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CONTENTS.

—
Page
MIETHOTS and. MulesOf tho: ASSOCIAtON, (J...s.ccnccss.scssocveecersnsscocoseeocdanves XXVli
Places and Times of Meeting, with Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Local
Mecretaries from COMMENCEMENE .000....0.sesareaeesescoaccrasensssscasovrcccens XXXViii
Trustees and General Officers, from 1831] ..............c.sscceccsscecteccsecsecsece 1
‘Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from 1832... li
MAS OES ESVeNINOY DISCOUTSES! <3 dniec eh sih done) « apledcaaa de seichiehaek'ek bagvseswer vqeercetsus lxix
Lectures to the Operative Classes ...........sseecceeseeseeeeeeesceseceaeeeesensosees Ixxill
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Bradford Meeting ......... Ixxiv
_ Committee of Recommendations at the Bradford Meeting...................+. Ixxv
RA PARNITAUIS A COON E: «Aon cde ste cdecddadhon-dsendena suostittoateeceens Be AER ans Er sor Ixxvi
; Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... Ixxvili
@incers and Council, 1900-1901. ..............sesccnececsssssessaevecerine Waauieeds Ixxx
_ Report of the'Council to the General Committee ...............sceeeeeeeeeeeeeees 1xxxi
_ Committees appointed by the General Committee at the Bradford Meet-
; PPO SepleMiber, LOO nc vasetisassevemoseesebedes quests scr acsecestsnstenceoescrs Ixxxvili
4 Communications ordered to be printed i ertenso .........6.cececeeeeceeeeeeenees xcyl
) Alteration of the Title of Section G u...ccscccccsssessccssessscsesseseesecssecessaees xevi

Women to be eligible for admission to General and Sectional Committees... xevi

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action if

i MRSS td OU g sn yy ia sce as asco se tase aambal oe daacaithe ipara sal S¥atcansea xevi
‘Synopsis of Grants of Money .............ceeee Bie ctor iceebr hn AERC oa xevii
| Eimeedt Of Meeting in 190T atid 1902) 0... .ccccc dec eeck ce selevedesesceeteedesdenss xeviil
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants for
MMII E'URPOSCS | 00). 5025. ,sscoecesccaessd tous scdivesedsclvbenvacss RE Saeas XCixX
General Meetings ..... Raha vbaedartacnie Sh swe dans aikte ds iat fone iden esas vee Ried few CEVE
' Address by the President, Sir Witn1am TurRNER, F.R.S. oo... Ye eee 3

A2

1900.

REPORT

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

[An asterisk * indicates that the title only is given. The mark t indicates the same,
but with a reference to the Journal or Newspaper in which it is published in extenso.}

Page

Meteorological Observatory, Montreal.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor H. L. Catuenpar (Chairman), Professor C. McLEop
(Secretary), Professor F. Anas, and Mr. R. F. Sruparr, appointed for the
purpose of establishing a Meteorological Observatory on Mount Royal,
EMPONETEA Fees ssigce te nsnes tess bode sche otek 9snsehsaeccuecae duns as aeteauiise hae eaences

Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr, W. N. Suaw (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, Rev. T. C. Firz-
paretck, Mr, S. Skinner, and Mr. W. C. D. WuetHam (Secretary),
appointed to Report on the Present State of our Knowledge in Electrolysis
and. Hlectro-chemistry ........2.....0.sesesssercessencccsesenoncaseccsavenvscnsusenesass

On Solar Radiation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. G. Jonn-
stonE Stonry (Chairman), Professor H. McLxop (Secretary), Sir G. G.
Sroxss, Professor A. Scauster, Sir H. EF. Roscon, Captain Sir W. pg W.
Asyay, Dr. C. Curen, Professor G. F. FirzGrraxp, Professor H. L.
CaLLenpDAR, Mr. WitttaM E. Witson, and Mr. A. A. Rampav, appointed
to consider the best methods of recording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation. (Drawn up by Professor H. L. CALLENDAR) .......-0eseeseeneees

Uniformity of Size of Pages of Transactions.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor 8S. P. Tuompson (Chairman), Mr. J. SwInBURNE
(Secretary), Professor G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V. Burton, Mr. R. T. GrAze-
BROOK, Professor A. W. Ricker, and Dr. G. Jounstone Stoney, appointed
to confer with British and Foreign Societies publishing Mathematical and
Physical Papers, as to the Desirability of Securing Uniformity in the Size
of the Pages of their Transactions and Proceedings. (Drawn up by

Me SWINBURNE: )agciectaccvewedobbioecictesesoscbies cau cleanses selene teas ah tt ae

Determining Magnetic Force on Board Ship.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chairman), Dr. C. H. Lrzs (Secretary),
Lord Kertvin, Professor A. ScHuster, Captain Creax, Professor W.
Srroup, Mr. C. Vernon Boys, and Mr. W. Watson, appointed to con-
sider the most suitable Method of determining the Components of the
Mapnetic BorceontBoatdShipes:ssdc-occ..cssescets cs. 4dsddecesees ducepsdensmeaeeeeeee

Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Lorp Ketyi1n (Chairman), Lieutenant-Colonel ALLAN CUNNING-
HAM, R.E. (Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. GuaisHEer, Professor A. G. GREENHILL,
Protessor W. M. Hicks, Professor A. Lopen, and Major P. A. MacManon,
R.A., appointed for calculating Tables of Certain Mathematical Functions,
and, if necessary, for taking steps to carry out the calculations, and to
publish the results in an accessible form ..................sccsceresrecesscoeereseseus

Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Lord McLaren, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary), Sir JoHn
Murray, Professor Coprtanp, and Dr. ALExANDDR Bucuan. (Drawn
MIDST MES UOKAN:)) Gcesecsnserstescossnossyts deces: veosteveae tae neta one see

\

35

34

36

45

46

46

CONTENTS. Ye

Page
Radiation in a Magnetic Field—Report of the Committee, consisting ot
Professor G. F. FirzGerarp (Chairman), the late Professor T. Preston
(Secretary), Professor A. ScnusTER, Professor O. J. Lopes, Professor
S. P. Toomrson, Dr. Geratp Mottoy, and Dr. W. E. ADENEY ...........4+-. 52

Experiments for Improving the Construction of Practical Standards for use in
Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Lord
RayiercH (Chairman), Mr. R. T. Guazesroox (Secretary), Lord Kevin,
Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Apams, Oxiver J. Lopes, and
G. Carry Foster, Dr. A. Murrueap, Sir W. H. Preece, Professors J. D.
Evererr and A. Scuusrer, Dr. J. A. Fremtne, Professors G. F. Frrz-
GERALD and J. J. Tuomson, Mr. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Borromtey,
Rev. T. C. Frrzparrick, Professor J. Vir1amu Jones, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
_Sronsy, Professor S. P. Taompsoy, Mr. J. Rennre, Mr. E. H. GRirrirus,
Professor A. W. Ricxpr, Professor H. L. Cattenpar, Mr. GrorcGE

MarrHey, and Sir W. ROBERTS-AUSTEN ...........sccssceceeceeesereccsensceeenes 53
Apprnpix.—Note on an Improved Resistance Coil. By Rosert
SIAWHEPPEE foc. dtr nee ee ttae ett ater mene naseadcee a eer 77 65

Photographic Meteorology.—Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R. Merpora, Mr. A. W. Craypen (Secretary), Mr. J. Hopxin-
son, and Mr. H. N. Dickson. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ........+-.+0+ 56

Seismological Investigations.—Tifth Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. JoHn Mitne (Secretary), Lord
Kevin, Professor W. G. Apams, Professor T. G. Bonnzy, Sir F. J.
Bramwett, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor G. H. Darwin, Mr. Horace
Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Professor J. A. Ewrne, Professor C. G.
Kyorr, Professor R. Metpora, Mr. R. D. Orvuam, Professor J. PERRY,
Mr. W. E. Prummer, Professor J. H. Porntine, Mr. Crument Rein,
Mr. Netson Ricwarpson, the late Mr. G. J. Symons and Professor H. H.

CUTIE TN Gagacoseehane heCEL Bn Ot SER ict CRDE Cer arpa a see optic “abo oc dugeLbsacanack cadbatcdo hee 59
I. On Seismological Stations abroad and in Great Britain ...........- 59

II. Analyses of Earthquakes recorded in 1899. By J. Mitye ...... 60

III. Earthquakes and Timekeepers at Observatories. By J. Minnu... 105

IV. Earthquakes and Rain. By J. MILNE .............eeeeeeeeeee seen eee 106

V. Earthquakes and Small Changes in Latitude. By J. Mityz ... 107
VI. Selection of a Fault—Locality suitable for Observations on Karth-

movements. By CLEMENT REID ..........cccceeceesecceceecseeeeces 108
VII. On the Relative Movement of Strata at the Ridgeway Fault.
By HORACE DAR WINES. J2).t.ddstoisdonease dececeases te secure <nseners 119
Report on the Present State of the Theory of Point-groups. Parr I.
By FRANCES HARDCASTLE........0.00...0ccsscasecectescceccesenscseccrsccasccsccsceners 121
Tl, SLERTEHOC NTS CTR BSAA oeebecec entaetee Sopeboac: ceesbocaaenencc: sonsdcuscecane sr abc 121
Bp Le lneiiap are Ol ist eae asehee apescbeehboseAcnoscbadse cornered cgeanancoscugaenecrion 121
3. Analysis of the Subject according to Content ...........:..:01eee feepore 3)
4, Brill’s Memoirs on Elimination and Algebraic Correspondences,
ICCB STCV ete aa cgnadcecqoececripecod tradi ce uddcosa0needs iund JaNne sacri penoor 125
Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys. By F. H.
2 TONTABELETO, 1 B.S) 20S BRS SEE Nec PEEORE OTe cc Hon Sn SoOE EEC CUD Rober eceec uncer one 131
Parr I.—Methods of Discovery of Compounds ................40cceeeeseeres 13
on Chemical Methods of Isolation .................ceceeeeeeeeeereeees 15
ee Pepe zine-point CUnves tsa Ler one-e-s<cassscsanessp redder udeosse ores 152
r Microscopical, Study..-: .cqesnscnsct oes 2ccsaprs caccasercvcwemrmonseess 141
7 Rontgen-ray Photography ..............ceceeeeceeceeneenee eee enenes 141
“ Determination of Electrical Potential and other Physical

Methods.......... apGh oudeleseseeciaaratsecesemeden’ cedug@aensnseaes y=** 142

vi REPORT—1900.

Page
Parr II.—Table of Intermetallic Compounds and Discussion of it ...... 144
“ Molecular Weights of the Metals .................csssesseceeesees 146

_ Tables of Depression of the Freezing-point caused by dis-
solving other metals in Tin, Zinc, Bismuth, Cadmium, Lead 147
Table of References ............ paldieeg wise datreot es Raalds epee se eee 149

”
Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor H. McLuop, Professor Sir W. C. Roserts-Avsten, Mr. H. G,

MATA NET, DEL WN GMiec ct scessnsiecenseceess ca cctereine ss ccsnewea seem ae 150

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—In-
terim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. Nort HAarrLey
(Chairman and Secretary), Professor I. R. Japp, and Professor J. J.
Dossiz, appointed to investigate the Relation between the Absorption
Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances .............:se0008+ 15k

TIsomorphous Derivatives of Benzene—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor H. A. Mizrs (Chairman), Dr. W. P. Wynne, and Dr, H. E.
ARmMsrrRone (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary) ...........:.cseeeees sess LOE

The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.—Sixth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. Emprson Rnynotps (Chairman),
Dr. C. A. Konn (Secretary), Professor P. FRanKLAND, Professor I’. CLowzs,
Dr. Huen Marswatt, Mr. A. E. Frercurr, and Professor W. CARLETON
WY ADTUAIMS Toc cson as calico: secspscctwesia.ssicodemer tes. Oscceess ts comet eae renee taeenae liz
The Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapsrons (Chairman), Professor H. E. ARMsTRoNG
(Secretary), Lord Avnsury, Professor W. R. Dunstan, Mr. Grores
GLADSTONE, Sir Puirip Maenvs, Sir H. E. Roscoz, Professor A, SMITHELLS,
PUA LETOIEESOL SO. E. EMOMPSON,..0evsce<se03 -0w rr ens easiness van taceiaasiMeesaeetenen 187
On Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Sir H, E. Roscon (Chairman), Dr. Mar-
SHALL Watts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyrr, Professor J. Dpwar, Pro-
fessor G. D. Liverne, Professor A. ScuustprR, Professor W. N. Hartiey,
Professor Woxcorr GipBs, and Captain Sir W. pp W. ABNEY .............+ 193
isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor W. A. Tinprn (Chairman) and Dr. H. E. Armstrone (Secretary).
(Drawnvup; bye the Secretary.)\.ccb iiepssese-seudamcep relieves cinnal ce vonde shee ieee 297
On the Constitution of Camphor. By A. LapwortH, D.Sc. .........cseseseereee 299
Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of the late Sir W. Dawson (Chairman), Professor D. P. Pennattow, Dr. H.
Amt, Mr. G. W. Lampiueu, and Professor A. P. Cotman (Secretary),
reappointed to continue'the inyestigation of the Canadian Pleistocene Flora
AM HUNG share onions ais esiaelsionsleneins steele on ee Seeiineininlss ss ieeee eee e ee eee eee “eae 328
J. Ont he Pleistocene near Toronto. By Professor A. P. CoLEMaNn... 828
II. On the Pleistocene Flora of the Don Valley. By Professor D. P.
PEN AGIOW @ aeeie5sopiseecsiedacigninsnissienseanpee bc hblee net ee etme 334
Exploration of Irish Caves.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of
Dr. R. F. Scuarrr (Chairman), Mr. R. Lroyp Prarcrr (Secretary),
Mr. G. Corrry, Professor GRENVILLE Cox, Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM,
Mr. A. McHenry, and Mr. R. J. Ussurr
Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. J. HE. Marr (Chairman), Dr. WHertton Hin» (Secretary),
Mr. F. A. Baruer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Mr. A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox,
Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G, J. Hinns, Professor P. F. Kenparn, Mr. J.
W. Kirgcsy, Mr. R. Kinston, Mr. G. W. Lampiuen, Professor G. A.
Lexovr, the late Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. B. N. Puacn, Mr. A. SrRaHan,
and Dr. HW. Woopwarp. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ...........66 Roba 340

Aprenndix.—Interim Report. By Dr. WHrrLton HInp .........:++0+ 340)

CONTENTS. Vii

Page
Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarp (Chairman), Rey. G. F. Wipeorne, Mr.
R. Kinston, Professor H.G. Sperry, Mr. H. Woops, and Dr. A. 8. Woop-
WARD (Secretary) ........:..cescersenees AQSOREDO Actas ACADeLDyactoeecr abot nonce raREaE eves B42

Ossiferous Caves at Uphill.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
Lioyp Morean (Chairman), Mr. H. Boron (Secretary), Professor W.
_ Boyp Dawxtns, Professor S. H. Reynoxps, and Mr. E. T, Newton ......... 342

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles —Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor E, Hutt (Chairman), Mr. P. F. Knnpatt (Secretary), Professor
T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. De Rancz, Professor W. J. Sotzas, Mr. R. H.
TippEMAN, Rev. S. N. Harrison, Mr. J. Horns, Mr. F. M. Burton, Mr.
J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerrynovuse, Mr. J. W. Srarner, and Mr. W. T.
Tucker. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ..........sscccsescsessossecoessecneccesce 343

The Movements of Underground Waters of Crayen.—First Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Warts (Chairman), Mr. A. R.
DwERRYHOUSE (Secretary), Professor A. Surruetis, Rev. E. Jonzs,
Mr. Watrer Morrison, Mr. G. Bray, Rev. W. Lownr Carrnr, Mr. T.
Farrizy, Mr. P. F. Keypart and Mr. J, E. Marr. (Drawn up by the
Me E No) na ldeis 2a s debe gene on «9 Aina de ss adennnindventah ioteandie dgidicr taoaiae does. 346

Trish Elk Remains.—Fourth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins (Chairman), the late Dremsrer Grit, Rev. Canon
SavacE, Mr, G. W. Lamprvuen, and Mr. P. M. C. Kermopr (Secretary),
appointed to examine the Conditions under which Remains of the Irish
Elk are found in the Isle of Man. (Drawn up by the Secretary) ............ 349

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Tenth Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor James Grrxkin (Chairman),
Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. TrEmprst AnpErson, Mr. GopFrey BINGLEY,
Mr. H. Coarss, Mr. C. V. Croox, Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goon-
cHILD, Mr. Wittiam Gray, Mr. Roperr Kipsron, Mr. A. S. Rem, Mr. J.
J. H. Teatt, Mr. R. Wetcu, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F. Woo.tnoveH,
and Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)... 350
On the Geological Age of the Earth. By Professor J. Joxy, D.Sc., F.B.S.... 369
The Geological Age of the Earth [summary of calculations] ...-..... oe OV4
Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel.— Second Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Ray Lanxestur (Chairman),
Professor W. A. Hurpmay, Mr. H. N. Dicxson, and Mr. W. Garstang
(Secretary), appointed to make Periodic Investigations of the Plankton
and Physical Conditions of the English Channel during 1899...........6...... 379

Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HerpmMAn (Chairman), Pro-
fessor E. Ray Lankester, Professor W. F. R. Wetpon, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Mr. A. Sepewicx, Professor W. C. McInrosu, and Professor G. B.

PR eaiv atin (OC CTOMALY \ Se ets <x cn uicad 2S Darras RAR ee coats wicca ode ccdocetouite SEERA: 380
Apprnpix I—Note by the Chairman of the British Association
Oommibittes) 2 Bescsee cee apioh wl ccdt Sl cop, ALA 381
5 II.—Reports on the Occupation of the Table ..............0008 383
a. The Anatomy of the Flatfishes (Heterosomata).
By HS Ma Weve MA BiSGe ais d..ccodcenacdes.«e 383
6. The Structure of Certain Polychete Worms. By
Bree Gore eebe WE ALE 52255 505. sidsocieud nach deonirasewec 384
ce. Observations on Compound Ascidians, By Pro-
fessor W. A. HERDMAN, D.Sc., FVR.S. .........00 384

d. The Anatomy of Phyllirhoé, the Ccelenterate
Plankton, and Certain Coelenterata. By R. T.
TENT bling NENG oP Send) aeacs waraeeeovre basen, vere 386

vill REPORT—1900.

Page
Appenpix il,—e, The Fertilisation Process in Hchinoidea. By A. |
1H. REGINALD “BULLER, Ph.D, , (..s0sposescasuenaseate- 387
Ff. The Methods of Preservation of Specimens used at
the Zoological Station. By Professor R. Ramsay

IVR EET Wire aactocen soscpen ss teasnceete nantes deeuspeeeees 388

» I111.—List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological
Station from July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1900............. 389

» 1V.—List of Papers published in 1899 by Naturalists who
haye occupied Tables in the Zoological Station ......... 390

fr V.—List of the Publications of the Zoological Station
during the Year ending June 30, 1900 ..............00+8 392

Index Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Hrnry Woop-
WARD (Chairman), Mr. W. E. Hoyrz, Mr. R. McLacutay, Dr. P. L
Scraver, Rev. T. R. R. Srepsrne, and Mr. F. A, Barwer (Secretary) ...... 392

Natural History and Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula,—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. W. CRooxke
(Secretary), Professor A. MAcALISTER, and Professor W. R1ipgEwAy

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.—Tenth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. BLANFoRD,
Professor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. F. Du Canz Gopman, Mr. P. L. Sctarsr,
Mr, E. A. Suirg, and Mr. D. SHarp (Secretary) ..........sscesececenseneceeenes . 398

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. Bournz (Chairman), Professor
E. Ray Lanxester (Secretary), Professor SypNey H. Vines, Mr. A. Sepe-
wicK, Professor W. F. R. WELDON, and Mr. W. GARSTANG ...........+0s0005 399

Coral Reefs of the Indian Regions.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Mr. A. Sepewick (Chairman), Mr. J. Granam Kourr, Professor
J. W. Jupp, Mr, J. J. Lister, and Mr. 8. F. Harmer, appointed to
investigate the Structure, Formation, and Growth of the Coral Reefs of
owiratsiCOLOU, tee ectete ree sccrsnsebec cater ss ssaGinassnttt vessel sdersdsvetecswenemene 400

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Third Interim Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor Newron (Chairman), Rev. E. P.
Kwustey (Secretary), Mr. Joun A. Harviz-Browy, Mr. R. M. Barrine- _
ton, Dr. H. O. Forszs, and Mr. A. H. Evans, appointed to work out the
details of the Observations of Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Light-
ships, 1880-87 ..........0+8 sadecsvucdoveldead assets weetonas smote ts aaa waae ets cane 403

The Climatology of Africa.—Ninth Report of a Committee, consisting of Mr.
E. G. Ravenstery (Chairman), Sir Joun Kirk, (the late) Mr. G. J. Symons,
Dr. H. R. Mit, and Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Ch aiTM AN) ew nasash <srev tin sae lols 0004 «den o take cleanicefeloetel he satelite tenses ga cies ok anne aaa 413

The Revision of the Physical and Chemical Consiants of Sea- Water.—Report
of the Committee, consisting of Str Joun Murray (Chairman), Mr. J. Y.
Bucuanan, F.R.S., Dr. H. R. Mitt, Mr. H. N. Dickson (Secretary).
(Drawn up by the Secretary.) ..........sseseese seigecae wants desec cote se os teeeieenener 421

Future Dealings in Raw Produce.—Report of Committee, consisting of
Mr, L. L. Price (Chairman), Professor A. W. Frux (Secretary), Major P. .
G. Cratern, Professor W. CunnrncHam, Professor F. Y. Epa@nworts,
Professor E. C. K. Gonnrr, Mr. R. H. Hooxnr, and Mr. H. R. RatHponse,
appointed to report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce. (Drawn up by
the Secretary, with the assistance of Mr. HOOKER.) ........scceesesseveeeeeees 421

State Monopolies in other Countries—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of the late Professor Henry Sipewick (Chairman), H. Hiees
(Secretary), Mr. W. M. Ackworrn, the Right Hon. L. H. Courtney, and
Professor H. 8S. FoXWELL.......0.....- RerPaescasecsceectess voseses soa aeaam sondieaeas 436

CONTENTS. 1x

Page
Small Screw Gauge.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir W. H.
Preece (Chairman), Lord Ketviy, Sir F. J. Bramwett, Sir H. TRUEMAN
Woop, Major-Gen. Wesper, Col. Warxry, Messrs. R. E. Crompton,
A. Stron, A. Le Neve Foster, C. T. Hewirt, G. K, B. ELPHrnstone,
E. Riee, C. V. Boys, J. MarsHatt Goruam, and W. A. Price (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of considering whether the British Association
form of Thread for Small Screws should be modified, and, if so, in what

direction. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ........cssecseecesenseeneensereeee Scouok 436
Appenpix—Report of Experiments on Screw Threads made by
J. MarsHatt Gorwam and W. A. PRICE..........600++ 444

The Micro-chemistry of Cells——Report of the Committee, consisting of Pro-
fessor E. A. Scorer (Chairman), Professor A. B. Macatium (Secretary),
Professor E: Ray LANKEsTER, Professor W. D. Hattisurton, and Mr, G.

C. Bourne. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........:sessecceecseseenseceeseeees 449

Comparative Histology of Suprarenal Capsules.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor E. A. Scuirer (Chairman), Mr. SwaLe VINCENT
(Secretary), and Mr. VICTOR HORSLEY ...........cssceseeeesseeseeeeesenee Sates a 452

The Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortex.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor F, Gorcu (Chairman), Dr. G. Manw (Secretary), and
Professor E. H. Srartine. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) ..........sese00+ 453

Electrical Changes in Mammalian Nerve.—Report of the Committee, consist-
ing of Professor F. Gorton (Chairman), Professor E. H. Srarzine, Dr. J. 8.
‘Macponaxp (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........-.+46 Anes 455

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when introduced into
the Circulation. Report of a Committee, consisting of Professor E. A.
ScuArer, F.R.S. (Chairman), Professor C. 8. SHmrrineton, F.R.S., Pro-
fessor R. Boyce, and Professor W. H. THompson (Secretary). (Drawn up
by the Secretary.)

Semen meee eee eee eee sere ese ses ease ee desessseesansssssrssesessessssseesseee

Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor E. H. Srarzine (Chairman), Dr. J. L. Bunow (Secretary), and
Dr. L. E. Saorg, on the Effect of Chorda Stimulation on the Volume of
the Submaxillary Gland. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) .........eessseeseees 458

Age of Stone Circles.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. G.
Garson (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Sir Joun Evans,
Mr. C. H. Reap, Professor R. Metpora, Mr. A. J. Evans, Dr. R. Munro,
and Professor W. Box D DAWKINS ........ssssccsscecscesesceecetecceeccsececeseeeecs 461

Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in Public
Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Mr. E. W. Brasroox, (Chairman), Dr. Francis WARNER (Secretary),
Mr. E. Wutre Wattis, Dr. J. G. Garson, and Dr. Rivers. (Drawn up

- by the Secretary.) ......cccccsscesssescececcnccncceccnceecseccesesecaseessececaecaseesens 461

AppEnpIx.—Three tables showing, for the 59,000 children examined
1892-4, all cases presenting one or more abnormal
nerve-signs, arranged in three age-groups. These cases
are classed in primary groups presenting nerve-signs
in the parts indicated only, viz.: (1) the face; (2)
the hand; (3) eye-movements; (4) in other parts of
the body. The cases are further distributed in primary
groups under the main classes of defect .........-...00+++ 464

Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. A. J.
Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myrus (Secretary), and Mr. E. W. Bra-
BROOK, appointed to co-operate with the Silchester Excavation Fund
Committee in their Hxcavations ........scceceesceceeneneserseeenceeeeeseencereeeeses 466

x : REPORT—1900.

Page
Ethnological Survey of Canada.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor D. P. PrnHAttow (Chairman), Dr. GEorcE M. Dawson (Secre-
tary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor A. C. Happon, Mr. E. 8.
Harriand, Sir J. G. Bourror, Asst Cuoe, Mr. B. Suzrn, ABBE
Tanevay, Mr. C. Hitt-Tour, Mr. Davin Borie, Rev. Dr. Scappine,
Rey. Dr. J. Mactean, Dr. Merte Bravcuemin, Mr. C. N. Butt, Professor
E. B. Tytor, Hon. G. W. Ross, Professor J. Mavor, Mr. A. F. Hunter,

peri Ur VV oh. (GrAN ONG satstai'ss se ta vv'sacvaeeainimen os ax she sesh snes «seiecoeh a: een 468

Appenpdix I.—Early French Settlers in Canada.—By B. Suture ...... 470
II.—Notes on the Sk‘q6’mie of British Columbia, a Branch
of the great Salish Stock of North America, By
CEE TOU 15 Pee iaas. cesee oa ovevee sor eseeee str eaaameme 472
» IL1.—The Hurons of Lorette. By Léon GERIN............... 549

Anthropological Photographs.—Interim Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. H.
Baxrovr, Professor Firinprrs Perris, Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. E. 8S. Harr-
LAND, and Mr. H. Line Rota, appointed for the Collection, Preservation,
and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthropological Interest... 568

Fertilisation in the Pheophyceze.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor J. B, Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. W. PHILLIPS (Secretary),
Professor F. O. Bowkr, and Professor HARVEY GIBSON .......e.cce0ceceeeee «- 569

Assimilation in Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F.
Darwin (Chairman), Professor J. ReyNotps GREEN (Secretary), and Pro-
fessor MarsHaLtL WARD, appointed to conduct an Experimental Investi-
Paar Assimilation i Plants 2... cce~+sseencnerinvescrcachgussansnst hr ieeeeame 569

”

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor R. Mrtpota (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hozmzs (Secretary), Mr.
Francis Gatton, Dr, J. G. Garson, Sir Joun Evans, Mr. J. Hoprryson,

Mr. W. Waitaker, the late Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor T, G. Bonney,
Sir Curnpert Perr, Dr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Pro-
fessor WW .. Wi. WATTS, and JRev, TR. iR,.. STEBBING c.sces.s0ssaecosesones seeuneee 570

Report of the Proceedings of the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Dovieties held-ah Bradford A 0s.0 0.0.3 asccretssceteesss ie abescaut tens eaethe ee 573

CONTENTS. xi

TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

Address by Dr. JoserH Larmor, F.R.S., President of the Section ............... 618

Ale

2

3.

4.
5.

Note on M. Cremieu’s Experiment. By Professor G. I, FirzGEratp,
eRe et ee tes Moke ascnieietsdasvscawdquenteaene ae anemtateedyonaes since toeet danas «= 628

*On the Creeping of Liquids and the Surface Tension of Mixtures. By

Mee ee ROUTON, Huh cbecsaccncee bomen te meiteitne teneccenccis ace acceeetesens 628

On a Method of Investigating Correspondences between Spectra. By

HPP STE een rae tans cans 'i> ceoek - chs veces arevatgaspanatac: s1torminaan ors desats 628

Report on Radiation in a Magnetic Field (p. 52) ...0........cceeeeeeeeeeeee ees 629

An experiment on Simultaneous Contrast. By Grorcr J. Burcu, M.A.,

NMR hee 93.5, oe sng oS tna 5, ewe (anaes eae Raa secede cM cen nniaass 629
. A Quartz-Calcite Symmetrical Doublet. By J. W. Grrrorp ............... 630
. The Production of an Artificial Light of the same Character as Daylight.

By Artuur, Duron, M.A., B.Sc., and WattER M. GARDNER .........+4. 631

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7

. On the Statistical Dynamics of Gas Theory as illustrated by Meteor

Swarms and Optical Rays. By J. LARMOR, F.RBAS. .............ccecesseee sees 632

. The Partition of Energy. By G. H. Bryan, Sc.D., F.RS...............0065 634
. Note on the Propagation of Electric Waves along Parallel Wires. By

IPTOLEHSON Wie, De MORTON, NUGA vascolusceccssteeresneovercsescatens -seceesarcecen’ 635

. On the Vector Potential of Electric Currents in a Field where Disturb-

ances are propagated with Finite Velocity. By 8. H. Bursury, F.R.S. 685

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

1. Report on Determining the Magnetic Force on Board Ship (p. 45)......... 637
2. Final Report on the Sizes of Pages of Scientific Periodicals (p. 46)......... 637
3. On the Similarity of Effect of Electrical Stimulus on Inorganic and

Living Substances. By Professor Jacapis CuunpER Boss, M.A., D.Sc. 637

. Wireless Telephony. By Sir Witi1am Henry Preece, K.C.B., F.R.S. 658
. On the Apparent Emission of Cathode Rays from an Electrode at Zero

Wotentialy By CHantps By Ss PHIMUEUPS! 2 yr2t.scced-.0s0tdsterencerccacdecses 639

. On Volta-electromotive Force of Alloys, and a Test for Chemical

elerett, sprbayge Wry (NG ORB: HEY: Sieehd coed dyoantaasaianjnds tps ogeassnnmenniden sees 641

. A Lecture-room Volt and Amperemeter. By Professor F. G. Barty... 645
. On the Phosphorescent Glow in Gases. By Joun B. B. Burxn, M.A. ... 648

xil

REPORT—1900.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

DEPARTMENT I,— MATHEMATICS.

Page
1. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions (p. 46) ......eseeeees . 648
2. Report on the Present State of the Theory of Point-Groups (p. 121) ...... 643
3. A Property of the characteristic Symbolic Determinant of any n Quantics

oes |

in n Variables. By Major P. A. MacMaHon, F.R.S. .......ccsceeeeeseneenes 644

. Sur les Relations entre la Géométrie Projective et la Mécanique. Par

IMO ICYPARISSOS ISTEPHAWOS .....<.0s0000--be0ce s-nwenn0derecenvapesenuwacedia naman 644
The use of Multiple Space in Applied Mathematics. By H.S. Carstaw 644

. Determination of Successive High Primes. By Lieutenant-Colonel ALLAN

Cunninewan, R.E., and H. J. Woonaty, A.R.C.Sc. .....cccesceesereesseee . 646
*On the Construction of Magic Squares. By Dr. J. WILLIS ........00000- 646

. The Asyzygetic and Perpetuant Covariants of Systems of Binary Quantics.

Ey Major P, A. MAGMAHON, FIR.S cisccoss-s00scesesnsesoassanisupeallite aoaeee 646

. On the Symbolism appropriate to the Study of Orthogonal and Boolian

Invariant Systems which Appertain to Binary and other Quantics. By .

Major. AL, WUAONBON, BBS 253522: ceccciseestessoeeesesecamens etcenne a eae 47
10, A Quintic Curve cannot have more than fifteen real Points of Inflexion.

ESAs: ERASSIDE, MEU: a siocccece sven teeetes act csioens bess deseo aneeepens one eee 647
11. On a Central-difference Interpolation Formula. By Professor J. D.

Bi VERE ABR, Sis SAN eee ehh os Pee Loans: oe ee 648
12, On Newton’s Contributions to Central Difference Interpolation. By

Eroipssord. 10 VERRBET, Gk, 2. ee PNT, La ee 650

DEPARTMENT I].--MerroroLoey.

- Report on Meteorological Photography (p. 56) ........cssssscessesecerseeseeeee 650
. Report on Seismological Observations (p. 59) .....-ssscceccecenseecceeeeereuseees 650
. Fifth Report on the use of Kites to obtain Meteorological Observations at

Blue Hill Observatory, Massachusetts, U.S.A. By A. LAWRENCE

EMOTO Sbacy, NEA coho ons ca oasieaaven ods sei ons cng sceta’ cesagus's 71s0 <a ren ete 650
4, Charts illustrating the Weather of the North Atlantic Ocean in the
Winter of 1898-99, By Captain CAMPBELL-HEPWORTH ............00004- 651
5, *The Physical Effects of Winds in Towns and their Influence on Ventila-
BOWE IBY SD. WW AUBOMAB gi0icictaisdanuthcev'ins dvncie vat ecancunenetietel ema 652
6. *A Novel Form of Mercurial Barometer. By A. S. DAVIS ........s0:cceeeee 652
7. The Rainfall of the Northern Counties of England. By Joun Hoprxry-
BON, ER, Met.soc,, Assoc; last. CE. .; .so0.sesipcnons oss tngnrependscaeeene sts 652
8. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis (p. 46) .....ssseeee-0 654.
9. Report on Recording the Intensity of Solar Radiation (p. 36) ..........-.0+ 654
LC. Report on establishing an Observatory on Mount Royal, Montreal (p. 33) 654

ff we

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

. Report on Electrolysis and Electrochemistry (p. 34).......cssseceeeeenteeeenes 654
. *A Discussion on ‘ Ions,’ opened by Professor G. F. FrrzGmratp ......... 654
. The Radiation of a Black Body on the Electromagnetic Theory. By

Hi. CSROOREINGTON (McA ED Beis neyuisid: dan sce andl senses apenas nnn Renae 654

Co bo be

=

or

jor)

*

CONTENTS. Xi

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

Page

Report on Electrical Standards (p. 53).........cesseececsscesceeceveessucescucceees 655

*A Form of Wheatstone’s Bridge. By E. H. Grirrirus, F.R.S............. 655
Note on an Improved Standard Resistance Coil. By R. S. Wurrrtz

“Thy US ala Gena 8 "Choe ces Ean AEN NS) Quon Ape eae Maan oti Re bear a 655
A Preliminary Research on Explosive Gaseous Mixtures. By J. E.

MAUMEE, LIS sui ceNtL Syeda: Suse MMOs susie os eve codueeeatedstpn TaRlesud eee tba abds 655

On the Relations of Radiation to Temperature. By Dr. J. Larmor, F.R.S. 657
*On the Infra-red of the Solar Spectrum. By Dr. 8. P. Laneey, F.R.S. 659

DEPARTMENT OF ASTRONOMY.
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

Address by Dr. A. A. Common, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Chairman ...........c0cecc0008 659

ile

2

2
‘ovo.

bo

. On the Types of Sun-spot Disturbances. By Rev. A. L. Corrie, F.R.A.S. 6
. On a Cheap Form of Micrometer for Determining Star Positions on

On the Application of the Electric Telegraph to the Furtherance of
Eclipse Research. By Professor Davin P. Topp, M.A., Ph.D. ............ 673

. On the Operation of Eclipse Instruments Automatically. By Professor

WAVED eee RODD NAS DISD). csc dacnnesinsnnscaes nice Reeds nos on ecedaaeteecawte Sen 67

On the Adaptation of the Principle of the Wedge Photometer to the
Biograph Camera in Photographing Total Kclipses. By Professor Davip
Rll Tite s WN rsetE UNS so. oc dasantgt an WaOuancCEa ei ias teases sat caanpet ane ewe 674

ie)

. On the ‘Square-shouldered’ Aspect of Saturn. By E. M. Anronzapz,

lc] is GSH banda rion eher anes ph eer nceReno Tek anretperrioncu cance er mee ene neorr onan oe reer 676
75
Photographic Plates. By Professor H. H. Turner, M.A., F.R.S. ...... 676

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

. Comparison of Prominence and Corona Photographs taken at Santa

Pola, Spain, and Wadesboro, in North Carolina, during the Total Solar
Eclipse of May 28,1900. By Wixiiam J.S. Lockyer, M.A., Ph.D. ... 676

. “Description of the New Photographic Equatorial of the Cambridge

Observatory. ** By ‘A. Ri Hones; Ms Ass 2 ee a ORS 677

. *Diagram for Planning Observations of Eros at the Opposition of 1900-1.

Hee a th. EPUNEGS Wea eran: veaaaent in scuedare socetne «tote nate gan toetLneNejaeeenids Sa 677

. On some Points in Connection with the Photography of a Moving Object.

Bye Way EL PERUMMER &015 sascaaced -sadee «ecethpeeSandedenchece hes tooccatecaees tangles 677

. On Needle-hole Maps for Meteor Observation. By J.C. W. Herscurt 678
. “Stationary Meteor Radiants. By G. C. Bompas, F.R.AAS...........00.00.,- 679
. “Cosmic Evolution. By Professor A. W. BICKERTON ..............seeececees 679
- Duration of Totality of the Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900. By C. T.

IVVEOUDMRsIaTs 5) McA SLs, SGsy courses ceusceescmence ttre ostiaccrt ot ccceccre ee teen resis 680

9. Duration of Annularityin a Solar Eclipse. ByC.T. Wutrmett, M.A.,B.Sc. 680
. On the Connection between Latitude-variation and Terrestrial

Beeeerctacn, + Boy J AEVA TINE iid (SSD s1Ne oh Vode ns phe ualee idea Wee WG edad eg 680

xiv REPORT—1900.

Section B.— CHEMISTRY.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.}
Page

Address by Professor W. H. Parry, Jun., Ph.D., F.R.S., President of the

Section, on The Modern System of Teaching Practical Inorganic Chemistry
andbits Development: 0 cornc-csciectseerecctence-nsssstsns octesacee heen tae ete rmaeeeie 681

. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools (p. 187)......... 693
. On some Problems connected with Atmospheric Carbonic Anhydride and

on a New and Accurate Method for Determining its amount, suitable
for Scientific Expeditions. By Professor Lurrs, D.Sc., Ph.D., &c., and
Dyno a) Ba). Wea i) cial I Ore OM Ch Rinna antennae eho eR a MALES Ee cane tnisccacccoc 693

. On the Distribution of Chlorine in West Yorkshire. By Wutr1am

PACIGROYD EI ee rcarcascchicnaistaie'elesce sliviatlne dae asdapinansimeceeeeclacs Cote eee 694

. On a limiting Standard of Acidity for Moorland Waters. By Wittram

ACKROYD, EVLIC. 2. J..cu danmerepadsmat siee caties gopiis claves ccesewae at comee Saeaee eee 695

. On the Effects of Copper on the Human Body. By Tuomas WHItTESIDE

EL TMT ES HAS SNES DUE etna dordenece coe cettentessdese toes sen smear eeeeee chiescand 696

. Interim Report on the Continuation of the Bibliography of Spectro-

SCOPY (DP: DO) Rivevchecceressersccucceretercccacsssthcese shee onthe tte eee ee ene meee 697

7. Report on Preparing a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra

‘or the Mlements) (ps 193) <5 sacs: sane ves uadebee veces sean or eey coece nae ndaee ee teeeee 697

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1. The Specific Heat of Gases at Temperatures up to 400°C. By H. B.

DIXON ERS. vandvkl. We Rikon, BiSe.”... J. i0jicueeccubaeectees se eeeeeenee 697
2. Interim Report on the Nature of Alloys ..............0cascssoseeeeseoeoeeuenme 698
3. Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys. By F. H.

NEVILLE. RAS. pike Lyrae... tered sdvawebeachlSa lit. 200u.de. Reed ee 698
4, *On the Mutual Relations of Iron, Phosphorus, and Carbon when together

in Gast Iron and Steel. “By J.H. SUBAD ...ss.ccctjesdeseessosesene race 698
5. The Crystalline Structure of Metals. By Professor J. A. Ewrne, F.R.S.,

and WALTER IROSENHATN: BvAe) <5, cx0csco0.ssessnsaceteseuecosetente eer oases 698
6. *On the Electric Conductivity of the Alloys of Iron. By Professor W. F.

BARRETT HUES suercaecae to odisstaodimane soaks Hap biies ab@aeh he wate eonpeteta tec cee eee 699
7. Some new Chemical Compounds Discovered by the Use of the Electric

Purnace. By C.uS. BRADLBY jo.0ech .jusscpcenadels aed) «oaaeesieceallehnaneneatan 699

. Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis (p. 171) ... 700

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1. Derivatives of Methyl-furfural By Henry J. Horstwan Fenron,
F.R.S., and Miss Mirprep Gostiine, B.Seis...0...0.secdee.vercasecstvavensoeenens 701
2. A Simple Method for comparing the ‘Affinities’ of certain Acids. By
Heyry J. Horstman Fenton, F.R.S., and Humparey OwEn Jonzs,
BA, BSC .iapeiasarnsounutunn<aispivesne> seat tmabene t= taect due ce deacinece ae eens 701
3. “Recent Developments in Stereochemistry. By W. J. Pore .............66 701
4, The Constitution of Camphor. By A, Lapworru, D.Sc. (p. 299) ......00. 702
5, *The Degradation of Camphor. By JULIUS BREDT ..........ccecesecsceueeeee 702
6, *The Camphor Question. By Professor OssIAN ASCHAN .....0.-cccesseeeeeee 702
7. Report on Isomeric Napthalene Derivatives (p. 297) ....ccsccccccccssessveeeees 702

CONTENTS. Xv

Page
8. Report on Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene (p. 167) .............:0cc00es 702

9. Report on the Relations between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Organic Bodies (p. 151) v2. /0.... 6. cece. cesecceseescesevsareceee 702

10. “Action of Aluminium Powder on some Phenols and Acids. By W. R.
PPR GMENSIN) Pai ets kc acencreec reset e tes settee cement ante cece eae eae es 702

11. On the Direct Preparation of 8-Naphthylamine. By Dr. Leonnarp
ewe Ne and) Wis. PODER INGON 12rtiro fend sceadensecdeescts cawcel ed acdatas 702

12. Interaction of Furfuraldehyde and Caro’s Reagent. By C. F. Cross,
pO HON VANM ANG A AEs RIGGS sarc rncrers sone seer ae eet ee Ee tee 702

18. On the Synthesis of Benzo-y-pyrone. By Dr. S. Ruwemann and H. E.
SUNEIMPON, Mere ree (RONG) 2, sve ccasvads seitavasddaved eee oseedaedacCoesssoen tendo tne 703

14. On the Combination of Thiophenol and Guaiacol with the Esters of the

Acids of the Acetylene Series. By Dr. S. Ruaemann and H. E.
SUAS, Eee (OL ONG) a atanc «xc cs sgn gudsuadcagetsemagahia dakeaos shnsgaguronsnieee 704

15, *Chlorination of Aromatic Hydro-carbons. By H. D. Daxin and J. B.
| UTTIT. ed 3 ie ee i ea A RR ON “ee ame IN ad Dy Bee 704

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
DEPARTMENT [.
1. *On some Recent Work on the Diffusion of Gases and Liquids. By

2

MITORAGH Ty, SROWNG FUR Ss. © asc sssevcangaancceseuddttdewentee teens atte necator c 704.
- *On Recent Developments in the Textile Industries. By Dr. A. Lippmann 705

. Influence of Pressure on the Formation of Oceanic Salt Deposits. By
EE DAWSON AE Ds BS Cig bascash «cee sa ajcnan et daees oabecen. Biccadae Meee se eae 705

. On the Sensitiveness of Metallic Silver to Light. By Major-General
MN ATER OUSH, TSO. sicuces sac decscaecs cde cease (cet eae tenah none cee rete 706

5. Some Thoughts on Atomic Weights and the Periodic Law. By J. H.

1
2
3

4

Guapstone, D.Sc., F.R.S., and GEORGE GLADSTONE..........cececeeeceeeeuece 706

DEPARTMENT IT.
. Bradford Sewage and its Treatment. By F. W. Ricwarpson, F.1.C. ... 707
. “On the Treatment of Woolcombers’ Effluents. By W. LEAH ............ 708

. On a Simple and Accurate Method for Estimating the Dissolved Oxygen
in Fresh Water, Sea Water, Sewage Effluents, &c. By Professor
Darr, D.Se¢,, Ph.D; &c.,.amd KR. WS Briar, OC. BOS, ...ccscecveess0s 708

The Utilisation of Sewage Sludge. By Professor W. B. Borrominy,
EAS AP NSD) ir. <a catcecascchac test Aiba pc Oe Coc Ge aco CUSHUREME COE OER Eee e 709

Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

Address by Professor W. J. Sorzas, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the

1

‘SISLEU.OT oa RSM RONRI Ren eC a dn BRISA Cae er ie a a ee 711

- Notes on the Geology and the Paleontology of Patagonia. By W. B.
SMaeUareORIOLON WRGVETSILY ¢2......ncodvvivtedocpsesetectesdece cocececccaesectecees 730

xvi

cr

Se

10.

ile

REPORT—1900.

Page

. On the Order of the Formation of the Silicates in Igneous Rocks. By

IBYOLeSSOr/ dl. JOLY, MBAT I SG.) EtG. .scscacccieavssassspaseeraspenspeepes nate 750

. On the Geological Age of the Earth as indicated by the Sodium-contents

of the Sea. By Professor J. Jony, D.Sc., F.R.S. (p. 369)..........cccceeeeeee 731

. Some Experiments on Denudation in Fresh and Salt Water. By Professor

VOLVO SCs Maks, resesatesasapeasas-aicluinteseisesideees tans chics Coe cdan aeaeemteee 731

. The Inner Mechanism of Sedimentation. By Professor J. Jory, D.Sc.,

VEU ASS caaespicaacoansee sh ssa sseiaps oonslesaijsectste<daeins soc ances af'ee Sue hanaen eae eee 732

. On Tidal Sand Ripples above Low-water Mark. By VaugHANn CoRNISH,

AVES Creptltts OSS ops EEO: Gre is ofc wale eS oie w<tinicetno'n cc sions ont nai ns's ween Sete ge 733

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1. *Remarks on a Table of Strata. By Dr. H. Woopwarp, F.R.S............. 734
2. Report on Seismological Observations (p. 59) ........c.ceccceececeeeecceceeees 734
3. Geological Notes on the Upway Disturbance. By Crpment Rein, F.R.S.

Appendix to Seismological Report (p. 108)...........0..:.0:sceeeceeeeeeseeeeees 75

. The Caves and Pot-holes of Ingleborough and the District. By 8. W.

Currriss fot

Re eee ee eee OEE EEE E EEE EE eH HEHEHE HEED EEE E EEE H EE EEEEE EEE EE HEE EEE EE HEE HEE ne

. The Underground Waters of North-West Yorkshire. Part I—The Sources

of the Aire. By the Rev. W. Lower Carter, M.A, F.G.S............0068 739

. Report on the Movement of Underground Waters of Craven. The Ingle-

Horourh District (Prid46), wsssssssesaehsosset sed oetekscvecsde aes eel eeeeaes Mee ae nemnene 737

. On Ancient Plateaux in Anglesey and Carnarvonshire. By E. GREENLY,

EGS.

. On the Form of some Rock-bosses in Anglesey. By E.Grepnty, F.G.S. 737
. The Concretionary Types in the Cellular Magnesian Limestone of Durham.

iy’ G.: ABnorr, MORGiS. cxsscessscsctcse hee teens ee 737

The Pebbles of the Hollybush Conglomerate, and their bearing on Lower
and Cambrian Palzeogeography. By TuEoporr Groom, M.A., D.Se.......

On the Igneous Rocks associated with the Cambrian Beds of Malvern. By
THroporE Groom, M.A., D.Sc 739

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

. On a Possible Coalfield in the London Basin. By Professor W. J. Soxtas,

D.Se., LL.D., F.B.S.

2
Stee eee e eee eee teen nee eee rene reser east te sere nsss eee tens snnrneeneee fo

2. On the Formation of Reef Knolls. By R. H. Tippeman, M.A., F°.G.S.... 740
3. On the Construction and Uses of Strike Maps. By J. Lomas, A.R.CS.,

REGS. 83, hg eve Oo ne NR ae A 42
4. On Rapid Changes in the Thickness and Character of the Coal Measures

of North Staffordshire. By W. Gipson, F.G.S. ........cccccccsceceeeeeeeeees 743
5. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens (p. 342) ...........cesecceeeeeee TAs
6. Suggestions in Regard to the Registration of Type-fossils. By Rev. J. F.

BLAIR: 3. ebeusscate caschcnenes FaVaes caoseauein dian eateeros tc cies\asscenocene oe eee aan tee 744
7. The Outcrop of the Corallian Limestones of Elsworth and St. Ives. By ©.

LEAR) | ele fee DE eA i Oe. REM ET SE: RS 745
8, Report on the Exploration of Caves at Uphill, near Weston-super-Mare

APR ESEA) eer cope anes sarcoionder cance ccbsugte ss te<saccetevssheretac on acne mann 745

$0

Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves (p. 340) ........... ACONEPORDEEB CT i. 746

CONTENTS. XVll

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
Page
A joint Discussion with Section K. on the Conditions under which the
Plants of the Coal Period grew, opened by the reading of the following

1? Life SS SENG Eee EOC EE RE eas Neon t ISEN ein mR ny eR 746
(a) Flora of the Coal-measures. By R. KIDston .......c.ceeceseececeece 746
(6) The Origin of Coal. By A. STRAHAN, M.A, ...........cccccesccosccees 746

(c) Botanical Evidence bearing on the Climatic and other Physical
Conditions under which Coal was formed By A. C. Spwarp,

Ey Secae ssa Seah A etek SA TR, Soles PPR raid 748
ta) The Origin of Coal,,, ByJin Eo Mann, PUBS. ..c., ccscdsdacsedtecadccs 749

1, On the Fish Fauna of the Yorkshire Coalfields. By Enear D. WELLBURN,
Pa Gent aestersccates «cascierCsctecaaane este cacessst contentas cee tee ett aeeed 749

2, On some Fossil Fish from the Millstone Grit Rocks. By Epear D.
VLE ERC tastmcestetesccitsreccgececccsm mice teste ee 750

3. The Plutonic Complex of Cnoc-na-Sroine and its Bearing on Current
Hypotheses as to the Genesis of Igneous Rocks. By J. J. H. Tuatt,

Baggett Fi a oh che COSA ca sirots Si 3 avin dus cid aN es SB a SUR AST Vwivel dovcd dadaeehtemide 750
4, On a Granophyre-dyle Intrusive in the Gabbro of Ardnamurchan, Seot-

iundwetisy bratessor Ke. Busz, of Minster... «.sschooeedsebesoceaeloscal «sc. 751
5. *Interim Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Structure

MEME Nees foe sinc donvcnessctarvantdedssduetotsucnsarine nisnpes an ation cas 752
6. Report on Life Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks (p. 840) .........c00008 752

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

1. On Naiadita from the Upper Rheetic (Bed K of Wilson’s Section) of Red.
land, near Bristol. By Ieurma B. J. Sottas, BSc. ........cc.ceccceeccesecuee 752

2. The Influence of the Winds upon Climate during Past Epochs: a Mete-
orological Explanation of some Geological Problems. By F. W. Harmer,

RN a ine Rs tices ea DENS Las ont caste = Satdnh cee nee Paks acta te viidl 9 « AMR ha 753

8. Notes on some Recent Excavations in the Glacial Drift in Bradford. By
Seine (VORA TS, DO Niarra arenas aay dey vauus> « ovo petals sasie vientsssteed ices’ & dos te 754

4, Ona Glacial ‘Extra-morainic’ Lake occupying the Valley of the Brad-
ae be Roe Es ci Big NU LEAUN Ziewcr. lecasencotetecvosecrousittisnedeccies octenns 755

5, A Preliminary Note on the Glaciation of the Keighley and Bradford Dis-
' trict. By Atsert Jowrrt, M.Sc., and Hersert B. Murr .................. 756

6, The Source and Distribution of the far-travelled Boulders of East York-
pire. By J. W. STATHER, F.GiS. ooo cscs. cannecns Go dais «dso ennls palace eeiathr ap 759

7. On the Glacial Phenomena of the North-east Corner of the Yorkshire
Seelage syed. WW. SPARE MR EA a to c2f<h ee eM lobed vedveMosevsesccdcrssade 760

8. On the Age of the Raised Beach of Southern Britain as seen in Gower. By
Pep BPCEBUESAN: NEAL, EO Cisoi0c- sns05 tens tc Wisercterhiaedhs oantalesactdeccch ck, 760

9. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles (p, 343) o......eeceeeeeees 762
10, A Ferriferous Horizon in the Huronian, North of Lake Superior. By Pro-

me eh COT MA a 28 aoa aig lath S a ginda nists ol oeas aust: ck eaucdcaela, 762
11. Final Report on the Pleistocene Beds of Canada (p. 828) .............ceeeeess 762
12. Glacial Notes at Rhyd-ddu, \'arnarvon. By J. R. Daxyns, M.A. ......... 763
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1, Beach Formation in the Thirlmere Reservoir. By R. D, OtpuHam.,........ 763
2. The Basal (Carboniferous) Conglomerate of Ullswater and its mode of
Bilt tea tl, OWNGAM (xscuspsicseedvegidtersadsverdelialdscvccdecsccocchccsccne 764

1900. a

XVill REPORT—1900.

Page
3. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest (p. 350) ........cccceeecseeneees 764
4, Sections at the Alexandra Dock Extension, Hull. By W.H. Ororts ... 764
5. The Jurassic Flora of East Yorkshire. By A. CO. Spwarp, F.R.S.......... 765
6. Note on the Age of the English Wealden Series. By G. W. Lamptuen,
REWaeanis J Ceti eR meet eey Ryn MMMM otek ses, Su cec seeds ctos.sa.secsoeebesdeuventaamaeeere 766
7. Report on the Irish Elk Remains in the Isle of Man (p. 349) ...........000 767
Section D.—ZOOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Address by Ramsay H. Traqvarr, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., President of the
SCHUM: sas irte rorees gartieetmraceseswassysccasreseyence ca¥anee ae ean ceaacascoheaaaemte 768
1. Report on the Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland (p. 403) ...... 783
2. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples
CTBBO): Pitesti s fe oy Finn v= ptuta hath cused ods4- cadsnaignn t= snaees ge elena 783
3. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth (pia) i taee soc seeisdentewie oa cet caaina'tcoe kale t sist oth tema re een 785
A Report on the “Index Animalium”\(p.'392)" Si.c.2.0s caectnseomeeeeeeeeevenees 783
5. Interim Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English
Cheyne) (Pr B79) |e. ce. eocesesscssuncvas suet gee vovedsssceces-sarsstesadt eet 783
G. Tenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands (p. 398) ............ 788
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. *The Miocene Fauna of Patagonia. By Professor W. B. Scort ............ 784
2. “The Nesting Habits of Ornithorhynchus. By Dr. Grece Wixson ...... 784
3. “Malaria and Mosquitoes. By Major Ronan Ross .............sseccceeeeeeee 784
4, The Nuclei of Dendrocometes. By Professor 8. J. Hickson, M.A., D.Se.,
BAER Se MUNceGa hicks. sbaeoe vet oph bye st nneretes sien? sabe sai stare eer 784
5. Cyclopia in Osseous Fishes. By James F. Gemuint, M.A., MB. ......... 784
6. “On some Causes of Brain-configuration in the Brain of Selachians, By
Professor Hu BURGKHARDT)..0....:ccssdectactesverssssgeoetsveren Gate a 785
7. “On the Systematic Value of the Brain in Selachians, By Professor R.
MPC BURIED 92-5 sa siaue cus sate ceumeerenanrsadegencc totes ies aaa cane ree 786
8, On some Points in the Life-History of the Littoral Fishes, By Professor
W)C, MCINTOSH, BRIS. | i550 sieceasvs onc aeewecner scence ei ee 85
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
1, Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when
introduced into the circulation (pi'457) c...00....ssecececacessseseseeleesstan ete 785
2. On a Peptic Zymase in Young Embryos, By Marcus Harroe, N.A.,
DiSki, BLS reg tee tts eee halved oe). 2 chu od rea vnceletes 786
3. On the Mechanical and Chemical Changes which take place during the
Incubation of Eggs. By R. IRVINE, F.C.S. ......cccccscccscccscecssencecesess, 787
4, “On the Physiological Effect of Local Injury in Nerve. By Professor
BS GOTOr, WARS iecascssrccessne Sopebane CHEE CDSN CUD OOP EROBCODNORE Racraceaotstek- 788
5. Report on the Comparative Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules (p. 452) 788
6. Report on the Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands (po 468) oe eee 788

7. Report on Electrical Changes in Mammalian Nerve (p. 455) .............,. 788

CONTENTS. xix

Page
8. Report on the Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortex (p. 453) ......... 789
9. Report on the Microchemistry of Cells (p. 449) ...........ccccceecseeceeeeeeeees 789
10, *Observations on the Development of the Cetacean Flipper. By Professor
MMMEMENII, PAY MUNG WN ots. 32 Sieh ce suey cavcoedas dissacasehweedd. wae tia seccdyeuae esses 789
11. *The Articulations between the Occipital Bone and Atlas and Axis in the
Mammalia. By Professor JOHNSON SYMINGTON ..........cscceecseeeseeeevees 789

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Mnestra parasites, Krohn, Preliminary Account. By R. T. Ginruer,
BMPR EP eRE COSTS MEN Na tase tes ar cace docu Westin av en ot eca dataakgaie set gui eae reae 789
2: *The Respiration of Aquatic Insects. By Professor L. C. Mratr, F.R.S.... 790
5. “The Tracheal System of Simulium: a Problem in Respiration. By T. I],

PARROT PY DIS, wns lad eich soanslete be \ ieee apes tee Wee Woeus A ae ie renee 790

4, *The Pharynx of Eriatalis, By J. J. WIDKINSON ...............c.ccsecceeseees 790
5. *The Structure and Life History of the Gooseberry Sawfly. By

NN MeN artes eee o:cu ion oa x do duc Qheiate ds ga ard nans tobe at a¥ecauardindaroasttiale 790

6. “Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region (p. 400) .................. 790
7. *Contributions to the Anatomy and Systematic Position of the Leemargide.

Reeearmeeeeeert Eas ERUMCR HARD? ., cc edecccarsdevs-cudesennaveass soe cada gpieeses ty 790

8. *On the Nestling of Rhinochetus. By paeane R, BuRCKHARDT ......... 790

9. The Dentition of the Seal. By Professor R. J. ANDERSON, M.A., M.D.... 790
10. Note on Exhibition of Skulls of Antarctic Seals. By Capt. G. E. H.

Bee EEAMILIEOND 5 ca cretetas ad: agis CSusom sc ket acsadl tres we seg sedhba gc icanen sence COO

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

1. Photographs of some Malayan Insects. By Netson ANNANDALE ......... 792

2. Observations on Mimicry in South African Insects. By Guy A. K.
MARSHALL. (Arranged and Communicated by Epwarp B, Potton,
Benen Easel cc aren fas sens cowap tanneiatmscpumavacddichsath sik cer cailneseetedtac 793

3. ee ey itions on Mimicry in Bornean Insects. By R. Suenrorp, B.A.
(Arranged and Communicated by Epwarp B. Pourron, M.A., F.R.S.)... 795

4, *Note onan Experiment supporting the General Principle of ‘ Millerjan?

5.

6

Mimicry. By Professor C. Ltoyp Morean, F.RAS. ..........ccccecceeeeeeeeee 797
“Illustrations of Mimicry and Protective Resemblance. By Marx L.
BRO MCGES we satea ass shone: Reds ous: gaa dagnol- aga POEMS itaved oat’ igdag hands uch etae 797
. *The Colour Physiology of Hippolyte varians. By F. W. GamBie and
PENN PIEMEBEIN.. Monsen ccatecsscaticest es tevat<vaseres. sqvide> uecémihraaaceeins dabeay cas 797
7. The Locust Plague and its Suppression. By Ai. Munro, M.D. ............ 798

Section E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

_ Address by Sir Georer S. Rozserrtson, K.C.S.1., President of the Section...... 800
1, Attempts to improve the teaching of Geceapka: in Elementary Schools,
especially in the West Riding. By T. G. Rooppr, H.M.I................... 809

2. Commercial Geography in Education. By E. R. Weruey, M.A.,F.R.G.S. 810

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1, The a of Regional Geography. By Hvocu Roxsert Muir1,
erases eters dnd ane cle aaa AR ige Amen. anatles f, ASAI: 810
2. *Foreign 2 Colonial Surveys. By E. G. RAVENSTBIN ...:...ccisceeeceeees 811
a 2

xx REPORT—1900.

Page
8. Military Maps. By B. V. DaRBISHIRE, M.A. .....ceseesee vec. sNRVSR MVE 811
4, Journeys in Central Asia. - By Captain H. H. P. DBASY ....,...-ssssesseeeee 812
5. Large Earthquakes recorded in 1899. By JoHN MIEND ........0..sseseeeees 812
6. Report on the Climates of Tropical Africa (p. 418) .....ssceseeeeeeeseeeseeee 813

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1. Railway Connection with India. By Colonel Sir T. H. Horprcu, K.C.1.E. 815
2, The Siberian Railway. By C. RAYMOND BEAZLEY .........cseceeeeeesereeee 814
3. *On the Possibility of Obtaining more Reliable Measurements of the

Changes of the Land-level of the Phlegrean Fields. By R. T. GintuEr 814

. The British Antarctic Expedition, 1899-1900. By C. E. Borcnerevink 814
. Through Arctic Lapland. By C. J. Curciirre Hyne, M.A, ............04 815
. Report on Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea Water (p. 421) ...... 815

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER ll.

. Some Consequences that may be anticipated from the Development of the

Resources of China by Modern Methods. By Gxo. G. CuHIsHoim,
RN MES SCs cas <tecbescnensnac¥ocanent\-osnskienvasapes-2anbssapahene eae 815

. The Commercial Resources of Tropical Africa. By Epwarp Hrawoop,

VEC ea cheaceacets Serer senses oeccvaniha- tr scascetceceecsvcsnp eed eeecseescpaaeeeemassetmme 815

. On Snow Ripples. By VaueHan Cornisn, M.Sc., F.C.S., F.R.G.S. ...... 816

4, The Geographical Distribution of Relative Humidity. By E. G,.
RUMI ATHENS bets antes Upsisitincecvsseoointinres tina cechanusouens savascsasta anea tapes 817

5, The Origin of Moels, and their Subsequent Dissection. By J. E. Marr,
FHA ce eo crc cscantasshetiadadec’Vensrusceesctessaese.ns1900>S— nee aetna 818

. On the Pettersson-Nansen Insulating Water-hottle. By Huen Roserr

INUIT IDS (hol Ud ) ADS Sa odetonk aoarechecnbasdeo ued annonsoansnbareesacersrah sacs - 819

Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

Address by Major P. G. Cratern, V.P.S.8., President of the Section ......... 820
1. Report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce (p. 421) ........secseeeeeseeeees 837
2, Report on State Monopolies in other Countries (p, 421) ........eceeecseeeees 837
3. Population and Birth-rate, viewed from the historico-statistical standpoint.

By MARCUSURUBIN, coseccrcsss eee <ecnanstcnsesesecsinestenosonssnec aici sie mina 838
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1. Results of Experimental Work in Agriculture in Canada under Govern-
ment Organisation. By WiItttam Saunpvers, LL.D. ...........eceeeeeeeeeee 840
2. The Economic Possibilities of the Growth of Sugar Beet in England. By
A, D, Hatt, Mi As Ascii niece iecd. boss. ceees ccs ccennc nae eaten eens 840
3, The Economical Position of the Agricultural Labourer considered
Historically. By Frank P. WALKER, BSc. :20..c.s0.cc-sssigWancessveosssiesue 842
4, Trade Fluctuations. By JoHn B. C. KursHaw, F.S.S. c.ceseceeesceseeeeees 842
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
1. Municipal Trading, By ARTHUR PRIESTMAN .....ccseseesceseeeeecene roses 843

. Municipal Building for the Overcrowded, By AvubpERON HERBERT......... 844

3.

4,

bo

CONTENTS. XXi

Page
Recent Changes affecting the Legal and Financial Position of Local
Authorities in England. By F. W. HIpst, B.A. ........ccsccsscsssesseesscnes 845

The Local Incidence of Disease in Bradford: a Comparison between the
Rates and Causes of Mortality in Bradford and those of England
monetally, By -A. RABAGETANI, MADE 4 cas ocscavsyucetadeccudcyecaccdvdeesenarne 845

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER il.

. American Currency Difficulties in the Highteenth Century. By W.

ME INITEN GEDA TD TD) os 4 Sep cian etd cade ite de adcocds tectesecoebccvareccadstccammecoeen 846

. Some Economic Consequences of the South African War. By L. L.

PRISE Fert dd. Cees Resa s ey Se 505 otc hanced adaeduaaen sdgudaushus day aamreraataned 847

. Colonial Governments as Money-lenders. By Hon. W. P. Regvezs ...... 848
. Variations of Wages in some Co-partnership Workshops, with some

Comparisons with Non-Co-operative Industries. By Robert Hatsreap 849

5. Labour Legislation for Women. By Marearer E. MacDonatp ......... 850
6. The Treatment of the Tramp and Loafer. By Wit114am Harsurr
ee crete oC aa es ented cnn ada ns Sd aniad gap panna diasiias vaevs arwayleudgunders ie 851
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
1. The Relation between Spinners and Piecers in the Cotton Industry. By _
Sra eC OAD MIANT A WI AVES 25-1054. teen foauht@eransiacenas oatich adeasduatccdedncusesta\s 852
2. Indian Guaranteed Railways ; an Illustration of Laisser Faire Theory and
Practice. By Ernmn Ri. FARADAY, M.A. .....0..0..ccheceseceocecenecccsceccose 855
8. Price-changes in the Foreign Trade of France. By Professor A. W.
BUTE MPAG ie eosin duseesad Roinieu deine s osedevuaded tedeen Wen catatocdarocsseeeend eins 853
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Address by Sir ALEXANDER Bryyie, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., President of the
RUMORS ova tos Gees sada Basse elude chucdakadess ona2sep sess Soeusalc ts cuaocdeu¥a aden carve cs 858
1, tWater Supply, with a Description of the Bradford Waterworks. By
RAV VATRONSHIN brits, Cor paadtdensetvohsasaadecttcqectae te. 2 cineeny sibwaasturJcieasase 867
2. The Disposal of House Refuse in Bradford. By Jonn McTaaeart,
SBM IEa Gthe ste Sada ca Creat Sagiorstua dels scxaanegh az iadnsviaicash iaipgsahsanaghonnt’ 867
FPRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1, Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction. By Professor Hrrn SHAw, _
1 AUR a so Rr Hoe MOONEE CEAORT Oty eiccor eli CU CELPE ECO CET LEPC PRE En 868
Semmes Vines” ENG ol ESRUWIN 025 aicavas sonseiddtendsanclaneinxs sqaieacasssnvasiaecapene 870
3. A. Self-registering Rain-gauge. By W. J. E. BINNIE ...........ccceeeseeeeee 870
4. The Coal Fields and Iron Ore Deposits of the Provinces of Shansi and
Honan and Proposed Railway Construction in China. By J. G, H.
S7LAGS, COLIGIBL | Facehoe 0 seb Rect HORDE e BEBE RCCE CCC BoC EAU ET CHOSE aan tees eee 871
5. The Use of Expanded Metal in Concrete. By ArtHuR T, WALMISLEY,
WOCTELS N14 aS PE ee > A re i oe 873

- Power Generation—Comparative Cost by the Steam Engine, Water

Turbine, and Gas Engine. By Joun B. C, KersHaw, F.LC, .ssccceeereeee 873

XXil REPORT—1900.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
Page
1, *The Automobile for Electric Street Traction, By J.G. W. Aupripex.. 875
2. The Manchester and Liverpool Express Railway. By Sir W. H.

PREBCH, VRS. cosnatevonnaneornauineeeareterbec ca teres orcctereces Soaweees someon semen 875
3. Manchester and Liverpool Electrical Express Railway: Brakes and
Signals, By PF. B, BRS. J iisissvicAiest ccaeeness ave seats cms «swesheseboananeneers 876
4, *The Construction of Large Dynamos, as Exemplified at the Paris
Exhibition. By Professor S. P. Tompson, F.RAS. ........csccsseeeeeseeeeees 877
5. *Recent Tramway Construction. By W. DAWSON........ csssesessereeeseeeers 877
6. Measurement of the Tractive Force, Resistance. and Acceleration of
Prainss:) By tA... MARLOOR |....5.s.estoesse tes da vctenedbns ssbesodeh sone hens soaNaeemen 877
7. On a Combination integrating Wattmeter and Maximum Demand
Indicator. By T. BaRKER .............e8eeee Hikaan bo tnhd.d. tole See + 878
8. The Design and Location of Electric Generating Stations. By ALrrEp
[EE SGUBBINGS, MiInet Hal,” | 522 .s. daodusnesoosmaenite nts > dupes eunhe hE eneen 22 878
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Report on Small Screw Gauges (p. 486) ........cssssscsccccssseesseeessnessssoees 879
2, On Screw Threads used in Cycle Construction, and for Screws subject to
Vabration, yO, BP. (COMMENTS cots vanssess0s0n0 dus bbeehs see ROR 879
8. The Photographic Method of Preparing Textile Designs. By Professor
ROBERTS BEAUMONT, MoI. Mech.Es Sc..s-.spsnsctes sho swaatetes wwitesscteteine . 881
4, *Shop Buildings. By E. R. Crarx, M.Inst.C.E. .,...0.5..00--sasseeneweanssv¥ 882
5. *The Internal Architecture of Steel. By Professor ARNOLD ............008 882
6. “A New Form of Calorimeter for Measuring the Wetness of Steam. By
ETOLESSOL J, (HOOD MAIN ©. ccppizasagesrussecuany vay? ¥ratsy+sas ches euseneeee eae 882
7. On the Reheating of Compressed Air. By Witt1am Gxuorce WALKER,
ASNT GC Ey NCTGSG IM Bias seenesnvencuesnsbasersichatyedederseaea yak? aan 883

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
Address by Professor Joun Ruys, M.A., LL.D., President of the Section...... 884

1. Some Implements of the Natives of Tasmania. By J. Paxron Morr...... 896
2. The Stone Age in Tasmania as related to the History of Civilisation. By

Hh, B. TYLOR, PRS cesaiscies vasereviap out beepers sdeeevnasoWanepe eth seee tan 897
8, Report on Mental and Physical Deviations of Children in Schools (p. 461) 897
4, Report on the Silchester Excavation (p. 466) ...........sseccseeseees wen cuaticehs 897
5. Writing in Prehistoric Greece. By Arruur J. Evans, M.A., F.S.A...... 897
6. On the System of Writing in Ancient Egypt. By F. Lu. GRrirrirn ...... 899
7. *Interim Report on Anthropological Teaching ..........scseesseeey ceeeeees .-» 899
8, Report on Anthropological Photographs (p. 568) .........c0c:seeeesseeeneeeene 899

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

1, The Cave of Psychré in Crete. By D. G. HOGARTH ............s0ceeeeseee ... 899
2, On the Japanese Gohei and the Ainu Inao. By W.G. Aston ..........: . 900

3. The Textile Patterns of the Sea-Dayaks. By Dr. A. C. Happon, F.R.8. 901

CONTENTS. XXL

Page
4, Relics of the Stone Age of Borneo. By Dr. A. C. Hannon, F.R.S. ...... 901
5, Houses and Family Life in Sarawak. By Dr. A. C. Happon, F RS... eras 902
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8

1, On the eee of West Yorkshire. By Joun Buppos, M.D.,
ON Ay: a acatina patn manana ace)us ceaieeswnaneh Te Klirksnehwancsdencanendeadtahenitee 902

2. On ‘ie Vagaries of the Kephalic Index. By Joun Beppon, M.D.,
Ue EUR Satnic cng cas ons oses cases sanch vase apails SutWacs an te acts oSbuifuiqaalits Usage gaeeetent 902

. On certain Markings on the Frontal Part of the Human Cranium, and
their Significance. By A. FRANOIS DIXON ...........:cssssecseeceseeesenens see 903

. On the Sacral Index. By Professor D. J. Cunninenam, M.D., FBS. ... 908
. On the Microcephalic Brain. By Professor D. J. CunnineHam, M.D.,

Heer Sateen fe ccu con siaaths thse cactasb es saan tticash cbicweneh ct Gee tictacdoeseaaheragaacizces as 904

. Developmental Changes in the Human Skeleton from the Point of View

of Anthropology. By Davip Warterston, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. «0... OL

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

. On the Imperfection of our Knowledge of the Black Races of the Trans-

vaal and the Orange River Colony. By E. 8. Harrnann, F.S.A.. . 904

2. On a Mould showing the Finger-prints of a Roman Sculptor of mente
the Third Century. By Sir Wittram Turner, M.B., F.R.S. ............084 905
3. Report on the Canadian Ethnographic Survey (p. 468) ............0.:.cceseeee 905
4, The Paganism of the Civilised Iroquois. By Davin Boy1e.................. 905
5. Notes on Malay Metal-work. By Watrer RosEnHAIN, B.A.............045 906
6. Note on the ‘ Kingfisher’ Kriss. By Professor Hunry Lovis, M.A. ...... 906
7. On some Buddhist Sites. By W. LAW BRO0S..........:.ccecssseesecuteceneceens 906

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1, On Permanent Skin-marks, Tattooing, Scarification, &c. By H. Live

rs

EU CIID nee ace anc ak bg at siaiale Seiten dh tics chaunis aacueetaaoaes aomtuGl aaphcunecoubebeeat 907

. Some Peculiar Features of the Animal-cults of the Natives of Sarawak,

and their Bearing on the Probiems of Totemism. By CHaR.LzEs Hoss,
D.Sc., and W. McDoveat, MEA Acsaucteccsaapscpnsnstseoshr <deade mea caneackec 907

. Report on the Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula (p. 893) ...........0.55 908
. “On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Modern Population of

Egypt. By D. RaNpatt MAcIver, M.A. ............cceecccctscescsscestecceees 908

. Perforate Humeri in Ancient Egyptian Skeletons. By Professor A.

IMACATISTAR: HRs -sqc.sacseesccsssone Ssewsgccd=oaeusierudedsescWnds es cucsavecdtnGng 908

On Anthropological Observations made by Mr. F. Laidlaw in the Malay
Peninsula (Skeat Expedition), By W. L. H. Duckworth............0... 909

- On Crania collected by Mr J. Stanley Gardiner in his Expedition to

onume | By, Win Hi. DUCKWORTH. ic.cccocs odes sere oksaaacevieleesnsieesnecs oF + 910

. A System of Classification of Finger Impressions. By J. G. Garson,

Bee rarinivewsaciveess Reda eenndaeebensnesedolamanatecsesscurau@acguroee saeeseoeveraansess 910

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

. The Sense of Effort and the Perception of Force. By Professor G. J.

SILO RSet est cs caus venycivasas ose anneal Bieee hi Mnetws Ga siak datinwestestes Raeteccs. a. 91S

. On Interpolation in Memory. By Professor Marcus Harroe, M.A., D.Sc. 912

XXIV REPORT—1900.

Page
8. The Defensive Earthworks of Yorkshire. By Mrs. ARMILAGE ..... ince OLB
4, *On the Prehistoric Antiquities of Rumbald’s Moor. By Burner Woop 915

. On the Occurrence of Flint Implements of Paleolithic Type on an old

Land-surface in Oxfordshire, near Wolvercote and Pear Tree Hill,
together with a few Implements of various Plateau Types. By A. M.

HSER UGA cc dene Sask coins. sceveccs coeatessugesens+nenns dedneavand dee eetan a 913
6. On the Physical Characteristics of the Population of Aberdeenshire. By

JNGRAY, Se.,and J. E, TOoOunR, ELC. .....cvcnecssenwen seat detach ea emenie 913
7. Report on the Age of Stone Circles (p. 461) ...ccccsecseceseceeeeeenseseeenenes 915

Section K.—BOTANY.
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

Address by Professor Sypney H. Vines, M.A., 1.Sc., F.R.S., President of

PHCUSECHIOIA tiaoes Socc cick Pec Geoeekceges dudaea das cua tousesebcutcealeih Gielen aaa 916

. Report on Experimental Investigation of Assimilation in Plants (p. 569) 930

2. Ieport on Fertilisation in the Pheeophycer (p. 569) .........ccceeeeeeeene Pro eu
3. British Sylviculture. By SaAMUDL MARGERISON,........s.scceseerececesensenens 930
4, The Great Smoke-Cloud of the North of England and its Influence on
Plants, By ATBERT WILSON ..46's.c0cte.sssebucadts beh ces dheanie eee eee 930
5. A Gymnosporangium from China. By FF. El. W3ISS............csceeeecaeeeeee 931
6. Demonstration of the Structure and Attachment of the Flagellum in
Bugiena viridis, By Haroip WAGER ....5.5.<...<..000e>sesnsieeacauseeeeee 931
7. Ou the Structure of the Root-nodules of Alnus glutinosa. By T. W.
WOODETBAD 0520 la08 seks iv onecus va’ n'e dah Gunn eentayeNing Auld Palen Eanes ne 931
8. Fungi found in Ceylon growing upon Scale-insects (Coccide and Aleuro-
dide:).!* By J. PARKIN, MA, |. ...0sssedueBerseeusninsnStansauscensenns Slee ceaa 932
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
1, *On the so-called Optimum Strength of CO, for Assimilation. By Dr.
RAB A SGACKIMAN § 51 05. avec. ues cpbacchawade coe eenUnees stvaeian cota Mie nee tama 933
2. *On the Effect of the Closure of Stomata on Assimilation. By Dr. F. F.
BLACKMAN and Miss MATTHAIL...0.ciss.ccuseyarcernerecusvsnestanessehseapeenea 9354.
3. Formation of Starch from Glycollic Aldehyde by Green Plants. By
HENRY JACKSON, BeA., BiSe, (a. 5shs csc beccosens ssh decease ee conse Oat ae eam 934
4, On the Effect of Salts on the CO, Assimilation of Ulva latissima, L. By
EB ASAE WEL ARBER BUA}. cscteacmeeost scenester teebod thine eenee nee mene eee. O34
5. The Sea-weed Ulva latissima and its Relation to the Pollution of Sea-

be |

water by Sewage. By Professor Lerrs, D.Sc., Ph.D., and Joun Haw-
HORNE, "BiAcsseteoeascetce on keno notes sontee eee nee BA OR icy 30 935

. Germination of the Zoospore in Laminariacew. By J. Luoyp Wititams 936
. *A Lecture on Plant-form in Relation to Nutrition. By Professor Percy

(ROOM. Fee. clavate coe eee ete ES eee eee wees 1 SA eee 936

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

. On Double Fertilisation in a Dicotyledon—Caltha palustris, By Ernan

ING PEEIOMAS 1... Sadicerbsthdenesbsc coos eee nee enna aekhl eohehieevestirae 936

. The Conducting Tissues of Bryophytes. By A. G. TANSLEY ......c.scs00 957

CONTENTS, XXV

Page

3. On a Fourth Type of Transition from Stem to Root-structure occurring
in certain Monocotyledonous Seedlings) By ETHEL SARGANT........0000-., 937
4, The Origin of Modern Cycads. By W.C. Worspitt, F.LS. .....00....c000 938

. On the Structure of the Stem of Angiopteris evecta, Hoffm. By R. F.

BRUEG VP ete Sakae sok Sooseic cdi ts nah Cas cak tee eee ae reer eoserC nny Be eared ae cee 939

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1. A Joint Discussion with Section C on the Conditions under which the
Plants of the Coal Period grew (p. 746) ....s...sssccesssecccsescesesseneees veeee 940
2. Further Investigations on the Intumescences of Hibiscus vitifolius (Linn.).
Beets EMME, LAE Oi ec dycseattaaduade idvdnavaven dass uae danacdataniedoeccode 940
8. On the Osmotic Properties and their Causes in the Living Plant and
Animal Cell. By Professor E. F. OVERTON ........sceccscccssssccsansesscctees 940
4, The Biology and Cytology of a new Species of Pythium. By Professor
BE PNW tats oe Mad, vc e Laiatess Sede e tatebua sr aavegsN cae eid ei reer . 941
5, Observations on Pythium. By G. Porravur and E. J. Burner............ 942
6. Observations on some Chytridinee. By G. Porravtr and E. J. Burter 942
7. On the Azygospores of Entomophthora gleospora. By Professor P.
NBR NN er «ins 0 <aigsn oegn iain da sda as husk gles 942
8. On the Life History of Acrospeira mirabilis (Berk and Br.)« By R. H.
Re a Dee oRMle sRine pips ban ay rsgS tunes Bbc Ukebdenedaanve se awe hohe poueedl 943
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
1. Embryonic Tissues. By Professor MarsHatL Warp, F.RS. ....cccccceeee. 943
2

5.

6.

- The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Karyokinesis in the Root Apex

of Phaseolus. By HaRoLp WAGER...........cccscsesecacas-aeseccs Wire Aree ante 044

. On the Presence of Seed-like Organs in Certain Paleozoic Lycopods. By

BREE PRED EIS. deaicnScuda ita oti oy thee. ence oceheccsattodst ban Bec we beRee 945

. The Primary Structure of Certain Paleozoic Stems referred to Araucari-

pega.) Erg WET: Sgr, By knSee-. i. ecsccconeedete Pe ee At Ay seveee O40

On the Structure and Affinities of Dipteris conjugata, Reinw., with Notes
on the Geological History of the Dipteridine. By A. C. Spewarp, F S.,
and KLIzaBETH DALB................ Dedman nsiieuinecidGsruanas meisdd antecseaae beaveumecs 946

*Illustrations of Sand-binding Plants. By Professor F. 0. Bower, F.R.S. 946

XXvV1 REPORT—1900.

LIST OF PLATES.

PLATE I.

Illustrating the Report on the Meteorological Observatory on Mount Royal,
Montreal,

PLATES IL, IIT.

Illustrating the Report on Seismological Investigation.

PLATE: IV,
Illustrating the Report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce.

OBJECTS AND RULES

OF
THE ASSOCIATION.

— +-—--

OBJECTS.

Tur Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied

by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and

a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-

course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British

Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a

more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.

RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.

All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled
to become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation
to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council to become Life Members of the Asso-
ciation, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.

Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.

Lire Memsers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.

Annvat Susscrisers shail pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of OnePound. They shall receive

XXVIli REPORT—1900.

gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis ; but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at any
subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion the
sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the offices of the Association.

Associatgs for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.

The Association consists of the following classes :—

1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to
the payment of One Poundannually. [May resume their Membership after
intermission of Annual Payment. |

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.

And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—

1. Gratis —Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a further
sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 1845,
a further sum of Five Ponnds.

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a composition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.

