previously ploughed in autumn. These show that the effect of chalking is to increase the speed of ploughing and to reduce the draw bar pull on the three- furrow plough by no less than 200lbs. | i | COCKSHUTT PLOUGH. |} RANSOME PLOUGH. | ' Average. | No Chalk | Chalked. | No Chalk.| Chalked. I| wee ee | -——| — ees Miles per hour . Bian 2-18 2.23 } 1.98 2) Draught per plough, lb. a 513 453 537 475 Persq.in.infurrowsect’n,Ib.| = 7.25 6,465.5 aire {7.67 6.8 Draw bar pull, Ib. 1538 1358 1610 1425 / | We propose to extend these measurements to plots treated with other fertilisers: farmyard manure, green manure, folded land, etc. The ‘* secondary effects ”’ of artificials, studied here by Sir A. D. Hall, may prove to have a measurable economic value when one adds up all the tractor cultivations of the year. This will form an important part of the programme of the soil physics laboratory. THE POSSIBILITY OF INCREASED OUTPUT FROM THE LAND. It is often urged as a reproach to agricultural experts that in spite of the multitudinous experiments “of the Jast 20 years the output from the land is no more than it was 50 years ago. The statement is not entirely correct, but there certainly has been no increase in output from the land comparable with that in industry. One important reason is that much less cultivation is done now than was usual 50 vears ago, and in consequence the crop is not given a full chance of making good growth. W:th the advent of the tractor it will, we hope, become possible to remedy this defect and to enable some of the newer aids to crop production to attain their full effect. The results described in previous reports show that the output from the land is much increased by the proper use of artificial fertilisers on carefully selected suitable varieties of crops. In the case of cereals good results have been obtained by the use of spring dressings of nitrogenous manures, these being required to replace the nitrates washed out during the winter (see p. 35). Experi- ments, however, show remark able differences in effectiveness according to the time of application. It is impossible on present data to formulate hard and fast rules, but as shown below it appears that a small dressing (1 cwt. sulphate of ammonia or less) may go on fairly late, while a larger dressing should go on early. THE AMOUNT OF FERTILISER TO USE. For many years the Rothamsted data have shown that the vield of crops increases with the amount of manure supplied, but beyond a certain point the increase is no longer proportional to the added manure. In the old experiments the unit dressing was 15 200lbs. of ammonium salts per acre, and the dressings were in- creased up to 800lbs. per acre. It was then found that the effect of the last 200Ibs. of fertiliser, 7.e., of the increase from 600 to 800Ibs. was very small and unprofitable, while the first 200lbs. had proved distine tly useful. This is in accordance with the Law of Diminish- ing Returns. It was assumed, therefore, that the law held for light as well as for heavy dressings of manure and a deduction was made for which the evidence was rather slender, that a small dressing of manure gave the largest rate of profit, while further dressings gave a relativ ely smaller return. Recent work, however, has disturbed this view. 200Ibs. per acre of ammonium salts is too large a unit for modern practice, hence more interest attaches to the effect of the smaller than to the larger dressings. Examination of the Broadbalk results shows that the largest return is given, not by the first dressing, but by the second. The conditions of an experimental field are not quite those of practice, and accordingly a new experiment has been started to see if under ordinary conditions of farming the highest rate of profit is given by good rather than by small dressings of fertilisers. The results of ‘the first year (1920) suggest that this may be so. INCREASE IN WHEAT CROP, 1920, FROM SPRING DRESSINGS OF SULPHATE OF AMMONIA AND SUPERPHOSPHATE (p. 79). | BUSHELS PER ACRE, CwTs. PER ACRE { | GRAIN: | STRAW : ! | | | | Date of Application of , Feb. March | May Feb. pe May Manure ; : ; 10 6 LO eka 6 10 a oe \— Single Dressing ; Spal: OS 2.7 By | eS 9.4 Double Dressing. F 7.0 — | Sv W.7 | — 12.7 While the single dressing (100lbs. sulphate of ammonia per acre) gave no appreciable i increase in grain, and only a few cwts. of additional straw, the double dressing gave increases of no less than 7 bushels of grain and 12 cwts. of straw. Late application of the double dressing, however, was risky, giving an unhealthy straw liable to lodge and prone to disease. If funds allow, the experiment will be developed on a much fuller scale : it certainly is of great importance in fertiliser practice. INVESTIGATIONS ON ARTIFICIAL FERTILISERS The artificial fertiliser position has been profoundly modified by the War, and extensive factories now manufacture nitrogenous fertilisers from the air. Of these nitrate of lime, nitrate and muriate of ammonia, and nitrolim have been or are under investi- gation at Rothamsted. A further important source of organic nitrogenous manure is sewage. The total amount of nitrogen contained in the sewage of the United Kingdom is estimated at 230,000 tons per annum, which is equivalent to 1,150,000 tons of sulphate of i 16 five times our present agricultural consumption. Under present conditions most of this is wasted, only a small portion finding its way on to the farms. A new method of dealing with sewage has, however, been devised by Dr. Fowler and his assistants at Man- chester, and has been carefully tested at Rothamsted by Messrs. Richards and Sawyer. It yields an ‘* activated ’’ sludge, contain- ing 6 or 7 per cent. of nitrogen and 4 per cent. of phosphoric acid, much richer than any of the older sewage sludge, and of very distinct promise as a fertiliser (p. 56). Moreover, no less than 15% of the nitrogen present in the sewage was recovered. Assum- ing, as seems permissible, the same percentage recovery elsewhere, the general adoption of this method would add considerably to the supplies of organic manures. An entirely new method of treating sewage has been evolved, suitable for country houses, villages, etc., in which straw is used and a manure akin to farmyard manure is produced. The phosphatic manures are of almost equal importance with the nitrogenous fertilisers. Considerable attention has _ been devoted to Basic Slag, which during the War changed considerably in character, and is not likely to go back to the old pre-war standard... A grazing experiment with sheep, and a set of hay experiments on permanent and on temporary grass land, have been started to ascertain the value of modern slags | and of mineral phos- phates. In addition an elaborate series of pot experiments is in hand to find out whether any constituent besides the phosphate is of value and whether the ordinary solubility test is sufficiently reliable to justify its retention. This work involves co-operation with the steel makers, and in order to develop it fully a Committee has been set up by the Ministry, composed of steel makers and agriculturists, under the Chairmanship of the Director. Manures not only increase the crops; they bring about other changes. Phosphates improve root development, not only of swedes and turnips, but of cereals also. The Botanical Staff under Dr. W. E. Brenchley have shown that phosphates, nitrogenous and potassic manures, all cause marked increases of root development of barley, sodium nitrate whether alone or in conjunction with super- phosphate being particularly effective. The root system of wheat, however, is less affected by nitrates or phosphates. Nitrogenous compounds i in reasonable amount encourage early growth and help the plant in case of insect attack, while the combination of a small dressing of nitrogenous manure with a large amount of phosphates has been shown to help cereal crops, particularly oats, to mature more early in cold, wet districts. Potash increases the resiapance rei the mangold crop to disease and improves the sugar content of the root. Further, manures very considerably affect the composition of the herbage in grass land. Potash and phosphates encourage leguminous herbage and greatly improve the feeding quality of the herbage : nitrogen compounds encourage the grasses and largely increase the bulk of hay (p. 70 et seq.). The effects of manures and cultivations on crop yields are by no means simple and straightforward. Every farmer knows the variations due to season and weather conditions. | And although weather may never be controllable foreknowledge of its probable 17 effects on the crops would be highly valuable. In order to study these effects a Statistical Department has been set up, in which Mr. R. A. Fisher and his assistant, Miss W. A. Mackenzie, have undertaken an analysis of the meteorological conditions at Rothamsted in conjunction with the crop records since 1852. THE NEED OF ORGANIC MATTER IN THE SOIL. However skilfully artificial manures are used it is essential on all ordinary farms to add organic matter to the soil. Four ways have been investigated for doing this. ; 1—Farmyard AManure.—Some 40,000,000 tons of farmyard manure are made by the farmers of the U ited Kingdom, but it is estimated by Hall and Voelcker that some 50% of the value is lost through av oidable causes. Thanks to the generous assistance of Viscount Elveden, it has been possible to retain an expert chemist, Mr. E. H. Richards, expressly for the purpose of studying this important a: Broadly speaking, the conditions, to be secured in the making of the manure are sufficient supplies of nitrogen compounds and of air to allow the cellulose-dec omposing organisms to break down the straw. For the storing of manure, however, it is necessary to have shelter from the rain and from access of air. The best methods of securing these conditions require working out for particular cases, which can be done after consideration of all the local circumstances Tield experiments have shown that farmyard manure made and stored under these conditions is of higher fertilising value than the ordinary material—the crop being 10 % or more beyond that given by manure kept in the usual way. An experiment has been begun i in which one lot of bullocks is kept in a covered yard and an equal lot in an open yard, and the manure from both will be com- pared. During the War, when all sources of loss had to be studied, and as far as possible stopped, the necessary conditions were vigorously brought to the notice of farmers and Executive Committees by the Food Production Department and the Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture. Savings of several per cent. on old- established practice are possible, and every per cent. saved would mean in the aggregate some £200,000 at present prices. A beginning has been made with a much more difficult problem—the handling of manure on a dairy farm. The conditions here are very different from those on an ordinary mixed farm where bullocks are fattened: it is desirable that the dung should be as little in evidence as possible and that the urine should be quickly and completely removed from the cow-sheds. So important is this that it must be done even if loss be thereby incurred. Two methods have been studied :— (a) The solid excreta are removed and stored under cover and out of access of air; the liquid manure is collected in a tank and applied to temporary or permanent grass land and on the stubbles prior to the root crop. This method is already in use on certain dairy farms, but when a careful examination was made a considerable deficit on the nitrogen account was revealed : the liquid contained only about one- 18 half of the nitrogen expected. The loss was traced to the broken straw and solid excreta which always finds its way into the liquid ; these bring about an absorption of nitrogen compounds which deprives the liquid of much of its value. Further investigation of this absorption is going on: it may be avoidable, in which case the value of the liquid manure, already marked, could be enhanced still further. In case it seems to be unavoidable, however, a second method of procedure is being studied. (b) The solid is collected as before, but the liquid is allowed to run through straw under conditions which encourage the absorption of nitrogen compounds. By suitable arrangement the straw increases in fertiliser value while the liquid loses . part of its valuable constituents, and can more easily be sacrificed. This method is still in the initial stages, but may prove cf considerable value. Mr. Richards is carrying out the laboratory experiments at Rothamsted and the large scale experiments et Woking on Viscount Elveden’s Home Farm: he has applied it also to the treatment of sewage from smail installations. 