2. At reduced or Members’ Price, viz., two-thirds of the Publication Price.
—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a compo-
sition for Annual Payments, but no further sum as a Book
Subscription.

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Subscription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume for
that year only. ]

38. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) any
of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up to 1874,
of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per volume.!

Application to be made at the Office of the Association.

Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.

' A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, at £10 the set,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xx1x

Meetings.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee not
less than two years in advance!; and the arrangements for it shall be
entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

General Committee.

The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—

Crass A. PrrMANENT MEMBERS.

1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must be
sent to the Assistant General Secretary at least one month before the Meeting
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member
of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final.

Crass B. Temporary Mempgrs.?

1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant General Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.

4, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.

Organising Sectional Committees.?

The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to exercise the func-
tions of Sectional Committees until their names are submitted to the
General Committee for election.

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organising Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,‘ and of preparing Reports

’ Revised by the General Committee, Liverpool, 1896.

2 Revised, Montreal, 1884.

* Passed, Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899.

* Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which

XXX REPORT—1900,

thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
read. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organising Sectional Committees.'

An Organising Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
2 p.m., to appoint members of the Sectional Committee.”

Constitution of the Sectional Committees.’

On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section, who will be appointed by the
General Committee at 4 P.m., and those previous Presidents and Vice-
Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 2 P.M.,
in their Committee Rooms, and appoint the Sectional Committees by
selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their
number from day to day.

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on the next day in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.

Business of the Sectional Committees.

Committee Mectings are to be held on the Wednesday, and on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, for the
objects stated in the Rules of the Association. The Organising Committee
of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours of meeting of the Section
and the Sectional Committee except for Saturday.”

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the

they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organising Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
CLOT sande acaceinanefaenee osinns , addressed to the General Secretaries, at the office of
the Association. ‘For Section......... * Ifit should be inconvenient to the Author
that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is requested to send in-
formation thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors who send in their
MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers are accepted,
will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their Reports and
abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual Volume
unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant General
Secretary before the conclusion of the Meeting.

1 Sheffield, 1879. ? Swansea, 1880, revised, Dover, 1899.

3 Edinburgh, 1871, revised, Dover, 1899.

4 The meeting on Saturday is optional, Southport, 1883. * Nottingham, 1893

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1

Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.

3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organ-
ising Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.!

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association
and printed in the last volume of the Report. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organising Committee.? The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday
in the Journal.

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the
Sectional Meetings, to the Assistant General Secretary.

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ex officio
temporary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxix), and will
receive, on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets
entitling them to attend its Meetings.

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association, and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the
state and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or
Committees for the execution of such Reports or researches ; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee shouid be named, and

1 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.

? This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, Edin-
burgh, 1871,

XXXll REPORT—1900.

one of them appointed to act as Chairman, who shall have notified per-
sonally or in writing his willingness to accept the office, the Chairman ta have
the responsibility of receiving and disbursing the grant (if any has been made)
and securing the presentation of the Report in due time; and, further, it is
expedient that one of the members should be appointed to act as Secretary, for
ensuring attention to business.

That it is desirable that the number of Members appointed to serve on a
Committee should be as small as is consistent with its efficient working.

That a tabular list of the Committees appointed on the recommendation
of each Section should be sent each year to the Recorders of the several Sec-
tions, to enable them to fill in the statement whether the several Committees
appointed on the recommendation of their respective Sections had presented
their reports.

That on the proposal to recommend the appointnent of a Committee for a
special object of science having been adopted by the Sectional Committee, the
number of Members of such Committee be then fixed, but that the Members to
serve on such Commnuittee be nominated and selected by the Sectional Oom-
mittee at a subsequent meeting.'

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
ance they may require.

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant General Secretary
for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be
done, the Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sections
must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they can
be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by the
General Committee.

Notices regarding Grants of Money.”

1. No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General
Committee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended
except in accordance with the Rules of the Association.

2. In grants of money to Committees the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

3. Committees to which grants of money are entrusted by the Association
for the prosecution of particular Researches in Science are ap-
pointed for one year only. Ifthe work of a Committee cannot be
completed in the year, and if the Sectional Committee desire the
work to be continued, application for the reappointment of the
Committee for another year must be made at the next meeting of
the Association.

4, Each Committee is required to present a Report, whether final or in-
terim, at the next meeting of the Association after their appoint-
ment or reappointment. Interim Reports must be submitted in
writing, though not necessarily for publication.

1 Revised by the General Committee, Bath, 1888.
2 Revised by the General Committee at Ipswich, 1895.

a

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxXili

5. In each Committee the Chairman is the only person entitled to
call on the Treasurer, Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S., for
such portion of the sums granted as may from time to time be
required.

6. Grants of money sanctioned at a meeting of the Association expire on
June 30 following. The Treasurer is not authorised after that
date to allow any claims on account of such grants.

7. The Chairman of a Committee must, before the meeting of the Asso-
ciation next following after the appointment or reappointment of
the Committee, forward to the Treasurer a statement of the sums
which have been received and expended, with vouchers. The
Chairman must also return the balance of the grant, if any, which
has been received and not spent ; or, if further expenditure is con-
templated, he must apply for leave to retain the balance.

8. When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant which is in the hands of the
Chairman, and also to receive a further grant, the amount of such
farther grant is to be estimated as being additional to, and not
inclusive of, the balance proposed to be retained.

9, The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the
Committee of Recommendations in every case where no such
report has been received.

10. Members and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money
for collecting specimens of any description are requested to re-
serve the specimens so obtained to be dealt with by authority of

the Council.

11. Committees are requested to furnish a list of any apparatus which
‘may have been purchased ont of a grant made by the Association,
and to state whether the apparatus will be useful for continuing

the research in question, or for other scientific purposes.

12, All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Asso-
ciation are to be deposited at the Office of the Association when
not employed in scientific inquiries for the Association,

Business of the Sections.

The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation shortly
before the meeting commences. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto

can be used for no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the

Association.
At the time appointed the Chair will be taken,' and the reading of
communications, in the order previously made public, commenced.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into.
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.

1 The Organising Committee of a Section is empowered to arrange the hours

_ of meeting of the Section and of the Sectional Committee, excep for Saturday.

XXXIV REPORT—1900.

A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.

Duties of the Doorkeepers.

1. To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.

2. To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the

Assistant General Secretary.

3. Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.

No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the Programme, p. l.

Duties of the Messengers.

To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.

Committee of Recommendations.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committes,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.

The é2: officio members of the Committee of Recommendations are the
President and Vice-Presidents of the Meeting, the Genera] and Assistant-
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, the Trustees, and the Presidents
of the Association in former years.

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.

All proposals for establishing new Sections, or altering the titles of
Sections, or for any other change in the constitutional forms and funda-
mental rules of the Association, shall be referred to the Committee of
Recommendations for a report.!

If the President of a Section is unable to attend a meeting of the
Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Committee shall be’
authorised to appoint a Vice-President, or, failing a Vice-President,
some other member of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice
of the appointment being sent to the Assistant General Secretary.”

1 Passed by the General Committee at Birmingham, 1865,
* Passed by the General Committee at Leeds, 1890,

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV

——

Corresponding Societies.

1. Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga-
_ tions, and publishes notices of the results.

2. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the

List of Corresponding Societies. Applications must be addressed to the
Assistant General Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended they should be considered, and
must be accompanied by specimens of the publications of the results of
the local scientific investigations recently undertaken by the Society.

3. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi-
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the
purpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping
themselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the
List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable.

4, Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or before the
1st of June, to the Assistant General Secretary of the Association, a
schedule, properly filled up, which will be issued by him, and which wiil
contain a request for such particulars with regard to the Society as may
_be required for the information of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

5. There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association

a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre-
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognisance of
one or other of the various Sections of the Association.
6. A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele-
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time
a Member of the General Committee.

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

7. The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies is em-
powered to send recommendations to the Committee of Recommen-
dations for their consideration, and for report to the General Committee.
_ 8. The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con-
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre-
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the
general Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members.

9. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take
part in the meetings.

10. The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to: transmit to

1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884,
b2

XXXVI REPORT—1900.

the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommen-
dations forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of
Recommendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them
carried into effect.

11. It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer-
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear-
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results.

Local Committees.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.

Officers.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.

Council.

In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.

(1) The Council shall consist of !

. The Trustees.

. The past Presidents.

. The President and Vice-Presidents for the time being.

. The President and Vice-Presidents elect.

. The past and preseut General Treasurers, General and
Assistant General Secretaries.

. The Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the ensuing
Meeting

. Ordinary Members.

“NI lor) Or & Chr

(2) The Ordinary Members shall be elected annually from the
General Committee.

Passed by the Genetal Committee at Belfast, 1874.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxVli

(3) There shall be not more than twenty-five Ordinary Members, of
whom not more than twenty shall have served on the Council,
as Ordinary Members, in the previous year.

(4) In order to carry out the foregoing rule, the following Ordinary
Members of the outgoing Council shall at each annual election
be ineligible for nomination :—I1st, those who have served on
the Council for the greatest number of consecutive years; and,
2nd, those who, being resident in or near London, have
attended the fewest number of Meetings during the year
—observing (as nearly as possible) the proportion of three by
seniority to two by least attendance.

(5) The Council shall submit to the General Committee in their
Annual Report the names of the Members of the General
Committee whom they recommend for election as Members of
Council,

(6) The Election shall take place at the same time as that of the
Officers of the Association.

Papers and Communications. —

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to
reserve his right of property therein.

Accounts.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors
appointed by the General Committee.

1900.

REPORT

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PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

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xvi

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xlvii

PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.

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REPORT

xlvili

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PAST PRESIDENTS, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND LOCAL SECRETARIES.
1900.

: Jo AqISIOATI 99 JoQUApIserg “ATT VW ‘Wopuo'y *f LossayorT

SS

REPORtT—1900,

fRUSTEES AND GENERAL OFFICERS, 1831—1901.

1832-70 (Sir) R. I. Murcuison (Bart.), |
E.R

sh
1832-62 JoHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.8.
1832-39 C. BABBAGE, Hsq., F.R.S.

TRUSTEES.
1872 Sir J. LuBBocK, Bart. (now Lord
| AVEBURY), F.R.S.
| 1881-83 W. Sportrswoopu, Esq., Pres.
RS.
1888 Lord RAYLEIGH, F.R.S.

1839-44 F. Bary, Esq., F.R.S.
1844_58 Rev. G. PEACOCK, F.R.S.
1858-82 General E. SABINE, F.R.S.
1862-81 Sir P. EGuRron, Bart., F.R.S.

GENERAL

1831
1832-62
1862-74

JONATHAN GRAY, Esq.
JOHN TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.S.
W. SPoTTISWOODE, Esq., F.R.8.

GENERAL

1832-35 Rev. W. VerNon Harcourt,
¥F.R.S.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
E.RS., and F. Bathy, Esq.,
¥.R.S.

Rev. W. VERNON HARCOURT,
¥.R.S., and R. I. MurcHison,
Esa., F.R.S.

R. I. Murcuison, Esq., F.B.S.,
and Rev. G. Peacock, F.R.8.
Sir R. I. Murcuison, F.RB.S.,

and Major E. SABINE, F.R.8.

Lieut.-Colonel E: SABINE, F.R.S.

General HE. SABINE, F.R.S., and
J. F. RoyLe, Esq., F.R.S.

J. F. Royzy, Esq., F:B.S.

General EH. SABINE, F.R.S.

Prof. R. WALKER, F.R.S.

W. Hopxins, Esq., F.R.S.

W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
Prof. J. PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

W. Hopkins, Esq., F.R.S., and
F, GALTON, Esa., F.R.S,

¥. GALTON, Esq., F.R.8.

1835-36

1836-37

1837-39
1839-45

1845-50
1850-52

1852-53
1853-59
1859-61
1861-62
1862-63

1863-65

1865-66

| 1883-98 Sir Lyon (now Lord) PLAYFATIR,
) F.R.S.

| 1898 Prof, A. W, Ricker, F.R.8.

TREASURERS.

| 1874-91 Prof. A. W. WILLIAMSON, F.R.8.
| 1891-98 Prof. A. W. Riicknr, F.R.S.
| 1858 Prof. G. C, Foster, F.R.S.

SECRETARIES.

1866-68 F. Gauton, Esq. F.R.S., and
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.RS.
Dr; T. A. Hrest, F.R.S., and Dr.
T. THoMSON, F.R.S. :
Dr.T. THOMSON,F.R.S.,and Capt. ©
OUGLAS GALTON, F.R:8. |
Capt. D. Gatton, F.R.S,, and
Dr. MicHAEL FosTEr, F.R.8.
Capt. D. GAuton, F.B.8., and
Dr. P. L. ScuATER, F.B.S.
Capt. D. GALTON, F.R.S., and
Prof. F. M. BALFouR, F.B.S.
Capt. Dova@LAS GALTON, F.R:S.
Sir DouGLAs GALTON, F.R.S.,
and A. G. VERNON HARcouRT,

1868-71
1871-72
1872-76
1876-81
1881-82

1882-83
1883-95

Esq., F.BS.

1895-97 A. G. VERNON HARCOURT, Esq.,
PRS., and “Profi ei. Ae
ScuHAPFHR, F.R.S.

1897— Prof. ScHAFER, F.R.S., and Sir

1900
1900

W.C.RoBERTS-AUSTEN,F.R.S.

Sir W. C. ROBERTS-AUSTEN,
F.RS§., and Dr. D. H. Scott,
E.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARIES.

1851

JOHN PHILLIPS, Esq., Secretary.
1832

Prof. J. D. ForBus, Acting
Seeretary.

1832 -62 Prof. JOHN PHILLIPS, F.R.S.

1862-78 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A.

1878-80 J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A.,
Assistant Secretary.

G, GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Acting
Secretary.

188]

1881-85 Prof. T. G. Bonnny, F.BS.,
Secretary.

1885-90 A. T. ATcHISON, Esq., M.A.,
Secretary.

1890 G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A. Acting
Secretary.

1890 G, GRIFFITH, Hsq., M.A.

li

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.

Date and Place

Presidents

| Secretaries

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.

1832.
1833.
1834.

Oxford
Cambridge
Edinburgh

1835. Dublin

1836. Bristol

seeeee

1837. Liverpool...

1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...

1841.
1842.

Plymouth
Manchester

1843.
1844.
1845.

1846.

Cambridge
Southamp-
1847.

1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich

1852. Belfast

1853. Hull.........

1854, Liverpool...

1855. Glasgow ...

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S8.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.

Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.

|Rev. Dr, Robinson

ee eeeeene tee

‘Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....

Prot. Fotbes; HRS. ...cccscseee

Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.1.A.

|The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...

The Very Rev. the Dean of

Ely.

Sir John I’. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.

|Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A,
F.R.S.

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......

William Hopkins, F.B.S.......

Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.

Rev. W. Whewell,
F.R.S.

Prof. W. Thomson,
F.R.S., F.B.S.E.

D.D.,
M.A.,

Ely, F.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., See.
B.S.

Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E.

The Very Rev. the Dean of) B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt

|Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof,
Wheatstone.

Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F. W.
Jerrard.

W. 8. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.

Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.

...|J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof, Stevelly,
G. G. Stokes.

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes,

Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.

W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G.G. Stokes.
$. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W, J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. fi
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof,

Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Weish.

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall.

1856. Cheltenham| Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.R.8.)}C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,

Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull,

1857. Dublin......|Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,|Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. -

E.R.S., MRA.

Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.

9

=

Cc

li
Date and Place

1858, Leeds ......

1859, Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1868. Newcastle

1864. Bath

atrceeees

1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...
1869, Exeter

eocsee

1879, Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh

1872. Brighton...
1878. Bradford...
1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth..,
1878. Dublin.....
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
W881. Pork. ..:50<05
1882. Southamp-
ton.
1883. Southport
1884. Montreal...

se Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,

REPORT—1900.
Presidents Secretaries
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,|Rev. 8. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
V.P.R.S. Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.

The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.RB.S....

iG. B. Airy, M.A,, D.C.L.,
E.R.S.

Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
E.B.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

Prof. Wheatstone,

F.BR.S

D.C.L.,

F.RB.S.

Prof. J. Tyndall,
F.R.S.

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S

ibs

J. Clerk Maxwell,
LL.D., E.B.S.

M.A.,
Prot. P..G. Lait, W.R.S.Ee Ge.

W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S. .

Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.

Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,|
LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,|
D.C.L., F.B.S,

Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
| Pres. Physical Soc.

Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,
F.B.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh,
M.A.,, F.B.S.

Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Tyndall.

J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,
Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.

Rev.N.Ferrers,Prof.Fuller, F.Jenkin,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.

Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F, Jenkin, G.
S. Mathews, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith,
J. M. Wilson.

Fleeming Jenkin,Prof.H.J.S. Smith,
Rey. 8. N. Swann.

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof, G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.

Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.

Prof. W.K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J.
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.

J.W.L.Glaisher, Prof.Herschel, Ran
dal Nixon, J. Perry, G, F. Rodwell,

Prof, W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
T. Muir.

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T, Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.

W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister.
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J. Lodge,

D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh.

W. M. Hicks, Dr. O. J. Lodge, D.
MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson.

W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge,

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
| LI.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe.
GC. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, A. John-
son, O, J. Lodge, D, MacAlister.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. litt

Date and Place

1885.

Presidents Secretaries

Chrystal, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.

Aberdeen...| Prof. ne
F.R W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram.

1886. Birmingham | Prof. oe ‘iH. Darwin, M.A.,)R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.

LL.D., F.RB.S. J. H. Poynting, W. N. Shaw.

1887. Manchester | Prof. Sir R. 8. Ball, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof.
Di DAE RS: H. Lamb, W. N. Shaw.

1888. Bath......... Prof. G. Er. Fitzgerald, M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.
E.R.S. : Lodge, W. N. Shaw.

1889. Newcastle- |Capt. W. de W. Abney, C.B.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, A.

upon-Tyne| R.E., F.R.S. Lodge, W. N. Shaw, H. Stroud.

1890. Leeds ...... J. W. L. Glaisher, Sc.D.,|R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. A. Lodge,
F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S. W.N. Shaw, Prof. W. Stroud.

1891. Cardiff...,.. Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc.,|R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof, A.
LL.D., F.R.S. Lodge, Prof. A. L. Selby.

1892. Edinburgh |Prof. A. Schuster, Ph.D.,|R. E. Baynes, J. Larmor, Prof. A.
F.R,S., F.R.A.S. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

1893. Nottingham|R. T. Glazebrook, M.A.,, F.R.S.

W. T. A. Emtage, J. Larmor, Prof.
A. Lodge, Dr. W. Peddie.

1894. Oxford ...... Prof.A.W.Riicker, M.A,,F.R.S|Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,

1895. Ipswich ...|Prof. W. M. Hicks,

J. Walker.

M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, Prof. A. Lodge,

F.R.S. G. T. Walker, W. Watson.
1896, Liverpool...!Prof. J. J. Thomson, M.A.,|Prof. W. H. Heaton, J. L. Howard,
D.Sce., F.R.S. Prof. A. Lodge, G. T. Walker, W.
Watson.
1897. Toronto ...!Prof. A. R. Forsyth, M.A.,| Prof. W. H. Heaton, J.C. Glashan, J.
F.R.S. L. Howard, Prof. J.C. McLennan.
1898. Bristol...... Prof W. EH. Ayrton, I.R.S. ...)A. P. Chattock, J. L. Howard, C. H.
Lees, W. Watson, E. T. Whittaker.
1899. Dover ...... Prof. J. H. Poynting, F.R.S.|J. L. Howard, C. H. Lees, W. Wat-

1900. Bradford ...

Dr. J. Larmor, F.R.S. ....

son, E. T. Whittaker.

...|P. H. Cowell, A. Fowler, C. H. Lees,

C. J. L. Wagstaffe, W. Watson,
E. T. Whittaker.

CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.

1832. Oxford......

John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
1833. Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

James F. W. Johnston.
Prof. Miller.

1834, Edinburgh | Dr. Hope...............00+ cravancek Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison,
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

1835. Dublin...,,.; Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S.

1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle

1839. Birmingham | Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.

1840. Glasgow ...

1841. Plymouth...|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. ......
1842. Manchester | John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Prof, Apjohn, M.R.1.A.........
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S....
1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Cumming ......

1843. Cork
1844. York

1846, Southamp- |Michael Faraday, D.C.L.,

ton, F.R.S.

Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.

»++.| Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof, Cumming .........

Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path,

|Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds.

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Tromas
Richardson.

Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson,

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.

J. Prideaux, R. Hunt, W. M. Tweedy.

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham,

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.

-| Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller,
K. Solly.
Dr, Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall,

liv

REPORT—1900,

pe

Date and Place

1847.
1848.

1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.

1855.
1856.

1857.
1858.
1859,
1860.

1861.
1862.

1863.
1864,

Oxford......
Swansea ..
Edinburgh

Ipswich ...
Belfast......

Liverpool

Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Aberdeen...
Oxford

Manchester
Cambridge

Newcastle

1865, Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.

1872.
1873.

1874.
1875.

1876.
1877.
1878,
1879.

Dundee
Norwich
Exeter

Liverpool...

. Edinburgh

Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast

Bristol......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Dublin......

Sheffield ...

.. | Prof.

Presidents

Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
F.R.S.

.|Richard Phillips, F-B.S. ......

John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. ...
Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.8.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
| “ER.S,
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.B.S.

|Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...

|Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.E.S.,

M.R.LA.

Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.

Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. W.H.Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.

Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
E.R.S.
W. Odling, M.B., F.R.S.......

Prof. W. A.
V.P.R.S.

Miller, M.D.,

T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.

M.D.,

Dr: H, Debus, FH RIS.) sess:

Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.E.S.
Prof, T. Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
Prof. W. J. Russel!, F.R.S....

Prof, A. Crum Brown, M.D.,
F.R.S.E.

| A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,

[Osis

(WV.Pe. Perkin, WR... .s..aeve

BRYA. Abel, P.R.S...ssesseesss its
Prof, Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,

F.R.S.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S. ...

‘Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.B.S. |

H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. |

... Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.|!

Secretaries

B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly.

|T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.

R. Hunt, G. Shaw.

Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson.

T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.

Dr. Gladstone, Prof, Hodges, Prof,
fRionalds.

'H. S. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.

Dr. Edwards, Dr. Gladstone, Dr.
Price.

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.

J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.

J.S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.

Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S....../A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.

A. B. Northcote.

Prof, W.A,Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.;|A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,

H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.

Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.

A. V. Harcourt, Prof. Liveing, R.
Biggs.

A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.

J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.

A, Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus-

| sell, F. Sutton.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T.
E. Thorpe.

Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.

Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.

Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.

Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
Roberts, W. A. Tilden.

W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.

W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills,

H. S. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J,
M, Thomson,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS,

Date and Place

1880.
» 1881.
1882.

ton,
1883.
. 1884.
1885.
1886,
1887.
. 1888.
. 1889.

1890. Leeds

. Oxford

1895.

1896.
1897

1898. Bristol
1899.

1900.

Ipswich

Swansea ...

Southamp-
Southport
Montreal ...
Aberdeen...
Birmingham
Manchester

se eeeenee

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

. Edinburgh

. Nottingham |

seeeee

Liverpool...
Toronto

Bradford ...

Presidents

Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,
F.R.S.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.

Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A.,
F.R.S.

Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S...

LL.D., F.R.S.

Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. C.S.

W. Crookes, F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Dr. E. Schunck, F.R.S.

Prof. W. A. Tilden,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S.

Sir I. Lowthian Bell, Bart.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

|Prof. IT. E. Thorpe, B.Sc.,

Ph.D., F.R.S., Treas. C.S.

|Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
C.B., F.B.S.

Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S.......

Prof. J. Emerson Reynolds,

M.D., D.Sc., F.RB.S.
Prof. H. B. Dixon, M.A., F.R.S.

Dr. Ludwig Mond, F.R.8.

... |Prof. W. Ramsay, F.R.S.......

Prof. F. R. Japp, F.B.S. ......
Horace T. Brown, F.R.S..,....

Prof, W, H. Perkin, F.R.5. ..,

Prof. Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D.,

D.Se.,

lv

ee eae nnn rn nnn nnn nnnDEnr Senn nnn Nn RnR

Secretaries

P. P. Bedson, H, B. Dixon, W. R. E.
Hodgkinson, J. M. Thomson.

|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, T. Gough.

P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
J. L. Notter.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B.
Dixon, H. Forster Morley.

| Prof, P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,
T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon,

| H.ForsterMorley,Dr.W.J.Simpson.

|P. P. Bedson, H. B. Dixon, H. F. Mor-
ley, W.W. J. Nicol, C. J. Woodward.

Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. Forster
Morley, W. Thomson.

Prof. H. B. Dixon, H. Forster Morley,
R. E. Moyle, W. W. J. Nicol.

H, Forster Morley, D. H. Nagel, W.
W. J. Nicol, H. L. Pattinson, jun.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

C. H. Bothamley, H. Forster Morley,

| W.W. J. Nicol, G. 8. Turpin.

J. Gibson, H. Forster Morley, D. H.
Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

|J. B. Coleman, M. J. R. Dunstan,
D. H. Nagel, W. W. J. Nicol.

A. Colefax, W. W. Fisher, Arthur
Harden, H. Forster Morley.

SECTION B (continwed).—-CHEMISTRY,
..|Prof. R. Meldola, F.R.S. ......

E. H. Fison, Arthur Harden, C. A.
| Kohn,J. W. Rodger.

|Arthur Harden, C. A. Kohn

Prof. W. H. Ellis, A. Harden, C. A.
' Kohn, Prof, R. F. Ruttan.

|C, A, Kohn, F. W. Stoddart, T. K.
| . Rose.

A. D. Hall, C. A. Kohn, T. EK. Rose,
Prof, W. P. Wynne.

W. M. Gardner, F’. 8. Kipping, W.

|

| J. Pope, T. K. Rose.

GEOLOGICAL (ann, untit 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IJI.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

1832. Oxford

1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol

eeeeee

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ....

Pewee eee erersansee

..|John Taylor.
1833. Cambridge.|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. ......,
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Jameson

W. Lonsdale, John Phillips.

|J. Phillips, T. J. Torrie, Rev. J. Yates

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

Te cleo Cr esun t,t ol aaNeOr RB gece coe
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,.R.1.Murchison,F.R.8.

1837. Liverpool...| Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—

Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S,

1838, Newcastle.,.|C. Lyell, F.B.S., V.P.G.S.—

Geography, Lord Prudhoe,

Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.

William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury,
T. J. Torrie.

Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Geo-

graphy, Capt. H. M. Denham, &.N.
W.C. Trevelyan, Capt, Portlock.—
Geography, Capt. Washington.

lvi

Date and Place

1839.
1840.

1841.
1842,
1843,

1844,

1845.

1846.

1847.
1848.

Birmingham

Glasgow ...

Plymouth...
Manchester

Cambridge.
Southamp-
ton,
Oxford......

Swansea...

1849, Birmingham

1850.

1851.

1852

1853.
1854.

1855.

1856

1857.

1858.
1859.

1860.
1861.

Edinburgh!

Ipswich ...
. Belfast......

i eae eos «
Liverpool...

Glasgow ...
. Cheltenham

Dublin

Leeds ......
Aberdeen...
Oxford

Manchester

1862. Cambridge

1863.
1864,

Newcastle

se eeeeeee

REPORT—1900.

Presidents

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geog.,G.B.Greenough,F.R.S.

Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
E.R.S.

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. .

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S....

Henry Warburton, Pres. G. S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A,
F.RB.S.

Leonard Horner, F.R.S. ......

Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.S.

Sir H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S.
Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
F-.R.S.

SECTION © (continued).

William Hopkins, M.A.,F.R.S.
Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
E.R.S.

Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S....
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....

The Lord Talbot de Malahide

William Hopkins,M.A., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S...

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.RB.S.
J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

J. Phillips, LL.D.,
E.B.S., F.G.S.

1865. Birmingham Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,

1866.
1867. Dundee

Nottingham

eee

K.C.B.

Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S.

Archibald Geikie, F.R.S

Secretaries

George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick- |
land, Charles Darwin.

W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. EH. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.

W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D.,
R. Hutton.

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.

F. M. Jennings, H. E. Strickland.

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.

Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham, Dr. C. T. Beke.

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C,
Ramsay, J. Ruskin,

S.Benson, Prof.Oldham, Prof, Ramsay.

J. Beete Jukes, Prof, Oldham, Prof,
A. C. Ramsay.

A. Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
Prof. Nicol.

— GEOLOGY.

C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.

James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof, Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
J. Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.

Prof. Harkness, G. Sanders, R. H.
Scott.

Prof. Nicol, H, C. Sorby, E. W.Shaw.

Prof. Harkness, Rey. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.

Prof. Harkness, E. Hull, J. W.
Woodall.
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T,
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.

E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.

W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C,
Sorby, W. Pengelly.

Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.

R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.

E. Hull, W. Pengelly, H. Woodward.

' Geography was constituted a separate Section, see page 1xii,

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES

Date and Place

1868.
1869,
1870.
1871.
1872.

1873.
1874.

1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1881.
1882.
1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.
1888.
1889.
~ 1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.

1896,
1897.

1898.
1899.
1900.

Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Edinburgh

Brighton...

Bradford ...
Belfast......

Bristol......
Glasgow ..
Plymouth...

Dublin......

Southamp-
ton.
Southport
Montreal ..,
Aberdeen ...
Birmingham

Manchester

Newcastle-
upon-Tyne
Leeds ......
Cardiff ......
Edinburgh

Nottingham

Ipswich ...

Liverpool...
Toronto

Bradford ...

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.

OF THE SECTIONS. lvii

Presidents

R. A.C: Godwin-Austen,

F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.GS.

Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.

Prof, A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.

R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Phillips, F.R.S. ......

Protay ull, | WM. Aw HSS:
F.G.S.

Dr. T. Wright, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.

.| Prof. John Young, M.D. ......

W. Pengelly, F.R.S., F.G.S.

John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S.

.|H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., F.G.S....

A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
R. Etheridge, F.R.S,, F.G.S.

Prof. W. OC. Williamson,
LL.D., F.R.S.

W. T. Blanford, F.R.S., Sec.
G.8.

Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.
G.S

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.Sc.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

Henry Woodward, LL.D.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, M.A.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. J. Geikie, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. H. Green, M.A.,
E.R.S., F.G.S8.

Prof. T. Rupert Jones, F.R.S.,
F.G.S

Prof. C. Lapworth, LL.D.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.

J. J. H. Teall, M.A., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.

L. Fletcher, M.A., F.R.S.

W. Whitaker, B.A., F.B.S. ...
J. E. Marr, M.A., F.B.S.......

-|Dr. G. M. Dawson, C.M.G.,

F.R.S.
W. H. Hudleston, F.R.S.......

Sir Arch. Geikie, F.R.S. ......

_ —— So

Secretaries

Rey. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rey. H. H. Winwood.

W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.

R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.

L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.

L.C. Miall,R.H.Tiddeman,W.Topley.

F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.

L. C. Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Topley.

J.Armstrong,F.W.Rudler,W.Topley.

Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.

E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.

W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.

W. Topley, W. Whitaker.

J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley,
W. Whitaker.

T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West-
lake, W. Whitaker.

R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top-
ley, W. Whitaker.

F, Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W.
Topley, W. Whitaker.

C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H.
Teall, W. Topley.

W. J. Harrison, J. J. H. Teall, W.
Topley, W. W. Watts.

J. E. Marr, J. J. H. Teall, W. Top-
ley, W. W. Watts.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, W. Topley, W,
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

Prof. G. A. Lebour, J. E. Marr, W.
W. Watts, H. B. Woodward.

J. EK. Bedford, Dr. F. H. Hatch, J.
E. Marr, W. W. Watts.

W. Galloway, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

H. M. Cadell, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

J. W. Carr, J. E. Marr, Clement
Reid, W. W. Watts.

...|F. A. Bather, A. Harker, Clement

Reid, W. W. Watts.

F. A. Bather, G. W. Lamplugh, H.
A. Miers, Clement Reid.

J. Lomas, Prof. H. A. Miers, C. Reid.

Prof. A. P. Coleman, G. W. Lamp-
lugh, Prof. H. A. Miers.

G. W. Lamplugh, Prof. H. A. Miers,
H. Pentecost.

J. W. Gregory, G. W. Lamplugh,
Capt. McDakin, Prof. H. A. Miers.

.|H.L. Bowman, Rev. W. Lower Carter,

G. W, Lamplugh, H. W. Monckton.

eee

lvill

rEPoRT-—1900.

Da

te and Place

Presidents Secretaries

BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY,

1832.
1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.
1838.

1839
1840

1841
1842

1843.
1844,

1845
1846

1847.

aeeeee

Dublin
Bristol

Liverpool...
Newcastle

. Birmingham
. Glasgow ...

. Plymouth...
. Manchester

te eeeeees

se eeeeeee

. Cambridge
. Southamp-
ton.
Oxford

Cambridge?)
Edinburgh .' Prof. Graham

Rey. Prof. J. 8. Henslow.
C. C. Babington, D. Don.
W. Yarrell, Prof, Burnett.

| Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ...
Rey. W.L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.|

SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

DPA THANE. cadwcsscsduspecch Mons J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
Rev. Prof. Henslow .........+6s J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8.
Rootsey.
Wei. Macleay ....cccccsescesens .C. C. Babington, Rev. L, Jenyns, W.
| Swainson.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... \J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
| Dr. Richardson,
Prot, Oavend WeiS>. suet. samy 'E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D.......| Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.

John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.| J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.

Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her- Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
bert, LL.D., F.L.S. | ‘Turner,

William Thompson, F.L.S.... G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.

| Patterson.

Very Rev. the Dean of Man- Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
chester. | Dr. Lankester.

Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....| Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.

Sir J. Richardson, M.D., Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
F.R.S. Wooldridge.
H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S, Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.

SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.

[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Sub-
sections and the temporary Section FE of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. 1xi.]

1848. Swansea

1849. Birmingham

1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.

1857.

Edinburgh
Ipswich

EGU esses
Liverpool...
Glasgow ...
Cheltenham

Dublin

eases

peo] Mua WedDibwyn, HWS: ectecnes

...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A.,

Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen-
| frey, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell.

Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.

Lankester.
Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester.

| William Spence, F.R.S. ......
|Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.

F.R.S.
Ae

C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.

Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
E.R.S.

Robert Harrison, Dr, E. Lankester.

Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.

William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.

Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof, Buckman,

| Dr. Lankester.

Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.

1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p, 1xi.

——————ee

1862.

1865.

1872. Brighton ...

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lix

Date and Place Presidents

Secretaries

1858. Leeds ...... ©. C. Babington,

1859. Aberdeen..
Oxford......

1860. Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...

1861. Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S. |

Cambridge Prof. Huxley, F.R,S
Neweastle Prof. Balfour, M.D., ou RS

eee eee eee

1863.
1864, Dr. John E, Gray, F.R.S.

Birming- T, Thomson, M.D., F.R,S. .
ham ! |

.|H. B. Brady, C.

M.A., F.R.8.|Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.

Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.

. Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.| Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,

Dr. Ogilvy.

.|W. 8. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.

L. Sclater, Dr. E, Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, - Dr.
cope be Selater, Dr. E. P. Wright.

Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

. Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. EK. P. Wright.

E. Broom, H. T,

Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.

. Dr. J. Anthony, Rev, C. Clarke, Rev.

H. B. Tristram, Dr, E. P, Wright.

SECTION D (continued ),—BIOLOGY.

1866. Nottingham)Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.—Dep.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.

of Physiol., Prof. Humphry,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
A. R. Wallace.

1867. Dundee
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
1868. Norwich ...
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.

1869. Exeter......,
—Dep. of Bot. and Lool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Hthno., E. B. Tylor.

Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,

| EVR.S., F.L.8.— Dep.
Anat. and Physiol., Prof.M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.5.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.

Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.

Sir J. Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,

; F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.

1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh.

1873, Bradford ...
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.— Dep. of An-
thropol,, Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.

of

Bb. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.

.. Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr.

M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.

Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.}Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.

M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H.T.
Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.

George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.8.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster,

EK. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram.

Dr. T. $. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.

Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.

Prof, Thiselton- Dyer, H. T. Stainton,

Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.

Prof. Allman, F.R.S.— Dep. of | Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,

R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J
H. Lamprey.

The title of Section D was changed to Biology.

ib REFORT—1900.

Date and Place Presidents

Secretaries

1874. Belfast ...... Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker, |
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep. of An-
throp.,Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.

1875, Bristol ...... P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of

Anat. and Physiol., Prof.

Cleland, F.R.S.—Dep. of

Anth.,Prof.Rolleston,F.R.S.

1876. Glasgow ...|A. Russel Wallace, F.L.S.—

Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,

Prof. A. Newton, F.R.S.—

Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,

Dr. J. G. McKendrick.

1877. Plymouth...|J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S.—

Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.

Prof. Macalister.—Dep. of|

Anthropol.,F.Galton,F.R.S.

1878. Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—

Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.

Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.

of Anat. and Physiol, BR.

McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.

1879, Sheffield ,..|Prof. St. George Mivart,

F.R.S.-—Dep. of Anthropol.,

KE. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.

—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-

siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.

1880, Swansea .../ A.C. L. Giinther, F.R.S.— Dep.

of Anat. 5 Physiol., F. M.

Balfour, F.R.S.—Dep. of

Anthropol., F, W. Budler.

TSBIS YOK. scenes.) R. Owen, F'.R.S.— Dep. of An-

thropol., Prof. W.H. Flower,

F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and

Physiol., Prof. J. 8. Burdon

Sanderson, F.R.S.

1882. Southamp- |Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.

ton. — Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,

Prof. M. A. Lawson, F.L.S.

—Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.

W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S.

1883. Southport’ | Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A.,

F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,

W. Pengelly, F.R.S.

1884. Montreal ...| Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A.,
F.R.S.

1885. Aberdeen ...| Prof. W.C. M‘Intosh, M.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S. F.R.S.E.

1886. Birmingham|/W. Carruthers, Pres. L.S.,
E.R.S., F.G.S.

1887. Manchester | Prof. A. Newton, M.A., ARS:

W. T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. 0. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.

E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof,

W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.

Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.

W. Spencer.

E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.

Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.

Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-

son,

E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.

Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler,

Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof,
Schafer.

G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.

G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev.
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
W. North, John Priestley, Howard
Saunders, H. H. Spencer.

G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B.
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg-
wick, T. W. Shore, jun.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam,
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M.
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr.
G. A. Woods.

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A.
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright.

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson,
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward.

Prof. T. W. Bridge, W. Heape, Prof.
W. Hillhouse, W. L. Sclater, Prof,
H. Marshall Ward.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, 8. F. Har-
mer, W. Heape, W. L. Sclater,

| E.LS., V.P.Z.8.

Prof. H, Marshall Ward.

* Anthropology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixviii.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

Date and Place

Presidents

Ixi

Secretaries

1888. Bath

se eaerene

1889. Newcastle -
upon-Tyne

1890. Leeds

eeeeee

1891. Cardiff......

1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham!

1894. Oxford? ...

1895. Ipswich ...
1896. Liverpool...
1897. Toronto
1898. Bristol......

1899. Dover ......
1900. Bradford ...

|Prof. W. A. Herdman, F.R.S8.
Prof. EH. B. Poulton, F.R.S. ...
|

a. | erot. la, CF MiallS W.RSS csc.

W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.

Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, |
M.A., M.D., F.R.S.

Prof. A. Milnes Marshall,
M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Francis Darwin, M.A., M.B.,
E.R.S., F.L.S.

Prof. W. Rutherford,
E.R.S., F.R.S.E.

Rev. Canon H. B. Tristram,
M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.

M.D.

Prof. I. Bayley Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S,

SECTION D (continued).

Prof. W. F. R. Weldon, F.R.5. |

Adam Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......
Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.B.S. ...

F. EK. Beddard, S. F. Harmer, Prof.
H. Marshall Ward, W. Gardiner,
Prof. W. D. Halliburton.

C. Bailey, F. E. Beddard, S. F. Har-
mer, Prof. T. Oliver, Prof. H. Mar-
shall Ward.

8. F. Harmer, Prof. W. A. Herdman,
8. J. Hickson, F. W. Oliver, H.
Wager, H. Marshall Ward.

| I, E. Beddard, Prof. W.A. Herdman,
Dr. 8. J. Hickson, G. Murray, Prof.
W.N. Parker, H. Wager.

G. Brook, Prof. W. A. Herdman, G.
Murray, W. Stirling, H. Wager.
G. C. Bourne, J. B. Farmer, Prof.
W. A. Herdman, S. J. Hickson,

W. B. Ransom, W. L. Sclater.

W. W. Benham, Prof. J. B. Farmer,
Prof. W. A. Herdman, Prof. 8. J.
Hickson, G. Murray, W. L. Sclater.

—ZOOLOGY.

G. C. Bourne, H. Brown, W. E.
Hoyle, W. L. Sclater.

\H. O. Forbes, W. Garstang, W. E.

Hoyle.

|W. Garstang, W. E. Hoyle, Prof.

E. E. Prince.
Prof. R. Boyce, W. Garstang, Dr.
A. J. Harrison, W. E. Hoyle.

|W. Garstang, J. Graham Kerr.

W. Garstang, J.G. Kerr, T. H.

Taylor, Swale Vincent.

ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.

1833. Cambridge
1834, Edinburgh

Dr. J. Haviland........... pale
Dr. Abercrombie ...... ausaeeens

Dr. H. J. H. Bond, Mr. G. E. Paget,
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson.

SECTION © (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.

1835. Dublin......
1836. Bristol ......
1837. Liverpool...

1838. Newcastle

Wry JeOs Pritehard, .s<.cscccesn
Dr. P. M. Roget, F.R.S.
Prof. W. Clark, M.D.

T. E. Headlam, M.D.

1839, Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S8....

_ 1840. Glasgow ...

1841. Plymouth..

James Watson, M.D.

Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
.| Dr. Symonds.
Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose,
Dr. G. O. Rees, F'. Ryland.
Dr.J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. Reid.

SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.

a M. Roget, M.D., Sec. B.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. B.S

Sargent.

1842, el lWaward Holme, M.D., F.L.8.|Dr. Chaytor, Dr, R. 8. Sargent.

1843, Cork ......
1844, York...

.| Sir James Pitcairn, M. D.

.|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent,

Mia brincharde WD): sscesaane I. Erichsen, Dr. R. S. Sargent.
1845, Cambridge | Prof. J. Haviland, M.D.

.|Dr. R, 8, Sargent, Dr. Webster.

1 Physiology was made a separate Section, see p. Ixix,
2 The title of Section D was changed to Zoology.

|xil REPORT— 1900.

l
Date and Place | Presidents

Secretaries

1846. Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ... C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
ton. gent.
1847. Oxford’ ... Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ......|'Z, K. Chambers, W. P, Ormerod.

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

1850. Edinburgh | Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
1855. Glasgow ...|Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. | Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ......) Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern,
1858. Leeds ...... Sir B. Brodie, Bart., F.R.S. |C. G. Wheelhouse.

1859. Aberdeen... |Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.

1860. Oxford...... Prof.G.Rolleston,M.D.,F.L.S. | Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward Smith,
1861. Manchester | Dr. John Davy, F.R.S. L.& E.| Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.

1862. Cambridge |G. E. Paget, M.D.............0+ G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.1t.8.| Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
1964, Bath: .:....055 Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S. |J. 8. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner.
1865. Birming- |Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop
Buta | EBS. | Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.

[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,
Pp ly.]
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.

1846.Southampton| Dr. J. C. Pritchard ............ |Dr. King.

1847. Oxford ...... Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. ...|Prof. Buckley.
LB48. SWaNsea ...|.cccrcsccscccccerersenrsecrssserssnaes G. Grant Francis.
SO WSN HAIN apa cancravsoensh ene svenscoildvs sakes ess Dr. R. G. Latham.

1850. Edinburgh |Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm! Daniel Wilson.

SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.$.,|. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr,

Pres. R.G.S. | Norton Shaw.

1852. Belfast...... Col, Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,' R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton
F.R.S. | Shaw.

1853; Hall)... i\R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. |R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.

Norton Shaw.

1854. Liverpool... |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
| F.RS. Thne, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1855. Glasgow ... (ax J. Richardson, M.D.,/Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr.

|. “BERS. Norton Shaw.
1856. Cheltenham Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson, R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1857. Dublin...... |Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R, Cull, 8. Ferguson, Dr. R. R. Ff
Pres. R.LA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.

1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
siology’ (see p. iviil.). Section H, being then vacant, was assigned in 1851 to
Geography.

2 Vide note on page lix.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

*

Date and Place

lxiti

Presidents

Secretaries

1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865. Birmingham

1866. Nottingham

1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich ...

1869, Exéter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinbutgh
1872. Brighton os
1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol......
1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin

1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.........
1882. Southamp-
"+ ton.

1883. Southport

1884. Montreal ...
1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham

Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,
F.B.S.

Rear - Admiral Sir James
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.8.

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L..,
F.R.S8.

John Crawfurd, F.R.S..........

Francis Galton, F.R.S..........

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
F.B.S.

Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,
E.R.S.

Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.

.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S8.

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
F.RB.S.

K.C.B.,
LL.D., F.R.G.S.

Sit R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., #.B.S., F.G.S.

|Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S.

Francis Galton, F.R.S........:.

Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.

| #.R.G.S.
Lieut. - General Strachey;
R.E., C.S.1., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
|Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S.......
‘Adm, Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.RS.E.
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S.
\Sir J.. D.. Hooker, K.C.S.L,
C.B., E-B.S.

Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-
Austen, F.R.S.

Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,
K.C.M.G.,.F.B.S.,V.P.R.G.S.

Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

Kes. CB. PRG.

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,!

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.L,|

Maj.-Gen. Sir. F. J. Goldsmid,

R. Cull, F. Galton, P. O’Callaghan,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw.

Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.

Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.

J.W.Clarke, Rev. J.Glover, Dr. Hunt,
Dr. Norton Shaw, T. Wright.

C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.

H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet,
C. R. Markham, Thomas Wright.

H. W. Bates, Rev. HE. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.

Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. Sturrock.

T, Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R.

Markham, T. Wright.

|

SECTION E (continued).—GHOGRAPHY.
:|Sir Bartle Frere,

H. W. Bates, Clements R. Matkham,
J. H. Thomas.

'H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J
Mott, Clements R. Markham.

A. Buchan, A. Keith Johnston, Cle-
ments R. Markham, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.

H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.

E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.

| Thomas.

lH. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
Tuckett.

H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. O. Wood.

H. W. Bates, F. H. Fox, H. C. Rye.

John Coles, H. C. Rye.

H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C,
Rye.

H. W. Bates, EH. C. Rye.

J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates.

i. G. Ravenstein, EH. C. Kye.

John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, H. C.
Rye.

Rev. Abbé Lafiamme, J.S. O’Halloran,
E. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance.
J.S. Keltie, J. 8S. O'Halloran, H. G.

Ravenstein, Kev. G. A. Smith.

F. T. S. Houghton, J. 8. Keltie
E. G. Ravenstein,

lxiv

REPORT—1900,

Cee eEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE

Date and Place

Secretaries

1887.
1888.
1889.
1890.
1891.
1892.
1893.
1894.
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.
1899,
1900.

1833.
1834.

1835.
1836.

1837.

1838.
1839, Birmingham

1840.
1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.

1845.
1846.

1847. Oxford

1848.
1849 Birmingham |

Manchester

Newcastle- |
upon-Tyne,
Leeds

Cardiff ......|
Edinburgh
Nottingham
Oxford :.....
Ipswich ..
Liverpool...

Toronto

PSTISUO! senses

'Lieut.-Col. Sir R. Lambert

|H. Seebohm, Sec. B.8., F.L.S.,

'Major L. Darwin, Sec. R.G.S.
... J. Scott-Keltie, LL.D.

Presidents
Col. Sir C. Warren, R.E.,
G.C.M.G., F.B.S., F.R.G.S.

Col. Sir C. W. Wilson, R.E.,
K0.B:, FBS. E:R:G:S.
Col. Sir F. de Winton,
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.B.G.8.

Playfair, K.C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
E. G. Ravenstein, ¥. R.G.S8.,
F.S.8.
Prof, J. Geikie, D.C.L., F.B.S., |
V.P.R.Scot.G.s.

F.Z.8.
Capt. W.J. L. Wharton, R.N.,
F.R.S.
Mackinder,

; M.A.,
F.B.G.S.

Col. G. Earl Church, F.R.G.S.

Bradford ..

Cambridge
Edinburgh

Dublin
Bristol

sbeeee

Liverpool...

Newcastle

Glasgow ...
Plymouth...

Manchester

eee eeneee

Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.

eeeeee

Swansea ..,

\Sir John Murray, F.R.8.

.|Sir George §. Robertson,
|

Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon

/Rt. Hon, Lord Sandon, M.P.,
\Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S.......
iG. W. Wood, M.P., F.LS. ...

| Lieut. - Col.

K.C.8.1.

Rev. L. C. Casartelli, J. 8. Keltie,
H. J. Mackinder, E. G. Ravenstein

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, E. G.
Ravenstein,

J. S. Keltie, H. J. Mackinder, R.
Sulivan, A. Silva White,

|A. Barker, John Coles, J. 8. Keltie,
A. Silva White,

John Coles, J. 8. Keltie, H. J. Mac-
kinder, A. Silva White, Dr. Yeats.

J. G. Bartholomew, John Coles, J. 8.
Keltie, A. Silva White.

Col. F. Bailey, John Coles, H. O.
Forbes, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, W. 8. Dalgleish, H. N.
Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill.

John Coles, H. N. Dickson, Dr. H.

R. Mill, W. A. Taylor.
Col. F. Bailey, H. N. Dickson, Dr.
H. R. Mill, E. C. DuB. Phillips.
Col. F. Bailey, Capt. Deville, Dr.
H. R. Mill, J. B. Tyrrell.

H.N. Dickson, Dr. H. R. Mill, H. C.
Trapnell.

H. N. Dickson, Dr. H. O. Forbes,
Dr. H. R. Mill.

H. N. Dickson, E. Heawood, E. R.
Wethey.

STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.

Prof. Babbage, F’.R.S. ......
Sir Charles Lemon, Bart.......

SECTION F.—STATI
Charles Babbage, F.R.S. .
Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F. R. Ss.

eee eeeeee

Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. ........
Henry Hallam, F.R.S.......

F.R.S.

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P,

Sykes, F.RB.S.,
F.L.S.

Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam
Garb BEOLeT aN Ris. scasthenence

Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.
J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.B.S. ...

Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton......

...(Jd. E, Drinkwater.

Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.

STICS,

.|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.

Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp,
James Heywood.

W. BR. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
Tayler.

.| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W. R. Wood.
.|F, Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.

Tayler.

C. R. Baird, Prof, Ramsay, R. W.
Rawson.

Rey. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R, Luney, R.
W. Rawson.

Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.

...|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.

J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
cock. !

J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
J. Fletcher, F. G, P. Neison, Dr. W.
C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.

P. Neison.
J. Fletcher, Capt, R. Shortrede.
Dr. Finch, Prof, Hancock, F, G. P.
Neison.

PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxv

Date and Place

Presidents

1850. Edinburgh

1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast......

1858. Hull
1854. Liverpool,,.

1855. Glasgow ...

Secretaries

Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.

V.P.R.S.E.

Stark.

Sir John P, Boileau, Bart. ...|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
His Grace the Archbishop of | Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James

Dublin.

MacAdam, jun.

James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.| Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch.
Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........|H. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.

Duncan, W. Newmarch.

R. Monckton Milnes, M,P. ... | J, A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-

march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.

SECTION F (continued),—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

1856. Cheltenham

1857. Dublin

1858. Leeds .

eeeee

1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford

1861, Manchester

1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle

1864. Bath.........
1865, Birmingham

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee

feces

1868. Norwich....
1869. Exeter

1870. Liverpool...

1871, Edinburgh
1872. Brighton...
1873, Bradford ...
1874. Belfast......

1875. Bristol

1876. Glasgow ...

1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin......
1879. Sheffield ...

1880. Swansea ...
1881. York.........

Rt. Hon, Lord Stanley, M.P. ,

His Grace the Archbishop of
Dublin, M.R.LA.

Edward Baines......... caneeeel

Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S. ......

Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......

William Newmarch, F.R.S....

Edwin Chadwick, O©.B. ........

-| William Tite, M.P., F.R.S....

W. Farr, M.D., D.C.L., F.RB.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
M.P.

Prof. J. E. T. Rogers

eee eeewesene

M. EH. Grant-Duff, M.P. .......

Samuel Brown. .....se.sccosseees

Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.

Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.

Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves.........

Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....

Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.

Lord) O7Hagar. f....vee.ctswenes

James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,
Pres. 8.8.

Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.L.,
M.P.

Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.

Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Newmarch.

T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang.
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,

Smith, Dr. John Strang.

Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers.

David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
H. Macrory, Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. °

H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.

T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.

E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.

G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston
E. Macrory.

R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E
Macrory.

Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.

Rev. W. C. Davie, Prof. Leone
Levi.

E. Macrory, F. Purdy, C. T. D.
Acland.

Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory.
J. Miles Moss.

J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.

J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.

J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.

Prof. Donnell, F. P. Fellows, Hans
MacMordie.

F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.

Macrory.

M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr.

W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack.

A.

882. Southamp-
ton.
1900.

Rt. Hon, the Earl Fortescue |W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.

Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D. |W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.

G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.|Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
8.8. Molloy.

G. W. Hastings, M.P........... N, A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.

Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,|C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F.
M.A., F.R.S. Moss.

Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,|G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Iox-
M.P., F.R.S, well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy.

Ixvi

Date and Place

1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.
1887.

1888.
1889.
1890.

1891,

1892.

1893.

1894,
1895.
1896.

1897.
1898.

1899.

1900.

1836.
1837.
1838.

1839. Birmingham |

1840.

1841.
1842.

1843.
1844.
1845.
1846,
1847.
1848,
1849,
1850.

Southport

Montreal ...

Aberdeen... |

Birmingham |

nEPoRT— |)

Presidents

R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.8.

G.C.8.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S.

|Prof. H. Sidgwick, ULL.D.,

Litt.D.
J. B. Martin, M.A., F.S.S.

0,

Secretaries

‘Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. §.
Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy.

‘Sir Richard Temple, Batt,| Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. 8. McLennan,

| Prof. J. Watson.

Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. §.
Foxwell, C. McCombie, J. F. Moss.

I’, F. Barham, Rev. W. Cunningham,
Prof. H. 8. Foxwell, J. F. Moss.

Manchester | Robert Giffen, LL.D.,V.P.S.8. Rev. W. Cunningham, F. Y. Edge-

BALD ecco ees
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne
Leeds

waeeee

Edinburgh

Rt. Hon. Lord Bramwell,
DID D A a ase

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, M.A.,
F.S.8,

Prof, A. Marshall, M.A., F.{5.S.

Prof. W. Cunningham, D.D.,
D.8c., F.8.8.

Hon. Sir C. W. Fremantle,
K:C.B,

worth, T. H. Elliott, C. Hughes
| J. E.C. Munro, G, H. Sargant.

Prof. F. Y. Edgeworth, T. H. Elliott,
H. S. Foxwell, L. L. F. R. Price.

Rev. Dr. Cunningham, T. H. Elliott,

| F.B. Jevons, L. L. F. R. Price.

W. A. Brigg, Rev. Dr. Cunningham,
T. H. Elliott, Prof. J. E. C. Munro,
L. L. F. Ri Price.

Prof. J. Brough, E. Cannan, Prof.
E. Cc. K. Gonner, H. Ll. Smith,
Prof. W. R. Sorley.

Prof. J. Brough, J. R. Findlay, Prof.

| KE. ©. K. Gonner, H. Higgs,

| L, L. FR. Price.

Nottingham Prof. J. 8. Nicholson, D.Sc.,, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, H. de B.

F.8.8. Gibbins, J. A. H. Green, H. Higgs,
| le DL. RPrice,
Oxford...... Prof. C. F. Bastable, M.A.,|E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
| F.S.8. | W.A.S. Hewins, H. Higgs.
Tpswioh: .s.| i. Pricey IMiA.. t0i...t..2 |E. Cannan, Prof. EH. C. K. Gonner,
f | H. Higgs.
Liverpool...|Rt. Hon. L. Courtney, M.P.....E. Cannan, Prof. E. C. K. Gonner,
| W. <A. 8. Hewins, H. Higgs.
Toronto ...| Prof. E. C. K. Gonner, M.A. E. Cannan, H. Higgs, Prof. A. Shortt.
Bristol... ..|J. Bonar, M.A., LL.D. 'E. Cannan, Prof. A. W. Flux, H.

Dover .

..../H, Higos, LL.B

Higgs, W. E. Tanner.
A. L. Bowley, E. Cannan, Prof. A.
W. Flux, Rev. G. Sarson.

Bradford ...' Major P. G. Craigie, V.P-8.8.|A, Th Bowley, E. Cannan, 8. J.

Chapman, I, Hooper.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

Bristol it.ee
Liverpool... |
Newcastle

Glasgow ....

Plymouth
Manchester

Cambridge

South’mpt’n
Oxford...
Swansea ...
Birmingh’m

Edinburgh

Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Rev. Dr. Robinson

Pe ere eseeres

| Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......

Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.
Stephenson.

Sir John Robinson .............

John Maylory F.R.S. ....ccccee

Rev. Prof. Willis, F.B.S. .....

Prof, J. Macneill, M.R.I.A...
John Maylonjil. RS) veeerees
George Rennie, F.R.S

Ce

Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.S
Rev. Prof. Walker, M.A.,F.R.

Ss.
Robt. Stephenson, M.P.,F.R.S.
Rey, R, Robinson

4b bree casaeadé

T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.

|Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.

R. Hawthorn, C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.

W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Webster.

'J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod,

| C. Vignoles.

. Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
. J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J,

| Thomson, Charles Vignoles.

.|James Thomson, Robert Mallet.

‘Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
| Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.

. J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.

R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
‘Dr, Lees, David Stephenson,

—e— er —

PRESIDENTS

AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.

lxvil

Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
1851. Ipswich ...| William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby.
1852. Belfast...... John Walker, C.H., LL.D.,|John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock.
E.RB.S. | Charles Manby, James Thomson.
tspe Hull....1..... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. |J. Oldham, J. Thomson, W.S. Ward.
1854. Liverpool...; John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...|J.Grantham, J. Oldham, J. Thomson,

1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin......
Leeds
Aberdeen...

1858.
1859.

1860. Oxford

seeeee

seneee

1861. Manchester

1862. Cambridge.
1863. Newcastle .

1864, Bath
1865. Birmingham

reer errr

1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee......

1868. Norwich

1869. Exeter ......
1870. Liverpool...

1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...

_ 1873. Bradford ...

1874. Belfast

1875. Bristol ......
1876. Glasgow ...
187 7. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin ......

1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...

1881, POU: cotisess

hi
Ma

1882, Southamp-
_ ton

1883. Southport .

1884. Montreal ..
1885. Aberdeen...
1886, Birmingham

W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S.
George Rennie, F. R. Se

...|L. Hill, W. Ramsay, J. Thomson.
{C. Atherton. B. Jones, H. M. Jeffery.

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse, | Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,

F.R.S
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.B.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....

William Fairbairn, F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.

J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ...
Sir W. G. Armstrong, te he
F.R.S.

Thomas Hawksley, V.P. Inst.|

C.E., F.G.S.
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.

...(|G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.

|C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., E.R. Ss.

Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.

se eeeeeee

Wie Els BALGwW, HORcS.. cassesase

Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.

C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......
Edward Woods, C.E. .
Edward Easton, C.E.

J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.

J. Abernethy, F.R.S.E..........

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.

John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S.

J. Brunlees, Pres. Inst.C.B.

.|/Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,
V.P.Inst.C.E.

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .......

Sir J. N. Douglass, M.Inst.
C.E.

|

James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.

Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison

Henry Wright.

P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,

H. Wright.

W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.

>

..|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt,

P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea,
W. P. Marshall, Walter May.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M,
O. Tarbotton.

P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith,
W. W. Urquhart.

P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, ©.
Manby, W. Smith.

.|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.

H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T,
King, J. N. Shoolbred.

| HI. Bauerman, A. Leslie, J. P. Smith.

H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster,
J.G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

C.Barlow,H.Bauerman. E.H.Carbutt,

| J.C. Hawkshaw, J. N. Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, J. N.Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.

W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.

W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar,
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.

.|A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.

Shoolbred.

A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T
Wood.

A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge
H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson,
H. T. Wood.

...(|A. i Atchison, F Churton, H. T.

Wood.

A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood.

A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J.
Kennedy, H. T. Wood.

.|A. T. Atchison, F. G. Ogilvie, E.
Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred.

C. W. Cooke, J. Kenward, W. B,

Marshall, E. Rigg.
d2

Ixvili

rePort——1900,

Date and Place

1887. Manchester

1888. Bath
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1889.
1891, Cardiff ......
1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham
1894, Oxford......
1895. Ipswich
1896, Liverpool...
1897. Toronto
1898. Bristol

weteee

1899. Dover

1900, Bradford ...

1884. Montreal...
1885. Aberdeen...

1886. Birmingham |

1887. Manchester
1888. Bath

1889. Newcastle-

upon-Tyne
1890. Leeds

1891. Cardiff......

1892. Edinburgh
1893. Nottingham

1894. Oxford......
1895. Ipswich ..
1896. Liverpool...

1897. Toronto

see ee ween

na Mevore, 1 dae

Presidents

Secretaries

LL.D., F.B.S.

a Preece,
M.Inst.C.E.
W. Anderson, M.Inst.C.E. ..

WwW.

Capt. A. Noble, C.B., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.

Prof. W.
M.Inst.C.B.
F.C.S8.
F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
M.A., M.Inst.C.E.

...|G@. F, Deacon, M.Inst.C.E.

Sir J. Wolfe-Barry, K.C.B.,

F.R.S.
Sir W. White, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Prof. Osborne Reynolds, M.A.,
F.RS.,

T, Forster Brown, M.Inst.C..
C. Unwin, F.RBS.,
Jeremiah Head, M.Inst.C.E.,
Prof. A. B. W. Kennedy,
Vernon-Harcourt,

Sir Douglas Fox, V.P.Inst.C.E,

C. F. Budenberg, W. B. Marshall,
K. Rige.

C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Rigg, P. K. Stothert.

.|C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, Hon.
C. A, Parsons, E. Rigg

E. K. Clark, C. W. Cooke, W. B.
Marshall, E. Rigg.

Cc. W. Cooke, Prof. A. C, Elliott,
W. B. Marshall, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, W. C,
Popplewell, E. Rigg.

C. W. Cooke, W. B. Marshall, E,
Rigg, H. Talbot.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, Rev. F. J. Smith.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
W. B. Marshall, P. G. M. Stoney.

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, C. W. Cooke,
S. Dunkerley, W. B. Marshall,

Prof. T. Hudson Beare, Prof. Callen-
dar, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, Prof. J. Munro,
H. W. Pearson, W. A. Price.

Prof. T. H. Beare, W. A. Price, H,
E. Stilgoe.

Marshall, E.

Sir Alex. R. Binnie, M.Inst.
C.E.

Prof. T. H. Beare, C. F, Charnock,
Prof. S. Dunkerley, W. A. Price.

SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.B.S. ...
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S.

Sir G. Campbell,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S.

Lieut.-General
D.C.L., F.R.S.

LL.D., F.R.S.
Dr. J. Evans, Treas.
F.S.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.

Prof. A. Macalister,
M.D., F.B.S.

Sir W.
F.R.S.

H. Flower,

K.C.8.1L,
Prof, A. H, Sayce, M.A. .......
Pitt-Rivers,
Prof. Sir W. Turner, M.B.,
BS.,
Prof, F. Max Miiller, M.A. ...
M.A.,
Dr, R. Munro, M.A., F.R.S.E.

K.C.B,,

G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst.

|G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.

Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W.
Hurst, Dr. R, Saundby.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr.
A. M. Paterson.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, J.
Harris Stone.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, Dr,
R. Morison, Dr. R. Howden.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. C. M. Chadwick,
Dr. J. G. Garson.

G. W. Bloxam, Prof. R. Howden, H,

Ling Roth, E. Seward.

G. W. Bloxam, Dr. D. Hepburn, Prof,

R. Howden, H. Ling Roth.

G. W. Bloxam, Rev. T. W. Davies, -

Prof. R. Howden, F, B. Jevons,
J. L. Myres.

H. Balfour, Dr. J. G.Garson, H. Ling

Roth,

.|Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie,/J. L. Myres, Rev. J. J. Raven, H,

D.C.L
Arthur i Evans, F.S.A. .....+

+» }Sir W. Turmer, F.R.S. ..,...06.

Ling Roth.

Prof. A. C. Haddon, J. L. Myres,

Prof. A. M. Paterson.

A. F. Chamberlain, H. 0, Forbes,

Prof, A. C, Haddon, J, ly. Myres,

LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES. lxix

Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries
as ees See er
|
1898. Bristol...... |i. W. Brabrook, O.B. .... ....|H. Balfour, J. L. Myres, G. Parker.
1899. Dover ...... |C. H. Read, F.S.A. |H. Balfour, W. H. East, Prof. A. C.
| | Haddon, J. L. Myres.
1900. Bradford .. ake John Rhys, M.A..........) i Rev. E. Armitage, H. Balfour, W.

1894,

1896.
1897.

1899.

1895.
1896.

| Crooke, J. L. Myres.

SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY (including ExprrimEentrAL
ParHoLoGy AND ExPERIMENTAL PsycHoLoGy).

Oxford......|Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S.,| Prof. ¥. Gotch, Dr. J. 8. Haldane,
M.R.C.S. | M.S. Pembrey.
Liverpool...| Dr. W. H. Gaskell, F.R.S |Bx of. R. Boyce, Prof. C.S. Sherrington.
Yoronto ...|Prof. Michael Foster, F.R.S. | Prof. R. Boyce, Prof. C. 8. Sherring-
| ton, Dr, L. EH. Shore.
Dover ..:... J. N. Langley, F.L.8. | Dr. Howden, Dr. L. E. Shore, Dr. E.
H, Starling.

SECTION K.—BOTANY.

Ipswich ...|W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, F.R.S.|A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.

Liverpool... Dr. D, H. Scott, F.R.S. ...... ‘Prof. Harvey Gibson, A. C. Seward,
| | Prof. F. H. Weiss.

1897. Toronto ... Prof. Marshall Ward, F.R.S. Prof. J. B. Farmer, BH. C. Jeffrey,
| | A. C. Seward, Prof. F. E. Weiss.
1898. Bristol......| Prof. I. O. Bower, F.R.8. ws [AL C, Seward, H. Wager, J. W. White.
1899. Dover ...... Sir George King, F.R.S. ......;G. Dowker, A. C. Seward, H. Wager.
1900. Bradford ...| Prof. 8. H. Vines, E.RS... we. C. Seward, H. Wager, W. West.
LIST OF EVENING DISCOURSES.
Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse

1842. Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... |The Principles and Construction of

Atmospheric Railways.

SingMy, Te Brunely ‘...5cerectacdes The Thames Tunnel.
R. I. Murchison...........s00e00e The Geology of Russia.
1843, Cork ......... Prof, Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......| The Dinornis of New Zealand.
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........| The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Aigean Sea.
Dr. RobinsOn.........02.cceeeeeees The Karl of Rosse’s Telescope.
1844. York......... Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........|Geology of North America.
Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.......00008+ The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik

Hills in India.

1845. Cambridge | G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal} Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism.

1846,

1847,

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia.
Southamp- | Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
ton, Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
W. R. Grove, F.R.S........0.06+ Properties of the ExplosiveSubstance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some itesearches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Oxford......] Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |Shooting Stars.
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......| Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
Hugh E. Strickland, F,G.5....|The Dodo (Didus ineptus),

lxx

REPORT—1900.

Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse
1848. Swansea ...|John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... Metallurgical Operationsof Swansea
| and its Neighbourhood.
'W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....|Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
1849. Birmingham| Dr. Haraday, Has. c.ccse-cese Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
|Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|Transit of different Weights with
| varying Velocities on Railways.
1850. Edinburgh Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,|Passage of the Blood through the
| F.R.S.E. minute vesselsof Animals in con-
nection with Nutrition.
Dr. Mantel, HiRiSa: sicasss spas Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
1851. Ipswich ...|Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |Distinction between Plants and
| Animals, and their changes of
| Form.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal | Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
1852. Belfast...... Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,| Recent Discoveries in the properties
F.R.S. of Light.
|Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.|Recent Discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
1853. Hull.........|Prof.J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.,|Some peculiar Phenomena in the
F.G.S. Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
Robert Hunt, F.B,S.......00008. The present state of Photography.
1854, Liverpool...) Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |Anthropomorphous Apes.
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......| Progressof Researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
1855. Glasgow ...| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |Characters of Species.
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson ...| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
1856. Cheltenham) Col. Sir H. Rawlinson ......... Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform Research up to the
present time.
| Wi, Grove; ER :Ss..s<ssss see Correlation of Physical Forces.
1857. Dublin...... Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ...|The Atlantic Telegraph.
Rev. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. | Recent Discoveries in Africa.
1858. Leeds -..... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.)The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |The Fossil Mammalia, of Australia.
1859. Aberdeen...) Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....|Geology of the Northern Highlands.

{Rtev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...

1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.8.
|Captain Sherard Osborn. R.N.

1861. Manchester | Prof.W.A. Miller, M.A.,F.R.S.
iG. B. Airy, F.R.S., Astron.

Royal.

1862. Cambridge | Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.B.S.
(Brot, Odling W.R.S....c..cecess

1863. Newcastle |Prof. Williamson, F.R.S.......
James Glaisher, F'.R.S.........

1864. Bath......... Prof. Roscoe, F'.R.S. ......0c000-
Dr. Livingstone, F.R.S. ......

1865. Birmingham|J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S..........

Electrical Discharges in

| highly
| rarefied Media.

... Physical Constitution of the Sun.

Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.

The Forms and Action of Water.

Organic Chemistry.

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to
Dynamics.

The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.

The Chemical Action of Light.

Recent Travels in Africa.

Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.

i
L
J
;
}

LIST OF’ EVENING
Date and Place Lecturer
1866. Nottingham | William Huggins, F.R.S.......
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.....
1867. Dundee...... Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.....
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
1868. Norwich ...|J. Fergusson, F.R.S............
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..
1869, Exeter ......| Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D. FE. RS.
|J. Norman Lockyer, F. R. S.-
1870. Liverpool...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S8. |
1871. Edinburgh /|F. A. Abel, BRS... cc. popeL noe
H. Bi Tylor, BERS. ccocscsctens
1872, Brighton ..,| Prof, P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford............ /
1873. Bradford ...| Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.8.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
1874. Belfast......|Sir John Lubbock, Bart..M.P.,
Prof. Huxley, F.R:S. ....0c:
1875. Bristol ......|W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
#. J. Bramwell, F.R.S........0.
1876. Glasgow ..,| Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E.
Sir Wyville Thomson, F R. 8.
1877. Plymouth...) W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
F.B.S.
| Prof. Odling, BBS vicssassaastats
1878. Dublin ..... 'G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.
‘Prof. DSHS EE RG Ss eccegenceaas
1875. Sheffield .. . |W. Crookes, F'.R.S.
| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F R. S.|
1880. Swansea ... | Prof.W.Boyd Dawkins, F.R.8.
| Francis Galton, F.B.S..........
ESol. Yorkk,....... Prof. Huxley, Sec..R.S. <...5.
|W. Spottiswoode, Pres. R.S....
1882. Southamp- | Prof.Sir Wm. Thomson, F.R.8.
ton. Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S.
1883. Southport | Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.R.S. ......
Prof. J. G. McKendrick. ......
1884. Montreal... | Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ......
Rey. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.8.
1885. Aberdeen... | Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.8....

DISCOURSES.

xxi

John Murray, F.R.S,E...,.

| Subject of Discourse
}

The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies.

..|Insular Floras.
.. |The Geological Origin of the present

Scenery of Scotland.

The present state of Knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.

Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.

.| Reverse Chemical Actions.

Vesuvius.

-|The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebule.

| The Scientific Use of the Imagination

Stream-lines and Waves, in connec
tion with Naval Architecture.

Some Recent Investigations and Ap
plications of Explosive Agents.

The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilisation.

Insect Metamorphosis.

The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.

|Coal and Coal Plants.

| Molecules.

Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects,

The Hypothesis that| Animals are
Automata, and its History.

The Colours of Polarised Light.

Railway Safety Appliances.

.. | Force.

The Challenger Expedition.

| Physical Phenomena connected with
the Mines of Cornwalland Devon,

|The New Element, Gallium.

..| Animal Intelligence.

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.

Radiant Matter.

| Degeneration.

Primeval Man.

Mental Imagery.

The Rise and Progress of Paleon-

| tology.

The Electric Discharge, its Forms
and its Functions.

Tides.

Pelagic Life.

Recent Researches on the Distance
of the Sun.

Galvanic and Animal Electricity.

Dust.

The Modern Microscope in Re-
searches on the Least and Lowest
Forms of Life.

The Electric Light and Atmospheric
Absorption.

. The Great Ocean Basins.

Ixxii

REPORT—1900;

Date and Place

Lecturer

1886, Birmingham] A. W. Riicker, M.A., F.R.S.

1887.
1888.
1888.
1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.
1893.

1894,

1895.

1896.
1897.
1898.

1899.

1900.

Manchester

Newcastle- |
upon-Tyne!

aeneee

Edinburgh

Nottingham

Oxford

Ipswich

Liverpool...

Toronto ...

Prof. W. Rutherford, M.D....
Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S8.
Col. Sir F. de Winton
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, F-R.S. ...

ae eeenere

Prof. T. G. Bonney, D.S8c.,|
F.R.S. |
Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,|
F.R.S.
Walter Gardiner, M.A.........

E. B. Poulton, M.A., F.R.S....
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. L. C. Miall, F.L.S., F.G.S8.

Prof. A.W. Riicker, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. A. M. Marshall, F.R.S.
Prof. J.A. Ewing, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. A. Smithells, B.Sc.
Prof. Victor Horsley, F.R.S.

J. W. Gregory, D.Sc., F.G.S.

| Prof. J.Shield Nicholson, M.A.)

.| Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R..8. |
| Prof. Percy

F. Frankland,
F.RB.S.

Drill eat HRS: cc.veseesel

Prof. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L.

Prof. Roberts Austen, F.R.S.

J. Milne; WARIS cscs dsaaareave 5

Bristol

stteee

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S. ...
Herbert Jackson ...........000+
Prof. Charles Richet......... gee
Prof. J. Fleming, F.R.S. ......

Subject of Discourse

Soap Bubbles.
The Sense of Hearing.

...| The Rate of Explosions in Gases.

Explorations in Central Africa.

The Electrical Transmission of
Power.

The Foundation Stones of the Earth’s
Crust.

The Hardening and Tempering of
Steel.

'How Plants maintain themselves in
the Struggle for Existence.

Mimicry.

Quartz Fibres and their Applications.

Some Diffculties in the Life of
Aquatic Insects.

Electrical Stress.

Pedigrees.

Magnetic Induction.

Flame.

The Discovery of the Physiology of
the Nervous System.

Experiences and _ Prospects
African Exploration.

Historical Progress and Ideal So-

| . Clalism.

Magnetism in Rotation.

The Work of Pasteur and its various
Developments.

Safety in Ships.

Man before Writing

Canada’s Metals.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes.

Funafuti: the Study of a Coral
Island. ’

Phosphorescence.

La vibration nerveuse.

The Centenary of the Electric
Current.

of

Bradford ...| Prof. F. Gotch, F.R.S....,.....| Animal Electricity.

P¥Ot. Ws OULOUG.. tevearteaeneene:

Range Finders.

Lexiit

LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES.

Date and Place

1867.
1868.
1869.

1870.
1872.
18732.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
1881.

1882.

1883.
1884.
1885.
1886.

1887.
1888.
1889.

1890.

1891.

1892.

1893.

1894,
1895.
1896.
1897.
1898.

1900.

Lecturer

Subject of Discourse

Dundee....
Norwich ...
Exeter

Liverpool...
Brighton ...
Bradford .,.

Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
PVIOTE: .Szead. fe
Southamp-
ton.

Southport

Montreal ...
Aberdeen ..
Birmingham

Manchester
Batis. <.d.0-
Newcastle-

upon-Tyne)

Leeds

aeenee

Edinburgh

Oxford......
Ipswich
Liverpool...
Toronto ...
Bristol

Bradford ...

.|H. B. Dixon, M.A.

...|Dr. A. H. Fison

..| Prof. J. Tyndall, it, DF. BS.

Prof, Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof, Miller, M.D., F. R.S8.

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L. oF.
Brom Odlino. HOR:S.c..cscseees
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.

B.S.
B.S.
B.S.

=a

..|Commander Cameron, C.B....
..| W. H. Preece
|W. E. Ayrton
|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. .........06-

Prof. Osborne

Reynolds,
F.R.S.

John Evans, D.C.L.,Treas. B.S.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.B.S. ...,

ETO lea alle BNR Dererescecs

Prof. W. C. Roberts-Austen,
F.B.S.

Prof. G. Forbes, F.R.S. ......

SirJohn Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........

Prof. J. Perry, D.Sc., F.R.S.

Prof. 8. P. Thompson, F.R.8.
Prof. C. Vernon Boys, F.R.S.
Prof. Vivian B. Lewes.........
Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.
Prof. J. A. Fleming, F.R.S....
Dr. HO) Horbesit 2... Mate:
Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.

Prof, 8. P. Thompson, F.R.5

|

Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.

-|The modes of detecting the Com-

position of the Sun and other
Heavenly Bodies by the Spectrum.
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.

|A Piece of Limestone.

A Journey through Africa.

Telegraphy and the Telephone.

Electricity as a Motive Power.

The North-East Passage.

Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow-
flakes.

Unwritten History, and how to
read it.

Talking by Electricity—Telephones.

Comets.

|The Nature of Explosions.
|The Colours of Metals and their

Alloys.
Electric Lighting.
The Customs of Savage Races.
The Forth Bridge.

Spinning Tops.

Electricity in Mining.
Electric Spark Photographs.
Spontaneous Combustion.

..|Geologies and Deluges.

Colour.
The Harth a Great Magnet.
New Guinea.

|The ways in which Animals Warn

their enemies and Signal to their
friends.

-| Electricity in the Industries.

lxxiv REPORT. —1900.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT
THE BRADFORD MEETING.

SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

President.—Dr. Joseph Larmor, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Dr. A. A. Common, F.R.S. (Chairman of the Depart-
ment of Astronomy) ; Prof. G. F. FitzGerald, F.R.S. ; Prof. A. R.
Forsyth, F.R.S.; Prof. G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; Principal Oliver
Lodge, F.R.S.; Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.; Prof. A. W.
Riicker, F.R.S. ; Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

Secretaries—P. H. Cowell, M.A.; A. Fowler; C. H. Lees, D.Sc. ;
C. J. L. Wagstaffe, M.A.; Prof. W., Watson, B.Sc. (Recorder) ;
E. T. Whittaker, M.A.

SECTION B,—-CHEMISTRY.

President.—Prof. W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. E. Armstrong, F.R.S.; Horace T. Brown,
F.R.S. ; Prof. H. B. Dixon, F.R.S.; Dr. Gladstone, F.R.8. ; W. H.
Perkin, sen., F.R.S.; Sir. H. E. Roscoe, F.R.S.; Sir William
Roberts-Austen, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Secretaries.—W. M. Gardner ; F, 8. Kipping, F.R.S. ; W. J. Pope; T. K.
Rose (fecorder).

SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.

President.—Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S8.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. J. Joly, F.R.S.; Lieut.-Gen. C. A. McMahon,
F.R.S.; Clement Reid, F.R.S.; J. J. H. Teall, F.R.So5 W-
Whitaker, F.R.S.; Dr. H. Woodward, F.R.S. °

Secretaries—H. L. Bowman; Rev. W. Lower Carter ; G. W. Lamplugh
(Recorder) ; H. W. Monckton.

SECTION D,—ZOOLOGY (AND PHYSIOLOGY).

President.—Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. Francis Gotch, M.A., F.R.S. ; Prof. S. J. Hick-
son, M.A., D.8c., F.R.S.; Prof. L. C. Miall, F.R.S.; Prof. E. B.
Poulton, M.A., F.R.S. ; Prof. Sir J. Burdon Sanderson, Bart., F.R.S. ;
Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S.; J. W. Woodall, M.A., F.G.S.

Secretaries.—W alter Garstang, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. Graham Kerr, M.A. ;
T. H. Taylor ; Swale Vincent.

SECTION E,—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Sir George 8. Robertson, K.C.S.1.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir Thomas H. Holdich, K.C.I.E.; T. Scott Keltie,
LL.D. ; H. R. Mill, D.Se., LL.D. ; E. G. Ravenstein.

Secretarves—H. N. Dickson, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; Edward Heawood,
M.A. ; E. R. Wethey, M.A.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS Ixxv

SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

President.—Major P. G. Craigie, V.P.S.8.

Vice-Presidents.—Rev. William Cunningham, D.D.; Prof. E. C. K.
Gonner, M.A. ; Henry Higgs, LL.B., F.S.S.; Rev. W. H. Keeling,
M.A. ; L. L. Price, M.A.

Secretaries.—A. L. Bowley, M.A. ; E. Cannan, M.A., F.S.8. (Recorder) ;
8. J. Chapman, M.A. ; F. Hooper.

SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—Sir Alexander R. Binnie, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S.

Vice-Presidents.—G. F. Deacon ; Alexander Siemens ; Sir W. H. Preece,
K.O.B., F.R.S. ; J. Watson.

Secretaries.—Prof. T. Hudson Beare, F.R.S.E. (Recorder) ; G. F. Char-
nock ; Prof. S. Dunkerley, M.Sc. ; W. A. Price, M.A.

SECTION H,—ANTHROPOLOGY,
President.—Prof. John Rhys, M.A.

Vice-Presidents.—J. Beddoe, M.D., F.R.S.; E. W. Brabrook, C.B.,
F.S.A.; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Prof. A. C. Haddon,
F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Macalister, F.R.S. ; Prof. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S.

Secretaries.—Rev. E. Armitage, M.A. ; H. Balfour, M.A. ; W. Crooke,
B.A. ; J. L. Myres, M.A., F.S.A (Recorder).

SECTION K,—BOTANY.
President.—Prof. 8. H. Vines, F.R.S.!

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. O. Bower, Sc.D., F.R.S.; Prof. J. Reynolds
Green, F.R.S.; Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.; Prof. Marshall Ward,
E.RS.

Secretaries.—A. C. Seward, F.R.S. (Recorder); Harold Wager ; William
West, F.L.S.

COMMITTEE OF RECOMMENDATIONS.

The President ; the Vice-Presidents of the Meeting ; the Presidents of
former years; the Trustees; the General and Assistant General
Secretaries ; the General Treasurer.

The Presidents of the Sections.

Prof. A. R. Forsyth ; C. Vernon Boys; Dr. A. A. Common; Prof. H. E.
Armstrong ; Dr. Horace Brown; Prof. Harold Dixon; J. J. H.
Teall; J. E. Marr; Prof. S. J. Hickson; W. Garstang; E. G.
Ravenstein ; Dr. J. Scott Keltie; E. W. Brabrook ; E. Cannan ;
Sir W. H. Preece; Prof. T. H. Beare; H. Balfour; Prof. A. C.
Haddon ; Prof. F. Gotch ; Prof. Johnson Symington ; Prof. F. O.
Bower; Prof. Marshall Ward; Dr. D. H. Scott; Prof. E. B.
Poulton,

1 Prof. Vines was unable to attend the Meeting.

lxxvi REPORT—1900.

Dr. THE GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT,
1899-1900. RECEIPTS. r ,
iaentle
Balance brought forward .........:seceesseeeenees edshodidueteueaten ad 1549 1 38
Life Compositions (including Tramsfers)...........scsseeeeeeeeoees 314 0 0
New Annual Members’ Subscriptions ..........sssecsecseeeeeees iw, 1500 0
VANNTAl SUPSCTIPLIONS «,-..0r0cseccsaccessccecseserovenesseveessuacsenans 566 0 O
Sale Om ASsociates, LICKCUHS .c..01.-ccvs1ses>cdesesscescusasbeanswecnnea 538 0 O
Daler adler NICKELS unui vesesdcisececbescsaccavbecechac=seeerasbed 120 0 0
BALE OL PEMD CAULONS, feapaaelas nv aepdeuie 14 0enoen=<snpoesessn ese aenecaaens 203 8 9
Interest on Deposit at Bristol Bamk ............sceceeceeeenseeeee 24 4 1
iyrd eng Gni@OnsOlS ecdaccs sredetess's «besesaeeecksacense eee aemepeeadt 200 7 4
Dividend on India Sper’ Cents ......cessvosvececsese se taste dapiessnes 104 8 O
Income Tax returned (for three years, to April 1899)......... 30 2 6
Unexpended Balances of Grants returned :—
Corresponding Societies Committee ......... Oa a 0)
Committee on Heat of Combination of
Michal Siccsrensictiaeritsadcaanevep ess sohhesnedeee ee 2) 1210
Ethnographical Survey Committee ......... 1S 050
— 1p 6,

“£3813 12 11

TE
yy
Te
7
/
ye
Le
Investments.
£ iS." 9G
WonsOlssienys less cess Paavdsscess esspeeinr ne Chivaepes Capel 3h UE
MHA ney OEE CGNES ede. osestssccsdeahWeneesbteriaes 3600 0 0
£11,137 3
ne

G. Canny Foster, General Treasurer.

GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. Ixxvii

from July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1900. Or.

1899-1900. EXPENDITURE.
£ Ss. dy

Expenses of Dover Meeting, including Grant to Local Fund,
Printing, Advertising, Payment of Clerks, &c. &c............. 599

7
Rent and: Office Wxpenses) .....scecsscsccsacsesouesssevssaneres seiebeone (DL 4
ISAPATIOS ea sce cena usecsae oc aisnanis Sanemeneracctisats de stocctoss dosteceecucesen eeTls* iG
Printing, Binding, &c. ...........0+ sabe cksceeeagsselanaeaan ar donee + 2063. 92 8
Payment of Grants made at Dover

=

s
Hlectrical Standards........cccssccesceccece aevnies OC pe ih
Seismological Observations.........cceseccscccccssescs 60 0
Radiation in a Magnetic Field ..........eeecceseceees s 25 0
Meteorological Observatory at Montreal .......-..+e08 20 0
Tables of Mathematical Functions .........eesseeeeeee 75 0
Relation between Absorption Spectra and Constitution
of Organic Bodies 0
Wave-length Tables 0
Electrolytic Quantitative Analysis .........e..eeeeeees 0
Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives of Benzene ...... 0
30 0
0

o occece

The Nature of Alloys, ...s.ccescsccscesshe ve cenanesuc
Photographs of Geological Interest ..........+ =
Remains of Elk in the Isle of Man .......2..+e-eeeeeee 0 0

ooce

Movements of Underground Waters of Craven.......... 0 0
Table at the Zoological Station, Naples ..........
Table at the Biological Laboratory, Plymouth....
Index Generum et Specierum Animalium...... Ra saree
Migration Of BIFOs) «6.2 sicic\dvarepacecdateneasaemeda tae
Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English
GHANED «osacavie dante sb'e giaciteje ole bine wae Oh nul vine Rinna p weg
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ........e.+eeeeeeeeeee
Coral Reefs of the Indian Region........seeeeeeeeeeees
Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea- water
Future Dealings in Raw Produce.............-
Silchester Excavation diele wank do ree ;
Ethnological Survey of Canada......-seesseecrecesseee
New Edition of ‘ Anthropological Notes and Queries’ .. 40
Photographs of Anthropological Interest ...........+. « 10
Mental and Physical Condition of Children in Schools.. 5
Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula ..........-..0se08 25
Physiological Effects of Peptone ........-eeeeeeeeeeeee 20
Comparative Histology of Suprarenal Capsules
Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortex ............ 5
Electrical Changes in Mammalian Nerves .....-..+++. 20
Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands ....,...+.e-eeeeee 10
Fertilisation in Phaeophycese ....+ececesccsensceesseeee 20
Corresponding Societies Committee.....+.,eseecreeeees 20

ecoco eco

ecooscooccooecoocoeooo eoocoe

coccooecooce

1072 10 0

In hands of General Treasurer :
At Bank of England, Western Branch £758 5 11
Less Cheques not presented............... 500 0
———- 708 511

——_—— 713 6 5
£3813 12 11

I have examined the above Account with the books and vouchers of the Associa-
tion, and certify the same to be correct. I have also verified the balance at the
Bankers’, and have ascertained that the Investments are registered in the names
of Lord Avebury, Lord Rayleigh, and the late Lord Playfair, transfer to the new
Trustees not having yet been effected.

Approved— W. B. KEEN, Chartered Accountant,
D. H. Scorr, adore 3 Church Court, Old Jewry, E.C
HORACE T. Brown, 7 August 2 2, 1900,

Ixxviii

REPORT— L900,

Table showing the Attendance and Receipts

Date of Meeting

| Presidents

1831, Sept. 27 ......
1832, June 19
1833, June 25..
dees Sept. 8 ..
835, Aug. 10..
ie, Aug. 22..
1837, Sept. 11..
1838, Aug. 10
1839, Aug.
1840, Sept. 17..
1841, July 20
1842, June 23......
1843, Aug. 17......
1844, Sept. 26 ......
1845, June 19......
1846, Sept.10 ....
1847, June 23
1848, Aug. 9 .,
1849, Sept. 12 ..
1850, July 21
185i; July 2.........
1852, Sept. 1
1853, Sept. 3
1854, Sept. 20 ......
1855, Sept. 12......
1856, Aug. 6
1857, Aug.
1858, Sept. 22
1859, Sept.
1860, June 27 ......
1861, Sept.
1862, Oct.
1863, Aug.
1864, Sept. 1:
1865, Sept.
1866, Aug. 2
1867, Sept.
1868, Aug.
1869, Aug.
1870, Sept.
1871, Aug.2 ......
1872, Aug.
1873, Sept.
1874, Aug.
1875, Aug. 25 .....
1876, Sept.6 ......
1877, Aug.
1878, Aug.
1879, Aug.
1880, Aug.
1881, Aug.
1882, Aug. 23
1883, Sept.
1884, Aug.
1885, Sept.
1886, Sept.
1887, Aug.
1888, Sept.
1889, Sept.
1890, Sept. 3
1891, Aug.
1892, Aug.
1893, Sept.
1894, Aug.
1895, Sept.
1896, Sept.
1897, Aug.
1898, Sept.
1899, Sept.

* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843,

1900, Sept. 5 ... i

Where held Old Life | New Life
Members | Members
|
VOSA ae ee The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. _ _
Oxtord .| The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. — _
.| Cambridge .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. — _—
. Edinburgh | Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L......... = —
| Dublin .... .| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. — —
| Bristol .... . The Marquis of Lansdowne ... = a= |
| Liverpool ... The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S. —_— _— |
Neweastle-on-Tyne,..| The Duke of Northumberland — —
.| Birmingham .| The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt,, -— —
.| Glasgow......... ...| The Marquis of Breadalbane.,. _— —
Plymouth ... ...| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169 65
Manchester .| The Lord Francis Egerton... 303 169
Cork: xa ...| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .., 109 28
York .. .| The Rev. G. Peacock, DD;.. - 226 150
Cambridge oe ...| Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. a 313 36
Southampton .| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 10
Oxtord. Fintan Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart....... 314 18
.| Swansea,........ .| The Marquis of Northampton 149 3
.| Birmingham ...| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 227 12
Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H. ............... 235 9
Ipswich G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal .. 172 8
Belfast ...| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 10
EU He .| William Hopkins, F.R.S.......... 141 13
Liverpool . .| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23
Glasgow....... .| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ... 194 33
Cheltenham , .| Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.... 182 14
.| Dublin . .| The Rev. Humphrey Lloyd, D. 236 15
*| deeds 2A fu .| Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. ... 222 42
Aberdeen . ...| H.R.H. The Prince Consort ... 184 27
Oxford .... .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ... 286 21
Manchester . William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R 321 113
Cambridge ........... The Rey. Professor Willis, M.A. 239 15
Neweastle-on-Tyne..,| Sir William G. Armstrong, 0.B. 203 36
LE2T igs eae eel Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287 40
Birmingham, ...| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292 44
.| Nottingham... .| William R. Grove, Q.C., SALES Nes ores 207 31
undee ...... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25
Norwich .| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. . 196 18
Exeter ...| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L. ... 204 21
Liverpool .... .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D..... 314 39
Edinburgh Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246 28
Brighton .... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 245 36
Bradford , Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. 212 27
Belfast .. ...| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 162 13
.| Bristol ., .| Sir John Hawkshaw, F. R. Ss. 239 36
| Glasgow . Prof. T. Andrews, M. D., FR. ag 221 35
Plymouth . .| Prof. A. Thomson. M.D. F.R.S. 173 19
s«ex{ Dublin... ...| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. ... 201 18
.| Sheffield. ...| Prof. G. J, Allman, M.D., F.R.S. 184 16
Swansea. .| A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. ...... 144 11
VON h-ec.t vy. . .| Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F'.R.S. 272 28
Southampton .........) Dr. 0. W. Siemens F.R.S 178 17
Southport ..., ...| Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., PRS 203 60
Montreal . .| Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F. RS. ee 235 20
.| Aberdeen .. Sir Lyon Playfair. K.C.B., F.B.S. 225 18
Birmingham | Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., F.R.S. 314 25
Manchester ...... ...| Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. 428 86
Ay e380), = a aenipe ae | Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R. Se é 266 36
Neweastle-on-Tyne...| Prof. W. H. Flower, OB, ERS. 277 20
ds Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R. ch 259 21
.| Cardiff ....... Soler. W.. Huggins, ERS 189 24
Edinburgh . ...| Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F. RS. 280 14
Nottingham . ...| Prof. J. 8. Burdon Sanderson, é 201 17!
Oxford .... ...| The Marquis of Salisbury,K G. F. RS 327 21
.| Ipswich . .... Sir Douglas Galton, K.O:B., F.RS. 214 13
.| Liverpool . ...| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres, RS... 330 B1
....| Toronto .... ...| Sir John Evans, K.C.B., TERS. . 120 8
.| Bristol .| Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S. ..............- f 281 19
Dover ..., ...| Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S... 296 20.
HSCAGTONG. fo vecscssetees Sir William Turner, D.O. Ve E.RB.S. . 267 13

+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. lxxix

at Annual Meetings of the Association.

Attended by a! ‘ATHaHE Sums paid
Old New | | | | received | Ce Grants
Annual | Annual | arn | Ladies Foreigners! Total aches for Scientific ares
Members | Members : | g Purposes
Ra ap ae te Gee 353 = a 1831
— — -- —- | = _ — — | 1832
= == — — — 900 = = fe fesse =|
— -— _ — _ 1298 = 0 1834 |
=? a) ws = 2 EF 0 1835 |
= a == — a 1350 = 0 1936 |
on = — — = 1840 | = 6 1837
= — = 1100* — 2400 | = | 9 2) 1838
= = Eee. | eg 1438 = | 159 0 1839
le 5 = as hE dd) =) BES 5 4 1840
46 317 = (aid Ce Sn | SE] cn 1235 1011| 1841
75 376 33f 331* | 28 | » 1315 = 144917 8| 1842
71 185 — 160 | — — — 1565 10 2 1843
45 190 oF 260 — = = 98112 8 1844
94 22 407 172 85 =|) =+1079 = 831 9 9 1845
65 3 270 196 36 857 = 685 16 0 1846
197 40 495 203 53 1320 = 208 5 4 1847
54 25 376 197 15 819 |£707 0 0] 275 1 8 1848
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0} 15919 6 1843
128 42 510 273 | 44 1241 1085 0 0| 34518 0 1850
61 47 244 Ee a 710 620 0 0} 391 9 7 1851
aie 60 510 292 | 9 1108 | 108 0 0| 304 6 7] 1852
56 | 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0} 205 0 0 1853
| 121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0! 38019 7} 1854
} 42 WL | 1094 543 26 2133 2311 G 0O| 48016 4; 1855
j 104 48 412 346 9 1115 | 1098 0 0} 73413 9 1856
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015),0! 0.) BOF IS 4) 1857
111 91 710° | ~ 509 3 1698 }1931 0 0} 61818 2 1858
| footy) | L795. |} ’ P1208 $21 22 2564 | 9782 0 0| 68411 1] 1859
177 59 | 636 463 47 1689 | 1604 0 0} 76619 6 1860
184 125 ee LOnGn es | col 15 3138 3944 0 O| 1111 510 1861
150 57 33 oy) oe ie en 1089 0 0| 129316 6 1862
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0] 1608 3 10 1863
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0/ 128915 8 1864
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0 | 1591 710 1865
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0| 175013 4 1866
193 118 1163 771 vy 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867
226 117 720 682 45t | 2004 2042 0 0/1940 0 0 1868
229 107 678 600 17: 1856 1931 0 0| 1622 0 O 1869
303 195 1103 | 14 | 2878 3096 0 0/1572 0 O 1870
311 7 lease iy ite |S 2h 2463 | 2575 0 0/1472 2 6! 1871
280). =| 80 937 | 912 43 2538 «=| 2649 0 0 | 1285 0 0} 1872
SST | 99 | 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0| 1685 0 0| 1873
232 8 | 8s17 630 12 1951 1979 0 O| 115116 0 1874
307 Bel <884 672 17 2248 | 2397 0 0; 960 0 O| 1875
331 | 185 | (1265 qe he 26 2774 3023 0 0/1092 4 2| 1876
238 | 09 446 283 11 ; 1229 | 1268 0 0; 1128.9 7 1877
290 93 TBF el) wate 17 2578 2615 0 0} 72516 6 1878
939 | 74.) 599° | 349 13 1404 1425 0 O | 108011 11 1879
171 41 S80) FO a7 12 Sth coa9) OO |. 731 7:7 1880
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 | 2689 0 0| 476 8 1 1881
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0| 1126 111 1882 _
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0 | 1083 3 3 1883
317 219 826 74 26&60H.§) 1777 | 1855 0 0/1173 4 0 1884
332 122 1053 447 8») y ly ega08 2256 0 0/1385 0 0 1885
428 179 1067 Zh joe aaa al 2453 2532 0 0| 995 0 6 1886
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 | 4336 0 0 | 118618 0 1887
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0/1511 0 5 1888
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0| 1417 011 1889
368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0| 78916 8 1890
341 152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 0} 102910 0 1891
413 141 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0 864 10 0 1892
328 57 173 268 17 1661 1653 0 0} 90715 6 1893
435 | 69 941 451 77 2321 2175 0 0 | 58315 6 1894
290 3 493 264 | 22 1324 1236 0 0| 97715 5 1895
383 139 | 18384 873 41 $181 | 3228 0 0/1194 6 1 1896
286 125 682 100 | 41 _ | 1362 | 13898 0 0} 105910 8 1897
327 96 1051 639 | 33° | 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0 1898
324 68 548 120 27 } 1403 1328 0 O | 14380 14 2 1899
207 ~ 45 801 482 | 9 | 1915 | 1801 0 0 | 1072 10 0 1900

en ee
¢ Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1900-1901.

PRESIDENT.
ProFessor SIR WILLIAM TURNER, M.B., D.Sc., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R,S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. the Earn or ScarBrouGH, Lord- | The Hon. H. EB. BuTLer, Lord of the Manor, Brad-

Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. ford.
His Grace the DUKE oF DEVONSHIRE, K.G., D.C.L., | Sir ALEXANDER BINNIE, M.Inst.0.E., F.G,S.
LL.D., F.R.S. Professor A. W. RUCKER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S.
The Most Hon. the Marquis or Ripon, K.G., | Dr. T. E. THoRPE, Sc.D., F.R.S., Pres.0.S.
G.O.S.1., D.O.L.. F-R.S. Principal N. Bopineron, Litt.D., Vice-Chancellor
The Right Rey. the Lorp BisHor or Ripon, D.D. of the Victoria University,
The Right Hon. Lorp MASHAM. Professor L, O. MIALL, F.R.S.

His Worship the Mayor or BRADFORD.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor A. W. RicKeR, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
The Right Hon. the Eart or GLAsGow, K.C.M.G. Sir ANDREW NoBLR, K.C.B., D,O.L,, F.R.S.

The Right Hon. the LonD BLYTHSWOOD, Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, D, 6. L., LL.D., F.B.S.

The Right Hon. the Lorp Ketviy, G.C.V.O., | Sir W.T. THISELTON-DyER, K. C. M.G., O.1.E., F.R.S.
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. JAMES PARKER SMITH, Esq., M.P.

The Hon. the LORD PROVOST OF GLASGOW, JOHN INGLIs, Esq., LL.D.

The PRINCIPAL of the University of Glasgow. ANDREW STEWART, Esq., LL.D,

Sir JoHN Sr1IRLING-MAXWELL, Bart., M.P.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Professor Sir W. OC. RoBERTS-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.O.L., F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GRIFFITH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex.

GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor G. CAREY Foster, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW.
Sir J. D. Marwick, LL.D.,F.R.S.E. | Prof. Joun Young, M.D. | Prof. Magnus MACLEAN, D.Sc.

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW.

ROBERT GOURLAY, Esq., Lord Dean of Guild. | JAMES NICOL, Esq., City Chamberlain.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ArMstTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S. Lock YER, Sir J. NoRMAN, K.O.B., F.R.S,
Bonak, J., Esq., LL.D. Lopes, Principal O. J., F.R.S.
Bowker, Professor F. 0., F.R.S. MacManon, Major P. A., F.R.S.
CALLENDAR, Professor H. L., F.R.S. | Mark, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.
OnkEAk, Captain HE. W., R.N., F.R.S, | Poutron, Professor E, B., F.R.S.
DARWW, F, Esq., F.R.S. PREECE, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.
DaRWIN, Major L., Sec.R.G.S. | Prick, L. L., Esq., M.A.
TREMANTLK, Hon. Sir C. W., K.0.B. SoLuas, Professor W. J., F.R.S.
GASKELL, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. THOMSON, Professor J. ae ree
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S. TILDEN, Professor W. A., r
Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A. Ty or, Professor E. B., F RS
KELTIF, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D. Wo.re-Barny, Sir Jou, K. (oh B., F.R.S.

LANKESTER, Professor HE. Ray, F.R.S. |

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents an
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer an
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord Avesury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.B.S., F.L.S.

The Right Hon. Lord RayLricu, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

Professor A, W. RUckER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.

Sir George Gabriel Stokes, Bart.,| Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. F.R,S.

ERS. Sir F. A. Abel,Bart.,K.0.B.,F.R.S. | Lord Lister, D.O.L., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.C.V.0., F.R.S. SirWm.Huggins,K.0.B.,Pres.R.&. | Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S. Sir Archibald Geikie, LL.D., | Sir William Crookes, F.R.8.
Lord Avebury, F.R.S. E.R.S. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.3.,
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Prof. Sir J.S. Burdon Sanderson, Sec.R.8.

Bart., F.B.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
Ff. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. | Prof. A. W. Riicker, Sec R.S.
Prof, Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.,| Prof T. G. Bonney, D. Se., F.R.S. | Prof. E. A. Scbiifer, F.R.S

Sec.R 8. Prof. A. W. Williamson, FR. Ss. |

G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq. 4» ERS. |
AUDITORS,

Dr. Horace Brown, F.R.S. | E. W. Brabrook, Esq., C.B.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxi

Report of the Council for the Year 1899-1900, presented to the General
Committee at Bradford on Wednesday, September 5, 1900.

The Council have nominated Dr. N. Bodington, Vice-Chancellor of
the Victoria University, and Professor L. C. Miall, F.R.S., Vice-Presidents
for the meeting at Bradford.

The Council have nominated Professor Weldon, F.R.S., to be a
Governor of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom in
place of the late Sir William Flower.

The Council having been informed by Professor Schafer that he does
not intend to offer himself for re-election as General Secretary after the
meeting at Bradford, desire to record their sense of the valuable services
which he has rendered to the Association.

The Council recommend that Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S., be appointed
_ General Secretary in succession to Professor Schafer.

The following resolutions, referred to the Council by the General
Committee, have been considered and acted upon :—

(1) That in view of the opportunities of ethnographical inquiry which will be
presented by the Indian Census, the Council of the Association be requested to
urge the Government of India to make use of the Census Officers for the purposes
enumerated below, and to place photographers at the service of the Census
Officers.

1. To establish a survey of the jungle races, Bhils, Gonds, and other tribes of
the central mountain districts.

2. To establish a further survey of the Naga, Kuki, and other cognate races
of the Assam and Burmese frontiers.

‘3. To collect further information about the vagtant and criminal tribes,
Haburas, Beriyas, Sansiyas, &c., in North and Central India.

4. To collect physical measurements, particularly of the various Dravidian
tribes, in order to determine their origin; and of the Rajputs and Jats of Raj-
putana and the Hastern Panjab, to determine their relation with the Yu-echi and
other Indo-Scythian races.

5. To furnish a series of photographs of typical specimens of the various races :
of views of archaic industries; and of other facts interesting to ethnologists.

The Council appointed a Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Balfour, Mr.
F. Galton, Professor A.C. Haddon, Mr. C. H. Read, and the General
Officers, to report on this matter.

In accordance with the recommendation of the Committee, the Council
requested the President to address the following letter to the Secretary of
State for India :— .

At the meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science at Dover, attention was called to the special opportunity offered
by the Census about to be taken in India for collecting valuable ethno-
graphical data concerning the races of the country ; and the Council of
the Association having taken the matter into consideration, and being

1900. e

lxxxii REPORT—1900.

impressed by its scientific importance, have requested me, on their behalf,
to bring to the notice of Her Majesty’s Government the valuable scientific
results which might be obtained by means of the Census.

The results of the Census itself constitute, of course, by their very
nature, an ethnographical document of great value ; and my Council feel
that, without overburdening the Officers of the Census or incurring any very
large expense, that value might be increased to a very remarkable degree
if to the enumeration were added the collection of some easily ascertained
ethnographical data. They are encouraged to make this suggestion by
the reflection that the Census Commissioner is an accomplished ethno-
graphist, well known by his publication on the Tribes and Castes of
Bengal, the valuable results of which would be supplemented by the
inquiries now proposed. They feel confident that, with his aid and under
his direction, most important data may be obtained at a minimum of
effort and cost. I may add that should the suggestion which my Council
desire to make be carried out, a great step will have been taken towards
establishing a uniform method of ethnographical observation in India—a
matter of great scientific importance.

Stated briefly, what. my Council desire to see carried out is as
follows :—

1. While collecting the ordinary information for the Census, to
investigate the physical and sociological characters of the various races
and tribes of India. Such data would furnish the basis for a true
estimation of the number and distribution of the tribes in question, and
thus powerfully contribute to a sound classification of the races of India.

Special attention to be directed (a) to the jungle races—Bhils, Gonds,
and other tribes of the central mountain districts—concerning which our
information is at present very limited.

(b) To the Naga, Kuki, and other cognate races of the Assam and
Burmese frontiers, and of the vagrant and criminal tribes—Haburas,
Beriyas, Sansiyas, &c.—in North and Central India.

(c) To the Dravidian tribes, and the Rajputs and Jats of Rajputana
and the Eastern Panjab. This will be of service in throwing light on
the important and difficult problem of the origin of these tribes and their
relation with the Yu-echi and other Scythian races.

(d) To pay especial attention to the question of a possible Negrito
element in certain ethnic groups in India.

2. To obtain, so far as can be done without too great labour and
expense, a series of photographs of typical individuals of the various
races, and, if it should be practicable, of views of archaic industries, &c.
This, which might be accomplished by placing photographers at the
service of the Census Officers, would be the commencement of an
Ethnographical Survey of India similar to, and certainly no less important
than, the Archeological Survey of which the Government of India may so
justly be proud.

My Council, in considering the above proposal, have been assisted by
a Committee of gentlemen possessing special knowledge of the subject in
question, and I am to add that this Committee will be pleased to place
themselves at the disposal of Her Majesty’s Government to assist in the
proposed investigation. If it should seem desirable to Her Majesty’s
Government, the Committee are pre ared to put themselves into direct

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxlil

communication with the Officers of the Census, who, however, the Council
have reason to believe, are fully capable of carrying out the details of the
investigations proposed.

The Secretary of State for India has forwarded a copy of this letter to
the Government of India for consideration.

(2) That the Council be requested to represent to Her Majesty’s Government
the importance of giving more prominence to Botany in the training of Indian
Forest Officers,

A Committee consisting of Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, Sir George King,
Professor Marshall Ward, and the General Officers, was appointed to
report on this matter.

As a result of their deliberations the following letter was addressed by
the President to the Secretary of State for India :—

The Council of the British Association for the Advancement of Science,
having had under consideration the remarks made by Sir George King at
the meeting in Dover in September last, as to the deficiency in botanical
knowledge of the officers in the Forest Department of India, think that
the subject is one of such great importance as to justify them in bringing
the conclusions at which they have arrived before the Secretary of State for
India.

The Forest Department in India not only has charge of the great
forests of that Empire, but is frequently called upon to supply trained
officers for the care of those of our colonial possessions. It is needless
to insist that those who practise the art of forestry ought to have a firm
grasp of the scientific principles on which the art is based. They should
be able to do more than, as a matter of routine, follow out conscientiously
the rules laid down for them ; they ought to possess the scientific knowledge
which will enable them to seize opportunities which may present themselves
of extending the resources and developing the economic value of our
forests, and which will give them power over unforeseen difficulties
occasioned by plant diseases or other causes.

There seems, however, to be little doubt, from evidence which has
been laid before a Committee of this Council, that, with some exceptions,
the forest officers on actual duty have at most a very slender equipment of
botanical knowledge. It appears that they are in many cases unable to make
intelligent use, or, indeed, in individual cases, any use at all, of the excellent
technical works provided for their use at the expense of India by the
Secretary of State. The majority of them are unable to give scientific
precision to their reports, or to demonstrate the contents of the forests under
their charge to foreign experts. Indeed, probably it may be said with truth
that the native subordinate officers trained in India at Dehra Dun possess
a more accurate knowledge of Indian botany than do the European
officers under whom they have to serve.

My Council desire to urge upon the Secretary of State for India that
this undesirable state of things—undesirable for many reasons, among
others that through it the capabilities of our forests are probably not as
fully developed as they might be, to the detriment of Indian revenues—
may be traced in part at least to the circumstances under which the forest
officers are selected.

The mode of selection adopted ought to be such that the Indian

Forest Service should draw into its ranks men whose aptitudes and tastes
e2

|xxxiv REPORT—1900.

fit them for their future duties. The work of a forest officer calls espe-
cially for those powers of observation and inference which natural-history
studies are peculiarly fitted to encourage. Young men with an aptitude
for such studies would seem to be material which the Secretary of State
would naturally desire to secure for filling the offices in question.

But the mode of selection at present in use, so far from favouring, is
distinctly antagonistic to such an end.

In the first place, the present age-limit of twenty is exercising an
unfavourable influence, since it prevents the entrance into the service of
men who have had a university training. Training in natural-history
studies is, at present at least, very imperfectly carried out in our Public
Schools, even in the best of them ; it is to our Universities and not to our
Schools that we must look for young men trained in these studies ; and
such men are excluded by the present age-limit. It may be worth while
to point out here that some of the ablest Indian forest officers in the past
have been men of university training who entered the service at a time
when the age-limit was very different from what it is now.

In the second place, the examination, by means of which candidates
are selected, does not tend to the selection of men of natural-history, or
even of scientific, aptitude.

The examination in question is the same as that for the Indian Police
Department, with the exception that German is compulsory. My Council
believe that the Secretary of State for India will agree with them
in thinking that a system of examination, which may be the best
for the selection of officers of the Police Department, whose duties are
simply administrative, cannot be expected to be the best for the selection of
officers of the Forest Department, whose duties should be distinctly scientific.
They therefore submit respectfully, but most earnestly, to the Secretary of
State, the desirability of making some marked changes in the method of
selection of candidates for the forest service in India.

They would wish in the first place to suggest to him whether it would
not be possible to recruit the service, in part at least, directly from the
Universities, by placing some of the vacancies at the disposal of young
men who, by their university career, had given evidence of their aptitude
for natural-history studies and work, and a promise of success in the
application of such studies to forestry. In any case, they would urge the
importance of so extending the age-limit as not to exclude men who have
had a university training.

And they may here state that they understand that the candidates,
who are selected from passed Students of the “Institut Agronomique ”
and the ‘‘ Ecole Polytechnique ” for admission to the French Forest school
at Nancy, must have acquired the university degree of Bachelier és
Sciences.

In the second place, they desire to urge the importance of so modifying
the nature of the entrance examination as to specially adapt it to securing
efficient forest officers.

The forest officer needs, in addition to other general qualifications, a
knowledge of botany and an aptitude for natural-history studies. No
proper grasp of botanical science can be gained without an adequate
elementary knowledge of physics and chemistry. And the examination
which would seem best calculated to select the fittest men for the forest
service would be one in which prominence was given to botany, and to
physics and chemistry as introductory to that science, with an adequate

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. Ixxxv

number of marks assigned to other natural-history studies, such as geology
and zoology.

If the relatively enormous value now attached to German is connected
with the sending of candidates to Germany for their professional educa-
tion, it must be noted that at the present day, in regard both to methods
of instruction and even, to a large extent, to forest practice, France is
considered by many competent judges to afford opportunities for training
as good as, or possibly better than, those offered by Germany. And
French ought to occupy, from this point of view, the same position as
German.

In any case, what is needed by the candidate, whether he goes to
Germany or to France for part of his training, is not an academic know-
ledge of the language but a colloquial one, such as will enable him to profit
at once by a stay in the country. For the purposes of study, a know-
ledge of one or other tongue, though advantageous, is not necessary, since
excellent and sufficient treatises and text-books are now to be found in
the English language. This is shown by what my Council are told is
the case, that in the French forest service examination English is now
optional with German.

It may be added that if the candidates selected already possessed an
adequate general acquaintance with botany and the allied sciences, there
would be no need to teach these introductory and preliminary sciences at
Coopers Hill. The teaching there might be limited to technical Indian
botany, to forest surveying and engineering, and to the theory and
practice of Forestry itself. Were this done, the stay at Coopers Hill
might possibly be shortened to two years, instead of three, as at present.

In conclusion, my Council desire to state that in their opinion it is by
changes in the method of selection of candidates rather than by changes
in the training at Coopers Hill that amendment may be secured. They
are convinced that unless some change is made in the preliminary selection
of candidates, the institution at Coopers Hill cannot be expected to
produce the kind of forest officers so greatly needed for the welfare of our
great Indian empire. Were, however, changes made in the mode of
selection, the acknowledged usefulness of Coopers Hill might be still
further increased.

In the reply to this letter, dated February 27, the President was informed
that the attention of the Secretary of State was drawn Jast autumn to the
remarks in Sir George King’s address at the Dover meeting, and that he
has asked Sir W. Thiselton-Dyer and Sir Dietrich Brandis to be good
enough to look into the matter, and to advise him in what way the
Botanical teaching at Coopers Hill College can be improved and rendered
more practical. The report of these authorities will be forwarded with
the President’s letter, for the consideration of the Government of India,
and for such observations and suggestions as they may have to make, with
a view to practical measures of reform.

(8) That the attention of the Council be called to the wording of the rule
regarding specimens collected by Committees appointed by the Association,
with a view to its revision.

The Council recommended that in the Rule referred to, viz., ‘Members
and Committees who may be entrusted with sums of money for collecting
specimens of Natural History, are requested to reserve the specimens so

lxxxvi REPORT—1900.

obtained to be dealt with by authority of this Association,’ the words

‘any description ’ be substituted for ‘ Natural History,’ and ‘the Council’
for ‘this Association.’

(4) That the complete investigation of the Ichthyology of the West African

rivers promises extremely important scientific results, and that the Council of

the Association be requested to take such means as may seem to it advisable to
bring the matter to the notice of the Trustees of the British Museum,

A Committee, consisting of Prof. Herdman, Prof. A. Newton, Mr.
A. E. Shipley, Prof. Weldon, and the General Officers, was appointed to
report on this matter.

In accordance with the recommendation of this Committee, the
President, with the approval of the Council, addressed a letter to the
Trustees of the British Museum explaining that the matter had been
brought under the notice of the Council through an application made on
behalf of Mr. Boulenger, of the British Museum, for a grant to assist a
collector in obtaining fishes from the West African rivers, which applica-
tion the Association had declined to accede to, not from any want of
appreciation of the importance of the researches, but from the difficulties
attaching to applications made to the British Association for grants in
aid of researches undertaken by members of the Staff of the Natural
History Museum as part of their official duties.

In reply the Director of the Natural History Departments pointed out
that the application had not been made on behalf, or with the knowledge,
of the Trustees, and that it was not for any work which formed part of
his official duties. The small sum of money required by Mr. Boulenger for
this particular occasion had, since his application to the British Association,
been arranged for by the authorities of the Museum in the usual way.

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee for the past
year, together with the list of the Corresponding Societies and the titles
of the more important papers, and especially those referring to Local
Scientific Investigations, published by those Societies during the year
ending June 1, 1900, has been received.

The Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. Francis
Galton, Mr. W. Whitaker (Chairman), Dr. J.G. Garson, Sir J. Evans, Mr.
J. Hopkinson, Professor R. Meldola, Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. T. V.
Holmes, Sir Cuthbert Peek, Mr. Horace T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan,
Professor W. W. Watts, Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, Mr. C. H. Read, and
Mr. F. W. Rudler, is hereby nominated for reappointment by the General
Committee.

The Council nominate Professor Poulton, F.R.S., Chairman, Mr. W.
Whitaker, F.R.S., Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to
the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies to be held during
the Meeting at Bradford.

The Council have received Reports from the General Treasurer during
the past year, and his accounts from July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1900,
which have been audited, are presented to the General Committee.

In accordance with the regulations the retiring Members of the
Council will be :—

Professor W. A. Herdman. | Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer
Mr. W. N. Shaw. | Sir W. H. White.
Mr. J. J. H. Teall. |

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

lxxxvii

The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members
of the Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—

Armstrong, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D.
*Bower, Professor F. O., F.R.S.
*Callendar, Professor H. L., F.R.S.
Oreak, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S.
Darwin, F., Esq., F.R.S.
Darwin, Major L., Sec. R.G.S.
Fremantle, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B.
Gaskell, Dr. W. H., F.R.S.
Halliburton, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. Vernon, M.A.,
M.Inst.C.E.
Keltie, J. Scott, Esq., LL.D.
*Lankester, Professor EK. Ray, F.R.S.

*Lockyer, Sir J. Norman, K.O.B.
F.R.S.

Lodge, Professor Oliver, F.R.S.

MucMahon, Major P. A., F.R.S.

Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.

Poulton, Professor EH. B., F.R.S.

Preece, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.R.S.

Price, L. L., Esq., M.A.

*Sollas, Professor W. J., F.R.S.

Thomson, Professor J. M., F.R.S.

Tilden, Professor W. A., F.B.S.

Tylor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.

Wolfe-Barry, Sir John, K.C.B., F.R.S.

lxxxviil

REPORT—1900,

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
BRADFORD MEETING IN SEPTEMBER 1900.

1. Recewing Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Making Experiments for improv-
ing the Construction of Practical
Standards for use in Electrical
Measurements.

[And balance in hand. ]

Seismological Observations.

To consider the most suitable
Method of Determining the
Components of the Magnetic
Force on board Ship.

| The relation between the Absorp-
tion Spectra and Chemical Con-
stitution of Organic Substances.

[62. 8s. 9d, in hand.]

Members of the Committee

Chairman.—Lord Rayleigh.

Secretary.—Mr. BR. T. Glazebrook.

Lord Kelvin, Professors W. H.
Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. Adams,
Oliver J. Lodge, and G.
Carey Foster, Dr. A. Muirhead,
Sir W. H. Preece, Profes-
sors J. D. Everett and A.
Schuster, Dr. J. A. Fleming,
Professors G. F. FitzGerald and
J. J. Thomson, Mr. W.N. Shaw,
Dr. J. T. Bottomley, Rev.
T. C. Fitzpatrick, Professor J.
Viriamu Jones, Dr. G. John-
stone Stoney, Professor S. P.
Thompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr.
E. H. Griffiths, Professors A. W.
Riicker, H. L. Callendar, and
Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen, and
Mr. G. Matthey.

Chairman.—Prof. J. W. Judd.
Secrctary.—Professor J. Milne.
Lord Kelvin, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. C. V. Boys, Pro-
fessor G. H. Darwin, Mr.
Horace Darwin, Major L. Dar-
win, Professor J. A. Ewing,
Professor C. G. Knott, Pro-
fessor R. Meldola, Mr. R. D.
Oldham, Professor J. Perry,
‘Mr. W. E. Plummer, Professor
J. H. Poynting, Mr. Clement
Reid, Mr. Nelson Richardson,
and Professor H. H. Turner.

Chairman. — Professor A. W.
Riicker.

Secretary.—Dr. C. H. Lees.

Lord Kelvin, Professor A. Schuster,
Captain Creak, Professor W.
Stroud, Mr. C. V. Boys, and Mr.
W. Watson.

Chairman and Secretary.—Pro-
fessor W. Noel Hartley.

Professor EF. R. Japp, Professor J.J.
Dobbie, and Mr, Alexander
Lauder.

|

Grants

£ 3. d.
45 00

75 00

10 00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

ee

Preparing a new Series of Wave-
length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements.

The Study of Isomorphous Sul-
phonic Derivatives of Benzene.

To investigate the Erratic Blocks
of the British Isles, and to take
measures for their preservation.

(62. in hand. }

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of
Photographs of Geological In-
terest.

[10/. in hand.]

To study Life-zones in the British
Carboniferous Rocks.

The Excavation of the Ossiferous
Caves at Uphill, near Weston-

super-Mare.

Members of the Committee

Ixxxix

Chairman.—Sir H. E. Roscoe.

Secretary.—Dr. Marshall Watts.

Sir J. N. Lockyer, Professors J.
Dewar, G. D. Liveing, A. Schus-
ter, W. N. Hartley, and Wol-
cott Gibbs, and Sir W. de W.
Abney.

Chairman.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Secretary.—Professor H. E. Arm-
strong.

Dr. W. P. Wynne, and Mr. W. J.
Pope.

Chairman.—Myr. J. B. Marr.

Secretary.—Prof. P. F. Kendall.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E.
De Rance, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. R. H. Tiddeman, Rev. S. N.
Harrison, Mr. J. Horne, Mr.
Dugald Bell, Mr. F. M. Burton,
Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
house, Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr.
W. T. Tucker, and Mr. F. W.
Harmer.

Chairman.—Professor J. Geikie.

Secretary.—ProfessorW.W.Watts.

Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. T. An-
derson, and Messrs. A. S. Reid,
EK. J. Garwood, W. Gray, H. B.
Woodward, R. Kidston, J. J.
H. Teall, J. G. Goodchild, H.
Coates, C. V. Crook, G. Bingley,
and R. Welch.

Chairman.—Mr. J. E. Marr.

Secretary.—Dr. Wheelton Hind.

Mr. F. A. Bather, Mr. G. C. Crick,
Mr. A. H. Foord, Mr. H. Fox,
Mr. E. J. Garwood, Dr. G. J.
Hinde, Professor P. F. Kendall,
Mr. J. W. Kirkby, Mr. R. Kid-
ston, Mr. G. W.
Professor G. A. Lebour,
B. N. Peach, Mr. A. Strahan,
and Dr. H. Woodward.

Chairman.—Professor C. Lloyd
Morgan.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Bolton.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Mr.
W.R. Barker, Mr.S.H. Reynolds,
and Mr. KE. T. Newton,

Grants

ee gs: a.

56 00

35 00

20 00
Lamplugh,
Mr.

5 00

xc

REPORT—1900.

1. Recewwing Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

The movements of Underground
Waters of North-west York-
shire.

To explore Irish Caves.

[Collections to be placed in the
Science and Art Museum, Dub-
lin.]

To enable Mr. H. H. Stewart to
work at the Annelids, and to
aid other competent investi-
gator, to carry on definite
pieces of work at the Zoological
Station at Naples.

To enable Mr. R. C. Punnett to
continue his investigations on
the pelvic plexus of Hlasmo-
branch fishes, and to enable
other competent Naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work
at the Marine Laboratory,
Plymouth,

Compilation of an Index Generum
et Specierum Animalium.

To work out the details of the
Observations on the Migration
of Birds at Lighthouses and
Lightships, 1880-87.

Terrestrial Surface-waves
Wave-like Surfaces.

and

Changes of the Land-level of the
Phlegrzan Fields.

Chairman.—ProfessorW. W. Watts.

Secretary.—Captain A. R. Dwerry-
house.

Professor A. Smithells, Rev. E.
Jones, Mr. Walter Morrison,
Mr. G. Bray, Mr. W. Lower
Carter, Mr. W. Fairley, Pro-
fessor P. F. Kendall, and Mr.
J. E. Marr.

Chairman.—Dr. R. F. Scharff.

Secretary.—Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger.

Mr. G. Coffey, Professor Grenville
Cole, Dr. Cunningham, Mr. A.
McHenry, and Mr R. J. Ussher.

Chairman.—Professor W. A.

Herdman.

Secretary.—Professor G. B. Howes.

Professor E. Ray Lankester, Pro-
fessor W. F. R. Weldon, Pro-
fessor 8. J. Hickson, Mr. A.
Sedgwick, and Professor W. C.
McIntosh.

Chairman.—Mr. G. C. Bourne.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Garstang.

Professor E. Ray Lankester,
Professor Sydney H. Vines, Mr.
A. Sedgwick, and Professor W.
F. R. Weldon.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—My. ¥, A. Bather.

Dr. P. L. Sclater, Rev. T. R. R.
Stebbing, Mr. R. McLachlan,
and Mr. W. E. Hoyle.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Rev. E. P. Knubley.

Mr. John A. Harvie-Brown, Mr.
R. M. Barrington, and Mr. A.
H. Evans.

Chairman.—Dx. Scott Keltie.

Secretary.—Colonel F. Bailey.

Mr. Vaughan Cornish, Mr. A. R.
Hunt, and Mr. W. H. Wheeler.

Chairman,—Dr. H, R. Mill.

Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.

Dr. Scott Keltie, and Mr. R. T.
Giinther.,

15

100

75

10

50

00

00

00

00

00

00

80

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE,

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.
Sea =

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

State Monopolies in other
Countries.
[Balance of grant unexpended,

132. 138. 6d.]

The Economic Effect of Legisla-

tion regulating Women’s Labour.

To consider means by which better
practical effect can be given to
the Introduction of the Screw
Gauge proposed by the Associa-
tion in 1884.

[And balance in hand.]

To investigate the resistance of
Road Vehicles to Traction.

To co-operate with the Silchester
Excavation Fund Committee in
their explorations.

To organise an Ethnological Sur-
vey of Canada.

To conduct Explorations with the
object of ascertaining the age of
Stone Circles.

{Balance in hand.]

Chairman.—Sir Robert Giffen.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Higgs.

Mr. W. M. Acworth, the Rt. Hon.
L. H. Courtney, and Professor
H. 8. Foxwell.

Chairman.—Mr. E. W. Brabrook.

Secretary.—Mr. A. L. Bowley.

Professor Edgeworth, Professor
Smart, Professor Flux, Mr. 8. J.
Chapman, Mr. L. L. Price, and
Mrs. J. R. MacDonald

Chairman.—Sir W. H. Preece.

Secretary.—Mr. W. A. Price.

Lord Kelvin, Sir F. J. Bramwell,
Sir H. Trueman Wood, Maj.-
Gen. Webber, Mr. R. E. Cromp-
ton, Mr. A. Stroh, Mr. A. Le
Neve Foster, Mr. C. J. Hewitt,
Mr. G. K. B. Elphinstone, Col.
Watkin, Mr. E. Rigg, Mr. Vernon
Boys, and Mr. J. M. Gorham.

Chairman.—Sir Alexander Binnie.

Secretary.—Professor H. 8. Hele
Shaw.

Mr. W. W. Beaumont, Sir D. Salo-
mans, Mr. J. Brown, Mr. H.
Maclaren, Mr. Aveling, Mr. W.

' H. Wheeler, and Professor T.
Hudson Beare.

Chairman.—My. A. J. Evans.
Secretary.—Mr. John L. Myres.
Mr. E. W. Brabrook.

Chairman.—Professor D. P. Pen-
hallow.

Seeretary.—Dr. George Dawson.

Mr. E. W. Brabrook, Professor
A. C. Haddon, Mr. E. 8. Hart-
land, Sir J. G. Bourinot, Mr. B.
Sulte, Mr. C. Hill-Tout, Mr.
David Boyle, Mr. C. N. Bell,
Professor E. B. Tylor, Professor
J. Mavor, Mr. C. F. Hunter,
and Dr. W. F. Ganong.

Chairman.—Dr. J. G. Garson.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Balfour.

Sir John Evans, Mr. C. H. Read,
Professor Meldola, Mr. A. J.
Evans, Dr. R. Munro, and
Professor Boyd-Dawkins.

xcl

|
Grants

oes.

00

45 00

oe |
cu
i=)
o

10 00

30 00

xCll

REPORT—1900.

1. Receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

The Collection, Preservation, and
Systematic Registration of Pho-
tographs of Anthropological
Interest.

[Balance in hand.]

The Present State of Anthropo-
logical Teaching in the United
Kingdom and Elsewhere.

To conduct Explorations in Crete.

The Physiological Effects of Pep-
tone and its Precursors when
introduced into the circulation.

The Chemistry of Bone Marrow.

The Development of the Supra-
renal Capsules in the Rabbit.

Fertilisation in Pheophycez.

Morphology, Ecology, and Taxo-
nomy of the Podostemacez.

Corresponding Societies Com-
mittee for the preparation of
their Report.

Members of the Committee

Grants

Chairman.—Mr. C. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mz. J. L. Myres.

Dr. J. G. Garson, Mr. H. Ling Roth,
Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. E. 8. Hart-
land, and Professor Flinders
Petrie.

Chairman.—Professor EH. B. Tylor.

Secretary.—Mr. H. Ling Roth.

Professor A. Macalister, Professor
A.C. Haddon, Mr. C. H. Read,
Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. F. W.
Rudler, Dr. R. Munro, and Pro-
fessor Flinders Petrie.

Chairman.—Sir John Evans.

Secretary.—Mr. J. L. Myres.

Mr. A. J. Evans, Mr. D.J. G. Ho-
garth, Professor A. Macalister,
and Professor W. Ridgeway.

Chairman. — Professor EH. A.
Schafer.

Secretary. — Professor W.
Thompson.

Professor R. Boyce and Professor
C. §. Sherrington.

1Ef

Chairman. — Professor E. A.
Schafer.

Secretary Mr. W. R. Hutchison.

Dr. Leonard Hilland Professor F.
Gotch.

Chairman.—Professor E. H.
Starling.

Secretary—Mr. Swale Vincent.

Mr. Victor Horsley.

Chairman.—Professor J.B.Farmer.

Seeretary.—ProfessorR W.Phillips.

Professor F. O. Bower, and Pro-
fessor Harvey Gibson.

Chairman.—Prof., Marshall Ward.
Secretary.—Prof. J. B. Farmer.
Professor F. O. Bower.

Chairman.—Mr. W. Whitaker.

Secretary.—Mr. T, V. Holmes.

Mr. Francis Galton, Professor R.
Meldola, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir
John Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson,
Professor T. G. Bonney, Sir
Cuthbert E. Peek, Mr. Horace
T. Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan,
Professor W. W. Watts, Rev. T.
R. R. Stebbing, Mr. C. H. Read,
and Mr. F.. W. Rudler.

coy) 8s ee

co

145

30

15

15

20

“16

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

xclil

2. Not receiving Grants of Money.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Radiation from a Source of Light ina

Magnetic Field.

To establish a Meteorological Ob-
servatory on Mount Royal, Montreal.

For calculating Tables of
Mathematical Functions, and, if
necessary, for taking steps to carry
out the Calculations, and to publish
the results in an accessible form.

Co-operating with the Scottish Meteoro-
logical Society in making Meteoro-
logical Observations on Ben Nevis.

Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Ob-
servations.

The Rate of Increase of Underground
Temperature downwards in various
Localities of Dry Land and under
Water.

Considering the best Methods of Re-
cording the Direct Intensity of Solar
Radiation,

certain |

Members of the Committee

Chairman.-—Professor G. F. FitzGerald.

Secretary. —Mr. W. HE. Thrift.

Professor A. Schuster, Professor O. J.
Lodge, Professor 8. P. Thompson, Dr.
Gerald Molloy, and Dr. W. E. Ade-
ney.

Chairman.— Professor H. L. Callendar.

Seeretary.—Professor C, H. McLeod.

Professor F. Adams, and Mr. R. F.
Stupart.

Chairman.—Lord Kelvin.

Secretary. — Lieut.-Colonel Allan Cun-
ningham.

Dr. J. W. L. Glaisher, Professor A. G.
Greenhill, Professor W. M. Hicks,
Major P. A. MacMahon, and Professor
A. Lodge.

Chairman.—Lord McLaren.

Secretary.—Professor Crum Brown.

Sir John Murray, Dr. A. Buchan, and
Professor R. Copeland.

Chairman.—Professor W. G. Adams.

Secretary.—Dr. C. Chree.

Lord Kelvin, Professor G. H. Darwin,
Professor G. Chrystal, Professor A.
Schuster, Captain E. W. Creak, the
Astronomer Royal, Mr. William Ellis,
and Professor A. W. Ricker.

Chairman.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Secretary.—Professor J. D. Everett.

Lord Keivin, Sir Archibald Geikie, Mr.
James Glaisher, Professor Edward
Hull, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, Professor
A.S. Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour,
Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. W. Galloway,
Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F.
Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, Mr. A.
Strahan, Professor Michie Smith, and
Professor H. L. Callendar.

Chairman.—Dr. G, Johnstone Stoney.

Secretary.—Professor H. McLeod.

Sir G. G. Stokes, Professor A. Schuster,
Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain Sir W. de
W. Abney, Dr. C. Chree, Professor
G. F. FitzGerald, Professor H. L.
Callendar, Mr. W. E, Wilson, and
Mr, A. A. Rambaut,

XClV

REPORT—1900.

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose

Members of the Committee

That Miss Hardcastle be requested to
draw up a Report on the present
state of the Theory of Point-Groups.

The Nature of Alloys.

The Continuation of the Bibliography
of Spectroscopy.

The Teaching of Natural Science in
Elementary Schools.

That Mr. Alfred Harker be requested to
prepare a Report on the constitution
of Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks,

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.

To consider the best Methods for the
Registration of all Type Specimens
of Fossils in the British Isles, and
to report on the same.

The Collection, Preservation, and Sys-
tematic Registration of Canadian
Photographs of Geological Interest.

To report upon the Present State of
our Knowledge of the Structure of
Crystals.

To examine the Conditions under which
remains of the Irish Elk are found
in the Isle of Man.

The Periodic Investigation of the
Plankton and Physical Conditions of
the English Channel.

j

Chairman and Secretary.—Mr. F. H.
Neville.

Mr. C. T. Heycock and Mr.
Griffiths.

E. H.

Chairman.— Professor H. McLeod.
Secretary.—Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen.
Mr. H. G. Madan and Mr. D. H. Nagel.

Chairman.—Dr. J. H. Gladstone.

Secretary.—Professor H. HE. Armstrong.

Lord Avebury, Mr. George Gladstone,
Mr. W. R. Dunstan, Sir Philip
Magnus, Sir H. E. Roscoe, Dr. Sil-
vanus P, Thompson, and Professor A.
Smithells.

Chatrman.—-Professor W. A. Tilden.
Secretary.— Professor H. E. Armstrong.

Chairman.—Dr. H. Woodward.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward.

Rev. G. F.Whidborne, Mr. R. Kidston, Pro-
fessor H. G. Seeley, Mr. H. Woods, and
Rev. J. F. Blake.

Chairyman.—Professor A, P. Coleman.

Secretary.—Mr. Parks.

Professor A. B. Willmott, Professor F.
D. Adams, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, and
Professor W. W. Watts.

Chairman.—Professor N. Story Maske-
lyne.

Secretary.—Professor H. A. Miers.

Mr. L Fletcher, Professor W. J. Sollas,
Mr. W. Barlow, Mr. G. F. H. Smith,
and the Ear] of Berkeley.

Chairman.—Professor W. Boyd Daw-
kins.

Secretary.—Mr. P. M. C. Kermode.

Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Canon E. DB.
Savage, and Rev. 8. N. Harrison,

Chairman.—Professor E. Ray Lankester.

Secretary.—Mr. Walter Garstang.

Professor W. A. Herdman, and Mr. H. N.
Dickson,

i

COMMITTEES APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE.

XCV

2. Not receiving Grants of Money—continued.

Subject for Investigation or Purpose.

Members of the Committee,

To continue the investigation of the
Zoology of the Sandwich Islands,
with power to co-operate with the
Committee appointed for the purpose
by the Royal Society, and to avail
themselves of such assistance in their
investigations as may be offered by
the Hawaiian Government or the
Trustees of the Museum at Honolulu.
The Committee to have power to dis-

| a =
pose of specimens where advisable.

| To investigate the structure, formation,
and growth of the Coral Reefs of the
| Indian Region, with special observa-
tions on the inter-relationship of the
reef organisms, the depths at which
| they grow, the food of corals, effects
of currents and character of the ocean
bottom, &c. The land flora and fauna
will be collected, and it is intended
that observations shall be made on
the manners, &c., of the natives in
the different parts of the Maldive

group.

To promote the Systematic Collection
of Photographic and other Records
of Pedigree Stock.

Climatology of Tropical Africa.

To draw up a Scheme for a Systematic
Survey of British Protectorates.

| To examine the Natural History and

The Lake Village at Glastonbury.

The Micro-chemistry of Cells.

Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula.

| Chairman.—Mr. A. Sedgwick.

Chairman.—Professor A. Newton.

Secretary.—Dr. David Sharp.

Dr. W. T. Blanford, Professor S. J.
Hickson, Dr. P. L. Sclater, Mr. F.
Du Cane Godman, and Mr. Edgar
A, Smith.

Secretary.—J. Graham Kerr.
Professor J. W. Judd, Mr. J. J. Lister,
and Mr. 8. F. Harmer.

Chairman.—Mr. Francis Galton.
Secretary.—Professor W. F, R. Weldon.

Chairman.—Mr. E. G. Ravenstein.
Secretary.—Mr. H. N. Dickson.
Sir John Kirk and Dr. H. R, Mill. |

Chairman.—Sir T. H. Holdich.

Secretary.—H. N. Dickson.

Col. Sir W. Everett, Col. D. A. John-
ston, and E. G. Ravenstein.

Chairman.—Mr. OC. H. Read.

Secretary.—Mr. W. Crooke.

Professor A. Macalister, and Professor
W. Ridgeway.

Chairman.—Dr. R. Munro.

Secretary.—Mr. A. Bulleid.

Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, Sir John
vans, Mr. Arthur J. Evans, and Mr.
C. H. Read.

Chairman.—Professor E. A. Schiifer.

Secretary.—Professor A. B. Macallum.

Professor EH. Ray Lankester, Professor
W. D. Halliburton, Mr. G. C. Bourne,
and Professor J. J. Mackenzie.

xXéV1 REPORT—1900.

Conumunications ordered to be printed in extenso.
The Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys, by F. H. Neville,
R.S

"The Report on the Constitution of Camphor, by A. Lapworth, D.Sc.
The Paper on the Age of the Earth, by Professor J. Joly, E.RB.S.

Alteration of the Title of a Section.
That the title of Section G be altered from ‘ Mechanical Science’ to ‘ Engineering.’

Women to be eligible for admission to Committees.

That in future Women Members of the Association shall be eligible for the
General and Sectional Committees.

Resolutions referred to the Council for consideration, and action
af desirable.
That in connection with the Resolution relating to the admission of women to

Committees, as well as on general grounds, the Council be requested to reconsider
the present mode of electing members of Sectional Committees.

That the Council be requested to consider the appointment of a separate Section
for Education.

SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY.

Xevil

Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes by the
General Conumittee at the Bradford Meeting, September, 1900. The
Names of the Members entitled to call on the General Treasurer

for the respective Grants are prefixed.
Mathematics and Physics.

*Rayleigh, Lord—Electrical Standards (balance in hand and)
*Judd, Professor J. W.—Seismological Observations............
*Riicker, Professor A. W.—Magnetic Force on board Ship

PREC WEU) I ec yeicccscecesecd tenceveaneestueteradutasnannoteacs.aeat

Chemistry.

*Hartley, Professor W. N.—Relation between Absorption
Spectra and Constitution of Organic Substances (£6 8s. 9d.
AIG) Figeeeh.daeltennvnwks ooo secsway cnemencs> denpegnidonn ash arcses

*Roscoe, Sir H. E.—Wave-length Tables “See ee eee

*Miers, Professor H. A.—Isomorphous Sulphonic Derivatives
SU SUZOUE | .cidcclcs dues oO e(dvs ce sua e's sntetiadddsaeensasnenenssnests sae

Geology.

*Marr, Mr. J, E.—Erratic Blocks (£6 in hand)............s004+
*Geikie, Professor J.—Photographs of Geological Interest
PL an EE is ve tiiimeke aed scons ton homaeautandnga sd qailds sGgialsay
*Marr, Mr. J. E.—Life-zones in British Carboniferous Rocks
*Lloyd-Morgan, Professor C.—Ossiferous Caves at Uphill
RATEMOWED). .oe.css esses wcsadanenddewes-sunereenaqsiasveescwneseeasensiehe
*Watts, Professor W. W.—Underground Water of North-
WeSE NV OFESNIPG oie. 0 565 cececcecccoc sco sensenceseansteredasessesss
*Scharff, Dr.—-Exploration of Irish Caves (renewed)............
Zoology.

*Herdman, Professor W. A.—Table at the Zoological Station,
MEADOR wn diode dessins fete Raids sve sivuis on aueida aCe eae aie Beaman
*Bourne, Mr. G. C.—Table at the Biological Laboratory,
ARURROME | Se veyciesccccasiacctss ss see 0nedeeqme spcamenaneasmncenmare

BAND IVAD TAD eee eho eases cae es bcos a « uo cra loncemeleumeemeamaceissesciess

Geography.

Keltie, Dr. J. Scott—Terrestrial Surface Waves ..........++008
ae a H. R.—Changes of Land-level in the Phlegrzan
1€. Ss SOCCER H Oe HHH EHR EHHR HHS EHH SOH EHH SHH HHH SHH EHH SEE EEE Ee eeoeeveee

Economic Science and Statistics.

*Giffen, Sir R.—State Monopolies in other Countries
GOP PomeGe in Nand) sscss0--.s0.esjcenetiaeteernen ane ncscneues
Brabrook, E. W.—Legislation regulating Women’s Labour

Game US CARO ATU ssi as. osacav eateeeeererissavictcauce O00 0

** Reappointed.
1900.

£ 8.
45 0O
75 O
10 O

5 0
35 «(0
20 O

5 0
50 O
15 0

100 0O

20 0
Toun0
10 O

50
50 O
15 0

f

o cok

n= SS =

Kets eS

o!1o

xcviil REPORT—1900,

Bi
Brought Forward) caisiascivessodeesedssscanseeccscouassisensea eds (OGMED

oft

Mechanical Science.

*Preece, Sir W. H.—Small Screw Gauge (balance in handand) 45 0 0
Binnie, Sir A.—Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction ... 75 O O

Anthropology.

*Evans, Mr. A. J.—Silchester Excavation ....... ssujaee Bete
*Penhallow, Professor D, P.—Ethnological Survey of Canada 30 0 0
*Garson, Dr. J. G.—Age of Stone Cir cles (balance in hand)... ——
*Read, Mr. C. H.—Photographs of Anthropological Interest

MeO AARP) 22. 225 nina anonnarte eee eet e acs Saat eee eee —

*Tylor, Professor E. B.—Anthropological Teaching ............ 5 0 0
Evans, Sir John—Exploration in Crete. ..........00...e000001- 145 0 0

Physiology.

*Schafer, Professor E. A.—Physiological Effects of Peptone... 30 0 0
Schafer, Professor E. A.—Chemistry of Bone Marrow ...... 15 0 0
Starling, Professor E. H.—Suprarenal Capsulesinthe Rabbit 5 0 0

Botany.
*Farmer, Professor J. B.—Fertilisation in Pheophycee ...... DS Si a U)
Marshall Ward, Professor—Morphology, Ecology, and Taxo-
nomy of Podostemagesd 2.) Je Uhe, 0 wate atid EEE 20; 0° 0
Corresponding Societies,
*Whitaker, Mr. W.—Preparation of Report .........sssceseeeees 15 0 0
£945 0 0

* Reappointed.

The Annual Meeting in 1901.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1901 will be held at
Glasgow, commencing on : September 11.

‘

The Annual Meeting in 1902.

The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1902 will he held at
Belfast.

GENERAL STATEMENT,

Xclx

General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of
Grants for Scientific Purposes

1834,

£ 8. d.
Tide Discussions ...... Seatanene 20 0 0

1835.
Tide Discussions ........+.+e+++ 62 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology .:. 105 0 0
£167 V0 O

1836.
Tide Discussions .........s0+0++ 163 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0

Thermometric Observations,

REGoEeeaedenscxescresaresseesassiecs 50 0 0
Experiments on Long-con-

tinued Heat ........ceeeeseuee Viger 30)
Rain-Gauges .........scecsseeves 9 13, 0
Refraction Experiments ...... ED AO
Lunar Nutation.............00+0+ 60 S050
Thermometers ......seeeeeeeeeee aeson 10

£435 0 0

1837.

Tide Discussions .........ssse0e 284 1 0
Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6
Lunar Nutation.............60. 70 0 0
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0
Tides at Bristol .........-+-..00+. 150 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 93 3 0
Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0
Heart Experiments ............ a
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0
IBALOMEEELS... 6... ..esecenscees aise leo 76

£922 12 6
1838.
Tide Discussions ..........0000+ ZO 0
British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

and Anemometer (construc-

TORII ea vonessecs csccsascsacavavae 100 0 O
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-

stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
PSTISEOMS LICE! i ceccasessescseeese 50 0 O
Growth of Plants .............++ 75 0 O
Mud in Rivers ............se00e Sie ees:
Education Committee ......... 50) 0 0

- Heart Experiments ......... socisoe Jaen ama
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8)” 7
Steam-vessels...............0se00e 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee oly 9! 5

£932 2 2

1839.

£ 8. d.
Fossil Ichthyology ........0+0 110 0 0

Meteorological Observations
at. Plymouth, &. .........006 63 10 0
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0
Bristol, Dided xecasestcsadscd.coscns 35 18 6

Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 2111 O
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 0
Cast-iron Experiments......... 103 0 7
Railway Constants ............ 28 7 0
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 2
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 4
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 0
Stars in Lacaille ..c..s0cscesee 11 0 6
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 0O
Animal Secretions............. - 1010 6
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air ........seseeee 1461 0
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 38 0 0
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0

Hourly Meteorological Ob-

servations, Inverness and
KINGUSSTE Mivasasceseoatebwe eve 49 7 8
Fossil Reptiles. .......sscsesesecs 118 2) 9
Mining Statistics ............00- 50 0 0
£1595 11 0

1840.

BrIshOlMMGeseeescaxcessarses eevee 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments .......... 18 19 0
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions .........es«»s. 50 0 O
Land and Sea Level....... aseenP pOnguk odd
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille) .............. wetein ea ID 3 O
Stars (Catalogue) ......ssccsee 264 0 0
AtMOSPHELICEAUT (ie. ssnsmaseneve 15 15 0
‘Water oneinany (2c. nhisvicasaes 10 0 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 7 0 0
Meteorological Observations. 52 17 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population............ 100 0 0
School Statistics .........se000. 50 0 0
Forms of Vessels .........000.0. 184 7 0

Chemical and Electrical Phe-
TOO Wt eee sede a oa ncie cactenans 40 0 0

Meteorological Observations
Be IVIMOUGH <5. ccccacsescanses 80 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
eee

BB

é REPORT—1900.

1841.
; £8. a.
Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-

nean Temperature............ 8 8 OQ
ACtINOMETHETS ........cccceceerecee 10 0 O
Earthquake Shocks ....0s...00+ We 6 {0
Acrid POiSONS......s.cececseeeeeee 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ......... 3.0 «0
Mud in Rivers ....sessssescesees 5. 10.70
Marine Zoology .....seccsesseeeee 1512 8
Skeleton Maps .......-.scseeeeee 207,10: 40
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0
Stars (Lacaille)...........:.+000« (car ©
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0 0
Water on Tron .......e.esesenee 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations

ab IMVETNESS ......0...00000e8 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations

(reduction Of) ......seeeeeeee 25 0 0
Fossil Reptiles .........ceeeseeee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs ........ 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............. Saco IE 0
Forms of Vessels .....cscsseeees 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations

Bt Plymouth cieiseawerersosee 55 0 0
Maenetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-

BEONE E Pepaathacaccranstccegnsemen 100 0 O
Midesiat Meith: ......ccs..se-ess 50 0 O
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
Tabulating Observations ...... OG as
Races Of Men........cccccsseceses 5 0 0
Radiate Animals ............ dc} ee weO

£1235 10 11

1842.

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2
Anoplura Britanniz ......... soo O02) 12NO
Tides at Bristol ...........e0006. Ys) (0)
Gases on Light ...-..seseseeeeee 30 14 7
Chronometers......seeseecseeeees 2617 6
Marine Zoology.........sessseeee 1) 8b")
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 O
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-

FINES ..reeserererescaccensereres 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... Bo 10h 20
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
Railway Sections ...........66 161 10 0
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication

Of Report) .....scssescseeeseeee 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels .......sesee00 180 0 0
Galvanic Experiments on

RGtisee ates ceverecsscacnecncases 5 oeab
Meteorological Experiments

at Plymouth .....,..-sse00. 68) (070
Constant Indicator and Dyna-

strane 90 0 0

mometric Instruments

©
3

Force of Wind ..s.cccssssecsevee 10
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8
Vital Statistics .........ss0+0 « 50
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8
Questions on Human Race... 7

£1449

1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature

OLS SUANSD cosaseicsceameeateer cette 2
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25
Anomalous Tides, Firth of
HM OLLM yoeemersisesstencausreesceee 120
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
ITiV CENESS Bias scea senses aeons 77
Meteorological Observations
abvelym Oubhn aeescsnesatseseese 55
Whewell’s Meteorological Ane-
mometer at Plymouth ...... 10
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
THOUGD Sec rsescetessne stesso 20
Reduction of Meteorological
ODServations: ...csc0....-200000 30
Meteorological Instruments
andl (Gratuities sesnp.seeenees 39
Construction of Anemometer
AL ANVEXNGSS© \eccnesettbione sane 56
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory .......0ss0« 50
Action of Gases on Light...... 18
Establishment at Kew Ob-
servatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133
Experiments by Captive Bal-
HOODS): evesteesssieeeacaserassats 81
Oxidation of the Rails of
(Rail WaySics.sescencnomess caren 20
Publication of Report on
Fossil Reptiles .............4 40
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
Way SECbiONS .....s0..-s0cen 147
Registration of Earthquake
OCG sere ersneneuckessacee aren 30
Report on Zoological Nomen
CLAD UNE tween cwseesameseaapeeeaem 10
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 4
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10
Marine Zoology ......cescseeseess 10
Marine Zoology cisccssssessscenss 2
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents .........4 . 20
Vital Statistics .......0seecece. 36

s d.
0 0
0 O
0 0
iy
9 0
Lo 8
0 0
0 0
0 0
12 8
0 0
OO
0 0
0 0
6 0
12 2
8 10
0 0
16 1
4 7
8 0
0 0
0 0
18 3
0 0
0 0
4 6
3 8
0 0
0 0
14 11
0 0
0 0
5 8

GENERAL STATEMENT.

£ 8 d.

Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0

Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0

Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0

Morin’s Instrument and Con-
Stans INGICAtOY ..2..ccesseocre 69 14 10

Experiments on the Strength
OL Maberigls) sescccscscesesese 60 0 0
£1565 10 2

1844,

Meteorological Observations
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0
Completing Observations at

A IBOUGAN sc spaccaases conscious 35 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-operation .........:seceeees 25 8 4

Publication of the British

Association Catalogue of

BSUCUBR Maree s clot sieisle ti a'einr'is ealsve.sie 385 0 O
Observations on Tides on the

East Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 O
Revision of the Nomenclature

REDE SGALDG cooscsoccuseeseecs 1842 29 6
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew’ Observa-

GOLY scesesacccsceasevcccccscescees Ty Ga:
Instruments for Kew Obser-

WMO atte ae cacy clecdieeccs sasesclis 56 7 3
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0
Subterraneous Temperature

RUPNGIANG occ ocerssucceseadsne be 0) 20
Coloured Drawings of Rail-

way Sections ...........0cc000 1517 6
Investigation of Fossil Fishes

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of

Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11 10
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 0
Radiata and Mollusca of the

figean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0
Geographical Distributions of

Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and.

SUELW Mts cascade en's cide Gaacs 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

PAS CCUS crac csscecsetsceaetnsess 9 0 0
Experiments on the Vitality

DE SCCOS .c.cccessnanesites 1842 8 7 3
Exotic Anoplura ............64 15 0 0
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0
Completing Experiments on

the Forms of Ships ......... 100 0 0
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... OF 07* 0:
Investigations on the Internal

Constitution of Metals...:.. 50 0 0
Constant Indicator and Mo-

rin’s Instrument .,,...1842 10 0 0

£981 12 8

1845.

Publication of the British As-
sociation Catalogue of Stars
Meteorological Observations
Bt INVerNeSS! naccscccossacceess
Magnetic and Meteorological
Co-OpexatiONn ......seseeveseees
Meteorological Instruments
at Hdinburgh..............+0+
Reduction of Anemometrical
Observations at Plymouth
Electrical Experiments at
Kew Observatory ............
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
For Kreil’s Barometrograph
Gases from Iron Furnaces...
The Actinograph <......0c0.s+=-
Microscopic Structure of
Ditell S Sav eavecsnatrabengectaaenac
Exotic Anoplura ..,...... 1843
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844
Marine Zoology of Cornwall .
Physiological Action of Medi-
GCIMESIe cas schcctntansaccnssecceeste
Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............
Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843

£831 9

1846.

British Association Catalogue
Of, StalSmwess ae enecesessene 1844
Fossil Fishes of the London
Cla yiwsuusdsdeaserdeasaetecseeceeas
Computation of the Gaussian
Constants for 1829 .........
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
Strength of Materials .........
Researches in Asphyxia ......
Examination of Fossil Shells
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844
Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845
Marine Zoology of Cornwall
Marine Zoology of Britain ...
Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844
Expenses attending Anemo-

Anemometers’ Repairs sAgerbens
Atmospheric Waves ............
Captive Balloons ......... 1844
Varieties of the Human Race
1844

Statistics of Sickness and
Mortality in York............

o ooooco coon
Siac &S Comicon teioo'o a ¢ o ao

=
WOwrn Sooowoonwnon oO Oo So

i

_
oO fm BOWWN COS

bo | mow bo
6

o'!o

cii
1847.
£ 3. d.
Computation of the Gaussian

Constants for 1829.......-.++ 50 0 0
Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0
Physiological Action of Medi-

CINES .eceeceeececscececeneeerees 20 0 0
Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Atmospheric Waves ......:++.+. (et Ene
Vitality of Seeds ........-..000+ Gamat
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6

£208 5 4
—See eS

1848.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11

Atmospheric Waves ........+++ 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ...........0++ 915 0

Completion of Catalogue of
SHEE. Bagncasedanoebeeoppeporooca 70 0 O
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 1 8

1849.

Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ........+.+. 50 0 O

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Gitt0.........seeee 76 2 5
Vitality of Seeds .............4. 5-8 1
On Growth of Plants ......... 510 0

Registration of Periodical
Phenomena.............seseeeee LOMO RO

Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations ...... 139 50
£159 19 6

1850.

Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 1
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50
Periodical Phenomena......... 15
Meteorological Instruments,
AZOTCS i) sapeseners cessor eases so 85 25

1851.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in

TREIGDY vonged) Be cso cuando ees 510) gia,
Theory of Heat ..............0+0+ 20)
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-

mals and Plants...........00+« 5 0-0
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Infiunence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0O
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0
Researches on Annelida .,.... 10 0 O

£391 9 7
——S

REPORT—1900.

1852.
s. ad
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of grant

for: 1850) Ji. ststueseseueeeners 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-

tion Of Heat .......s.seeeseees by 2nd
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland ... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-

TELIA ...-eeseeeeeceeeeeneeenenee 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds ....0...sseee 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0

£304 6 7
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence

of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British

Annelida......csececeeseneereeee 10 0 0
Dredging on the East Coast

Of Scotland........sseereeeseere 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 0 0

£205 0 0
1854.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory

(including balance of

former QTant).....sceseeeseree 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0
Effects of Temperature on

Wrought Tron..........seseeee 10, 10" 10
Registration of Periodical

PhenOMena........eeeeeerereree 10 0 0
British Annelida ........s+eeeee 10 0 0
Vitality of Seeds .........+e++0e 5 2 3
Conduction of Heat ..........+- 42 0

£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Hstablish-

ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ..........s0+0e 10 711
Map of the World............+++ 15 0 0
Ethnological Queries ........+ 5 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0

£480 16 4
1856.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
Ss eee £75 0 0

WShDaecees 3 .£500 9 of A i

GENERAL STATEMENT.

o

£ 3s. d.
Strickland’s Ornithological

SYNONYMS .....seeeeeeeeeeeees 100 0 0
Dredging and Dredging

ROTM) c... 22.00 scecsersesscceoers 913 0
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical

PhenoMmena.........ceeesveeeeeee 10 0 O
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0

£734 13 9
al
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

MENS ...c.ccccccsescsesessecoast 40 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1c i0% 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Of Scotland .........cceeeeseeeee 10 0 0
Investigations into the Mol-

lusca of California ......... 10 0 0
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 0
Watural History of Mada-

ZASCAT .....eseerecseeeseereewenes 20 0 0
Researches on British Anne-

NYG ddeee ses-ssdsnseaaceenenasnem 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-

MOD ......scecccccecscseeecerseecs 10 0 0
Temperature of Mines......... i sO
Ynermometers for Subterra-

nean Observations...........- 5.7 4
Life-boats .....sccecseceeseeseuee 5 0 0

£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-

ERIS ov craepprcgashaassssss<se 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast

Of Scotland ........scecseeeseers 10 0 O
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 0
Vitality of Seed .........sce0e 5 5 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-

WGLAN setinas cc coscsnaceqquessebates 25 0 0
Experiments on the produc-

tion of Heat by Motion in

OME << cones tape csaniegs «sain 20 0
Report on the Natural Pro-

ducts imported into Scot-

TATE Sige. cccsnes00s Preaetereosccen 10 0 0

£618 18 2
1859.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
15 0 0

Dredging near Dublin.........

ie)

pe
me
ee

Le Sn de
Osteology of Birds .........00. 50 0 0
Irish Tunicata ....scceseseeeeees 5 0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Medusida ...........+00 5 0 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and

West of Ireland..........+.+0+ 10 0 0
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0
Lanarkshire Fossils ........+.+ 20 0 1
Balloon AScents.....scecseeseeees 39 11 0

£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 O
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance

of Steam-vessels ......+0.-+. 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow

Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0
Chemico-mechanical Analysis

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of

PIBTiUSee se ccncdete ees caer acess 10 0 0
Researches on the Solubility

Ole DalliSe segecescersseacecescuess 30 0 0
ResearchesontheConstituents

Of Mamnures | ......cecceeeseees 25 0 0
Balance of Captive Balloon

ACCOUNTS.....2..cccccrscesencoes 113 6

£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 500 0 0
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 O
Dredging North and East

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—

1860...... £50 0 0.

gehen ore fs Oe
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts . 20 0 O
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O
Fossils of Lesmahagow ...... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ......sesseeses 20 0 0
Classified Index tothe Trans-

ACHIONS...000.0ceccccvecscrscseens 100 0 0

| Dredging in the Mersey and

DGC Mereside cca ossenssneqsinesve ss 5 0 0
Dip Circle ..........sscecsseveeees 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-

TCLODS Wires vacscscccesscessnsisienas 50 0 0
Prison Diet.......ccsesseseeseeeses 20 0 0
Gauging of Water............008 10 0 O
Alpine Ascents ........ Sossea she (0,010
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 0

£1111 5 10

Cl1V
1862.
£
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500
Patent LAwS .....scccsceeeesesees 21
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine ......cccceccessessoeees 5
Tidal Observations ........+..+ 25
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40
Photographic Pictures of the
RUM etecwce doce ccceccdecnocssessse 150
Rocks of Donegal........+.-0+++ 25
Dredging Durham and North-
umberland Coasts .........++- 25
Connection of Storms ......... 20
Dredging North-east Coast
Of Scotland ........scccccces 6
Ravages of Teredo ...........- 3
Standards of Electrical Re-
SISHANCO! tesccccecasestseocer eres 50
Railway Accidents ............ 10
Balloon Committee .....,.....- 200
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10
Dredging the Mersey ........- 5
Prison Diet «-£...cccscceseveveress 20
Gauging of Water............. 12
Steamships’ Performance...... 150

Thermo-electric Currents ... 5

£1293 16

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bot

aAlooocoooococo on Si Grea core ooo &

1863.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory... 600
Balloon Committee deficiency 70
Balloon Ascents (other ex-

[DEWIES)) — SbAduonosagsohoneosooo0s 25
INCOZOA Gececevircesshissevessocene 25
(WOmIGHOSSIIS Harsr-asssconasenssere 20
ELGININES oececsevenesceees “Bsnnbo09 20
Granites of Donegal............ 5
ETISON MICU scswerncsescessecces 20
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

STC VITS aensecine cesta sencep cea nass 5 13
Dredging Shetland ............ 50
Dredging North-east Coast of

DCODLAMC Mer csapecssts=sgtenonrtcs 25
Dredging Northumberland

BNO nehAM se .ssesssssecss ees 17
Dredging Committee superin-

ENGENCC) Fieeesenssvccstescsesc 10
Steamship Performance ...... 100
Balloon Committee ............ 200
Carbon under pressure ......... 10
Volcanic Temperature ........, 100
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8
Electrical Standards............ 100
Electrical Construction and

Distribution ............c0000. 40
Luminous Meteors ............ 17

Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ........... 100

o co Co cocSec eS WS ae SS) (Se NEMS) oo

Sa) creer Oe Olio

H
Oo

oe CS jooco coc

REPORT —1900.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Balloon Committee ..........0. 100
Fivdroidareenyccssstss-scrsesssane 13
Rain-SAUZES | ..tpacccensececeveves 30
Tidal Observations in the

ERIE Ti acassentnescscecececre= 6
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20
Amyl Compounds ............... 20
EGISH PLOT aes oasecesecesspeeeane 25
American Mollusca .........06+ 3
OrganicvACids «....s.s«.:sedaswes 20
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10
UT YPUCIUS . 0. 2.c0cs0sesecsdaenen 50
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30
Oyster Breeding ............00 25
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100
Moon’s Surface Observations 35
Marine Wanna: ....asscesceesaees 25
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies

In Water... .ccasesmerseseess 100
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8

Luminous Meteors

eeetereseeee

£ 2. da.
Thermo-electricity ............ 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ..........+ 8 0 0
Hy droida..sccc.csscsssvoesearsneue 10 0 O
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
@oalHOSsilay Se-sesasccsesnensete 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-

DMENIUS) eonsscceccsseccemnese<care 20 0 0
Dredging, Shetland ............ 75 0 O
Dredging, Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 O
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 O
Standards of Electric Re-

SISHANGCE, Sz. cossasoteaees caestscs 100 0 O
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
THVOTOIUS, Bicercecnancacssscecscsee 10 0 0
Askham’'s Gilt \..ss0ss<sscccecnvs 50 0 O
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 9
Rain-ZauUges ....cccccreceesseeces 19 15 8
Cast-iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0

Tidal Observations in the

EDOM EE ecesencsermmeseseensnec 50 0 O
Spectral Rays....cccccsssscoreveee 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0

£1289 15 8
1865. |

_
Sooo cocoescecoeoosocooosecocoom oocSo

_
oooo coosecesscoooscocoeosesoso ooeo

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1866.
£ 8.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600 0
Lunar Committee............... 64 13
Balloon Committee ............ 50
Metrical Committee............ 50
IBAwishehalniall, -...:....-s:ccese 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 15
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20
Chemical Constitution of
ANCMELON Vaccscngsssecesesvee 50
Amy] Compounds .............46 25
Electrical Standards............ 100
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall ............++es0 25

Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50

Dredging the Mersey ......... 5
Resistance of Floating Bodies

REVIVWAUET s.cccccnecncesceqsuaces 50
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-

Ret eieireccorcescccssesccevactesas 29
Rigor Mortis ...... paokecceannoser 10
Trish Annelida ..........00...006 15
Catalogue of Crania............ 50
Didine Birds of Mascarene

STANGS, “sesceccascesscosssssvens 50
Typical Crania Researches ... 30
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100

£1750 13 4

apeas oococo (=) ocooco ooooo cocoeoceo

d
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4

1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,

BPAVOCSLING |... cccsvncecsscesensccss 50
Lunar Committee ............066 120
Metrical Committee.......... o. BL0
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations......... 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British Rainfall. ........secs..0ee 50
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-

BPISINEMEL icc scaciacanacsstscansos’s 100
Electrical Standards nesivetoea 100
Ethyl and Methyl Series...... 25
Fossil Crustacea ...........0686 25
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75

Do. Plant Beds 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent LAWS cisseccscsress evvse 30

£1739

RPIlOOooorocCOCCO cocoooecoooeooo oo

orVrooQoooooceoe cocecocecoeqocecoa oo

1868,
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600

Oo
-

SS. oo. Sooo SOMO o IScoio OO O11 O10 Oo

CV

o'o eo ooocecooooo scoocooosoooodsesoo &

Lunar Committee ..........-..4. 120
Metrical Committee...
Zoological Record......-+-.+++
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Steamship Performances ..... 100
British Rainfall ..........-.se+0e- 50
Luminous Meteors........ese0ees 50
Organic ACIDS .....ccscccscesees 60
Fossil Crustaced......cssseseeeees 25
Methyl Series.........cccccsesrees 25
Mercury and Bile .............+- 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks ......sseseseeeees 25
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... £0
Bagshot Leaf-beds .......-++ . 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
Hossil HOTA, ....sceccsccnsnessees 25
Tidal Observations .........+6+ 100
Underground Temperature.., 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Secondary Reptiles, kc. ...... 30
British Marine Invertebrate
HAWN cates anpsne ence ciheen ens 100
£1940
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory.. 600
| Lunar Committee .....sereeee 00
Metrical Committee .....-.e.0 25
Zoological Record .........2..+++ 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water .......ssseseseeeee « 25
British Rainfall...............008 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
SiCineresavesdneneesstacssctancenase 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations Sodas 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of
Cast Iron.......ssssseecseereeee . 80
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100
Meth yISeriessc. ssc. ..0scatnwaune 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
StONGHOCKS........5c0cessvseese 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......... + 30
Hoss, HLOV Ay cos escs sissies pce. 25
Tidal Observations .é.......06+ 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic AcidS ...sesccccscsesees 12

Kiltorcan Fossils ....cecccseseee

Sooo ceesceooco SoS coe Co ooeoso

SSS SsSsc00cscSo CoO coo co cose

evi
£ 8. d.
Chemical Constitution and

Physiological Action Rela-

TIONS Upocwsccesscouecanrsencsrser E570)" 0
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilisation of Sewage ........- 10 0 0
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 9

£1622 0 0
ee D
1870.

Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory Pe
Metrical Committee............