2—Artificial farmyard manure made without animals.—-Few farmers are able to make sufficient farmyard manure for their needs and some difficulty arises about the best method for utilising straw. Direct experiment shows that straw is net a useful fertiliser: indeed in many cases it depresses the crop. Once it is dec omposed, how- ever, it is of great value both for its physical and chemical properties. Laboratory work by Dr. Hutchinson and Mr. Clayton had shown that the breaking down of the material of straw—the so- called cellulose—is effected by organisms. One of these had eluded all previous investigators, but the Rothamsted workers succeeded in obtaining it in pure culture and in studying it freely (see p. 42). ies order that it may decompose straw it re- quires two conditions -— air and soluble nitrogen compounds as food. If either of these is missing it ceases to act. Moreover, it will only attack cellulose; it is unable to feed on sugar, starch, alcohol or any organic acid vet tried. Given, however, the neces- sary nitrogen compounds and a sufficiency of air, the micro-organ- isms quickly decompose straw, breaking it down to form a black, sticky material, looking very much like farmyard manure. This has been investigated in conjunction with Mr. Richards (p. 57) ; further quantities are now being prepared for fertiliser tests. 3—The clover crop is very valuable, not only on account of the hay, but also for the effect of its root residues on the next succeed- ing crops. It is, however, one of the most difficult of the farm crops to grow and few farmers would claim that they could grow it as frequently as they wished. The difficulty arises from the fact that the plant depends for success on the activity of certain bacteria in its roots, and the conditions, therefore, have to be favourable both to the plant and the organisms. Experiment shows that the clover crop is improved in four ways :— 19 I—By improvements in the method of sowing so as to give the seedling a good chance of establishing itself ; 2—-By dressings of chalk ; 3—By application of phosphates, and where’ necessary, potash before sowing ; 4—By the use of farmyard manure (p. 55). In some of our experiments the weights of the young plants at the time of cutting the barley were :— Weight of young Clover plants. |Cwts. per Acre Weight of Barley. Cwts. per Acre Control ‘ F , : : ' 4.8 ZY Slag and Lime . : ; 6.7 514 Super and Sulphate of Poise : , LT 26.1 Farmyard Manure ; ; : 10.3 28.2 Super and Farmyard Manure : : 15.0 26.5 We are not at present able to explain altogether this action of farmyard manure, but experiments in the bacteriologic: al labora- tory by Mr. Thornton indicate a special action of some of its con- stituents on the nodule organism, and seem to foreshadow interest- ing possibilities in the culture of the leguminous crops. 4—Green manuring.—The difficulty of making sufficient farmyard manure brings into prominence the need for green manuring. A field experiment has been started and the necessary laboratory work is being initiated by Mr. H. J. Page Although the beneficial action of a plentiful supply of organic matter in the soil is well known, precise knowledge of its mode of action is lacking. Laboratory work on humus, commenced in 1919 by Mr. V. A. Beckley (p. 37), is being extended by Messrs. H. J. Page and R. M. Winter. Refined methods for the determination of ammonia and nitrates in soils have been devised by Mr. D. J. Matthews, and are being used to study the changes occurring in the nitrogenous substances in the soil, especially after the applica- tion of green manures. THE POPULATION.OF-THE SOIE. FAUNA AND FLORA. Every farmer knows the importance of organic manure in the soil, but it is less generally realised that the “effectiveness of the organic manure depends on the activity of the soil organisms, without which it would be quite useless, and in some cases harmful. Although the organisms cannot be seen by the naked eye, they are present in all fertile soils in vast numbers and in extraordinary variety. An extended survey is therefore being made on definite systematic lines with the view of learning as much as possible about the soil population. No less than 10 workers are engaged on this survey. Mr. D. W. Cutler, Miss L. M. Crump and Mr. H. Sandon study the protozoa; Mr. H. G. Thornton and Mr. P. H. H. Gray 20 the bacteria; Dr. B. Muriel Bristol the algae; Dr. W. B. Brierley and Miss S. T. Jewson the fungi, Mr. H. M. Morris the insects, while till recently Dr. T. Goodey studied the nematodes and Mrs. Matthews the more general relationships. The ultimate aim of the agriculturist 1s to control this soil population in just the same way as the animal breeder has controlled and developed the original wild animals. But control is not possible without full knowledge of what the organisms are, what they do and how they live. It is this knowledge which the scientific workers are endeavouring to gain. The first thing is to ascertain the numbers of each kind of organism present in the soil under different natural conditions. That is being done for bacteria and protozoa, and some striking relationships are observed. A new technique has been devised for counting protozoa and a new medium’ for use in bacterial estima- tions. As the organisms multiply much more rapidly than larger animals it is necessary to make the determina- tions frequently and regularly: counts of bacteria and 19 species of protozoa—4 ciliates, 6 amoebe and 9 flagellates—are now made daily at Rothamsted, and it is intended to continue these for 365 consecutive days and then to look for corre- lations with temperature, soil moisture, rainfall, etc. Two interest- ing features are clearly brought out; the numbers of bacteria vary inversely with the numbers of active amoebe, and one of the flagellates (Oitcomonas termo Martin) shows a remarkable two days’ periodicity, its numbers being high one day and low the next without any apparent external reason (p. 39). Further, an examination of the drain gauge results has indi- cated the existence of soi] organisms capable of absorbing nitrates, and thus competing with plants (p. 35). Alga have been found which can do this, and Dr. Bristol is investigating their mode cf life and their function in the soil. Bacteria can also take up nitrates. Large numbers of fungi have been found in the soil, and are being studied by Dr. Brierley and Miss Jewson. The insect and other invertebrate fauna has been studied by Mr. H. M. Morris, who has taken samples each alternate week from the unmanured and the dunged plots on Broadbalk field. Each sample contained 729 cubic inches of soil: the whole was thoroughly sifted and the animals identified and counted. The average results were :— TOTAL NUMBERS PER ACRE. No Manure. Farmyard Manure. Insects . d 2,475,000 7,727,000 Acari -. : ; : 215,000 532,000 Earthworms . ‘ ; 458,000 1,010,000 Myriapods . ; ; 879,000 1,781,000 Dominant Insects Ist . Collembola (693,600) Ants . . (2,946,000) 2nd .| Ants. . (690,000) Collembola (2,391,000) ae { Chironomid Sra Wireworms (165,000) Larve (515,000) TL LR SE 21 The distribution at the various depths is shown in the follow- ing table of percentages of the total in each group :— o-1"! 1-3" 3" 5 5_7n aM g" INSECTS: Manured Plot : : SulkD DRL, 10.9 6.4 3.8 Untreated Plot. F PAs yra| 25.0 3.0 11.1 55 ACARI: Manured Plot : f 48.3 ooo | » 20.2 5.0 12 Untreated Plot. : 59:3 23.4 | 14.0 521 : EARTHWORMS: , : | | Manured Plot : 4 2363 BeOe.| 22.0 10.6 7.0 Untreated Plot. : 2355 risOer | 18'3 11.0 5.8 The vast majority of soil organisms were found at a depth not exceeding 3 inches. Wirewornis are exceptional in that they attain their maximum numbers at a depth of 5 inches, to 7 inches. Manuring increases the total number of soil organisms to the extent of about 200°, but exercises no very appreciable influence upon the number of wireworms present. THRE POSSIBILITY ObSBRE CONTROL OF THE SOIL POPULATION. Previous investigations have shown that heating the soil treatment with certain poisons not only rids it of pests but actually improves its productiveness, increasing the amount of bacterial activity. This has been applied in glasshouse practice in the Lea Valley. Steaming has proved effective and so have certain chemi- cals, but their action is complicated by the fact that some poisons such as phenol, cresol, naphthalene, etc., are destroyed in the soil before they have been able to kill those organisms to which they are fatai. It is found that certain soil bacteria have the power of attacking or feeding on these particular poisons: they are being further studied in the bacteriological laboratory. The introduction of a chlorine atom stabilises the poison and the further introduc- tion of a nitro-group adds considerably to its toxicity (p. 58). Much work has been done to find a suitable agent for the control of wireworms (p. 43). INVESTIGATIONS ONVTHE WEED FLORA. The accumulated data on the weed flora of arable and grass land has been worked up by Dr. Brenchley and published in book form. Connections have been traced between various groups of weeds on the one hand and soils and crops on the other, and some cases slight changes in manurial or cultural treatment may prove efficacious in the reduction of bad weed pests. Arrange- ments are being made for gatheri ing together more information from different parts of the c country in order to extend the practical application of the work. THEe a YSICaAL CONDITIONS OF THE SOIL. Much of the agricultural value of the soil depends on physical conditions, such as the ease of cultivation, the supply of air and moisture, temperature, ete. These factors, which largely deter- mine its suitability for the growth of crops and micro- organisms, are being investigated in the Soil Physics Department under Mr. B.