Zoological Record........+.++++ 100
Committee on Marine Fauna 20
Fars in Fishes ...ceccessseeeeeee 10

Chemical Nature of Cast
TOT Pee cee eae cevetectee nas es 80
Luminous Meteors ...........+ 30
Heat in the Blood............... 15
British Rainfall.................. 100

Thermal Conductivity of
ROTCECC) sc cceweneteaacs veaneisinae 20
British Fossil Corals............ 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4
Bagshot Leaf-beds ............ 15
HOSSUL FULOTE. cu ccccceacocescocesis 25
Tidal Observations ....e..... 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25
Utilisation of Sewage ......... 50
Organic Chemical Compounds 30
Onny River Sediment ......... 3

Mechanical Equivalent of
Heatucctienedessesesrsustcetes 50
£1572

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Sor ooo oo o'o'o'o O10 oooo ooooo

1871.

Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 600
Monthly Reports of Progress

in Chemistry ........... nese 100
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record............... 100
Thermal Equivalents of the

Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Fossil FIOra ....ccssecccseesecene 25
Luminous Meteors ............ 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 25
Heat in the Blood............... 7
British Rainfall...............6. 50
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Fossil Crustacea ...socccesssees 25
Methyl Compounds ............ 25
Lunar Objects .......6 Cereseare a0

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REPORT—1900.

£ 8. d.
Fossil Coral Sections, for

Photographing ......+essese 20 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-beds ......s.+++ 20 0 0
Moab Explorations .........+0+ 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ............ 40 0 0

£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-

ment at Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 75 0/0
Zoological Record............... LOO TOXS6
Tidal Committee .....,......04+ 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25.0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-embryological Inqui-

TIES Seve snckcssssaeetescsbecenteve 10 0 0
Keut’s Cavern Exploration.. 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood.............++ 15 0.0
Fossil Crustacea’ ... csc. .c.csee 25 9 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0
Lunar Objects) st:-sececsccnste 20 0 0
Inverse Wave-lengths ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall.......... petearns 100 0 0

| Poisonous Substances Anta-
| GQONISM.....ssescesecsececcnseoens 10 0 0
| Essential Oils, Chemical Con-

BblibYOM,, CoC teucsssusecseeesdts 40 0 O
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of Me-

DAIS eeescstecassecosesteedessnenss 25 0 0

£1285 0 0

1873.

Zoological Record .......sesseees 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............0+8 200 0 0
Tidal Committee ........eeeeeee 400 0 O
Sewage Committee .........+0 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals .......+. 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants ..........+.+++ 25 0 0
Wave-lengths .....ssseceeseees 150 0 0
British Rainfall........c.se.-+00« 100 0 0
Essential Oils.......cesceeseeeeees 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants ......... oor LO OPO)
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Fossil Flora, Ireland..........-. 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-

Fall 34). . aativeecateaeeeenn «ne 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors.........-+.+++ 30 0 0

£1685 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1874.

£ 8. d.
Zoological Record ......++++++++ 100 0 0
Chemistry Record.......-.++++++ 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Elliptic Functions............+++ 100 0 0
Lightning Conductors ......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of

Rocks .......sececececeereeeeeees TOPOF 0
Anthropological Instructions 50 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ..........+. 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... e"O" O
British Rainfall................+. 100 0 0
Essential Oils...........2:seeeeeee 10 O# 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50' 0-0
Mauritius Meteorology ...... 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms..........+.+++ 30 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-

Tan .o..cececcscceccesceceecsceees 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Trades Unions ......s..sseessees 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-corals 25 0 0
Erratic Blocks .........:ssssse+s 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-

shire CoastS ........essseeeees 28 5 0
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ........+ SG? 0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-

INCASULES...eeeesseeeeceeeeeerers 715 0

£1151 16 O

1875.

Elliptic Functions ............ 100 0 0
Magnetisation of Iron ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall..............-20. 1200 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20, OF .0
Chemistry Record......... neciaice 100 0 O
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid..............+ 10°00" 0
Isometric Cresols .........-0.0+ 20 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 O
Development of Myxinoid

IRISHES co crcccss+eseccoceconecess 20 0 0
Zoological Record.............« 100 0 O
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 O
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 O

£960 0 0

1876.
Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2
British Rainfall...............00« 100 0 0
Olrm’s Law.......s.cscoessreceess iene 26. .,0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0

£ 8. de
Tsomeric Cresols ......sseceeees id 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACCLALC.....ceseceeeenererereeees br \,0),.0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid........+2+++++ 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave 100 0 0
Geological Record........-..++++ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of

ROCKS ...cccssccccesnecssccsosece 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......++- 10 0 0
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0
Zoological Record......ss.+e++++ 100 0 0
Close Time ........csseececeesseees 5. 0:0
Physiological Action of

Sound! :. cacassatadscedasstaonins 25.0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 75 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-

bitants of British Isles...... 13 15 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning

of Steam-vessels .......-.+++ 5 0 0

£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acid in

Minerals .......0c.cccccenssences 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of

ROCKS .cccscesccsseceecevecseveee ey ab bis
Zoological Record...........+++ 100 0 O
Kent’s Cavern ....ccceeserseeeee 100 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors .......+...- 30 0 0
Elasticity of Wires ............ 100 0 0
Dipterocarpex, Reporton ... 20 0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of

Heat. caceact dsessscenente-seceees 35 0 O
Double Compounds of Cobalt

and Nickel ...0.2s...0.scssseees 8 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 O
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New

Red Sandstone ...........+++- 10 0 O
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto-

ACETATE ........sevccccevececees 10 0 0
British Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
Atmospheric Electricity in

TWGTAR PE venaspaveeatesc-csees ogee 15 0 0
Development of Light from

COalBgAaS ..ccsvesiecsceccsesesees 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and

Phosphoric Acid...... Foscdeccn 118 0
Geological Record.........+«+ .. 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-

phoric Acid, &c........ 15 0

As 9 7

evili

1878.

REPORT—-1900.

o18.4d-
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record..........2+.+ 100 0 O
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Siphon
ReCOrdEr ........0cecseeceesseees 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Investigation of Underground
WALEIS. ...-.scecovecsssccceosseve 1521080
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
Structure.........cccceerscsseees 30 0 0
Calculation of Factor Table
for 4th Million ..........0.++- 100 0 O
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 O
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ..........++00 100 0 0
Fermanagh Caves Explora-
HOU bape aeacssssschieneiccAtwendsee Ho eVOUAG
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKS «co svccessdevctoncecseucsns 416 6
Luminous Meteors.........s+++++ LO 3000
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ............ UT Onn,
Record of Zoological Litera-
HUTEenscasmesenenteeeser sewers as 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
Exploration of Caves in
IB OMNECON emeatiewecesta cede se 50 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
COLOR, Gessssnendusidtncssace ees 100 0 O
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts............... 25 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Underground Waters............ 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 O
Improvements in Astrono-
micaliClocks \...cscecsssssecse 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
DEVON Een spacernccsssccnessiscees 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6

£ 38. d.
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-

CfMICLENts <.....0.eseesseaneecnele 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance

SUTVCYicsossescse+saumeee ee eeeene 10) 0: 7.0
Tables of Fundamental In-

variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-

servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0
Instrument for Detecting

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring

the Speed of Ships ......... fy gaa IS. 3
Tidal Observations in the

English Channel ............ 10 0 0

£1080 11 11
Se
1880.
New Form of High Insulation

GY een .s sss venssasssteessesechaas 10 0 0
Underground Temperature... 10 0 0
Determination of the Me-

chanical Equivalent of

Cate ve cos socseensedosorssnesinne 8 5 0
Elasticity of Wires ...........- 50 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0
Fundamental Invariants ...... Sy OO
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20 0 0
Specific Inductive Capacity

of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20 0 0
Completion of Tables of Sun-

heat Coefficients ............ 50 0 0
Instrument for Detection of

Fire-damp in Mines ......... 10 0 0
Inductive Capacity of Crystals

and Paraffines .............0. ANT @
Report on Carboniferous

IPOLVZOR” ve..0cssccnsecsenas coos, 100 0)
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-

BAUEUS) scores 0c ¥sccapacenaneegee 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0
Geological Record...........++++ 100 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0
Underground Waters of Per-

mian Formations ..,.....+... 5 0 0
Record of Zoological Litera-

LULC cease des secpcceasnssuseeuessss 100 0 0
Table at Zoological Station

at Naples ...sscecssssseeeeees 75 0 0
Investigation of the Geology

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0
Anthropometry .......see8+ aawse 50 0 0
Patent Laws sevessssssteettsss00° | SONMONEO

£731 7 7

re ee

GENERAL STATEMENT.

1881,

£
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Underground Temperature... 20
Electrical Standards............ 25
High Insulation Key............ 5
Tidal Observations ............ 10
Specific Refractions ............ iif
Fossil PolyZ0a ....ssssseeeceeaee 10
Underground Waters ......... 10
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25
Tertiary Flora ..........eceeeene 20
Scottish Zoological Station... 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 75
Natural History of Socotra... 50

Anthropological Notes and
MRIERIES IE sciccs coer ccnses ces avecls 9
Zoological Record............64+ 100

Weights and Heights of
Human Beings ...........0.-. 30
£476

1882.

Exploration of Central Africa 100
Fundamental Invariants of

Algebraical Forms ....,,... 76
Standards for Electrical
Measurements ..........e0008 100
Calibration of Mercurial Ther-
MMOMICTCTS -...0.060000edsescnese 20
Wave-length Tables of Spec-
tra of Hlements............... 50
Photographing Ultra-violet
Spark Spectra .......0..00.6. 25
Geological Record........+...66+ 100
Earthquake Phenomena of
PRAT AIS picdasaccescessasaesaasiese 25
Conversion of Sedimentary
Materials into Metamorphic
EOC eSranse cass sdassecccsessevenns 10
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Geological Map of Europe ... 25
Circulation of Underground
WU DCTSeemmenertccndscceeeaccasess 15
Tertiary Flora of North of
MEPS hee en ctesssaeveveceesasne 20
PSTUGISO POLY ZO ...2..c00e0sesecee 10
Exploration of Caves of South
PEVELANG!) <5, cnesasssenshonens 10
Explorationof RaygillFissure 20
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Albuminoid Substances of
Peace esc vcncassesevaces cesses 10
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............... 50
Migration of Birds ............ 15
Natural History of Socotra... 100
Natural History of Timor-laut 100
Record of Zoological Litera-
ULV C Ga cals apabtbeemaeaestausaecatoss 100
' Anthropometric Committee... 50

£1126

SSS

ics —o.0 TOCSCOCCOSC oN Soo Soo
rlo CO ScOoOSCOoOSoOOHSOSCSCSCS &

Sp On AOn SS. VS
SSS Oo 1S

oo o ooo

rKEiCooO Ccooo ©& Sys Sh ae! Seo SxS

RrloOoo oooo o ooo

—

£1083

1883.
£
- Meteorological Observations
On Ben Nevis ........cesecesece 50
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-
VALLVES, secdtcaccnraseorsssepsane 15
Earthquake Phenomena of
MAPA coer slavisereneascompieswars 50
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20
British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Talzo-
ZOICUROCKS Me secs sccm acts cathe 25
Erosion of Sea-coast ot Eng-
land and Wales .......e+....0. 10
Circulation of Underground
\WER ERS) Goo: oncoabonbuacueereuoAr 15
Geological Record.........+.+++. 50
Exploration of Caves in South
Ol lNelanGentstesmeccsmeceseacls 10
Zoological Literature Record 100
Migration of Birds ............ 20
Zoological Station at Naples 80
Scottish Zoological Station... 25
Elimination of Nitrogen by
Bodily Exercise............00 38
Exploration of Mount Kili-
MOAT ALO sears acsp tec sc'esesse'sd . 500
Investigation of Loughton
Wamnpyl are tsens ose pauaeenceyssee> 10
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Screw Gauges.......scseeees aceiees
1884.
Meteorological Observations
on Ben: Nevistits.. cease eee 50
Collecting and Investigating
Meteoric Dust......ces.ceseeee 20
Meteorological Observatory at
Chepstowis-antssenapecsassess 25
Tidal Observations.............. 10
Ultra Violet Spark Spectra... 8

Earthquake Phenomena of

JAPAN) soe Aicenwessduvesslcesates 75
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15
Bossi Roly ZOay seeseuconssseccsexole 10
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo-

ZOLCHROCKS eesti sccaseeosde > 15
Circulation of Underground

Wiahensanmets aeeasiaaecseaiecness 5
International Geological Map 20
Bibliography of Groups of

Invertebrata... ...csciesss rae 50
Natural History of Timor-laut 50
Naples Zoological Station ... 80
Exploration of Mount Kili-

ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500
Migration of Birds............... 20
Coagulation of Blood............ 100
Zoological Literature Record 100
Anthropometric Committee... 10

£1173
a

a
.

ROO OC OC wlocoo © w ooSoC0oO CS SC Oo Ooco Cc Oo
wlecs © w Cooo0So0 05 0 oC oco oO o ®

MIocoeio- c.o O° So “oO ooceS ooo “oo

Eloooces os ooo co © coe s

cx
1885.
s. d.
Synoptic Chart of Indian

OCEAN .....0ssssonervccceseses ses 50 0 0
Reduction of Tidal Observa-

TIONS poccn tose racsWssvesscececeses LOMION 10
Calculating Tables in Theory

Of NUMbEYTS.......00.sseeeeeeree 100 0 0
Meteorological Observations

on Ben NeViS ......seecseeseeee 50 0 O
Meteoric Dust ..........ceseeeee 70 0 0
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt

Solutions ..........cacoseceserers 25 0 0
Physical Constants of Solu-

HNO aaSsocacdadasoa aucboadosaroe 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu

WALIS Moser bbs cosscecsascrstes tends 25 0 0
Raygill Hissure ........00....c00-- 15 0 0
Earthquake Phenomena of

UGH O26). Bice. sacbduongs vodoanoudcbe 79 0 0
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzeozoic

PUOCKS''.tcodes leven sbecdduseten ice 25 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 50 0 0O
Geological Record ............00. 50 0 O
Circulation of Underground

WiLEDS sami sbacesscesseeccnssabces LOOP 0
Naples Zoological Station 100 0 O
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 30 0 0
Exploration of Mount Kilima-

Map) SSssedaseSodcbdocspaaaseogs 25 0 0
Recent Polyzoa ...........sseeeee 10 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 100 0 0
Biological Stations on Coasts

of United Kingdom.......... 150 0 0O
Exploration of New Guinea... 200 0 0
Exploration of Mount Roraima 100 0 O

£1385 0 0

1886.

Hlectrical Standards............ 40 0 0
Solar Radiation...............005 910 6
Tidal Observations ............ x 0 0
Magnetic Observations......... 010 O
Observations on Ben Nevis.. a 0 0
Physical and Chemical Bear-

ings of Hlectrolysis ......... 20 0 0
Chemical Nomenclature ...... 5 0 0
Fossil Plants of British Ter-

tiary and Secondary Beds... 20 0 0
Caves in North Wales ......... 25 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VAIS sce scenneeeeturotedarsscstese 30 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 15 0 0
Zoological Literature Record. 100 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Naples Zoological Station...... 50 0 0
Researches in Food-Fishes and

InvertebrataatSt.Andrews 75 0 0

REPOoRT—1900,

Flora and Fauna of the
Cameroons
Migration of Birds
Bathy-hypsographical Map of
British Isles
Regulation of Wages
Prehistoric Race of Greek
Islands....... Onan seutts Stas seca 20
Racial Photographs, Egyptian 20

a eee ee eee se eereeeeens

Seat

£ 3. d.
Migration of Birds ......6..0 30 0 0
Secretion of Urine............... 10 0 O
Exploration of New Guinea... 150 0 0
Regulation of Wages under
Sliding Scales, ............... 10 0 0
Prehistoric Race in Greek
TSIandS <...<ccsescns> aunrenpuenee 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of Ca-
NAVAS tr coceseeerieeceonlene meee teate 50 0 0
£995 0 6
1887.
Solar Radiation .......0....se0+ 1810 0
Electrolysis... <.-.c0s-sereesssasee 30 0 0
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 75 0 0
Standards of Light (1886
fantstel) yepprcoenabobhodarich nnason7 20 0 0
Standards of Light (1887
QUANG) tas wcastexsectecasherereeen 10 0 0
Harmonic Analysis of Tidal
Observations) ;-\rssietscass ens Hoe rO sO
Magnetic Observations......... 26 2 0
Electrical Standards ............ 50 0 0
Silent Discharge of Electricity 20 0 0
Absorption Spectra ............ 40 0 0
Nature of Solution ............ 20 0 0
Influence of Silicon on Steel 30 0 O
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
WIUS neat sas conmacstcate armeen anes 20 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan
(1886 grant) coor oes cese 50 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of J apat
GSS iCorarit) eccnersscemieants 50 0 0
Cae Gwyn Cave, N. Wales. .. 20 0 0
HirraticwBlOGkS) Sr.csssacseteens 10 0 O
Fossil Phyllopoda ............... 20 0 0
Coal Plants of Halifax......... 25 0 0
Microscopic Structure of the
Rocks of Anglesey............ 10 0 0
Exploration of the Eocene
Beds of the Isleof Wight... 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... ‘ae OO)
‘Manure’ Gravelsof Wexford 10 0 0
Provincial Museums Reports 5 0 0
Lymphatic System ............ 25 0 0
Naples Biological Station 100 0 0O
Plymouth Biological Station 50 0 0
Granton Biological Station... 75 0 0
Zoological Record .........+0+++ 100 0 0
Flora of China ...........seeeees 75 0 O
0 0
0 0
6 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0

£1186 18

GENERAL STATEMENT.

o Cononac?

(= i) Oo f=) ooo ooooooocoeo Ser i=) f=) eoooocoocooo fo) oor

o®

o|co Oo o ooo cooocooocoeooo oo So o cooocooocooco°o (=) ooo >) ouNorF

1888.
£
Ben Nevis Observatory......... 150
‘Electrical Standards...........+ 2
Magnetic Observations......... 15
Standards of Light ............ 79
Blectrolysis ....cseseeeeeeeeeeees 3
Uniform Nomenclature in
MeChanics: ........cceeecseeoeee 10
Silent Discharge of Hlec-
ERICIGY .0.....reresecceewseeeesore 9
Properties of Solutions ...... 25
Influence of Silicon on Steel 20
Methods of Teaching Chemis-
LEXY ceeceeceeceeescescerceceeneeee 10
Tsomeric Naphthalene Deriva-
HUVCSE UE scec-<c-c-cacarascenseserss 25
Action of Light on Hydracids 20
Sea Beach near Bridlington... 20
Geological Record ........++.+++ 50
Manure Gravels of Wexford... 10
Erosion of Sea Coasts ......... 10
Underground Waters ......... 5
Paleontographical Society ... 50
Pliocene Fauna of St. Erth.,, 50
Carboniferous Flora of Lan-
cashire and West Yorkshire 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-
SHITE) sohdoat ee Be etabens icbareeeee 20
Zoology and Botany of West
Tindi€S ........scceeceeseecsesceee 100
Flora of Bahamas....... pagesers 100
Development of Fishes—St.
IATIGVEWS .oscssscccesncctvccoecss 50
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 100
Migration of Birds ............ 30
Flora of China ........ sseseeee 75
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Lymphatic System ............ 25
Biological Station at Granton 50
Peradeniya Botanical Station 50
Development of Teleostei 15
Depth of Frozen Soil in Polar
Regions: .......cseeeeeeeseeeeees 5
Precious Metals in Circulation 20
Value of Monetary Standard 10
Effect of Occupations on Phy-
sical Development............ 25
North-Western Tribes of
OANA, saeco sdsecviicesauet esses 100
Prehistoric Race in Greek
TEATIGS se 5nsspcccescesscsssceoses 20
£1511
1889.
Ben Nevis Observatory........+ 50
Electrical Standards............ 75
Blectrolysis,......0c.ssssecescecese 20
Surface Water Temperature... 30

Silent Discharge of Electricity
ON OXYZEN sorsevreree scfcen res

ocoooo

—

ao ooco

£
Methods of teaching Chemis-

LLY ssrsscceecevcceseecevseveeeres 10
Action of Light on Hydracids 10
Geological Record.....,.... Aopsow ttl
Voleanic Phenomena of Japan 25
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VAUS i vaoesapaerstnentqesawas sass 20
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 20
Higher Eocene Beds of Isle of

Wight ....ccccasesccrssseescoscen 15
West Indian Explorations ... 100
Flora of China .....scseceseseees 25
Naples Zoological Station ... 100
Physiology of Lymphatic

SYVSECMM | covccceneccvscenccnseses 25

Experiments with a Tow-net 5
Natural History of Friendly

Geology and Geography of
Atlas Range...
Action of Waves and Currents

eee meee ete wene

colocooo ooo eo eooeoolcOcOmUCUCOCOOCOCOCO

cxl

oo
=

ccoo0oo0 co co fo wo eoeoeoolUcUOCUOUlUCUCOOCOOCCOOC

In HstuarieS .......00..cssseee 100
North-Western ‘Tribes of
Canela sect ce sens cones cue sens 150
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 30
Corresponding Societies ...... 20
Marine Biological Association 200
‘ Baths Committee,’ Bath...... 100
£1417 11
————
1890.
Electrical Standards............ 12 17
Blectrolysis: cis ssccncsessn nase da 5
Electro-optics........ssersereeees . 50
Mathematical Tables ......... 25

Volcanic and Seismological

Phenomena of Japan ...... 75
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 15
Properties of Solutions ...... 10

International Standard forthe
Analysis of Iron and Steel
Influence of the Silent Dis-
charge of Electricity on

OXY Seu nneacn coeansee inane 5
Methods ofteachingChemistry 10
Recording Results of Water

AMA SIS eae touc sn tdsest phases 4
Oxidation of Hydracids in

Sunlight raeearsccs cscs esseas 15
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

NAUWES? paig.tocne PSR ASE ECO OSES ascay e20
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ......... 10
Circulation of Underground

\VEUISLAS ron aonee mene ee ane seece ss 5
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 15
Cretaceous Polyzoa ..........0 10
Geological Photographs ...... 71
Lias Beds of Northampton... 25
Botanical Station at Perade-

TVA ether srsvesss| see Siapcliee 20

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REPORT—1900

CXiL
£ s. d
Experiments with a Tow-

TEE .2c.cccccrecsecscoenerssconees 43 9
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 100 0 O
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Action of Waves and Currents

in Estuaries .........c.sesee 150 0 9
Graphic Methods in Mechani-

CAL SCIENCE... .0-.--cecsescoese ISTO DO
Anthropometric Calculations 5 0 0
Nomad Tribes of Asia Minor 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 20 0 O

£799 16 8
1891.
Ben Nevis Observatory........+ 50 0 O
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O
Hlectrolysis.............ecsesseeee 500
Seismological Phenomena of

SATIS coleeseecaseeeasawsease we 10 0 0
Temperatures of Lakes......... 20 0 O
Photographs of Meteorological

PHCNOWICNAsesnctscrsvosbsssace B00
Discharge of Electricity from

IPOINUS ss covaccceepiiacsassenaneebes 10 0 0
Ultra Violet Rays of Solar

SPCC UNIMeacbtdeenessarssscies 50 0 0
International Standard for

Analysis of Ironand Steel... 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deriva-

EVES acces seteenerscnesses se aexth 25 0 O
Formation of Haloids ......... 25 0 0
Action of Light on Dyes ...... 1710 0
Geological Record..............+ 100 0 0
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu-

VIS treetan tess taco scothcossesvasce 10°05 50
Fossil Phyllopoda............... 10 0 0
Photographs of Geological

PHBCLOSD iyecacssocwernsdescevcs cee 9 5, 0
Lias of Northamptonshire ... 25 0 0
Registration of ‘lype-Speci-

mens of British Fossils...... B70 40
Tnvestigationof ElboltonCave 25 0 0
Botanical Station at Pera-

CEN ar eee cessctacsatesssccech es 50 0 0
Experiments with a Tow-net 40 0 O
Marine Biological Association 1210 0
Disappearance of Native

IBIAS). peetecmepepereesss saves: DeOO
Action of Waves and Currents

IN) HISHMATICS) Vieoecssescssescees 125 0 0
Anthropometric Calculations 10 0 0
New Edition of ‘ Anthropo-

logical Notes and Queries’ 50 0 0
North - Western Tribes of

CANAD cwc vases cbarstssass.s- 200 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0

£1,029 10 0

1892.
£ 8. d.
Observations on Ben Nevis... 50 0 0O
Photographs of Meteorological

PHENOMENA,....cecsceesesvcssese 15 0 0
Pellian Equation Tables ...... 10 0 0
Discharge of Electricity from

POIntS ion seeree sa ceeeNaeeee saat 50 0 0
Seismological Phenomena of

JAPAN Gewesencsassseecveeeenerees 10 0 0
Formation of Haloids ......... 12 0 0
Properties of Solutions ...... 10 0 0
Action of Light. on Dyed

Colours? sense aseveeeses coat eee TO C10
Erratic Blocks @-.22..2s.eseosssn 15 0 0
Photographs of Geological

IMbOrestecccatassareanetasseeeces 20 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Investigation of Elbolton

Caveiianscsvarmecateattneteoecen: 25 0 0
Excavations at Oldbury Hill 10 0 0
Cretaceous Polyzoa ............ LOM ORO
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 1710 0
Deep-sea Tow-net ..............- 40 0 O
Fauna of Sandwich Islands... 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Islands *.<:..cccce-+-ceee 100 0 0
Climatology and Hydrography

of Tropical Africa... ». 50 0 0
Anthropometric Laboratory... 5 0 O
Anthropological Notes and

Queries’. fii .cccacctersteureseees 20 0 O
Prehistoric Remains in Ma-

shonaland’ viry..cs-nevesssseees 50 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

Can BUA Mas carcresseseetsn san 100 0 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0 0

£864 10 O
1893.
Electrical Standards......... » 25 0 0
Observations on Ben Nevis... 150 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 1B O00
Intensity of Solar Radiation 2 8 6
Magnetic Work at the Tal-

mouth Observatory ......... 2b? 0" 10
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

WAU CS) Warden sneasrereaengeien » 20 0 0
Hirratic BIOCKS \.....+ssss++rersus 10576 20
Fossil Phyllopoda............60+ 5 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Clava, Chapelhall, &e. ...... 20 0 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

ADM scons. ss coppnceeseie temenmaete 10 0 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0 0
Marine Biological Association 30 0 0
Fauna of Sandwich Islands 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of West

India Islands siiiesseesseees sce 50 0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

& Ss:
Exploration of Irish Sea ...... 30 0
Physiological Action of

Oxygen in Asphyxia......... 20 0
Index of Genera and Species

IPAMIMAIS:... si giecectescadsse 20 0
®xploration of Karakoram

IMOUMEAINS' . 20. ers cecccetieeeee 50 0
Scottish Place-names ......... Cobia)
Climatology and Hydro-

graphy of Tropical Africa 50 0
Economic Training ............ Bah
‘Anthropometric Laboratory 5 0
Exploration in Abyssinia...... 25 0
North-Western ‘Tribes of

WEAN AC Am Heciavre So ow ssdw cde sssiee's's 100 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 30 0

£907 15
1894,
Blectrical Standards............ 25 0
Photographs of Meteorological

HPHOMOMIENA «dsc cnciss avie~ oneese 10 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

ROUSE s 5 dol odes cnnat. daidtecda. 15 0
Intensity of Solar Radiation 5 5
Wave-length Tables............ 10 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

SUOMOMESE leases sess esctesen ses 5.0
SHTTALICIBIOCKS ,, nit .ececunscsere 15 O
Fossil Phyllopoda............... Ae)
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Ody CCS ona se odasindascclideeds 20 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

EMI Sees teieeta's ne siosisiae(asionsnisisiny 250 5 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

SUIS psonteeBenaadee Oaekbes kena 14 0
Observations on Earth-tre-

POTS Settciesipiaaeisciewiebe « olaseidae see 50 O
Exploration of Calf- Hole

WAN Conaeote sect cedipctatec snus tava 5, 0
Naples Zoological Station ... 100 0
Marine Biological Association 5 0
Zoology of the Sandwich
MPISIANIOS | os 6. cccsssacccecssecese 100 0
Zoology of the Irish Sea ...... 40 0
Structure and Function of the

Mammalian Heart............ 10 0
Exploration in Abyssinia 30 0
Economic Training ............ 9 10
Anthropometric Laboratory

PRAMISUICS.«.-<0csccecccesccedave 5 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... 10 0
The Lake Village at Glaston-

ISLE cote Jette vonkt SIU .A Lave 40 0
Anthropometrical Measure-

ments in Schools ............ pid
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 20 0
Corresponding Societies ...... 25 0

£583 15

f=7)

1900.

| tes Geioio, MoS) ol eo eo

|

|
|

exiil
1895.
£ 8 de
Electrical Standards............ 2m a), O
Photographs of Meteorological
PHENOMENA). once cng osc aeons 1050 20
Warth 'ELEMOTS, , <..<cn0c-+-ness 70), 0, 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Reduction of Magnetic Obser-

vations made at Falmouth

PSCLVALOTY,. secs: ase cepabe rea 50 0 O
Comparison of Magnetic Stan-

OATOS YW cc asnueccnahes: sneezes 25 0-0
Meteorological Observations

OMIBEen NCVIS. coc ccsscacensnese 50 0 0

| Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 QO
Action of Light upon Dyed

COTOUYS regia cinest, ceetaciagesact Ane Owl
Formation of Haloids from

Pure Materials ............... 20 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

WADINGS shores cnesocteienaneienn ae 30 0 O
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

DV SS re asecs Gs ciameelstaded« eum. 30 0 0
Mirrabic) BIOCKSy vies. .<.¢s+ sn - 10 0 0
Paleozoic Phyllopoda ... .... 5 0 0
Photographs of Geological In-

HOLCSti seen -macarencnicts nasa 10 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

Claval Mea rccactcs omaha te 1005 0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

US ees ahs satdaca ste naep arte saeils 3.0 0
New Sections of Stonesfield

ES) Ee eee pei ide SS Seapets aae ee BOS On 0
Exploration of Calf HoleCave 10 0 0

| Nature and Probable Age of

High-level Flint-drifts ...... L005 10
Table atthe Zoological Station

at Naples: jaceesscdepycnesouss 100 0 0

| Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ............ 1Byy,0;, 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of the Irish Sea............ .. 35 9 4
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 50 0: 0
Index of Genera and Species

Of Animales oc, ds5 svete. a 50 0 0

| Climatologyof Tropical Africa 5 0 O
| Exploration of Hadramut 50 0 O
| Calibration and Comparison of

Measuring Instruments 25 0 0
Anthropometric Measure-

ments in Schools ............ Dy Or 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 30 0 0

| Exploration of a Kitchen-

| midden at Hastings ......... LOE 0, 0
Ethnographical Survey ...... TO 0G
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph............... 2b, 0.0
Corresponding Societies ..,... 30 0 0

£977 15 65

oQ

CXLV
1896.
5S Chas
Photographs of Meteorologi-

cal Phenomena, ............++- 15 0 O
Seismological Observations... 80 0 0
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain Inte-

YAS ircme cine (ecnencesersscsncasas 107 O10
Uniformity of Size of Pages of

Transactions, &C. ........-++- Tel
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements... 10 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

CHILDS) copBagpsnetubascanaiecee Pa Aiea db
Electrolytic Quantitative Ana-

UIESS Eetete wee setiicls va -ieiele acess 105000
The Carbohydrates of Barley

SUM) gesrosadnccsasodecscnworan 50 0 0
Reprinting Discussion on the

Relation of Agriculture to

SIRS locas sataeencrmodsetliase 5-0: 0
Erratic Blocks ..........00..++++ 10 0 0
Palzozoic Phyllopoda ......... 5 0 0
Shell-bearing Deposits at

RGIAVRNACGS) “ous occstaarcesevcses's 10 0.0
Eurypterids of the Pentland

FID Seeerere ust ecdeenaccerssasses yan Oe)
Investigation of a Coral Reef

by Boring and Sounding... 10 0 0
Examination of Locality where

the Cetiosaurus in the Ox-

ford Museum was found... 25 0 0
Paleolithic Depositsat Hoxne 25 0 O
Fauna of Singapore Caves ... 40 0 0
Age and Relation of Rocks

near Moreseat, Aberdeen 10 0 O
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion at Naples ............... 100 0 0
Table at the Biological Labo-

ratory, Plymouth ............ 15 0 0
Zoology, Botany, and Geology

of the Irish Sea............... 50 0 O
Zoology of the Sandwich Is-

APUSAS mecereseeeurantsscecesor ese: 100 0 O
African Lake Fauna............ 100 0 O
Oysters under Normal and

Abnormal Environment ... 40 0 0
Climatology of TropicalAfrica 10 0 0
Calibration and Comparison of

Measuring Instruments...... 20 0 0
Small Screw Gauge ............ 10 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

(CHET Eh cacaccpeeSsenaeNODOa 100 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury. 30 0 0
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 10 0 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph............... 25 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

MUNG rce ones sivaecalenteiwacn sa 5s 6 30 0 0

£1,104 6 1
ee ES

REPORT—1900.

1897.
use:
Mathematical Tables ......... 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 100 0 ©
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

teprals.. jcscou.deaecuaenetreeeen 10 0 0
Electrolysis and Electro-

CHEMUSEDY, jo2<..sseeeeeeeeeee 50 0 O
Electrolytic Quantitative An-

aly Sisis ss sadaewaass saanmedealte see 10 0 0
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri-

WAUIVES: soscasieeeeesheeo=' seen 50 0 ©
Hrratie Blocks? ..ccccscssuasvmene 10 0 0
Photographs of Geological

Ihawi(es 72 \ Ge Grmogn anode eeondo uot 145 0 0
Remains of the Irish Elk in

the Isle of Man............... 15 0 0:
Table at the Zoological Sta-

hioMeY Naples! Kren: -.—ssesenaene 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 910 8
Zoological Bibliography and

(Ba blications.ss.s..s-scsstretess 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum

Animalium’. .o-ceoeneneeerenencs 100 0 0
Zoology and Botany of the

West India Islands ......... 40 0 0
The Details of Observa-

tions on the Migration of

Birds) peseces seh casee eee eneeeee 40 0 0
Climatology of Tropical

ASETIGH eevee stone eetenaercn eta 20 0 O
Ethnographical Survey......... 40 0 0
Mental and Physical Condi-

tion of Children............... 10:00
Silchester Excavation ......... 20 0 0
Investigation of Changes as-

sociated with the Func-

tional Activity of Nerve

Cells and their Peripheral

HXtENSIONS |<<... sena>sseesnceie 180 0 0
Oysters and Typhoid ......... 30 0 0
Physiological Applications of

the Phonograph..............- Ser OE
Physiological Effects of Pep-

tone and its Precursors...... 20 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

WNIGCEGS cares steer oes eaa. fais 25 0 O

£1,059 10 8
1898.
Electrical Standards............ 75, 0 70
Seismological Observations... 75 0 O
Abstracts of Physical Papers 100 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

teprals ...:issqeversenepeabeeh «+e 10 0 0
Electrolysisand Electro-chem-

ASUTY.iso..cesccasateeen neers e 35 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at

Montrealls. cacscesty anaueper sss 50-0 0

GENERAL STATEMENT.

{

0 |

£ 8d.
Wave-length Tables of the

Spectra of the Elements ... 20 0 0
Action of Light upon Dyed

MRIOUIS Pose... ovenweme ses «0'sr cle 8 0
PEETALIGIBIOCKS, ....-00-00.c00-0-- 5 uO
Investigation of a Coral Reef 40 0
Photographs of Geological

Imterest ~sspecsiuecse.<srsue-ans 10 0
Life-zones in British Carbon-

iferous Rocks..........-.--+++: 15. 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora

PMV CANAGAY 2285. < cadmas vsnineelst 20 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

tion, Naples) .....0. sciss-s1s: 100 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 14 0
Index Generum et Specierum

PANAMIALTOMN saehassoinebs As es acm 100 0 0
Healthy and Unhealthy Oys-

MGES execs ceabe ngs ocd onsanping sss 30 0 O
Climatology of Tropical Africa 10 0 0
State Monopolies in other

WOUNNICS) | .--- cc. cc0s.cenceess 1510) 0
Small Screw Gauge . .......... 20 0 0
North-Western Tribes of

WUD © roa sgeaaicedoocapes nea ade 75 0 O
Lake Village at Glastonbury 37 10 0
Silchester Excavation ......... 110) 10
EthnologicalSurveyof Canada 75 0 0
Anthropology and Natural

History of Torres Straits... 125 0 0
Investigation of Changes asso-

ciated with the Functional

Activity of Nerve Cells and

their Peripheral Extensions 100 0 0
Fertilisation in Pheophycee 15 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

REO se icc cht niet sca yencseuses 25> 0 0

£1,212 0 0
1899.
Electrical Standards............ 225 0 0
Seismological Observations... 65 14 §
Science Abstracts ............... 100 0 0
Heat of Combination of Metals

HEUPANIOYS onsen cocoteresstikeoaz2 20 0 O
Radiation ina Magnetic Field 50 0 0
Calculation of Certain In-

RPT ALB asciate co's aasadessendedae-os 10 0 O
Action of Light upon Dyed

PEMOEES. O20) vccndcdaesciss seeds 2 La 6
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution of

Organic Substances ......... 50 0 0
Erratic Blocks .................. iD) 0) +0
Photographs of Geological

MAHCROSHB cad tsescics estes veer 10 0 0
Remains of Irish Elk in the

Tsle} OF MAM. ss ie. cocveseses. 15 0 0
Pleistocene Flora and Fauna

BI CAMA titeececcerecscccescvsss 30 0

CXV

6.1 ga
Records of Disappearing Drift

Section at Moel Tryfaen ... 5 0 0
Ty Newydd Caves............... 40 0 0
Ossiferous Caves at Uphill... 30 0 0
Table at the Zoological Sta-

GION, NAPless joceas aes cscs cross 100 0 0
Table at the Biological La-

boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 6
Index Generum et Specierum

Animalinme sc oecsats aches: 100 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 1 0 0
Apparatus for Keeping Aqua-

ticOrganisms under Definite

Physical Conditions ......... 15 0 0
Plankton and Physical Con-

ditions of the English Chan-

Nelduring TSI... ..cseccas 100 0 0
Exploration of Sokotra ...... 35 0 0
Lake Village at Glastonbury 50 0 0

| Silchester Excavation ....... = 105.0) 0
EthnologicalSurv eyofCanada 35 0 0
| New Edition of ‘ Anthropolo-

gical Notes and Queries’... 40 0 0
Age of Stone Circles............ 20 0 0
Physiological Effects of Pep-

TONG i 5. tic shataccessencccnteeips 30 0 0
Electrical Changes accom-

panying Discharge of Res-

piratory Centres..........:.+5. 20 0 0
Influence of Drugs upon the

Vascular NervousSystem... 10 0 0
Histological Changes in Nerve

Cellsie ss ontecc) cncecuies Seeceseed 20 0 0
Micro-chemistry of Cells ...... 40 0 0
Histology of Suprarenal Cap-

SUlOS) toss crap ates qte acme 20 0 0

| Comparative Histology of

Cerebral (Context, ws cance 10°10" 0
Fertilisation in Phyxophycexe 20 0 0
Assimilation in Plants......... 20 0 0
Zoological and Botanical Pub-

LiCAtIONS crrpcadaec cscs aseraks bio 0
Corresponding Societies Com-

INL CC ae aad wake Leaasceteaeecte 25 0 0

£1,430 14 2
1900.
Hlectrical Standards............ 25 0 0
Seismological Observations... 60 0 0
Radiationina Magnetic Field 25 0 0
Meteorological Observatory at

Montreali, sii. .cdchdisedeadee 20 0 0
Tables of Mathematical Func-

TRONS ircester. (as,.0cnessbaccehans de 75 0 0
Relation between Absorption

Spectra and Constitution

of Organic Bodies.......... =.» 30 0 O
Wave-length Tables............ 5 0 0

Quantitative

eee

Electrolytic
Analysis .,

v

exvl REPORT—1900.

Bake ids | eames)
TIsomorphous Sulphonic Deri- | Future Dealings in Raw
vatives of Benzene ......... 20 0 0 | Produce .....+ssccersves ieeehete 210 0
The Nature of Alloys ......... 30 0 0 | Silchester Excavation ........ 10-:0).0
Photographs of Geological | Ethnological Survey of
AGEGESD iscccrecas) se sbevest soe. Gy sO) S10) Canada <-..cwccocwesomenels elena 60 0 0
Remains of Elk in the Isle of New Edition of ‘Anthropo-
WEIS spe qdeoncascogsohpoNOneE recs 5 0 0 | _ logical Notes and Queries’ 40 0 0
Pleistocene Fauna and Flora Photographs: of Anthropo-
PYG OAT Cn eescdavscboecescine 10 0 O | _ logical Interest ............... 1020750
Movements of Underground | Mental and Physical Condi-
Waters of Craven ............ 40 0 0 | _ tion of Children in Schools 5 0 O
Table at the Zoological Sta- Ethnography of the Malay
tion, Naples .....03.. s.r 100 0 0 Peninsula ..ccccccuwsscess eer 25 0 0
Table at the Biological La- Physiological Eifects of Pep-
boratory, Plymouth ......... 20 0 O | COME... .eeeeeeesseeeeseenneeee nes 20 0 0
Index Generum et Specierum | Comparative Histology of
PATI ALIN 55250 .00c0cces scones 50 0 0 | Suprarenal Capsules......... 20 0 0
Migration of Birds ............ 15 0 0 | Comparative Histology of
Plankton and Physical Con- Cerebral Cortex..........+..++ 5-0. 0
ditions of the English Electrical Changes in Mam-
OINENaIGI. danhdisedtensonodeepseto 40 0 © | malian Nerves ..............- 20 0 0
Zoology of the Sandwich | Vascular Supply of Secreting
Tisibitelss ysohaagenbesshosaueep cna 100 0 0 GAMES eet dencieterecedeacent > tee 10410) 0
Coral Reefs of the Indian Fertilisation in Pheophycee 20 0 0
TAS 0ye, Ge Gaodngs acosAdenpectioge 30 0 0 | Corresp. Societies Committee 20 0 0
Physical and Chemical Con- =. AGRE
stants of Sea-Water ......... 100) 0-0" | £1,072 10 0

General Meetings.

On Wednesday, September 5, at 8.30 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Brad-
ford, Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S. (represented by Sir Henry E.
Roscot, F.R.S.), resigned the office of President to Sir William Turner,
D.C.L., F.R.S., who took the Chair, and delivered an Address, for which
see page 3.

On Thursday, September 6, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in St.
George’s Hall.

On Friday, September 7, at 8.30 p.m., in St. George’s Hall, Professor
Francis Gotch, F.R.S., delivered a discourse on ‘ Animal Electricity.’

On Monday, September 10, at 8.30 p.m. in St. George’s Hall,
Professor W. Stroud delivered a discourse on ‘ Range Finders,’

On Tuesday, September 11, at 8.30 p.m., a Soirée took place in
St. George’s Hall. |

On Wednesday, September 12, at 2.30 p.m., in the Mechanics’ Institute,
the concluding General Meeting took place, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific Purposes were
explained to the Members.

The Meeting was then adjourned to Glasgow. [The Meeting is
appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 11, 1901.]

{

_ PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

5
a
:

3

‘

—_———_~.-- ~~

ADDRESS

BY

Proressorn SIR WILLIAM TURNER, M.B., D.C.L.,
LL.D. Dees EE...

PRESIDENT.

TWENTY-SEVEN years ago the British Association met in Bradford, not at
that time raised to the dignity of a City. The meeting was very success-
ful, and was attended by nearly 2,000 persons—a forecast, let us hope,
of what we may expect at the present assembly. An eminent chemist,
Professor A. W. Williamson, presided. On this occasion the Associa-
tion has selected for the presidential chair one whose attention has
been given to the study of an important department of biological science.
His claim to occupy, however unworthily, the distinguished position in
which he has been placed, rests, doubtless, on the fact that, in the midst
of the engrossing duties devolving on a teacher in a great University
and School of Medicine, he has endeavoured to contribute to the sum
of knowledge of the science which he professes. It is a matter of satis-
faction to feel that the success of a meeting of this kind does not rest upon
the shoulders of the occupant of the presidential chair, but is due to the
eminence and active co-operation of the men of science who either pre-
side over or engage in the work of the nine or ten sections into which the
Association is divided, and to the energy and ability for organisation
displayed by the local Secretaries and Committees. The programme pre-
pared by the general and local officers of the Association shows that ne
efforts have been spared to provide an ample bill of fare, both in its
scientific and social aspects. Members and Associates will, I feel sure,
take away from the Bradford Meeting as pleasant memories as did our
colleagues of the corresponding Association Frangaise, when, in friendly
collaboration at Dover last year, they testified to the common citizenship
of the Universal Republic of Science. As befits a leading centre of
industry in the great county of York, the applications of science to the
industrial arts and to agriculture will form subjects of discussion in the
papers to be read at the meeting.
B2

4, REPORT—1900.

Since the Association was at Dover a year ago, two of its former
Presidents have joined the majority. The Duke of Argyll presided at the
meeting in Glasgow so far back as 1855. Throughout his long and energetic
life, he proved himself to be an eloquent and earnest speaker, one who gave
to the consideration of public affairs a mind of singular independence, and
a thinker and writer in a wide range of human knowledge. Sir J. Wm.
Dawson was President at the meeting in Birmingham in 1886. Born
in Nova Scotia in 1820, he devoted himself to the study of the Geology
of Canada, and became the leading authority on the subject. He took
also an active and influential part in promoting the spread of scientific
education in the Dominion, and for a number of years he was Principal
and Vice-Chancellor of the M‘Gill University, Montreal.

Scientific Method.

Edward Gibbon has told us that diligence and accuracy are the only
merits which an historical writer can ascribe to himself. Without doubt
they are fundamental qualities necessary for historical research, but in
order to bear fruit they require to be exercised by one whose mental
qualities are such as to enable him to analyse the data brought together
by his diligence, to discriminate between the false and the true, to
possess an insight into the complex motives that determine human action,
to be able to recognise those facts and incidents which had exercised either
a primary or only a secondary influence on the affairs of nations, or on
the thoughts and doings of the person whose character he is depicting.

In scientific research, also, diligence and accuracy are fundamental
qualities. By their application new facts are discovered and tabulated,
their order of succession is ascertained, and a wider and more intimate
knowledge of the processes of nature is acquired. But to decide on their
true significance a well-balanced mind and the exercise of prolonged
thought and reflection are needed. William Harvey, the father of exact
research in physiology, in his memorable work ‘De Motu Cordis et San-
guinis,’ published more than two centuries ago, tells us of the great and
daily diligence which he exercised in the course of his investigations, and
the numerous observations and experiments which he collated. At the
same time he refers repeatedly to his cogitations and reflections on the
meaning of what he had observed, without which the complicated move-
ments of the heart could not have been analysed, their significance deter-
mined, and the circulation of the blood in a continuous stream definitely
established. Early in the present century, Carl Ernst von Baer, the
father of embryological research, showed the importance which he attached
to the combination of observation with meditation by placing side by side
on the title-page of his famous treatise ‘ Ueber Entwickelungsgeschichte
der Thiere ’ (1828) the words Beobachiung und Reflexion.

Though I have drawn from biological science my illustrations of the
néed of this combination, it must not be inferred that it applies exclu-

»

ADDRESS. J

sively to one branch of scientific inquiry ; the conjunction influences and
determines progress in all the sciences, and when associated with a
sufficient touch of imagination, when the power of seeing is conjoined with
the faculty of foreseeing, of projecting the mind into the future, we may
expect something more than the discovery of isolated facts ; their co-
ordination and the enunciation of new principles and laws will necessarily
follow.

Scientific method consists, therefore, in close observation, frequently
repeated so as to eliminate the possibility of erroneous seeing ; in experi-
ments checked and controlled in every direction in which fallacies might
arise; in continuous reflection on the appearances and phenomena
observed, and in logically reasoning out their meaning and the conclusions
to be drawn from them. Were the method followed out in its integrity
by all who are engaged in scientific investigations, the time and labour
expended in correcting errors committed by ourselves or by other
observers and experimentalists would be saved, and the volumes devoted
annually to scientific literature would be materially diminished in size.
Were it applied, as far as the conditions of life admit, to the conduct and
management of human affairs, we should not require to be told, when
critical periods in our welfare as a nation arise, that we shall muddle
through somehow. Recent experience has taught us that wise discretion
and careful prevision are as necessary in the direction of public affairs as
in the pursuit of science, and in both instances, when properly exercised,
they enable us to reach with comparative certainty the goal which we
strive to attain.

Improvements in Means of Observation.

Whilst certain principles of research are common to all the sciences,
each great division requires for its investigation specialised arrangements
to insure its progress. Nothing contributes so much to the advancement
of knowledge as improvements in the means of observation, either by the
discovery of new adjuncts to research, or by a fresh adaptation of old
methods. In the industrial arts, the introduction of a new kind of raw
material, the recognition that a mixture or blending is often more
serviceable than when the substances employed are uncombined, the
discovery of new processes of treating the articles used in manufactures,
the invention of improved machinery, all lead to the expansion of trade,
to the occupation of the people, and to the development of great
industrial centres. In science, also, the invention and employment of
new and more precise instruments and appliances enable us to appreciate
more clearly the signification of facts and phenomena which were pre-
viously obscure, and to penetrate more deeply into the mysteries of nature.
They mark fresh departures in the history of science, and provide a firm
base of support from which a continuous advance may be made and fresh
conceptions of nature can be evolved

6 REPORT—1900.

It is not my intention, even if I possessed the requisite knowledge,
to undertake so arduous a task as to review the progress which has recently
been made in the great body of sciences which lie within the domain of
the British Association. As my occupation in life has required me to
give attention to the science which deals with the structure and organisa-
tion of the bodies of man and animals—a science which either includes
within its scope or has intimate and widespread relations to comparative
anatomy, embryology, morphology, zoology, physiology, and anthropology
—I shall limit myself to the attempt to bring before you some of the more
important observations and conclusions which have a bearing on the
present position of the subject. As this is the closing year of the century,
it will not, I think, be out of place to refer to the changes which a
hundred years have brought about in our fundamental. conceptions of the
structure of animals. In science, as in business, it is well from time to
time to take stock of what we have been doing, so that we may realise
where we stand and ascertain the balance to our credit in the scientific
ledger.

So far back as the time of the ancient Greeks it was known that the
human body and those of the more highly organised animals were not homo-
geneous, but were built up of parts, the partes dissimilares (ra avopow peépn)
of Aristotle, which differed from each other in form, colour, texture,
consistency, and properties. These parts were familiarly known as the
bones, muscles, sinews, blood-vessels, glands, brain, nerves, and so on.
As the centuries rolled on, and as observers and observations multiplied,
a more and more precise knowledge of these parts throughout the Animal
Kingdom was obtained, and various attempts were made to classify
animals in accordance with their forms and structure. During the
concluding years of the last century and the earlier part of the present,
the Hunters, William and John, in our country, the Meckels in Germany,
Cuvier and Saint-Hilaire in France, gave an enormous impetus to anatomical
studies, and contributed largely to our knowledge of the construction of the
bodies of animals. But whilst by these and other observers the most
salient and, if I may use the expression, the grosser characters of animal
organisation had been recognised, little was known of the more intimate
structure or texture of the parts. So far as could be determined by the
unassisted vision, and so much as could be recognised by the use of a
simple lens, had indeed been ascertained, and it was known that muscles,
nerves, and tendons were composed of threads or fibres, that the blood-
and lymph-vessels were tubes, that the parts which we call fascise and
aponeuroses were thin membranes, and so on.

Early in the present century Xavier Bichat, one of the most brilliant
men of science during the Napcleonic era in France, published his
‘ Anatomie Générale,’ in which he formulated important general principles.
Every animal is an assemblage of different organs, each of which dis-
charges a function, and acting together, each in its own way, assists in the

ADDRESS. 7

preservation of the whole. The organs are, as it were, special machines
situated in the general building which constitutes the factory or body
of the individual. But, further, each organ or special machine is itself
formed of tissues which possess different properties. ‘Some, as the blood-
vessels, nerves, fibrous tissues, &c., are generally distributed throughout
the animal body, whilst others, as bones, muscles, cartilage, &c., are found
only in certain definite localities. Whilst Bichat had acquired a definite
philosophical conception of the general principles of construction and of
the distribution of the tissues, neither he nor his pupil Béclard was in a
position to determine the essential nature of the structural elements.
The means and appliances at their disposal and at that of other ob-
servers in their generation were not sufficiently potent to complete the
analysis.

Attempts were made in the third decennium of this century to improve
the methods of examining minute objects by the manufacture of com-
pound lenses, and, by doing away with chromatic and spherical aberra-
tion, to obtain, in addition to magnification of the object, a relatively large
flat field of vision with clearness and sharpness of definition. When in
January 1830 Joseph Jackson Lister read to the Royal Society his
memoir ‘On some properties in achromatic object-glasses applicable to
the improvement of microscopes,’ he announced the principles on which
combinations of lenses could be arranged, which would possess these
qualities. By the skill of our opticians, microscopes have now for more
than half a century been constructed which, in the hands of competent
observers, have influenced and extended biological science with results
comparable to those obtained by the astronomer through improvements
in the telescope.

In the study of the minute structure of plants and animals the observer
has frequently to deal with tissues and organs, most of which possess such
softness and delicacy of substance and outline that, even when micro-
scopes of the best construction are employed, the determination of the
intimate nature of the tissue, and the precise relation which one element
of an organ bears to the other constituent elements, is in many instances
a matter of difficulty. Hence additional methods have had to be devised
in order to facilitate -study and to give precision and accuracy to our
observations. It is difficult for one of the younger generation of biologists,
with all the appliances of a well-equipped laboratory at his command,
with experienced teachers to direct him in his work, and with excellent
text-books, in which the modern methods are described, to realise the
conditions under which his predecessors worked half a century ago.
Laboratories for minute biological research had not been constructed,
the practical teaching of histology and embryology had not been organised,
experience in methods of work had not accumulated ; each man was left
to his individual efforts, and had to puzzle his way through the complica-
tions of structure to the best of his power. Staining and hardening

8 REPORT—1900.

reagents were unknown. ‘The double-bladed knife invented by Valentin,
held in the hand, was the only improvement on the scalpel or razor for
cutting thin, more or less translucent slices suitable for microscopic
examination ; mechanical section-cutters and freezing arrangements had
not been devised. The tools at the disposal of the microscopist were
little more than knife, forceps, scissors, needles ; with acetic acid, glyce-
rine, and Canada balsam as reagents. But in the employment of the
newer methods of research care has to be taken, more especially when
hardening and staining reagents are used, to discriminate between
appearances which are to be interpreted as indicating natural characters,
and those which are only artificial productions.

Notwithstanding the difficulties attendant on the study of the more
delicate tissues, the compound achromatic microscope provided anatomists
with an instrument of great penetrative power. Between the years 1830
and 1850 a number of acute observers applied themselves with much energy
and enthusiasm to the examination of the minute structure of the tissues
and organs in plants and animals.

Cell Theory.

It had, indeed, long been recognised that the tissues of plants were
to a large extent composed of minute vesicular bodies, technically called
cells (Hooke, Malpighi, Grew). In 1831 the discovery was made by the
great botanist, Robert Brown, that in many families of plants a circular
spot, which he named areola or nucleus, was present in each cell ; and in
1838 M.J.Schleiden published the fact that a similar spot or nucleus was
a universal elementary organ in vegetables. In the tissues of animals also
structures had begun to be recognised comparable with the cells and nuclei
of the vegetable tissues, and in 1839 Theodore Schwann announced the
important generalisation that there is one universal principle of develop-
ment for the elementary part of organisms, however different they may be in
appearance, and that this principle is the formation of cells. The enun-
ciation of the fundamental principle that the elementary tissues consisted
of cells constituted a step in the progress of biological science, which
will for ever stamp the century now drawing to a close with a character
and renown equalling those which it has derived from the most brilliant
discoveries in the physical sciences. It provided biologists with the
visible anatomical units through which the external forces operating on,
and the energy generated in, living matter come into play. It dispelled
for ever the old mystical idea of the influence exercised by vapours or
- spirits in living organisms. It supplied the physiologist and pathologist
with the specific structures through the agency of which the functions of
organisms are discharged in health and disease. It exerted an enormous
influence on the progress of practical medicine. A review of the progress
of knowledge of the cell may appropriately enter into an address on this
occasion.

ADDRESS, 9

Structure of Cells.

A cell is a living particle, so minute that it needs a microscope for its
examination ; it grows in size, maintains itself in a state of activity,
responds to the action of stimuli, reproduces its kind, and in the course
of time it degenerates and dies.

Let us glance at the structure of a ce]l to determine its constituent
parts and the ré/e which each plays in the function to be discharged.
The original conception of a cell, based upon the study of the vegetable
tissues, was a minute vesicle enclosed by a definite wall, which exer-
cised chemical or metabolic changes on the surrounding material and
secreted into the vesicle its characteristic contents. A similar conception
was at first also entertained regarding the cells of animal tissues ; but as
observations multiplied, it was seen that numerous elementary particles,
which were obviously in their nature cells, did not possess an enclosing
envelope. A wall ceased to have a primary value as a constituent part of
a cell, the necessary vesicular character of which therefore could no longer
be entertained.

The other constituent parts of a cell are the cell plasm, which forms
the body of the cell, and the nucleus embedded in its shbstance, Not-
withstanding the very minute size of the nucleus, which even in the
largest cells is not more than .},th inch in diameter, and usually is
considerably smaller, its almost constant form, its well-defined sharp
outline, and its power of resisting the action of strong reagents when
applied to the cell, have from the period of its discovery by Robert Brown
caused histologists to bestow on it much attention. Its structure and
chemical composition ; its mode of origin ; the part which it plays in the
formation of new cells, and its function in nutrition and secretion have
been investigated.

When examined under favourable conditions in its passive or resting
state, the nucleus is seen to be bounded by a membrane which separates
it from the cell plasm and gives it the characteristic sharp contour.
Jt contains an apparently structureless nuclear substance, nucleoplasm or
enchylema, in which are embedded one or more extremely minute particles
called nucleoli, along with a network of exceedingly fine threads or fibres,
which in the active living cell play an essential part in the production
of new nuclei within the cell. In its chemical composition the nuclear
substance consists of albuminous plastin and globulin ; and of a special
material named nuclein, rich in phosphorus and with an acid reaction.
The delicate network within the nucleus consists apparently of the nuclein,
a substance which stains with carmine and other dyes, a property which
enables the changes, which take place in the network in the production of
young cells, to be more readily seen and followed out by the observer.

The mode of origin of the nucleus and the part which it plays in
the production of new cells have been the subject of much discussion.

10 REPORT—1900.

Schleiden, whose observations, published in 1838, were made on the cells
of plants, believed that within the cell a nucleolus first appeared, and that
around it molecules aggregated to form the nucleus. Schwann again,
whose observations were mostly made on the cells of animals, considered
that an amorphous material existed in organised bodies, which he called
cytoblastema. It formed the contents of cells, or it might be situated free
or external to them. He figuratively compared it to a mother liquor in
which crystals are formed. Hither in the cytoblastema within the cells
or in that situated external to them, the aggregation of molecules around
a nucleolus to form a nucleus might occur, and, when once the nucleus
had been formed, in its turn it would serve as a centre of aggregation of
additional molecules from which a new cell would be produced. He
regarded therefore the formation of nuclei and cells as possible in two
ways : one within pre-existing cells (endogenous cell-formation), the other
in a free blastema lying external to cells (free cell-formation). In
animals, he says, the endogenous method is rare, and the customary origin
is in an external blastema. Both Schleiden and Schwann considered
that after the cell was formed the nucleus had no permanent influence
on the life of the cell, and usually disappeared.

Under the teaching principally of Henle, the famous Professor of
Anatomy in Gottingen, the conception of the free formation of nuclei and
cells in a more or less fluid blastema, by an aggregation of elementary
granules and molecules, obtained so much credence, especially amongst
those who were engaged in the study of pathological processes, that the
origin of cells within pre-existing cells was to a large extent lost sight of.
That a parent cell was requisite for the production of new cells seemed to
many investigators to be no longer needed. Without doubt this con-
ception of free cell-formation contributed in no small degree to the
belief, entertained by various observers, that the simplest plants and
animals might arise, without pre-existing parents, in organic fluids desti-
tute of life, by a process of spontaneous generation ; a belief which pre-
vailed in many minds almost to the present day. If, as has been stated,
the doctrine of abiogenesis cannot be experimentally refuted, on the other
hand it has not been experimentally proved. The burden of proof lies
with those who hold the doctrine, and the evidence that we possess is all
the other way.

Multiplication of Cells.

Although von Mohl, the botanist, seems to have been the first to
recognise (1835) in plants a multiplication of cells by division, it was not
until attention was given to the study of the egg in various animals, and
to the changes which take place in it, attendant on fertilisation, that in
the course of time a much more correct conception of the origin of the
nucleus and of the part which it plays in the formation of new cells was
obtained. Before Schwann had published his classical memoir m 1839,

ADDRESS. 1i

von Baer and other observers had recognised within the animal ovum the
germinal vesicle, which obviously bore to the ovum the relation of a
nucleus to a cell. As the methods of observation improved, it was recog-
nised that, within the developing egg, two vesicles appeared where one
only had previously existed, to be followed by four vesicles, then
eight, and so on in multiple progression until the ovum contained a
multitude of vesicles, each of which possessed a nucleus. The vesicles
were obviously cells which had arisen within the original germ-cell or
ovum. ‘These changes were systematically described by Martin Barry so
long ago as 1839 and 1840 in two memoirs communicated to the Royal
Society of London, and the appearance produced, on account of the irregu-
larities of the surface occasioned by the production of new vesicles, was
named by him the mulberry-like structure. He further pointed out that
the vesicles arranged themselves as a layer within the envelope of the egg
or zona pellucida, and that the whole embryo was composed of cells filled
with the foundations of other cells. He recognised that the new cells
were derived from the germinal vesicle or nucleus of the ovum, the con-
tents of which entered into the formation of the first two cells, each of
which had its nucleus, which in its turn resolved itself into other cells,
and by a repetition of the process into a greater number. The endogenous
origin of new cells within a pre-existing cell and the process which we
now term the segmentation of the yolk were successfully demonstrated.
In a third memoir, published in 1841, Barry definitely stated that young
cells originated through division of the nucleus of the parent cell, instead
of arising, as a product of crystallisation, in the fluid cytoblastema of the
parent cell or in a blastema situated external to the cell.

In a memoir published in 1842, John Goodsir advocated the view that
the nucleus is the reproductive organ of the cell, and that from it, as from
a germinal spot, new cells were formed. In a paper, published three years
later, on nutritive centres, he described cells, the nuclei of which were
the permanent source of successive broods of young cells, which from
time to time occupied the cavity of the parent cell. He extended also his
observations on the endogenous formation of cells to the cartilage cells in
the process of inflammation and to other tissues undergoing pathological
changes. Corroborative observations on endogenous formation were also
given by his brother Harry Goodsir in 1845. These observations on the
part which the nucleus plays by cleavage in the formation of young cells
by endogenous development from a parent centre—that an organic con-
tinuity existed between a mother cell and its descendants through the
nucleus—constituted a great step in advance of the views entertained by
Schleiden and Schwann, and showed that Barry and the Goodsirs had a
deeper insight into the nature and functions of cells than was possessed
by most of their contemporaries, and are of the highest importance when
viewed in the light of recent observations.

In 1841 Robert Remak published an account of the presence of two

12 REPORT—1900.

nuclei in the blood corpuscles of the chick and the pig, which he regarded
as evidence of the production of new corpuscles by division of the
nucleus within a parent cell ; but it was not until some years afterwards
(1850 to 1855) that he recorded additional observations and recognised
that division of the nucleus was the starting-point for the multiplication
of cells in the ovum and in the tissues generally. Remak’s view was that
the process of cell division began with the cleavage of the nucleolus,
followed by that of the nucleus, and that again by cleavage of the body
of the cell and of its membrane. MKdélliker had previously, in 1843, de-
scribed the multiplication of nuclei in the ova of parasitic worms, and
drew the inference that in the formation of young cells within the egg
the nucleus underwent cleavage, and that each of its divisions entered
into the formation of a new cell. By these observations, and by others
subsequently made, it became obvious that the multiplication of animal
_ cells, either by division of the nucleus within the cell, or by the budding
off of a part of the protoplasm of the cell, was to be regarded as a widely
spread and probably a universal process, and that each new cell arose
from a parent cell.

Pathological observers were, however, for the most part inclined to
consider free cell-formation in a blastema or exudation by an aggregation
of molecules, in accordance with the views of Henle, as a common pheno-
menon. This proposition was attacked with great energy by Virchow in
a series of memoirs published in his ‘ Archiv,’ commencing in Vol. 1, 1847,
and finally received its death-blow in his published lectures on Cellular
Pathology, 1858. He maintained that in pathological structures there
was no instance of cell development de novo ; where a cell existed, there
one must have been before. Cell-formation was a continuous develop-
ment by descent, which he formulated in the expression ommis cellula
e celluld.

Karyokinesis.

Whilst the descent of cells from pre-existing cells by division of the
nucleus during the development of the egg, in the embryos of plants
and animals, and in adult vegetable and animal tissues, both in healthy
and diseased conditions, had now become generally recognised, the
mechanism of the process by which the cleavage of the nucleus took place
was fora long time unknown. The discovery had to be deferred until
the optician had been able to construct lenses of a higher penetrative
power, and the microscopist had learned the use of colouring agents
capable of dyeing the finest elements of the tissues. There was reason to
believe that in some cases a direct cleavage of the nucleus, to be followed
by a corresponding division of the cell into two parts, did occur. In the
period between 1870 and 1880 observations were made by Schneider,
Strasburger, Biitschli, Fol, van Beneden, and Flemming, which showed that
the division of the nucleus and the cell was due to a series of very remark-
able changes, now known as indirect nuclear and cell division, or karyo-

ADDRESS. 13
kinesis. The changes within the nucleus are of so complex a character that
it is impossible to follow them in detail without the use of appropriate
illustrations. I shall have to content myself, therefore, with an elemen-
tary sketch of the process.

T have previously stated that the nucleus in its passive or resting stage
contains a very delicate network of threads or fibres. The first stage in
the process of nuclear division consists in the threads arranging them-
selves in loops and forming a compact coil within the nucleus. The coil
then becomes looser, the loops of threads shorten and thicken, and some-
what later each looped thread splits longitudinally into two portions. As
the threads stain when colouring agents are applied to them, they are
called chromatin fibres, and the loose coil is the chromosome (Waldeyer).

As the process continues, the investing membrane of the nucleus dis-
appears, and the loops of threads arrange themselves within the nucleus
so that the closed ends of the loops are directed to a common centre, from
which the loops radiate outwards and produce a starlike figure (aster). «
At the same time clusters of extremely delicate lines appear both in the
nucleoplasm and in the body of the cell, named the achromatic figure,
which has a spindle-like form with two opposite poles, and stains much
more feebly than the chromatic fibres. The loops of the chromatic star
then arrange themselves in the equatorial plane of the spindle, and
bending round turn their closed ends towards the periphery of the nucleus
and the cell.

The next stage marks an important step in the process of division of
the nucleus. The two longitudinal portions, into which each looped thread
had previously split, now separate from each other, and whilst one part
migrates to one pole of the spindle, the other moves to the opposite pole,
and the free ends of each loop are directed towards its equator (meta-
kinesis). By this division of the chromatin fibres, and their separation
from each other to opposite poles of the spindle, two star-like chromatin
figures are produced (dyaster).

Each group of fibres thickens, shortens, becomes surrounded by a
membrane, and forms a new or daughter nucleus (dispirem). Two nuclei
therefore have arisen within the cell by the division of that which had
previously existed, and the expression formulated by Flemming—ommnis
nucleus e nucleo—is justified. Whilst this stage is in course of being
completed, the body of the cell becomes constricted in the equatorial plane
of the spindle, and, as the constriction deepens, it separates into two parts,
each containing a daughter nucleus, so that two nucleated cells have
arisen out of a pre-existing cell.

A repetition of the process in each of these cells leads to the formation
of other cells, and, although modifications in details are found in different
species of plants and animals, the multiplication of cells in the egg and in
the tissues generally on similar lines is now a thoroughly established fact
in biological science;

14 REPORT—1900.

In the study of karyokinesis, importance has been attached to the
number of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. Flemming had seen
in the Salamander twenty-four chromosome fibres, which seems to be a
constant number in the cells of epithelium and connective tissues. In
other cells again, especially in the ova of certain animals, the number is
smaller, and fourteen, twelve, four, and even two only have been described,
The theory formulated by Boveri that the number of chromosomes is con-
stant for each species, and that in the karyokinetic figures corresponding
numbers are found in homologous cells, seems to be not improbable.

In the preceding description I have incidentally referred to the appear-
ance in the proliferating cell of an achromatic spindle-like figure. Although
this was recognised by Fol in 1873, it is only during the last ten or twelve
years that attention has been paid to its more minute arrangements and
possible signification in cell-division.

The pole at each end of the spindle lies in the cell plasm which sur-
_ rounds the nucleus. In the centre of each pole is a somewhat opaque
spot (central body) surrounded by a clear space, which, along with the
spot, constitutes the centrosome or the sphere of attraction. From each
centrosome extremely delicate lines may be seen to radiate in two direc-
tions. One set extends towards the pole at the opposite end of the spindle
and, meeting or coming into close proximity with radiations from it, con-
stitutes the body of the spindle, which, like a perforated mantle, forms
an imperfect envelope around the nucleus during the process of division,
The other set of radiations is called the polar, and extends in the region
of the pole towards the periphery of the cell.

The question has been much discussed whether any constituent part
of the achromatic figure, or the entire figure, exists in the cell as a
permanent structure in its resting phase ; or if it is only present during
the process of karyokinesis. During the development of the egg the
formation of young cells, by division of the segmentation nucleus, is so
rapid and continuous that the achromatic figure, with the centrosome in
the pole of the spindle, is a readily recognisable object in each cell. The
polar and spindle-like radiations are in evidence during karyokinesis,
and have apparently a temporary endurance and function. On the
other hand, van Beneden and Boveri were of opinion that the central
body of the centrosome did not disappear when the division of the nucleus
came to an end, but that it remained as a constituent part of a cell lying
in the cell plasm near to the nucleus. Flemming has seen the central
body with its sphere in leucocytes, as well as in epithelial cells and
those of other tissues. Subsequently Heidenhain and other histologists
have recorded similar observations. It would seem, therefore, as if there
were reason to regard the centrosome, like the nucleus, as a permanent
constituent of a cell. This view, however, is not universally entertained.
Tf not always capable of demonstration in the resting stage of a cell, it is
doubtless to be regarded as potentially present, and ready to assume,

ADDRESS. 15

along with the radiations, a characteristic appearance when the process of
nuclear division is about to begin.

One can scarcely regard the presence of so remarkable an appearance
as the achromatic figure without associating with it an important function
in the economy of the cell. As from the centrosome at the pole of
the spindle both sets of radiations diverge, it is not unlikely that it acts
as a centre or sphere of energy and attraction. By some observers the
radiations are regarded as substantive fibrillar structures, elastic or even
contractile in their properties. Others, again, look upon them as morpho-
logical expressions of chemical and dynamical energy in the protoplasm of
the cell body. On either theory we may assume that they indicate an
influence, emanating, it may be, from the centrosome, and capable of
being exercised both on the cell plasm and on the nucleus contained
in it. On the contractile theory, the radiations which form the body
of the spindle, either by actual traction of the supposed fibrille or by
their pressure on the nucleus which they surround, might impel during
karyokinesis the dividing chromosome elements towards the poles of the
spindle, to form there the daughter nuclei. On the dynamical theory,
the chemical and physical energy in the centrosome might influence the
cell plasm and the nucleus, and attract the chromosome elements of the
nucleus to the poles of the spindle. The radiated appearance would
therefore be consequent and attendant on the physico-chemical activity
of the centrosome. One or other of these theories may also be applied to
the interpretation of the significance of the polar radiations.

Cell Plasm.

In the cells of plants, in addition to the cell wall, the cell body and
the cell juice require to be examined. The material of the cell body, or
the cell contents, was named by von Mohl (1846) protoplasm, and consisted
of a colourless tenacious substance which partly lined the cell wall
(primordial utricle), and partly traversed the interior of the cell as deli-
cate threads enclosing spaces (vacuoles) in which the cell juice was con-
tained. In the protoplasm the nucleus was embedded. Nageli, about the
same time, had also recognised the difference between the protoplasm and
the other contents of vegetable cells, and had noticed its nitrogenous com-
position.

Though the analogy with a closed bladder or vesicle could no longer be
sustained in the animal tissues, the name ‘cell’ continued to be retained
for descriptive purposes, and the body of the cell was spoken of as a
more or less soft substance enclosing a nucleus (Leydig). In 1861 Max
Schultze adopted for the substance forming the body of the animal cell
the term ‘protoplasm.’ He defined a cell to be a particle of protoplasm
in the substance of which a nucleus was situated. He regarded the
protoplasm, as indeed had previously been pointed out by the botanist
Unger, as essentially the same as the contractile sarcode which

16 REPORT— 1900.

constitutes the body and pseudopodia of the Amceba and other Rhizopoda.
As the term ‘protoplasm,’ as well as that of ‘bioplasm’ employed by
Lionel Beale in a somewhat similar though not precisely identical sense,
involves certain theoretical views of the origin and function of the body
of the cell, it would be better to apply to it the more purely descriptive
term ‘cytoplasm’ or ‘cell plasm.’

Schultze defined protoplasm as a homogeneous, glassy, tenacious
material, of a jelly-like or’ somewhat firmer consistency, in which numerous
minute granules were embedded. He regarded it as the part of the cell
especially endowed with vital energy, whilst the exact function of the
nucleus could not be defined. Based upon this conception of the jelly-
like character of protoplasm, the idea for a time prevailed that a structure-
less, dimly granular, jelly or slime destitute of organisation, possessed
great physiological activity, and was the medium through which the
phenomena of life were displayed.

More accurate conceptions of the nature of the cell plasm soon began
to be entertained. Briicke recognised that the body of the cell was not
simple, but had a complex organisation. Flemming observed that the
cell plasm contained extremely delicate threads, which frequently formed
a network, the interspaces of which were occupied by a more homo-
geneous substance. Where the threads crossed each other, granular
particles (mikrosomen) were situated. Biitschli considered that he could
recognise in the cell plasm a honeycomb-like appearance, as if it con-
sisted of excessively minute chambers in which a homogeneous more or
less fluid material was contained. The polar and spindle-like radiations
visible during the process of karyokinesis, which have already been
referred to, and the presence of the centrosome, possibly even during the
resting stage of the cell, furnished additional illustrations of differentiation
within the cell plasm. In many cells there appears also to be a difference
in the character of the cell plasm which immediately surrounds the nucleus
and that which lies at and near the periphery of the cell. The peri-
pheral part (ektoplasma) is more compact and gives a definite outline to
the cell, although not necessarily differentiating into a cell membrane.
The inner part (endoplasma) is softer, and is distinguished by a more
distinct granular appearance, and by containing the products specially
formed in each particular kind of cell during the nutritive process.

By the researches of numerous investigators on the internal organisa-
tion of cells in plants and animals, a large body of evidence has now been
accumulated, which shows that both the nucleus and the cell plasm con-
sist of something more than a homogeneous, more or less viscid, slimy
material. Recognisable objects in the form of granules, threads, or fibres
can be distinguished in each. The cell plasm and the nucleus respectively
are therefore not of the same constitution throughout, but possess poly-
morphic characters, the study of which in health and the changes
produced by disease will for many years to come form important matters
for investigation,

ADDRESS. 17

Function of Cells.

Tt has already been stated that, when new cells arise within pre-
existing cells, division of the nucleus is associated with cleavage of the
cell plasm, so that it participates in the process of new cell-formation.
Undoubtedly, however, its ré/e is not limited to this function. It also
plays an important part in secretion, nutrition, and the special functions
discharged by the cells in the tissues and organs of which they form
morphological elements.

Between 1838 and 1842 observations were made which showed that
cells were constituent parts of secreting glands and mucous membranes
(Schwann, Henle). In 1842 John Goodsir communicated to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh a memoir on secreting structures, in which he
established the principle that cells are the ultimate secreting agents ; he
recognised in the cells of the liver, kidney, and other organs the character-
istic secretion of each gland. The secretion was, he said, situated between
the nucleus and the cell wall. At first he thought that, as the nucleus
was the reproductive organ of the cell, the secretion was formed in the
interior of the cell by the agency of the cell wall ; but three years later
he regarded it as a product of the nucleus. The study of the process of
spermatogenesis by his brother, Harry Goodsir, in which the head of the
spermatozoon was found to correspond with the nucleus of the cell in
which the spermatozoon arose, gave support to the view that the nucleus
played an important part in the genesis of the characteristic product
of the gland cell.

The physiological activity of the cell plasm and its complex chemical
constitution soon after began to be recognised. Some years before Max
Schultze had published his memoirs on the characters of protoplasm,
Briicke had shown that the well-known changes in tint in the skin of the
Chameleon were due to pigment granules situated in cells in the skin
which were sometimes diffused throughout the cells, at others concen-
trated in the centre. Similar observations on the skin of the frog
were made in 1854 by von Wittich and Harless. The movements were
regarded as due to contraction of the cell wall on its contents. In a
most interesting paper on the pigmentary system in the frog, pub-
lished in 1858, Lord Lister demonstrated that the pigment granules
moved in the cell plasma, by forces resident within the cell itself,
acting under the influence of an external stimulant, and not by a
contractility of the wall. Under some conditions the pigment was
attracted to the centre of the cell, when the skin became pale ; under
other conditions the pigment was diffused throughout the body and the
branches of the cell, and gave to the skin a dark colour. It was also
experimentally shown that a potent influence over these movements
was exercised by the nervous system.

The study of the cells of glands engaged in secretion, even when the

1900. *¢

18 REPORT— 1900.

secretion is colourless, and the comparison of their appearance when
secretion is going on with that seen when the cells are at rest, have
shown that the cell plasm is much more granular and opaque, and con-
tains larger particles, during activity than when the cell is passive ; the
body of the cell swells out from an increase in the contents of its plasm, and
chemical changes accompany the act of secretion. Ample evidence, there-
fore, is at hand to support the position taken by John Goodsir, nearly
sixty years ago, that secretions are formed within cells, and lie in that
part of the cell which we now say consists of the cell plasm ; that each
secreting cell is endowed with its own peculiar property, according to the
organ in which it is situated, so that bile is formed by the cells in the
liver, milk by those in the mamma, and so on.

Intimately associated with the process of secretion is that of nutri-
tion. As the cell plasm lies at the periphery of a cell, and as it is, alike
in secretion and nutrition, brought into closest relation with the sur-
rounding medium, from which the pabulum is derived, it is necessarily
associated with nutritive activity. Its position enables it to absorb
nutritive material directly from without, and in the process of growth it
increases in amount by interstitial changes and additions throughout its
substance, and not by mere accretions on its surface.

Hitherto I have spoken of a cell as a unit, independent of its
neighbours as regards its nutrition and the other functions which it has
to discharge. The question has, however, been discussed, whether in a
tissue composed of cells closely packed together cell plasm may not give
origin to processes or threads which are in contact or continuous with
corresponding processes of adjoining cells, and that cells may therefore, to
some extent, lose their individuality in the colony of which they are
members. Appearances were recognised between 1863 and 1870 by
Schro6n and others in the deeper cells of the epidermis and of some
mucous membranes which gave sanction to this view, and it seems possible,
through contact or continuity of threads connecting a cell with its neigh-
bours, that cells may exercise a direct influence on each other.

Nageli, the botanist, as the foundation of a mechanico-physiological
theory of descent, considered that in plants a network of cell plasm,
named by him idio-plasm, extended throughout the whole of the plant,
forming its specific molecular constitution, and that growth and activity
were regulated by its conditions of tension and movements (1884).

The study of the structure of plants with special reference to the
presence of an intercellular network has for some years been pursued by
Walter Gardiner (1882-97), who has demonstrated threads of cell plasm
protruding through the walls of vegetable cells and continuous with
similar threads from adjoining cells. Structurally, therefore, a plant may
be conceived to be built up of a nucleated cytoplasmic network, each
nucleus with the branching cell plasm surrounding it being a centre of
activity. On this view a cell would retain to some extent its individuality,

ADDRESS. 19

though, as Gardiner contends, the connecting threads would be the medium
for the conduction of impulses and of food from a ceil to those which lie
around it. For the plant cell therefore, as has long been accepted in the
animal cell, the wall is reduced to a secondary position, and the active con-
stituent is the nucleated cell plasm. Itis not unlikely that the absence of a
controlling nervous system in plants requires the plasm of adjoining cells
to be brought into more immediate contact and continuity than is the
case with the generality of animal cells, so as to provide a mechanism for
harmonising the nutritive and other functional processes in the different
areas in the body of the plant. In this particular, it is of interest to note
that the epithelial tissues in animals, where somewhat similar connecting
arrangements occur, are only indirectly associated with the nervous and
vascular systems, so that, as in plants, the cells may require, for nutritive
and other purposes, to act and react directly on each other.

Nerve Cells.

Of recent years great attention has been paid to the intimate struc-
ture of nerve cells, and to the appearance which they present when in
the exercise of their functional activity. A nerve cell is not a secreting
cell; that is, it does not derive from the blood or surrounding fluid a
pabulum which it elaborates into a visible, palpable secretion charac-
teristic of the organ of which the cell is a constituent element, to be in
due course discharged into a duct which conveys the secretion out of
the gland. Nerve cells, through the metabolic changes which take place
in them in connection with their nutrition, are associated with the pro-
duction of the form of energy termed nerve energy, specially exhibited
by animals which possess a nervous system. It has long been known
that every nerve cell has a body in which a relatively large nucleus is
situated. A most important discovery was the recognition that the body
of every nerve cell had one or more processes growing out from it. More
recently it has been proved, chiefly through the researches of Schulize,
His, Golgi, and Ramon y Cajal, that at least one of the processes, the
axon of the nerve cell, is continued into the axial cylinder of a nerve
fibre, and that in the multipolar nerve cell the other processes, or
dendrites, branch and ramify for some distance away from the body. A
nerve fibre is therefore an essential part of the cell with which it is
continuous, and the cell, its processes, the nerve fibre and the collaterals
which arise from the nerve fibre collectively form a neuron or structural
nerve unit (Waldeyer). The nucleated body of the nerve cell is the
physiological centre of the unit.

The cell plasm occupies both the body of the nerve cell and its pro-
cesses. The intimate st#ucture of the plasm has, by improved methods
of observation introduced during the last eight years by Nissl, and con-
ducted on similar lines by other investigators, become more definitely
understood. It has been ascertained that it possesses two distinct °

c2

20 REPORT—1900.

characters which imply different structures. One stains deeply on the
addition of certain dyes, and is named chromophile or chromatic sub-
stance ; the other, which does not possess a similar property, is the
achromatic network. The chromophile is found in the cell body and
the dendritic processes, but not in the axon. It occurs in the form
of granular particles, which may be scattered throughout the plasm, or
aggregated into little heaps which are elongated or fusiform in shape
and appear as distinct coloured particles or masses. The achromatic
network is found in the cell body and the dendrites, and is continued
also into the axon, where it forms the axial cylinder of the nerve fibre.
It consists apparently of delicate threads or fibrille, in the meshes of
which a homogeneous material, such as is found in cell plasm generally,
is contained. In the nerve cells, as in other cells, the plasm is without
doubt concerned in the process of cell nutrition. The achromatic fibrille
exercise an important influence on the axon or nerve fibre with which they
are continuous, and probably they conduct the nerve impulses which
manifest themselves in the form of nerve energy. The dendritic processes
of a multipolar nerve cell ramify in close relation with similar processes
branching from other cells in the same group. The collaterals and the
free end of the axon fibre process branch and ramify in association with
the body of a nerve cell or of its dendrites. We cannot say that these
parts are directly continuous with each other to form an intercellular
network, but they are apparently in apposition, and through contact exer-
cise influence one on the other in the transmission of nerve impulses.

There is evidence to show that in the nerve cell the nucleus, as well
as the cell plasm, is an effective agent in nutrition. When the cell is
functionally active, both the cell body and the nucleus increase in size
(Vas, G. Mann, Lugaro) ; on the other hand, when nerve cells are fatigued
through excessive use, the nucleus decreases in size and shrivels ; the cell
plasm also shrinks, and its coloured or chromophile constituent becomes
diminished in quantity, as if it had been consumed during the prolonged
use of the cell (Hodge, Mann, Lugaro). It is interesting also to note that
in hibernating animals in the winter season, when their functional activity
is reduced to a minimum, the chromophile in the plasm of the nerve cells
is much smaller in amount than when the animal is leading an active life
in the spring and summer (G. Levi).

When a nerve cell has attained its normal size it does not seem to be
capable of reproducing new cells in its substance by a process of karyo-
kinesis, such as takes place when young cells arise in the egg and in the
tissues generally. It would appear that nerve cells are so highly special-
ised in their association with the evolution of nerve energy, that they
have ceased to have the power of reproducing their kind, and the
metabolic changes both in cell plasm and nucleus are needed to enable
them to discharge their very peculiar function. Hence it follows that
when a portion of the brain or other nerve-centre is destroyed, the

ADDRESS. 21

injury is not repaired by the production of fresh specimens of their
characteristic cells, as would be the case in injuries to bones and tendons.

In our endeavours to differentiate the function of the nucleus from
that of the cell plasm, we should not regard the former as concerned

only in the production of young cells, and the latter as the exclusive

agent in growth, nutrition, and, where gland cells are concerned, in the
formation of their characteristic products. As regards cell reproduction
also, though the process of division begins in the nucleus in its chromo-
some constituents, the achromatic figure in the cell plasm undoubtedly
plays a part, and the cell plasm itself ultimately undergoes cleavage.

A few years ago the tendency amongst biologists was to ignore or
attach but little importance to the physiological use of the nucleus in the
nucleated cell, and to regard the protoplasm as the essential and active
constituent of living matter ; so much so, indeed, was this the case that
independent organisms regarded as distinct species were described as con-
sisting of protoplasm destitute of a nucleus; also that scraps of proto-
plasm separated from larger nucleated masses could, when isolated, exhibit
vital phenomena. There is reason to believe that a fragment of protoplasm,
when isolated from the nucleus of a cell, though retaining its contractility
and capable of nourishing itself for a short time, cannot increase in amount,
act as a secreting structure, or reproduce its kind: it soon loses its
activity, withers, and dies. In order that these qualities of living matter
should be retained, a nucleus is by most observers regarded as necessary
(Nussbaum, Gruber, Haberlandt, Korschelt), and that for the complete
manifestation of vital activity both nucleus and cell plasm are required.

Bacteria,

The observations of Cohn, made about thirty years ago, and those of
De Bary shortly afterwards, brought into notice a group of organisms to
which the name ‘ bacterium’ or ‘ microbe’ is given. They were seen to vary
in shape : some were rounded specks called cocci, others were straight rods
called bacilli, others were curved or spiral rods, vibrios or spirille. All were
characterised by their extreme minuteness, and required for their exami-
nation the highest powers of the best microscopes. Many bacteria
measure in their least diameter not more than 5,),,th of an inch,
ith the diameter of a human white blood corpuscle. Through the re-
searches of Pasteur, Lord Lister, Koch, and other observers, bacteria have
been shown to play an important part in nature. They exercise a very re-
markable power over organic substances, especially those which are com-
plex in chemical constitution, and can resolve them into simpler combina-
tions. Owing to this property, some bacteria are of great economic value,
and without their agency many of our industries could not be pursued ;
others again, and these are the most talked of, exercise a malign influ-
ence in the production of the most deadly diseases which afflict man and
the domestic animals,

22 REPORT—1900.

Great attention has been given to the structure of bacteria and to
their mode of propagation. When examined in the living state and
magnified about 2,000 times, a bacterium appears as a homogeneous par-
ticle, with a sharp definite outline, though a membranous envelope or
wall, distinct from the body of the bacterium, cannot at first be recog-
nised ; but when treated with reagents a membranous envelope appears,
the presence of which, without doubt, gives precision of form to the
bacterium. The substance within the membrane contains granules which
can be dyed with colouring agents. Owing to their extreme minuteness
it is difficult to pronounce an opinion on the nature of the chromatine
granules and the substance in which they lie. Some observers regard this
substance as nuclear material, invested by only a thin layer of protoplasm,
on which view a bacterium would be a nucleated cell. Others consider the
bacterium as formed of protoplasm containing granules capable of being
coloured, which are a part of the protoplasm itself, and not a nuclear sub-
stance. On the latter view, bacteria would consist of cell plasm enclosed
in a membrane and destitute of a nucleus. Whatever be the nature of
the granule-containing material, each bacterium is regarded as a cell, the
minutest and simplest living particle capable of an independent existence
that has yet been discovered.

Bacteria cells, like cells generally, can reproduce their kind. They
multiply by simple fission, probably with an ingrowth of the cell wall, but
without the karyokinetic phenomena observed in nucleated cells. Each
cell gives rise to two daughter cells, which may for a time remain attached
to each other and form a cluster or a chain, or they may separate and
become independent isolated cells. The multiplication, under favourable
conditions of light, air, temperature, moisture, and food, goes on with
extraordinary rapidity, so that ina few hours many thousand new indi-
viduals may arise from a parent bacterium.

Connected with the life-history of a bacterium cell is the formation in
its substance, in many species and under certain conditions, of a highly
refractile shiny particle called a spore. At first sight a spore seems as if
it were the nucleus of the bacterium cell, but it is not always present
when multiplication by cleavage is taking place, and when present it does
not appear to take part in the fission. On the other hand, a spore, from
the character of its envelope, possesses great power of resistance, so that
dried bacteria, when placed in conditions favourable to germination, can
through their spores germinate and resume an active existence. Spore
formation seems, therefore, to be a provision for continuing the life of the
bacterium under conditions which, if spores had not formed, would
have been the cause of its death.

The time has gone by to search for the origin of living organisms by a
spontaneous aggregation of molecules in vegetable or other infusions, or
from a layer of formless primordial slime diffused over the bed of the ocean.
Living matter during our epoch has been, and continues to be, derived

ADDRESS. 28

from pre-existing living matter, even when it possesses the simplicity of
structure of a bacterium, and the morphological unit is the cell,

Development of the Egg.

As the future of the entire organism lies in the fertilised egg cell, we
may now briefly review the arrangements, consequent on the process of
segmentation, which lead to the formation, let us say in the egg of a
bird, of the embryo or young chick.

In the latter part of the last century, C. F. Wolff observed that the
beginning of the embryo was associated with the formation of layers, and
in 1817 Pander demonstrated that in the hen’s egg at first one layer,
called mucous, appeared, then a second or serous layer, to be followed by a
third, intermediate or vascular layer. In 1828 von Baer amplified our
knowledge in his famous treatise, which from its grasp of the subject
created a new epoch in the science of embryology. It was not, however,
until the discovery by Schwann of cells as constant factors in the struc-
ture of animals and in their relation to development that the true nature
of these layers was determined. We now know that each layer consists
of cells, and that all the tissues and organs of the body are derived from
them. Numerous observers have devoted themselves for many years to
the study of each layer, with the view of determining the share which it
takes in the formation of the constituent parts of the body, more especially
in the higher animals, and the important conclusion has been arrived at
that each kind of tissue invariably arises from one of these layers and
from no other.

The layer of cells which contributes, both as regards the number and
variety of the tissues derived from it, most largely to the formation of the
body is the middle layer or mesoblast. From it the skeleton, the muscles,
and other locomotor organs, the true skin, the vascular system, including
the blood, and other structures which I need not detail, take their rise.
From the inner layer of cells or hypoblast, the principal derivatives are the
epithelial lining of the alimentary canal and of the glands which open into
it, and the epithelial lining of the air-passages. The outer or epiblast layer
of cells gives origin both to the epidermis or scarf skin and to the nervous
system. It is interesting to note that from the same layer of the embryo
arise parts so different in importance as the cuticle—a mere protecting
structure, which is constantly being shed when the skin is subjected to the
friction of a towel or the clothes—and the nervous system, including the
brain, the most highly differentiated system in the animal body. How
completely the cells from which they are derived had diverged from each
other in the course of their differentiation in structure and properties is
shown by the fact that the cells of the epidermis are continually engaged
in reproducing new cells to replace those which are shed, whilst the cells
of the nervous system have apparently lost the power of reproducing
their kind,

24 REPORT—1900.

In the early stage of the development of the egg, the cells in a given
layer resemble each other in form, and, as far as can be judged from their
appearance, are alike in structure and properties. As the development
proceeds, the cells begin to show differences in character, and in the course
of time the tissues which arise in each layer differentiate from each other
and can-be readily recognised by the observer. To use the language of
von Baer, a generalised structure has become specialised, and each of the
special tissues produced exhibits its own structure and properties. These
changes are coincident with a rapid multiplication of the cells by cleavage,
and thus increase in size of the embryo accompanies specialisation of
structure. As the process continues, the embryo gradually assumes the
shape characteristic of the species to which its parents belonged, until at
length it is fit to be born and to assume a separate existence.

The conversion of cells, at first uniform in character, into tissues of a
diverse kind is due to forces inherent in the cells in each layer. The cell
plasm plays an active though not an exclusive part in the specialisation ;
for as the nucleus influences nutrition and secretion, it acts as a factor in
the differentiation of the tissues. When tissues so diverse in character as
muscular fibre, cartilage, fibrous tissues, and bone arise from the cells of the
middle or mesoblast layer, it is obvious that, in addition to the morphological
differentiation affecting form and structure, a chemical differentiation affect-
ing composition also occurs, as the result of which a physiological differen-
tiation takes place. Corresponding differentiations also modify the cells
of the outer and inner layers. The tissues and organs become fitted to
transform the energy derived from the food into muscular energy, nerve
energy, and other forms of vital activity. Hence the study of the develop-
ment of the generalised cell layers in the young embryo enables us to
realise how all the complex constituent parts of the body in the higher
animals and in man are evolved by the process of cell growth and differen-
tiation from a simple nucleated cell—the fertilised ovum. A knowledge
of the cell and of its life-history is therefore the foundation-stone on
which biological science in all its departments is based.

If we are to understand by an organ in the biological sense a complex
body capable of carrying on a natural process, a nucleated cell is an organ
in its simplest form. In a unicellular animal or plant such an organ
exists in its most primitive stage. The higher plants and animals again
are built up of multitudes of these organs, each of which, whilst having
its independent life, is associated with the others, so that the whole may
act in unison for a common purpose. As in one of your great factories
each spindle is engaged in twisting and winding its own thread, it is at
the same time intimately associated with the hundreds of other spindles
in its immediate proximity, in the manufacture of the yarn from which
the web of cloth is ultimately to be woven.

It has taken more than fifty years of hard and continuous work to
bring our knowledge of the structure and development of the tissues and

ADDRESS, 25

_

organs of plants and animals up to the level of the present day. Amidst
the host of names of investigators, both at home and abroad, who have con-
tributed to its progress, it may seem invidious to particularise individuals.
There are, however, a few that I cannot forbear to mention, whose claim
to be named on such an occasion as this will be generally conceded.

Botanists will, I think, acknowledge Wilhelm Hofmeister as ar master
in morphology and embryology, Julius von Sachs as the most important
investigator in vegetable physiology during the last quarter of the century,
and Strasburger as a leader in the study of the phenomena of nuclear
division.

The researches of the veteran Professor of Anatomy in Wiirzburg,
Albert von Kélliker, have covered the entire field of animal histology.
His first paper, published fifty-nine years ago, was followed by a suc-
cession of memoirs and books on human and comparative histology and
embryology, and culminated in his great treatise on the structure of the
brain, published in 1896. Notwithstanding the weight of more than
eighty years, he continues to prosecute histological research, and has
published the results of his latest, though let us hope not his last, work
during the present year.

Amongst our own countrymen, and belonging to the generation which
has almost passed away, was William Bowman. His investigations
between 1840 and 1850 on the mucous membranes, muscular fibre,
and the structure of the kidney, together with his researches on the
organs of sense, were characterised by an acuteness of observation and of
interpreting difficult and complicated appearances which has made his
memoirs on these subjects landmarks in the history of histological
inquiry.

Of the younger generation of biologists Francis Maitland Balfour,
whose early death is deeply deplored as a loss to British science, was
one of the most distinguished. His powers of observation and philosophic
perception gave him a high place as an original inquirer, and the charm of
his personality—for charm is not the exclusive possession of the fairer
sex—endeared him to his friends.

General Morphology.

Along with the study of the origin and structure of the tissues of
organised bodies, much attention has been given during the century to
the parts or organs in plants and animals, with the view of determining
where and how they take their rise, the order of their formation, the
changes which they pass through in the early stages of development, and
their relative positions in the organism to which they belong. Investi-
gations on these lines are spoken of as morphological, and are to be dis-
tinguished from the study of their physiological or functional relations,
though both are necessary for the full comprehension of the living
arganism.

26 REPORT—1900.

The first to recognise that morphological relations might exist between
the organs of a plant, dissimilar as regards their function, was the poet
Goethe, whose observations, guided by his imaginative faculty, led him to
declare that the calyx, corolla, and other parts of a flower, the scales of a
bulb, &c., were metamorphosed leaves, a principle generally accepted by
botanists, and indeed extended to other parts of a plant, which are referred
to certain common morphological forms although they exercise different
functions. Goethe also applied the same principle in the study of the
skeletons of vertebrate animals, and he formed the opinion that the spinal
column and the skull were essentially alike in construction, and consisted
of vertebre, an idea which was also independently conceived and advocated
by Oken.

The anatomist who in our country most strenuously applied himself to
the morphological study of the skeleton was Richard Owen, whose know-
ledge of animal structure, based upon his own dissections, was unrivalled
in range and variety. He elaborated the conception of an ideal, archetype
vertebrate form which had no existence in nature, and to which, subject
to modifications in various directions, he considered ali vertebrate skeletons
might be referred. Owen’s observations were conducted to a large extent
on the skeletons of adult animals, of the knowledge of which he was a
master. Asin the course of development modifications in shape and in
the relative position of parts not unfrequently occur and their original
character and place of origin become obscured, it is difficult, from the study
only of adults, to arrive at a correct interpretation of their morphological
significance. When the changes which take place in the skull during its
development, as worked out by Reichert and Rathke, became known and
their value had become appreciated, many of the conclusions arrived at by
Owen were challenged and ceased to be accepted. It is, however, due to
that eminent anatomist to state from my personal knowledge of the
condition of anatomical science in this country fifty years ago, that an
enormous impulse was given to the study of comparative morphology
by his writings, and by the criticisms to which they were subjected.

There can be no doubt that generalised arrangements do exist in the
early embryo which, up to a certain stage, are common to animals that
in their adult condition present diverse characters, and out of which the
forms special to different groups are evolved. As an illustration of this
principle, I may refer to the stages of development of the great arteries
in the bodies of vertebrate animals. Originally, as the observations of
Rathke have taught us, the main arteries are represented by pairs of
symmetrically arranged vascular arches, some of which enlarge and con-
stitute the permanent arteries in the adult, whilst others disappear. The
increase in size of some of these arches, and the atrophy of others, are so
constant for different groups that they constitute anatomical features
as distinctive as the modifications in the skeleton itself. Thus in mam-
mals the fourth vascular arch on the left side persists, and forms the arch

ADDRESS. 2

of the aorta ; in birds the corresponding part of the aorta is an enlarge-
ment of the fourth right arch, and in reptiles both arches persist to form
the great artery. That this original symmetry exists also in man we
know from the fact that now and again his body, instead of correspond-
ing with the mammalian type, has an aortic arch like that which is
natural to the bird, and in rarer cases even to the reptile. A type form
common to the vertebrata does therefore in such cases exist, capable of
evolution in more than one direction.

The reputation of Thomas Henry Huxley as a philosophic compara-
tive anatomist rests largely on his early perception of, and insistence on,
the necessity of testing morphological conclusions by a reference to the
development of parts and organs, and by applying this principle in his own
investigations. The principle is now so generally accepted by both botanists
and anatomists that morphological definitions are regarded as depending
essentially on the successive phases of the development of the parts
under consideration.

The morphological characters exhibited by a plant or animal tend
to be hereditarily transmitted from parents to offspring, and the
species is perpetuated. In each species the evolution of an individual,
through the developmental changes in the egg, follows the same lines in
all the individuals of the same species, which possess therefore in common
the features called specific characters. The transmission of these charac-
ters is due, according to the theory of Weismann, to certain properties
possessed by the chromosome constituents of the segmentation nucleus in
the fertilised ovum, named by him the germ plasm, which is continued
from one generation to another, and impresses its specific character on the
egg and on the plant or animal developed from it.

As has already been stated, the special tissues which build up the bodies
of the more complex organisms are evolved out of cells which are at first
simple in form and appearance. During the evolution of the individual,
cells become modified or differentiated in structure and function, and
so long as the differentiation follows certain prescribed lines the morpho-
logical characters of the species are preserved. We can readily conceive
that, as the process of specialisation is going on, modifications or variations
in groups of cells and the tissues derived from them, notwithstanding the
influence of heredity, may in an individual diverge so far from that which
is characteristic of the species as to assume the arrangements found in
another species, or even in another order. Anatomists had indeed long
recognised that variations from the customary arrangement of parts
occasionally appeared, and they described such deviations from the current
descriptions as irregularities.

Darwinian Theory.

The signification of the variations which arise in plants and animals
had not been apprehended until a flood of light was thrown on the entire

28 REPORT— 1900.

subject by the genius of Charles Darwin, who formulated the wide-
reaching theory that variations could be transmitted by heredity to
younger generations. In this manner he conceived new characters would
arise, accumulate, and be perpetuated, which would in the course of time
assume specific importance. New species might thus be evolved out of
organisms originally distinct from them, and their specific characters would
in turn be transmitted to their descendants. By a continuance of this pro-
cess new species would multiply in many directions, until at length from one
or more originally simple forms the earth would become peopled by the
infinite varieties of plant and animal organisms which have in past ages
inhabited, or doat present inhabit, our globe. The Darwinian theory may
therefore be defined as Heredity modified and influenced by Variability.
It assumes that there is an heredity quality in the egg which, if we take
the common fowl] for an example, shall continue to produce similar fowls.
Under conditions, of which we are ignorant, which occasion molecular
changes in the cells and tissues of the developing egg, variations might
arise, in the first instance probably slight, but becoming intensified in
successive generations, until at length the descendants would have lost
the characters of the fowl and have become another species. No
precise estimate has been arrived at, and indeed one does not see how it is
possible to obtain it, of the length of years which might be required to
convert a variation, capable of being transmitted, into a new and definite
specific character.

The circumstances which, according to the Darwinian theory, deter-
mined the perpetuation by hereditary transmission of a variety and its
assumption of a specific character depended, it was argued, on whether it
possessed such properties as enabled the plant or animal in which it
appeared to adapt itself more readily to its environment, 7.¢. to the
surrounding conditions. If it were to be of use the organism in so far
became better adapted to hold its own in the struggle for existence with
its fellows and with the forces of nature operating on it. Through
the accumulation of useful characters the specific variety was perpetuated
by natural selection so long as the conditions were favourable for its
existence, and it survived as being the best fitted te live. In the study
of the transmission of variations which may arise in the course of develop-
ment it should not be too exclusively thought that only those variations
are likely to be preserved which can be of service during the life of the
individual, or in the perpetuation of the species, and possibly available for
the evolution of new species. It should also be kept in mind that
morphological characters can be transmitted by hereditary descent,
which, though doubtless of service in some bygone. ancestor, are in
the new conditions of life of the species of no physiological value.
Our knowledge of the structural and functional modifications to be
found in the human body, in connection with abnormalities and with
tendencies or predisposition to diseases of various kinds, teaches us that

ADDRESS. 29

characters which are of no use, and indeed detrimental to the individual,
may be hereditarily transmitted from parents to offspring through a suc-
cession of generations.

Since the conception of the possibility of the evolution of new species
from pre-existing forms took possession of the minds of naturalists,
attempts have been made to trace out the lines on which it has proceeded.
The first to give a systematic account of what he conceived to be the order
of succession in the evolution of animals was Ernst Haeckel, of Jena, in
a well-known treatise. Memoirs on special departments of the subject,
too numerous to particularise, have subsequently appeared. The problem
has been attacked along two different lines: the one by embryologists,
of whom may be named Kowalewsky, Gegenbaur, Dohrn, Ray Lankester,
Balfour, and Gaskell, who with many others have conducted careful and
methodical inquiries into the stages of development of numerous forms
belonging to the two great divisions of the animal kingdom. Inverte-
brates, as well as vertebrates, have been carefully compared with each
other in the bearing of their development and structure on their affinities
and descent, and the possible sequence in the evolution of the Vertebrata
from the Invertebrata has been discussed. The other method pursued by
palzontologists, of whom Huxley, Marsh, Cope, Osborne, and Traquair
are prominent authorities, has been the study of the extinct forms pre-
served in the rocksand the comparison of their structure with each other
and with that of existing organisms. In the attempts to trace the line of
descent the imagination has not unfrequently been called into play in con-
structing various conflicting hypotheses. Though from the nature of things
the order of descent is, and without doubt will continue to be, ever a matter
of speculation and inference and not of demonstration, the study of the
subject has been a valuable intellectual exercise and a powerful stimulant
to research.

We know not as regards time when the fiat went forth, ‘Let there be
Life, and there was Life.’ All we can say is that it must have been in
the far-distant past, at a period so remote from the present that the mind
fails to grasp the duration of the interval. Prior to its genesis our earth
consisted of barren rock and desolate ocean. When matter became
endowed with Life, with the capacity of self-maintenance and of
resisting external disintegrating forces, the face of nature began to
undergo a momentous change. Living organisms multiplied, the land
became covered with vegetation, and multitudinous varieties of plants,
from the humble fungus and moss to the stately palm and oak, beautified
its surface and fitted it to sustain higher kinds of living beings. Animal
forms appeared, in the first instance simple in structure, to be followed by
others more complex, until the mammalian type was produced. The
ocean also became peopled with plant and animal organisms, from the
microscopic diatom to the huge leviathan. Plants and animals acted and

30 REPORT—1900.

reacted on each other, on the atmosphere which surrounded them and on
the earth on which they dwelt, the surface of which became modified in
character and aspect. At last Man came into existence. His nerve-energy,
in addition to regulating the processes in his economy which he possesses
in common with animals, was endowed with higher powers. When trans-
lated into psychical activity it has enabled him throughout the ages
to progress from the condition of a rude savage to an advanced stage
of civilisation ; to produce works in literature, art, and philosophy which
have exerted, and must continue to exert, a lasting influence on the
development of his higher Being ; to make discoveries in natural and
physical science ; to acquire a knowledge of the structure of the earth,
of the ocean in its changing aspects, of the atmosphere and the stellar
universe, of the chemical composition and physical properties of matter
in its various forms, and to analyse, comprehend, and subdue the forces
of nature.

By the application of these discoveries to his own purposes Man has, to
a large extent, overcome time and space ; he has studded the ecean with
steamships, girdled the earth with the electric wire, tunnelled the lofty
Alps, spanned the Forth with a bridge of steel, invented machines and
founded industries of all kinds for the promotion of his material welfare,
elaborated systems of government fitted for the management of great
communities, formulated economic principles, obtained an insight into
the laws of health, the causes of infective diseases, and the means of
controlling and preventing them.

When we reflect that many of the most important discoveries in abs-
tract science and in its applications have been made during the present
century, and indeed since the British Association held its first meeting in
the ancient capital of your county sixty-nine years ago, we may look
forward with confidence to the future. Every advance in science provides
a fresh platform from which a new start can be made. The human intel-
lect is still in process of evolution. The power of application and of
concentration of thought for the elucidation of scientific problems is by
no means exhausted. In science is no hereditary aristocracy. The army
of workers is recruited from all classes. The natural ambition of even
the private in the ranks to maintain and increase the reputation of the
branch of knowledge which he cultivates affords an ample guarantee
that the march of science is ever onwards, and justifies us in proclaiming
for the next century, as in the one fast ebbing to a close, that Great is
Science, and it will prevail.

REPORTS

ON THH

STATE OF SCIENCE.

REPORTS

ON THE

STATE OF SCIENCE.

Meteorological Observatory, Montreal.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor H. L. CaLLenpAR (Chairman), Professor C,
McLeop (Secretary), Professor F. Apams, aid Mr. R. F. Stupart,
appointed for the purpose of establishing a Meteorological Observatory
on Mount Royal, Montreal.

[PLATE I.]

THE following preliminary report has been received from the observers :—

The difference of temperature between the College Observatory and
the top of Mount Royal is continuously recorded by means of a Callendar
Electric Recorder and a pair of differential platinum thermometers. The
thermometers are of the usual pattern, giving a change of 2 ohms for
100° Fahr., and the scale of the record is one-fifth of an inch to the
degree Vahr. By a simple change in the connections the actual tempera-
ture at either station can be recorded separately instead of the difference
of temperature between the two. The thermometer at the top of the
mountain is placed on a platform 50 feet above the ground and 850 feet
above sea level. The other thermometer is at a height of 4 feet above the
ground, and 180 feet above sea level. The distance between the two is
rather more than a mile. The recorder is placed in the College Observa-
tory at the lower station, and is connected to the distant thermometer by
four separate lines of No. 12 copper wire erected on poles with glass
insulators, and covered with weather-proof insulation ordinarily used for
telephone work. The recorder is of the original Callendar pattern, and
was made at the McDonald Physics Building in 1897.

The line to the mountain has been broken by storm on several occa-
sions ; parts of it have sometimes been carried away by thieves ; on one
occasion the line was struck by lightning, the thermometers were de-
stroyed, and the instrument burnt out ; on another occasion the instrument
was burnt out through an accidental short circuit of the electric lighting
current. The original thermometers which were damaged by lightning
have been replaced by new and improved instruments, and all other
damages have been repaired, so that the whole apparatus is at present in
good running condition. Great delay has been caused by these accidents ;
and this, coupled with pressure of other work on the observers, has made
it pepossiil to secure up to the present date a sufficiently extended series

: a) ; oD

34 . REPORT—1900.

of observations to be of value for the general discussion of results. To
show the nature of the records, and the working of the apparatus, a
sample record sheet for August 21, 22, 1900, including a zero test and two
comparisons with mercury thermometers, which were read simultaneously
at the two stations by separate observers, is given herewith. (Plate I.)

The zero line on the chart was obtained by placing the thermometers
at the two stations in melting ice simultaneously, and allowing them to
remain for about an hour at this temperature. The differences between
the simultaneous readings of the mercury thermometers at the two stations
were plotted from this zero line, and show a very satisfactory agreement
with the differential platinum thermometers, considering the continual
variations of temperature and the difference in sensibility of the two
instruments. The direction of the wind and the velocity in miles per
hour are recorded by instruments placed on the summit and connected by
lines to the electrical recording apparatus in the College Observatory at
the lower station. The record for August 21, 22 exhibits a complete
revolution in the direction of the wind from N.W. through E. and 8. and
back to N.W. These changes in the direction of the wind frequently
appear to be related to the changes in the difference of temperature. The
amount of sunshine in tenths per hour recorded at the College Observa-
tory is also marked on the charts, and the general weather conditions
prevailing.

The apparatus as at present arranged gives admirable results in fair
weather, but it has been found impossible to preserve the insulation of the
line during rain. This has steadily deteriorated since its erection, and
the results cannot now be relied on when the rainfall is considerable, or
for short periods after. This is unfortunate, as it would be interesting to
study the changes of temperature occurring with the onset of rain. To
completely obviate the insulation defects in bad weather, and to protect
the line from thieves and lightning, it would be necessary to replace the
present pole line with a lead-covered cable buried in the ground. It is
hardly necessary to say that this was foreseen at the time when the line
was originally projected, as all installations of platinum thermometers up
to that date had been provided with lead-covered cables, especially in
cases where the distance involved was considerable. The original estimate
of 100/. for the apparatus was based on the assumption of a lead-covered
cable. But when the British Association in 1897 were unable to grant
more than 50/., it was decided to utilise the existing pole line rather than
abandon the project entirely. There is still some hope that the necessary
funds may be forthcoming for the replacement of the existing line by a
cable ; but until this necessary improvement is effected it is feared that
the scientific value of the work must be seriously impaired.

Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Mr. W. N. Suaw (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Grirrirus, Rev. T. C.
Frrzpatrick, Mr. 8. Skinner, and Mr. W. ©. D. WHETHAM

(Secretary), appointed to report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge in Electrolysis and Electro-chemistry.

Tux experiments on the conductivity of dilute aqueous solutions of salts
and acids at the freezing point have been completed by Mr. Whetham,

[Pate []

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70th Report Brit. Assoc., 1900.)

McGill College Observatory, Record of difference of Temperature between Mount Royal and College, Aug, 21 ¢ 22, 1900.

YIGTIOI NI VLNIOW

WIND

SUNSHINE

eT E
ERS BSR Re BARRE eee nee eee +++
eee ee eee eee eee

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ane
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Tilustrating the Report on the Meteorological Observatory on Mount Royal, Montreal.

ON ELECTROLYSIS AND ELECTRO-CHEMISTRY. 35

and the full results published in the ‘Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London,’ series A, vol. exciv: 1900, p. 321. Curves and
tables are given showing the values obtained for the ionisation. The
méasurements of the freezing points of the same solutions, undertaken by
Mr. Griffiths, are still in progress. It is hoped that his results will soon
be ready, and that a useful comparison of the two lines of reséarch may
then be made.

The consumption of a carbon anode in electrolysis has formed the
subject of some experiments by another member of the Committee,
Mr. Skinner.! Carboh electrodes are used in many electrotechnhical
processes, and their solution and disintegration form one of the chief
difficulties to be overcome. It appears that whenever a highly oxidised
product undergoes electrolytic decomposition the anion gives, directly or
indirectly, a cotisiderable quantity of carbonic acid. The experiments
show that as mucli as 85 per cent. of the escaping gases consists of carbon
dioxide when a solution of potassium permanganate is the electrolyte.

Since the publication in 1897 of the Committee’s Report on the
Theoty of the Migration of Ions ahd of Specific Ionic Velocities, an
important paper by Orme Masson has appeared,” giving an account of an
experimental method of measuring ionic velocities and of the results for a
number of ions.

The original plan of the Committee, as arranged in 1890, included
reports on the following additional sections :—§ d. Electro-chemical
Thermo-dynamics ; § e. Electric Endosmose ; and § g. Numerical Relations.
Information on some of these sections has already been made easily
accessible.

A small book,’ ‘ Das Leitvermiégen der Electrolyte,’ Leipzig, 1898, has
been published by Dr. von Kohlrausch and Dr. Holborn, giving a complete
account of the method of measuring electrolytic conductivity by means of
alternating currents in conjunction with a telephone, with the precautions
_ hecessary for accurate results. There are also tables of the conductivity
of certain solutions, which may be used to standardise resistance vessels.

The thermo-dynamics of electrolytic processes is in some degree
covered by a Report by Professor E. F. J. Love on our Knowledge of the
Thermo-dynamics of the Voltaic Cell, published by the Australasian
Association for the Advancement of Science, Sydney, 1898.

Since the original appointment of the Committee, very many and
important researches upon the chemical phenomena resulting from or
associated with the passage of electricity through gases have been
published.

In order to make the Committee’s Report in any way a complete
sketch of the subject of electro-chemistry as now developed, its scope
would have to be enlarged to include such phenomena as the conductivity
of gases at high temperatures, and under the influence of other ionising
agencies. The Committee feel unable to undertake such an extension of
their work, and do not seek reappointment.

1 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., x. 261, 1900.
2 Phil. Trans., A, cxciii., 1899.

b2

36 REPORT—1900;

On Solar Radiation.— Report of the Commuttee, consisting of Dr G. JOHN-
STONE Stoney (Chairman), Professor H. McLuop (Secretary), Sir
G. G. Sroxes, Professor A. SCHUSTER, Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain
Sir W: pe W. Asney, Dr. C. CHREE, Professor G. F'. FirZGERALD,
Professor H. L. Catuenpar, Mr. W. EH. Wison, and Professor
A. A. Rampaut, appointed to consider the best Methods of Recording
the Direct Intensity of Solar Radiation. (Drawn up by Professor
H. L. CaLLenpar. )

As already reported, the copper-cube actinometer constructed for this
Committee, and described in the Report for 1886, was entrusted to
Professor Callendar in August 1899 for comparison with his automatic
recording instrument described in the Report for 1898. In the course of
the past year a number of experiments have been made with this
apparatus by Miss W. E. Walker, 1851 Exhibition Scholar, working at
University College, London, under the direction of Professor Callendar.
The object of the work was to obtain absolute measurements of radiation
for the calibration of the more convenient form of continuous recorder.
In its original form the copper-cube actinometer was not very well
adapted, and probably was not intended, for absolute measurements ; but
with some modifications very promising results have been already obtained,
and it is believed that the method thus modified will lead to trustworthy
and valuable determinations.

The history of the copper-cube actinometer is contained in various
reports communicated by this committee, of which the following is a brief
summary. The method originally proposed was to concentrate the rays
of the sun by means of a lens through a hole in one side of the cube on to .
a central mercury thermometer with a flat bulb. The steady difference
of temperature between the central thermometer and the walls of the
cube would be approximately proportional to the intensity of solar
radiation, and might be taken as a measure of the same in arbitrary units.
To obtain the equivalent in absolute measure it would be necessary to
know the rate of cooling of the thermometer and the coefficient of
absorption of the bulb and of the lens by which the rays were concentrated .
These might have been obtained by auxiliary experiments on the rate of
heating or cooling under various conditions ; but as the mercury thermo-
meters proved unsuitable in many respects, the apparatus was subsequently
modified by the substitution of a copper disc and a thermo-junction for
the central thermometer. This permitted the observation of smaller
differences of temperature and the more accurate determination of the
thermal capacity of the irradiated disc.

The elementary theory of the instrument, assuming that for small
differences of temperature the rate of cooling of the disc would be pro-
portional to the difference of temperature between the disc and the walls
of the cube, was given in the Report of the Committee for 1892. If 0 is
the excess of temperature of the disc over the enclosure at any time ¢
measured from the commencement of the exposure to the radiation to be
measured, and if 7 be the initial rate of rise of temperature of the disc in

ON SOLAR RADIATION, OV

degrees per second, and qf the rate of fall of temperature at any excess 0
if the radiation were cut off, we have evidently the equation

di/dt=r—qd . ‘ 3 E al)
the solution of which under the given initial conditions is
d=(l—-e")r/q . i : : » (2)

The limiting steady temperature of the disc when ¢ is infinite is 0°=7/g.

In 1893 some experiments were recorded verifying the elementary
theory and the constancy of the coefficient of cooling g. In 1896 a
photographic recording device was applied to obtain the curves of heating
of the disc by registering the deflections of the D’Arsonval galvanometer
on a moving photographic plate. The curves proved to be approximately
logarithmic, but the reduction of the results to absolute measure was not
attempted.

Absolute Measwrements.—If I be the intensity of radiation to be
measured in watts per square centimetre, and A be the area in square
centimetres normal to the rays over which the measured portion of the
radiation is incident, the quantity of heat received is IA joules per second.
This is equal to rJms, where 7 as already defined is the initial rate of rise
of temperature of the disc when exposed to the radiation, J is the number
of joules in one calorie, which may be taken as approximately 4:18 ; m is
the mass, and s the specific heat of thedisc. In applying this method it is
tacitly assumed that the whole of the disc is at a uniform temperature 0 at
any moment during the rise of temperature ; it is also necessary to know
accurately the specific heat s of the material of the disc, and to be able
to calibrate the thermo-junction so as to interpret the indications of the
galvanometer in degrees of temperature. Further, the rise of temperature
must not exceed two or three degrees in order that q, the coefficient of
cooling, may be taken as constant, and the rate of rise must be sufticiently
slow to permit of accurate measurement, and of the uniform diffusion of
heat throughout the disc.

After some preliminary experiments with the apparatus it became
evident that these conditions were not sufficiently satisfied by the disc
and thermo-junction employed in the experiments already recorded. The
disc was about two centimetres in diameter and half a millimetre thick.
The aperture for admitting the radiation was about one centimetre.
Under these conditions it was not possible without the use of lenses to
ensure a sufficiently uniform distribution of the radiation over the surface
of the disc, and the rate of rise of temperature was too rapid for accurate
measurement. The disc was supported on a short iron wire nearly
two millimetres thick, which conducted heat away from the centre of the
dise so rapidly that the temperature of the junction was always very con-
siderably below that of the disc. Owing to its form the thermo-junction
could not be accurately calibrated, and the sensitiveness of the copper-iron
couple, though suitable for powerful sources such as direct solar radiation,
was far too small for accurate work with sources of constant intensity
such as were required for absolute measurement.

The Galvanometer supplied with the instrument was of the Ayrton
Mather type, with a resistance of about 7‘5 ohms, and gave a deflection of
about 2 millimetres at 1 metre per microvolt, equivalent to about
20 millimetres per degree with a copper-iron junction. In order to

38 REPORT—1900.

increase the accuracy of reading, a good plane mirror was substituted for
the original concave mirror, and observations were taken with a telescope
and scale at a distance of about 3 metres. The definition of the image
was such as to permit of reading with accuracy to a fifth of a millimetre.
Owing to the gradual change or ‘drift’ of zero, due to imperfect elasticity
of the suspension, which is always a serious source of error in galvano-
meters of this type, it was found to be impossible to obtain sufficiently
consistent observations by the deflection method. To minimise this
source of error the potentiometer balance-method was adopted, and care
was taken not to subject the suspension to excessive torsion. To increase
the sensitiveness, the iron-copper thermo-junction was replaced by junctions
of iron and german silver (30 microvolts per degree), and iron and con-
stantan (52 microvolts). The wires employed for this purpose were very
fine—about 0-2 millimetre—to minimise the cooling of the junctions by
conduction, and their thermo-electric powers were determined by a special
series of observations made on the particular pieces employed. With
these improvements it was optically possible to observe a difference of
temperature of a thousandth of a degree with certainty, as it corresponded
to a deflection of about a quarter of a millimetre with the iron and
constantan couple.

Thermo-electric Sources of Hrror.—In observing small differences of
temperature with a thermo-couple, assuming that drift of the galvano-
meter zero is avoided by employing the balance method, the most trouble-
some residual errors arise from accidental thermal effects due to small
differences of temperature in other parts of the electric circuit, and in
particular at the junctions of the bridge-wire, and at the point of contact
of the slider. It is usual to employ german-silver or platinoid or platinum
silver as the material for the bridge-wire to secure a low temperature-
coefficient and high specific resistance. Unfortunately these materials
give large thermal effects when joined to copper. The alloy known as
manganin is greatly to be preferred to platinoid or constantan in this
respect, but its surface is more liable to tarnish. The superiority of the
bolometric method (platinum resistance) over the thermo-couple for accu-
rate measurement of small differences of temperature depends chiefly on
the relative ease with which these accidental thermal effects may be
eliminated. In the present instance they were found to be so trouble-
some that it was eventually decided to make the bridge-wire and the
whole of the circuit, with the exception of the coupie itself, of pure
copper. By adopting this method the accidental disturbances were
reduced to a small fraction of a microvolt, without taking any special
precautions to secure uniformity of temperature throughout the various
parts of the measuring apparatus. The cold junctions of the thermo-
couple were contained in a copper plug screwing into the copper cube,
and were assumed to be at the same temperature as the walls of the cube.
In order to secure this, and to minimise changes of temperature of the
copper cube, it was found necessary to wrap the cube and the projecting
plug in a considerable thickness of cotton-wool, even when exposed to
feeble sources of radiation, The layer of felt surrounding the cube formed
no protection for the copper plug containing the cold junction, and proved
quite inadequate to prevent rapid changes of temperature when exposed
to strong sources.

Constant Source of Radiation.—-The necessity of a constant source of
radiation for comparative measurements and tests was recognised at a

ON SOLAR RADIATION, 39

very early period in the experiments. The first attempt at a constant
source was an Argand burner with a very delicate pressure regulator, a
given area of the brightest part of the flame being selected as the source.
This proved to be a very good method of testing the variations in the
quality of the gas, but had to be abandoned as a constant source of radia-
tion. It was also objectionable on account of the difficulty of keeping
the glass chimney uniformly clean, and because the excessive amount of
heat generated disturbed the experimental conditions, and the gas fumes
had the effect of tarnishing the contacts of the electrical apparatus and
the metallic plates used as reflectors. A pair of one hundred eandle-
power focus-lamps were then obtained from the Ediswan Company.
These were designed to work on a pressure of 90 volts at an efficiency
of about 3:6 watts per candle, and a current of 4 amperes. They were
spherical in form and silvered on one half, which had the effect of nearly
doubling the radiating power for a given current, while at the same time
it ensured an almost perfect constancy in the proportion of radiation
reflected from the rear of the source, which had proved a difficulty with
the Argand burner. When used as constant sources of radiation the
lamps were worked at a pressure of only 75 volts and a current of
about three amperes, supplied by a large storage battery of forty-four
cells, The battery was not used for any other purpose while the experi-
ments were in progress, and was capable of maintaining the required
pressure constant to a tenth of a volt for several hours under suitable
conditions of charge. The pressure on the lamps was regulated and
recorded during the experiments by means of an automatic recording
potentiometer working on a scale of one inch to the volt. The readings
of this instrument were adjusted by means of a Clark cell, and were
accurate to about one part in 5,000. One of the focus-lamps was set
apart as a standard, and was used only for occasional comparisons. When
working at a voltage so far below that for which they were designed,
the lamps were found to remain exceedingly constant. In the course of
six months’ work the lamp in regular use did not vary with respect to
the standard by more than one per cent., and its variations over short
periods could easily have been controlled and corrected if the accuracy
so far attained in the radiation measurements had made the application
of such a correction desirable. The area of the incandescent grid was
about one square inch, and the diameter of the bulb four and a half inches.
The lamp was set to shine through an aperture of its own diameter in a
double tin-plate screen, so as to include the whole of the radiation from
the heated glass, but to exclude as far as possible radiation from the base
of the lamp and heated objects in its immediate neighbourhood. This
precaution was particularly important in comparing the indications of the
tube form of radio-calorimeter with those to the bolometric sunshine
receiver intended for the direct exposure of solar radiation, as the latter
instrument was not provided with a screen and diaphragms for excluding
lateral radiation, but was intended to integrate the vertical component
of the whole radiation from the sky as well as that from the sun.
Determination of the Initial Rate of Heating of the Disc.—To ensure
uniformity of temperature of the disc, and a sufficiently slowrate of heating,
it was found necessary to replace the original disc by a much thicker disc
the size of which was chosen to be just sufficient to catch the whole of the
rays incident on the aperture. Before commencing an observation, the
reading of the galyanometer was observed with the slider at the zero of

f%

AO REPORT—1900.

the bridge-wire in order to allow for any minute residual difference of
temperature between the cube and the disc when the apparatus was
screened from radiation. The time of exposure was recorded on an
electric chronograph by the dropping of the screen on a suitable key.
The sliding contact was then shifted to successive points on the bridge-
wire, and the moment of balance at each point was observed and recorded
on the chronograph. ‘These observations were continued for about five
minutes, or as long as the rise continued sufficiently rapid. Occasional
observations were then made to determine the final steady difference of
temperature 6° during the next fifteen minutes, after which the tempera-
ture remained steady.

The following is a sample of observations taken with the copper-cuhe :

Date, April 4, 1900, Observer, Miss W. E. WALKER.

Temperature of Clark cell, 19:0° C. ; bridge-wire, 20°2° C. ; resistance
per cm. of B.W., :001091 ohm ; P.D. per cm., ‘7795 microvolt ; diameter
of disc, 1:40 cm. ; diameter of aperture in cube, 1:00 cm. ; distance of
lamp from aperture, 60:0 cms. ; volts on lamp, 77:2 ; mass of copper dise,
08320 gramme ; Jms/A="4206.

| ride | | 4 l
| — | oe | Time¢ | Temperature 0 | q | r | I
Le eck e) fata |
(1) 398 | 7656 5966 | ‘o1036 | -01129 | 00475
(2) 59°8 | 159°35 | 8964 | *01084 | -01182 00497
(3) | 729 | Steady | 1:090=6° | —_

=7/q | ==

Solution of the Equations.—Assuming the elementary theory of the
method as given by equation (2), the simplest method of procedure is to
take the value of the ratio 7/¢ as given by the final steady difference of
temperature 6°=1-090, and to calculate the values of g from the inter-
mediate observations of ¢ and @ by substituting the observed value of
7 /q in equation (2). We thus obtain

gt-=2'3026 log,,6°/(6°—6) »' . /) at ia Raa)

The value of 7 is then found by the relation r=q0, and the intensity of
radiation I by multiplying 7 by the constant factor Jms/A=-4206. The
values thus obtained are given in the columns headed g, 7, I. They
invariably exhibited a progressive increase with the time. The value of q
could also be found by eliminating the ratio */q between any two
observations, and solving the equation by trialfor g. Taking the observa-
tions (1) and (2) at 39:8 and 59-8 ems. above given, we thus obtain
q=00967, whence 7=-01103, and I=-00464, which illustrate the same
tendency, being smaller than the results obtained by assuming the ratio of
v to q from the final steady temperature. The focus-lamp in this
experiment was set to shine through an aperture of nearly the same size
as the incandescent grid, but this was found to be unsatisfactory, as the
field of illumination was not sufficiently uniform for the bolometric
receivers. This consideration, among others, ultimately necessitated the
abandonment of the aperture method of limiting the radiation received by
the disc.

Effects of Lag.—It was clear from the results above quoted, and from
a number of others obtained with the same apparatus with different discs

ON SOLAR RADIATION. 41

at different distances and different rates of heating, that the equations
already given did not satisfactorily represent the observations. In con-
sidering the possible sources of constant error inherent in the method, it
seemed unlikely that the assumption that the rate of loss of heat was
proportional to the difference of temperature (q constant) could be
seriously in error, as the whole difference of temperature did not exceed
one or two degrees. The most probable explanation of the discrepancy
appeared to be that time was required for the uniform distribution of
heat through the disc, and that the indications of the thermo-junction
were retarded by conduction of heat along the wires, and by lag in the
movement of the galvanometer coil, which was necessarily very dead-beat
when short-circuited on the couple. These various sources of error could
all be approximately represented by assuming a constant time-lag in the
readings ; a type of error which was necessarily inherent in the method,
and could not have been detected by the experiments recorded in 1896.
In order to eliminate the time-lag from the equations, it is only necessary
to take two observations in addition to the final steady temperature. If
we write the equations in the form (3) already given, and take the differ-
ence, we thus obtain

g (t/’ —t/)=2°3026 log,, (6°—6’)/(0°—@”) . . (4)
Treating the observations already given in this manner we find
q='01130. r=:01232. I=:00518. Time-lag=6°45 secs.

With only three observations it is of course always possible to calculate
a value of the lag to satisfy the readings exactly, but it appeared that a
similar assumption satisfied the observations within the probable limits
of error in those cases also in which a larger number of readings were
taken.

Defects of the Copper-cube Actinometer.—The excessive value of the
time-lag observed in the observations with this apparatus appeared to be
partly due to the impossibility of securing uniform illumination of the
disc by the aperture method. It was necessary that the disc should be
large enough to catch the whole of the radiation passing through the
aperture in the cube, and this could not be secured without leaving a con-
siderable margin at the edge of the disc which was either not illuminated
at all, or only partly illuminated by the penumbra of the aperture. With
the lamp at 60 cms. it was necessary to use a disc 1-40 cm. in diameter
for an aperture of 1:00 cm. diameter. This was the more necessary because
the construction of the apparatus, and the method of screwing in the copper
plug by which the disc was supported, made it extremely difficult to centre
the disc accurately, and to direct it so as to receive the rays normally and
centrally. Another serious defect to which allusion has already been
made, was the variation of temperature of the cube and the copper plug,
which although greatly reduced was not entirely eliminated by the cotton-
wool wrappings. For these and other reasons it was decided to design a
new form of actinometer for the application of the same method in a
manner more convenient for laboratory use.

Tube-form of Radio-calorimeter—The terms ‘actinometer,’ ‘ bolo-
meter,’ and ‘radio-micrometer,’ which are otherwise suitable for instru-
ments of this class, have acquired special significations, and are in general
use for instruments which are not designed for absolute measurements,

42, REPORT—1900,

It appears therefore preferable to use the more general term ‘radio-
calorimeter’ for this particular instrument, as it was not intended, like
the ‘ pyrheliometers’ of Pouillet or Angstrom, for the direct measurement
of solar radiation. The tube-form of radio-calorimeter consists of a pair
of concentric tubes about nine inches long separated by an annular space
of about a twentieth of an inch, through which water is caused to circulate
in a spiral fashion by a helix of copper wire nearly fitting the space
between the tubes. The inner tube has a diameter of about one inch, and
is furnished with a series of sliding copper diaphragms, which can be set
at suitable points to screen off any lateral radiation, and prevent internal
reflection from the walls of the tube. The blackened copper disc for
receiving and measuring the radiation is supported near the centre of the
tube by means of the fine wires of the thermo-couple. The diameter of
the disc is 1°30 cm., and it is set close behind a diaphragm of 14 mm.
diameter, so that the whole of its surface is exposed to the radiation. In
this arrangement the quantity of radiation measured is determined solely
by the diameter of the disc and not by that of the apertures. The disc
can be accurately centred and directed on the source of radiation by
looking through a small hole at the back of the tube. The cold junctions
of the thermo-couples are contained in fine copper tubes soldered to a
sliding tube which carries the disc, and is a good fit for the inner tube of
the water-jacket. Water at the temperature of the laboratory is con-
tinuously pumped by a small motor from one large copper tank to another
at a higher level, and flows back continuously and uniformly through the
water-jacket of the radio-calorimeter. By this means the temperature of
the jacket is maintained very constant without the necessity of making
the instrument itself massive or unwieldy,

Observations with different Coatings on the Dise.—With this apparatus
it was possible to obtain much more consistent results owing to the
greater steadiness of the experimental conditions and the greater ease of
adjustment and manipulation. Among other tests, some comparative
measurements were made of the relative efficiency of different coatings
of black for the disc, of which the following may be taken as samples :—

1. Copper disc clean but not polished. Final excess 1:223° C,
g= "00512, r=-00626, I=-00379.

2. Copper colour just visible through a thin film of smoke-black.
Final excess 2°528° C. g=:00595, r=:01505, I= 00910.

3. Copper disc covered with thick opaque film of smoke-black. Final
excess 2°375° C. g=:006354, r=-01508, I=-00912.

4. Copper disc covered with dead-black varnish of shellac and smoke-
black. Final excess 2:159° C, g=-00703, r=:001517, I=-00918.

5. Same disc, but with new thermo-couple, thick smoke-film. Final
excess 2°328° C. g='00642, r=-01494, I=-00904.

6. Same disc and couple, but thin black varnish ; back also covered.
Final excess 1°831° C. g=-00812, r=-01487, I=:00900.

It will be observed in the above results that the final excess tempera-
ture (7/q) and the coefficient of cooling, g, vary considerably under differ-
ent conditions, but that the results for the rate of heating, 7, and the
intensity of radiation, g, agree fairly well for the different coatings of
black. The same focus-lamp was used as a source in each case, at the
same distance, and it is probable that the actual variations in the inten-
sity of the radiation did not exceed one part in 500, The voltage on the

ON SOLAR RADIATION, 43

lamp was kept within less than a tenth of a volt of 75:0 volts by the
automatic recording potentiometer, and the observations were taken
within a few days of each other. In case 1, with the clean metal surface,
the value of the coefficient of cooling g=:00512 is nearly that due to
convection and conduction alone, as the radiative power of clean metal
is very small at these low temperatures, although the absorptive power
for the lamp radiation is nearly 40 per cent. An extremely thin coating
of smoke-black (2) suffices to raise the absorptive power for the lamp
radiation nearly to its maximum, although the radiative power for rays
of great wave-length is still very low, as shown by the small value of
q='00595, and the high value of the final excess of temperature
¢ /q=2'528° C. The thicker coating of smoke-black (3) lowers the value
of the final excess to 2°373° C., because the coefficient of cooling is in-
creased in a much greater ratio than the absorptive power for the lamp
radiation. It appears from the great increase of q, in case (4), that the
dead-black varnish is a much more efficient radiator at low temperatures
than the smoke-black, although the absorptive power for the lamp radia-
tion is but slightly increased. The back of the disc was not covered in
these experiments in order to obtain a greater rise of temperature. In
ease (5), with a new thermo-couple, the diminution in the values of 7 and
I, as compared with case (3), may be due simply to unavoidable errors of
observation, or slight variations in the uniformity of the wires, or in the
quality of the smoke-film ; but it may also be caused by a variation in the
cooling of the junctions by conduction, due to slight differences in the
attachment of the wires to the disc. In any case it is satisfactory to find
that so large a change in the conditions produces a change of less than
one per cent. in the result. Similarly, in case (6), the effect of blacking
the back of the disc is to produce a very marked increase in the
coefficient of cooling ; but although the rate of cooling by radiation is
nearly twice as great as in case (5)—supposing that the conduction and
convection effects remain the same as in case (1)—the diminution in the
result for I, as compared with (4), is not greater than might reasonably
be attributed to the thinness of the varnish, which possessed appreciable
reflecting power.

It is clear from the above summary that the method is capable of
. giving fairly consistent results in spite of wide variations in the experi-
mental conditions. But it is evidently necessary to investigate further
the absorptive powers of different coatings for radiations of different
qualities if it is desired to obtain an order of accuracy higher than one
per cent. in the absolute results. Another correction of some importance
is that for the cooling of the junction by conduction along the wires.
This correction depends on the size of the wires and on their mode of
attachment to the disc. Although enormously reduced by the adoption
of very fine wires for the couple, it remains distinctly appreciable and
requires further investigation. It is evidently possible to determine this
correction by employing wires of different sizes simultaneously, or the
whole correction may be included in the coefficient of cooling by a suit-
able arrangement of the junction.

Measurement of Solar Radiation.—Owing to the great intensity and
incessant variations of solar radiation, it would not be possible to obtain
absolute measurements directly by exposure of the instrument above
described to direct sunshine, although such a course has been attempted
with instruments of the class of Pouillet’s pyrheliometer. Even with the

AA ~ REPORT—1900,

water-jacket, the conditions of cooling are disturbed by the excessive
intensity of the radiation, and the final excess of temperature is much too
large to permit of the application of the elementary theory of the method.
For these and other reasons it appeared preferable to employ the automatic
recording instruments already described! for direct exposure to sunshine,
and to calibrate the receivers in absolute measure by exposure to the
radiation of the focus-lamps, which could be satisfactorily determined by
the absolute method.

Bolometric Sunshine Receivers.—These instruments are intended for
recording on an arbitrary scale the vertical component of the radiation
from the whole sky as well as the sun. This vertical component measures
the heat received by the soil, and is probably the factor which chiefly
influences the meteorological conditions at any part of the earth’s surface,
so far as they depend on radiation. It is comparatively useless for this
purpose to record merely the normal intensity of solar radiation, as the
heat actually received by the earth’s surface depends so greatly on the
altitude of the sun and the state of the sky. It is proved by actual
experiment with these receivers, although it is by no means obvious
@ priori, and will perhaps scarcely be credited at the first statement, that
the heat received by reflection from the sky under certain conditions may
amount to more than 40 per cent. of the whole vertical component. This
being the case, the readings of an instrument which records only the
normal intensity of direct sunshine, excluding the radiation from the sky,
might give a very incorrect account of the total quantity of heat received
by the soil. The form of bolometric receiver adapted for recording the
vertical component consists of a differential pair of flat platinum ther-
mometers, one blackened and the other bright, placed side by side in the
same horizontal plane. The difference of temperature between the two,
which is automatically recorded, is approximately a measure of the
intensity of the vertical component of the radiation to which they are
exposed. It would of course be possible, by providing the instrument
with a water-jacketed tube and an equatorial mounting, to make it record
the normal intensity of direct sunshine, excluding the greater part of the
radiation from the sky ; but this would complicate the apparatus consider-
ably, and it is doubtful whether the record would have so direct a bearing
on meteorology. it is also certain that the coefficient of cooling by con-
vection would vary at different angles of inclination, whereas it appears to
be very constant in the horizontal position.

Two of the bolometric receivers above described have already been
compared with the radio-calorimeter by means of the focus-lamps. They
were of slightly different patterns, and wound with wire of different sizes,
six mils and four mils respectively, but they showed nearly the same
difference of temperature when exposed to the same radiation at the same
distance. This seems to show that the indications of such instruments
are fairly comparable, even if they are not precisely alike. As we have
already seen, the absorptive powers of different kinds of black do not
appear to differ very much for this kind of radiation. The proportionality
of the difference of temperature to the intensity of radiation was also
tested by varying the distance from the lamp, and assuming that the
radiation followed the law of the inverse square. This is very approxi-
mately true for the focus-lamps, owing to the flatness of the radiating

1 B.A, Report, 1898.

ON SOLAR RADIATION: A5

grid, provided that the distance is not too small. It is intended in the
course of the ensuing year to continue the absolute measurements, and to
test the performance of the automatic recorders under a greater variety of
conditions, for which Mr. Wilson, of Daramona Observatory, has promised
his assistance ; but enough has already been accomplished to show that the
apparatus affords a very promising and practical method of recording and
réducing to absolute measure the vertical intensity of radiation at any
point of the earth’s surface.

Uniformity of Size of Pages of Transactions.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor 8. P. THomrson (Chairman), Mr.
J. SWINBURNE (Secretary), Professor G. H. Bryan, Mr. C. V.
Burton, Mr. R. T. Guazesprook, Professor A. W. RUCKER, and,
Dr. G. JOHNSTONE STONEY, appointed to confer with British and
Loreigqn Societies, publishing Mathematical and Physical Papers, as
to the Desirability of securing Uniformity in the Size of the Pages of
their Transactions and Proceedings. (Drawn up by J. SWINBURNE.)

A LARGE number of journals were measured to find what dimensions it
would be best to choose as standards. An account of this work was
published in the Report for 1895, p. 77.

Since that date a large volume of correspondence has been carried on
with the English and foreign scientific societies.

In most cases the societies’ publications come within the limits speci-
fied in the first report.

In some of the cases the societies agreed to alter their publications so
as to come within the standard limits.

In a few cases the societies prefer to continue the use of abnormal
dimensions rather than alter their publications, especially when the pub-
lication has been going on for many years.

The importance of beginning a paper on the right-hand page is
generally realised, but there are difficulties in carrying it out. In spite
of this, a few of the societies are endeavouring to arrange that all
important papers shall begin on the right-hand page.

The Committee do not ask for reappointment.

Determining Magnetic Force on Board Ship.—Report of the Conunittee,
consisting of Professor A. W. Ricker (Chairman), Dr. C. H.
Lees (Secretary), Lord Kevin, Professor A. ScHusTER, Captain
CrEAK, Professor W. Stroup, Mr. C. VERNON Boys, and Mr.
W. Watson, appointed to consider the most suitable Method of
determining the Components of the Magnetic Force on Board Ship.

AAN instrument which embodies the ideas of Captain Creak, mentioned in
last year’s Report, has been constructed. Although specially designed for
observations on board ship, it will probably from its strength of construc-
tion be found suitable for travelling parties.

The Committee apply for reappointment, with the unexpended grant
of 10/. made last year.

AG REPORT—1900.

Tables of certain Mathematical Functions.—Report of the Committee
consisting of Lord Keruvin (Chairman), Lieutenant-Colonel
ALLAN CunnincHAM, f.EL. (Secretary), Dr. J. W. L. GLaisHEr,
Professor A. G. GREENHILL, Professor W. M. Hicks, Professor A.
LobeGe, and Major P. A. MacManon, f.A., appointed for caleulating
Tables of certaan Mathematical Functions, and, if necessary, for
taking steps to carry out.the calculations, and to publish the results in
an accessible form.

TuHE cost of printing the Tables (Binary Canon) was estimated at 135/.
A grant of 75/. only was made at the Dover Meeting. As the Tables
could not have been printed for this sum, application was made to the
Royal Society for a grant in aid; and the Royal Society has grantéd the
remaining sum (60/.) required. The Tables have been put in hand, and
are now (September) nearly all in type: they should be finished before
next Meeting.

Meteorological Observations of Ben Nevis.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Lord M‘LaREN, Professor A. Crum Brown (Secretary),
Sir Joun Murray, Professor CopEeLANnD, and Dr. ALEXANDER
Bucuan. (Drawn up by Dr. Bucnan.)

Tux Committee was appointed as in past years for the purpose of
co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making metevro-
logical observations at the two Ben Nevis Observatories.

The hourly eye observations made by night as well as by day, which
are a specialty of the High Level Observatory, have been made with
complete regularity throughout the year by Mr. Rankin and his assistants.

The health of the staff at the High Level Observatory continued good,
and the laborious work of the observations has been carried on without
the loss of an hour’s observations. The Directors desire to express their
hearty thanks to Messrs. T. Affleck, George Ednie, M.A., J.S. Begg, M.A.,
G. A. 8. Tait, R. C. Marshall, and T. Kilgour for the invaluable service
they rendered as volunteer observers during the summer of 1899, thus
affording to the members of the staff the relief and rest they so much
needed. Owing to the war. in South Africa some changes took place in
the Observatory staff. In October J. Bell, reservist, was called out for
service, and subsequently R. M. McDougall and D. Grant left to join the
forces. At the Low Level Observatory at Fort William influenza of an
acute form for a second time prevailed. But it is gratifying to add that no
observations have been lost, and the arrears of copying and computations
which necessarily occurred are being gradually worked off.

The observations at the intermediate station at Ben Nevis were
undertaken, single-handed, by Mr. D. W. Wilton. These valuable
observations, together with the similar observations made at this station
during the previous three summers, are being discussed under the superin-
tendence of Mr. Omond.

a ae principal results of the observations of 1899 are detailed in
able I,

1899

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory

Fort William

Differences .

Ben NevisOb-
servatory

Fort William

Differences

B en Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
Servatory

Fort William

Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory

Fort William

Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory

Fort William

Differences .

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory

Ben Nevis Ob-
servatory
Fort William
Differences .

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS.

4

Tas.e I,
| Jan. | Feb. |March| April | May | June | July | Aug. | Sept. | Oct. Nov.| Dec. | Year
Mean Pressure in Inches.
25°048) 25°149) 25°317| 25°146| 25°431) 25°559| 25°528) 25°598| 25-209) 25°379) 25°321| 25°163) 25°321
29°640| 29'738] 29°944) 29°730| 30-008) 30043] 30-012) 30053] 29:707| 29-923) 29875] 29:775] 29'871
4°593| 4°589| 4°627| 4:584| 4°577| 4-484| 4-484] 4-455| 4-498] 4.544] 4°554| 5°612| 4-550
Mean Temperatures.
287 | 265 | 253 | 264] aro | a7 | 451 | 487 | ao] sx7 | ata | of7 | asta
37°6 | 39:0 | 403 | 48:0 | 47-7 | 57-4] 584] 60:6 | 522] 48-7] 48:3] 381] 476
13°9 | 12°5 | 150 | 16°6 | 15 13°7 | 153 | 11°9 | 168 | 15°0 | 160 | 14:4 | 14:7
Eautremes of Temperature, Maxima.
35°1 | 39-2} 460 | 41:3 | 47°0 | 606 | 57-4 | 63:5 | 506] 48:2) 43:0) 40:0 | 63°5
520 | 500 | 544] 62-0] 660! 762! 711) 803] 654] 615 | 623) 533) 803
169 | 108 | S84] 207 | 19:0 | 156 | 13:7 | 16-81 14:8 | 13:3 | 184 | 13:3 | 16:8
Extremes of Temperature, Minima.
122 | 106 69 | 13-1 | 200 | 303 | 386 | 381] 23:3 | 19:9 | 21:0) 108 69
231 | 24:5 | 21:0 | 26-4 | 322 | 48:7 | 47-7 | 46:2 | 34:0 | 326 | 32:2 | 17-4] 17-4
10:9 | 13:9 | 141 | 13:3 | 122 | 13:4 | 141 | 1211 107 | 197] 11-2] G66 | 105
Rainfall, in Tnches.
15°30 | 10°56 | 25°21] 17°01| 688) 7°61) 15°23| 5°58] 20°78] 18+11| 32°48) 12°55 |187°30
7°38| 4:91| 865} 5°37] 256]- 205] 445] 1:77} 9-11} 9:10] 13:97| 5:96) 74:58
792| 6°65 | 16°56] 1164 4°32] 5°56/ 10-78; 3:81] 11-67] 901] 19-4 | 6-59 |119-72
Rainfall, Greatest Daily Fail.
1:82 a 334) 3:97) 1:87; 1:19] 3:21] 1:21] 226) 3:78) 4:33] 2:98) 4:33
1:74} 0°86) 1:86] 0:76| 0-48) 056| 1:26) 054] 1:50| 1:48] 1°68] 0-92] 1:74
0°08| 1:03 | 1'98| 3°21] 1:39| O63) 1:95] O67! O76} 2:30| 2°65; 2:06] 2°59
Number of Days 1 in. or more fell.
7 3 11 4 2 3 5 1 Ul 6 13 4 | 66
1 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 1 4 3 0 | 12
6 3 9 4 2 3 40), 1 6 ee) ala) 4 | 54
Number of Days 0:01 in. 07 more fell.
22 11 27 26 14 20 23 12 28 22 26 22 | 253
21 /| 13 | 22°) 20°) 11 f 14-| 19 | 12 ) 96 | 90 | 96 | 19° | 223
1 2 5 6 3 6 4 0 2 2 0 3 | 30
Mean Rainband (scale 0-8).
18 15 20 2°2 23 2'2 30 20 2:2 29 27 17 2'2
31 | 29 | 33 | 36 | 35 | 39 | 39 | 41 |] 40] 41 | 48 | 32 | 3-7
ASPs Me lca ede Teo h)|) 1%) | O'ON | Sov eas sy east fT Ih alee
Number of Hours of Bright Sunshine.
33 79 | 52 56 | 164] 153] 60 | 212 12 52 12] 12 897
26 71 By 112/ 197) 168] 89 | 231 73 69 12 8 | 1,139
7 sl 31 56) 9638 | 151: 29 {eb e anh | 17 oO; 4 | 242
Mean Hourly Velocity of Wind, in Miles.
19 | DORs He Vem aon |) Tt | 10 | 10 | t2)s|y 28 | 19 | 16 | 16
Mean Percentage of Cloud.
85 68 86 88 71 73 92 60 96 86 95 88 | 82
Com\csea ie 79) W 74. 68.) 70) | 86) iP be. | 80) |, 78° | 87 OP si 1 oem
10 5 7 14 3 3 6 6 16 13 8 7 8

48 REPORT—1900.

This table shows for 1899 the mean monthly and extreme pressure and
temperature, amounts of rainfall with the number of days of rain and the
days on which the amount equalled or exceeded one inch ; the hours of
sunshine, the mean percentage of cloud, the mean velocity of the wind in
miles per hour at the top of the mountain, and the mean rainband at both
observatories. The mean barometric pressures at Fort William are
reduced to 32° and sea level, but those at the Ben Nevis Observatory
only to 32°.

At Fort William the mean atmospheric pressure for the year was
29-871 inches, being 0°027 inch greater than the mean of the forty years
ending 1895. The mean at the top was 25:321 inches, being 0:025 inch
above the average of the observation since the opening of the Observatory
in 1883. The difference for the two observatories was thus 4°550 inches,
being all but identical with the difference of previous years. At the top
of the mountain the absolutely highest pressure for the year was 26-058
inches, and at Fort William 30°728 inches, both readings occurring on
November 17.

The differences from the mean monthly barometric pressure much
exceeded the averages in June, July, and August, the excess for the
three months for Fort William being 0°172 inch, and for Ben Nevis
0:160 inch. On the other hand, for January and April the deficiencies
from the averages were 0:164 inch and 0°160 inch for Fort William, and
for Ben Nevis 0°164 inch and 0°165. In the summer months, when pres-
sure was abnormally high, the type of weather was anticyclonic, but in
January and April, when pressure was unusually low, the type of weather
was cyclonic.

The deviations of the mean temperature of the months from thew
respective averages are shown in Table IT. :—

Taste II.
Fort Top of Fort Top of
William. Ben Nevis. William. Ben Nevis.
o ° ° °
January . : .--ld — | July. ; : gh yb) 24
February . p ey Oe 2°6 | August . : A i 82
March . : . —0°2 15 | September : . —08 —2°4
April 4 : . —19 --l1 | October . ; J. Seta 2-0
May. : . 23 —1:0 November : -. a0 aby
June : : 2D 4-4 | December —25 —14

The highest monthly mean temperature hitherto yet observed on Ben
Nevis was 48°-7 for August, which was 8°-2 above the mean of previous
Augusts. The excess of méan temperature of the three summer months
was 5°:0 above the average, whereas at Fort William the mean excess
was only 2°-9. In the strongly marked type of anticyclonic weather
which then prevailed, the temperature at the top of Ben Nevis was
relatively very much higher than at Fort William. Hence, while the
normal difference of temperature in August at the top and bottom of the
hill is 16°-4, in August 1899 it was only 11°-9, The absolutely highest
temperature for the year at Fort William was 82°-0 on August 24 ; and
at the top of Ben Nevis 63°-5 on August 23. The absolutely lowest was
15°2 at Fort William on December 28; and on Ben Nevis 6°°9 on
March 23.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 49

In Table ITI. are given for each month the lowest observed hygro-
metric readings at the top of Ben Nevis :—

Taste III.

_ Jan. | Feb. Mar, | April May | June} July | Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov. Dee. |

|
{
°o ° ° ° ° ° | °o °o ° ° ° fe} |
Dry Bulb 5 - | 264 | 280} 43:5 | 19°2 | 41:0 | 526 | 47:5 | 51°4] 40°3 | 43:6 | 27°70] 19-2
Wet Bulb 5 . | 187 | 204 | 29:8 | 15:9 | 28:9] 384 |) 37:0 | 37:0) BL:2} 32:2 | 29°0 9:7 |
Dew-point . ~ . |-22°9 |-10°8 | 134 | -8-1 | 13:2 | 24:1 | 25-4 | 21:2 | 194] 185 | -1-:0| -9:8 |
Elastic Force . | 014 | 025 | 079 | :029 | ‘078 | *130 |) 13°7 | *114] 105 | ‘100 | -042 | -096 |
Relative Humidity 10 16 28| 28 30 33] 42) 30 42 | 35 28 35
(Sat.=100) | |
Day of Month : 27 19 16; 21 11 15 30 | 1 10 21 15 14 |
Hour of Day . - | 84.M.)5 P.M. |5 P.M.) 44.M. |10 P.M, 9PM. | 2.4.M. 9P.M.|8P.M.|7P.M. | 2A.M, 4PM.)

( | | {

Of these relative humidities, the lowest 10 occurred on January 27 with
a dew-point of —22°-9, and the highest 42 on July 30 with a dew-
point of 25°-4. It is to be noted that with these humidities the accom-
panying dew-point fell in five of the months below zero, thus being in
striking contrast with the lowest monthly humidities of the previous year,
when the lowest was only 23, and the dew-point fell below zero only in
December.

The sunshine recorder on Ben Nevis showed 897 hours out of a possible
4,470 hours, being 132 hours more than in 1898, or 20 per cent. of the
possible sunshine. This far exceeded the average of past years, which
is only 750 hours, being only exceeded in 1888, when the number of hours
was 970. The minimum occurred in 1884, when only 510 hours were
registered by the sunshine recorder. At Fort William the number of
hours was 1,139, being 102 hours fewer than in 1898. At both observa-
tories the monthly maximum was in August, being 231 hours at Fort
William and 212 hours at the top of Ben Nevis, amounts nearly d uble
the average of any previous August. This unwonted amount of sunshine
was occasioned by the strongly pronounced anticyclonic character of the
weather of August 1899. In the following month, September, only 12
hours were recorded at the Ben Nevis Observatory, or less than 1 per
cent. of the possible sunshine. In no previous summer month has the
recorded sunshine been so decidedly deficient.

At the Ben Nevis Observatory the mean percentage of cloud was 82,
or a little under the average, the highest being 96 in September, and the
lowest 60 in August. At Fort William the mean was 74, the highest
being 87 in November, and the lowest 54 in August, or little more than
a sky half covered with cloud.

The mean rainband observation (scale 0-8) was 2-2 at the top for the
year, the maximum being 3:0 in July, and the minimum 1°5 in February.
The annual mean at Fort William was 3°7, the maximum being 4°8 in
November, and the minimum 2:9 in February.

The mean hourly velocity of the wind at the top of the mountain was
at the rate of 15 miles per hour, the maximum monthly velocity being 20
miles in February and the minimum 10 miles in May, July, and August

The rainfall for the year at the Ben Nevis Observatory was 187-30
inches, being 31:82 inches, or 22 per cent. above the average. This large
annual rainfall has been only twice exceeded, viz. in 1898 and 1890, when
it was respectively 240-05 inches and 197:95 inches. It is noteworthy

that while the rainfall at the top of Ben Nevis was 22 per cent above
1900, A

50 REPORT——1900,

the average, at the neighbouring surrounding stations near sea level the
rainfall was about 10 per cent. under the average. It will be observed
that the large excess on Ben Nevis was almost wholly occasioned by the
extraordinarily heavy rainfall there in November and March. In these
months there prevailed over Scotland an unusual excess of south-westerly
winds. The largest monthly rainfall, 32:48 inch, occurred in November,
when south- -westerly winds prevailed ‘eight days more than the average,
and the mean temperature of the month over Scotland was 46° 4, or 5°8
above the average of the month, an excess of south-westerly winds and of
mean temperature hitherto unparalleled for November. The heaviest
rainfall on any single day was 4°68 inches in December. At Fort
William the annual rainfall was 74:58 inches, and the largest monthly
amount was 13:27 inches in November, when the rain-bringing south-
westerly winds were so prevalent. The heaviest fall on any single day
was 1°63 inch in March.

At the top of Ben Nevis rain fell on 253 days, and at Fort William
on 223 days. At the top the monthly maximum was 28 days in September,
and the minimum 11 days in February, and at Fort William the
maximum was 26 days in September, and the minimum 12 in August.

During the year the number of days on which 1 inch of rain or more
fell was 66 at the top and 12 at Fort William, the former being 18 above
the average and the latter 5 below it.

Auroras were observed on the following dates :—February 12 ; March
10, 16, 21, 22; May 2, 3, 4, 5, 6; and October 15.

St. Elmo’s Fire was seen on January 6, 13,15 ; March 28 ; August 25 ;
September 19, 20, 23 ; October 30 ; and November 6, 8, 10, 11.

Zodiacal Light :—On October 15.

Thunderstorms :—On August 25; September 17, 18; and October
13, 30.

Lightning only :—On January 16 ; February 12 ; and September 29.

Solar Halos :—January 2; March 30; April 9, 12, 18, 19, 20, 22;
May 9, 12, 22, 31; June 10, 17; July 6; and August 5, 18.

Lunar Halos J pau bi 1%; 26, 27, 98 ; ay y 18, 21, 22; March
24; April 19, 20; June 27 : October 21, 22 ; November 9; and Decem-
ber 10, 12, 13, 23.

Much time has been taken up in revising the proof-sheets of the
hourly observations of the Ben Nevis Observatories now in the press, and
the work of printing is proceeding at a fairly satisfactory rate. It need
scarcely be added that the revision of the work, which will fill three large
quarto volumes, is peculiarly heavy. The work of reduction and entering
on daily sheets the hourly observations of the two observatories is practi-
cally brought down to date. The daily maps of rainfall, fog, storms, and
other weather phenomena are also completed to date; and for several
selected months there are already entered on the same maps the details
for storms, forecasts, and storm warnings. With these are compared the
hourly observations at the two observatories with the view of arriving at
some definite knowledge of the relations existing among the phenomena
observed. Particular attention is given in the first place to the relations
between the double set of observations made at Ben Nevis and the fore-
casts and warnings issued from the Meteorological Office in London of
storms, rain, fog, and other weather phenomena.

For several months Mr. Omond had under discussion all hourly tem-
peratures observed at Fort William and the top of the mountain, showing

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. on

a difference between the two temperatures distinctly less than the usual
difference, together with all cases where the temperature at the top ex-
ceeded that at Fort William at the time. It will be readily recognised
that this work is largely an inquiry into the anticyclone, and its connec-
tions with the cyclone and weather changes which accompany their
changing relations.

Dr. Buchan’s time has been largely occupied with the discussion of
the fogs observed at the Scottish lighthouses night and day from 1889 to
1899. These data, as stated, are all entered on two daily maps, to each
of which are attached the weather maps of the Meteorological Office for the
day in question as issued in the weekly maps of the office, in addition to
which the daily direction and force of the wind at eleven selected light-
houses are given. Thus the general character of each day’s weather is
readily seen, and the direction of the wind at the time the fogs were
recorded. The fogs here examined are not land fogs, but sea fogs, a
correct knowledge of which is of paramount importance to navigation.

The more important results arrived at are these :—The annual maxi-
mum period is from April to June, and the minimum from October to
February, being thus generally the reverse of land fogs. The worst and
longest continued fogs occur with easterly winds, and their occurrence is
restricted to the east coast of Scotland. On the other hand, the fogs on
the west coast accompany westerly winds. These are much more frequent
and prolonged at places directly open to the Atlantic than at places such
as Rothesay, Oban, and Stornoway, which are sheltered from the Atlantic

_by land of a greater or less extent and height.

Conjoined with this discussion is the excessively heavy rain brought
by the easterly winds on the east coast of Scotland, and to a greater or
less extent inland according to the height to which these rain-bringing
easterly winds extend in the atmosphere. On this point the conjoined
observations of the two Ben Nevis Observatories contribute invaluable
knowledge.

An examination of daily weather maps of Europe constructed from
the daily weather maps of the British Islands, France, and Germany makes
it clear that these heavy rains and easterly winds occur when baro-
metric pressure diminishes from the Baltic and westwards through the
North Sea to the West of Scotland. It is here particularly to be noted
that at the same time humidities are high over those parts of the Con-
tinent whence these easterly winds have come prior to their arrival in
Scotland. Of these rain storms the great rains in the east of Scotland
on April 27 to 30, 1898, and on August 22, 1900, are among the most
remarkable ; they are therefore being investigated in great fulness of
detail.

It will be known, from your Committee’s previous reports, that gales
and storms of wind have for many years been observed night and day at
the Scottish lighthouses with a fulness and an accuracy attempted
nowhere else. Much time has been given to the discussion of these obser-
vations in their relations to the other weather phenomena charted on the
daily weather maps. One of the results already arrived at—and it is an
important one—is that the first step to be taken in any investigation of
storms is the partition of Scotland into eight or ten divisions based on
the physical features of the country in their relations to the more promi-

' nent storm-bringing winds, The inquiry is therefore proceeding on
these lines.
E2

A REPORT—1900.

If a meteorologist knows the distribution of barometric pressure over
Western Europe, he can then at once state what the weather is in each
part of the countries for which he has this information, and he can de-
scribe the weather in fulness of detail just according to the accuracy and
abundance of the barometric readings supplied to him. This valuable
practical result is a direct consequence of the scientific study of the rela-
tions of barometer, temperature, and wind as observed over the whole
world and interpreted in accordance with physical laws.

Now this is not forecasting, but only the description of the weather at
the time the barometric readings were taken. But it necessarily follows
that if the forecaster can guess what the distribution of barometric pres-
sure will be at some future time, he can state what the weather will be at
that time. Hence the whole problem of forecasting resolves itself into
foreseeing the arrangement of barometric pressure in the future. The
distribution of pressure does not shift arbitrarily, but the areas of high
and low pressure existing on any one day change into those of the next
by movement over the surface of the earth and by increase or diminution
in intensity, in accordance with physical laws.

The scientific study of the causes of the movements of these areas of
high and low pressure, called respectively anticyclones and cyclones, can
only be said to be just beginning. Until this great inquiry has made
some substantial progress we cannot have a science of forecasting, as we
now have a science of climatological meteorology.

These areas of low and high pressures are not mere surface pheno-
mena, but extend upwards through the atmosphere, and their movements
are largely determined by the conditions surrounding them in the upper
regions of the atmosphere.

Towards the expenses of publishing the hourly observations of the two
Ben Nevis Observatories the Royal Society of London has made a grant
of 500/., and a grant to the same amount has been made by the Royal
Society of Edinburgh. These societies thus approve of the publication as
a necessary preliminary to the scientific study of forecasting. The Ben
Nevis Observatories have already largely contributed to the fundamental
data of meteorology, and in the future the observations they supply will
take a prominent place in the development of scientific forecasting.

Your Committee have the greatest pleasure in adding that at the
meeting of the Scottish Meteorological Society in March last J. Mackay
Bernard, Esq., of Dunsinnan, intimated a third handsome donation of
500/. towards the maintenance of the observatories to the end of next
year. Another gentleman, on learning that assistants were urgently
required to assist Dr. Buchan and Mr. Omond in the office, at once readily
and most generously intimated a donation of 300/. to the Council of the
Society for the purpose.

Radiation in @ Magnetic Field.—MReport of the Committee, consisting of
Professor G. F. FirzGrratp (Chairman), the late Professor T.
Preston (Secretary), Professor A. ScHusTER, Professor O. J.
LopGe, Professor 8. P. THompson, Dr. GrraLp Mo.uoy, and Dr.
W. E. ADENEY.

Tue Committee regret that they are unable to sapere that any further
work has been dotie with thé great spectroscope belorigirig to the Royal

ON RADIATION IN A MAGNETIC FIELD. 53

University of Ireland owing to the illness and death of the Secretary of
the Committee, Professor T. Preston, F.R.S. They desire to be re-
appointed without a grant for the purpose of publishing copies of Professor
Preston’s photographs, as they believe that a good deal of useful work
could be done upon these photographs by persons who are not possessed of
the spectroscopic and magnetic power required to produce the phenomenon
on a large scale. Others may desire to obtain copies of the photographs
as illustrations of this interesting effect of magnetisation on light.

Heperiments for improving the Construction of Practical Standards for
use in Electrical Measurements.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Lord RaYLeicH (Chairman), Mr. R. T. GLAZEBROOK (Secretary),
Lord Kertvin, Professors W. E. Ayrton, J. Perry, W. G. ADAMs,
Ouiver J. Lopae, and G. Carry Foster, Dr. A. Murrueap, Sir
W. H. PrREEcE, Professors J. D. Everetr and A. SCHUSTER,
Dr. J. A. Fiemine, Professors G. F. FirzGreratp and J. J.
THomson, Mr. W. N. Suaw, Dr. J. T. Botromuey, Rev. T. C.
Firzpatrick, Professor J. ViriaMu Jones, Dr. G. JOHNSTONE
Stoney, Professor 8. P. THompson, Mr. J. Rennie, Mr. E. H.
GRirriTHs, Professor A. W. Ricker, Professor H. L. CALLENDAR,
Mr. GreorGe Mattruey, and Sir W. Roperts-AUSTEN.