-A. Keen. The factors are very complex, and closely inter-related : under field conditions alteration in any one almost always produces varia- tion in most of the others. Soil cultivation was developed into an art when animals were the motive power on the farm. The change to mechanical power is a fundamental one, and it is by no means certain that the imple- ments designed for horse traction will prove most suitable for mechanical traction. The study of the methods and effects on the soil of tractor cultivation has already begun at Rothamsted. The various factors contributing to the resistance offered by the soil to the plough are being analyzed in order to disentangle those due to soil conditions and those inherent in the design of the plough. For purposes of this work it is necessary to obtain field data on soil cultivation, and on the moisture and temperature relations in the soil, from a diversity of soil types and under varying climatic conditions. The co-operation of various education: ul institutions situated in the country has been invited for the collection of the required information, and arrangements have been made _ for teachers to visit Rothamsted in order that they may become familiar with the methods of observation. Over much of England loss of water by evaporation from the soil represents a serious source of loss to farmers. Investigations on this subject have been made and are now being extended to different soil types and varying manurial treat- ment. The percentage of clay in the soil has a preponderating influence on the rate of evaporation, while the manurial treatment is responsible for minor differences in the rate. Other studies deal with the surface effects associated with clay particles, the method used being the absorption of certain dyes from their solutions ; the effect of the clay fraction on various physical properties of soils; and the behaviour of the soil colloids when in contact with different liquids. It has also been shown that the experimental results obtained in America on the depression of the freezing point of soil solution measured in situ, are capable of quantitative investigation ; a definite relation holds over a wide range of moisture content between the “‘ free ’’ and “‘ unfree ”’ water. These results, together with earlier work in the laboratory, have formed the basis of a general review of the relations existing between the soil and its water content, which was published in 1920, and they were incorporated, together with other material, in a series of lectures on Soil Physics delivered in the University of London, and now being expanded into a Monograph (p. 59). A detailed examination of the meteorological data collected at Rothamsted and their effect on the temperature of the soil has been published (p. 47). Material is at present being collected for a discussion of percolation and evaporation under field conditions and their relation to meteorological influences. The investigation of soil acidity by physico-chemical methods which was started by Mr. E. A. Fisher (see p. 48) is being con- tinued by Mr. E. M. Crowther. A hydrogen electrode and potenti- 23 ometer apparatus—the gift of Robert Mond, Esq.—is now being set up, and the sources of error eliminated preparatory to a general investigation of the nature of soil acidity. Many farms in the country are short of lime, but agricultural advisers are often in the difficulty that they cannot tell a farmer exactly how much lime the soil needs: often, indeed, they can onlv say that he should apply between 10 cwts. and 2 tons per acre. Of course, if farming were independent of cost, this vagueness would not matter, but the delicate financial balance under which agricul- ture has to be conducted leaves no margin for indecision between 10 ewts. and 2 tons. It is hoped that one result of these investiga- tions will be to enable experts to give more definite advice than is now possible. During the period under review, two voluntary workers have assisted in the work of the department—Mr. V. A. Tamhane, Soil Physicist to the Bombay Presidency, and Mr. H. Raczkowski, of the Palestine Experimental Station. SPECIAL ENTOMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. In addition te the important investigations on the insect and other invertebrate fauna of the soil already dealt with on p. 20, the Entomological Laboratory has undertaken the following work :— (1) A study of the biological phenomena of Aphides. The results are set out on p. 49. (2) Chemotropism. Dr. A. D. Imms, in conjunction with Mr. H. M. Morris, has extended his previous work (p. 48) on the responses of insects to chemical stimuli. This property opens up the possibility of controlling certain injurious insects which cannot satisfactorily be dealt with by insecticides. The method of experi- ment is to expose uniform amounts of various chemical substances in a series of traps for a constant length of time and to identify the species and the sex of the insects that respond. (3) Wireworm investigations have been carried out by Mr. A. W. Rymer Roberts on the biological side, and in conjunction with Mr. Tattersfield on the chemical side (p. 43). (4) In view of the urgent necessity for systematising the sub- ject, Dr. A. D. Imms is preparing an advanced text book of cn- tomology for the use of research students, which it is hoped to complete during the present year. A beginning has also been made towards the formation of insect collections which will be essential for purposes of identification and research. (5) Insecticides. By common consent the subject of insecti- cides is not well advanced, and efforts will be made to obtain much needed fundamental knowledge. On the chemical side, Messrs. Tattersfield and Roach have investigated Tuba root (Derris elliptica) from which they have extracted two crystalline substances, some resins, an oil and an amorphous substance, apparently a saponin. Of these the resins and one crystalline sub- stance are toxic. Methods have been devised for comparing the toxicities of these products, and also of different consignments of the root. In addition a chemical method for evaluating the root has been elaborated. MYCOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT. This department was instituted at the end of 1918 under the charge of Dr. W. B. Brierley. Although the continuity of work during the following two years has been sadly interrupted by laboratory alterations, much has been accomplished. The main investigations are summarised below. 1—The Soil Flora. The micro-flora of the soil is being studied by Dr. Brierley, Dr. Muriel Bristol and Miss Jewson. The algae and fungi are isolated in pure culture and cultivated in vitro on various food media under controlled and standardised condi- tions. Their identity is determined and a study made of their physiological properties and their function in the soil economy. A Rothamsted monograph on ‘‘ Soil Fungi and Algae ”’ is in pre- paration. 2—The Fungal Species. Dr. Brierley is carrying out investi- gations on the species concept in the fungi, this work being of fundamental importance in order that fungi—in particular those causing plant disease—may be accurately codified. Dr. Hender- son Smith is employing standardised serological methods in the elucidation of this problem, this technique supplying a series of tests of a delicacy not yet obtained by chemical means. During Dr. Brierley’s investigations a new form of Botrytis cinerea appeared, and as this has important bearings on certain basic concepts in biology it has been fully studied (p. 51). 3—The Killing of Fungal Spores. The greater part of reme- dial treatment in plant disease depends on the killing of fungus re- productive bodies by toxic agents. Such treatment is empirical for there is little know ledge of the exact relations between spores and poison. Dr. Henderson Smith is studying this problem in detail and has thrown much light upon the fundamental nature of the disinfection process (p. 52). . 4—JVart Disease of Potatoes. This investigation is being carried out by Dr. Brierley and Miss Glynne by the aid of a special grant from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Laboratory ork is done at Rothamsted and methods are being devised to extract Wart Disease sporangia from infested soil, to evaluate the toxic effect of che jeal substanc es upon the sporangia and to test the viability of ie fhtene ain vitro after treatment. Glasshouse and field trials are’carried out at Ormskirk, where experiments on soil sterilisation, alternative hosts, manurial, cultural and other treatment are in progress. 5—Bacterial blackneck of Tomato. Professor K. Nakata, cf the Kyushu University of Japan, is investigating this disease, par- ticularly from the point of view of its production by means cf bacterial extract. During 1920, Dr. Brierley represented Great Britain at the American "p hyto; sathological Cong ress, and subsequently spent some months v isiting educational and research institutions and the various regions of agricultural and biological importance in Canada and the United States. ho nr WAR WORK AT ROTHAMSTED. Some of the problems dealt with at Rothamsted during the War were described in the last Report (1914-1917). A Gnagected account is now given so as to complete the record. During the first year of the War (1914-15) very little direct War work was done at Rothamsted. Food was still coming into the country in large quantities and there was no great interference with food production at home. Supplies of fertilisers and feeding stuffs were ample. There was, however, fear of unemployment, and three schemes were examined at the request of the Board of Agriculture with the view of ascertaining whether they could use- fully employ any considerable number of men, and if so, whether they would contribute to the national profit. These were a pro- posed development of Foulness Island in Essex, the suggested afforestation of the spoil heaps and pit mounds of the Black Country, and the reclamation of Pagham Harbour in Sussex. None of these schemés was further developed, though two of them —-the planting of the spoil heaps in the Black Country and -the reclamation of Pagham Harbour—possess aspects of permanent interest. The spoil heaps are useless and unsightly; they can, however, be planted with trees, when they take on a very different appearance, as shown by Reed Park, Walsall. Although the financial returns may not be great, the improvement in the ameni- ties of the district would be considerable. The proposition is not agricultural, however. The most important work began in 1916 when the food situa- tion gave cause for much anxiety. The position was really very serious. The submarine menace was looming before us, terrible in its unfamiliarity, conjuring up visions of food shortage, if not of starvation: the only way out of the situation seemed to be the production of our own food in our own country. At the time we were producing only one-half of our total food—the remainder was coming from abroad. When the list was examined in detail the position was found to be more serious than it looked. The food produced at home included more of the luxuries than of the essen- tials; it included, for instance, the whole of the highest quality meat, but only one-fifth of the bread. The farmer was therefore called upon to perform a double task—he had to produce more food and different