APPENDIX. —Note on an Improved Resistance Coil. By ROBERTS. WHIPPLE p. 55

Durinc the year the resistance coils and other apparatus belonging to
the Committee have been removed to Richmond. Most of the apparatus
has been set up in an outbuilding attached to the Kew Observatory, which
has been fitted by the Committee of the National Physical Laboratory as
a temporary laboratory.

Tt is interesting to note that the case containing the original coils of
the Association bears the words, ‘ To be deposited at Kew.’ After many
wanderings the coils have at last returned to their home.

The Sub-Committee on Platinum Thermometry held a meeting in the
spring, and agreed to the following resolutions :—

(i) That a particular sample of platinum wire be selected, and platinum
thermometers be constructed therefrom to serve as standards for the
measurement of high temperature.

(ii) That Mr. Glazebrook and Professor Callendar be requested to
consider the details of the selection of wires and construction of ther-
mometers for the above purpose, and to consult with Mr. Matthey, who
kindly consented to give his assistance.

Since then Mr. Matthey has supplied the Sub-Committee with two
specimens of very pure platinum. Portions of these have been made into
thermometers and tested at the National Physical Laboratory, with the
following results, Ry being the resistance at 0° and Ryo) at 100°, while
6 is the coefficient occurring in Callendar’s difference formula :

Byoo/ Ry 5
Wire 1 1:3883 : 1:493
Me, 2 ’ : 1:3884 5: : 1-498

5A REPORT—1900,

The question of the selection of a wire for the construction of the
standards is still under the consideration of the Committee,

During the summer a very full comparison has been made of the unit
resistance coils of the Association, and the opportunity has been taken of
comparing these with some coils belonging to the Board of Trade, and
with others which have recently been obtained from the Reichsanstalt.
The coils were also compared with one of the mercury resistance tubes
prepared by M. Benoit in 1885, and which has been in the care of the
Secretary since that date.

The results have not yet been completely worked out, and publication
is, therefore, necessarily deferred. Moreover, the temperature during
July was very high, so that the mean temperature of the observations is
much above that at which previous comparisons have been made. For
the purpose, therefore, of connecting these results with the past it will be
desirable to make some further observations in the autumn.

It seemed desirable to set up some mercury resistance tubes in
England, with a view of keeping a check on the variations of the wire
standards.

Preparations have been made for this. A number of selected tubes of
‘verre dur’ have been obtained, with the kind assistance of the officials
of the Bureau International, from M. Baudin, while other tubes of Jena
glass have been procured from Schott & Co. Steps are being taken to
have some of the best of these calibrated.

Some advance has been made during the year with the construction
of the Ampére balance. The Committee greatly regret the serious illness
of Prof. J. V. Jones, which has prevented more rapid progress. The
stand for raising and lowering the outer coils has been completed.
Thanks to the generosity of Sir A. Noble, the cost of this, estimated at
about 100/., has been saved the Committee.

During the spring the Secretary, as Director of the National Physical
Laboratory, visited the Bureau International at Paris and the Reichs-
anstalt at Berlin. The Committee are glad to put on record their
appreciation of the great courtesy and kindness with which he was
received by President Kohlrausch, M. Benoit, and the other officials con-
nected with those institutions.

The Committee are informed that at the recent International Electrical
Congress at Paris the two following resolutions were unanimously adopted
by Section I, and confirmed by the Congress and by the Chamber of
Government Delegates :—

1. The Section recommends the adoption of the name of Gauss for
the C.G.S. unit of magnetic field.

2. The Section recommends the adoption of the name of Maxwell for
the C.G.S. unit of magnetic flux.

The question of giving names to the units of magnetic force and flux
has been before the Committee on several occasions. The Committee
therefore were in a position to welcome cordially these resolutions, and at
their last meeting agreed unanimously to a resolution adopting the two
names selected by the Paris Congress.

Of the sum of 25/. voted last year, 13/. 7s. 7d. has been expended on
material for the new platinum thermometers and on the transport of the ap-
paratus from Liverpool to Richmond. If the plan of constructing standards
for platinum thermometers is adopted, it will be necessary to purchase a
large stock of suitable wire, the whole of which should be made at the
same time. For this a considerable expenditure will be required ; there

PRACTICAL STANDARDS FOR ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS. 5D

will also be incidental expenses connected with the making and standard-
ising of the thermometers. ‘For these purposes the Committee ask for a
grant of 751. ;

The Committee therefore recommend that. they be reappointed, with
a grant of 75/., and that Lord Rayleigh be Chairman and Mr. R. T. Glaze-
brook Secretary.

APPENDIX.

Note on an Improved Standard Resistance Corl.
By Ropert 8. WHIPPLE,

The coil in question consists of a bare wire wound on a mica frame.

This form of coil possesses the following advantage over the ordinary
resistance coil :—(1) The coils can be annealed to a dull red heat im satu,
thus relieving the wire of any strain caused by the winding. (2) The
heating of a wire immersed in oil is less than one silk-covered and
varnished. (3) The temperature of the wire can be accurately determined
by means of a thermometer placed in the oil surrounding the wire.
German physicists have adopted a form of coil in which the wire is
silk-covered and varnished and then placéd in a metal case perforated
with holes. The whole coil is placed in an oil bath when in use. This
form of coil is open to the objection that it cannot be annealed above
140° C. without causing injury to the silk covering on the wire, and there
is a certain amount of lag in the oil obtaining the temperature of the
coil.

By request of the Electrical Standards Department of the Board of
Trade the Scientific Instrument Co., Cambridge, have designed and
made two standard 1-ohm coils the wires of which are bare and immersed
in oil; a modification suggested by Mr. Horace Darwin was also fitted
for obtaining the temperature of the coils. The coils proper consist of
0-035 in. PtAg wire wound on mica frames, the ends of the wires being
attached to stout copper terminals in the usual manner. A 0:08 in. platinum
wire is wound alternately with the platinum-silver wire, and is attached
similarly to stout copper leads. Both coils are adjusted to a resistance
of 1 ohmat 15°-5C. Owing to the difference in the temperature coefticient
of the two wires (PtAg 0:00024, Pt 0-00350), a small change in the
temperature of the coil causes a comparatively large difference between
the resistances of the two coils. This difference being known, the
temperatures in degrees Centigrade is given by the adjoined table. The
table is calculated from the difference in the temperature coefficients of
the two wires 0:00350—0-00024=0-00326 for 1° C,

Temperature of Difference in resistance
standard coil of the coils
10°°0 C, 2 y ; - . —0:01793
O°, .
oa a ‘ ; z ' 3 001487) patina coil having a lower
13°0 C. é } i ; , O-00s15/ Tesistance than the platinum-
PGC AY wicigerie 0-0048| pillar ¢oil,
15°70". C : c C . —0°00163
15°'5 C, 5 j i 3 0:00000
o. . .
feet & ; : : t j * 0489 ) Platinum coil having a higher
weo0G 86||lClt(‘( tt! ggogis | Tesistance than the platinum-
ets | er | silver eoil.
20°°0 C, . e ° : - +0:01467

REPORT—1900,

oO
(er)

As the temperature coefficient of platinum is about fifteen times
as great as that of platinum-silver, the resistance of this coil may be
measured to one significant figure less than the standard coil without
affecting the value for the temperature of this coil. In measuring small
resistances the determination of the last figure to 0:00001 ohm requires
considerable care, aud the advantage of not being compelled to measure
to such a high degree of accuracy is apparent. The two wires being
wound on the same frame alternately with each other and immersed in
oil are at the same mean temperature. Any temperature gradient in the
oil influences both wires similarly, thus doing away with the necessity of
a stirrer. The platinum wire is also useful for testing the insulation of
the windings of the PtAg coil one from the other. The coils are placed
in a glass vessel in order that the behaviour of the insulating oil with
time may be studied.

Photographic Meteorology.—Tenth Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor R. Metpouia, Mr. A. W. CLaypEN (Secretary), Mr. J.
Hopkinson, and Mr. H. N. Dickson. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

Tur Committee have suffered a severe loss during the past year by the
death of the Chairman, Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., whose genial presence
and energetic support will be greatly missed from many scientific societies,
and especially from those which are interested in meteorology. This is not
the place to attempt any adequate eulogium of his life’s work, which,
indeed, is too well known to need description.

The observational work in progress was brought to an abrupt end
early in October. On visiting the ground where the cameras stood in
order to make some measurements it was found that the connecting wire
between the two stations had been blown down by a heavy gale a few
days before. The poles were snapped in two, several of the insulators
broken, and the connections to the cameras damaged.

It was felt that it was not worth while to re-erect the line on the
same site, as the number of observations already made was rather more
than 400, and also because the site had become much less convenient.

It was on some waste ground belonging to the L. & 8. W. R. Co.,
near their engine sheds. At first this was very little disturbed, but for
the last two years railway operations have been encroaching on the space,
a preliminary process being the deposit of great quantities of rubbish.

Attempts were made to find another suitable site, but none seemed
available within a convenient distance, and the expense of re-erecting the
line and repairing the apparatus would be considerable and not worth
incurring unless frequent observations were possible.

It seemed, therefore, that the best course would be to summarise the
results so far attained and suspend measurements until a favourable
opportunity should occur. .

So far the total number of measurements made is 423. These include
no measurements of the variety of cloud known as nimbus and very few
of true stratus, the great majority being of cirrus, cirro-stratus, cirro-
cumulus, alto-cumulus, and alto-stratus.

ON PHOTOGRAPHIC METEOROLOGY. 5

The following tables show a comparison between the Exeter measure-
ments and those made at Blue Hill and Upsala respectively :—

Maarimum Altitudes in Metres.

|

- Blue Hill’| Upsala | Hxeter | No- of Ob- |

| servations
‘Ch ee Lae le wt on 13:36) 1) 27.413 58
Cirro-stratus . “ 6 : : 12,134 11,391 | 15,503 64
Cirro-cumulus : : ; - | 105520 10,235 | 11,679 63
Alto-cumulus . : : : : 8,204 8,297 | 9,390 83
Cumulus top . = epee 3,611 | 4,582 2
Cumulus base. | 3,582 2,143 | 1,959 48
Strato-cumulus ‘i, hy See 4,324 | 6,926 27
Cumulo-nimbus top ral = 5.970 | 6,409 15
_ Cumulo-nimkus base 2 | 1,590 1,630 | 2,286 15

Minimum Altitudes in Metres.

— | Blue Hill Upsala | Exeter
oon ei ei Cy nnn ee ty ae
Cirro-stratus : ; ; a 2,290 4,740 3,840
Cirro-cumulus. , : nt 4,772 | 3,880 3,657
Alto-cumulus : : : 5 784 1,498 | 1,828
Cumulus top he ajuda ¢ | 1,455 900 | —
Cumulus base. é : | 601 | 743 | 584 |
Strato-cumulus . . i ‘ 1,109 | 887 823
Cumulo-nimbus top , — 1,400 2,004
Cumulo-nimbus base... gah A Ts 766

Mean Altitudes in Metres.

— | Blue Hill / Upsala Exeter

Eg es Citas ug 24 9,923 | 8,878 10,230
Cirro-stratus 5 ; ; ; 7,617 | 7,226 9,540
Cirro-cumulus. ; : $ 7,606 6,465 8,624
Alto-cumulus : 3 bh F 4,787 4,178 5,348
Cumulus top A eh eet! 2,181 | 1,855 | 3,006
Cumulus base ; : ; =| 1,473 1,386 1,290
Strato-cumulus —. : 3 F 2,003 2,331 | 2,248

| Cumulo-nimbus top. : : == 2,848 8,002
| Cumulo-nimbus base . 5 fall 1,202 1,405 1,045

In making such a comparison there are many difficulties, for the
different types of cloud so merge into each other that unless the figures
are known to relate positively to clouds resembling a certain type picture
any agreement can only be general.

Tt will be seen that the maximum values at Exeter exceed those of
the American and Swedish observations in every case except that of the
base of cumulus. It should be noted, however, that several of these
maxima occurred on one day (June 12, 1896). If that one day had been
omitted, the maxima for cirrus and cirro-stratus would be only about
1,000 metres greater than the Blue Hill values.

58 REPORT—1900.

In comparing the mean values a similar remark holds good, the greater
values at Exeter being due to a small number of extreme observations.

The minimum altitudes recorded at Exeter compare fairly well with
the others, some of the ditferences being most probably due to nomenclature.

Several series of observations have been made in a single day with the
object of determining the rise or fall of clouds. It is clear from these
that on an average day the cloud planes rise steadily until the early
afternoon, between 2 and 3 p.m., when the maximum for the day is
usually reached. This is followed by a fall, which gets more and more
rapid towards sunset. In calm weather, or weather with only a moderate
breeze and no great barometric disturbance, this diurnal rise and fall is
very clearly marked ; but in broken weather, with strong winds, showers,
or barometric changes, it may be completely masked.

Cumulus is the result of an upward movement, but cirro-cumulus and
alto-cumulus may sometimes be the result of a descending movement, in
which case the lumpy form is never persistent, but passes into a stratiform
cloud very quickly.

True cirrus of the whispy form is described by some meteorologists as
due to a rapid ascending current, by others to an equally rapid descent.
The measurements made indicate that this form of cloud may exist with
an upward or a downward movement, or with no recognisable movement
at all.

The greatest altitudes have been found with thunderstorm conditions,
the lowest (excepting fog) with cyclonic.

The measurements compared in the foregoing tables have all been
made between April and October inclusive. In the winter months the
ground has generally been too wet for use, and the figures from the
foreign stations are for the summer months only. It seems difficult at
first to see why the altitudes should, on the whole, be greater at Exeter,
the greater humidity of the air leading rather to the expectation of more
easy cloud production, and therefore lower altitudes. But the fact of
thunderstorm conditions being attended, as they seem always to be
attended, by great cloud altitudes suggests another explanation. This is
that vapour in a cloud-producing quantity exists to a greater height
above Devonshire. It will be noticed that the greater altitudes are true
only of the higher clouds, and that the mean level of the base plane of
cumulus and cumulo-nimbus is actually lower at Exeter than at either
of the other stations,

The photographs collected some years ago by the Committee have
been placed in the care of the Royal Meteorological Society, with the
exception of prints from the negatives belonging to the Secretary, who
will add them as opportunity offers.

During the past year the Secretary has made a number of experiments
with the Ives and Joly processes for photography in natural colours, but
has found that, although either process can be made to record the colour
of a cloud, the tints of a sunset, or even the colours of the rainbow, the
reproduction of the colours is so far from being an automatic process that
neither method promises to be of very great meteorological value except in
the hands of experts.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 59

Seismological Investigations.—Fijth Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor J. W. Jupp (Chairman), Mr. JoHNn MILNE
(Secretary), Lord Ketvin, Professor W. G. ApAms, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Sir Ff. J. BRaMweELL, Mr. C. V. Boys, Professor G. H.
Darwin, Mr. Horace Darwin, Major L. Darwin, Professor J. H.
Ewine, Professor C. G. Knorr, Professor R. Metpoxa, Mr. R. D.
OLDHAM, Professor J. Perry, Mr. W. E. PLummMer, Professor J. H.
Poyntinc, Mr. CLeMentT Rep, Mr. Netson RicHarpson, the
late Mr. G. J. Symons, and Professor H. H. Turner.

[PLATES II. anp III.]

CONTENTS.
PAGE
I. On Seismological Stations abroad and in Great Britain . ° . - 59
Il. Analyses of Harthquakes recorded in 1899. By J. MILNE.
1. Nature and Objects of these Analyses . - ‘ - 7 . 60
2. Velocities of Earthquake Waves . 2 5 : - c : gi
3. Errors affecting such Determinations F : ; : x . 62
4. Velocities for Preliminary Tremors or P.T’s . - : b . 63
5. Velocities for Large Waves or L.W.’s : : ‘ ‘ : . 64
6. Intervals between P.T’s and L.W.s . r . . - 7 ay LoD
7. Earthquake Recurrences . ; - : : . F ; . 66
8. Amplitude in relation to Continental and Sub-oceanic Paths . ud
9, Arcual Velocity in relation to Surface Configuration . 2 5 bf)
10. Harthquake Echoes . : ; : : : : : = ae!
11. The Nature of Large Waves : : : : F spies
12. Criticisms and Analy yses by Dr. C. G. ‘Knott : : : . Be ie
13. Determination of Origins . : . : : : - Fe avis:
By By comparisons between time sabohenle é - ; : retifis:
By method of circles. : : : ete
By time intervals between P. T’s and L. Ws. : = 5 . 79
By seismic recurrences . : : : ‘ , - 80
14. The Origins for the Earthquakes Ee 1899. . : 5 : - 80
15. Illustrations of Scismograms . - : , : é ei
Ill. Harthquakes and Timekeepers at Observatories. By J. MILNE . : . 105
IV. Larihquakes and Rain. By J. MILNE . : . 106
V. Harthquakes and Changes in Latitude. By J. MILNE 5 ; + 107
VI. Selection of a Fault—Locality suitable for Observations on Far th-move-
ments. By CLEMENT REID . 108
VII. On the Relative Movement ov Strata at the Ridgenca y ’ Fault. By HORACE
DARWIN : re OE)

I. On Seismological Stations abroad and in Great Britain.

In addition to the twenty-three stations referred to in the Report for
1899 instruments have been ordered for the Observatory, Melbourne,
the Observatory, Sydney, N.S.W., for Ceylon, for the Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, the Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, and the
Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. The total number of similar installa-
tions which may be expected to be in working order before the end of
the current year will therefore be twenty-nine. The positions of these
are shown on the map (Plate II.).

Registers ending December 31, 1899, referring to Shide, Kew, Cal-

60 REPORT—1900.

cutta, Madras, Bombay, San Fernando (Spain), Cairo, Mauvitius, Batavia,
Cape of Good Hope, and Tokio, have been printed and issued as a circular
to all co-operating stations, to those who have assisted this committee in
their work, and to persons expressing a wish to possess the same. With
the object of finding permanent quarters at which a central observing
station might be established in England, at the suggestion of this Com-
mittee its Secretary, in company with Mr, Horace Darwin, visited the
Office of Works, the Treasury, and the Admiralty, and, with Major
Leonard Darwin, the Horse Guards. Many sites were discussed, and
through the kindness of Colonel Hildebrand, R.E., and commanding
officers of the Royal Engineers facilities were given to visit forts and
other buildings at Chatham, Folkestone, Porchester, and in the Isle of
Wight.

AA report on these visits and on those to other places, together with a
reference to steps generally which have been taken to find the required
site, has been drawn up for the Council of the British Association.

In consequence of the generosity of Mr. M. H. Gray, an instrument
room is now being built at Shide.

Il. Analyses of Large Earthquakes recorded in 1899. By Joun Mie.
1, Nature and Object of these Analyses.

In 1897 the Seismological Investigation Committee of the British
«\ssociation issued to the directors of observatories and other persons in
various parts of the world a circular in which they called attention to the
desirability of observing earthquake waves which had travelled great
distances. It was pointed out that similar instruments should be used at
all stations, and the type recommended as being simple to work, and one
that yielded results sufficiently accurate for the main objects in view, was
described by the Committee in a report (see Reports of the British
Association, 1897, p. 137 et seq.).

The result of this appeal is that instruments have been forwarded to
the following twenty-six stations :—Shide, Kew, Toronto, Victoria, B.C.,
San Fernando (Spain), Madras, Bombay, Calcutta, Mauritius, Cairo, Cape
of Good Hope, Tokio, Batavia, Arequipa, Swarthmore College (Phila-
delphia), Cordova (Argentina), New Zealand (two instruments), Paisley,
Mexico, Beyrut, Honolulu, Trinidad, Melbourne, Sydney, Johns Hopkins
University (Baltimore).

For the year 1899 registers were received from the first thirteen of
these stations. With the exception of those relating to Toronto and
Victoria, these have been communicated to observers by the Committee
asa circular. This circular is independent of the present report, but
continuous with registers contained in corresponding reports subsequent
to 1895.

A glance at these registers, or tables based upon them (see pp. 80-87),
shows that while certain earthquakes have evidently shaken the whole
surface of our globe, and have probably disturbed the same throughout its
mass, there are others of less intensity which have only affected certain
parts of the same. For example, one set of earthquakes were only
recorded at stations in Western Europe, whilst another set were appa- -
rently confined to the Indian Ocean. In the following paper the earth-
quakes referred to are only those which were recorded in England, from

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 61

which it follows that although the largest earthquakes of the year 1899
are discussed many earthquakes which are comparatively smaller have
been omitted.

The object of the discussion is to indicate by examples some of the
directions in which this extensive system of earthquake observation is
increasing our knowledge of dynamical phenomena inherent to the world
on which we live.

The plan of the discussion is as follows :—First, those earthquakes
which have been recorded at the greatest number of stations, and which
have known origins, have been selected from the others and analysed
separately. To confirm the results towards which these analyses point,
references have been made to the more trustworthy records obtained by
similar instruments in previous years. The principal objects in view have
been as follows. The determination of the velocities with which various
types of earth vibrations are propagated and the duration of preliminary
tremors at varying distances from origins; to show that earthquake
repetition and echoes are fairly frequent and to point out the existence
of phenomena for which satisfactory explanations are as yet wanting. In
connection with these investigations references are made to hypotheses
relating to the physical condition of the interior of our earth.

Second, the results obtained by the above analyses are used as a
means to determine the foci of disturbances not included in the first
section of this paper. These foci, which for the most part are sub-oceanic,
in some instances indicate localities where it would be unwise to lay cables,
and where we may expect to find configurations differing from those shown
upon our physical maps.

Remembering that very many of the earthquakes discussed represent
initial disturbances which were followed by many after-shocks, the map
depicting these foci shows the regions on the surface of the earth where
in the year 1899 seismic activity was most pronounced.

2. Velocities of Earthquake Waves.

The knowledge hitherto at our disposal respecting the velocity of trans-
mission of earthquake motion over long paths has been based on records
obtained from instruments differing in type and sensibility, all of which
were installed in Europe. ‘The result of this has been that, although the
registers led to the determination of average velocities along paths of
varying lengths, they never gave actual velocity from point to point. It
was seen that along paths from 10° to 90° the velocity of transmission of
the preliminary tremors increased rapidly with the lengths of these paths,
whilst the average velocity for large waves increased but slightly. With
regard to the former my own analyses of heterogeneous materials led to
the conclusion that, if the preliminary tremors travelled along paths
approximating to chords through the earth, then the average velocity of
transmission to a distant station was practically dependent on the square
root of the average depth of the chord connecting that station and the
earthquake centre. This furnished Dr. C. G. Knott with the hypothesis
that the square of the velocity of these particular vibrations, which were
in all probability compressional, was a linear function of the depth. With
this assumption, and with a given initial velocity, the rate of transmission
at any point within the earth could be determined and wave fronts
drawn ; and by atceptiiig a law respecting the increase of density within

62 REPORT—1900.

our earth the elasticity governing the transmission of condensational
waves could be determined. The following notes show that, although the
first conclusion and the consequent hypothesis do not require modification,
constants necessary in farther calculations require to be modified.

With regard to the large waves my own assumption was that their
apparent increase in velocity with distance might be due to the fact that
it was only large waves which, travelling faster than small waves, reached
great distances.

The observations brought together in this paper show that this idea
has to be abandoned, and in its place we are to accept either the hypothesis
of a surface wave which increases its velocity in regions 90° from the focus,
or of a distortional wave passing through the earth the outcrop of which
gives rise to similar surface undulations.

3. Sources of Error.

The phases of earthquake motion here considered are the first pre-
liminary tremors and the first group of large waves, which latter in a
seismogram representing an earthquake which has originated at a great
distance usually correspond to the maximum movement.

Although near to the origin of an earthquake there is a varying
interval of several seconds between the first movements and the shock or
shocks, it is the time of occurrence of this latter phase which is taken as
the datum to which observations made at great distances from origins are
referred. The initial time for all large earthquakes has been a matter of
inference. It may be deduced from the times at which clocks have been
stopped, or which have been noted with varying degrees of accuracy by
survivors in an epifocal district, but more generally it has been deduced
from automatic time determinations outside such an area, and subtracting
from the same an interval which the shock is assumed to have taken to
travel from its origin to the point or points where these chronographic
records have been made. The determination of this interval is based
upon repeated observations of earthquake velocities made between stations
well removed from an epicentre and well outside a meizoseismal area.
These figures are important, not only for this particular purpose, but also
for completing velocity curves which may represent transmission over the
surface and through the material of the whole globe. They have been
arrived at by many observers, the last being those given by Dr. F. Omori,
who for paths commencing 100 kms. from an origin and extending to
distances of 1,000 Ems. gives the velocities of 2:2 km. for preliminary
tremors and 1:7 km. for large waves, and within these limits the former
outrace the latter at the constant rate of 15 seconds per 100 kms.

When we remember that large earthquakes may sometimes originate
as practically simultaneous displacements over very large areas, it is seen
that the application of the method here considered might easily result in
determinations of initial times from a few to some sixty seconds earlier
than had really been the case. Errors of this nature would result in a
general lowering of the determinations for true velocity of transmission
of earthquake motion to distant stations, the deviation from the truth
being most marked for the preliminary tremors, and in records referring
to transmission to stations comparatively near to an origin.

Another serious error affecting the determination of initial time arises
from the difficulty in accurately locating the position of a focus, especially
when this is sub-oceanic.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 65

The assumption that for large earthquakes, at least, the origin has
been at an epicentre rather than in a region at a certain depth below the
surface, is, so far as velocity determinations are concerned, of but small
importance. Although all stations have similar instruments, the records
from one or two of them indicate that their adjustment has not been
similar to that adopted at the remaining stations. Not only should each
instrument have a period of 15 seconds, but when its boom is deflected
7 or 8 mm. from its normal position, and then set free, it should take
7 or 8 minutes before returning to rest. If this latter condition has not
been observed, an instrument may not respond to the first preliminary
tremors, with the result that the time recorded for the commencement of
a given earthquake may be registered as one or two minutes after the
true time.

Although errors of this order may affect the results deduced from
observations within 20° of an earthquake origin, when we deal with paths
of greater length, and especially with large waves, the errors in the final
results are practically inappreciable.

Another assumption made in connection with velocity determinations
is that the group of vibrations and waves as recorded at a distant station
extending between the first preliminary tremor and the first maximum—
which may extend over any interval up to 100 minutes—were all the
result of the principal movement or movements at the origin ; or, in other
words, they have the same initial times. To this assumption I do not
know of any serious objection. The fact that pronounced phases of move-
ment near to an origin are not only extended in time as they radiate, but
are also more or less equalised in their amplitude, frequently renders the
determination of corresponding points in seismograms obtained at different
stations more or less uncertain. This source of error is sometimes serious.

4, Preliminary Tremors.

In the compilation of the following table the only seismograms used
are those which show a distinct commencement. Each earthquake is
indicated by its British Association Register number, and the locality
from which it originated. Following this are the initial letters (see p. 88)
of the station or stations at which it was observed. The figures following
these initial letters give the number of minutes taken by the preliminary
tremors to reach these stations, and the number of degrees between the
stations and the earthquake origins. These figures are respectively placed
in positions corresponding to the numerators and denominators of fractions.
If an initial letter is followed by a zero for a numerator, this indicates
that all other time intervals are measured relatively to the observa-
tion made at the station represented by the initial letter.

The fewness of these récords chiefly arises from these facts : first,
they only refer to earthquakes with a known origin ; secondly, the
seismograms of small earthquakes recorded at distant stations do not
show the preliminary tremors corresponding to those given by large
earthquakes ; and lastly, in consequence of air tremors and other causes,
the earlier vibrations have in many instances been eclipsed or lost. Their
chief merit is that they give for several earthquakes records from point
to point, and that we have for the first time records relating to paths
which practically extend from an origin to its antipodes.

64. REPORT—1900.

a 2 i ee eee a
n | | | | |
36 Japan . |s. 1° | = : yA ee nate May Pee % ia |
87 | | |
(Matias, Jeet gs BS ey Se pk Afi) See a = —
Si |
133 Borneo. |S. 2h i o— = = — ye
} 103 | | |
| > q \
ER | ERS 9 en bce Pores 2 ey Lee ren Pah.
5, GO | z | |
fosMavan (Seco) | Les = ae ey | Paani
87 | | |
PrpbMtexito «|, 2-1.) K.2°,| 3 a2 ieee oe EM aa yl ee
86 |
| 263 Japan . he Ke ae Tv V. oe — = ig fas bs | h, 2
| bo) 89 U5 |
| Pa ale | 5, 7 19 20 |p 5
temas || || Ree | Tee eae a ea IG 20 | 76, ©
; 70 | >" a0 |* 6 |? a7 | 08 | 0: CHa ray
= | a! 0 19 17 25 |
Ey ee ae hes lea _— — ==. Ba “| — 16.4 a
eae | | 9) 70!) p40 108 |" 105 4H G5
Yr ( | 9 6
so. .(— [ein S| — ewe] = fot! — [oon | —
} |
= 0 |x. 0 a miel: 7 | 18 15
843 Smyrna |S. — | K. —| — Synge Wp = = _ ayes ay
3 Smyrna |S. 55 | 35 | | a7 |B a3 i G.H wa\ a vee
la 16] x, 16 Jy il 19 6 0 ,4 91 | 4
2 18s —— || See rai | OU saad Peps fae Se hee 3
347 Ceram 1 | a | Vv 0K iS. I. 129 > Gi Ba =| | ra B G. H. i05 To. 7
; - 15 ysis tS 86 |
381 Mexico. | — |K. — |T. — |V.;; _ — |Ba. — | — |) es Sa
|” 86 | 85 | 83 | 148 ye

The numbers given in the preceding table have been plotted on
squared paper, degrees being measured horizontally and minutes vertically.
From the curves thus obtained the average times for preliminary tremors
to travel distances of 20°, 30°, 40°, &c. have been determined, and are
shown diagrammatically in fig. 1. The initial velocity is taken at
2-2 km. per second. A glance at the table on which this curve is founded
indicates that the same can for the present only be regarded as provisional.
The incurvation between 50 and 80 degrees is evidently due to errors in
observation.

5. Large Waves.

The construction of the following table is similar to that given for the
preliminary tremors. Following the initial letter of each station, in the
position of a numerator, the number of minutes is given which large waves
occupied in travelling to that station from the origin or from the isoseist
of the locality, the initial letter of which is followed by a zero. The
figures corresponding to denominators are the distances of the localities
beneath which they appear from the origins of the different earthquakes.

co! aeeetaot Pte Doe. [v2 92 |
25) exico | 5.95 +34) Vay Se tcl M iso | — =a | aes — =
32 2 0 86 100 }
381" a S. 83 7 36 V-35| _ ——b | a 150 = — 89 ; — — aan
" 3 TB Peek ile, 8 pene 81 | ocx. 2 17
333 Alaska | 8.35 T. 79] V-39 S8.F.77 | B.705| — M. a5 | — ees ig6 | LO. 55a ae
Z 20 0 |} 22 34 50 7 69 39
337 es | S. 70 Hts 7) |e |S-F. 7 |B. jus Ba. i08 ey Me. p C.G.H. 165 = /Ma. ie =
| , 19 0 | 22) 35 53 6 61
| Sy ches S- a ee Ore da ieee |
2888 =) 5 8.75 | Taq S.F. 77 | B.795 | B® jog | M+ yas [Mego] CSF aes. | | -— |-
70 783,280) 28 16 40 60 18
347 Ceram | Sy Me S.F.739| B. gp |B 55 | ™M 73 | — O.G.H. 55, | To. 4; C.F
0 | 10/_ 14 34 29 30
—| —| isn! et .= | — | CG.H. = =
343 Smyrna | S. 55 | S.P.57 |B. 75 M. G5 74 | TO 85

‘i —— = = =. =

? The times at the origin Tor thbse two earthquakes weré 21 and 22 min, before Vittoria:

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION: 65

When these observations are plotted on squared paper it is found
that they practically lie on the straight line referring to large waves in
fig. 1, indicating that this form of movement passes from its origin to
its antipodes with a constant arcual velocity of 3 km. per second. If,
however, the direction of propagation has been along a diameter, the
average velocity becomes 1°9 km. per second. The time taken for an
earthquake to travel from its origin to its antipodes, whether it does so as
a surface wave or as a mass wave, is about 110 minutes.

One modification to this general statement respecting a constant
velocity rests on the fact that repeated observations made within ten
degrees of an earthquake origin have shown that the large wave velocity
within that region is about 1‘8 km. per second. Whatever the conditions
may be which give rise to this increase in velocity in a wave as it radiates
from its origin, it seems probable that the converse would take place as it
approached its antipodes, while the maximum velocity should be sought
for in the equatorial or quadrantal! region of the earthquake’s transit.
Inasmuch as curves drawn for the Alaskan and Ceram earthquakes show
that between 70° and 110° from their respective origins velocities may
reach 4 km. per second, and that many earthquakes indicate an increased
average velocity as their paths increase up to 110° in their lengths, there
are strong reasons for suspecting that the suggested phenomena may
exist. The comparatively small initial velocity and the slightly increased
quadrantal velocity above the average arcual velocity are indicated in
fig. 1 by dotted lines; but whether this modification can be retained
remains to be determined by further observations. That the average
arcual velocity between 0° and 90° is practically 3 km. per second finds
confirmation in the records for earthquakes Nos. 36, 83, 100, 119, and
193, originating in Japan, 133 and 134, originating near Borneo, and
105, from N.E. India, all of which were recorded by the same instrument
in the Isle of Wight.

6. Interval between the First Tremor and the Maximum Motion,

In the British Association Reports for 1898, pp. 221-224, I dis-
cussed a table showing the duration of preliminary tremors or the interval
in time between the first tremor and the commencement of the large wave
phase of motion at different distances from a number of known origins.
One object of the discussion was to establish a working rule enabling an
observer to determine from the inspection of a single seismogram the
distance of an origin from the station at which such a record had been
obtained. Inasmuch as the table was to a great extent based upon
descriptions of records obtained from different types of instruments which
had different degrees of sensibility, the results obtained could not be
expected to be more than approximately correct. The following table,
which gives the time in minutes by which the first tremor has outraced
the maximum movement over paths of varying lengths, is based on
measurements made on seismograms obtained from similar instruments.
These intervals not only enable us to correct the working rule indicated
above, but, as it will be shown, they enable us to check the accuracy of
the curves relating to the arcual velocity of preliminary tremors and
large waves.

1 This word means the district 90° distant from the earthquake origin.

‘

66 REPORT—1900,

Intervals between the First Tremor and the Maximum Motion.

Observing Stations indicated by
od initial letters and time intervals
No. Date Origin ; Minutes
and distances, as —~———
Degrees
36 =| August 30,1896 .{| Japan . : . | 8. 2
56 October 31,1896 .]| Tashkent . . | 8. 22.
83 February 6, 1897 .| Japan . ‘ . | S., 34. Record not clear.
119 August 4, 1897 * “ 8., $8.
131 September 17,1897 | Tashkent . S., 42.
132 September 17, 1897 PA Se
133 September 20, 1897 | Borneo S.,
134 September 20, 1897 Pr S.,
157 December 29, 1897. | Hayti . Shs
163 January 29,1898 .| Asia Minor . 8.,
189 April 15, 1898. . | California . .| Ti 2
193 April 22, 1898. . | Japan . . | S., ge T., 33.
249 January 22,1899 . | Greece 8.32. K., 4.
250 January 24,1899 .]| Mexico | K., a8. 7.22. Vi. Po
333 September 3, 1899 . | Alaska. K., 38. T.,25. V., 4. S.F., 32
| B., 32? To.,33. C.G.H., #.
337 | September 10,1899.) _,, K. 3. 7. 8. CGH, 1
B., 4h. S.F., 22. Me, 28.
338 | September 10,1899.| _,, | K.20. 1,22? Me, 2. Ba., 22
343 | September 20, 1899. | Aidin . : Sy. fe Cag Rey BE 2s:
| K., %. To., 22.
347 September 29, 1899. | Ceram . : 5 a885 60" C.G.H., At, Ba., 4.
' B., 28? V., 227
381 | January 20,1900 .| Mexico . .|K,82 7,2 V., 23,

These observations have been plotted upon squared paper, and their
mean position determined. This is shown in fig. 1 as Curve No. ITI.

On Curves I, II, and III, fig. 1.—Although in fig. 1 we have three
curves which have been obtained from partly independent data, it will
be observed that any one of them might have been obtained from the
other remaining two. Although errors exist in all our data, these are
probably least in the figures relating to the arcual velocity of large
waves and the duration of preliminary tremors. By subtracting the
ordinates for the latter curve, marked III, from those of the first curve,
marked II, the curve [6 is obtained. This should coincide with Ia. It
hardly does so ; but if the second incurvature of Ia, lying between 50 and
80 degrees, be effaced as probably doubtful the agreement between these
two curves becomes closer.

7. Earthquake Recurrence.

It would be uaturally expected that if the large waves of earthquakes
were simply surface disturbances, we should find in the seismograms
obtained at stations far distant from origins not only records of the
waves which had travelled over the shortest paths, but also a record of
those which had travelled in an exactly opposite direction. The suppo-
sition that these latter records were without existence has been used as
evidence in support of the hypothesis that all the movements of a large
earthquake passed through the earth. Mr. R. D. Oldham, in his account
of the Indian earthquake of 1897, however, shows that in the seismo-

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 67

prams obtained in Edinburgh, Shide, Leghorn, Rocca di Papa, and
Catania there are excrescences succeeding the maxima movements at

JO 20 30 GW 50 60 70 G0 90 J00_I10_120_J30_140 150 _s60_170 180
bea
2 ae Bi i

aces
nc!
Ea

ea
Eu
miei
San ta
SEE

ia
e
ae
REE
WEIN
ie

as
<n
NW
a
\
Seat
Fale

70 20 30 W@W SO 60 WM G0 WH 100 110 120 180 140 150 10 10 KO

Arcual Velocities.—Ia. Preliminary Tremors by direct observation ; Ib. Preliminary Tremors
deduced from IIa and III; Ila. Large Waves if the Velocity is constant ; I[b. Large
ees if the Velocity varies ; III, Intervals by which Preliminary Tremors outrace Large

aves,

times we should expect them to occur on the supposition that they had
travelled round the world from their origins on the longest paths.
Without discussing the merits of the, particular seismograms here
referred to, we must bear in mind that it is possible for body waves to
give rise to repetitions by reflection just as easily as two trains of waves

F2

68 REPORT—1900.

coming round the surface of the world in opposite directions. Further, the
repetition at a given station as a reflection of a disturbance at the antipodal
point of its origin might occur at an interval of time after the first move-
ment not very different from that separating the two surface trains.

Such a possibility indicates that seismic repetitions cannot be ex-
clusively used to support the hypothesis of surface radiation. Examples
of earthquake recurrences are given in the following table. The first
column gives the numbers of the earthquakes in the British Association
registers and their origins. Where the position of an origin is not
known from observations made in its vicinity its latitude and longitude
are determined by one of the methods described in the succeeding sections
of this report (see pp. 79-80). Such determinations must only be re-
garded as approximations. The second column gives the arcual degree-
distances of the origins from the observing stations referred to in the
third column by their initial letters. In this third column there is also
noted the number of minutes’ interval between the maximum motion and
its apparent repetition. The fourth column gives the calculated distance
of the observing station from the origin, and the nearness to which it
approximates to the corresponding figures in the second column is evi-
dently an indication of the value of these observations in determining
seismic foci. The basis for these calculations is that a surface-wave
travels 180 degrees in 105 minutes. In the last column the letters G, I,
and B (good, indifferent, and bad) indicate that the determinations in the
fourth column lie within 10°, 20°, or more than 20° from those in the
second column, which latter figures, however, it must be remembered, are
themselves but approximations.

thee Repetition Disipaice to Aneto
+ istance nterval rigin deter- a¥acter @
ee ae one ke to Origin in minutes mined from the Deter-
in Degrees at a given Repetition mination
Station Interval
te} m, °
119. Japan . . 87 85 8. 96 G
140. : , 5 110 105 8S. 82 B
278. 30° N. 70° W. 60 122 8S. 68 G
309. 60°N. 180° W. 70 132 S. 62 G
70 121 K. 70 G
160 144 C.G.H. 52 B
333. W. of Alaska. 16? 212 V. 0) G
40 159 T. 40 G
70 127 to 145 K. 66 to 52 G
337. W. of Alaska. 40 129 T. 62 B
165 75 C.G.H. 108 B
T7 185 8.F. 18 B
338. W. of Alaska. 40 163 T. 38 G
165 123 C.G.H 70 B
{6c 128 S.F. 66 I
343, Smyrna. . 25 73 8. 108 B
347. Ceram . 121 59 8. 120 G
121 (oaks 106 rt
105 80 V. 102 G
354. 58. 1380E. or + : é
90S. 100 E. 120 70 8. 110 G
100 63 C.G.H. 116 I
110 95 V. 90 I
355. Like 364. s 120? 60 8S. 118 G
364. 20°N. 170E.? 106 72 M. 108 G

—

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 69

We have here twenty-four determinations, out of which thirteen are
considered as being good, four as indifferent, and seven as bad. The three
bad determinations for earthquake No. 337 may be explained by the
assumption that we have here been dealing with markings due to second-
ary shocks which simulated seismic repetitions, a view that is strengthened
when we refer to the seismograms of this earthquake. It must also be
noted that No. 337 was less than Nos. 333 or 338, from which it may be
inferred that the original impulse was not sufficiently great to give rise to
duplications. The fact that the Cape of Good Hope records for 309 and
338 are bad may arise from the circumstance that this station was within a
comparatively short distance of the antipodes of these shocks, and there-
fore any wave coming from that point would be eclipsed in the records of
the main disturbance. The remaining two bad determinations may be
explained in the same manner that those for No. 337 have been explained.

The Victorian record for No. 333 is of particular interest as indicating
that the time taken for an earthquake to travel round the world or to
traverse two diameters slightly exceeds 210 minutes.

When considering whether these repetitions are to be regarded as
surface waves or as mass waves reflected froman antipodes, a feature not
to be overlooked is their smallness. To illustrate this I here give a table
for the thirteen good observations showing the amplitudes in millimetres
of the primary disturbances and those of their repetitions, together with
the arcual distance each may be supposed to have travelled.

Primary Repetition
B. A. No.
Distance Amp. Distance Amp.
= mm. 9 mm,
119 87 8. > 16 273 15
278 60 8. 2°5 300 3)
309 70 8. 3 290 5
70 K. 25 290 5?
333 20 V. >16 340 75
40 T. >17 320 b
70 K. 10 290 “bl
338 40 T. >17 320 75
347 121 8. 35 239 15
105 V. 2 255 °b
354 120 8. 2 240 5
355 120 S$. 15 240 5
364. 106 M. 3 254 1

It is satisfactory to note that the magnitude of these repetition ampli-
tudes fairly accords with what might be anticipated (see p. 70).

8. Amplitude in relation to Distance from an Origin.

In the following table amplitudes are expressed in millimetres and
occupy a position corresponding to the numerator of a fraction, whilst in
the position of a denominator distances from origins are expressed in
degrees. Observing stations are indicated by their initial letter or letters.

Inasmuch as there are reasons for believing that the instruments
giving the subjoined records have not in all cases been adjusted to have
the same frictional resistances and as these records are few, the result
to which they point must be receiyed with caution. When they are

70° REPORT—1900.

plotted as curves it is seen that each has the same general character.
The rate at which amplitude at first decreases is about ‘2 mm. per
degree of travel. Earthquakes like Nos. 343 and 347 from whatever
may have been their amplitude in the epifocal district, are reduced
to an amplitude of 4 mm. after about 50° of travel. Larger earth-
quakes, like Nos. 337, 344, and 345, travelled 80° or 90° before their
amplitude sank to this quantity ; whilst the largest of all, Nos. 333 and 338,
show an amplitude of more than 4 mm. after travelling nearly halfway
round the world. From an amplitude of 4 or 5 mm. the rate of decrease
becomes less and less. For example, the amplitude of No. 337 between
77° and 105° falls from 5 mm. to 3 mm., or at the rate of ‘07 mm. per
degree ; whilst from 105° to 165° the rate at which amplitude decreases
has been ‘01 mm. per degree at travel.

{ |
950, Mexico. 8 & |x 4°)r. sly. egal) Ba eS ae = s Ms =
"80 80| "34 30
Seer a a | fede! ye ae To,25
"70 30) 105 | 145 50
5 5 |T.>17| | O05
’ SF 7 =| rr, - ras “oe ys
70 20) 105
S.>17 he ae S17) o 7 2018, > 17, — M.> 17 ed C.G.H 10 To,
“4 70 40) 20 7 105 | 145 ; 165 50
20) 5 3] 4 2
eee arnt a iS SEB ei a7) M. C.G.H. .— —_
a 40 77 105 49) 165
eho eels ice Siti sere re te. SE a ee
70 40) f 7 105 5 145 165
la 25 2 1 0 15 05 5
a Geram iS ol — (We, | = ee Ba u. } = Nec To.
Coram 121 |" 105 3 22 73 105 47
9 | 1 1 6 4
. Smyrna S. = = ote A Seay ey ul (i ee reno elrs meee I yiny 8
Ee Ee os | 43 | 65 74 85

These slow rates of decrease indicate that it is reasonable to suppose
that the large waves of earthquakes may reach distant stations by
travelling in opposite directions round the world.

Tf the large waves of earthquakes are merely surface waves, it would be
expected that oceans would exert a marked damping effect upon their ampli-
tude. Indications of this apparently exist in the records for earthquakes
Nos. 337, 338, and 347 (also see earthquake 263, p. 81). In the first the
amplitude for Toronto is greater than that observed in Mexico, the path
to the former being across North America, and the latter being sub-
oceanic. In No. 338 the record for Mauritius is less than that for the
Cape of Good Hope. In No. 333 this condition is, hcwever, reversed.
Lastly, in No. 347 the Shide record, which refers to a comparatively long
continental path, is greater than the records for Victoria, the Cape of

Good Hope, Bombay, or Mauritius, the shorter paths to which are beneath -

oceans. Although, for reasons already stated, stress cannot be laid upon
these observations, the latter at least suggests that we are dealing with
surface waves rather than with mass waves.

9. Arcual Velocity in relation to Surface Configuration of the Earth.

With the object of determining whether large waves are propagated
more quickly over continents than over ocean beds, whether the rate of
transmission along mountain axes is greater than in directions transverse
to the same, and generally to determine whether there are directions over
or through our globe in which motion is transmitted more rapidly than in
others, the following table has been prepared, The apparent surface

ae.

TOth Report Brit, Assoc, 1900.]

The Large Earthquakes of 1899.
(Origins are indicated by their BA. Register numbers Stations with simi] ‘ar horizontal pendalams (Milne type) are named,

(Prats. I!)

ki Cape of Good Hipe
Atkantse & Indian Ocean Origins are vey uncertain

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. viilh

velocities indicated in kilometres per second are from the isoseist of the
place indicated by its initial letter to the place beneath which it is written.
These latter places in the top line are also indicated by their initial letters
The letter O refers to a velocity measured between an origin and the
place named in the upper line

Ss. Ta AV. SF. | B. Ba. M. Me. |CGH.| To. 0.
| |
250. Mexico. | T. 3:1/Me. 2°7|Me. 2°65 — | — |0.32|0. 32) — = = —
Renee <I S:elMeloGiMe. 96) — | = = = == = al att
333. Alaska ./T. 3:21V. 3°41 — |T.3:1/T. 36/7.29 |B. 21) — |. 84/V. 37] —
Bi. Sy eT PESTS Seis | LS. 2 85 =
SBR me ei) [TST Saas Rae 5) 7 i 87 — =
347. Ceram .|Ba.2°3) — (|Ba. 2:1] — |Ba. 26} — |Ba. 21; — /|Ba. 2°5/Ba. 2:6) Ba. 2°8
343. Smyrna. - — 8. 03. (5. 2:3) — |S. 21) —— 8. S18. 37) —
193. Japan .| 0. 2°6)0. 2°38) — — | =_ — — — — — —
|

As it is difficult to picture the directions of great circle paths outside
equatorial regions, these are shown with the above velocities and the
earthquakes to which they refer in the accompanying map (PlateII.). A
line not referred to in the above table is that for earthquakes numbered
36, 83, 100, and 119, which originated in Japan and travelled to the Isle of
Wight with an average velocity of 2-9 kms. per second.

An inspection of the map (Plate I.) shows that the apparent velocities
over long paths are greater than those over short paths. Velocities across
the Pacific are apparently lower than those across the Atlantic, and those
across Northern Asia to Shide are lower than those across North
America to Shide. Between Mexico and Victoria along the strike of
the chief North American anticline the velocity of transmission is the
same as that between Mexico and Toronto. Along paths terminating
at the Cape of Good Hope the rate of transmission has been high, whilst
on those terminating at Mauritius, excepting that referring to the long
path for earthquake 250, the velocity of propagation appears to be low.

There does not appear to be any indication that direction of propaga-
tion is related to speed, and although earthquake 381 was larger than 250,
and 333 and 338 were larger than 337, we do not seem to have any
definite evidence that velocity of propagation is connected with the
intensity of the initial disturbance.

Taking the results of this investigation generally, we are hardly in a
position as yet to draw definite conclusions, and must wait for further
observations,

10. Earthquake Echoes.

In the British Association Report for 1899, p. 227, I drew attention
to the fact that in seismograms where a group of large vibrations corre-
sponding to a shock or shocks at an origin is pronounced, this is frequently
succeeded by a set of fairly similar movements. These latter impulses,
which may be repeated, but with decreasing intensity, many times, I pro-
visionally called earthquake echoes. Although earthquake repetitions (see
pp. 66-69) which succeed their primaries at very irregular intervals may
possibly be antipodean reflections of mass waves, they must not be con-
founded with the so-called echoes which succeed the maxima movements
at fairly regular intervals.

The following table gives time intervals in minutes between a number

72

REPORT—1900.

of shocks and their first echoes, together with their respective amplitudes

expressed in millimetres.

B.A. No.

These records are from similar instruments.

Origin and its Amplitudes Tnibensl Observing
Distance Primary Echo a Station
° mm. mm. Mins.
Japan . 84 5 5 9 Shide
Tashkent 46 G 4 3 ”
Japan. S87 | >T So 8 ”
33 re tsizf 17 10 7 5
Hayti . 62 2°5 2°5 7 5
3 . 24 6 3 3 Toronto
Asia Minor 25 3 4 5 Shide. Record
not clear
California 75 2 3 2 +
as or 2 1 7
Japan ,, 86 5 33 3 a
Mexico . 80 5 5 3 ey
rs = MO 6 Te it Kew. Doubtful
5 Aime 33: if 8 5 Toronto
5 s pu 17 9 5 Victoria
Concepcion 2°5 io 6 Toronto
Alaska 6.7 e208 PS ile 22 Victoria
“ *» 2A0 ig 12 22 Toronto
a 70 10 7 5 Kew
53 105 17 15 4 Bombay
~ 165 7 7 9 or 20 Cape of Good
Hope
i 77 17 10 5 San Fernando
A 40 18 25 Toronto
: 105 3 2 3 Bombay
5 40 | >17 15 25 Toronto
A 70 ily if 5 Kew
tS 145 4 + 8 Mauritius
3 165 1l 10 17 Cape of Good
Hope
+ pel Ob 8 7 4 Bombay
" ree) 17 7 3 Mexico
Smyrna . 25 a 8 5 Shide
a 85 3 3 3 Tokio
3 74 7 5 5 Cape of Good
Hope
s 43 4 4 3 Bombay
7 25 5 5 4 Kew
Alaska 7 4 3 4 Shide
+ 20 ie 7 4 Victoria
5 70 5 4 5 Shide
3 20 | >17 7 4 Victoria. Larger
than 344
Mexico. At Victoria and Toronto the chief motion is followed by

three reinforcements at intervals of 3 minutes.

At Kew

there are two at intervals of about 3 minutes.

The second group of waves, giving the large interval for the Cape of
Good Hope in 333 and 338, may possibly refer to the motion which reached
that station by the longest ‘path round the earth.

If so regarded, these entries do not refer to echoes, but to repetitions.
The large entries for Victoria and Toronto on account of the comparative
nearness of these places to the origins of earthquakes 333, 337, and 338,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 73

cannot, however, be so regarded. Between these extremely large rem-
forcements it must not be overlooked that there are others of less magni-
tude separated by intervals of from two to four minutes.

All that we can conclude from an inspection of the above table is
that after all sensible motion of a large earthquake has ceased horizontal
pendulums, whether they are situated near to its origin or at a great,
distance from the same, indicate that the earth waves at intervals of from
two to six minutes show marked increments in amplitude. The earth-
quake does not die out gradually, but by surgings. In its latter stages,
for intervals of one or two minutes, the ground may be entirely at rest,
after which movement recommences. This alternation of rest and move-
ment may be repeated many times.

If it can be admitted that large earthquakes result from the collapse
of ill-supported portions of the earth’s crust upon a more or less plastic
layer beneath, it may be imagined that rest is attained by a series of more
or less regular surgings, which are propagated to distant places to disturb
horizontal pendulums in the way observed,

ll. The Nature of Large Waves.

To explain the existence of the large waves of earthquakes we are
at present left to choose between two hypotheses. One is that the
large waves of earthquakes are disturbances travelling partly under the
influence of gravity over the surface of our earth, and the latter that they
represent the outcrop of distortional waves passing through its mass.

Near to the origin of a large earthquake earth waves are visible ; some
distance away their existence has been inferred from the wave-like motion
seen on the tops of forests, at a distance of 300 miles, and even at very
much greater distances the feeling occasioned by the moving ground is
similar to that which is felt upon a raft moved by an ocean swell.
Bracket seismographs, hanging pictures and lamps, water in vessels, ponds,
and even in lakes, do not move with their natural periods, but are clearly
influenced by a forced tilting. Finally, even as far as the antipodes of an
origin, the character of motion assumed by horizontal and other pendulums
shows that this is due to slow but repeated changes in the inclination of
their supporting foundations.

If we except the movements observed within the epifocal area, all the
other movements are as explicable by the assumption of the outcrop of
mass waves as they are by the assumption of surface radiation.

The explanation that these waves have an increased velocity in their
quadrantal region (assuming such to be the case) may perhaps rest on the
fact that we are not dealing with radiation in uniformly widening rings,
as would be the case over a plane surface. The condition in this region
is such that energy is transferred from ring to ring, the diameters of which
are but little different from each other. Radiation from a pole to its
antipodes over a spherical surface may be likened to that of a wave which
runs along a channel, which expands for half its length and then contracts.

The phenomena which give the greatest support to the idea of surface
radiation are, first, the existence of earthquake recurrences or waves which
have travelled from an origin to a distant station in opposite directions
round the world, the one arriving last having its amplitude reduced to
expected dimensions ; and second, the observations which show that waves
travelling over a continental surface are not so rapidly reduced in magni-

74 REPORT—1900.

tude as those which have been propagated over the beds of deep oceans.
Were the large waves of earthquakes mass waves, it is assumed that the
damping effect of oceanic waters would be insignificant.

When considering the large waves to be distortional mass waves, an
observation of importance is that they travel from their origin to their
antipodes in about 110 minutes (see fig. 1). If the path was along a
diameter, the average velocity of propagation must therefore have been
1:9 km. per second, which is practically the so-called initial velocity. The
close correspondence of these two velocities suggests the idea that there
has not been any symmetrical change in the velocity of propagation of
waves through the earth with regard to its centre, or, in other words, the
large waves have had a diametral velocity which is practically constant.
This idea of a constant velocity for all depths indicates that arcual and
diametral velocities should be equal, which is not the case. An escape
from the dilemma is to suppose that the large waves do not pass through
the earth, but round its surface.

12. Criticisms and Analyses by Dr. C. G. Knott.

In reference to the conclusion implied in the last paragraph, Dr. Knott
remarks that it does not necessarily follow from the premises, the initial
speed referred to being an arcual speed, or a speed for short distances
from an origin through the surface layers. When a disturbance travels
straight down it very soon gets probably into more homogeneous materials
beneath the crust. It may therefore be a mere coincidence that the
average speed along a diameter may come out almost exactly the same as
the arcual speed in the crust.

The evidence seems to show that once you get into the nucleus proper,
the speed of the large waves decreases with depth. But this does not
prevent the speed suffering a distinct increase when the disturbance passes
from the lower layers of the crust into the higher layers of the nucleus.
That the arcual speed should be 1°9 for small arcs, and then become on
the average three when the arc is half a circumference, seems to be an
immeasurably more difficult thing to understand than that the speed
downwards should first increase and then decrease as the depth increases.
A not improbable change in the nature of the material could easily
account for the latter variation ; but it is difficult to see how a surface
wave of the size of the large waves could gain in speed as it ran round the
earth.

Writing more generally respecting the propagation of large waves,
Dr. Knott says :—

I have looked pretty carefully into your numbers and curves, and now
I shall indicate some of my conclusions. As you have pointed out, the
one doubtful point is the precise instant at which the disturbance began,
also to some extent the exact position of the origin. I take your deter-
minations as being as accurate as they can be obtained, and proceed to
consider the speeds indicated. The accompanying tables will show you
what I have tried todo. Take the Alaskan group, the most complete of |
all you have. It is gratifying to find how similar the results are for the
three different earthquakes. The greatest discrepancy is in the two
numbers for the Batavian records. It is curious that these time records
do not fit well into the general scheme. Can there be any mistake? The
arcual speed indicated is distinctly smaller than we find in all the other

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 75

cases, except the case of Mauritius. If there is no mistake in calculating
the times, then the disturbance travels comparatively slowly along the
Alaskan Batavian route. This route, if it lies near the surface, is almost
wholly beneath the deeps of the North Pacific. But then, on the other
hand, the Alaskan Mauritius route is also a comparatively slow route,
and it lies further to the west, under Siberia, India, and the Indian
Ocean. Still, these two routes are in the same quarter of the
globe, so that a similar value for the speed is not unlikely. It may
be not merely a question as to whether sea or land is overhead, but may
depend on the general character of the rocky material. These two routes
left out of account, there is a very striking constancy in the value of the
arcual speed calculated for these various routes. In the four routes to
Shide, San Fernando, Bombay, and Cape of Good Hope, the great circles
pass all very near the poles. It is beautiful to see how well these four
polar routes agree. With the somewhat scanty material you have to
hand, I doubt if you would be at all warranted in making any deductions
as to variations of speed. The Alaskan results suggest a constant value
for the arcual speed. The same constancy.is indicated in the Mexican
earthquakes, but the value comes out distinctly smaller than in the Alaskan
quakes. Why is this? Still thinking of great-circle routes, we see that
there cannot be much difference between the Mexican Batavian and the
polar routes from Alaska, unless, of course, the former goes preferably by
way of the South Pole. But that possibility is not considered in calcu-
lating the speeds. If we took it that way the speed would come out
larger in the ratio of 210 to 150 or 7:5, giving 1:9 instead of 1-4, a
remarkable coincidence truly. The Mauritius number will also be
increased in much the same ratio. But what are we to make of the
others? No, I think we must get at an explanation of the much smaller
speeds associated with the Mexican earthquakes in some other way. Is
it possible that the depth of the seismic focus might have something to
do with it? Have you any facts to guide you to an estimate of the
probable depth ?

And now pass on to the.Ceram quake. Here the constancy, so marked
a feature in the other cases, no longer holds. There is an undoubted in-
crease in the arcual speed over the longerarcs. The most striking feature
is the smallness of the Mauritius route speed as compared with that
associated with the Cape of Good Hope route ; for there cannot be much
difference in the routes for the greater part of the way. But did not
Mauritius give a too small value in the Alaskan earthquake also? Again,
I ask, is there no possibility of an error in the time estimate? Ceram
Victoria and Mexico Batavia give approximately the same value for the
arcual speed—a point which tells in favour of the accuracy of the time
estimates, for the routes are very different in the two cases. Leaving out
of account all but the broad features, we may conclude that the speeds
(arcual) associated with the Alaskan are distinctly greater than those
associated with the Mexican and Ceram earthquakes. But I confess I
can give no satisfactory explanation of this, nor can I see why Batavia
and Mauritius should give smaller values than the others in the Alaskan
group, and why Cape of Good Hope and Shide should give comparatively
large values in the Ceram group.

And now let us see what comes of taking the chord as the approximate
path of shortest time. Interpreted in this way the results indicate that
the waves must go diametrically through the earth at a much slower average

76 REPORT— 1900.

rate than along a course near the surface. Thus, from the Alaskan group
we should infer an average diametrial speed of about 2°2 km. per sec. ;
from the Mexican group about 1°8; and from the Ceram group about
2°5. This suggests that the speed of propagation along a diameter de-
pends upon the particular diameter considered—a very curious result
surely, unless, of course, the depth of the focus below the surface be very
different in the different cases.

As regards the general question of the diminution of speed at greater
depths, all we can say is that it is not impossible. True, the result is un-
expected, seeing that there can be little doubt that the preliminary tremors
travel quicker at the greater depths. But then it is also certain that the
elastic constants involved in the transmission of the two types of waves must
be essentially different, and there is no necessity for them to obey similar
laws of variation with depth. In my ‘Scottish Geographical Magazine’
article I pointed out that the bulk modulus might increase at a much
quicker rate than the density, whereas the rigidity might increase at much
the same rate. ‘Tio meet the new need we have merely to assume that the
rigidity does not increase so. quickly as the density. We know that the
density increases with the depth, and we know nothing whatever about
the elastic constants except what we learn from seismic phenomena. It
was, in fact, with feelings of surprise that we first recognised the high
speeds of earthquake disturbances through the body of the earth. That
another type of wave should travel more slowly at the greater depths
should not therefore be matter of any surprise, although certainly re-
markable.

The hypothesis that the large waves really pass along brachistochronic
paths seems to require that the speed diminishes with distance from the
centre. This means that the paths are convex outwards, concave towards
the centre. Hence the paths to points within 90° of the origin will tend
to follow more or less closely the are of the outer crust. When the arcual
distance exceeds the quadrant, then the paths begin to pass through deeper
parts of the earth, and the fall off in the value of the average speed be-
comes more apparent. This is precisely what is indicated in the values
deduced from the Alaskan group, since it is not till the are exceeds 105°
that the value of the calculated average speed shows marked diminution.
The Mexican group shows the same feature, but not so the Ceram earth-
quake. Still it is only one against five, and we shall be safer in following
the five.

Comparing the two hypotheses, the surface wave and the brachisto-
chronic path, we see that up to distances of a quadrant or so they give
much the same result, because the brachistochronic path is largely con-
fined to the surface layers. As regards greater distances the evidence in
hand is not very clear. Increased ‘arcual speed’ is hinted at, and this,
if it exist, is a serious stumbling-block in the way of accepting the surface
wave theory. But at best the increase is small, and, except in the case of
the Ceram quake, really too small to build any conclusionsupon. I should
rather be inclined to say that the evidence so far is in favour of a practi-
cally constant ‘arcual speed’ over all distances. But I still entertain
strong suspicion of the possibility of surface waves of the magnitude re-
quired being transmitted over the earth’s surface. If we take the values of
the arcual speeds in the Ceram earthquake as being accurate, we meet
what seems to me to be an insurmountable difficulty in the surface wave
theory. On the other hand, we have no insurmountable difficulties if we

Teh Report Brit. Assoc, 1900] [Puare. 11]

Apparent Paths of the Large Waves of Earthquakes from jive origins (indicated by circles) to various observing stations.

‘The Alaska origi for earthgmabes Nos. S53, S57, and S85 might possibly be mored 10° to the east. The velocities, given in kma. per sec. and placed in brackets, refer to paths or portion of
Paths, indicated by dotted lines. The earthquakes are indicated by numbers (see B.A. Reports).

Mustrating the Report on Seismological Investigation.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. Vis

take the other theory, although there are difficulties of detail that are
somewhat troublesome, Ido not think we are in a position as yet to
make any serious calculations. We must get more data and look all round
them before engaging in complicated calculations.

Character of path in three cases on the assumption that the path is not along the
chord, but more approximately along the are.

Alaskan.
Victoria . ‘ : : . Under sea.
Toronto . : i , . Half sea, half land.
Mexico . : : ; . Half sea, half land.
Shide Ran te : . Mostly sea, polar archipelago, Greenland ?
San Fernando . : F . Half sea and land, largely polar.
Bombay . ; ‘ . - Mostly land, Siberia, Tibet.
Batavia . : : é . Deep sea, east of Asia.
Mauritius . : 2 é . Siberia, India, Indian Ocean:
Cape of Good Hope . 3 - Polar sea, Europe, Africa.
Mezico.
Victoria . : ; A . Under N. America.
Toronto ‘ ; : cs Fe
Shide Ba ete : : . Skirting E. of N. America and then under
Atlantic.
Batavia . A F a . N. America, Pole, Asia.
Mauritius. t : : . N. America, Pole, Russia, Persia, Indian
Ocean, or by way of 8. Pole.
Ceram.
Batavia . : - s . East India Archipelago.
Mauritius . : ; ‘ . Indian Ocean.
Victoria . : . Pacific Ocean.
Cape of Good Hope . : . Indian Ocean.
Shide 4 ; . India, Persia, Hurope,

Alaskan Earthquakes (333, 327, 338).

Assuming constant speed for small distances, we find 9 min. as the
time from the origin to Victoria. Hence the following table :—

Speed
ae of Pass¢0)|
aaa Ohord Min. Are Degrees {Chord /Arc Radians|
Min. Min. Min.
6
Victoria. . my aN 28 5 — = 1:3 031 ‘031
Toronto. r r 40 68 2 22 22 1:8* “Bl Seal
Mexico . . . 49 “Sa| —. 29 28 1:7 ‘29 30
Shide . ri ee LOn ee Dis 39 42 41 1:8 "29 31
San Fernando VTE) (1626 44 44 44 1:75 28 “306
Bombay : . 105 | 1:59 55 55 57 19 28 33
f1-
Batavia =. =. 108 | 1:62 — 65 75 | { oe 23 24
Mauritius. 146 | 1:91 90 — 88 1:63 215 284
Cape of Good Hope 165 | 1:98] 88 89 83 1:9 226 33

78 REPoRT—1900.

Mexico (250, 381).
Assuming 21, 22 mins. as times from origins to Victoria !

Are Chord Time in Min, oe a om

in. Min.

Victoria : 1-1 30-32 *B2—"55 21-22 1:4 025
Toronto ; . 84-86 *58—62 23-27 1:4 25
Shide . : 80288 | 16292Iea5 52-54 1°52 25
Batavia ; 5 DO 1:93 108 1:39 ‘18

Mauritius . 70 260 WESi7¢ 113 1:41 175

Ceram (347).
Time calculated as in Alaskan earthquake.

; : Arc Degrees | Chord
Are Chord Time Min. ‘Min,
2 Min.
Batavia . ; : eee, 38 | 14 by ‘027
Mauritius 5 fe i83 EIS) 47 1:55 25
Victoria . : . 105 1'59 74 1:42 ‘22
Cape of Good Hope. 105 1:59 6L 1:72 “26
Shide A Bete I 1:74 71 here 246
Ebon. saa pd ES may be reduced to os by multiplying by 1:06
min. min.
arc degrees
sion Si ee ” ” 9 ” ” ” 1:84
min.

It will be noted that there are certain slight differences between the
figures used in this last table and those in the table on p. 81. These,
however, do not produce any appreciable effect upon the general character
of the investigations which have been made.

. The Origin of Larye Earthquakes which were recorded in the
Isle of Wight in the Year 1899,

Tn 1899, at Shide, in the Isle of Wight, 130 earthquakes were recorded.
One hundred and five of these were also recorded at one or more of the
following places: Kew, Toronto, Victoria (B.C.), San Fernando, Bombay,
Madras, Calcutta, Mauritius, Batavia, Cape of Good Hope, Tokio, Cairo,
and Mexico. There is no doubt that many of these were also recorded
at other observatories, but from these registers have not yet been
received.

The localities at which a certain number of these earthquakes originated
have been determined with a fair amount of accuracy. Other determina-
tions are somewhat indefinite, whilst a large residuum of comparatively
small disturbances have been grouped as having originated somewhere in
the vicinity of the one or two stations at which they were recorded.

The results exhibited in map (Plate III.) are therefore of varying values,
and although they give a general idea as to the distribution of seismic
activity for "1899, they are chiefly of interest as-illustrating the character
of the more definite information which we may expect to derive from
the extension of the present system of observation,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 79

The methods and considerations which have led to these determina-
tions have been as follows:

(1). Determination of Origins by Comparisons between Time Intervals.

Earthquakes from the same district will arrive at distant observing
stations at times the differences between which will be constant. If, for
example, we have once determined the difference in time at which an
earthquake originating off the coast of Japan arrives at Batavia, Bombay,
Cape of Good Hope, Shide, &c., whenever these differences are repeated
at four or more stations, without knowing anything about observations
in Japan, we can at once say where such an earthquake has originated.
It will be noted that our knowledge respecting the speed with which earth-
quake motion is transmitted enables us to give approximate values for the
time differences here considered.

(2). By the Difference in the Times at which the Maximum Motion
has been recorded at different Stations.

In the present state of our knowledge all determinations of the position
of origins from time intervals require the assumption that the velocity of
propagation of earthquake movement is constant. This condition is most
nearly fulfilled by the large waves of earthquakes. The methods by
which an earthquake origin may be determined from the differences
between the times at which it was recorded at distant stations are several.
The method of circles which is here employed has been selected chiefly on
account of its comparative simplicity in application. It is briefly as
follows : If the large waves of an earthquake reach stations B, C, D, &c.,
four, ten, twenty, &c., minutes after reaching station A, then the centre
of a circle which passes through A and touches circles drawn round B, C,
D, &c., the radii of which are respectively 4 x 1°°6, 10 x 1°-6, 20 x 1°°6, &e.,
will be the centre of the origin required. The constant 1°°6 means
that the arcual velocity for large waves is taken at 1°-6 per minute, or
approximately 3 km. per second. In the British Association Report for
1899, p. 193, the speed there given was 2°5 km. per second, which appears
to be too low. The operation of drawing these circles is carried out
on a ‘slate’ globe. For a complete solution observations are required
from at least four stations. With only three observations we are left to
choose between two possible centres, but as these may be widely separated
there is usually but little difficulty in selecting the one required.

(3). By the Time Intervals between the Arrival of Preliminary Tremors
and Maximum Movement.

From what has been said respecting preliminary tremors and large
Waves it may be inferred that the interval in time between the appearance
of these two phases of earthquake motion at a given station has a relation
to the distance of that station from the origin. This relationship is shown
in fig. 1. An observer with this curve before him, although his time-
keeper may have failed, or although he may be so situated that it is
impossible to obtain accurate time, is immediately able to determine from
a well-defined seismogram the distance at which the motion it represents
originated. With this fact, the magnitude of his record, and a knowledge
of the physical configuration of districts from which earthquakes originate,
he is frequently able to locate an origin. With time records from several

80 REPORT—1900;

stations the distancés corresponding to each of them from an origin ate
read from the curve, and by the intersection of these on a globe seismic
foci are determined with greater certainty.

(4). By the Intervals represented by Seismic Recurrences.

Whenever a seismogram shows thé interval of time between a
maximum movement and a distinct reinforcement of vibrations which can-
not be accounted for as forming part of the gradually decreasing surgings
following the principal disturbance, this interval enables us to state the
distance of the origin from the station at which the seismogram was
obtained. Opportunities to apply this method are not frequent
(see p. 68).

14. The Application of the above Methods to the Records for 1899.

To carry into effect the method of determining origins by comparisons
of time differences, the following eleven tables have been prepared. In
these the 105 Shide records are referred to by their British Association
register number and their date. For each of these the time intervals
between the arrival of maximum motion at the station beneath which a
zero is placed and its arrival at other stations are given in minutes. In
those instances where the time at which an earthquake originated is
approximately known, as in Table I., the zero is placed beneath the
word ‘origin.’ So far as possible the various earthquakes have been
analysed according to the localities from which they originated. When
the time intervals in a series are less than three in number, the location
of an origin is sometimes doubtful. A dash beneath a station indicates
that an earthquake was observed, but for reasons which are various
the time of its maximum could not be determined. A query indicates
that an observation is uncertain.

TaBLe I. West Pacific. Japan.

o
F 5
Sie : a| =
) ie | ia & = 8 ~ s
Sn [tite os [ers S - | = S = a
oe a é 2 z 5 i s zB 3 E = 2 Origin
His/_g/a |/A8ls/also] 8
a] 8 %
PIG a
0
Distance in | 87 | 87 | 90 | 62 100 65 57 |102 | 62 | 52 136 87 0
degrees
Expected time | 57 | 57 | 59 | 38 | 65 43 35 | 66 | 38 | 35 85 57 0
to travel in
mins,
366. Nov. 24 .| 57 | 58 | — | 32| 68 | 37 | 14] 51] 37] — 68 60 Japan
. be 2) ) eee
364, Nov. 23 . | — | 20?) 58 | 32 | 64 40 31 | 64 | 54 | — 1 or 85 | f ”
360. Nov.18 .| 46}—;|—}|—/—/; — |—]—|]—|]— _ _ Py
357. Nov.10 .| 50} —}—/—]|—/ — |— — a — Pa
pAb ayivdiy zp 5) sey) S|) PSS 1) 0G) |) 8 — i} —
307. July 11 . | 17?) — |} 17 | 39?) — — 17 | 21}—}— _ _ 9
306. July 10 .| 53 |—|—|—]|—)| 48 _ — and
295. Junel7 .{ —|— | 58 | — | —| 67? |} —} —}—]— — = Philippines ?
263, March7 .| 58 | 58 | 68 | 23} —| 47 17} 42)}—|— _— — Japan
323. Aug. 3 .| 57 | —] 20} 21) — _ —-}—|— _ _ as

The above earthquakes were recorded by seismographs in Japan, and therefore originatedin or near
that country,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 81

_ In very many of these entries there must be errors, the reasons for
the existence of which have already been explained. The values of these
vary between a fraction of a minute and several minutes.

Where origins are known from observations made near to the same
these are stated.

The geographical positions of these origins are shown in map (Plate IT.).
Some of the entries on this, particularly those for the Atlantic and
Indian Ocean, are conjectural, whilst others may be taken as correct.
The reliance which can be placed upon any particular determination is
shown in the table of time intervals on which the same is founded.

263. This earthquake, which is described in the British Association
Report, 1899, p. 212, and was recorded in Tokio at Oh. 59m. 29s. G.M.T.
March 7, is of interest as showing that the amplitudes of motion recorded
at Shide and Kew were greater than those recorded at Toronto, whilst at
Victoria, the nearest station to the origin, but reached by a sub-oceanic
path, it was the smallest of all (see p. 70).

Other earthquakes, approximately corresponding to entries in the
Tokio register, and which may therefore have originated near to Japan,
are Nos. 271, 286, 314, and 363. Nos. 351 and 352 may have originated
to the east of Japan, about 40° N. lat. and 160° E. long.

‘Taste Il. West Equatorial Pacific. East Indies.

Remarks

!

Shide
Kew
Toronto
Victoria (B.0.)
San Ternando
Bombay
Batavia
Mauritius
Madras
Caleutta
Cape of Good Hope
Tokio

Distance in | 121 | 121 |136|] 105 | 132 62 | 22 | 73 | 53 | 60 |105| 47 | These entries re-

degrees late to the
Expected time | 76 76 | 85] 66 84 38 | 16 | 45 | 33 | 32 | 66 | 29 origin.
intervals

1 an 0 He 18 | 60 | 18 According asthe
or 57 |or57 (| or GO| or 17 jorl5 f | or33 or 5 |or47| or 5

347. Sept. 29 { 70 ig fe a0 Ber 40 Batavian max.
is 17:11 or 17°24

247. Jan. 12 . 63 — |—|]; — —_— 2 0;};—};—|/—}|—]— —

298. June 24 .| 57 — | 56)! 71 — 13 0 ;15};—}/—|]—}]— =

299, June 29 . 60 _ _— 7L — 7 0o;];— ee = |) eof =

emmy iets tale Gen |ees~ 3p )2)r48 fier [fe |r Or | |! ee | ep =,

324, Aug. 4 .| 65 | 26/ pare }] s2 | 1s | o | 42} a1] 32 | 58 | — As

332. Aug. 24 . 71 70 52 35 13 — 0 |}49}—|{—]59} — —

64 { 56 40 50
354, Oct. 19 { or 68 \— ~ (| or 52 \— a of or36 \i-{ or46 \ 5 c;
355. Oct. 24 . 61 — 91] 61 — _ 0 | 3} —|— | 46 | — _

347. Dr. J. P. van der Stok in the ‘Kon. Akad. van Wettenschappen
te Amsterdam,’ Nov. 25, 1899, tells us that in the night of Septem-
ber 29-30, at 1.45 a.m. (September 29, 17h. 9m. G.M.T.), an earthquake,
followed by sea waves, damaged the south coast of Ceram, and, in less
degree, the islands of Ambou, Banda, and the Ulias Isles. Several
villages on the south coast of Ceram were destroyed—in Elpapoeti Bay
_ all except two. The prison at Amahei was completely destroyed, and the
fortifications partly so.

nok D. M. Verbeek gives an account of this earthquake in the

‘ G

82 REPORT—1900,

‘ Javasche Courant,’ 1900, No. 21. He gives Amahei time for the shock
as lh. 42:2m., and that for Wahei as + lh. 43m. (17h. 7m. G.M.T.). At
the former place five to ten minutes after the shock, the coast was flooded
by a sea wave. This inundation, to a height of 1-7 to 9 metres, was also
experienced at other places along the south coast of Ceram. At Banda,
187 km. south-east from Elpapoeti Bay, the water began to rise about
half an hour after the shock. At Kawa, at the west end of Ceram, and
at other places, strips of alluvium were submerged. Dr. Verbeek places
the centrum a few miles inland to the west of Elpapoeti Bay, on the line
- of a fault running parallel to the south coast of Ceram.

The time intervals between the shock and the sea wave observed at
Amahei indicate an origin at a distance of -5 to 1 degree from that place.
This would probably be sub-oceanic, and on the face of the Webber Deep,
where soundings have been obtained of 4,000 fathoms, As it is possible
that there may have been a bodily displacement of materials lying between
Ceram and the Webber Deep, this does not interfere with Dr. Verbeek’s
fault line. The time at the origin may therefore be taken as lying
between 17h. 7m. and 17h. 9m. If the maximum observed at Batavia
took place at 17h. 24m., and the movement took 15 minutes to reach
that place, we again reach the conclusion that the time at the origin
was about 17h. 9m. G.M.T.

Tasup III. Mid-Indian Ocean.

— Shide Toronto Batavia Madras

288. May 15. . : 5 5 56 _ 0 61
313. July 20. ‘ i . 5 422 89 9 =e
319. July 29. 5 : ‘ 5 45 — 0 —
TaBLE TV. North-east Pacific. West of Alaska.
| 5
Ae is
| Olsg es
4 a SO y rs
islelalelal2 | #4312 143 [els
- fife || Res | AL Gea. Es Spe (oreo R= P= | 8 & a | rd Remarks
lmal|s!1s| S| E) 3 | 2 os Reg) es
/ Fh al seed 1 hE ar ae ae
| |e | a Be
S
Sono 5 1 ee Ee eee | ee
Distance in de- | 70] 70} 40) 20} 77 | 100 108 {145 | 105 90 | 165 | 49 | 50 | These en-
grees tries refer |
Expected time in- | 44 | 44 | 25 | 14 | 48 63 68 92 67 57 | 104 31 |} 32 to the
tervals origin.
13 100, (7
883, Sept.3 . «| 80] 30 /f>3.J}0| 36) 47 | — | ar) — | —|{gfol}—| {761 t
337. Sept. 10 . Sale) 20 0 | — | 22 |340r33/500r43| —*|390r38} — |690r67| 7 | — | Small
338. Sept. 10 . - | 20 | 19 0} — | 22 35 63 64 _ = 61 CN i= —
246. Jan. 12. «| 23 | — | 13 o;— 2 = — —_ -- — —|— —_
266. March 19 30 | — 97) 0") = = Bi We OF (A ll Be —_
282. April 16 BIg (9 |! 16y)' 40 | 4) ee | oat eT ee ee | eS =
334. Sept. 4 —|— 9} 0; 3) — — |< — |---| — |—|— _
341. Sept. 16 AS11800) eS")! 7:5 a aS tier) | EEN ee =
342, Sept. 17 27] 27 | 10 0 | 34 47 — — 48 —_ 76 — =
344. Sept, 23 25 | 81 | 11} 0| 85] 50 60 | 7727] — |—| 72 | —| 27 =
345. Sept. 23 33 | 37 | 17 0 | 38 63 _ _ _— = 87 A =
309. July 14 ata [pe 9 0 | 14 13 — 14?) — — 35 — | — | BehringSea
317. July 27 llj— 6 o;j—y; = = = — = —_ ii —
| | |

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 88

Nos. 333, 337, and 338. In the ‘Toronto World’ of September 25 we
read that on September 3, about 2.30 p.m., houses in Yakuta Bay were
rocked violently, doors were slammed, dishes rattled, and tables moved.
On September 10, about eight o’clock, a more violent movement occurred.
Trees swayed, and there were slight shakes every few minutes. Just as
the earthquake ceased tidal waves came rolling in. There were three of
these waves following each other at intervals of about five minutes. The
rise was 15 feet from low tide to a foot above the highest tide point.
On the island of Kanak, opposite Yakuta, a graveyard sank so that on
the next day a boat was able to row over the place where it had been,
and the tops of the submerged trees could be seen.

These shocks disturbed the declinometer, duplex, and vertical force
magnetographs in Toronto.

Scanty as these notes are, they apparently indicate an origin somewhat
to the east of that shown in Plate III.

The period of the earth waves for No. 333 as recorded at Shide was
15 seconds, whilst the maximum angle of tilting was 8’. With a velocity
of 3 km. per second, and the assumption that the motion is simple harmonic,

so that the height of the waves= Be tan a, where /=length of wave and

aT

a=maximum angle of tilting, we may conclude that these waves were
45 km. in length and 29 cm. in height. With periods of at first 40 and
afterwards 15 seconds for the disturbance recorded in the Isle of Wight
on September 10, No. 338, it would appear that at first there were waves
120 km. long and 39 cm. high, followed by others 45 km. long and 43 em.
high. Whether we can accept vertical displacements of this order repre-
senting accelerations not unfrequently ;\, of gravity is yet sub judice, and
an experiment to confirm or modify these conclusions is now in progress.

Taste V. Last Mid-Pacific. West of Mexico.

d| 3 i Ei
2} a eb 2 S 3
oe aos he fe faerie
_ Z| g o | +a 8 q 8 5 3g 5 o Origin
77 SOS S x 2 si 3 HH
H a) a ios) i=.) S oO °
Pl a rot
oS
io)
Distance in | 84 84 34 | 30 86 148 150 168 148 138 138 0
degrees
Expected time | 52] 52 | 22| 20] 54 93 95 | 105 93 87 87 0
intervals
| S| >| | —_— —_ | | , —.
250. Jan. 24 «| 31 81 38); 0; — — 92 — — — | Mexico
381. Jan.20 .| —| 32 2 )...0.), — — 86 — — — -~ 59
248, Jan.14 . | 37 { a k2}o0) —|—}—]—}]—-]-] - ql
321. Aug.2 .| 30 30 o;/—|] — oo — _ —- — | Concepcion ?
294? June 14 . | 32 30 0 | 34 16 70 — 72 _ — — | Jamaica ?
371. Dec. 25 «| 47 47 |16|] 9] 60 —_ _ _ _ 75 | 8. California

250. The key to the origin of this group is given by earthquake No. 250.
From Seiior José Zandizas, director of the observatory in Mexico, we
learn that it took place on January 24, 1889, at approximately 11h.
45.5m, P.M. It was severe, caused some damage, but it cannot be siad

G3

84. REPORT—-1900,

to have been very strong. It was felt over the whole republic: At
Colima, on the Pacific side, it had a duration of Im. 20s., and on the
Atlantic side, at Vera Cruz, it lasted 10s.