food; to give us, not one loaf out of every five that we eat, but three ae fone out of every five, and to do this without causing too great shortage of milk, meat, and if possible, beer. The situation . presented many difficult administrative, financial and technical problems. The technical problems involving soils and fertilisers were dealt with at Rothamsted. The fertiliser problems arose out of the necessity for making the very best use of the limited stocks of the ordinary fertilisers to which the farmer was accustomed, and of examining any and every substitute that promised help in eking out the supplies. Fortun- ately, a good deal of information could be drawn from the Rotham- sted and other experiments as to the best way of using fertilisers on particular crops. ‘This was systematised and put in order in a little handbook catled ** Manuring for Higher Crop Production,’ 26 issued at a cheap price by the Cambridge University Press, so that farmers could readily obtain it. In addition, each month a series of Notes was issued in the Ministry’s Journal showing how the available supplies might best be utilised. It was more difficult, however, to give useful information about the substitutes that would be needed when the fertiliser supplies became too much reduced. Ordinarily, fertiliser trials have to be continued for two or three successive seasons before a definite opinion can be expressed on their merits: during the War, however, some sort of opinion had to be given in three or four weeks. Rapid methods of laboratory testing were therefore de- veloped : growing seedlings were used to indicate whether (as not infrequently happened) toxic substances were present: rates of nitrification in soil were determined to find out how far the sub- stance would yield nutrient material to the plant: farm crops were kept growing in pots to afford opportunities of testing any material that seemed promising. A considerable number of possi- ble fertilisers were sent in for examination by the Food Production Department, the Board of Agriculture, the Ministry of Munitions, the National Salvage Council, and other bodies. Much of the information was wanted for the purpose of economising sulphuric acid, so that the maximum quantity might be handed over to the Ministry of Munitions for the manufacture of explosives. In Peace time, the farmer had been the chief consumer of sulphuric acid; in 1917, however, the Ministry of Munitions were requiring all the acid they could find and were leaving much less than usual for the fertiliser manufacturers. The situation was serious: in pre-war days the farmer had required 870,000 tons of chamber acid per annum (equivalent to 580,000 tons of pure acid), and the extra food production programme was calling for even more than this. But the Ministry of Munitions was obdurate, and supplies were cut down at a rate which seemed to some of the more nervous to threaten a very serious situation: the production of sulphate of ammonia fell from 350,000 tons per annum to little over 250,000 tons, while that of superphosphate fell from 800,000 tons to 500,000 tons per annum. Fortunately, a partial substitute for sulphuric acid was avail- able in the form of nitre-cake, and although no fertiliser manufac- turer liked it or had a good word for it, it seemed as if it might have to be used extensively in the manufacture of superphosphate and of sulphate of ammonia. Important and difficult technical problems were involved both at the factory and on the farm, necessitating a considerable amount of experimental work. Thanks to the co-operation of the manufacturers, working solutions of the difficulties were found, and there is little doubt that both sulphate of ammonia and superphosphate could have been made from nitre-cake had the necessity arisen. Fortunately it did not, and the situation was eased before it became too serious. A considerable amount of work was also done in the examina- tion of new sources of potassium compounds to take the place of the Stassfurt salts which had previously been our sole source of supply. A certain number of residues from manufacturing processes were available, but in the main they _ suffered tt from one or other of two defects: very low content of potash likely to be usefui to the plant, or the presence of toxic substances. After much sorting out of possible materials, it appeared that certain blast furnace flue dusts would prove suitable, and accord- ingly the Food Production Department took steps to make the necessary arrangements for distribution among farmers. Consi- derable quantities were used, often with distinct advantage. Investigation was also made into the possibility of using to better advantage the farmyard manure produced on the farm. At the conclusion of the Armistice there were vast stocks cf explosives in hand, and Mr. Churchill set up a small Committee, under the late Lord Moulton, to devise means of disposal. The Director was appointed to serve on this Committee and much work was done at Rothamsted to test the possibility of converting sur- plus explosives into fertilisers. The case of ammonium nitrate was satisfactorily dealt with (p. 54), but cordite, T.N.T., and other explosives presented more difficulties. Means were devised for preparing nitrate of lime from cordite, but these was a loss of 25°, of nitrogen and a poisonous impurity (oxypyruvic acid) was always present; this, however, could no doubt have been satisfac- torily eliminated had the experiments continued. The difficulty was caused not by the nitro-glycerine but by the nitro-cellulose. T.N.T. proved more difficult to convert into fertilisers, and other means of disposal were adopted. In addition, work was carried out in connection with the agricultural development of the Belgian Congo, which H.M. the King of the Belgians recognised by conferring upon the Director the Order of the Crown of Belgium. 25 PUBLICATIONS DURING THE YEARS 1918-20. SCIENTIFIC PAPERS. CROPS AND PLANT GROWTH. I. Wuxirrep E. BrencHLey. ‘ Some Factors in Plant Competition.’’ Annals of Applied Biology, 1920. Vol. VI. pp. 142-170. The competition exhibited when plants of the same or different species grow in juxtaposition is complex and includes :— 1.—Competition for food from the soil. 2.—Competition for water. 3.—Competition for light. | 4.—The possible harmful effect due to toxic excretions from the roots, if such occur. The general effect of competition (including 1, 2, 3 above) has been studied in pot cultures, when a varying number of plants are grown in the same bulk of soil. The effect of competition for light was investigated by means of water cultures, in which a number of plants each equally furnished with food and water, were crowded together as closely as possible, while a similar set of plants was given suflicient space to avoid the shading of one plant by another. With limited food suppiy the dominant factor in competition is the amount of food and particularly of available nitrogen. Other things being equal, the dry matter produced is determined by the nitrogen supply, irrespective of the number of plants drawing thereon. With limited food supply the efficiency index of dry weight production decreases with the number of plants, as the working capacity of the plant is liinited by the quantity of material available for building up the tissues. (N.B.—‘‘ Efficiency Index ’’ is the term employed by V. H. Blackman to express the rate per cent. at which the dry matter of a plant increases during growth.) 3.-—The decrease in light caused by overcrowding is a most potent factor in competition, even when an abundance of food and water is presented to each individual plant. With barley the effect of light competition is to reduce the number of ears ; to cause great irregularity in the number of tillers produced ; to reduce the amount of dry matter formed; to encourage shoot growth at the expense of root growth, thus raising the ratio of shoot to root ; to increase the variation in the efficiency indices of dry weight production of a number of crowded plants, lowering them on “the average; to de- crease the power of the plants to make use of the food supplied to the roots, as evidenced by the total quantity of nitrogen taken up by similar numbers of plants when spaced out and crowded. 4.—With adequate illumination (in barley) there is a tendency towards the production of a standard type of plant in which the relation between the number of tillers and ears, dry weights, effi- ciency indices, and ratios of root to shoot approximates within variable degrees to a constant standard. With overcrowding, this approximation entirely disappears. Il. Wuytrrep E. BrencuLey. ‘ On the Relations between Growth and the Environmental Conditions of Tempera- ture and Bright Sunshine.’’ Annals of Applied Bio- logy, 1920. Vol. VI. pp. 211-244. The amount of growth made by any crop in the field and the rate at which maturity is reached are influenced by many factors, "aad 29 such as temperature, rainfall, season, sunlight, soil conditions and available plant food. An attempt was made to isolate some of these factors by growing a number of series of peas in water cul- tures throughout a period of sixteen months, results being thus obtained for all seasons of the year. Measurements of maximum and minimum temperatures and number of hours of bright sun- shine were recorded throughout, and provided a basis for statistical correlations. Parallel series were usually grown, in one of which the nutrient solutions were changed weekly so that an abundant food supply was assured, whereas in the other the solution was not renewed, and the food supply was severely restricted. It was found that growth may be divided conveniently into two well-marked periods. (a) Ist period, from the seedling stage till the time that the plant regains its initial weight after the loss by respiration, i.c., the time during which a casual observer would say the plant ‘“ makes no growth. (b) 2nd period, succeeding the former, during which the plant is Obviously making growth, and which continues till the latter ceases and dessication sets in. The length of the first period varies inversely with the mean maximum temperature, as the rate at which assimilation is able to make good the loss by respiration increases directly with rise of temperature, up to a certain limit. The possible amount of growth, as measured by the dry matter produced, depends entirely upon the bright sunshine and tempera- ture when the food supply is adequate, but when the latter is limited the total growth is much less owing to the lack of material for building up the tissues. Beyond a certain limit, however, the beneficial factors of heat and bright sunshine become harmful and result in the premature death of the plant. During the first period the rate of growth, as shown by the efficieney index, was associated with relatively warm days and nights, bright sunshine having little significant effect ; the light, however, was good throughout for the season of the year. During the second period the rate was associated strongly with sunshine and warm days, but not significantly with the night temperatures, -which did not fail below 32° F, During the greater part of the year the maximum rate of growth is reached early in life, but in winter, when temperatures are low and there is little bright sunshine, the maximum rate is not attained till much later. Plants with a restricted food supply make less total growth than those with abundant food. The falling off in the amount of dry matter produced does not seem to be eradual but is marked by definite periods, of which the incidence varies at different seasons. During the period of actual growth, the shoot increases in weight far more rapidly than the root. Increase in shoot growth is closely associated with rise in temperature and root growth is adversely affected by low mean maximum temperatures. Rise in maximum temperature has much less beneficial action upon the roots than upon the shoots. In early stages of growth, the amount of nitrate absorbed by the plant is relatively large i in comparison with the dry matter pro- duced, but later on more dry matter is formed in proportion to the ” 30 same amount of nitrate, owing to the accumulation of the products of assimilation. I1l. Wuntrrep E. BrencHL_Ey and VIoLer G. JACKSON. ‘“ Root Development in Barley and Wheat under difterent conditions of Growth.’’ Annals of Botany, 1921. Investigations have been begun on the effect of various manures as superphosphate, sulphate of potash and nitrate cf soda on the root systems of barley and wheat. Most of the ex- periments were made in pot cultures and the roots washed out at regular intervals to obtain the various stages of development. Two forms of roots are produced :— 1.—Much branched roots, most of which proceed from the grain. These are rather thin, long, and bear very numerous fine laterals, with root hairs only near the tip. 2 Thick unbranched roots arising from the nodes as well as the grain, white in colour, and densely clothed with root hairs throughout their length. At a later stage these roots branch and approximate more closely to the others in appearance. With barley, superphosphate encourages the development of unbranched roots, sodium nitrate having no effect. When the plants are about three months old no more unbranched roots seem to be formed. The maximum root development was reached at about the time that the ears were ready to emerge from their sheaths, 7.e., when pollination and fertilisation of the ovule were about to take place. With superphosphate alone and with nitrate alone, however, this maximum was reached somewhat earlier, so that apparently root growth culminated with the final stage of pre- paration by the plant for grain formation. In other words, during the period of purely vegetative growth the plant needs large sup- plies of nitrogen and ash constituents to aid in building up a strong shoot in readiness for grain formation, and the root steadily in- creases in order to be able adequately to cope with this demand. During the reproductive phase, on the other hand, vegetative dev clopment i is reduced to a minimum, and the whole of the plant’s energy is diverted towards the grain. Although nitrogen and ash constituents are just as essential as before, the area of supply is increased, as migration of these substances from the straw into the grain goes on froin the outset. This reduces the strain on the root, and as such a large absorbing area is no longer required it appears that the excess provision may be got rid of by a steady process of decay, as the weight of the root steadily decreases when once the maximum is reached. The ratios of root to shoot at different periods are also discussed, a great increase of the shoot/root ratio occurring where the unbranched roots cease to Le formed. With wheat the unbranched roots increase in numbers less rapidly than in barley, but persist as such for a longer period. There is in wheat nothing to correspond with the sudden dis- appearance of white roots which occurs in barley about 11 weeks after sowing, for in wheat the decline in white roots coincides with the decrease in weight of the complete root system, whereas in barley the formation stops suddenly when the ratio between shoot and root growth begins to change. #1 The paper concludes with a discussion of :— 1.—The influence of environmental conditions other than manuring upon root growth. 2.—Influence of different types of manuring upon root growth. IV. WInirrep E, BRENCHLEY. ‘' The Development of the Flower and Grain of Barley.’’ Journal of the Institute of Brewing, 1920. Vol. XXVI. pp. 615-632. 2) An account is given of the development of the ear and flower of barley from the time the young ear is about }-inch long until the grain is fully developed. The method of flowering i in barley is to a large extent characteristic of the type, as in some cases the glumes open and in others remain closed at the time of pollination. With closed-glume flowering cross-fertilisation is of course im- possible, and even with open flowering it is the exception rather than the rule. The developmental history of the grain indicates that the awns are of considerable physiological importance, and in every barley ear the largest and heaviest grains are in the middle of the ear, and the longest awns occur on these grains, indicating some correlation between weight of grain and length of awn. The awns are essentially transpiring organs. Transpiration is most active during the development of the spike and grains, rising to a maxi- mum just about the time the grains reach the milk stage. Mary D. Giynne, B.Sc. and Viotet G. Jackson, B.Sc. “ The Distribution of Dry Matter and Nitrogen in the 7 Vv. Potato Tuber (variety, King Edward).’’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1919. Vol. IX. pp. 237 -258. King Edward Potatoes were grown in 1917 on Little Knot Wood Field, Rothamsted, lifted about the end of September, 1917, and examined in the laboratory early in 1918. The percentage of dry matter in the potato tuber was lowest in the skin; it increased to the inner cortical layer, the zone containing the greater part of the vascular system, and de- creased towards the centre of the tuber. Typical results are :— DRY MATTER IN DIFFERENT ZONES OF THE TUBER. | i . ue | Mepium || LarGE_ ||AVER- 54 at Same, || 139-5-169.2 || 184.9-259.9 | acE ere | gms. | ems. | of 18 (ee eee. |. & | ae poss | tubers. zZ | % of |% dry || % of | % dry | % 6 of | % dry % dry eee | whole. |matter.| whole.|matter. whole. patie ‘matter. Skin | 2.78|:14.29 |) 1.85] 15.08 ! 2.83'|: 13:44 | 14.01 Cortical, outer] 27.54| 24.86 || 20.29) 23.43 | 18.11/ 23.36 | 23.71 inner| 24.68) 29.25 |) 20.11}: 28.72 | 18.92| 27.57) 28.30 Medullaty. | | ' ! outer) 31.32 | 25:76 || 36.43) 25.49 || 39.95} 25.05 | 25.28 3 inper|= 13.67 20.19 || 21.32| 18.46|| 20.19; 17.48 | 18.15 Cortical, | Irae. outer & inner} 52.22| 26.93 || 40.40| 26.08 || 39.03} 25.52 | 26.00 | 32 In each zone the proportion of dry matter is higher towards the umbilical than the terminal end of the tuber. The percentage of nitrogen in the fresh material tends to de- crease from the skin to the inner cortical layer and to increase in the medullary zone. Thus it increases from zone to zone in the opposite direction to the dry matter. Nitrogen tends to increase with dry matter from the terminal to the umbilical end. The results are :— AVERAGE OF 3 SMALL TUBERS. Section pe ] 2 3 | 4 Skin . . : é ay 0:46 0.42 bd 0.42 Cortical, outer . R Br 0235/5 0.36 0.37 > KOO Ser S i 00:29 0.29 0:82 esa Medullary, outer : mh OE30 0.32 0.34 <<) p28 s inner ’ ey: 0:33 0.36 0.39: ah OREO AVERAGE OF 3 MEDIUM TUBERS. Section ae =a ee l 2 | 3 | + Skin . ; ; Ba 0e26 0.40 | 0.45 | 0.45 Cortical, outer . : nee), 33 O:53sah. Ouse 0.37 7 emer wane. | 0.29 0.30 °K: 0.33" » | iis Medullary, outer ; .| . 0.30 0.34." 41 "O37. Sie = inner , .| 0.34 0:32 0.36 | 0.36 | uk | AVERAGE OF 3 LARGE TUBERS. Section OI ee l 2 3 | + Skin . ; é 3 |» 45 (0.36 Ope 0.54 Cortical, outer . 3 a 0.33 0.34 0.35 "|! ree ys | TAMER, : me 0.52 0.37 0.35°, 056 Medullary, outer ; fe 0230 O38 0.44 0.40 ag inner ; ae O32 0.32 0.36. | - ros Microscopical examination shows the starch grains densest in the region of the vascular system, and decreasing towards the centre and surface of the tuber. A high degree of correlation is found between the specific gravity and percentage of dry matter of whole tubers. lor purposes of sampling the method of taking two radially opposed sectors, or diagonally opposed eighths, was far more accurate than the coring method. . 7 ee ee Paes. ee a ee ee ee 33 Vii O? N. Purvis." “tive Ejfect of Potassium Salts on the Anatomy of Dactylis Glomerata.’ Journal of Agri- cultural Science, 1919. Vol. IX. pp. 338-365. Stems of Dactylis glomerata were collected from grass plots which had received different manurial treatment as regards potash. The yield of hay from these plots during the period of the in- vestigation was in close agreement with the average, showing that the season was not abnormal. The thickness of the wall, the diameter of the lumina and the ratio of the lumen to the wall were measured both in sclerenchyma and metaxylem elements. In the early stages the sclerenchyma walls were thinner where potash had been supplied, but this effect was lost as the season progressed. The lumina were larger in plants which had received potash when nitrogenous fertilisers had not been added, but in the presence of ammonium salts, this effect was reversed. In the xylem the thickness of the walls was unaltered, whether potassic fertilisers were added or not. When no nitrogenous manures were added the diameter of the lumen was decreased in the presence of potash, but when ammonium salts had been applied, the diameter was increased by the application of potassic fertilisers. The addition of potassium salts produced an increased ratio of lumen to wall, but this effect gradually passed off. Presumably, therefore, potassic fertilisers reduced the strength of mechanical cells in the early stages of growth. This conclusion, however, would not hold if potassium salts affected the composition of the wall. From these results it is concluded that the rigidity of plants supplied with potassium salts is not the result of anatomical strengthening, but must be attributed to other causes, such as the influence of the salts on the physiological condition of the plant, or on its chemical composition. VIP; R. A. -FisHer. ~~ Seudies-in Crop Variation. An Examination of the Yields of Dressed Wheat from Broadbalk.’’ — Journal of Agricultural Science, 1921. Vek XI. A study of the variations in yield on Broadbalk where wheat “has been grown continuously since 1843. Three types of variation are found due respectively to (1) annual causes, primarily weather; (2) steady deterioration of the soil; (3) other slow changes, among which changes in weed flora are considered. The effect of weather is reserved for further con- sideration. The effects of soil deterioration and other slow changes are studied at length. On the unmanured plot, the decrement in yield is of the order of 0.89%, or less than 1 bushel j in 10 years. If this rate were main- tained, the plot would still last out another 125 years. Where farmyard manure is applied there is practically no falling off in yield; this crop also shows the least variation due to weather r. With complete artificials, however, there is a deterioration, but less with heavy than with light dressings of am- monium salts, which is not quite in accordance with the Law ‘of Diminishing Returns, With incomplete artificials, however, 34 the falling off is more marked, exceeding that of the unmanured crop. The figures are :— Mean annual OY ae pe Mean yield _ decrement | Plot. Manure. Bushels ore decrement per acre. : ee | per acre. 3&4); None 12:27) s: 39 .097 793, 26 2b. | Farmyard manure 34.55 + .74 | 03] 09 + 1] 8 | Complete artificials (treble ammonia) 35.69 = .93 | 092 .26 = 14 7 | Do.(doubleammonia) 31.37 + .90 | 144 | a4 Gi oS 6 Do. (single ammonia) 27.58 eens. | 141 So ee | | INCOMPLETE ARTIFICIALS. | Mean yield Mean annual Mean annual fe wees decrement. Pot. Manure. in Bushels decrement. Bushels af Der acrengs) /o | | per acre. | eee —| ——= 12 | Sulphate of soda 28.32, +.98 |< esd 64 + .18 13. | Sulphate of potash aD.21ae ol .123 | +1 ake 14 | Sulphate of magnesia) 27.76 + .90 ol OS clea 7 | All three sulphates .| 31.37 + .90 144 A+6iaa ets 11 | None of the sulphates} 22.05 + .91 .219 99 al The existence of the third type of variation precluded the possibility of obtaining true curves of exhaustion. The paper contains a detailed analysis of the mathematical methods employed for the deduction of statistically homogenous material for the further study of meteorological effects. RAIN. VIII. E. J. Russet and E. H. Ricnarns. “ The Amount and Composition of Rain falling at Rothamsted.’’ (Based on analyses made by the late Norman H. J. Miller.) Journal of Agric ultural Science, 1919. Vol. VIII. pp. 309-337. The ammoniacal nitrogen in the Rothamsted rain-water amounts on an average to 0. 405 ) parts per million, corresponding to 2.641b. per acre per annum. The yearly fluctuations in Ib. per acre follow the rainfall fairly closely. The monthly fluctuations also move in the same direction as the rain, but the general level is highest during May, June, July and August, and lowest during January, F ebruary, March and April. The nitric nitrogen is on an average one-half the armmodiaenll vis., 1.33lb. per acre per annum. The amounts fluctuated year 35 by year and month by month in the same way as the ammoniacal nitrogen and the rainfall until 1910, since when there has been no simple relationship. Reasons are adduced for supposing that the ammonia arises from several sources. The sea, the soil and city pollution may all contribute. Neither the sea nor city pollution seems able to account for all the phenomena: the soil is indicated as an important source by the fact that the ammonia content is high during periods of high biochemical activity in the soil, and low during periods cf low biochemical activity. The close relationship between the amounts of ammoniacal and nitric nitrogen suggests either a common origin or the produc- tion of nitric compounds from ammonia. The average amount of chlorine 1s 2.43 parts per million, bringing down 16lbs. per acre per annum. The fluctuations closely follow the rainfall both month by month and year by year, but the general level is much higher during the months September to April “than during the summer months. It seems probable that the chlorine comes from the sea, but some may come from fuel. Since 1888, when the experiments began, to 1916, when they terminated, there has been a rise in the amounts of nitric nitrogen and of chlorine in the rain. In the case of chlorine a parallel series of determinations made at Cirencester over the same period shows a similar rise. There is no rise of ammonia, but on the contrary a tendency to drop: the sum of ammoniacal and nitric nitrogen shows little change over the period. This seems to suggest that a former source of ammonia is now turning out nitric acid: it is possible that modern gas burners and grates tend to the formation of nitric oxides rather than of ammonia. Rain contains on an average 10 parts of dissolved oxygen per million, the amount being higher in winter than in summer: 66.4lbs. per acre per annum were brought down during the two years over which the determinations extended. The marked difference in composition between summer and winter rainfall suggests that these may differ in their origin. The winter rain resembles Atlantic rain in its high chlorine and low ammonia and nitrate content: the summer rain is characterised by low chlorine but high ammonia and nitrate content, suggesting that it arises by evaporation of water from the soil and condensa- tion at higher altitudes than in the case of winter rain. CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE SOIL. IX. E. J. Russert and E. H. Ricuarps. ‘“‘ The Washing Out of Nitrates by Drainage Water from Uncropped and Biggelg Land.”’ (Based on analyses made by the iate N. J. Miller.) Journal of Agricultural Science, 1926, Val 3 pp. 22-43. An investigation of the results obtained by the drain gauges set up by Lawes and Gilbert in 1870. At the beginning of the experiment the soil contained 0.146% of nitrogen, or about 3,500Ilb. per acre in the top 9 inches; it yielded up to about 401b. of nitrogen per acre per annum to the drainage water. At the end of nearly 50 years it still contains 0.099% of nitrogen, or 2,380Ib. in the top 9 inches, and it still 36 gives up to the drainage water 21lb. of nitric nitrogen per acre per annum, enough to produce a 15 bushel crop of wheat, although neither manure nor crop residues have been added during the whole of the period. If the curve showing the rate of fall continued its present course and without further slowing down, no less than 150 years would be needed for exhaustion of the nitrogen. , So far as can be ascertained, the nitrogen lost from the soil appears wholly as nitrate in the drainage water. -From the top 9 inches of the 20in. and 60in. gauges, the nitrogen lost has been respectively 1,124 and 1,172lb. per acre. The nitric nitrogen in the drainage water amounts to 1,247 and 1,200lb. per acre in the two gauges. These figures are arrived at by adding together the whole of the nitrate found and such estimated amounts as are possible for the first seven years before regular determinations were made, deducting nitrogen introduced by rain. The subsoil is left out of account, but evidence is adduced to show that it contri- buted little, if anything, to the nitrate in the drainage water. There is no indication of fixation of nitrogen or loss of gaseous nitrogen. The soil is, however, now very poor in organic matter. The amount of nitrate washed out is closely related to the rainfall and to a less extent to the sunshine of the preceding summer. It is difficult to account for the slow rate of removal of nitro- ven from the soil unless one introduces into the ordinary cycle some new element acting as a kind of immobiliser, absorbing nitrates or ammonia as they are produced and giving them. up again later on. The case would be met if one supposed that some of the soil organisms, such as alge, bacteria, fungi, etc., assim- ilated nitrates or ammonia and on their death were themselves decomposed, giving rise ultimately to nitrates again. On this view the nitrogen compounds of the soil would be supposed to break down with formation of ammonia and then nitrate, but only a portion, and not the whole, of this nitrate is liable to loss or assimilation by plants: the remainder would be taken up by organisms, temporarily immobilised, but re-formed on the death and dissolution of the organisms, when again part would be thrown out of the cycle and reabsorbed. X. D. J. Matrnuews. “ The Determination of Ammonia in Soil.’’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1920. Vol. X. pp. 72-85. An aeration method for determining the quantity of ammonia in the soil with more accuracy and in shorter time that hitherto, it being possible to recover 99.5% of added ammonia as against a recovery of 50-60% by the older methods. For details the paper must be consulted.* The results of application to natural soils is to confirm the older conclusion that ammonia is present in minimal quantities only, but it now becomes possible to follow accurately the changes that occur when stubble or green manure are ploughed in, or when ammoniacal fertilisers are added to the soil. *Or Soil Conditions and Plant Growth, 4th. ed. 1921, p. 349. ———7™ mle ka. A. Cowie. - 7 ee Mechanism of the Decomposition of Cyanamide in the Soil.’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1920. Vol. X. pp. 163-176. This paper is of interest as showing the occurrence in the soil of changes which apparently are not brought about by micro- organisms, but by active chemical agents not yet clearly recognised. [t is known (see p. 55) that cyanamide undergoes decom- position in the soil before it can be utilised by the crop as a fertiliser. It is now shown that the decomposition proceeds in three stages: (1) cyanamide gives rise to urea; (2) urea gives rise to ammonia; (3) the ammonia is oxidised to nitrate. The first stage, the formation of urea, seems to be brought about by a chemical agent and not by micro-organisms, but the agent has not yet been discovered. The change proceeds more rapidly in clay than in sandy soils, and it does not take place at all in pure sand, in peat, or in fen soils. There is some indication that the decom- position agent may be a zeolite or active silicate. A sample cf Thanet sand taken from a boring through the London Clay near Chelmsford was found, even after ignition, to be active in decom- posing cyanamide into urea. This particular sand has been shown to contain a constituent resembling a zeolite in being reactive and possessing the property of softening hard water by the substitution of sedium salts and _ possibly potassium for those of calcium and magnesium. In following up this clue it was found that the addi- tion of a definite zeolite prehnite to ordinary inert sand produces a mixture capable of converting cyanamide into urea. The decomposition of urea and the oxidation of ammonia are then brought about by micro-organisms in the usual way. iis Vi A. Baecxtevea athe. Formation of Humus.’”’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1921. Vol. XI. pp. 69-77. Setting out from an observation by Fenton it is shown that sugars, on treatment with acids, give rise to hydroxymethylfur- furaldehyde, which readily condenses to form a substance closely resembling humus. The author found indications of hydroxy- methylfurfuraldehy de in a dunged soil and in rotting straw in which humus was being produced. He suggests, therefore, that the formation of humus in the soil proceeds in two stages :— 1.—Carbohydrates react with acids to produce hydroxymethyl- furfural. 2.—Hydroxymethy!furfural condenses to form humus. In addition, in the laboratory, there is produced some furfural and levulinic acid., No evidence of the formation of hydroxymethylfurfural during the decomposition of cellulose by Spirocheta cytophaga could le obtained. XIII. V. A. Becxiey. ‘‘ The Preparation and Fractiona- tion of Humic Acid.’’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1921. Vol. XI. pp. 66-68. The author finds that humus may be fractionated according to the following scheme :— 38 Soil treated with Ammonia | | t Black solution Insoluble humin Treated with Acid ie Solution Precipitate Mulder’s apocrenic Humus acid Treated with Alcohol Solution Residue Hoppe-Seyler’s Humic acid hymatomelanic acid Treated with Pyridine / 1 Melanin Compounds obtained by Schreiner and Soluble Insoluble Shorey humic acid humic acid lhe above procedure has been repeated with rotted straw and with sugar humus, and in both cases similar fractions were obtained. The residue afier pyridine extraction of sugar humus was, however, only slowly soluble in ammonia, probably having been converted into humin. SOIL ORGANISMS. XIV. L. M. Crump. ‘‘ Numbers of Protozoa in certain Rothamsted Soils.’’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1920. Vol. X. pp. 182-198. The method used was an improvement on that previously adopted in this laboratory, but it did not discriminate between active and encysted forms. Determinations were made at intervals of about seven days of the numbers of total protozoa and bacteria in the soil of Broadbalk Plot 2, which receives 14 tons of farmyard manure in each year, and of Harpenden Field, which is typical of poor arable land. The results are plotted on curves from a study of which the following conclusions are drawn :— 1.—Flagellates, amoebe and thecamcebe are usually present in these soils in the trophic condition and in comparatively large numbers, so that there is an extensive population actively in search of food. 2.—The protozoan fauna is practically confined to the top six inches of the soil. 3.—There is a definite inverse relation between the numbers of bacteria and amcebe. 4.—The amcebe are uninfluenced by variations in the water content and temperature of the soil and by the rainfall. 5.—-The richer the soil is in organic matter the richer it is in protozoa, especially in amcebe and thecameebe. These conclusions are at variance with those arrived at by the American investigators, but it is believed that the methods em- ployed are better than those used in America. a9 XV. D. W. Cutter. “A Method for Estimating the Nuniber of Active Protozoa in the Soil.’’ Journal of Agricultural Science, 1920. Vol, X. pp. 135-148. This method constitutes a great advance on those previously in use, since it discriminates between active and encysted forms ; it has, therefore, been adopted in all the succeeding work. The soil is passed through a 3mm. sieve and two samples of 10 grams each are taken. In one the total number of protozoa (active forms plus cysts) is determined as follows : 10 grams of the sieved soil are added to 100 ce. of sterile tap water or physiological salt solution. This gives a 1/10 dilution. From it further dilutions are made as shown below. No. 1 10: gm. soil in 100 cc. H2O =1/10 dilution. 2 10° cc: No: ee ie = 1/100 , 3 5 7. re = 1/1,00Bges sy + 20,5: eee as = 1/2500 mess 5 20 . 45. aoe x = 1/5,000: <3 6 30. gy ee Pp =1/7,500 ,, fi 30: 45.295 eeeLO as =1/10,000 ,, ee 20 4.1) sO " = / 75 000mm eae 20) 15 5n SORE 45 =1/50,000 ,, fee em 30. 5; xf) See LO =1/75,000 ,, Maa 30° 530 ep LO ee 20) a =1/100,000 ,, Nutrient agar is poured into sterile Petri dishes. When the medium has solidified, the dishes are inoculated in pairs with 1 ce. of each dilution. Incubation at 20° is continued for 28 days, and the plates examined at intervals of 7 days, 14 days, 21 days and 28 days. This long period of incubation is necessary in order to ensure accurate results. ; In the other 10 gram sample the cysts only are determined, advantage being taken of the fact that they survive treatment with 2° hydrochloric acid while active forms do not. The soil is there- fore treated with sufficient 2% HCl to neutralise the carbonate present and still leave an excess of unchanged 2% acid. The acid is allowed to act overnight. After treatment, the number of protozoa in the sample is ascertained by the dilution method; this gives the number of cysts since the acid has killed all the active forms, leaving most of the cysts unharmed. The number of cysts subtracted from the total number of organisms given by the first count gives the number of active protozoa per gram of the soil sample. XVI. OD. W. CutTLer and L. M. Crump. ‘© Daily Period- icity in the Numbers of Active Soil Flagellates, with a brief note on the Relation of Trophic Amoebe and Bacterial Numbers.’’ Annals of Applied Biology, 1920... Vol. VIL. pp» 11-24. Using the preceding method, it was found that the numbers cf ~ protozoa varied so rapidly that weekly counts did not fairly repre- sent the changes taking place. paepurys paw | paeMpsy Bury, pu jorys uvIIy JaYyoIY ssvuiny{ | \ "+ (sodoe J) JoATe pay) | (satov 9) paepurys pay! tae see ae TOJUIAA Aaary } “2 = SSVI) eee oe 5 dah] ) spposuaryy - Aapreg yeoy AY spjosur yy SAPINS IBAOTD wo A “* SdOJEIOT Ao reg FEST AN. 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OF ‘Ssny | Oz ‘sny Occ Le Nie none oe adayory aseunyd |" - AopIe” -ysan me | | suoj f or Amnf{ | ot Ain | cz aun{ | 61, ‘Zz Sew). 61. ‘2 Ae) °* oe a uss pey | 22S ACINO)(D) | sve ‘poony ouy yeaiy | | | 7 Z ‘urseq SuImosS ‘uesaq / ‘peysiuy sunjng | sUuImos | ‘(0Z6I JO 3SAAIVH) ONILLSHAUYVH GNV ONIMOS AO SULVd ‘e1DY rad | *peysiuy ‘uesaq PIPIA | suse) *AJOLIRA ‘dog | “platy Buryleg 67 CROP YIELDS ON THE EXPERIMENTAL PLOTS. NoTeE.—In each case the year refers to the harvest, e.g., Wheat harvested in 1920 j1 acre oe =| 0°404 Hectare Be ‘ai 0°963 Feddan 1 bushel (Imperial) = 0°346 Hectolitre os 346 litres) vez 0°184 Ardeb. | 11b.(pound avoirdupois) = 0°453 Kilogramme .. s oi 1°009 Rotls. i {1130 Rotls. | _lcwt. (hundredweight)= 50°8 Kilogrammes a ‘| 14-366 Maunds : : _,/{100°0 ilogrammes _1 metric quintal ... =!1290°46 Ib, ‘ ¥ 1 bushel per acre... = 09 Hectolitre per Hec tare - 2 0°191 Ardeb per Feddan. MisiDapeLacre. ... = 112 Kilogramme per Hectare ... 1°049 Rotis per Feddan. 1 cwt. per acre ... 125°6 Kilogrammes per Hectare or |117'4 otis per Feddan. 1°256 metric Quintals per Hectare In America the Winchester bushel is used —35°236 litres. 1 English bushel — 1032 American bushels. Crops Grown in Rotation. Agdell Field. PRODUCE yy ACRE. —~--— ~—— ——— = se | | O. M G. Complete oer ed Mineral Mineral and | | Manure. Nitrogenous | : Manure. Year. CROP. ee oy 6. 3 4. iE 2g: | Beans Beans Beans |Fallow.| or Fallow. or Fallow. or | Clover. Clover. | Clover. EIGHTEENTH COURSE, 1916- 19. 1916 | Roots (Swedes) cwt. | ‘Tg ‘4 | 125 2 145522): ORS" 37°8* 1917 | {Barley Grain bush. Ont 2S) oi ae 1572 Ise oe | Barley Straw ... cwt. 11°6 Sal 16'8 15°6 13h ih 1938 1918 Clover Hay ... cwt. _ 19°5 a 59°5 — | 170 (1st and 2nd crops) 1919 { Wheat Grain bush. 30 See, «13°75! | TOON ie ailege Og: re i Wheat Straw ... cwt. mo 2 + | 6190) 175 172 2°3 | PRESENT COURSE (19th), 1920. | | =9 5 | = NG GRE jh i ae | 1920 | Roots (Swedes) cwt. | 2074 | 7 2633 | 270°0' || 262°2 | 564? i | ia 1929 Rape Cake was omitted from Plots Y and 2. * In 1916 and 1920, the roots on Plot 2 were badly attacked by finger and toe disease. RAIN AND DRAINAGE. _MONTHLY MEAN FOR 50 YEARS, ioe seed \ Drainage % of / os Drainage. | Rainfall Evaporation. pees — a ae | | a i 20-in. | 40- -in. | 60- -in. || 20- in. | 40- in. | 60-in. } 20-in. 40- -in. |60- -in. | | iebh | |Gauge Gauge Gauge | Gauge) Gauge Gauge [estes Gauge| Gauge | | | | \{ | | (Ins. |} Ins; _ |) Ines | Insal | | Ins. | Ins. | Ins September 2°330 |, 0°754 | 0717 | 0°657 "32°4 | 30°8 | 282 | 1 576 | 1°613 | 1°673 October ... | 3°233 || 1°848 | D708 | 1°669 / 57°2 | 55°6 | 51°6 |} 1°385 | 1435 | 1564 | ' November | 2°795 || 2°132 | 2°169 | 2047 || 76°3 | 77°6 | 73°2 || 0°663 | 0°626 | 0°748 December 2869 i 2°437 | 2°527 | / 2°414 || 84°9 | 88°1 | 84°1 || 0°432 | 0°342 | 0°455 | January... | 2°364 || 1°892 | 2°078 | 2°001 || 80°0 | 87°9 | 84°6 || 0°472 | 0°286 | 0°363 | |) Bebruary | 2008+) 1480) 19584 | 1513 1973°7 | 789 | 75°4 | 0°528 | 0°424 | 0°495 | | March | 2°103)|) 1°148 | 1°285 | 1°215 || 54°6 | 61'L 57°8 || 0955/0 818 | 0°888 / April | 2 OLAW Or" O5Se O27 | O'G95932°5 | 36°1 | 34°5 |] 1°359 | 1285) 1°317 | May | 2°025 || 0°475 0°537 0°502 | 23°5 | 26:5 | 248 | eae 1°488 | 1°523 June od | 07595 |'0°616 |0°595 || 25°1 | 25°99 | 25:0 -|| 1°780 | 1°759 | 1°780 july | 2°667 | 0°680 | 0°703 | 0°654 || 25°5 | 26°4 | 24°5 || 1°987 | 1°964) 2°013 - August | 2°719 || 0°740 | 0°741 | 0°697 }!=27°2 | 27°3 | 25°6 | 1°979 | 1°978 | 2°022 Year 29° 500 14 834 |15°482 ae | 503 | 52:9 | 49:7 lee Soa 018 a 841 i i All four gauges measure zooo acre, Drain gauge records start Sept. Ist, 1870. Rain gauge records start Feb., 1853. For purpose of comparison the above figures deal with the same period as the drain gauge records, viz., Sept. Ist, 1870, to Aug. 31st, 1920. 68 “METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS, 1918-20 Rain. | | | No. of | Drainage through Temperature. | Rainy soil ! | Total Fall. | Days. | aon ee (Mean) | (0°01 inch | | Bright | ) ) ae fo |ormore a ___|} Sun- | | | h shine a= 5-inch | roo | TOD | 20 ins. | 40 i 60 ins. |) ", § | Solar | Funnel} Acre | Acre || | eS: ee Max.) Min. #8 | y | Gauge. | Gauge. Gauge. | pee) O°°P- deen | — — ——<—$$< | << | — —- dl Tecate aa ——|--—— 1918 } Inches. |Inches.. No. | Inches. Inches. Inches. |; Hours. | °F. | °F. °F. oF, \Jan. ...| 2°314|- 2990] 15 2°951| 3059 *3:045 |) 572) 42°6| 314) 37:5) 717 | | Feb. POzAl 0282) as 0537, 0553 0°526|| 66°3|| 46:9] 366° 40°8| 782] | Mar. ... || 0°861] 0°985 8 0°024, 0078 0073 || 141°4|) 49°99) 33:2 40°5| 941) April ... || 3°946| 4548) 17 3°481| 3°537| 3294] 972]| 488) 365| 43:1! 914) May ...|| .2'258| 2°471| 10 || ©°487| 0°633| 0°640|| 2075] 63°5| 45°1| “S2-a)adoum | June ... || 0°862| 0°998 2 0:003| 0°024 0°027| 226'5|| 64°3| 45°5, 57°1|123°4 July 3°215| 3°447| 18 || 0°654) 0698 0°620} 2004) 68°0| 51°6! 60:0| 124°5 Aug. |. 17163} 1°331] 11 0'004 | 0°032 0°040| 1789] 68°9| 529 61°4)| 122°9 | Sept 4°974| 5°421| 24 2°293| 27181; 2°044]) 155°3|| 6GO'0| 476) 55°80 Rime Oct. 1°703.| 1°964| 15 1°094| 1.140; 1°065 788 || 53°5| 41:9] 496! 881} Nov FSIS (Fost AP 2165} 2:064, 1°947|) 70°8|) 47°4| 35°3| 43°9) 751} | Dec. ...) 2°839 | 3175) 926 g 2@14) 2°897| 2°754 | 365 || 48°7 | 39°8 44°3| 65°1| ' i | } | pie 27°680 | 31°236| 188 | 16°507 | 16°896| 16°075|| 15168 |, 55°2| 415 48°9) 96°9| } | =| | 6 ano 5 || Pen ee PG | 1919 [ 1} { ; |Jan. ...|| 3°840| 4281| 25 || 2°964| 3°079| 2980], 32°7]) 40°3| 315) 383) moe | Feb. ... |} 2°901] 3°290| 14 3975 3961, 3°925 481 || 38°7 |. 27°9 035-5 eee | Mar. 3°432| 3°747| 19 2796} 2°871| 2°801|- 1073}; 43°9| 33°21 38 7g | April ... || 3°311| 3°693| 16 1970! 2:34] 2°020/ 1204]! 51°3| 362! 43111060 |May ..., 0460 0°535 5 0°208 |. 0359] 0370) 287°7|| 65°1| 45:1) 5297 7ameem |June ...|) 1045} 1°159 7 - 0009 0°018 | 230°7 | 666) 47°6 59°6 | 124°3 |July ... || 2625| 2°767! 15, || 0°330| 0394] 0°379], 12071) 63:0) 49:0) 57°77 "il4i2 |Aug. ...1) 3239} 3°404| 12 H 1°337| 1389} 1°346.) 228°9]| 70°39) 52°2)) (Gia Sept... t4 TTS ds 298 10 || 0076} 0118} 0°093}} 1583) 63 4)9471) SPaiiia2) Oct: OO, e073 14 +| No drai/nage this month) 1362 i S14 | 36°5 | 467i es a | Nov. ... || 2°049] 2°239] 20. || 1569] 1:331) 1238] 48°6 || 4) 32a aaa | Dec. | 5°048| 5°573| 24 || 5°717] 5°836| 5801) 33°4]| 461) 9353) a0) fea {Total or | 39-118 | 33:054| 181 || 20°942 21°381 | 20°971 |) 15224 || 53°5| 395 476) 95°5 ! Mean ih neem Bee | (aS a te % | 1920 | | ) | Jan. 7g a ee 2°548; 27620, 2°590 51°0 || 45°7| 343) 39°euemem | Feb. 0°432') O°S511 | 20 0044} 07136) 0108)| 842] 481] 348! 402)5799 | Mar. ... || 1°403| 1:629|- 17 0°399! 0405 0°407/| 141°4| 523) 364, 425) 986 | April ... || 4246) 4585| 20 3°167| 3°183| 3:163|| 90°3|| 52°3| 408) 474quee | May 1'208 | - 1°33qe 13 0009} 0:064, 0°061|) 241°6|| 61:1] 45°1| 527) 1189 |'fune, &.'|| 17832 | 199m a 0045, 0079 0098) 233°5 || 65°6| 48°8) 59°0| 1249 \July ... |) 4613] 4:780; 20 2°036| 2°060! 1°983|| 148'2|| 643} 50°2| 59°4)120°0 | Aug. ...|) 1°256| 1°363 8 0148) 0'230' 0'211|| 150°7| 630} 48°8| 581) 1184 Sept. ... || 1°961| 2°131 13 0417) 0388 0368 || 110°5 | 62°9) 481) 55°8 | 109°3 | Oct) <6) | 1°427'1.1°5304 10 0°592} 0666, 0°618 || 144°81| 57°7| 42°2) 519) 99°7| Nov. ... || 1687) -1°846 9 1°365| 1°206{} 17129 71'8 || 48°2| 35°3| 43°4) 774] | Bee: | 27288 | 2:545) 25° aaa 2°362| .2°284 37'7 || 43°0| 344] 40:0: 58°7} ee eee Se | Lee) Eee on te = Se SSS a ee Gas se || 25°083 | 27°198, 178 13014 | 13°399 13°020 || 150857 | 55°4 | 41:6) 4971. 97°83 1} il : J i} | | * On January 18 and 19, 1918, the cylinders and tank of 60” gauge were submerged : the figures for the 40” gauge are adopted (2°735") and included in above total, 69 Mangolds, Barn Field, 1918, 1919, 1920. Roots since 1856. Mangolds since 1876. Produce per Acre. Cc ross ; Dressings, ot Ammon. Salts. Tons. 25°39 3°39 34°73 4°45 22°39 Notes: 1918—All Potash, ‘Magnesia, and Rape Bie ‘omitted. ee en ae 6. | _ fy bit | Strip Manures. a | N Nitr ate of | ore Soda ly eee Soe Pea —\— | 1918. ot MM ine ahiv | R. "17 98, 33. 79 ees wt Sl vay ae Ba teisce (R.25°26 38°58 4 | Dung, Super., Potash ... iL. 321 4°63 -a1|( R. 28°59 | | 4 | Complete Minerals... \ i al a Oriel te 1 3°34) 5 | Superphosphate only | He : =| 25° re | ite “sQ Pay: 6 | Super. and Potash 4 Ly: paid 25 pt 7 | Super., Sulphate of Mag., | {R. 471 2881 | and Sodium Chloride |(L. 0°84) 2°82 wes {Ries 19°92 | . ai [ee 069 2°81 9 | Sodium Chloride, Nit. | eal Soda, Sulph. Potash, | 4 i = ted and Sulph. Mag. | _ ; 1919. | ; 1 | Dung only | ee 2 | Dung, Super., Potash ... 1] = =. ee | ) ag) {R. 12 98) | y Fh ee eT 6-55) | 4+ | Complete Minerals |; (R. 12°86 | | Me 0°97 iL. 569] 5 Superphosphate only ... | eS A 998 6 |} Super. and Potash F a ae BS 7 | Super., Sulphate of Mag., r R. 813; 15°93 ; and Sodium Chloride j|(L. 0°91 5523 : {R. 2°16) 7 63 hie |Home| (363 9 ! Sodium Chloride; Nit. | : | Soda, Sulph. Potash le os | and Sulph. Mag. ? | ie (R. 1898} 30°26 ae, Dung. only ieee) 4-27 ( 2 -| Dung, Super., Potash ... | LE Bo - “- ae (R. 454) (R26 10). sh iL. 4°68) 4 | Complete Minerals (R. 21-21) | (L. 0°96 IL. 2°90} | (R. 5 | Superphosphate only ... 1 ee ihe 20°75 6 | Super. and Potash a it cael eo | 7 | Super., Suiphate of Mag., |!R. 491) 21°84 . and Sodium Chloride (Exi7l26 3°27 r {(R. 5°99) 13°81 sei | aaeae (L. 0:82; 2°69 9 | Sodium Chloride; Nit. | , rap| Soda; Sulph. Potash |{y\ 79.3?) and Sulph. 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Produce per acre. (1918 (15th Season). 1919 (16th Season). | 1920 (17th Season). Super. 1101b.; Sulph. E Wheat. Barley. Swedes. Plot. | Manure per Acre. sf | Diese Straw | Total pied Straw | Total || Roots |Leav’s Total ee Bush. | CWE: | Pr'd'ce Bunk, cwt. |Pr'd'ce | tons | tons tons | oa per eee. sree per per | lb. per per per per } Piet Acre. AcT@. |! Acre. Acre.| Acre. |} Acre. Acre. Acre. 1) Control 2s | | SORT | 6643 || 10°8| 8°7| 1669 | 9-43 260 | 12°03 i | oe ie o 8129 | 27°9/17°2 3554 | 18°38 | 3:10 | 21°48 2 Bee Sen Ae ‘3: | 429, 7924 | 27°41 161. 3390 | 12°02 | 2°45 | 14°47 4 | ey Dung, i a 1914 | 43°2 | 42°8| 7812 | 25°8/ 14-7 3128 |. 10°43 | 2°17 | 12°60 9 1915 | 42°1 | 41°8| 7685 | 29°3|18'0 3758 | 13°40 | 2°84 | 16°24 1 | Cake fed dung, 16 tons 1920 | 44°8 | 46°3| 8288 286 169 3519 21°74 3°73 25°47 2! Control 78 RED CLOVER grown year after year on rich Garden Soil, Rothamsted Garden. Hay, Dry Matter, | and Nitrogen per Acre, 1913 to 1920. No. of Dry [ Year Cuttings.| / s Hay. | Miter. Nitrogen. Seed Sown. \ | | | lbs. lbs. lbs. 1913 2 | °4211] 3509 98 1912, April, mended | 1914 2 2041 1701 16 | 1915 1 1304 e7 «6| «(26 | ie . is 1916 | 1724 1437 5] | 1916, April 21st, re-sown 1917 3 3351 | 2793 81 | 1917, April 23rd, mended 1918 4 | 2262 1885 50 1918, April 6th, re-sown 1919 2 |. -898) Sieur 22 1919, April 27th, mended 1920. | 3 4400. | 3667 114 1920, May 5th, mended | ) | Averages : | | | 25 years, 1854—1878 | 7664 | 86387 179 25 years, 1879—1903 | 3924 3270 101 50 years, 1854—1903 | 5794 | 4829 | 140 -| | 15 years, 1904-1918 | 2888 | 2407 700 a4 eh ‘i “hs | Wipes aie Fallen (w ffibut wine 1851, ae since). Hoos Field, 1918, 1919, 1920. | Average 1918. 1919: 1920. | 61 years | :1856- ee - SSSR nero =| | | | | Drctead Ces (Yield—Bushels per Acre | 1573 LE Gee ay oA 15'6 \ Weight perigmsmer—Ibs. | 61°57 +} 5999) 762% | 59°5 Straw—cwt. per Acre Aic of 141 EME 89 USS: Total Produce--lbs. per Acre... a. 2611 1848 | 1642 | 2477 Mie \ DRESSED SEED EXPERIMENT, 1919, Barley. Little Hoos: Field. ieced Grain. nh A 2 ee Ag i ' Total Produce se Straw per Acre. | \ Description Wichitpaces Weight per <\cre. of Plot. ield per Acre. pee Butiiel. Single Speable (- Single Doable Single | Double Single | -Doukie | | Strength. | | Strength. | Strength. Strength: Strength.) Strength.) Strength. Streng sth. oy t { ae = = 7 | | Bushels. | Bushels. Ibs. Ibs. cut. cwt. Ibs. lbs. | Peavy Oil (2325) 11282070 54°0 | 54°5 132 11°8 2880 2580 5 Sool] AE == Saas | — 14°1 = 3055 = ‘ (erel 93 ily) 545 | 540 11°6 10°4 2465 2235 ene Oi alana — 545 | — 14°5 Ee 3110 eh (i 25 1s foyah 3) 53°0 123 8°38 2695 1750 | BRFeORDtE: oars ioe |. — e447 — W cor, = Meetoie Tae 1G e221 aha Lees ote | =53°0 DA25)" i 9°! 2695 1770 [ (|. 199% S22 | — L239) == | 2005 — we Si; enn) set j3n0y | -94°0 As a 79 | 2810 1743. | Rene Eee « ea — 45g | — | 129 | eee) 2260r) So } (| 22°0 14 Hi 5080 53°0 12:9 | 9'1 | 2810 1885 \ Cenicel 4 18°9 — 54°0 — 10'0 —— | 23500 cae gwar — | 540 ~ 13°8 | — | 2935; — 18°4 — 54°5 — 11°8 Be | 2460 red Single Strength represents 1 pint of dressing to 4 bushels of seed, | 79 : TOP DRESSING EXPERIMENT. Oats (Grey Winter). Great Hoes Field, (1919. Dress Grain. Straw per Acre Total Produce Manures per Acre. Yield per Acre. Weight per Bushel. ber Acre. i {| | ks 7 | | Ist | 2nd | 3rd |] ist | 2nd | 3rd || 1st | 2nd | 3rd || 1st | 2nd | 3rd | Expt. | Expt. | Expt.| Expt. | Expt.’ Expt. | Expt. Expt. | Expt. Expt. | Expt.| Expt. me || Bush. | Bush.| Bush. || Ibs. | lbs. | Ibs. cwt. | cwt. | cwt. Ibs. | Ibs. | Ibs. Sulphate Amm. 14 cwts., | Super. 3 cwts. .-. | 79°9 | 62°6 | 62°3 | 420 | 42°8 | 41°8 || 40°4 | 34°2 | 32°4 8206 | | 6850 | 6675 Nitrate Soda 2 cwts.,) / Super. 3 cwts. --- || 71°9 | 68°9 | 67°6 | 42°8 | 41°9 | 42°1 | 41°7 | 38°0 | 37°5 || 8169| | 7500| 7 284 Nitrate Amm. ? cwt., | Super. 3 cwts. Ufo tiles Alors): 9 | a4: | 429 | 42°4 | 44:0 || 37°7 | 34°4 | 32°6 7700 7119 | 6544 | Nitrolim 2 cwts., Super. i ‘ 3 ewts. ... | 67'1 | 58°4 | 60°3 | 42°0 42°6 | 42°0 | 33°9| 29°0 | 30°1 | 6900 | 6069 | 6706 Guandine Nitrate 84 lbs. il 1 | Super. 3 cwts. zs | 75°7 — |os 1414) — | 42911373! — | 326|| 7547); — 16678) Guandine Sulphate of } j | ; lbs., Super. 3 cwts. ... bes 3 56° 7\ 53:0) 41°3 45°0 | 43'5 || 32°4 | 27°7 | 27°0 |i 6900 | 5972 | 5706 | Guandine Carb. 75 lbs., | i | : | Super. 3 cwts. "| 68:2 2 | 61°5 | 52°5 | 42°1 42°83 43°3 | 30°6 | 28°4 | 26°6 || 6638 | 6200 | 5547, Super. 3. cwts. «.. «se |! 64°1.] 49° O — |42°0 429, — 304/255 — | 6388|}5269} — ( 68'1 | 49°7 | 48°6 || 42°9 | 44:3 43°0 | 33°3 | 24°3 | 26°3 || 6981 | 5238 | 5444, | Gontrol ... oe ‘| exe 9 | 47°8 | | 47°4 || 43°6 | 41°6 | 43°0 || 28°4 | 23°4 | 23°7 || 6056 | 4781 | 4975 | —— [481 tegen | a= |46°8 | 42°5 — | 24°3|22°8 Pi 15256] 4637 Wheat (Red Standard). Great Harpenden Field, 1920. | | Dressed Grain. Straw per | Total Produce | | / ; | | Yield per Acre. 1 |W’ ght per Bush Acre. per Acre. | Date of Applying Dressing. | Single {Double Single | Double! | Single Doskie Single Double’ Dress- |Dress- || Dress- | Dress- | Dress- | Dress- | Dress- | Dress- ; | ing. | ing- | ing. ing. ing. ing. ing. ing. Site 1c .-5 uate) whee) Meeeeen. || tbs. | Ibs, | cwt. | ewt. i] los. | Tbs. | Early: Feb. 10th | 28° 7) 4635) 9 } 63°6 | 63°6 | 26°9 35°9 || 4960 | 6456 | Medium: March 16th 29°8:| — 63'8 — || 311 — || 5522} — | Late: May 10th ... ... || 316 | 32°6 || 62°9 | 62°7 || 33°6 | 36°9 || 6020 | 6490 | Control. ewe | ae (|| 639 | 24°2 4683 II Single dressing represents 100 lbs. Sulphate Amm. and 100 Ibs Super. SUBSOILING EXPERIMENT. Potatoes (King Edward). West Barnfield, 1918. Treatment of Plots. Yield per Acre. | East. | | West. | cwt. cwt | Sy hes 7 a Yah ee = |: one Gna ne ats Subsoiled in 1914 ... we Penman»... oA a 28°6 | 62'8 34°3 \ sO FLUE DUST EXPERIMENTS. Mangolds. Stackyard Field, 1918. Weight of |____B Best ROWS. = foots / Plot. Manures per Acre. | Me ae saber eee . Neg — SSE Gener gfe Oats Tons. 10 | ) ( 16°7 8 196 12a |+Superphosphate 4 cwt., Salt 2 ewt. cle 16°9 7 }. aor 14 |) | 17°9 5 219 1 |) Superphosphate 4 cwt., Salt 2ewt., Sulphate | 19°3 5 26'8 9 1f Ammonia 2 cwt. ae ee cat 17°9 9 |" 220°9 11 | Superphosphate 4 cwt., Salt 2 cwt., Nitrate | 20°7 8 25°2 15/5) Ammonia 145 lbs. ee ¥e P| 25°9 all 25'9 2 Super. 4 cwt., Salt 2 cwt., Sulphate Amm. | 2 cwt., Flue Dust, grade 1, 3'1 cwt. ... 14°2 i 2232 3 Ditto, Flue Dust, grade 2, 7°5 cwt. —- LEON a 2 23°6 4 Ditto, Flue Dust, grade 3, 5 cwt. ... sia 1550 4 21°4 5 | Ditto, Extracted Flue Dust, 6°5 cwt. i 19°9 all 19°9 6 Ditto, Sulphate of Potash, 1 cwt. ... 18°6 7 20°2 Yi Ditto, Flue Dust, grade 2, 7°5 ewt. (Inter- mediate application) ... eae 4 28°9 8 Ditto, Flue Dust, grade 2, 7°5 ewt. (late | application) as See 4 oa Tae Fe a 5 2331 12 Super. 4 cwt., Salt 2 cwt., Dried Sewage Sludge 2tons_... we = aoe 2012 | 8 . "es Bart 13 | Super. 4 cwt., Salt 2 cwt., Cordite 12 cwt. BAS | 7 [on eG e No Artificials and no Chalk es Bar {| 2 : | pee 19 | No Chalk, Manure as for farm <6 wee | 18°3 7 | 20°2 oo (; Chalked, but no Artificials .. i ie | - Ree | There were gaps in these plots. “Best Rows’ are rows of full length with all plants growing. Potatoes. _ West Barnfield, 1918. Weight Plot. Manures per Acre. | per Acre. | Tons. 1 | Superphosphate 4 cwt., Sulphate of Ammonia 2 cwt. ... of ae 2 | Super. 4 cwt., Sulphate Amm. 2 cwt., Flue Dust, grade 1, PAV BI ATOM A Bae aa ae il Too 3 Ditto ditto Flue Dust, grade 2, 74 cwt. | 4 ae 4 Ditto ditto Flue Dust, grade 3, 3°7 cwt. 8:2 5 Ditto ditto Flue Dust extracted, 6°4 cwt. 83 6 Ditto ditto Sulphate of Potash, ]cwt. | 84 7 Dittc ditto Flue Dust, grade 2, 7°4 cwt. | 84 (Intermediate application) 8 Ditto ditto Flue Dust, grade 2, 7 cwt. 9°0 | (Late application) 9 Ditto ditto ios jes ae. a sat nee 3°8 10 Ditto” save are oan see 87 11 Ditto, Nitrate of Amm. 145 lbs. 89 12 Ditto, Sewage Sludge, 2 tons 8°6 12A Ditto ses se ot 7°8 13 | Ditto : Fr: ae 73 14 Ditto, Nitrate Amm. 145 lbs. 85 15 No Artificials SUE 7-2 Flue see, pany 1, contains 2°21 p.c. Potash. Flue Dust! grade 3, contains 8'90 p.c. Potash. en Sy : 5°85 ag extracted, ‘6 7°37 “5 ” Sulphate of Potash contains 50°24 p.c. Potash. The quantities applied were calculated on the basis of 1 cwt. Sulphate of Potash (49 p.c. Potash) per Acre. Notr.—All Plots received a dressing of Dung at the rate of 10 tons per acre, 81 SLUDGE EXPERIMENTS, 1920. ae Great Field Pasture, 1920. Plot Manures per Acre. Yield per Acre. “Fe? 7 © Sao FF F _ —— a - ea a, ee ae rt. 1 North Wet Sludge, 61°7 cwt ee ons 26 ~ atk 39°3 gage Control O “be ds Te om aa 22°0 3 South Wet Sludge, 61° fi owt. “ue Aste ore mas Aes 22°6 4 North Sulphate of Ammonia, l4cwt. ... fer re site 35°4 5 Control nee Bc ee stig oa 22'2 6 South Sulphate of Ammonia, ae cwt. ... Bee fe ee 310 7 North Slag, 10 cwt. Mic ie ah RA rae Saeal 25'0 8 ' Control pot tele ee cit ia eee al 212 9 South Slag, 10 cwt. “68