By the method of circles and by the method of preliminary tremor
intervals I place the origin at a point 30° distant from Victoria, and 34°
from Toronto, or near to lat. 19° N. and 105° W. long. On January 20,
1900, *No. 381 was recorded in Mexico with time intervals similar to
those for No. 250. The preliminary tremor intervals for this referring to
Victoria, Toronto, and Kew read 13, 15, and 38 minutes, indicating that
the Kew reading for No. 250 is the lower of the two values given.

The time readings for 248 clearly correspond with that for an earth-
quake with a similar origin.

294. An origin 8.W. of Jamaica roughly agrees with the time differ-
ences between Toronto, Victoria, and Shide, and the preliminary tremors
duration for Kew and Toronto.

371. In ‘ Nature,’ April 19, 1900, we read that on December 25, at
12.25, an earthquake took place in 8. California. In the villages of San
Jacinto and Hermet every brick building was damaged.

Professor F. Stupart sends me the following extract from a newspaper
clipping :

Los Angeles, Cal., December 25, 1899.

The towns of San Jacinto and Hernet, in Riverside County, were
badly shaken by an earthquake at 4.25 o’clock this morning. In San
Jacinto not a brick house or block escaped injury. Nearly all of the
business portion is in ruins. The new Southern California Hospital caved
in. It was not occupied. At Hernet the Hernet’s Company mill is
partly down. The front wall fell flat. The rear of the large Johnston
block also toppled over. Hernet’s new hotel is a ruin. The damage at
those places cannot be estimated now. Communication by wire is inter-
rupted. The‘ Herald’ has received a telegram from San Bernardino saying
that six Indians were killed at Hernet by falling walls during the earth-
quake. The Santa Fé railroad report is to the effect that no lives were
lost.

Los Angeles, December 25.—The total damage at San Jacinto and
Hernet is estimated at $50,000. No person was injured at either place so
far as known. The shock was heavy at Santa Ana, Anheim, San
Bernardino, Riverside, and other places, but no particular damage is
reported except from San Jacinto and Hernet. In this city no damage
was done, though the shock was particularly violent. The houses here
are well filled with Eastern tourists, and they were in many instances
terrified at the unexpected disturbances, and rushed from their rooms.

San Diego, Cal,, December 25.—The most severe shock of earthquake
experienced in this city in fourteen years took place at 4.25 a.m. to-day,
and was accompanied by a loud rumbling noise. The taller buildings
in this city were severely shaken, but no serious damage was done. A
high wave struck the beach ocean front, but no |damage was done. A
slight shock followed the first a few seconds later.

268. The time intervals for Shide, Victoria, Bombay, and Toronto
suggest an origin near to that given for 322, with which the preliminary
tremors for Victoria and Mauritius accord. In the British Association
Report for 1899 this origin was placed on the western side of the
Atlantic, but additional data haying since been obtained this is now
modified,

ON oo

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 85

TasLe VI. South-East Pacific. West Coast South America.

oO °
° 4 a i 3 a nm i]
iy] ae Mets Wy fh Bo he Bo Peau bes 5 Origi
n ima] 5 5 5 gS 5 5 rigin
fo 8 - Q =a] S =| 5
P| &
Sae,Aug. 2.) 25 23 0 _ _ — _ _ Concepcion.
S21. ,, Bw 36 30 0 — a — — —_— — — | Chili? See W.
| of Mexico,
| list V.
268. Mar. 23.| 10 14 0 11 ? 41 — 23 | — - S.E. Pacific.
269. ,, 23. 22 29 0? 20 —= —_— — _ —_ 2 _—
270; 3°) 25. |85ors! 2 | 0 mes WETS al SEN a a =
278. April 12.| 26 36 0 20 -- — — — 43 — W, of Chili
“5 ie Ca 21 31 0 14 _— — — _ 44 — —
291, June 5.]| 33°? 0 0 15 _— — 11 _ _ ~- _
292. ,, Dien |caare SO lie, 0 Tpke | Soe ea ee lh lh id

322. The time intervals indicate a possible origin, about 80° due south
from Toronto, or off the south coast of South America, near Concepcion.
As this earthquake is not a large one, the whole of the preliminary tremors
have not been recorded, and therefore these indications may be neglected.

The similarity of the seismograms for this earthquake and that for
321, together with the fact that they succeeded each other within two
hours, suggest a similar origin, and Professor F. Stupart, of Toronto,
writes me to the effect that it is probable that both originated off the
South American coast.

TaBLe VII. North Atlantic. North Norway to Spitzbergen.

o
5
S| 3 ty
% a e n a a
3 S £ - § 2 5 5 = Bey 3 ° .
S a EI & 5 s ba S F a 44 | Origin
alB EEE |e lalelalals|a
r= mS) q [<2] A s o zo)
e | a 2
3
o
252. Jan.31| 0 Ob |) 124}. 16 >f—-f}f—-f—-f}f—-}-]-
954, Feb.23/ 0 | ? | 18 | 19 | — | —}| —]|—}—]—]—] = -
spies SG OW Pel se | sof — | — | — | — fae = =
Taste VIII. Equatorial Atlantic.
|e sue] o | wo | 8 | ao] 2 | o | — 3 | 94 -|-|-|-
TaBLE IX. Western Central Asia. Turkey in Asia.
343. Sept. 20 0 2 33 40 10 14 _ 34 _ _ 29 30 leet
373. Dec. 31] 4 Obs | 3ieu lle 40 5 | —|— | 14] — | — | 26 | -6 | Tiftis
| { |

343. From ‘ Nature,’ January 25, 1900, we learn that more than 1,600
persons were killed, more than 2,000 were injured, whilst 11,000 houses
were destroyed. The epicentre was in the Meander Valley, between Aidin
and Sarakim. Along a line of sixty miles in this valley there are many

86 REPORT—1900,

damaged towns and villages. This valley and the Legens Valley have
subsided from 2 to 6 feet, The railway line between Aidin and Omourlou
was raised fully one yard.

373. From ‘Nature,’ January 25, 1900, we learn that the earthquakes
of December 31 destroyed many houses at Akhalkalaki (Transcaucasia),
Here and in ten neighbouring villages over 200 people perished. At the
Tiflis Physical Observatory the following observations were made. In
Greenwich mean time the first shock was at 10h. 51-4m. It was severe
in the hilly part of the city, on the right bank of the river Kura. The
second shock was feeble and noted at 13h. 39°5m. The third shock was
not noted by the seismograph at the observatory on the left bank of the
Kura, but was noted at 17h. 45m. on the right bank. At Kalagelan the
first was observed at 10h. 49m., and at Sviri and Zugdidi at 11h. 23m,
The latter places are on the Kars Railway. At the railway stations,
Abastuman and Kobi, the times were 13h. 51m. and 11h. 2m.

TABLE X. Origins which are extremely doubtful.

2
3/8 wodekutt
Slels a e| es - cy | casas
BANo |3|/S/8/2) 5) 9/8/58 /38/ 8/6 Origin
ee lslelalars/ais)s
| 8 ro)
Ba a
| oD
245, Jan. 6 oa" 6 ? o;— ? ?}—|—|—|—]—| N. Atlantic, W. side.
249. ,, 22. 4 0o;—|—|- ?|—}]—)}] ——| — | Greece ?.
DbIs 5, 30... 264 | — ?/—| 4)—{|—J| 0} —] — | Indian Ocean, E. side.
253. ,, 31.) 16) 15) —}—}]—)] OF} — | — p—}—]— ” » WwW. side,
256. Feb. 27 . 2 2. 0 | 57 ? ?/—|—|]—|—|—]| W. Indies.
DAN ey eee 0/05);—}—/]—|—|—]|]—|]—| —| — | N. Atlantic, E. side.
2Dose hk 2S cer AO Oss ? ? ?}/—!|—|]—|—]—|N. Atlantic, C. Verde.
260. , 28 .)/ 0}|—}—]|—]|—]—]—]—]—]—]—] Trieste 13 min. after Shide, N.
Atlantic, W. side.
262, Mar. 6 .| 22| ?}—|—{|—]—]—J|—]—|—]—| Nicolaiew, before Shide, Caspian
Sea,
264 , 42 4) .28) 21) O | Lf |i—s} 2) | eel 2h) — je? | — | Origines. Pacitie:

The magnitude of the seismo-
grams indicates that Toronto was
reached before Shide and Vic-
toria, The maximum was not
well defined at Victoria, whilst
at Batavia the movements were
only recorded as a thickening of
the line. The position of the
origin was apparently in the
Mid-South Pacific.

26%on., 2 146}; ?}—|—] ?}/—]|—|—]—J| ?|—| Trieste, before Shide, Caspian
Sea,
273. April 4 .}| 0{—/]—/]/—j]—|—|—j|]—| ?]—|—]N. Atlantic, E. side.
Size SNE Sp mee (recy {lime Ue Mat Sa essen [ees Pe (PG EES | ee a 4
281. , 15 Sf ee ae ae ae dt ad ae el ad = mR
283. ,, 17 ./ 43} — | 34} 0} —]—}]—|—]}]—|—]|—| N.E. Pacific.
284. , 28 .|—}|—|]—/|—|—|]—]—]—|—! —| — |] N. Atlantic, E. side.
289. May 17 .| 19 | —| —| —|—|—J] 0|—]—J| —]| — | Indian Ocean ?
293. June 9 .| 1}—}—/]—/]—|—]—]}] OJ —}]—}]— 5 i.
297. 4 19 .};—|]—}]—|]—|—|]—]—|—]|]—]|]—|—]|N. Atlantic, E. side.
LOO ATU Sf i PF | | | oS 3
301. , 2.)|30);—/]—)| 0} —} ?|/—|—]|—|—|—| E. Pacific Ocean.
302. , 38 .}/—{—]—!}—|]—|—|]—|]—|—|!—|—|N. Atlantic, E. side.
303.9, @ i) 9) 110) 4) | — | 21) —} — | — |] =| N. Atlantic, W. side.
305. 4 9 .| 46] 50] 86 | 75|—| 6] —]!]—] O| —]|— | Equatorial Indian Ocean.
a2. yy Oe 2} — |} — | — 2} —|—!|—|— | —| — | N. Atlantic, E. side.
315. 4, 26 4;—]—/;}—|—] 0] —|—|—]—| — | Indian Ocean.
318. , 28 .};—|—|]—]—]—|—|]—|—]—|! —|]—] N. Atlantic, E. side.
220. , 31 .)/—|]—}]—]—|—]—]—]—]|—]| — | — | Indian Ocean ?
825, Aug. 7.| 9} 9}/—|—}]—] OJ —}/—]—| 0} — a Rs
326. , 17..| ?| ?| 386/17] 24) 0] —J|19]| 3 | —/| 28] astern Hast Indies,
827, 5, 21.) 21°?) —] —) —) — |] HK] — 1 | om Atlantic; E. side,
328. ,, 23 ..] ?| ?}/—}/—|/—|]—]—]—]|—|—-|]—- a a
329, , 28.) ? Pl—J—lm—il—l—l—J|]-l—-l- vs

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 87

TABLE X. Origins which are extremely doubtful—continued.

2
. So
° a 2 a a Hi
B. A. No. 2 g g = | 2 E 8 5 3 g & Origin
Als |a/alals|s|s]s
ee a o
e wD a
io)
335. Sept. 6 . | 29 0 — —|—|—|—| W. of Mexico. Group V.
aieeeeGe | Oi!) Lop —— f— | — | — | 2 || — || Midi NeAgiantre:
340, ,, 14.]/11)/—} 0) —|/—|]—}]—|—]—|—]—| N. Atlantic, W. side.
346. ,, 27./ 6| 6} 0} 15 | —| —} —}]—]—]—] 7 | Mid-Equatorial Atlantic ?
349. Oct. 4.) —|—|]—|]—}—|]—]|]—|—]|]—]|—|—|N. Atlantic, E. side.
ee eeet ses |) 36's) sl |) Ti —|—.| Ol —sh—s t=) 2 =
352, . 13 .|33|38|/—| 9 0 = 63 | E. of East Indies ?
356 ai 29 o;—)/—|—!]—] — |] 5 | —| — }] — | — | Indian Ocean.
358. Nov. 12 11 | — | —} 27; —| —} 0|—}—|—]} 49 | S. Pacific.
361. 5 18 25| 2) 0|393/ 3|—|—]|—{|—]—] 3] Mid-Equatorial Atlantic,
862. ,, 20 42}—| 33] 0} 4/—}]—}]—]—|—|— | Pacific Ocean.
365. 4 24 58 | — | — | 50 | 63 | 20 0} 38/—}]— 9?| Japan ?
370. Dec. 17 .| —| — |} —| —|—|—|—]—|/—|—|—|N. Atlantic, E. side.
372. yy 26) 3 | 20 7?) 1) 18 0o|/—}|}—|—}]—|— | 35 —
374. ,, 31 .| 512] 25 | 41 | 34| 33) 0] 10} —| —| —| 48 | Japan?

The origins indicated in the last table are for the most part conjectural.
In those instances where a disturbance has only been recorded at Shide
and Kew, and we are without evidence showing that the seismograms
refer to earthquakes observed in Great Britain and Europe, it seems pro-
bable that they represent adjustments in the strata on the eastern side
of the North Atlantic. Time entries for these stations, a few minutes
later than the corresponding entry for Toronto, suggest that we are
here dealing with a disturbance originating on the western side of the
same ocean.

Origins indicated by terms like Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean only
show how little information can be derived from certain seismograms.

Here and there a few impossible entries are recorded. For example,
the greatest interval of time which could elapse between the arrival of an
earthquake in Mauritius and Bombay or Madras is thirty minutes, yet
for earthquake 326 it will be observed that the entries for the latter places
are respectively forty-one and forty-five minutes. To correct such entries
it is necessary to compare together the original seismograms, which has
not been always possible,

15. Illustrations of Seismograms.

The following illustrations of seismograms are only to be regarded as
sketches of the original photograms. The accuracy of any given reproduc-
tion has been largely dependent upon the clearness of the figure from
which it was copied. They show the range of motion and the principal
characteristics of wave-groups, but they do not show details like small
serrations so clearly exhibited in many of the original records from which
they have been reproduced. The numbers correspond with the numbers
given for particular earthquakes in the preceding text and those in the
Shide records contained in the first circular of earthquake registers issued
by the Seismological Investigation Committee. The arrow with its time-
mark gives the time for a particular phase of movement, which is usually
that of the commencement. |The number following the letter S gives the
time-scale in millimetres per hour. Thus S=60 means that 60 milli-
metres equal one hour.

88 REPORT—1900.

The locality at which a seismogram was obtained is indicated by the
following initial or initials :—

Isle of Wight (Shide) . S. Bombay - : : ae
Kew : ; ce Calcutta ; : 2 oulG:
Toronto , ; ; als Batavia ; ; : > Ba.
Victoria, B.C. 5 See Mauritius : ; . ME:
San Fernando é BS hIuG Cape of Good Hope. =») CGE
Madras . : : «| Ma. Tokio . 5 : : 5 AMO}

Mexico . 3 ‘ - Me.

17.55.
a eS ee owe
. | No. 278—T, S=59°5.
x
a
Te
c—)
>)
é pee? t a ve 18,19.
: L

No, 278.—V. S=60'5,

4.28.5. 4.37.7.

’ cp 4
{ No. 279.—S,
7
os 4.9.1,
rn Y v
m ——.___a——>k——z—=xz=£=_——
No. 279.—T. S=59:5.
wa
I
2
a
5
4 4.26.

A

No. 279,.—V. S=61,

No, 282.—5. §=58,

No, 282 —T. S=59,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION,

No. 283,—S, S=58,

No, 283,—T, S$=59,

= 7 NY RR te or :
No, 283.—V. S=60°5,

No, 291.—V. 8=60'5.

15 .17.7.

No 292.—T, S=52,

89

90 REPORT—1900.

11. 13.8, |

No, 298.—M, S=58,

17. 56.2.
=_= =

No, 298.—S. S=58,

Repetition

58.

No. 309.—S. 8

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 91

No, 305.—8. S=58.

No. 308.—B. S=59.

No. 308.—M, S=58'6.

No, 308.—S,. S=58,

No, 308.—S.F,

“6s=S “I—"60e ON

"PB" ST

‘PIS ST

REPORT—1900,

‘$68-S “H'D)'0—'60E ‘ON

i noiyadesy

92

‘CLP $1

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 93

14. 50.2,
peeenateenmmnerenmen |\' cme ene eee
+t

No. 321. S=58,

15. 27.95

59,

No, 321.—T. S=68'5.

No. 309.—V. §

Cee Q
T

No, 322.—S. S=58,

No. 322.—T, S=58°5.

No, 324.—B, §=59.

No, 324.—Ba, S=59,

94

=59°5.

No, 324.—C.G.H. 58

58,

No. 324.—S. §

Air Tremors

REPORT—1900.
cs fi {
{P f iT lu >
No. 324.-M. S=60,

Ss .
2 a
ll |
a a
: S
Gi 2
| s

a

of

6

4
<= _—

16 .19.0,

No, 382,—M, §=58'5,

59.

s=

No. 332.—0.G.H.

95

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

ee NM aaigmoe fi Beet tip af tp

‘9=S “M—EEe ‘ON

axons tlt

‘6S=S ‘H'D'O—'SE6 ‘ON

De {| Wt WM i‘ :
tly hy beryl

‘es=S “d—‘sss ‘ON

\

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| v
\

*9°se “0

“C.8S=S ‘OL—seg ‘ON

‘O9=S “ses ‘ON

1900.

"G-89=S ‘“d'S—'eee ‘on hy {
I

REPORT

“8S=S ‘S— see ‘ON

‘6s=S “NW—'Ess ‘ON

96

‘SIS'T ‘yo woog

97

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

“\LI—"Lé6 ‘ON

‘99=8 ‘W'S—Les ‘ON

“VLP LT
‘09=8 “M—Leé ‘ON

‘09=S “WA— LEE ‘ON

A pee eee seme SES Peco

“69=S “A—'SEE ‘ON

Dre age Apwieaanijny NIN)

noljjedour

ui

‘¢8S=S “d—L&6 ‘ON

Uh Y ‘qo “yo

moog m00g

Ht

98 REPORT—1900.

No. 338.—Ba. S=60.

< Boom off.

No. 338.—Me. S=59.

2. 23.9.
; none ‘fh fh
nn TT He Ne eae end
Ds uty

No. 343.—B. S=59.

Di oe

ee be Foe S a ee

No. 343.—C.G.H. S=59.

pee ya ee ED

ON ee

No. 343.—K. S=61.

No. 343.—M. ==59.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 99

Seema me
4 OS er ae
\?
No. 343.—To. S=61.

12, 5,7.
EE arta rim cas

ib
No, 344,—B.

11. 23. 3.

No. 344.—To. S=58.

\
t No. 344.—V. S=60.

ill
;
14. 42.1,
\Y
= —E—=E—__—
No. 345.—B.

No. 338—B. S=59.

1900.

REPORT

100

*2.09=S “MH 8 ‘ON

ti) tem —

‘6S=S ‘“H'N'0—"8és ‘ON

"98S=S ‘L—'sés ON

"89=S “N—'8éé ‘ON

Ah. ewan hh ANIM Weyl ashy he ;

"OL * SS

R

eter

101

98S=S ‘N—'Lbé ‘ON

=§ “M—L7é ON

mn

acnstadenoeme agi} Uy yes il

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

hm
Newer

‘po moog

1900.

REPORT

102

‘8.g9=SE’s—F9¢ ‘ON

a Te ee antl ye renin

\

— He ff)
ereaier 7

‘6S=S ‘OL—'1P§ ‘ON

ay

‘6S=S "S—LPE ‘ON

BGS * LT

103

INVESTIGATION,

ON SEISMOLOGICAL

‘3.89=S “L—79¢ ON

"SG=S ‘W--~''96 “ON

‘6S=S ‘H'p'0—'P9é ‘ON
ee es Ts sorta ore

‘6S=S ‘d—'h9s ON

h

‘i : Its eS it eS

air i
i ‘OT’ OL

‘9.68=S “A—'b9E ON

"v'98'6

1900.

REPORT

104

19, 19.8,
v

59.

No. 366.—B. S$

S=59'5.

No. 366.—Ba.

"agc=9 ‘S—TLE ‘ON

a emia

‘“6S=S ‘S—'998 ‘ON

‘sS=S ‘W—'99¢ ‘ON

‘09=S “A—'P9S "ON

onoo dnote inthe ‘

‘= ‘L—'TLe ‘ON

‘sirer T 7

"PEP SI

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 105

No. 371,—V. S=60.

III. Harthquakes and Timekeepers at Observatories.

That earthquakes we can feel frequently accelerate, retard, or stop
clocks with pendulums is a fact well known, but the extent to which
eryptoseismic disturbances which sweep over the whole surface of our
globe many times per year affect this class of timekeepers has not yet
been investigated. ;

Father J. de Moidrey, 8.J., of the observatory at Zikawei, gives me
the following notes on this subject. On June 12, 1897, ‘an excellent clock
facing north lost 4m. 44:5s. in the afternoon, whilst another, almost
identical, fixed to the same brick pillar, but facing east, was undisturbed
(rate O-ls.). Secchi’s barograph shows a slight stroke at 11h. 25m.
G.M.T., corresponding to an oscillation of 1 mm. of the quicksilver.

‘A fast moving barograph (mercury) shows a spot at 11h. 23m., indi-
cating a swing of the mercury of 0:25mm. This increased to 0°50 mm.
and died out suddenly.

‘The magnetographs, declinometer, bifilar and Lloyd’s balance were
all disturbed, although it was a day of perfect magnetic calm.’

On this day, at 11h. 5m. G.M.T., a violent earthquake took place in
Assam. The large waves of this would reach Zikaweiat 11h. 21m. G.M.T.,
or 7h. 26m. 43s. p.m. local time.

In a second letter Father Moidrey writes :

‘On June 4, 1898, about midnight, our north clock lost about four
seconds. That same night at a watchmaker’s in Shanghai several clocks
(six, I believe), all facing north or south, were stopped. Nothing else was
noticed by the watchmaker, M. Vrard, who in his surprise telephoned to
the observatory to ask what was the matter. Nobody in the town felt an
earthquake, nor was one referred to in the newspapers. A missionary
at Nankin had his clock stopped the same night, but did not notice any
other phenomena. Our magnetograph and thermograph recorded a shock
at 16h. 24m. 17s., June 3, G.M.T. On that day there was an earthquake
at Chemulpo, Corea.’

We are here evidently dealing with an earthquake recorded on June 3
at 17h. 14m. at Shide, and also recorded at Kew, Nicolaiew, and Potsdam.

From the ‘ Bulletin Mensuel’ of Zikawei, third quarter, 1897, we learn
that in the night of September 2 the two clocks were stopped and the
magnetographs were disturbed at 1.42 (September 1, 17h. 36m. G.M.T.).
Nothing was felt. This may refer to an earthquake recorded at Shide,
September 1, 18h. 29m. G.M.T.

Although Professor E. C. Pickering writes me that on September 3,
10 and 23, 1898, which are dates for heavy earthquakes in Alaska, and
on September 20, when there was a severe earthquake in Asia Minor,
there were no noticeable changes in the rates of the clocks at Harvard

106 REPORT—1900.

University ; the observations made at Zikawei indicate that at certain
observatories at least the unfelt movements of earthquakes may from time
to time have serious effects on timekeepers.

With the object of throwing light upon this subject I shall esteem
it a favour if directors of observatories will let me know whether any
changes were observed or not observed in the rates of pendulum time-
keepers on dates corresponding to those of large earthquakes enumerated
on p. 108, addressing their communications to me at Shide, Isle of Wight,
England.

IV. Earthquakes and Rain.

In the British Association Reports for 1899, p. 209, I gave a quota-
tion from Mr. O. H. Howarth respecting a heavy condensation of aqueous
vapour which he observed for three hours after the Mexican earthquake
of January 24, 1899. This was in the form of a heavy mist which settled
over the head of a cafion at an elevation of 8,700 feet.

Mr. Howarth states that in this place such mists are never seen at this
time of the year, it being the middle of the dry season.

Something similar to this occurred on June 12, 1897, after the severe
earthquake which originated on that day in the highlands of Assam.
Mr. H. Luttman-Johnson, I.C.S., in the ‘Journal’ of the Society of Arts,
April 15, 1898, describes the weather before the earthquake as having
cleared : the afternoon was lovely, and there was not a cloud in the sky.
Five minutes after the earthquake the residents in Shillong were sur-
rounded with cloud and mist, and they sat up all night with rain beating
upon all sides.

Captain A. A. Howell, I.C.8., deputy-governor of the Garo Hills,
gives the actual rainfall. The records taken at 8 a.m. showed that for
the twenty-four hours preceding the 12th there was no rain. There was
rain at noon on the 12th, but it cleared off at 2 p.m. The earthquake
occurred at about 5 p.m., and after that until next morning 3°26 inches
fell.

In considering whether there is any possibility of a connection
between the phenomena here considered we must remember that observa-
tions showing that rain and cloud have followed closely on the heels of
certain earthquakes appear to be confined to tropical and semi-tropical
countries ; and it is in these countries where sudden showers, indicating the
collapse of critical atmospheric conditions, are frequent. . Given, therefore,
such conditions at no great distance above the surface of the earth, which
was probably the condition in the highlands of Assam, and then admit
that beneath the gaseous covering consisting of layers of air of different
temperatures and with different degrees of saturation 10,000 square miles
of mountainous country was moved, or that a much larger area was thrown
into violent wave-like movement, we recognise that the relationship of
earthquakes and atmospheric precipitation may not be so improbable as is
generally supposed. As the ground rose upwards, the air immediately
above it would suffer compression, and as the ground fell there would be
rarefaction, whilst layers of air differing in their physical state might be
mixed, and a vigorous seismic activity might in this way result in pre-
cipitation.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 107

V. Earthquakes and Small Changes in Latitude. .

In vol. xvii. of the ‘Seismological Journal of Japan,’ 1893, p. 17,
I drew attention to the observation that the period of maxima increase
in latitude in Berlin apparently coincided with maxima of earthquakes
recorded in Japan.

If we compare the wanderings of the pole from its mean position for
the years 1895-1898! with registers of earthquakes which have disturbed
continental areas or the whole world, we find a somewhat similar relation-
ship. This is shown in the accompanying table, the pole displacements.
being measured from Albrecht’s figure.

1895 1896 1897 1898
; | 22 [4a] Se jeg] de |44) 23 |e
ea |eel ea |g5| 2 |ae| 2/2:
sal a Si = an oy pe Paes: (rahe
1. January 1 to February 5 0-03 | 1 0-071 1 | o14] 5 ll o12| 4
2. February 5 to March 14 0:03 | 2 || 0:04 |} 1 || O11 | 7 |} O11} O
3. March 14 to April 19 . 0:06 | O || 0:05 | 1 || 0-07 | 1 || O07 | 4
4, April 19 to May 26 007} 1 || 0:08 | 2 || O11 | 5 || O08 | 5
5. May 26 to July 1 0:08 } 1 || 0:10 | 2 |} O13) 5 || 010] 6
6. July 1 to August 7 .}| 0°03 | 1 || O11 |] O |] O11 | 6 | O16) 5
7. August 7 to September 12 . | 0:05 O || 0:10} 4 || 010] 5 || 0:15] 6
8. September 12 to October 19 | 0°06 | 1 || 0:13] 3 || 0:07} 5
9. October 19 to November 24 | 0:06} 1 || 0:10 | 4 || O11} 4
1
10. November 24 to December 31 | 0:08 | 1 || 0:13] O || 0:12 {or
4
44
Totals. ‘ «(0:53 } 9) | O:9L- | 18 || oF it 0:79 | 30
47

A conclusion suggested by this table is that, during intervals when the
pole displacement has been comparatively great, large earthquakes have
been fairly frequent, and vice versd. In the yearly totals this is marked.

If we turn to a figure given by F. R. Helmert, showing variations in
latitude as determined from 353 sets of photographic records made on
forty-two days in the months of April, May, and June, 1897 (see ‘Bericht |
uber eine neue Reihe von Polhéhen-Bestimmungen, &c., im Jahre 1897,’
F. R. Helmert, Potsdam), we see that successive daily means frequently
differ from 0'’:1 to 0/2 amongst themselves. Equally large differences.
exist between the separate observations from which these means are
deduced.

That is to say, successive observations may show differences as great
as the annual maximum displacement of the pole, which is about 0/25
from a mean position.

If on Helmert’s figure we plot the large earthquakes for these months,
it is seen that in the time of their occurrence they closely coincide with

1 See Bericht wiber den Stand der Erforschung der Breiten- Variation am Schlusse
des Jahres 1898, von Th. Albrecht.

108 REPORT—1900.

the times at which large deviations in latitude occur. In April, when
these deviations were comparatively small, large earthquakes did not
occur.

When considering the possibility of any relationship between earth-
quakes and these extremely frequent and practically oscillatory changes
in latitude, there are two points of importance to be remembered.

The first is that with each of these earthquakes there is a sudden
shifting of a large mass of material at a seismic origin. The molar dis-
placement for the Indian earthquake of June 12, 1897, is estimated by
Mr. R. D. Oldham by an area of 6,000 or 7,000 square miles, and it is
not improbable that earthquakes which have caused the Pacific Ocean to
oscillate for a period of twenty-four hours were accompanied by displace-
ments of larger magnitude.

The second consideration is that each of the large earthquakes here
considered has been accompanied by surface or distortional waves
which in many instances affect the whole surface of the globe. These
waves, so far as we can infer from their velocity, period, and maximum
angle of inclination, vary between twenty and seventy miles in length,
and are from a few inche& to two or three feet in height. If they attain
the magnitudes here given (see p. 83) they seem certainly sufficient to
relieve a district in orogenic strain.

A further test of the suggestion that slight nutational effects may
result from earthquakes would be to compare observations indicating
small changes in latitude made before and after the times of large earth-
perce referred to in the report, the more important of which are as

ollows :

H. M.

No. 250. Origin Mexico, January 24, 1899, 23 44
jy 808 » Alaska, September 4 ,, 0 11
” 337 % 9 ” 10 ” 16 51
5 338 93 9 » 10 5 20 21
9» 048 » Smyrna, os 20. 29
3 OAT » Ceram, ms 2.9) eee ol ed
» ool » Mexico, January 20 1900,18 31

The times given are the approximate times at the origin. These are
expressed in Greenwich mean time (civil), 0 or 24 hrs.=midnight. The
times at which the large waves reached any distant station may be calcu-
lated by the application of Curve IIa or Id in the table on p. 67.

VI. Selection of a Fault and Locality suitable for Observations on
Earth-Movements. By Cimment Rep.

The selection of a favourable site for observations upon differential
movement between the two sides of a fauit presents many difficulties, and
the locality we have chosen is more to be regarded as the best available
than as ideally perfect. Leaving out of account for the present considera-
tions other than geological, there are certain conditions, most of which
must be complied with if the observations are to be of real value.

The fault selected must be :

1. Of considerable magnitude, and not be merely a branch fault which
the next earth-movement may easily leave unaffected.

2. It should be of known date, and belong to a recent geological
period. This consideration is important, for a Tertiary movement is far

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 109

more likely to be still in progress than is one which can only be shown
' to affect Paleozoic or Secondary rocks. Not only have the older
movements in many cases ceased long since, and have given place to move-
ments in different directions ; but a fault which has long remained without
movement tends to become closed and re-cemented, so that there is a
considerable likelihood that any future movement may not follow exactly
the same line, even though the strain be in the same direction.

3. The fault should crop out on ground fairly level, and in hard rocks,
otherwise the observations may be masked by the slight irregular ‘ creep ”
of the surface downhill, and no firm foundation for the apparatus be
obtained.

4. It is desirable that the rocks on the two sides of the fault, though
geologically far apart, should be as like as possible in lithological charac-
ter, so that any surface movements due to change of temperature or
absorption of rain-water should affect the two sides alike.

5. In order to avoid complications through slow solution of the rocks
by percolating rain, a fault bringing together insoluble silicious rocks
would be preferable to any other.

6. As the records to be obtained may throw great light on movements.
of the earth’s crust, it is desirable that the fault selected for observation
should be one belonging to a set of disturbances of great magnitude,
having common characteristics, and affecting a considerable area. It is.
therefore important that the district chosen should be one which has been
carefully studied geologically, and of which the structure is thoroughly
known.

These various conditions, added to the consideration of convenience of
access of the locality, availability of a skilled observer, availability of the
land, and other minor points, made a series of requirements not easy to
satisfy, and I will now indicate in what respects the site finally selected
comes up to or falls short of the ideal set before us.

Consideration No. 2 confines us at once to the only area in Britain in
which large earth-movements of Tertiary date can clearly be proved to
have taken place. This area may be taken to lie between the North
Downs and the English Channel, and to extend as far west as Weymouth
and Abbotsbury. But only the parts of it in which Tertiary rocks are
still preserved will do for our purpose ; the reason being that older move-
ments of the same general character affected the Jurassic and Lower
Cretaceous rocks. These intra-Cretaceous disturbances cannot always be
distinguished from the Tertiary movements, in the absence of the uncon-
formable Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary strata. Thus in the Wealden
area a good many faults are believed to affect the Lower Cretaceous rocks ;
but they are of no great magnitude, and it is impossible at present to
differentiate those of Tertiary date from the older series.

We are thus confined, by a process of elimination, to the sharply folded
belt which occupies the southern part of the Hampshire Basin and
includes the northern half of the Isle of Wight. Even over this area it
would only be possible to use Mr. Horace Darwin’s apparatus at certain
points ; for much of the country is sharply folded without faulting, and
any earth-movements now in progress could only be measured by careful
levelling and triangulation. Thus we are confined ultimately to a limited
highly disturbed and faulted belt, which extends east and west through
the centre of the Isle of Wight and reappears in Dorset between Studland
Bay and Abbotsbury.

110 , REPORT—1900.

Within the area thus selected are various sharp monoclinal folds, all
with an east and west axis, and with the strata so bent as to become
nearly vertical. In places the lateral pressure and folding have been so
violent as to pass into overthrust faulting on a considerable scale. None
of the Tertiary disturbances in this part of England is a normal drop-
fault ; the supposed north and south Tertiary fault in the Medina valley,
though often shown in old maps and text books, having no existence.

The date of most violent disturbance in the system of folds above
alluded to is clearly later than Middle Oligocene ; for in the Isle of
Wight the Hamstead Beds, which belong to that period, and are the
newest Tertiary strata there preserved, are tilted at a high angle. From
various considerations, which need not here be recapitulated, it seems
probable that this set of disturbances commenced in Eocene times, became
most violent in the Miocene period, and died away in Pliocene times.!
‘Though in our south-eastern counties older Pliocene strata to some extent
have been tilted, the disturbance has not yet been shown to affect newer
-deposits, or to be still in progress. This last is one of the principal points
which our apparatus should decide.

Consideration No. 1 limits our choice to a small group of faults, not
more than half-a-dozen, and as the apparatus employed needs a fairly
clean-cut fracture, unless the pipes are to be of unreasonable length, it is
only at a few points on these faults that the observations can be made.
We have thus so greatly reduced the number of possible points at which
the apparatus could be fixed, that it will now be simplest to describe the
faults one by one, and point out to what extent they do or do not fulfil
the rest of the requirements.

Working from east to west, the first Tertiary fault met with is in the
‘main monocline of the Isle of Wight, which occasionally passes into a
thrust-fault of no great extent. In one place the basement bed of the
London Clay is brought against Bracklesham Beds ; but the strata are too
soft and full of water to yield satisfactory fixed points. In the others,
plastic Clays of the Reading Series have slid over Chalk, the bedding being
vertical and the surface slope very high. At no point in the Isle of
Wight could a satisfactory site be found.

Following this disturbed belt westward, we again meet with a sharp
monoclinal fold, passing into a slide-fault, at Ballard Cliff in Dorset.
This is the well-known ‘Isle of Purbeck Fault,’ which thrusts Chalk with
flints with curved bedding over similar rock with the bedding vertical.
The fault itself is very conspicuous in the cliff-face, curving through about
a tenth of a circle in a height of 280 feet.2 This fault might be a good
one for observation; but though it is of considerable magnitude, the
locality is by no means convenient of access. The disturbance is, however,
a valuable one to study, for its character is clearly shown in the section.
The other faults with which we are now dealing apparently are all of this
type.
F The next Tertiary fault met with is close to Corfe Castle, where in the
sharpest part of the monoclinal curve the London Clay has been thrust
over the Reading Beds and abuts against the Upper Chalk. This slide-
fault is of smal] magnitude, and as in similar slides in the Isle of Wight,

1 Reid and Strahan, ‘Geology of the Isle of Wight,’ chapter xiv. Memoirs of the
Geological Survey, 1889; Reid, ‘Pliocene Deposits of Britain,’ chapter v. ibid. 1890.

2 See Strahan, ‘Geology of the Isle of Purbeck,’ chapter xv. Mem. Geol. Survey,
1898.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION, 111

the ground is too steep and the rocks too soft to yield satisfactory fixed
points. Along the same line the junction of the Chalk and Eocene is
again slightly faulted near Lulworth ; but the fault is of small magnitude,
and the adjoining rocks are too much shattered for our purpose. The
Durdle fault runs parallel with and close to high cliffs, so that delicate
observations might be entirely masked by movements caused by the
gradual removal of large masses of rock by the sea on the south and the
consequent rise of the strata qn that side. At Bat’s Head the Isle of
Purbeck Fault is finally lost beneath the sea, and the shattering of the
rocks is too great to allow of exact observations. This fault does not
reappear in the Weymouth area.

There still remains one of the most important Tertiary disturbances
in the district, that known as the Ridgeway fault. This also is an over-
thrust fault cutting through a monocline, or through the north limb of a
sharp anticlinal fold. Its date is clearly later than the Bagshot period ;
its magnitude is great, and if any of the Tertiary faults are still under-
going changes, this one is likely to partake in the movement. It brings
together rocks of very different ages and of varying character, so that the
choice of exact locality for the observations depended on the discovery of
a spot where the fault is a clean fracture, where the rocks on each side
are hard and of fairly similar lithological character, and where the ground
is sufficiently level for the apparatus. Along a good deal of its course
there is much fault rock or broken ground, and in most parts the strata
on one or both sides are soft. These parts would not be convenient or
satisfactory for our purpose. For various reasons the choice narrowed
down to the neighbourhood of Poxwell, where Middle or Lower Chalk
abuts against Lower Purbeck ; or to the district between Upway and
Portisham, a distance of four miles, where Upper Chalk is faulted
against strata close to the base of the Lower Purbeck, or even against
Portland Beds. Of these localities Upway was chosen (fig. 2), for there
the deep railway-cutting has laid open the structure of the disturbance,
and within a reasonable distance, though not too near, was a piece of
fairly level ground, one end of which had been opened for chalk-pits and
the other for quarries in the Purbeck Beds. The railway-cutting itself
would not have been satisfactory, for in it a wide dyke of ‘fault-rock,’
composed of Oxford Clay and Cornbrash, occurs, and south of the fault
there are soft rocks. Besides this, soft strata in a deep cutting will
almost certainly be subject to slow ‘creep’ to such an extent as entirely
to mask any deeper-seated movement.

The site finally selected proved by an unexpected series of coincidences
to be particularly convenient. It is broken ground, now only used ‘for
rough pasture and not liable to be disturbed by the plough ; it belongs
to Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, who have most kindly done all
in their power to help us in the experiment. Our thanks are not only
due to the College, but also to the tenant for his assistance in carrying
out the work. And last, but not least, it was conveniently accessible to
the member of the Committee who was prepared to undertake the
recording.

While our excavations were being made I examined them, and noted
as exactly as possible the geological conditions in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, for the fault varies within very short distances, and has
changed completely in the two hundred yards between the railway
cutting and our selected site. In that short distance the dyke of Oxford

REPORT—1900.

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ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 1138

Clay has disappeared entirely, as is the case with the Middle Chalk on
the north side of the fracture, as well as the Wealden and Upper and
Middle Purbeck on the south side. The fault has also become a fracture
of unusual sharpness for one of so great a magnitude.

In discussing the character and extent of thrust of the fault at
Ridgeway, it should not be forgotten that it does not pass through a
series of conformable strata. The Upper Cretaceous rocks here rest
unconformably on a folded and greatly eroded surface of Lower Cretaceous
and Jurassic strata, so that the local absence of Wealden and of most of
the Purbeck may be due to this unconformity. These intra-Cretaceous
folds have an axis approximately parallel with the much later Tertiary
disturbances. The most important of them is the wide anticline between
Upway and Portland. This is followed northward by a narrow and
sharp syncline, which brings in the Wealden and Purbeck between Upton
and Bincombe, and passes unconformably under Upper Cretaceous rocks
towards the east and towards the north-north-west. Next follows an
anticline, which is almost entirely hidden by the newer rocks. It is
touched at Poxwell, where the Jurassic strata dip northward at a higher
angle than the Upper Cretaceous. It then seems to run beneath the
Chalk parallel to the southern boundary just north of the Tertiary over-
thrust. Its southern limb reappears at Bincombe, but soon disappears
again beneath the overthrust mass of Chalk. The position and character
of these earlier folds, their relation to the Upper Cretaceous overlap, and
the relation of both to the overlap of the Bagshot Beds on to the Oolite,!
are the factors which produced a continuous plane of weakness extending
obliquely downward from the surface deep into the Jurassic strata, as
shown in the diagram (fig. 3).

The outcome of this geological structure has been that any subsequent
lateral compression in a north and south direction causes the massive
Chalk, over 800 feet thick, to be driven against the wide arch of rigid
Purbeck and Portland rocks extending towards Portland. Any such
movement must tend still more to fold and buckle the already existing
small anticlines and synclines ; but the main arch of hard Upper Jurassic
rocks would offer great resistance, as would the horizontal thick-bedded
Chalk. Thus the Chalk must approach the main anticline, overriding the
minor folds, taking with it such parts of them as happened to be above
the plane of greatest weakness, and smearing the slide-plane with Oxford
Clay and Cornbrash caught up in the passage over the northern limb of
the anticline. :

The above explanation will, I believe, account for the whole of the
curious phenomena recorded along this line of fault. Granted north and
south compression, any differential movement must be along this plane of
weakness. The extent of the differential movement must also be greatest
at the surface where the plane emerges, and must rapidly decrease down-
ward and northward until the fault entirely disappears. The extent of
the movement in this case is probably about half a mile.

From the data in the memoirs and maps of the Geological Survey, and
from my notes made more recently, I have constructed the subjoined
geological section across the fault at the point where our apparatus is
fixed (fig. 4) ; but though the underground structure must be not unlike
that indicated, the exact curve of the fault, and also the exact character

hen Reid, ‘ Geology of Dorchester,’ chapter vi., Memoirs Geol. Survey, 1899.
’ I

REPORT--1900.

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116 REPORT—1900.

of the hidden folds beneath the Chalk, must remain uncertain. The
Eocene deposits are not shown in this section, as they happen to have
been denuded along the line selected. They occur only a short distance
away out of the line of section. . The actual evidence seen at the surface
close to our site will now be described.

On the south side of the fault the strata dip northward at varying
angles for a distance of about two miles from the crest of the main anti-
cline, the lowest rocks in the district occurring in this anticline north of
Radipole, where the Forest Marble appears at the surface. To this
succeed in order the Cornbrash, Oxford Clay, Corallian Rocks, and
Kimeridge Clay, followed at Upway (at the south border of the map,
fig. 2), where the slope becomes steeper, by Portland Sand, Portland Stone,
and Lower Purbeck Beds. The lower quarries at Upway are in Portland

Fie. 5.—Section of Lower Purbeck Rocks, dipping at 52°.

\j i

DV Shyi5

Rock, dipping north ; the higher are in Lower Purbeck, nearly horizontal,
for at that point the lowest part of a synclinal fold is reached and the
strata begin to rise again.

Higher up the hill in quarry and road-cutting the sections are nearly
continuous, the dip being about 8.S.W. at angles varying from 15° to 30°.
Signs of lateral compression are also common, this being particularly
well seen on the west side of the quarry nearest to the fault, where in a
few yards the dip changes from nearly horizontal, with small sharp folds,
to an angle of 15°. At the extreme north edge of this quarry the
Committee undertook special excavations in order to clear up the geology
at a point close to the fault. We followed a particular rock bed to a
depth of 9 feet from the surface, obtaining the subjoined section, seen
from the east (fig. 5). The strata laid bare belong to the ‘dirt-bed’ of the

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 117

Lower Purbeck, and occur within a few feet of the Portland Rock. The
strike is almost parallel to the fault, though more nearly east and west.
Thus it becomes almost certain that Portland Beds crop out at the
surface immediately east of the Roman road and are probably within less
than 10 feet of the surface at the point where the recording apparatus
crosses the fault.

Taking now the trench in which the apparatus is placed, we will
describe the strata there seen on each side of the fault. The trench is
9 metres long, and at the four observing stations (see Mr. Horace Darwin’s
Report, p. 119) sections were exposed to a depth varying from 5} to7 feet.
At Station SS (the southernmost) the depth was 54 feet, of which the top
3 feet was in disturbed ground, the lower 2} showing hard brownish fine-
grained oolite with fossils, the rock being somewhat shattered, with small
open fissures, which were afterwards filled in with concrete. This rock
undoubtedly belongs to the Lower Purbeck ; it seems to dip at a high angle
in a southerly direction, the strike, however, not being parallel with the
fault. The shallower trench between Stations SS and S showed similar
strata, though no fossils or oolitic grains were observed. At Station § the
hole was also 54 feet deep ; the rock being a hard splintery brown limestone,
more or less nodular and containing small chert nodules. I believe that this
rock corresponds with some cherty limestones which are seen in the large
Upway Quarry, just below the ‘dirt-bed’ and within 5 or 10 feet of the
base of the Purbecks. Near the fault, however, they are harder and
more crystalline than in the quarry. I was not able to find the earthy
and carbonaceous ‘dirt-bed’ at this point, though it is so well seen only
50 or 60 feet away (see fig. 5). The squeezing-out or thickening of a soft
stratum is, however, a phenomenon constantly to be met with near a big
disturbance, and the absence of the carbonaceous seam is probably due to
this cause. The south cheek of the fault consists of brecciated white
limestone with chert. These exposures seem to indicate that the Portland
Stone must occur within 5 feet or so of the surface close to the fault, and
on the strength of the new evidence I have added an inlier of Portland
rock to the map made by Mr. Strahan, who agrees with me that such an
addition is necessary.

The fault itself is represented by a band of fault-rock not more than
2 feet in thickness and quite unlike the wide dyke of mingled Oolite and
Oxford Clay seen in the railway-cutting. In our trench the fault-rock is
a hard mass of breccia consisting of Upper Chalk and fragments of
Purbeck Limestone.

The north cheek of the fault consists of very hard shattered and
re-crystallised flinty chalk like that associated with the similar disturb-.
ances at Corfe Castle and at Ballard Cliff, though at Ridgeway I did not
observe actual calcite veins. Two feet north of the fault I dug out a
specimen of Ananchytes ovatus ; but this echinoderm and a few fragments
of Inoceramus were the only fossils I could find in the Chalk in our trench.
The flinty character cf the Chalk and the presence of the Ananchytes
show, however, that we have passed suddenly from Lower Purbeck to Upper
Chalk, and the character of the Chalk and of the included flints indicates, I
think, that we are at an horizon above the Micraster-zones and probably at
least 300 feet above the base of the Chalk.

Between the fault and Station N the Chalk gradually becomes softer
and less crystalline and contains small broken flints, black with moderate
rinds, The hole at Station NN showed 6 feet of moderately hard Chalk,

118 REPORT—1900,

with numerous brownish-grey flints ; the Chalk being fissured but not
altered. At Station NN the hole was 7 feet deep and exhibited Chalk
with numerous flints, the rock being much slickensided and fissured. It
contained a few fragments of Jnoceramus. I was not able anywhere to
get a satisfactory dip in the Chalk in the trench or holes ; though the
general impression suggested was of an ascending succession northward,
and of a high dip in that direction.

The general results of the geological examination may thus be sum-
marised. The fault, at the point where the apparatus crosses it, probably
cuts out strata having a thickness of nearly 1,000 feet, made up thus :—

Chalk (part of Upper, whole of Middle and Lower) . : . 300
Greensand and Gault. 3 : : F : 5 . 150
Wealden : : 3 é : ; ; . . 5 . 330
Upper Purbeck i : ; : ; : 5 : 5 Se eg 3
Middle Purbeck . : : ; : : 5 4 5 niin)
Lower Purbeck (to within 5 feet of base) . ; t : - 85

Total feet 985

The break, however, is not caused by a normal fault of 985 feet throw.
Tt is the result of a sliding movement over a cylindrical surface curving
downward and northward from nearly vertical to nearly horizontal.
This view, as pointed out by Mr. Strahan, explains the presence of a
dyke of Oxford Clay and Cornbrash in the railway-cutting ; a fact which
cannot be satisfactorily accounted for by normal faulting, even to the
extent of 2,500 or 3,000 feet. The movement along the curve of the
thrust-plane amounts to not less than 2,500 feet, even if the strata are
everywhere vertical to the fault. It is just possible, however, that earlier
faulting along nearly the same line in intra-Cretaceous times brought up
Cornbrash, so that it occurs immediately beneath the Upper Cretaceous
rocks just north of the Tertiary fault. On this supposition, and with
the most favourable angle of dip throughout, the Tertiary thrust may not
exceed 500 feet. The most probable estimate of the extent of the
Tertiary displacement is, however, about half a mile ; a lower estimate
demands an improbable series of fortuitous coincidences, such as we are
not justified in postulating.

There is one point that I should like to suggest for future considera-
tion. The disturbances just described result from lateral compression of
the strata in a north and south direction, and it is clear that levelling
across the fractures will only give us one element in that motion. The
horizontal movement must be of much greater magnitude than the vertical,
and could be accurately tested by triangulation. As the folds have always
an east and west axis, and there is no sign of disturbance in other
directions, triangulation across the folds from fixed points lying east and
west ought to enable us to test whether any change is now going on over
wider areas. Even a comparison of the earlier Ordnance triangulation
of the South of England with the later one might throw light on this
question, if the stations can be identified with sufficient accuracy. No
minute re-measurement of a base-line would be necessary for this test.
If the movement is going on at all it must be far greater in a north and
south than in an east and west direction—i.c., it will alter the latitude
but not the longitude. It must therefore distort every triangle which can

be re-observed from two such points as St. Catherine’s Down and the top
of Portiand.

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION. 119

VII. An attempt to detect and measure any relative movement of the strata
that may be now taking place at the Ridgeway Fault near Upway,
Dorsetshire.—Preliminary Report by Horacr Darwin, August 1900.

The Fault for this experiment was selected by Mr. Clement Reid, and
is described by him in a separate report. It would have been better if
the rock had been harder and more impervious to water ; the solubility
of the carbonate of lime in the rock is also a disadvantage. The site is
easy of access, an essential point in such an experiment ; this, together
with the advantages pointed out by Mr. C. Reid, justify the selection of
the Fault.

The Fault where the apparatus is fixed is a few yards east of the
Roman road and about 560 yards north of the cross roads in the village
of Upway, Dorsetshire, and is about 360 feet above Ordnance datum,
Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, allowed the apparatus to be fixed
on their property and did all in their power to make the experiment
successful, and the Committee are most grateful to them. I must thank
Mr. Nelson Richardson for the many hours’ help he gave me at Upway,
and in arranging for the experiment, and for the readings he took after-
wards. Thanks are also due to Mr. Loveless, the tenant of the land,
for the care he has taken in carrying out the work and the help he gave
in every way.

Four positions were taken in a straight line approximately at right
angles to the fault ; these positions will be denoted by the letters N.N., N.,
8., SS. ; N.N. is 9 metres and N. 44 metres north of the Fault, and S.S.
is 9 metres and 8. 44 metres south of it. The apparatus is arranged to
measure the relative vertical movement of the strata at these four
stations. There are advantages in selecting four instead of two stations.
Jf there had been only two stations, and the apparatus got damaged at
one of them, the experiment must have been a failure ; also, if there had
been any accidental displacement of the apparatus relatively to the strata
at either of the two stations it might have led to misleading results.
With four stations such damage or movement will probably be detected,
and the results, though less valuable, will not be rendered quite useless,
as would be the case with only two stations.

The movement of the strata at the Fault may take place in any or all
of the following ways :—

(1) The strata on both sides of the Fault may tilt as a whole without
any slip taking place at the Fault.

(2) The strata at the north side may tilt and the south side not tilt,
and still no slip at the Fault.

(3) The strata at the south side may tilt and the north side not tilt,

and still no slip at the Fault.

(4) There may be slipping at the Fault with no tilting.

These four movements may be all taking place at the same time, and
the use of four stations will allow of each movement being separated from
the others.

__ The apparatus has been designed by me and made by the Cambridge
Scientific Instrument Company, Limited. I have not been able to give
sufficient time this summer to overcome some difficulties which I regret
that I did not foresee, and it is for this reason that no numerical results

120 REPORT—1900.

are given in this report. The instrument, however, promises well, and I
hope next year to give a description of it and numerical results ; now I
only propose to explain its general principle.

A brass casting is permanently fixed to the rock at each of the four
stations, and it is the relative vertical movement of these castings which
is measured. A stand carrying a microscope can be placed on any of
these castings ; it has three feet, each in the form of an inverted V, and
these rest on three cylindrical pieces forming part of the brass casting,
This is the usual geometrical arrangement, giving six points of contact,
and determining absolutely the relative position of the microscope stand
and the casting. The microscope is about 4 feet long, and thus the eye
is in a convenient position for taking an observation. The microscope is
moved vertically in the stand by a micrometer screw, and carries at its
lower end a needle pointing vertically downward. The micrometer
screw is turned, the microscope is lowered till the needle point touches
the surface of some oil contained in a vessel fixed to the rock, and
the position of the micrometer screw noted. The microscope and stand
are then removed and placed on the other castings, and the observation
repeated ; in this way the relative position of the casting at each station
to the oil surface is measured. The four oil vessels are connected by a
pipe ; the surface of the oil is therefore at the same level. The needle
point is illuminated by a mirror fixed in the oil vessel, and the light,
leaving it in a nearly horizontal direction, is reflected by a vertical
mirror nearly directly backwards, and is then again reflected vertically
upwards through the object-glass and eyepiece of the microscope. On
looking vertically downwards through the microscope, the needle point
and its reflection in the surface of the oil are seen as if the eye were
placed just above the surface of the oil ; and when the micrometer screw
is turned the needle point and its image are seen to approach each other.
The moment of contact is perfectly evident ; the needle and its image
appear to run into each other in a confused manner, owing to the dis-
tortion of the oil surface when the needle point touches it. The delicacy
is considerable ; the divisions in the divided head of the micrometer screw
correspond to a movement of +4, mm., and it is easy to estimate a tenth
of these divisions, but I do not think that the readings can be trusted to
this amount, and it is proposed only to read to ;1 mm., which is well
within the power of the instrument.

The micrometer readings give the height of each station above the oil
surface, and from these readings is deduced the movement at each
station relatively to a datum plane. This datum plane is taken at the
mean level of the four stations. The necessary calculations also prevent
any error arising from change of the oil level due to expansion or
evaporation, damage to the needle point, or expansion of the microscope.

It is hoped that a very small slip at the Fault will be detected and
measured, but even if the movement should ever become as much as
10 mm. to 20 mm., it can still be measured with great accuracy. It is
unlikely that such a movement will damage the lead pipe where it crosses
the Fault ; damage to the pipe, however, can be easily remedied without
impairing the accuracy of the readings. Some readings have been taken,
but it is feared that they are not perfectly trustworthy ; they may,
however, be useful in confirming later results.

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 121

Report on the Present State of the Theory of Point-groups.—Parr I.
By Frances HarpcastTLe, Cambridge.

CoNTENTS.
PAGI
§ 1. Introduction. 5 ; f ‘ ; i 5 ‘ : F ; fo IPA
§ 2. Historical Outline. 7 4 J 5 . i ey W210
§ 3. Analysis of the Subject according to Content. 5 - 123
§ 4. Brill’s Memoirs on Elimination and Algebraic Correspondences, 1863— 1873 123

§ 1. Inrropuction.

THE term point-group is a direct translation of the German word Punkt-
gruppe, first used by Brill and Noether in the year 1873 in their classic
memoir on algebraic functions,! but to my knowledge, although more than
a quarter of a century has elapsed since then, there has been no very
systematic attempt to present the theory of point-groups to English
readers along any of its lines of development. And yet it should prove
of interest even to those mathematicians who do not desire to specialise
in it, for, historically and logically, it touches upon many distinct branches
of pure mathematics. To mention only those which are most directly
brought into connection with each other, we have the intersections of
plane curves, the elimination of variables from systems of equations, the
algebraic theory of correspondences on a plane curve, properties of linear
systems of plane curves, and applications of the theory of functions to
the theory of curves and surfaces in space of any number of dimen-
sions.

As frequently happens when the progress of a subject has been due
to many different writers, the logical and the chronological divisions do
not coincide. I have therefore in view a dual arrangement of the
subject-matter. In the present instalment of my Report, I have
attempted to sketch this proposed arrangement under its two aspects,
viz.: as an historical outline (§ 2), and as an analysis according to
content (§ 3). This is followed ($ 4) by a detailed account of one of the
historical divisions I hope in the subsequent portions of the Report to
deal in a somewhat similar way with the remaining divisions, and to
append a complete bibliography.

§ 2. HisroricaAL OUTLINE.

A. 1720-1818. Memoirs on the intersections of plane curves from
Maclaurin to Lamé.

[Lamé was the first to express the linearity of the system of curves through
the intersections of two given curves.” |

B. 1818-1857. Memoirs and other published accounts of theorems on
the intersections of curves from Lamé to Riemann, including those of
Pliicker and Cayley.

[Pliichker was the first to introduce explicitly projective methods by

1 * Ueber die algebraischen Functionen und ihre Anwendung in der Geometrie,’
Math. Ann., vol. vii., pp. 269-310.

2 Of. 0. A. Scott, Bull, Am. Math. Soc., vol. iv., p. 262, 1898.

122 REPORT—1900.

means of homogeneous co-ordinates; ! and also to fix one curve in the
discussion, treating the other curves as variable.2 Cayley’s theorems are
interesting on account of the subsequent discussion as to their true
Jormulation. |

C. 1857-1873. (i.) Memoirs on bi-rational transformation.

(ii.) Brill’s memoirs on elimination and algebraic correspondences,
(1863-1873). [A detailed account of these is given in § 4, infra. |

(iii.) Memoirs and other publications connecting the theory of
functions with the theory of plane algebraic curves, including those of
Clebsch and Gordan, Brill and Noether.

[Clebsch and Gordan’s treatise attempted to found Riemann’s results in
the theory of Abelian functions on an algebraic basis: the standpoint is
mainly that of projective geometry. To Brill and Noether is due the
initiation of the main line of enquiry in the theory of linear series of point-
groups on a base-curve, from the standpoint of bi-rational transformation. |

(iv.) Memoirs on the intersections of curves.

D. 1873-1890. (i.) Noether’s memoirs published in the Mathematische
Annalen, and in Crelle, on the theory of functions, and on analytical
geometry.

(ii.) Memoirs on linear systems of plane curves, treated analytically
from the standpoint of bi-rational transformation.

[These are chiefly by Italian writers, beginning with Caporali in
1881. ]

(iii.) Castelnuovo’s memoirs on linear series of point-groups on plane
curves, treated geometrically from the standpoint of bi-rational transforma-
tion.

(iv.) Segre’s memoirs on curves and surfaces in hyperspace.

(v.) Intersection theorems as treated by Bacharach and Zeuthen.

[These connect Cayley’s theorems with Brill and Noether’s theorem of
residwation. |

(vi.) Brill’s memoirs on algebraic correspondences in the Mathema-
tesche Annalen contrasted with Castelnuovo’s memoir on the number
of rational involutions to be found on a curve of given genus (deficiency).

E. 1890-1900. (i.) Castelnuovo’s memoir on linear systems of plane
curves as determined by given points (1891, Mem. Torino, vol. 42).

(ii.) Memoirs on the theory of algebraic surfaces chiefly by Castel-
nuovo and Enriques, and summarised by them in an article in vol. 48
of the Mathematische Annalen (1896).

(uii.) Segre’s paper on the geometry on a simply infinite algebraic
manifold, in which the properties and applications of linear series are
derived from theorems in the geometry of hyperspace (Annali di Mat.,
vol. 22, 1894).

(iv.) Bertini’s account of the principal theorems concerning linear series
of point-groups on a plane curve, written chiefly from Brill and Noether’s
standpoint (Annali dt Mat., vol. 22, 1894).

1 Cf. Brill and Noether, Jahresber. d. Deutschen Math. Ver., vol. iii., p. 297, 1894.
? Cf. Brill and Noether, ibid., p. 290.
* Cf. Brill and Noether, Zoe. cit., p. 545.

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 123

(v.) Brill and Noether’s report on the theory of algebraic functions,
containing succinct accounts of the contents and importance of many of
the memoirs in the above divisions.

(vi.) Solution of the question of the identity of the terms involution
and linear series by Humbert and by Castelnuovo (1893).

(vul.) F.S. Macaulay’s papers in the Proceedings of the London Mathema-
tical Socrety, vols. 26, 29, 31, 1895-99, on curves through given points.

§ 3. ANALYSIS ACCORDING TO CoNnTENT.

A. The three different methods of investigation, viz. analytical,
geometrical, transcendental.

B. Various definitions of the terms in use by English, French, German,
and Italian writers, and the logical connection of the ideas when defined
in the language of analytical geometry.

C. Results obtained by the theory, expressed in the terms defined
in B.

(a) Concerning the linear series of point-groups on a given base-curve,
e.g., Clifford’s theorem, the Riemann-Roch theorem.

(8) Concerning the base-curve, proved by means of the properties of
linear series of point-groups, and of linear systems of plane curves, ¢.g. :

(i.) Persistence under bi-rational transformation of p (deficiency,
genus).

(w.) Reduction of the order of a curve with given deficiency.

(vw.) Classification of plane curves into rational, hyperelliptic, k-gonal.

D. Properties of surfaces in hyperspace in connection with the pro-
perties of linear systems.

§ 4. Brint’s Memoirs on ELIMINATION AND ALGEBRAIC CORRESPONDENCES.
1863-1873.

Brill’s earliest papersin the Mathematische Annalen are on problems
which arose naturally out of the subject-matter of his Habilitations-
schrift, viz. the transformation theory of algebraic functions in connec-
tion with Riemann’s memoirs on Abelian functions. Clebsch and
Gordan, in their treatise on Abelian functions, published in 1866 (the
year before Brill’s Habilitationsschrift), had attempted to develop
a theory of the applications of Abelian functions to geometry. Inter-
preting Abel’s and Riemann’s equations as curves, they expressed
the number p, which plays a fundamental part in Riemann’s theory of
Abelian integrals, in terms of the singularities of the corresponding plane
curve, thus identifying it with the number studied by Cayley under the
name of deficiency. They further discussed the persistence of this number
under bi-rational transformation—that is, the simplest type of a one-one
correspondence—and the existence of certain constants (moduli) invariant
under such transformation. Brill adopted their interpretation of the
equations, and his work, though essentially analytical in form, is capable
of direct geometrical application in its results.

The number of the moduli is the subject of the first two papers. In
the earlier of the two! he remarks that Riemann, by analysis, found

1 Math. Ann., vol. i., pp. 401-406, 1869, ‘ Note beziiglich der Zahl der Moduln einer
Classe von algebraischen Gleichungen.’

124 REPORT—1900,

3 p—38 to be the number of moduli of his ‘normal’ function, whereas
Cayley ! obtained, by geometrical considerations, the number 4 p — 6 for the
curve of (p+1)th order, the ‘normal’ curve of Clebsch and Gordan ; but
by actually performing the transformation of the latter—in the case p=4
—into Riemann’s form, Brill shows that there are in fact only 3 p—3
moduli (a result which Cayley verified later.)? The second paper? was
occasioned by a memoir by Casorati and Cremona,‘ in which the trans-
formation of Clebsch and Gordan’s form into Riemann’s is effected, by
geometrical methods, for the cases p=4, 5, 6. Brill obtains their results
by different methods, employing the properties of curves in space of three
dimensions. An example for p=6 is a septic with nine double points ; this
he connects by a one-one transformation with a curve in space of the 8th
degree, quoting Cayley ° to show that the transformation can be effected
in exactly five ways, corresponding to the five straight lines in space
which meet the tortuous curve of the 8th degree in four points. Similarly
for p=7, the transformation of a plane curve of the 8th degree can be
effected in twenty-one different ways. These examples are important, as
forming a connecting link between the theory of transformation, in which
they presented themselves, and the theory of elimination, to which they
directly lead ; moreover, within the theory of elimination they suggest
the question of the number of different solutions satisfying a system of
simultaneous equations.

In the year 1871, Brill begins to turn his attention to a wider theory,
that of elimination when stated algebraically, or of correspondences when
stated geometrically. This is shown in the title of a paper,® which con-
tains proof of theorems required in the succeeding paper ;‘ but neither
of these has any immediate application to our present purpose.

The geometrical side of the theory of correspondences had been
already attacked by Chasles, De Jonquiéres, and Cayley, but algebraical
proofs of many theorems were still wanting ; and, moreover, the treat-
ment of the problems in a purely symbolical and analytical manner led
to the establishment of theorems in the general theory of elimination,
which in their turn apply to a region intimately connected with the
theory of correspondences—that of point-groups on a curve—but at the
date we speak of, still comparatively unexplored.

In Brill’s first important contribution to the theory of elimination,®
he attacks the problem of the number of different solutions which satisfy
a system of simultaneous equations.? He remarks that Roberts!® and
Salmon |! confined themselves to a discussion of the degree of the
eliminant in the whole number of variables, not the degree in which

1 Proc. London Math. Soc., vol. i., 1865, ‘On the transformation of plane curves.’

2 Math. Ann., vol. viii., pp. 359-362. ‘On the group of points G. on a sextic
curve with five double points,’ 1874.

8 Thid., vol. ii., pp. 471-474, 1870, ‘ Zweite Note beziiglich der Moduln einer
Classe von algebraischen Gleichungen.’

+ Accad. Milan, May, 1870. 5 Phil. Trans., 1870, ‘On skew surfaces.’

6 Math. Ann., vol. iv., pp. 510-526, ‘Zur Theorie der Elimination und der
algebraischen Curven.’

7 Tbid., pp. 527-549, ‘ Ueber zwei Beriihrungsprobleme.’

8 Math. Ann., vol. v., pp. 878-396, 1872, ‘ Ueber Elimination aus einem gewissen
System von Gleichungen.’

® See also Math. Ann., vol. iv., pp. 542-548, 1871.

10 Crelle, vol. lxvii., pp. 266-278, 1867.

1 Higher Algebra, Lessons VIII. and XVIII.

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 125

each variable appears. The latter is the more difficult problem, and
admits of complications in which the interpretation of certain equations
as correspondences is of great value (see infra, p. 129).

In this paper he finds by induction, without a rigorous proof, a
formula for the number of solutions of a system of equations in k inde-
pendent variables (each equation being symmetrical in all the variables),
the system consisting of a number of equations equivalent to i+1 inde-
pendent equations ; so that 4—7—1 of the variables must have arbitrarily
assigned values before the expression ‘number of solutions’ can have a
meaning. When s—7z—1 have been so chosen, the ‘number of solutions’
means the number of different ways in which the remaining i+1 can be
found to satisfy any 7+1 equations of the system. The number (see
formula (A), infra) is made to depend on the sums and differences of the
numbers of common solutions of pairs of systems of equations (in square
brackets in (A) below), one system of each pair being of the same kind
as the original system, but equivalent to fewer than i+1 independent
equations ; while the second system of the pair is either precisely one
equation, symmetrical in all the variables, or consists of a system equiva-
lent to 2, or 3,. . ., or ¢+1 independent equations, involving only k—1,
k—2, . k—7 variables respectively. As an important example of a
system of equations of the assumed nature, he considers the original
system to consist of all the equations formed by equating to zero every
k-rowed determinant of the following matrix of k+7 columns and

k rows, |

6104) Po (Ais + + + bese (Qy),

1 Qa)s a (Xo), + + Gi+i (Ao)

|

Hsia |

1 . |

91 (Ax)s i) Qx)s be sel P+ i (Ax)
where ¢,, . . . ¢,,; are integral functions of the mth degree of the
single variables enclosed in the brackets, these variables \,, . . . A, being

all independent. Such a matrix is more shortly written as |A+4|,, and
the number of solutions as (k+7),. This notation is also employed when
the ¢’s are functions of more than one variable each, the variables being
then connected by & relations (see infra, p. 127). The number of common
solutions of all the 4-rowed determinants it contains is known to be equal
to the number of common solutions of the i+1 determinants,

#1 Qu); vee Gra Qi)s $d)
; x1 (A2)y $1 (Ao)
$1 Ards + + = Pra (nds % Ox)

where t=h,'k+1, ... +7 in turn, provided the k—1-rowed deter-
minants of the matrix
[a1 Qi) ++. Pra (Xr)

|
ot ae
1O1 (Ans - + + Pear)!

do not all vanish.

126 REPORT—1900.

By a generalisation of simple cases, this number of solutions is
reduced to the following formula :—

(A) (k+7),=[(A+7—1),(k),.]—[(A4+4—2), k—1),|+ ...
Fitba eee’,

where [(4+1%—1),(%),] stands for the number of common solutions of
| -+7—1]||, (equivalent to 7 independent equations, provided the k—1-
rowed determinants, mentioned above, do not vanish), and of ||A||, which
represents precisely one equation ; and soon. A rigorous proof of this
formula was not given until 1890,' but, assuming it to hold, the number
of solutions, when the variables are all independent, is found by perfectly
valid reasoning in the paper under consideration, and particular cases of
the more general problem, to which formula (A) also applies (2.e. when
there are & pairs of variables, connected by £ relations), are solved in
the next paper ” by direct evaluation.

When the terms of the right-hand side of (A) come to be actually
evaluated, the particular case, here alone considered (7.e. of & independent
variables), proves capable of direct treatment by algebraic theorems in
elimination proved in the earlier part of the paper, and the final result is

po —_(m—k+1) (m—h) _- . (m—k—i+1)
i+t). PRD ges oye

From the point of view of the theory of point-groups, a geometri-
cal problem which Brill solves by means of formula (A) is of interest ; it
is thus stated :

Given a (k+i—1)-ply infinite family of curves of order m, viz.:
a1 (X,Y) +aob(%Y)+ 2. + +erriber(My)=O. Assuming k—i-1 of the
points of intersection with a straight line, to find i others such that every
curve through these k—1 also passes through a certain kth point. In how
many ways can this be done ?

Or, in other words :

In how many ways can k points be chosen on a straight line, so that an
i-ply infinite system of curves, selected from a (k+i—1)-ply infinite system
may pass through them ?

Since the number of solutions is all that is required, the problem is not
made less general by taking the intersections with a definite straight line,
say y=0; substituting this value for y in the equation from the outset,
we are led to finding the number of solutions of exactly the matrix con-
sidered on p. 125, leading to formula (A), which, since x, ... x, arek
independent variables, can be directly evaluated as above. e

Brill’s investigations into the theory of correspondences definitely
commenced in 1872. In the introductory remarks he attributes the
origin of this theory (in geometry) to Chasles, who, in 1864, first enun-
ciated the principle of correspondence for points on a straight line:
‘if to every point x there aren points y, and to every point y there are m
points X, then at m+n points an x coincides with a y ;’ and who after-
wards extended it, in 1866, to points on any unicursal curve.4 Cayley

1 Math. Ann., vol. ¥XxXvi., p. 326. 2 Thid., vol. vi.
8 Thid., vol. vi.. pp. 33-65, ‘ Ueber Entsprechen von Punktsystemen auf einer

Curve.’ a
+ Comptes Rendus, vol. lviii., June 27, 1864, and vol. Ixii., p. 11.

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 127

had given! an extension of this principle to curves of any deficiency
p;? without, however, formally proving it, and it is at this stage that
Brill took up the subject. He gives an algebraic proof of Cayley’s formula
for the number of wnited points of one correspondence on a given curve of
deficiency p, and he finds, moreover, the proper extension to curves
of any deficiency of the well-known algebraic theorem : ‘if between the
points x, y of a straight line, there exists a relation (x, y)=0 by means of
which « points x correspond to a point y and X points y to a pot x; and
further, if by means of a second relation o'(x, y)=0 «’ points x correspond
to \ points y; then the number of parrs of points which satisfy both
relations is (o')=«X' +«’d.’ The first relation ¢(x, y)=0 is said to establish
a correspondence («, A) between the points on the straight line ; the
second, ¢/(a, y)==0, a correspondence (x’, \’), and ($¢") gives the number of
pairs of points which satisfy both correspondences.

Brill’s extension is as follows :—Given a fixed point z on a curve fg
deficiency p, and two movable points, x, y, on the same curve, and let the
two relations, » (x, y,2)=0, ’(x, y, z)=0 hold, which, regarded as functions
of x have k, k! points of intersection, respectively, with f (x)=0, of which
B, B’, respectively, coincide with the point z, and y, y’ with the point y; 3
and which, regarded as functions of y, have 1, V' points of intersection,
respectively, with £ (y)=0, of which a, a’, respectively, coincide with the
point z, and y, y' with the point x ; then the number of pairs of points,
x, y, (each point being distinct from the other and not coinciding with z),
which satisfy both relations is given by (¢¢')=«N' +%/'A—2pyy’s

k=kh—B—y, x/=kh'—f'—y’
where Jats wens p Sis gil Wl

The first application of this formula is to find in how many ways three
points on a curve £=0 can be chosen, so that a singly infinite system of
curves, selected from a given triply-infinite system, may pass through them.
'This is a simple case of the problem already referred to on p. 125 (viz.
k=3, i=1), but now we have to deal with a base-curve of any deficiency
p, instead of the straight line, and thus it is impossible to eliminate y and
to obtain equations in three independent variables «), %, 3. We obtain
a matrix similar, but not identical, to that on p. 125, viz. :—

[prgeas)s o(ayi)s b3(%1Yr)» a(*171)
\pr(2e24/o)s 2(2Y2)s Pa(%2¥2)s s(@2Yo),
1b (23Y3)s P2(@aYa)> P3(LaYa)s P4(@3Ya),

and further, the three equations f (2,y)=0, f (xy2)=0, F (w3y3)=0.

As before remarked, however, the formula (A) still holds and gives us
(3+1)3=[(3)3(3),;]—(8—1)3 but for this simple case it is worth while to
work out the problem directly in the first place, without using formula
(A), as it affords insight into the geometrical meaning of a correspondence

Observe, first, that before a finite number of solutions can be found,
one point, z, on f=0, must be assumed arbitrarily, since k—-1—1=1.

1 Comptes Rendus, vol. |xii., 1866, p. 586.
2 Cayley’s result is that the number of ‘ united points’ is m+n + 2pk, where & is a
‘quantity afterwards known as the Wertighett of the correspondence curve.
3 B is said to be the Wertigheit of at v=2z, y at r=y;
B’ ” ” ” ” ¢! at x =2 07" at ev=Y;
a ” » ” » @ aty

128 REPORT—1900.

Also, if any two independent curves of the triply-infinite system can be
passed through this arbitrary point z and through certain other two a, y,
on f=0, then a singly-infinite number passes through these three points,
and they form one of the triplets whose number is required. To arrive at
two independent curves of the system, take any two fixed points A, B, in
the plane, and consider first the curve through z and A, then that through
2 and B ; each has still one degree of freedom, but loses this and becomes
perfectly determinate if passed through a common point y on f=0. Let
every curve of the triply-infinite system have M movable points of
intersection with f=0—that is to say, M points whose co-ordinates depend
on the variable parameters of the system—then these two independent
curves determined by y have each M—2 points of intersection x with f=0
besides z and y ; and in general the M—2 2’s belonging to one curve will
be all distinct from those belonging to the other ; but if y be properly
chosen (or, we may say, for certain positions of y on f=() an # of one curve
will coincide with an x of the other, «, y, z thus forming one of the required
triplets, since two independent curves pass through them. The expression
for certain positions of y on f=0 introduces the idea of the movement of the
point 7 on f, which necessitates a corresponding movement of the two sets of
M—2 2’s belonging to the two distinct curves ; we may say with reference
to each curve, that to every position of y there correspond M —2 positions
of a; moreover, since, when confining the attention to the curve through
z and A, it is immaterial which of the M—1 points is called y, we say
that to every position of « there correspond M—2 positions of y: we
have a symmetrical correspondence (M—2, M-—-2) between the points x, y
established on £=0 by means of the curve through z and A ; and, similarly,
we have another established by means of the curve through z and B.
But we have already pointed out that for certain positions of y, i.e. of the .
one of the M—1 points which is common to both curves, there will be an
« common to them as well, and it is the number of such positions of y (or
of this x, since the relation of this particular x and y is reversible) that
we wish to find.

Again, since the original system has three degrees of freedom, the
system through A (or through B) has two degrees of freedom ; hence one
curve of the system can always be drawn to touch f=0 at any point on it,
and no curve can have a double point. In other words, wherever z is
taken on f=0, there is always one position of y which coincides with z (on
the curve touching f=0 at z), or y=z satisfies the correspondence equation
@ identically once. (If no curve could have been drawn to touch /=0 at
any arbitrary point, y=2z would not satisfy the correspondence equation
identically at all, whereas, if a curve with a double point at any arbitrary
point on f=0 could have been drawn, then y=z would have satisfied the
correspondence equation identically twice, &c.) The number of times
that y=z satisfies the correspondence equation is called the ‘ Wertigkeit’
of the correspondence, and is denoted by [¢],... In symmetrical cor-
respondences, such as the one above, a, vy, z are all interchangeable, and
therefore [],,=[¢]..=[¢].,-

The value of the ‘ Wertigkeit ’ is written as a subscript to the bracket
(9’) ; thus, in the language of correspondences, the number of solutions
to our present problem is the number of pairs of points which satisfy two
correspondence equations, each given as (M—2, M—2),. But from this
number must be subtracted those pairs of points which lie on that one curve
of the triply-infinite system which passes through both A and B as well as
z, for these do not lie on two distinct curves, and therefore not on a curve

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 129

of a singly-infinite system. The number of such pairs is obviously the
combinations in twos of the M—1 points besides z, which lie on f=0, i.e.
M-—1.M-2
pategr pat
y=y’=1 in the formula given on p. 127 for (%¢’) (dividing it, however,
by 2, since our correspondences are symmetrical), and then subtract
M—1.M—2

it is If, therefore, we write k=x’/=\=)\’/=M—2 and

from this, we obtain the number of triplets, viz. (M—2)?—

p—}(M—1)(M—2)=}(M—2)(M —3)—p.

Now compare the steps of this process with the formula (A) for this
case, 7.e. with (3-+1)3;=[(3)3(3);]—(3—1)3 and we see that the two cor-
respondences employed, exactly similar, were the determinants, the number
of whose solutions was denoted by (3)3, (3)3, while (3 — 1), gives the num-
ber of those solutions which needed to be subtracted from the total number.

In more complicated problems, formula (A) is used at once, and the
evaluation of the number of common solutions of the equations in the
square brackets (the number and form of these equations is given above,
pp- 125 and 126) is performed by interpreting these as correspondence equa-
tions (cf. p. 124), provided we know how many points correspond to one in
each correspondence (they are always symmetrical, as is seen at once from

The other cases to which Brill applies the theory of correspondences
in the paper under consideration are :—

(a) To find the number of triplets of points on a given base-curve
through which a doubly-infinite system of curves, contained within a 4-ply
infinite system, can be made to pass.

(6) To find the number of sets of four points on a given base-curve
through which a triply-infinite system of curves, contained within a 6-ply
infinite system, can be made to pass.

In the first of these =3, 1=2 ; in the second k=4,i=3. They are
both rather more complicated than the one we have considered in detail ;
the first, namely, involves finding the number of triplets of points which
satisfy three correspondences, for

(3+2)s=[(3 + 1)3(3)3]—[(3)s(2)3] + (1),

and the number of independent equations (see p. 126) involved in
[3+ 1|[5, ||3\[] is 2+1—=8, involved in [||3}[5, |[2\l,] is 1+2—3, and involved
in (1); is 3; similarly, the second involves finding the number of sets of
4 points which satisfy 4 correspondences, for here we have

(4+3)4=[(6).(4)4]—[0)4(3)4] +[(4)a(2)4]- (1) a,

and the total number of independent equations in each term of this
expression is 4, namely, 3+1, 2+2,1+3 and 4. Moreover, it is essential
to the final evaluation to take notice of the way in which the 4 inde-
pendent equations are grouped ; the formule in the theory of correspond-
ences for finding the number of sets of 4 points which satisfy 4 equations
when these 4 are grouped as 3+1 differs from that in which they are
grouped as 2+2; but since the difference only appears in the terms
1900. K

130 REPORT—1900,

involving p, it does not exist when p=O, 7.e. when the base-curve is a
straight line or a unicursal curve, and it was for this reason that the
actual solution of the previous problem (p. 126) was possible. The
required formule for i=l, 2, 3 (leading to 2, 3, and 4 simultaneous
correspondences), are worked out in the earlier part of this paper for all
possible different groupings of the sets, and the final results for examples
(a) and (6) are

M—2.M-—3.M—4_

at
(a) 133 p (M—4)
M-3M—4.M—5.M—6 M-—6.M-—5 __, p(p-l)
2) 12.34 Leia oo ee

where, as before, M denotes the number of movable points of intersec-
tion of each curve of the given system with f=0. We notice in passing
that these results agree with that of p. 126, when p=0, M=m.

A problem in the theory of point-groups, of which the above are par-
ticular cases, was first enunciated in the most general form in a paper by
Brill and Noether, in 1873.! They state it thus :—

Gwen a t-ply infinite system of adjoint curves—that is, of curves
passing s—1 times through every s-fold point of £=0—it is required to find
F points on the base-curve, £=0, which form such a point-growp—or set of
points—that the curves of the given system which pass through it form a
q-ply infinite system. If the equation of the system is

a1$,(%)Y) +ash(ry)+ . : ~ + 4¢419%t41(@1y)=0

this problem leads, by known theorems, to finding the common solutions
of all the (¢—q+1) rowed determinants of the matrix.

lpi(%141), Pe(*1%i), — - . . Oe (iY1)|

|P1(B2Y2)s . . . Pe+1(Z2Y2),

| :

Pil@pYn) - : . - Pesi(®pYp)!
where

LY, CoYo, - . . . - Rp,
are connected by the equations
S(xy,)=9, . . . . . SF (€pY¥x)=0.

The simplest case is therefore to be found by taking R=t—q+1, and
this is, in fact, the only case completely solved. The formula for the
number of solutions was given in this memoir, viz. :—

+a (11) (8) (G1) +) 3) -
(B) i 820 (—n(Q)(A*1-9 Baas ide). .2 CVE

("3 (@4y) - pin 2°). iho

' Math. Ann. vol. vii., pp. 269-310. ‘Ueber die algebraischen Functionen und
ihre Anwendung in der Geometrie.’

ON THE PRESENT STATE OF THE THEORY OF POINT-GROUPS. 1381

where Q=2p—2—R and ie) stands ae sma ine st Ml ete BY

m
but the rigorous proof only ay ered in the year 1890. For particular
values of g, however, viz. g=1, 2, 3, and assuming the rigorous proof of
formula (A), formula (B) was proved in the previous papers. In fact, we

see that (a) and (d) on p. 130 are particular instances in which R=4, g=1,
Q=M-Aé.

Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys,
By ¥. H. Nevit1e, F.B.S.

PART I.
PAGE
Methods of Discovery af Compounds . . : : 2 : ; : . 131
Chemical Methods of Isolation ; . : f j F : ‘ : . 131
Freezing-Point Curves . : : . ‘ ‘ : : ° : : . 132
Microscopical Study : : . - : : ; ; . : - Salant
Rintgen-ray Photography. - A . 141
Determination of Electrical Potential and other Physical Methods. : . 142
Part II.
Table of Intermetallic Compounds and Discussion of it : 2 ‘ ; . 144
Molecular Weights of the Metals . : - 146
Tables of Depression of the Freezing-point caused by dissolving other metals in
Tin, Zinc, Bismuth, Cadmium, Lead . 147
Table of References ; . : F ; : : : ; . 149
PART I.

Although most students of alloys are now convinced that they often
contain definite chemical compounds, yet these ‘intermetallic’ com-
pounds are still passed over in silence by the authors of books on descrip-
tive chemistry. The cause of this omission lies in the difficulty of isolating
these bodies in a pure state, and in their resemblance to the metals. It
must be acknowledged that just as the metals resemble one another more
than do the non-metals, so their compounds often present a great
superficial resemblance to their constituent elements. Intermetallic
compounds might well be compared to the somewhat intangible bodies
formed by the union of the halogens with each other and with sulphur.
Many of these bodies show marked dissociation—that is to say, they readily
form systems in true equilibrium with their components ; it is almost
certain that ‘intermetallic’ compounds present the same phenomenon when
in contact with liquid alloy.

Methods of Studying Intermetallic Compounds.

The method that naturally suggests itself to a chemist is that of ex-
tracting the pure compounds from an alloy by filtration, by volatilisation
of excess of a volatile metal, or by removing the excess of metal by
means of a suitable solvent. Each of these methods has been employed
with some success.

Filtration methods are very difficult at high temperatures, but if the
difficulties can be overcome so that the first solid separating from a liquid
as it freezes is isolated, we shall get invaluable information. By the
filtration of a partly solidified solution of gold and cadmium in tin, Heycock
and Neville (') obtained a crystalline residue approximating to the formula

K 2

.

132 REPORT—1900.

AuCd, even when the proportions of gold and cadmium in the original
mixture varied within wide limits. Again (?), by alloying gold with excess
of cadmium and distilling off the excess of cadmium they obtained a
residue having the.composition AuCd. Now that many metals have been
distilled in vacuo this method may meet with success in other cases.

M. Lebeau (*) dissolves metals in excess of sodium and distils off the
excess of sodium by the prolonged passage of ammonia gas followed by
that of nitrogen. He thus obtains the bodies SbNa;, BiNa,, SnNa, in a
pure state. He is also succeeding by the same method with the other
alkali metals. M. Joannis (*) some years ago applied a similar method
successfully.

The method of fractional solution enabled Debray (°) to isolate the
bodies PtSn,, RhSn;, RuSn;, by the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on
alloys containing excess of tin. M. Le Chatelier(®°) has in the same way
isolated the compound Cu,Sn. He emphasises the opinion that by
choosing a suitable solvent, suggested by electro-chemical considerations,
the method will be found generally applicable. For example, by sub-
jecting alloys of copper and zinc to the prolonged action of a paste of
lead chloride he has obtained crystals of pure Zn,Cu. Mr. Heycock, in
a research not yet published, obtained large crystalline grains of PtAl;
by the action of hydrochloric acid on a slowly cooled alloy of aluminium
and platinum. Mr. Stead (7) has isolated in this way crystals of SnSb,
Au,Pb, Au;Pb,, Sn;Aso, and probably of some other alloys. The work
is in some cases not yet published, but he has been kind enough to com-
municate the results for the purpose of this report.

Other cases could no doubt be quoted in which fractional solution
leaves a residue having a formula, but there is a great risk of the solvent
attacking the crystals ; and, as Mr. Stead has found, the existence of mixed
crystals, or, at all events, of crystals having a core different from the out-
side, is a serious drawback to this method regarded as an independent
method of discovery. It would seem that the proper moment for the
application of these methods comes when by the microscope, by the
freezing-point curve, or by potential determinations the existence of a
compound has been already indicated.

In a systematic study of intermetallic compounds I should therefore
put first that of the chemical equilibrium of the binary system: this is
generally expressed by the freezing-point curve. Next, and perhaps of
equal importance, comes the microscopic examination of the solid alloys.
Thirdly, as more limited in scope, but sometimes more emphatic in its
indications, comes the determination of the difference of electrical potential
existing between a metal and its alloys.

The method of studying chemical equilibrium which we owe so largely
to Professors Bakhuis Roozeboom and Le Chatelier is now familiar to
most chemists, and in the case of a binary system it can be sufficiently
described in a few words. A mixture of two substances, A and B, in
certain proportions is melted. It is allowed to cool slowly, and the
temperature is noted at which solid matter begins to separate from
the liquid. This is the ‘freezing-point.’ It tells us the temperature
at which this particular mixture becomes saturated—that is to say,
comes into equilibrium with a particular solid. By repeating the
experiment with a series of mixtures of A and B we get as many
points as we need for plotting the freezing-point curve. In this curve,
one ordinate is the percentage composition of the mixture expressed
either in weight per cent. of A and B, or, better, in atomic or molecular

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 1338

per cents. ; the other ordinate is temperature. It is desirable to observe
not only the first halt in the cooling, but also any lower ones that occur
down to the moment of complete solidification, or even below it. It is
also desirable to isolate by filtration the crystals which form at the freezing-
point, and to analyse them. This wouid give the composition of the
solid and liquid phases which could exist in equilibrium at the observed
temperature. Unfortunately, on account of experimental difficulties,
isolation of the solid phase has not been carried out in the case of alloys,
and a later microscopic study of the wholly solid alloy is a very imperfect
substitute for it.

We now know pretty well the types of freezing-point or equilibrium
curves that occur. In the simplest of all cases—that in which the two
bodies A and B neither combine chemically nor form mixed crystals—the
complete curve resembles fig. 1. It consists of two
branches cutting each other at the eutectic angle. Fra, 1.

One branch, which starts from the freezing-point of
a liquid wholly composed of a, corresponds to the
formation of primary crystals of pure A at each
freezing-point, the other branch to the formation of
primary crystals of pure B. When the liquid, either
from its initial composition or through the separation
of the primary crystals, reaches the composition of
the eutectic intersection, A and B crystallise simul-
taneously but in separate crystals. Thus the solid
eutectic alloy is a very minute conglomerate, while
all other alloys contain large primary crystals of Cone

either A or B embedded in this conglomerate. This

has been conclusively demonstrated by the exquisite microscopic work of
M. Osmond (8) and also by that of M. Charpy (°).

Curves which approximate to this type have been worked (1° 2"* !)
out for the pairs Zn.Al, Zn.Sn, Au.Cu, Ag.Cu, and some other
metals. Such curves do not indicate the existence of a compound,
though it would be too much to say that they disprove the existence of
compounds.

When a compound exists whose melting-point lies in the region above
the freezing-point curve of the two metals, it produces a separate branch
cutting the other two branches. At points on this intermediate branch
the saturated liquid deposits crystals of the compound. The summit
of this branch occurs at the concentration corresponding to the formula
of the compound. If more than one compound exists there is a branch
for each compound, although parts of the branches may be lost by lying
below the curves of more stable bodies.

While the above is the usually accepted view as to the meaning of
summits and eutectic angles in a freezing-point curve, two points may be
noted. The first is M. Le Chatelier’s opinion as to the position of the
summit caused by a compound. He thinks (!?) that when a compound
partly dissociates on fusion, the summit caused by its presence may not
be exactly at the percentage composition corresponding to its formula,
and that the formation of mixed crystals may have a similar effect on the
curve. This is a matter needing further investigation. The other point
concerns the position of the eutectic angle. While it is well established
that the eutectic alloy is a conglomerate, not a compound, we should be
wrong to ignore the fact that the angle often comes surprisingly near to

134 penn “41900:

a simple formula—for example, in the AgCu and AuCu curves. Sir George
Stokes has lately recalled our attention to this point. Paterno and
Ampolla (!%) have noticed a number of similar cases in ‘organic
mixtures.

A good many curves indicating by intermediate branches the
existence of compounds have now been determined, but for the purpose
of illustrating the subject further the curve of AuAl will be taken.

As can be seen from fig. 2, there are seven branches, each corre-

jeives 2

Atomic Percentage of Al.
0 100

es
Re 3
mS oO

Seal

a
SEY
ater
Bree
Face eee

a!
Bag Sw

+

is

Weight per Trent. of Aluminium

sponding to the crystallisation of a different solid. The extreme branches,
AB and 1, being regarded as those of the two metals, we have five left,
each of which may indicate a compound. The branch DEF has its
summit exactly at the formula Au,Al. The microscope shows that the
summit alloy E is an almost homogeneous body, and that all solid alloys
whose composition lies between that of Dp and F contain large crystals of
the = body immersed in a mother substance. As we descend the curve
from the summit the large crystals of & are found to occupy less and less
of the whole alloy, until at p and F they cease to exist. Exactly similar

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 135

phenomena show themselves on the branch cui; the summit H occurs
at the formula AuAl,, and large crystals of this body are found embedded
in mother substance in all alloys between G and 1.

These criteria taken together—(1) the occurrence of a summit at a
formula percentage, (2) the presence of large crystals of the same kind,
decreasing in amount as we descend the branch on either side—are, I
believe, an absolute proof of the reality of a compound. The two bodies
‘Au,Al and AuAl, as certainly exist as do the two chlorides of copper.
But there are other compounds more obscurely indicated by the curve ;
the branch Fe has its summit, x, below the branch Gu, hence the x
body which crystallises at points on GF never occurs alone in a solid
alloy. The microscope shows that solid alloys between G and H contain
large crystals of AuAl,, surrounded by a coating of the x body, and that
outside this coating there are large independent crystals of x embedded
in a minute conglomerate of x and E. The fact is that in the first stage
of freezing, while the large crystals of AuAl,, or Hu, are forming, the
liquid part necessarily gets richer in gold until it reaches the composition
G. From this moment the H
crystals cease to form, and the Fie. 3.
existing ones become coated
with the x body, which at
lower temperatures crystallises
independently in large crys-
tals, that in a certain sense
are primary. Finally, the
residual liquid reaches the state
F, and the eutectic conglo-
merate forms which is com-
posed of crystals of Au,Al
and of x. Thus an alloy may
contain a compound although
that compound does not occur
as the sole constituent of any
particularalloy. This appears
to be a very common case ; for
example, Mr. Stead finds that
in bronzes very rich in tin the
erystals of Cu,Sn are coated
with CuSn, and M. Charpy (°)
has recorded a similar feature

‘In the bronzes very rich in
copper. In both these cases the
eutectic lies outside the coating. :

MM. Le Chatelier (!*), Gautier, and Gosselin (1°) have traced a number
of remarkable freezing-point curves for pairs of metals, of which
examples are given here. Unfortunately the composition is stated in
percentage by weight, not in atomic per cents.

Copper-Aluminium (fig. 3).—Here we find two well-marked summits,
one very exactly at Cu,;Al, the other near CuAl,.

Copper-Antimony (fig. 3).—Here there is a well-marked intermediate
summit which, if it were at a formula point, would almost certainly
indicate a compound. M. Le Chatelier attributes the formula Cu,Sb to
it, but measurement on the curve seems to give the summit the formula
Cu,;Sb,. These two curves, and one of SnCu also due to M. Le Chatelier,

136 REPORT—1900.

are especially interesting, as they were the first high-temperature curves
of this kind with intermediate summits due to compounds that had been
published, and the paper ('4) in which they appeared marks a new
departure in the subject of alloys.

Aluminium-Antimony (fig. 4).—The maximum point is very much
higher than that of either metal ; it is at 1048° C. with 14°66 per cent. of
aluminium. The curve is remarkable because it shows that nearly all
mixtures melt above the melting-point of either component.

Nickel-Tim (fig. 4).—Here the intermediate summit is at Ni,Sny.

M. Gautier gives other

Fia. 4. curves of great interest, some
of which were simultaneously
studied by Heycock and Ne-
ville (1), but many of them
need further work before they
can be safely interpreted.

Perhaps the freezing-point
curves investigated by M.
Kurnakovy throw as clear a
light on intermetallic com-
pounds as any work that has
been done. This work can be
readily followed from the two
diagrams contained in his paper,
and reproduced in figs. 5 and 6.
The composition is expressed
in atomic percentages. The
first diagram (fig. 5) gives the
freezing-point curves of amal-
gams of sodium and potassium.
In the HgNacurve at least six
separate branches can be seen,
each corresponding to the crys-
tallisation of a different solid.
It would be premature to as-
sert that each branch proves
the existence of a correspond-
ing chemical compound, but
there can be no doubt that the
summit G proves the existence
of the compound NaHg,, a
body whose melting-point is
much higher than that of either
component. Similarly, in the
curve for potassium amalgams, besides minor branches there is a well-
marked summit at the formula K Hg,.

The other figure (fig. 6) gives the freezing-point curves of the mixtures
NaBi, NaPb, NaCd. It is unfortunate that so few alloys were examined ,
on the upper part of the NaBi curve, but the existence of the freezing-
point m above 700° C. makes a compound very probable. M. Kurnakov
seems to have no doubt that it indicates Na,Bi, a body already prepared
by Joannis and by Lebeau. There are two summits on the NaPb curve—
one at p, which must be very near the formula Na,Pb and one at P’ to
which he does not at present assign a formula. In the NaCd curve we

1400

1300

1200

1100

1000

500 0% 10 20 30 40 «SO 60 70 80 90 00

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 137

see two well-marked summits, at 0 and 0/, the first being exactly at the
formula NaCd,. It is evident from these curves that the summits of
many of the branches lie below other branches, and therefore correspond
to unstable states. The position of the summit and the formula of the
compound must in such cases be a matter of speculation until experi-
ments of another kind have been made.!

M. Kurnakoy has also studied the crystalline matter which separates
at the freezing-points, and has noted great variations in this as one goes
from one branch to another. He separated by filtration the hexagonal
plates which crystallise at points along the branch zc, and analysed them.

Fig. 5.

Rylig PY RHy RHg, Rg, Ry, Rly, Rly,

0 :
O%Hg = 107 "% y 50% 60% J 70% 60%

0% Na Atomic percentage. 0% Na

He found, however, that the composition of the crystals varied from
point to point along the branch. He attributes this to the presence of
mother liquor attached to the crystals, and he thinks that the crystals, if
free from mother liquor, would have had the formula Na,Hg. This is a
very reasonable supposition, but it may be that he was examining mixed
crystals. The formation of mixed crystals of two bodies which crystallise
isomorphously is certainly common in alloys, and may be, the cause of
singularities in the freezing-point curve. Indeed, it is doubtful if we

‘ The amalgams of sodium and potassium have been examined by various other
methods ; for example, by the determination of their specific volume—a method
recently employed by E. Maey (Zeits. Phys. Chemie, xxix. p. 119). He finds a
number of angles in his plotted curve which he attributes to the existence of
compounds.

138 REPORT—1900.

shall arrive at certainty in the interpretation of such curves until; this
question of mixed crystallisation has been thoroughly studied. M. Le
Chatelier some years ago pointed out the importance of this question and
studied it.

The curve for mixtures of silver and gold has been quoted as a type
for bodies which form mixed crystals in all proportions. It is a con-

tinuous curve joining the
Fia, 6. points of fusion of the two
Na BiNa. Pb Na M components, and differs from
—— 2 such acurve as that of fig. 1
by consisting of one branch
only. Mixed crystallisation
of two bodies, one or both
of which were compound,
might be indicated by a
continuous curve joining the
freezing-points of the two
proximate constituents of
the crystals. There are
probably several such cases
in the curves given by M.
Gautier. Charpy and Stead
have independently studied
with the microscope a pe-
culiar crystal structure which
they conjecture to be due to
mixed crystallisation. But
no case of isomorphism in
alloys has been worked out
in a manner that is con-
clusive. Until lately a
satisfactory theory of the
subject was lacking, but
Professor Roozeboom (1°), to
whom physical chemists owe
so much, has lately investi-
gated it, and MM. Van
Eyk, Reinders, and Hissink
have verified his views
in the case of certain mix-
tures of two salts. It
seems very desirable that
students of alloys should
Naor 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10.0% begin to work in the light
Atomic percentage. of this theory. An at-
tempt will therefore be

made here to state Roozeboom’s view in the simplest case he gives.

For this purpose we must look again at fig. 1, the curve for a pair of
metals which neither combine chemically nor form mixed crystals. Here
the region above the curve corresponds to liquid states, the line of the
curve to equilibrium between a liquid and crystals of a for the left branch
and B on the right branch ; the region below the curve, but above the
angle, to mixtures of solid a or B with varying liquids ; and, finally, all the

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 139

region below the eutectic angle to solid conglomerates of separate crystals
of Aand B. The range of temperature between the first appearance of
crystals in a liquid alloy and its complete soliditication is measured by the
vertical line drawn from a point on the curve to the level of theeutectic point.

Let us now suppose that the two metals, which we will still call a and
B, can form mixed crystals in all proportions. According to Roozeboom
there will be no angle of intersection of the two curves, but the freezing-
points of A and B will be joined by a continuous curve, the points on
which correspond to exactly saturated liquids. He calls this the ‘i’ or
‘liquid’ curve. But also starting from the freezing-points of a and B,
and lying under the ‘L’ curve, a continuous curve can be drawn giving
the composition of the mixed crystals that form at each temperature. He
calls this the ‘s’ or ‘solid’ curve. The case is represented in fig. 7,
which, together with figs. 8 and 9, is taken from his paper. To find what
happens at a particular temperature, draw a horizontal line cutting the
‘L’ curve inn and thes curve ino. These two points of intersection
give the composition of the two phases that can exist together at the
temperature of the horizontal line. In fig. 7 m gives the composition of
the liquid that when it begins to freeze deposits
mixed crystals of the percentage o. Fie. 7.

The complete process of freezing can now
be stated. Draw through m a vertical line
mnqz cutting the L curve in m and the s curve
ing. Then n and all points above it correspond
to uniform liquid, g and all points below it to a
uniform mass of mixed crystals (not, asin fig. 1,
to a conglomerate of crystals of A and B). The —=
temperature range during freezing isng, and ,477%
during the process, if perfect equilibrium is iil
ensured, the solids formed undergo continuous
transformation from the composition o to that 3
of q, while the liquid remaining at any moment Gone
changes from n to p, where p is the intersection
of|t by a horizontal through g. Thus all the areas shaded vertically repre-
sent homogeneous states—above 1 of a liquid, below s of homogeneous
crystals. The part between L ands, shaded horizontally, represents states,
in which a solid is mixed with a liquid.

The t and s curves may have a maximum or a minimum, in both of
which cases they touch each other at the maximum or minimum point, as
in figs. 8 and 9.

The liquid whose composition is that of the maximum or minimum
will solidify completely at one temperature. Hence in the case of the
maximum one might mistake the solid for a definite chemical compound,
and in the case of a minimum for a eutectic mixture. One must remember
that the diagram need not stand for the whole freezing-point curve
of two elements, but for the horizontal space between the two points
corresponding to compounds, and we can treat the compounds themselves
as the components of the mixed crystals. Our copper-tin curve probably
shows such a case in the region between Cu,Sn and Cu,Sn.

These considerations point to a great danger in the interpretations of
the minor details in complicated freezing-point curves such as those of
Kurnakov, Gautier, and our AuAl curve. Given perfect equilibrium
transformations during cooling, it should be fairly easy by appropriate

140 REPORT—1900.

experiments to discriminate between a summit due to the existence of a
chemical compound and one due to the form of a mixed crystal curve. In

Fie. 8. Fig. 9,

A U "1
al

such cases as Kurnakov’s NaHg, and KHg,, our Au,Al, and Roberts-
Austen’s AuAl,, where the formula of the summit is an exact and simple
one, there can be little doubt. A microscopic examination of the summit
alloy might not help, but that of alloys at some distance on either side
of the summit ought to settle the matter. If they are homogeneous, give
a uniform ignition colour, and etch all over at the same rates, the summit
must be due to mixed crystals ; while if the alloys show primary crystalli-
sation embedded in a mother substance, the primary crystals continually
decreasing in amount as we go down the curve, the summit is probably a
compound. This is the structure we found near the two summits of the
AuAIl curve.

But Roozeboom points out as the best method of attacking such
questions the two following series of experiments: (1) Determine not
only the freezing-point of each alloy, but also the temperature at which it
sets to a solid mass. From these data, both of the curves L and s
could be plotted. The setting-point would probably not be very sharply
marked, but a recording pyrometer would indicate its whereabouts by a
greater rapidity in cooling after the point was passed. Cooling-curves
such as those of Sir W. Roberts-Austen might be made to give the
information needed for plotting the s curve. We, in a very imperfect
way, sought for the setting-points in determining our AuAl curves, but
found instead the usual horizontal lines of second freezing-points, The
existence of these renders mixed crystals improbable.

The other line of research, adopted by Reinders and Van Eyk and
Hissink, is to extract the first crystals that form and analyse them, as
well as the mother liquor from which they were taken. If this were done
for alloys on either side of a summit due to a compound, we should find
the crystals having all the same composition—namely, that of the com-
pound ; while if the summit were due to the existence of mixed crystals,
the solids extracted from alloys of various compositions would differ widely.
There can be no doubt that this process, troublesome though it would be,
is the proper way to attack the interpretation of a complicated freezing-
point curve.

A few cases out of many may be mentioned where mixed crystals are
probable in alloys : between Cu;Sn and Cu,Sn, in lead-thallium alloys,
in bismuth-antimony, in gold-silver, in alloys containing zine or cadmium
with either silver, copper, or gold.

A careful study of some of these cases is probably the most pressing

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 141

need at present in intermetallic chemistry. The difficulty of this subject,
whether we use the freezing-point curve or the microscope, is increased
by the uncertainty as to the maintenance of perfect equilibrium at each
stage of the cooling.

Microscopic Examination.

Osmond, Charpy, and Stead have shown us how much light the micro-
scope throws on our subject.

The microscopic examination of the pattern shown by the polished
surface of an alloy that has, if necessary, been etched or heated to
produce oxidation colours seems to bring us nearer to the phenomena
than other methods of experiment. It is often quite easy to determine
which crystals formed first in the freezing (the primary crystallisation),
but there are certain types of pattern that are very puzzling. Among the
points calling for an answer are the following :

1. Does the existence of coated crystals, such as one finds in gunmetal
and also bronzes containing more tin than Cu,Sn, indicate the existence
of a second compound? The answer is, Yes, in some cases—for example,
in the AuAl curve and, as Mr. Stead thinks, in the bronzes rich in tin,
where the Cu,Sn crystals are coated with CuSn. M. Le Chatelier has
lately pointed out that in all such cases the solid alloy is not in equili-
brium and that the effects of annealing will generally be great.

2. Can the existence of series of mixed crystals be detected by the
microscope ?

M. Charpy and Mr. Stead both describe a similar structure, and are
disposed to attribute it to this cause. i

3. How far will the microscope supplement the very meagre indica-
tions that the curve sometimes gives of a compound ?

As an answer one can take the portion of our copper-tin freezing-point
curve (fig. 10) between Cu,Sn and Cu,Sn. The curve is almost straight,
the swelling (one cannot call it a summit) corresponding to Cu,Sn being
very slight. But the microscope shows Cu,Sn as a homogeneous body,
while alloys with a little more tin show new crystals embedded in this
and sharply separated. These.new crystals increase as we add more tin,
until at Cu,Sn they fill the whole alloy ; thus the microscope is here much
more decisive in its indications than the curve.

Réntgen-ray Photography.

Skiagraphs of thin sections of alloy which contain one transparent
metal, such as sodium or aluminium, and one metal more opaque, some-
times give fine views of the crystals in the alloy. This method has the
advantage of showing the structure of the alloy as it is before any etching
or other reagent has modified it. The two photographs shown were taken
some years ago by Mr. Heycock and myself. The first is aluminium
alloyed with ten per cent. of antimony. One sees that a heavy compound
has crystallised out first. This is in harmony with M. Gautier’s curve
which presents no branch along which primary crystals of aluminium
could form. If a series of such photographs had been taken with increas-
ing percentages of Sb, we might have been able to locate the percentage
at which the compound was pure.

142 REPORT—1900.

The other photograph is one of aluminium containing ten per cent. of

nickel.

One sees that an opaque body has again crystallised first

The

varying thickness of some of the crystals gives them an effect of solidity

which is absent from a surface photograph.

Unfortunately the alloys have to be very slowly cooled in order to

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The numbers below the curve give the Centigrade temperature ; the
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obtain large crystals.
Magnification during
the process of taking
the skiagraph is clearly
impossible, and as the
figure on the plate is
not a real optical image,
but a shadow from a
radiant point of finite
size, it is not sharp
enough to bear great
magnification —after-
wards. The method,
however, is capable of
doing more than it has
done yet. It was first
successfully carried out
by Mr. Heycock and
shown by him in a
lecture at the Royal
Institution.

Electrical Methods.

Herschkowitz ("),
following Laurie ("*),
has compared the elec-
trical potential of a
number of binary al-
loys with that of the
more positive metal
contained in each alloy,
the electrolyte being
always a salt of the
more positive metal
dissolved in water.

From _ theoretical
considerations he con-
cludes that when the
solid alloys contain only
separate crystals of the
two metals 4 and B, the

potential of all the alloys will be that of the more positive metal a
(a point practically proved by Laurie’s experiments), so that if we plot the
composition of the alloys horizontally, and their potential referred to that
of a vertically, we shall get a horizontal straight line; this is realised

in the pair Cd— Bi.

If, however, the two metals mutually dissolve each

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 143

other, but to a limited extent, the curve will show a depression as we
leave pure A, a flat for alloys containing two conjugate solid phases each
a saturated solution of one

metal in the other, and a Fig. 11.

further depression as we ap- Atomic Percentage.

proach pure Bs. If, however,

compounds of A and B exist,
that one nearest in composi-
tion to a will be indicated by
a marked fall in the potential
as we reach its formula in
going from A to B along the
curve. He gives experimental
curves showing that this is
the case with the following
pairs :—

ZnCu at Zn,Cu.
ZnAg at Zn,Ag.
ZunSb at ZnSb.,.
SnCu at SnCu,.
SnAg at SnAg,.

10 20) —630 40

dmm- 20 Millivolts

The curves, four of which
are reproduced in this report
(fig. 11), show that the phe-
nomena are well marked.
The numbers in the figures
running from left to right
are atomic percentages of the
metal whose symbol is on the
right of the figure.

If we compare Hersch-
kowitz’s SnCu curve with
our freezing-point curve for
the same metallic pair in
which the indication of the
existence of SnCu, is of the
slightest kind, we see how
very useful the method may
be in detecting compounds.
It appears, however, that
only one compound of each
metal pair is likely to be
indicated by the method. It
is probable that the method,
if it can be carried out accu-
rately, will give us valuable 0% 10 2 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ito
indications as to the solubility
of one metal in the other in the solid state—a point on which both the
microscope and the freezing-point curve are ambiguous. Although Laurie
was the originator of this method, the work of Herschkowitz has been
quoted, as it is more recent and founded on a clearer theory.

1mm. 20 Millivolts

144 REPORT—1900.

Heat of Formation.

It is probable that if two metals form compounds whose heat of
formation is considerable, whether positive or negative, and if we could
determine the heat of formation of a series of binary alloys of these two
metals, we should find a maximum or a minimum heat evolution at
formule corresponding to those of the compounds. Herschkowitz has
attempted to find these heats of formation by dissolving first the metals,
then the alloy, in a solution of bromine and KBr in water, and taking
the difference as the heat of formation of the alloy. But his results,
though not unpromising, do not yet throw much light on our subject.
One objection to his method lies in the necessity of crushing his metals
and alloys to ensure rapid solution in the calorimeter, Now, as Mr.
Rosenhain has pointed out to me, it is certain that the crushed alloy,
each fragment of which has been strained, possesses more energy than it
did before crushing, and this may be quite important as compared with
the small heats of formation observed.

Galt (°) and other workers have followed similar methods, but the
solvent (nitric acid) used by him does not seem a safe one, as the gaseous
products of solution may be so varied that one can feel no certainty that
the final state was the same in the solution of the metals and of the alloy.
In Tayler’s (*) method of dissolving the metals and the alloy in mercury
there is not this danger, but the applicability of the method is more
limited.

Electric Conductivity of Alloys.

Since Matthiessen and Wiedemann studied the remarkable changes in
conductivity produced by alloying two metals, this subject has been one
of great interest. But it is doubtful if research in this direction will
help us much in detecting the existence of compounds. For the increase
in resistance due to alloying two metals, while partly due to the Peltier
effects at the innumerable surfaces of contact of the crystals forming the
alloy, is also due to the mechanical discontinuities and gaps which exist
in alloys. It would be very difficult to distinguish quantitatively between
the effects due to the two causes. The impossibility of drawing many
alloys into wire, and the changes caused by drawing those which are
ductile, also limit and complicate this method of research.

PART II.
Table of Intermetallic Compounds.

Column 2 contains the presumed formula of the compound. Column 3
indicates the kind of evidence on which the formula is based. In
column 3 the letters F.P.C. stand for freezing-point curve; I. for the
fact that the body has been isolated and analysed ; M. for microscopic
proof ; E.M.F. for determinations of electromotive force, such as those of
Laurie.

Column 4 gives the name of the experimenter, and a number referring
to the table of references, which is placed at the end of the report. The
more uncertain formule are placed in brackets. Each alloy occurs twice
in the table.

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS.

Intermetallic Compounds.

145

Cd

Cu

Al

As

Sb

1900.

NaHg,
NaCa,
Na,Pb

”
Na, Bi

Na,Sb
Na,As
Na,Sn
KHg,

KPb
| Ag,Sb

| Ag,Sn

| Ag,Sn
Ag, Al

(Ag,Cd)

(Ag,Cd)
Zn,Ag
Zn,Cu

”

”
Zn,Sb
AuCd

Cd,Na
(Cdag,)
(Cdag,)

Hg,Na

Hg,K
Cu,Sb

Cu,Sn

CuAl,

Cu,Al

Al,Au

(AlAu)

AlAu,
(Al,Au,)
(AlAu,)

AJ,Cu

AlCu,

AlAg,

AISb

AsNa,
As,Sn,
SbNa,
SbAg,
SbCu,
SbSn
Sb,Zn
SbAL
BiNa,

(Au,Al)
(Au,Al,)
Au,Al
(AuAl)

F.P.C,

1A RC).
I.
F.P.C.
A mineral

HS BACs
F.P.C. of ter- |
nary alloy !
E.M.F.
I.
M,
E.M.F.

I.
F-.P.C. ternary
F.P.C.
F.P.C. of ter-
nary alloys

F.P.C.

E.P.C.
M.
I.
E.M.F.
F.P.C.

FP.C.& M.

” 2

Kurnakov (5)

”

Joannis (*)
Kurnakov (15)
Joannis (*), Lebeau (?)

”

Lebeau (°)

Kurnakov @5)
Joannis (*)
Heycock and Neville (?')

Charpy (°)

Herschkowitz @)
Gautier ('°)

Heycock and Neville (})

Herschkowitz (!7)

Laurie ("8), Herschkowitz (!”)
Le Chatelier (°)

Charpy (°)

Herschkowitz (!7)

Heycock and Neville (')

Kurnakoy ('5)
| Heycock and Neville (')
Kurnakov (!5)

Le Chatelier (*)

Charpy (°)

Le Chatelier (®)

Laurie ('*), Herschkowitz (!”)
Le Chatelier ("4)

Roberts- Austen (74)
Heycock and Neville (2?)
” ”

” ”
Le Chatelier (4) 7
Gautier 0%

Wright

Lebeau (3)

Stead (’)

Joannis (*), Lebeau (8)
Heycock and Neville (*')
Le Chatelier ('")

Charpy (°)

Stead (7)

Herschkowitz ('7)
Gautier (1°)

Kurnakov (!*)

| Joannis (*)

Heycock and Neville (2?)

146 REPORT—1900.
Intermetallic Compounds—continued.
Au AuAl, F.P.C. & M. | Roberts-Austen (**)
Au,Pb M. and I. Stead (unpublished)
Au,Pb, M. ny
Sn SnNa, I, Lebeau (*)
SnCu, I. Le Chatelier (°)
», E.M.F Laurie (1), Herschkowitz (17)
a M. Stead (7), Charpy (°)
ot { i beat 54 \ Mylius and Fromm (**)
(SnCu) M. Stead (7)
(SnCu,) M. & F.P.C Heycock and Neville (*1)
(SnAg,) M. Charpy (°)
SnAg, E.M.F. Herschkowitz (17)
SnSb I. and M Stead (7)
Sn,Ni, F.P.C, Le Chatelier (?°)
Sn, As, i Stead (7)
Sn, Ru ob Debray (°)
Sn,Rh »” ”
Sn,Ir ” ”
Sn,Pt is Fr
Pb | PbNa, F.P.C, Kurnakov (3°)
PbK Ts Joannis (*)
PbAu, M. and I. Stead (7)
Pb, Au, ” a
Rh RbSn, I. Debray (°)
Ru RuSn, 3 +H
Ir IrSn, >i5y 5
Pt | PtSn, f 9

It would be very easy to amplify this list ; for example, various other
arsenides and antimonides have had formule assigned to them, and some
alloys of aluminium and tin with the rarer metals appear to have
been isolated as crystals. Further research will no doubt enormously
expand it, though it may also cause the rejection of a few that have been
included.

But as the list now stands it offers matter for the consideration of the
student of valency. One sees that the compounds of the metalloids with
the metals present formule that we should expect from the known
valencies of the elements, but such bodies as NaHg,, SnCu, AlAg, are
more remarkable. The first of these is evidently a well-marked type,
which already occurs several times.

If I rightly understand Professor Kurnakov, he thinks that Mendeléef’s
law of the total valency of an element for oxygen and hydrogen being
8 will find application in the formule of alloys, the hydrogen being
replaced by other metals. In this case, the alkali metals which are
monovalent to oxygen should be polyvalent in alloys ; his curves certainly
support this view. The freezing-point curves show that the most marked
summits—that is, the most stable compounds—occur when a strongly
positive metal, such as sodium or aluminium, is alloyed with a metal, such
as antimony, leagd, or gold, which is far removed from it in the electro-
chemical series.

The Molecular Weights of Metals.

With the exception of the limited number of vapour-density determi-
nations which show that mercury, cadmium, and zinc, and perhaps also
sodium and potassium, have monatomic molecules when gaseous, the only
evidence as to the molecular weights of metals lies in experiments based
on. Raoult’s methods.

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 14.7

Professor Ramsay and M. Tammann in 1890 showed that small
quantities of various metals dissolved in mercury gave, for the most part,
depressions of the vapour-pressure and of the freezing-point, which indi-
cated that the dissolved molecule contained one atom of the added metal.
At the same time, Mr. Heycock and I found that this was in general true
when metals were dissolved in tin. At later dates we extended the
generalisation to solutions of metals in the solvents bismuth, cadmium,
lead, and zinc, and tables summarising our results are reproduced in the
present report. If we could be certain that the dissolved metal did not
form a chemical compound with the solvent, these results would afford
very strong grounds for holding that the molecules of the dissolved metals
were in most cases monatomic. But we know now that chemical com-
bination is not uncommon, and it is evident that in dilute solution the
dissolved metal a will tend to form compounds of the type 4 B,,, where B
is the solvent. Hence the problem of the chemical compounds formed by
metals with the solvent metal must be solved before we can safely
dogmatise concerning the molecular weight of the metals when in solution.
To take a special case, one atom of copper dissolved in tin produces the
molecular depression of the freezing-point, but from Mr. Stead’s work we
have good reason to attribute this to the presence of a molecule CuSn.

On the other hand, the abnormal depressions obtained by us in certain
cases point to the probability of the compounds Bi,As,, Bi,Cu,, Cd,,Hg.,
Cd,Zn,, Cd,Pd,, Cd,K,, Cd,Au;, Cd,As,, Pb,(Cd, Hg, Bi),, Pb,Sn,,
Pb,,Na,, most of which have not at present been studied. It is obvious
that m may be zero in any of these.

The question of the depression of the freezing-point in dilute solutions,
is, however, complicated by the probable appreciable solubility of the
dissolved metal in the solid crystals of solvent, and by all the thermal
difficulties that Nernst and Abegg have discussed.

The fascinating question as to the condition of association or dis-
sociation of the molecules of the compounds when melted or in solution
also comes in when we attempt to interpret our tables, or, indeed, when
we examine any freezing-point curve. But it is possible to study inter-
metallic compounds without touching this question, and in the present
report I have thought it best to do so.

The vast subject of ternary and more complex mixtures has also been
avoided as too complex for the present purpose, although Behrens,
Stead, and especially Charpy, have made most interesting studies of such
mixtures.

I have to thank Mr. Heycock for continued assistance in drawing up
this report. I have also to thank Mr. Stead and Professor H. Le Chatelier
for valuable information and valuable references.

Depression of the Freezing-point of the Metals Tin, Zinc, Bismuth,
Cadmium, and Lead, caused by the Solution of Small Quantities of
other Metals.

The theoretical molecular depressions are calculated from the latent
heat of fusion by means of the formula

e 0"
== O19
66 =0 x

where @ is the freezing-point of the pure metal, 04 the depression,’and
the latent heat of fusion. L2

148 REPORT—1900,

TABLE I.—7Z%n as Solvent.
Atomic Falls for a Concentration of under one Atom.

Nickel . . 294 3 experiments.
Silver - 293 2 =f
Gold Bp PESEY Oy f
Copper . é : ;: =. oo 2 -
I Thallium . : : . 286 4 ;
* \ Sodium : : - 284 2
Palladium . 2°78 4 experiments,
Magnesium . ce rhate cAL a
Lead ‘ ; . 276 8 a
Zin wee A : . 264 4 me
Cadmium’ . 243 3 experiments,
II Mercury . 239 4 3
* ) Bismuth . 240 6 -
Calcium ‘ . 240 2 A}
III reat F “1 : - 186 5 experiments.
* | Aluminium 5 TL 2b "

Theoretical Molecular Depression = 3° ©.

Taste II.—Zinc as Solvent.

expts. concen, 1—3 atoms,

Metal. hee ae Mean atomic Mean Mean atomic
centage. percentage. depression. depression.
Bismuth . : - ’ 0°386 0:2075 1:052° 5:07
Antimony é : : 0:799 0°4377 2247 5:13
eS fromcurve . 07500 0°500 2°60 (5°20)
Lead : , ; 2 0°200 0150 0-78 5:20
Thallium . : r : 0:393 0°2595 1:285 4:95
Tinie, ; : ; : 1:187 0°655 3°497 5:34
Magnesium. : : 0-975 0 655 3572 5°45
Cadmium ; : - 1-464 0:732 3°377 4°61
Aluminium. ‘ : 0:99 0:99 4:10 (4:14)
Theoretical Molecular Depression = 5:13° C.,
Taste III.— Bismuth as Solvent.
No. of No. of atoms per Mean atomic
ie experiments. 100 atoms Bi. depression.
Lead ... - ; 5 : 20 1:1—1:'75 2:1
Thallium 2 0:3—0°9 2:07 M
Mercury t 03—4:3 2°04
Tin 4 0'16—2'2 2°03. Steady.
Palladium 4 0-9—2°2 2:03
Platinum 6 0:'2—1°2 2°02. Steady,
Cadmium 4 1-0—4:0 2:01
Gold 4 0 4—1'8 LOT
Sodium . ; 3 0:38—4:0 1:94. Steady.
Silver . ; ; 3 0-7—2'5 9k
Zinc 4 1:3—48 16
Copper . 5 0:23—0°6 1:23
Arsenic. 5 0:25—2°3 0-68. Very
s steady.
It is noticeable thas arsenic both in bismuth and cadmium gives + fall,
Antimony . : : A 3 0:23—1'0 2-79. Rise.

Theoretical molecular depression = 2:08° C,

t

ON THE CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS CONTAINED IN ALLOYS. 149
TABLE 1V.—Cadmium as Solvent.
hee No. of No. of atoms per Mean atomic. de-
experiments, 100 atoms Cd. pression.
Antimony 2 0:3—0°5 4-71 M.
Platinum . ‘ ‘ ‘ 2 0:08—0°13 4:55
F f 4 0:05—0°5 4:58
Bismuth fi ‘ 6 leh 3 2-2 -3-6 4-09
Tin 2 0'66—2°6 4:48
Sodium 3 0-6—1'3 4-44
Lead . 2 0:84—1°4 4-4.
Thallium 3 0:24— 1:28 4:34 M.
Copper , 8 0:2—2°0 3°5. No falling
off.
Mercury 3 0:23—0°68 2°77
Zine 3 0:06—1°6 2°72. No falling
- off,
Palladium 3 0:13—0 26 2°35
Potassium 2 05—0°6 2:26 M.
Gold 3 0:14—0'7 1:48
Arsenic 1 0-2 16
Silver 1 0:05 9°33. Rise.
Theoretical molecular depression = 4°5° C.
Taste V.—Lead as Solvent.
; t
es No. of No. of atoms per Mean atomic de-
experiments. | 100 atoms of Pb. pression.
Gold. 4 0:33—2°7 6°45. Steady.
Palladium ; , 3 0°32—1°8 645
Silver . r i i 6 0-2—1°4 6°45
Platinum 4 0:15—0°6 6-42
Copper . : ; : 3 0-1—0:195 6°15
Arsenic : ory: ¢ 4 0°38—4'9 5°33
Magnesium . 2 15 4:56
Zinc 3 0:2—1:2 4:43
Antimony 4 0'6—4:7 3°9. Steady.
Cadmium Fs : ‘ 2 0-6—6'1 3°62] Steady
Mercury : : : : 3 0:73—6°7 3°31 | 3 Hg...
Bismuth : é C 2 6 0:23—4'6 3°02) Steady.
: 3 0-4—1'8 1:8
Tin e . . . . { D) 60—9:0 16 } t Sn,.
Sodium ° : F ; 2 — 1:06 ?

Theoretical molecular depression = 65° C.

References.

(‘) Heycock and Neville
and Tin.’
1894.

(?) Heycock and Neville

Chem. Soc.’ p. 914, 1892.

‘Comptes Rendus,’ exxx. p, 502.

‘Comptes Rendus,’ p. 585, 1892.

‘Comptes Rendus,’ p. 1470, 1887,

(?) Lebeau . : '
(‘) Joannis , . ‘
() Debray . . .

‘The Freezing-points of Triple Alloys of Gold, Cadmium,
‘Trans. Chem. Soc.’ p. 986, 1891, and p. 65,

‘Isolation of a Compound of Gold and Cadmium,’ ‘ Trans.

150 REPORT—1900.

(S) Le Chatelier . . ‘Sur les combinaisons définies des alliages métalliques.’
‘Soc. d’encouragement pour l'industrie nationale,’ p. 388,
1895.

(7) Stead. > . ‘Microstructure of alloys,’ ‘Metallographist, ii. p. 314.
‘Jour. Chem. Industry,’ xvii. 12, p. 3, and earlier
numbers.

(8) Osmond . : . ‘Comptes Rendus,’ exxiy. pp. 1094 and 1234.

(®) Charpy . J . ‘Etude Microscopique des alliages métalliques.’ ‘Soc.
dencouragement,’ p. 384, 1897; also ‘The Metallo-

graphist,’ i. 2, p. 87, and ‘ Comptes Rendus,’ cxxiv. p. 957.

(°) Gautier . ; . ‘Recherches sur la fusibilité des alliages métalliques.’

‘Soc. d’encouragement,’ p. 4, 1896.

(4) Heycock and Neville ‘Freezing-points of Alloys.containing Zinc and another
Metal,” ‘Trans. Chem. Soc.’ p. 383, 1897; also ‘ Phil.
Trans. A.’ clxxxix. p. 25, 1897, and Roberts-Austen,
‘R. Soc. Proc.’ 1900.

‘Ueber einige Higenthiimlichkeiten der Loéslichkeitscur-
ven. ‘Zeits. Phys. Chemie,’ xxi. p. 557; and also
‘Comptes Rendus,’ cxxviii. p. 1444,

(3) Paternoand Ampolla ‘Gazz. chim. ital.’ xxvii. p. 481, 1897.

(1?) Le Chatelier

(*) Le Chatelier . . ‘Les alliages métalliques.’ ‘Revue Générale des Sciences,’
xii. p. 537, 1895.
(°) Kurnakov : ‘Sur les combinaisons mutuelles des métaux.’

(5) Bakhuis Roozeboom. ‘Erstarrungspuncte der Mischkrystalle zweier Stoffe’
‘Zeits. Phys. Chemie,’ xxx. p. 385; Van Hyk, zbid.
xxx, p. 430; Reinders, ibid. xxxiii. p. 494; Hissink,
ibid. xxxili. p. 537.

(27) Herschkowitz . . ‘Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Metallegierungen.’ ‘ Zeits.
Phys. Chemie,’ xxvii. p. 123.

(®) Laurie . : . ‘Chem. Soc. Trans,’ p. 104, 1888; ‘Phil. Mag.’ [5] xxxiii.
p. 94.

(7°) Galt : : . ‘B.A. Report,’ 1899, p. 246.

(*) Tayler. : . Phil. Mag.’ July 1900.

(#1) Heycock and Neville ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxxxix. A. p. 67.

(#2) Heycock and Neville ‘ Phil. Trans.’ cxciv. A. p. 201.

() Myliusand Fromm . ‘Berichte der deut. chem. Gesell.’ xxyii. p. 630.
(74) Roberts-Austen . ‘Metallographist,’ i. p. 342.

Bibliography of Spectroscopy.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor H. McLeop, Professor Sir W. C. Roperts-AusTEN, Mr.

H. G. Manan, and Mr. D. H. NaGEt.

Tue work of collecting, verifying, and systematically arranging the titles
of papers bearing on spectroscopy has been steadily carried on during the
past year ; and the Committee ask to be reappointed for cne more year,
with the intention of presenting to the Association at its next meeting
the final instalment of the ‘Catalogue of Spectroscopic Literature,’ com-
menced in 1870. It is proposed to end the catalogue with the present
century, since the very satisfactory character of the proceedings at the
last conference of the delegates appointed to arrange the compilation
of an International Catalogue of Scientific Papers seems to warrant the
conclusion that, as from January 1, 1901, the services of the Committee

will be no longer needed,

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 15) |

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Substances.—
Interim Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. NoEL
Har they (Chairman and Secretary), Professor F. R. Japp, and
Professor J. J. Dossiz, appointed to investigate the Relation
between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic
Substances.

Four informal meetings have been held during the year, and, as
much work is still in progress, it has been considered desirable that an
interim report of that which has been completed should be presented.
This consists of five communications published by the Chemical Society
in their ‘ Transactions’ since March last. Two of these deal with the sub-
ject of tautomerism and one with stereo-isomerism. The fourth is a
study of ammonia and its derivatives, of hydroxylamine and oximes ; and
the fifth an examination of some closed-chain compounds one of which
contains two nitrogen atoms. Details of the measurements of the spectra
are omitted from this report for the sake of brevity. In connection with
the nitrogen compounds a brief abstract of a previous publication has
been included. It is of interest because it leads towards the conclusion
that there are two distinct classes of albuminoids, some of which have
long been known to act as enzymes or soluble ferments towards the
carbohydrates.

Spectrographic Studies in Tautomerism.
I. Absorption Curves of the Ethyl Esters of Dibenzoylsuccinic Acid.'

According to theory, thirteen isomerides of diethyl dibenzoylsuccinate
have a possible existence, but only three have so far been prepared and
studied. On chemical grounds Knorr? regards one of the three as an
enolic, and the other two as ketonic esters. He assigns to the enolic or
a-ester the constitutional formula

CPh(OH):C-CO,Et
CPh(OH):C:CO, Et

without deciding which of the three possible stereo-isomeric modifica-
tions of this formula represents the substance examined by him. The
two ketonic esters are structurally identical but configuratively different.
To one of them, which he designates the para- or /3-ester, Knorr assigns
the formula (a), and to the other, which he designates the meso-, anti
or y-ester, the formula (0).

H H
| |
CO,Et-C-COPh COPh:C:CO,Et
(4) | (0) |
COPh:C-CO,Et COPh'C-CO,Et
| |
H H

} Hartley and Dobbie, Zrans. Chem. Soc., vol. 1xxvii.
? Annalen, 1896, 298, 70.

152 REPORT—1900.

A mixture of the f- and y-esters is readily obtained by adding an
ethereal solution of iodine to the sodium derivative of ethyl benzoy]-
acetate, obtained by the action of metallic sodium on an ethereal solution
of the ester. The two ketonic esters are readily separated from one
another by fractional crystallisation. When either of them is treated
with sodium methoxide, a yellow crystalline meal, consisting of the
sodium derivative of the a-ester, is obtained. The aqueous solution of
this substance, when treated with excess of dilute sulphuric acid at the
freezing temperature, yields the a-ester, which separates as a thick oil
possessing the colour of chlorine gas. The /3-ester, which was first
described by von Baeyer and Perkin,! melts at 128-130°, the y-ester at
75°, and the former is less soluble than the latter in mostsolvents. Both
esters are opticaliy inactive, the /3-ester by external, the y-ester by
internal compensation, The ketonic esters are neutral to litmus, and
practically insoluble in cold dilute alkalis. In their chemical properties
they are exactly alike.

The a-ester differs, both in physical and chemical properties, from
the ketonic esters. It is an oily liquid, has a strongly acid reaction,
and dissolves in cold dilute alkalis. It gives a characteristic dirty brown
coloration with ferric chloride, which is not shown by the ketonic
esters, and moreover is unstable, gradually passing into a mixture of
the »- and y-esters at the ordinary temperature, the change taking place
quickly at 130°,

f the view put forward by Knorr as to the relation of the three esters
to one another is correct, the - and y-esters should give very similar,
if not identical, absorption curves, since stereo-isomerides which differ
only in the configuration of their asymmetric carbon atoms so far as they
have been investigated in essential oils and their hydrocarbons, are not
found to differ either in the amount or the character of their absorption.
The a-ester, on the other hand, having a different constitution, should
exhibit a distinct series of absorption spectra.

We have photographed and measured the spectra of alcoholic solu-
tions of the three substances, and the results obtained entirely bear out
the conclusions arrived at by Knorr on purely chemical grounds. The
spectra of the ketonic esters are identical. The amount of absorption is
considerable, all rays beyond !/\ 2795 being cut off by a layer 25 mm.
thick of a solution containing 1 milligram-mol. in 100 c.c. of alcohol.
There is also a well-marked band of selective absorption reaching from
1/X 3824 to 1/\ 4306 in a layer 3 mm. thick of a solution containing
1 milligram-mol. of the ester in 2500 ¢.c. of alcohol. This band is very
persistent, and is still distinctly marked in a layer 4 mm. thick of a solu-
tion containing only 1 milligram-mol. in 12,500 c.c. of alcohol.

The spectrum of the a- or enolic form is quite different from that
of the ketonic esters. The general absorption is greater, a layer 25 mm.
thick of a solution containing 1 milligram-mol. in 100 ¢.c. of alcohol
cutting off all rays beyond '/A 2171. The absorption band of the
ketonic esters is altogether absent, whilst a well-marked band makes its
appearance in a layer 5 mm. thick of a solution containing 1 milli-
gram-mol. in 500 c.c. of alcohol between '/A 2546 and !/A 3148. This
band quickly dies out, no trace of it being visible in a layer 4 mm. thick
of a solution containing 1 milligram-mol. in 500 c.c. of alcohol.

1 Ber, 1884, 17, 60.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 153

The absorption curves for the ketonic and enolic forms are shown in
the diagram on p. 156.

When the solution of the a-ester was allowed to stand, and photo-
graphs were taken after successive intervals of time, the transition from
the enolic to the ketonic form could be clearly traced. After an interval
of only three hours, the absorption band of the enolic ester had almost
entirely disappeared, whilst the amount of general absorption had also
appreciably diminished. Solutions containing 1 milligram-mol. in 100
and 500 c.c. respectively showed after forty-eight hours a great diminution
in the amount of the general absorption, whilst after three weeks the
curve coincided almost exactly with that of the 3- and y-esters, as shown
on p. 155,

The result of this investigation exemplifies the value of the spectro-
graphic method, and shows how it might be applied with advantage
to the investigation of similar cases of isomerism either to guide the
chemical investigation or to confirm the conclusions drawn from it,
especially when any doubt exists as to whether the isomerism is due
to a difference in constitution or merely to a difference in the arrange-
ment of the atoms in space. The amount of substance required for the
experiments is small, and can generally be recovered again from the solu-
tion.

The esters were prepared by the method described by Knorr.!
The preparation of the /- and y-esters offers no difficulty: the
a-ester is only obtained when strict attention is paid to all the details
given by Knorr. Two distinct preparations of each of the ketonic
esters and three preparations of the a-ester were made. Each prepara-
tion was photographed several times without any difference being ob-
served in the photographs of the same substance. In the case of the
a-ester the photographs were taken immediately after the completion
of the preparation, as the change to the ketonic form sets in almost at
once.

II. A Study of the Absorption Spectra of o-Oxycarbanil and its
Alkyl Derivatives.*

The substance o-oxycarbanil, C;H,O,N, and its alkyl derivatives form
a group of compounds which stand in the same relation to one another as
isatin, carbostyril, and their respective alkyl derivatives.

o-Oxycarbanil can be prepared by the fusion of o-aminophenol hydro-
chloride with urea, or from its lactim ether by the action of concentrated
hydrochloric acid.’ It can also be obtained by the distillation of o-amino-
phenyl ethyl carbonate.‘ Two ethyl derivatives of o-oxycarbanil are
known. One of these is prepared by boiling o-oxycarbanil for some time
under a reflux condenser with equivalent quantities of ethyl iodide and
alcoholic potash, the other by the interaction of o-aminophenol and ethyl
iminocarbonate. The ether obtained by the first method is considered
to be a lactam, that is, to have the ethyl group directly attached
to the nitrogen atom, because on heating for some time with hydrochloric
acid it takes up water and decomposes into carbon dioxide and the hydro-

1 Loe. cit.
2 Hartley, Dobbie, and Paliatseas, Zrans. Chem. Soc., vol, lxxvii.
3 Sandmeyer, Ber, 1886, 19, 2650. ‘ Bender, Ber., 1886, 19, 269.

Scale of Oscillation Frequencies.

oe Sees ez. oN Se Be es 7 eg taws nea ee
1/50 3 ua h I i fmt TTS CU A Uy
—-—-- |}.
BERERAEEAME

cae IT

a eB ae es
Shee eee i A OD es es oe
fee PRE fe

1/100

Proportional parts ot a milligram-

a

fol ict Lasky Well
dts Nivth ll}

an oleate ak Talal

we | tal talc! eel

aK ee rae
1/500 15 heed Hess lee We

at

3t- {|

OF ie et ei are he Py: .

(cS) Pe i MR id WS Ff De Pia KT TAY
Woe elo ll lal | Lebteiot st gos) Tat | keg y

Curves of Molecular Vibrations.

Ethyl a-, B-, and y-dibenzoylsuccinates. The curves for the B- and y-esters are identical, and are indi.
eated by stars upon the line at points where measurements of the spectra were made, The curve of the
a-ester is indicated by a.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION.

155

chloride of ethyl o-aminophenol. Its) structural formula is therefore
CH. <G 2H )Sco. The ether prepared by the second method, on

Scale of Oscillation Frequencies.

inbollel ald cchibha lela hci, Lone 6 7 8 9 40ptl

'

(Sn eeImete Be ees
fe RE ae

Proportional parts of a Milligram-mol. in 500 ¢.c
=
oe P| 1 —!

ey ea

Curves of Molecular Vibrations.

Ethy] a-, B-, and y-dibenzoylsuccinates. a and a! are the curves of the a-ester, the former when the
substance was freshly prepared, the latter when it had been kept for three weeks. The curves of the p-

and y-esters are identical, and are shown as one, f, y.

treatment with concentrated hydrochloric acid, yields o-oxycarbanil.
therefore a lactim of the constitution C,H,<GSC-00,H,.

1 Bender, loc, cit,

It is

156 REPORT—1900.

As in the similar cases of isatin and carbostyril, the chemical evidence
leaves the question of the constitution of o-oxycarbanil itself undecided.
On the one hand, its formation by the distillation of o-aminophenyl
ethyl carbonate is most easily explained on the assumption that it has the

Seale of Oscillation Frequencies.

3485 67 6 940001 : 9 7000+ 2
Me Sar ce h

LTA OW 0

ot ael a
EE
7 HCE EE rae
Ei HTE oe coe
Ces la (iia a a
Ae: GR a ee Oe
ee a PS eter |
CeCe ee
0 eB A es Pa
Se (PESTS 1 ee se
ee) (Roa asia «hha
Spo AO
24 fC
84 Como
2 COUCTE TH
ee og
ee Ge
26 GOL iw
SE) Ea ee BIE imi
* ERE EEE a
EHEC iaisia
| A 1
OO a a E
<a TOO Eon!
ea © Rick SER CBS lib ©
g Bl
2
E
re

Lactam or ketonic ether. o-Oxycarbanil. Lactim or enolic ether.

Curves of Molecular Vibration.

ketonic or lactam constitution, and that the reaction takes place according
to the equation

NH NH. L
CsHi<0.00-00,H,; = C.Hi<o__>00 + C,H, OH,

This view is supported by the fact that it forms a well-defined compound
with phenylhydrazine.! On the other hand, its direct formation from the
lactim ether by the action of hydrochloric acid seems to point to the
enolic or lactim structure as being the more probable. It is, however,
now generally admitted that arguments based on chemical reactions are
inconclusive in cases such as that under consideration, where shifting of a
hydrogen atom may easily take place.

1 Bender, ‘loc. cit.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 157

The present investigation was undertaken with the view of ascertain-
ing whether a comparison of the absorption spectra of the two ethers
with the absorption spectra of o-oxycarbanil would, as in the cases of
isatin and carbostyril,! yield results from which the constitution of the
parent substance might be inferred. Assuming that one or other of the
ethers differs from o-oxycarbanil only in the substitution of the alkyl
group for an atom of hydrogen, the constitution of the two substances
being otherwise identical, we should expect the absorption spectra of the
parent substance and this ether to be practically the same. On the other
hand, the ether which differs in constitution from the parent substance
should give a different spectrum. Groenvik ? gives 136-138°, Sandmeyer
137°, and Bender 141°, as the melting-point of o-oxycarbanil. Although,
apart from this slight difference, there was no reason to doubt the identity
of the substances obtained by these chemists, we thought it well to ex-
amine specimens prepared independently by two different methods and
selected for the purpose, the substances obtained by fusion of o-amino-
phenol with urea and by the decomposition of the lactim ether with
hydrochloric acid. We found that the two specimens when heated side
by side in capillary tubes behaved in exactly the same way, softening at
137° and melting completely at 139°5. Solutions of the two specimens
gave identical spectra.

The spectra of o-oxycarbanil and of the lactam ether are almost iden-
tical. The amount of general absorption is practically the same in both,
and the spectra of both substances show a well-marked absorption band
occupying the same position and persisting, in both cases, through the
same range of dilution. The spectra of the enolic ether, on the other
hand, show a smaller amount of general absorption, and the absorption
band does not appear until a much greater degree of dilution is reached
than is required to bring out the band in the other two substances. The
range of the band of the enolic ester is also very small. The above curves,
drawn from the photographs, show very clearly the relations between
the spectra of the various substances.

The conclusion to which the investigation leads is that o-oxycarbanil
has the same structure as the lactam or ketonic ether, or, at all events,
that the lactam structure very greatly predominates, if the assumption is
made that the parent substance in solution is a mixture of two tautomeric
forms. It is worthy of note that in the three cases of this kind which
have now been examined the parent substance possesses the ketonic or
lactam constitution. o-Oxycarbanil, it may be noted, gives no colour
reaction with ferric chloride.

The substances used in this investigation were prepared exactly in
accordance with the directions given in the papers already quoted. Two
distinct preparations of each substance were made and several series of
photographs were taken of the absorption spectra of each preparation.
No appreciable difference could be detected in the various photographs of
the same substance. This is satisfactory evidence of the identity of the
compounds, and also of the purity of these particular preparations.

' Hartley and Dobbie, Zvans. Chem. Soc., 1899, 75, 640,
? Bull. Soc. Chim., 1876 [ii.], 25, 177.

158 REPORT—1900.

The Absorption Spectra of Ammonia, Methylamine, Hydroxylamine,
Aldoxime, and Acetoxime.}

It was shown by L. Soret that commercial ammonia, even after many
recrystallisations as sulphate, still shows an absorption band. Hartley
and Huntington (‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1879, Part I., 267) confirmed this observa-
tion, and, believing the absorption to be due to traces of some constituent
of gas-liquor, examined specimens of what was sold as ‘ volcanic’ ammonia
of special purity for analytical purposes. Three separate samples were
examined, each measuring half a gallon, with the result that all the rays
beyond !/) 2638-2 (A 2747°7) were absorbed by the strong solution in acell
15 mm. in thickness. A very distinct absorption band was visible on
diluting the liquid with eight volumes of water, and was still seen until
sixteen volumes had been added.

This result appeared remarkable in view of the fact that gaseous
ammonia, at atmospheric pressure, in a tube 1 metre in length showed
no selective absorption, and that ethylamine, even when solutions
containing as much as 33 per cent. of the base were examined in cells
25 mm. in thickness, transmitted continuous spectra with very little
absorption.

Carbamide also showed no absorption band, but transmitted a con-
tinuous spectrum.? <A 10 per cent. solution of carbamide in a cell 15mm,
in thickness transmits all rays to X 2140, rays more refrangible than
X 2750 being slightly weakened.

When we remember that practically all the ammonia of commerce
is obtained from coal tar, and is liable to contain minute traces of the
volatile bases of the pyridine and other series, which can only be com-
pletely separated with great difficulty, it is obvious that great care must
be taken to obtain chemically pure ammonia for examination before any
trustworthy conclusion can be arrived at as to the character of its absorp-
tion spectrum.

The following investigation was undertaken with the view of definitely
ascertaining whether or not chemically pure ammonia shows selective
absorption. An examination of ordinary aqueous ammonia was first made
in order to determine the exact position of its absorption band. <A tube
150 mm. long was used. With this thickness of layer a solution containing
5 grams of ammonia in 100 c.c. water showed complete absorption beyond
1/X 3638 (\ 2749). A layer of the same thickness containing 2°5 grams
of ammonia in 100 c.c. gave a continuous spectrum to !/\ 3694 (A 2707),
a broad absorption band occupying that portion of the spectrum
which lies between '/ 3694 (A 2707) and !/\ 4806 (A 2322), the spectrum
again showing beyond this point. This band is persistent, being still
traceable in a solution containing only 0°625 gram of ammonia in 100 e.e.
All the samples of commercial ammonia examined showed selective
absorption, but by converting the base into ammonium chloride the
absorption band was found to become less marked in the spectrum after
successive crystallisations of the salt.

In order to,try the effect of crystallisation of one of the less soluble
salts, ammonia was converted into oxalate and the salt repeatedly

1 Hartley and Dobbie, Zrans. Chem. Soc., vol. 1xxvii.
2 From unpublished experiments on the determination of aromatic substances in
urine. See note, Dublin Journal of Medical Science, June 1882.—W. N. HARTLEY.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 159

crystallised. The oxalate was distilled with pure potassium hydroxide and
the ammonia absorbed in pure distilled water, the spectrum of which was
photographed on the same plate as that of the ammonia solution. Much
greater thicknesses of liquid were examined than in previous experiments.

A layer 200 mm. thick of a solution containing 10°6 per cent. of ammonia
prepared in this way from oxalate transmitted all rays to !/ 3638 (2749),
but the spectrum was feeble from !/A\ 2738 (\ 3652) to !/A 3638 (A 2749).
No band was visible. A layer 100 mm. thick transmitted the rays to
1/\ 4323 (2313), but the spectrum was very feeble beyond !/A 3904 (X 2561).

From another portion of the purified oxalate the liberated ammonia
was passed into optically pure hydrochloric acid ; the ammonium chloride
recrystallised several times was then examined, the solution of the salt
employed having the same thickness of layer and containing the same
amount of ammonia as that previously used in determining the position
of the absorption band in ordinary ammonia. It now showed no trace of
selective absorption, the spectrum being continuous to '/A 4666 (A 2143)
with a scarcely perceptible weakness at the extreme ultra-violet end. Pure
ammonia may therefore be obtained without difficulty by the decomposition
of acrystallised ammonium salt such as the oxalate.

Ammonia obtained from Hydroxylamine.

- Ammonia obtained by the reduction of hydroxylamine was next
examined. Hydroxylamine hydrochloride was reduced with a zinc-
copper couple and the ammonia distilled into pure hydrochloric acid ;
the ammonium chloride thus obtained was subsequently purified by
recrystallisation.

A layer of 150 mm. of a solution containing 2°5 grams ammonia in
100 c.c. distilled water showed a continuous spectrum to!/\ 4411 (\ 2267) ;
the spectrum is weak from !/\ 3886 (A 2573), but there was no indication
of selective absorption.

As therefore neither ordinary ammonia, which has been carefully
purified by the above method, nor ammonia obtained by the reduction
of hydroxylamine, shows selective absorption, we conclude that the
absorption band of ordinary ammonia is due to the presence of
traces of foreign substances which distil over with it from the gas
liquor.
~ We next endeavoured to ascertain the nature, and estimate the
amount, of the impurity to which the band of ordinary aqueous am-
monia is due. The position of the band seemed to indicate the pyridine
bases as the most likely cause of the absorption, and, in fact, we
found that a layer of 150 mm. thick of a solution containing 7°68 grams
of pure ammonium chloride (equivalent to 2°5 grams of ammonia) and
0:00001 gram of pyridine in 100 c.c. water, showed almost exactly the
same amount and character of absorption as a layer of ordinary aqueous
ammonia of the same thickness and strength.

In a further experiment we found that the addition of the same
amount of pyridine (in the form of hydrochloride) to 100 c.c. of distilled
water produced an identical result, the spectrum being hardly distin-
guishable from that of ordinary aqueous ammonia.! It follows, there-

' In this connection itis interesting to note that, although a solution contain-
ing 0000001 gram pyridine in 100 c.c. distilled water no longer showed an actual gap
in the spectrum, there was a perceptible weakening of the lines of that portion of the
spectrum in which the band of ordinary aqueous ammonia occurs.

160 REPORT—1900.

fore, that the strong ammonia used (35 per cent, NH;) contains approxi-
mately 0:00014 per cent. pyridine.

Although pyridine is thus shown to be the principal cause of the ab-
sorption, minute traces of its higher homologues and of volatile bases of
other series are also probably present, as the slight differences between
the spectrum of ordinary ammonia and that of pure pyridine appear to
indicate.

Methylamune Hydrochloride.

Methylamine was investigated by Hartley and Huntington in cells
50 mm. thick.!

An aqueous solution of methylamine was converted into hydrochloride
and the salt purified by repeated recrystallisation. A layer 150 mm.
thick of a solution containing 25 grams of methylamine as hydrochloride
in 100 c.c. distilled water showed practically no absorption. There was
a slight weakening of the spectrum towards the ultra-violet end, and
one or two of the lines at the extreme end of the ultra-violet were
cut off.

Hydroxylamine Hydrochloride.

The hydroxylamine hydrochloride examined was subjected to re-
peated recrystallisation. It gave no precipitate with platinic chloride
in presence of alcohol and ether, and it was therefore assumed to con-
tain no ammonium chloride, The salt is highly diactinic and shows no trace
of selective absorption. A layer 150 mm. thick of the solution containing
5 grams of hydroxylamine in 100 c.c. water gives a continuous spectrum
to !/X 4125 (A 2424). <A layer of the same thickness containing 2°5 grams
in 100 c.c. water transmits the whole spectrum with the exception of a
few of the lines at the extreme end of the ultra-violet.

Acetaldovime, CH,'CH:N:OH.

Acetaldoxime was prepared in the usual manner by the action of alde-
hyde ammonia on hydroxylamine hydrochloride, and afterwards purified
by fractional distillation until the boiling point was constant: it boiled at
114~-115°. In solution this compound shows no selective absorption, but
very considerable general absorption. A layer 150 mm. thick of a solu-
tion containing 125 grams of acetaldoxime in 100 c.c. water absorbs all
lines beyond '/\ 3323 (A 3009). A layer 25 mm. thick of a solution con-
taining | milligram-mol. in 20 ¢.c. water gives a continuous spectrum te
1/ 3952 (A 2530), and a layer 1 mm. thick of the same solution shows a
continuous spectrum to '/\ 4417 (A 2264),

Acetoxime, (CH,),C:N:OH.

Acetoxime was prepared in the usual manner by the action of hydrox-
ylamine hydrochloride on acetone, and was purified by repeated recrys-
tallisation from water : it melted at 59-60°.

Like acetaldoxime, acetoxime shows no selective absorption, but
general absorption, which is slightly greater than in the case of the
former substance, as was to be anticipated from the presence of an
additional methyl group. <A layer 25 mm. thick of a solution of ace-

1 Phil. Trans., 1879, Part I., 267.

l

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TION.

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162 REPORT—1900,

toxime containing | milligram-mol. in 20 c.c. shows a continuous spectrum
to '/X 3886 (A 2573); a layer 1 mm. thick of the same solution to.
V/ 4125 (A 2424),

The substances above referred to afford an excellent illustration of
the intimate relation between the character and extent of absorption
and the constitution of an organic compound. Ammonia is highly
diactinic. The substitution of a methyl group for one of the hydrogen
atoms has the effect merely of very slightly increasing the amount of
continuous absorption of the most refrangible rays. Again, the sub-
stitution of hydroxyl for hydrogen has a similar effect, the group OH,
however, having a greater absorptive power than the group CH3.
When we come to acetaldoxime and acetoxime, we find that, regarding
them as derivatives of hydroxylamine, the introduction of the more
complicated groups :CH'CH; and :C(CH3), respectively for the two
remaining hydrogen atoms of the original ammonia molecule, is
accompanied by a great increase in the amount of the general absorption.
Comparing, however, acetaldoxime with acetoxime, the latter, which
differs from the former in the possession of an additional methyl group,
shows only slightly greater absorption. This is in harmony with previous
observations on CO,H groups, and the slightly increased absorption
caused by the introduction of methyl groups for hydrogen atoms ; also the
stronger absorption caused by the replacement of hydrogen atoms by
hydroxy] radicles.

A diagram drawn to a scale of oscillation frequencies shows at a
glance the length of spectrum transmitted by these substances in different
proportions, and through different thicknesses. ;

The Curves of the Molecular Vibrations of Benzantialdoxime
and Benzsynaldoxime.'

Benzantialdoxime and benzsynaldoxime are now generally represented
by the following formule :

C,H;'C'H C,H;'C'H
|
OH'N . N-:OH
Benzantialdoxime. Benzsynaldoxime.

If these formule correctly represent the constitution of the two forms of
benzaldoxime and their relation to one another, we should expect both
compounds, as stereo-isomerides, to exhibit the same character and
amount of absorption. As a matter of fact, we have found that the
curves of the molecular vibrations of the two substances in ethereal
solution are identical. A layer 25 mm. thick of a solution of either form
of the aldoxime containing 1 milligram-mol. dissolved in 100 c. c. of abso-
lute ether, absorbs all rays to !/A 3323 (A 3009). A layer 1 mm. thick of
a solution containing | milligram-mol. in 500 cc. of ether transmits all
rays to '!/ 3638 (A 2748), and shows an absorption band reaching from
i/X 3638 (A 2748) to '/A 4321 (A 2314). This band is still distinctly
traceable in a layer 1 mm. thick of a solution containing 1 milligram-mol.
in 2500 c.c. of ether.

1 Hartley and Dobbiej$77ans: Chem, Soci, vol. Ixxviis

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND GHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 165

The benzaldoximes used in the experiments were prepared by the
method given by Beckmann.! The benzantialdoxime at 10 and 14 mm.

Oscillation Frequencies.

Proportional parts of a Milligram-mol. in 2,500 ¢.¢,

Curve of Molecular Vibrations.

Benzantialdoxime.
Benzsynaldoxime.

pressure respectively was found to have the boiling point given by

1 Ber.; i890, 28, 1684.
M 2

164 REPORT—1 900,

Luxwoore ! for those pressures. The benzsynaldoxime was photographed
immediately after preparation. It was afterwards recovered from the
ethereal solution and the melting point redetermined, when it was found
that no decomposition had occurred while the photographs were being taken.

These results, which are shown in the above curve, confirm the
conclusion previously arrived at, that stereo-isomerides, unlike isomerides
which differ in structure, give identical absorption spectra.

The Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of some Closed Chain
Carbon Compounds.”

Dimethylpyrazxine.

In a previous report * we gave the results of the examination of the
absorption spectra of thiophen, pyrrole, furfuran, and some of the more
important furfuran derivatives. Each of these compounds contains
two pairs of carbon atoms doubly linked, the chain being closed by a
polyvalent element other than carbon. No trace of selective absorption,
such as is shown by benzene, pyridine, and many of their derivatives,
could be detected in the spectra of any of these substances.

We have now extended our investigation to 2 : 5-dimethylpyrazine,

((CH,):CH
NCO CCH.) >

a substance in which not merely one carbon is replaced by nitrogen in the
benzene ring, as in pyridine, but two. It thus belongs toa group not
previously examined.

From the analogy between the constitution of this substance and that
of pyridine, it was anticipated that it would show a marked selective
absorption, and this anticipation proved to be correct. One of the
principal reasons for examining a substance of this constitution lay in the
fact that whilst pyridine contains the group ‘C:N: once in the benzene
structure, dimethylpyrazine contains it twice, and the orginal formula
proposed for cyanuric acid * contains it three times. Accordingly, if this
formula were correct for cyanuric acid and its esters, we should expect
that they would exhibit a powerful absorption band, more intense than
that of pyrazine, just as that of pyrazine is more intense than that of
pyridine. But it has been concluded, from a widely extended experience
of the behaviour of such substances under the ultra-violet rays, and
particularly from the results of a recent examination of the absorption
spectra of its derivatives,® that cyanuric acid does not possess this
structure, but one in which the acid is represented by a ring composed of

‘N:C:0
three 4 groups, a mode of single linking resembling that of a hydro-

pyridine or of a hydroaromatic group with one carbon replaced by
nitrogen ;° it should not therefore exhibit selective absorption.
The specimen of dimethylpyrazine used in the experiments was pre-

1 Trams. Chem. Soc., 1896, 69, 177.

2 Hartley and Dobbie, 7rans. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77.

Trans. Chem. Soc., 1898, '78, 598. B.A. Report, 1899.

Trams. Chem. Soc., 1882, 41, 84. 5 Hartley, Proc. Chem. Sov., 1899, 15, 46.
& Phil. Trans., Part II., 1885, 519

3
4

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 165

pared by the reduction of isonitrosoacetone in accordance with the
directions given by Gabriel and Pinkus.! It boiled constantly at 154-
155° (corr.) under atmospheric pressure.

Scale of Oscillation Frequencies.

93000, 2 s 4s 6 7 8 910001 2 5 4 8
ei iret | ) A hel es ell elt realleatiat

1 Milligram-molecule in 100 c.c
Proportional thicknesses of liquid.

|| | | et ft
iz
iz
EEE
|_| @|
a
——|
a
a
|_|
al
fies
|
al

ee enw Oh ad ae PT
A

iV PRA Sea
1 EN | a ae
ASEM SNR RRM IAR A,
ee et

LH

eset att | et tea
= AR EH
pea fae FR SE Ah Ch ahd ag

2: 5-Dimethylprazine.

lin
500 c.c.

A layer 25 mm. thick of a solution of dimethylpyrazine containing
1 mill.-mol. in 100 cc. of absolute alcohol cuts off all rays beyond
1/\ 2994. On reducing the thickness of the layer to 10 mm. an absorp-
tion band makes its appearance, reaching from '/d 3064 to '/A 4821.
This band is very persistent, and is still traceable in a layer 1 mm. thick
of a solution containing 1 mill.-mol. of the substance dissolved in 500 c.c.
alcohol. The band of dimethylpyr azine is thus both wider and also more
persistent than that of pyridine. These results are shown on the curve
above.

Heaxamethylene.—In the paper already referred to, an account was
also given of the absorption spectra of diketohexamethylene. Previous
investigations had shown that piperidine? and hexachlorobenzene#*

' Ber. 1893, 26, 2206. * Hartley, Trans. Chem. Soc,, 1885, 47, 691.
* Hartley, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 1881, 39, 153.

166 REPORT—1900.

exhibit continuous absorption, but show no absorption band, and, as was
to be expected, diketohexamethylene, in which the six carbon atoms are
united with each other by a single bond, as in hexachlorobenzene and
piperidine, likewise showed no bands in the spectrum.

Through the kindness of Professor Sydney Young and Miss Fortey,
we have recently been enabled to examine a specimen of pure hexamethy-
lene prepared from Galician petroleum. This substance, in comparison
with benzene and pyridine, is highly diactinic. A layer, 60 mm. thick,
of a solution containing 1 mill.-mol. dissolved in 20 c.c. of alcohol, trans-
mits all rays up to 1/A 3920, whilst a layer of the same solution, 10 mm.
thick, transmits practically the whole spectrum. In none of the photo-
graphs of the spectra of this substance could any trace of a banded struc-
ture be detected.

Tetrahydrobenzene.—Professor Young and Miss Fortey were also good
enough to place a specimen of pure tetrahydrobenzene in our hands for
examination. This substance exhibits somewhat greater general absorp-
tion than hexamethylene, a layer, 60 mm. thick, of a solution containing
1 mill.-mol. in 20 c.c. alcohol absorbing all rays beyond '/A 3694, while
absorption is still traceable in a layer of the same solution 1 mm. thick.
Like hexamethylene, tetrahydrobenzene shows no selective absorption.
The examination of these two substances thus confirms the conclusion pre-
viously reached, that the banded spectrum is shown only by substances
which possess the true benzenoid structure.!

Ultra-violet Absorption Spectra of Albuminoids.?

The first investigation of albuminoids of animal origin was made by
Soret : it included albumen, white of egg, pure albumen, caseine, and
serine. Absorption bands occur in their spectra in the following posi-
tions :—Albumen (white of egg) A 2880-2650, pure albumen \ 2948-—
2572, caseine X 2948-2572. Serine exhibits a band similar to that of
caseine.

Inaddition to albumen the following substances have been examined :*—

(1) Gelatine ; (2) maize starch ; (3) cane sugar ; (4) glucose ; (5) yeast
water ; (6) invertase ; and (7) diastase. These are all highly diactinic
substances, considering their complex constitution, and they show no
absorption bands. It is evident, therefore, that the constitution of
albumen, caseine, and serine is very different from that of invertase,
diastase, gelatine, starch, glucose, and saccharose.

This was of interest in connection with C. V. Naegeli’s theory of
fermentation. Naegeli regarded fermentation as a process in which a
transference takes place to fermentable matter of the molecular or rather
intramolecular vibrations of the constituent substances entering into the
composition of living protoplasm whereby the equilibrium of the molecules
of the fermentable matter became so disturbed as to cause their resolution
into simpler molecules. It appears by no means improbable that the
diastatic ferments may have some such action. From this point of view

1 Hartley, Zrans., 1881, 39, 153.

* Comptes Rendus, 97, p. 642; also Archives des Sciences Physiques ct Naturelles,
x. p. 139. (L. Soret.)

3 Hartley, Zrans. Chem, Soe., 1887, 51, 59.

ABSORPTION SPECTRA AND CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION. 167

it does not appear likely that a substance of the character of albumen,
whose mode of vibration, as shown by its absorption spectrum, differs
widely from that of the carbohydrates, could affect the latter, while on
the other hand it is possible that the intramolecular vibrations of inver-
tase and diastase night be communicated to saccharose and starch. That
the sugars are highly diactinic substances is quite in character with what
we know of their constitution and of the spectra of similarly constituted
substances.

It is of interest to learn that the albuminoid compounds associated
with the carbohydrates are evidently different in constitution from those
forms of albumen found in the animal organism. The probability pre-
sents itself of these albuminoids being derived from the carbohydrates.

Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene—Report of the Convmittee, con-
sisting of Professor H. A. Mirrs (Chairman), Dr. W. P. Wynne,
and Dr. H. EK. ARMsrronG (Secretary). (Drawn wp by the Secre-
tary.)

THE existence of morphotropic relationships between the crystalline
forms of substances which are not isomorphous in the formal sense of the
term has of recent years acquired new importance, the purely geometrical
work of Barlow ' and others having demonstrated the superfluity of the
old view that the units of the crystalline structure are polymerides of the
chemically active fundamental molecule as a means of explaining poly-
morphism and kindred crystallographic phenomena, whilst Fock? has
shown, from the study of the partition coefficients of two isomorphous
substances in equilibrium in a liquid and a solid solution in contact, that
in the case of salts, at all events, the molecular weight in the crystalline
state may be that of the fundamental molecule. Moreover the work of
Paterno * and others on the cryoscopic behaviour of substances possessing
constitutions similar to that of the solvent indicates with certainty that
isomorphism and morphotropy are phenomena which merge gradually one
into the other.

The consideration of facts such as these leads to the conclusion that
morphotropy and isomorphism have a common cause, and that this is
more likely to be discovered by the crystallographic study of substances
showing morphotropic relationships than from the examination inerely of
materials likely to exhibit isomorphism.

The benzene series offers exceptional opportunities for the study of
such questions ; indeed, it is remarkable that the publication of Groth’s
important memoir,‘ calling attention to the existence of morphotropic
relationships between benzene derivatives, has not acted as an incentive
to really systematic work on the subject.

The two investigations to be referred to form part of aseries which are
being carried on in the chemical department of the Central Technical
College, South Kensington, in order, as far as possible, to determine the
effect on the crystalline form of certain definite changes in the composi-
tion. The work will include the determination of the molecular volumes

' Proc. Roy. Dub, Soc., 1897, viii. 527. * Zeits. f. Kryst., 1897, xxviii. 337,
* Gazzetta, 1895, xxv. 1, 411. 4 Poqg. Ann., 1870, 141, 31.

168 REPORT—1900,

and of the melting-point curves of mixtures of the morphotropically
related compounds.

Morphotropic Relationships between Formanitide and its Substitution Derivatives.

In order to determine the morphotropic effect of substitution upon
the crystalline form of formanilide the simple anilides of the composi-
tion C;,H;.NH (CO.X) (X=H, Me, Kt, Pr, &c.) as well as several of
their alkyl derivatives, and also a number of the mono- and di-halogen
derivatives, have been crystallographically examined by Mr. L. P. Wilson ;
a list of the compounds measured is given in the accompanying table, in
which the geometrical constants are also indicated. It is evident that a
progressive change in the structural dimensions occurs as each series is
traversed, although in most cases this only becomes obvious on rearranging
the axial ratios, and sometimes on taking simple multiples of the ratios.
The form in which the axial ratios are compared is indicated in the
second column.

Ts B.
Formanilide . . . a:b: c=2188 :1:2403 9064 M
Acetanilide ‘ ; » ¢€2:b%: a=2:0670:1:0°8488 90 O
Propionanilide . ; » €36: a@=2:1665:1:1:0428 90 O
Butyranilide . . . Ba:>6; 2¢e=2°1663.: 1 31-3788 90 O
II
Acetanilide . . . e2b: a=2-0670:1:0:8488 90 O
Methylacetanilide . . 2620: a=0°7906 : 1208494 90 O
Kthylacetanilide : - €206: a=1:0064:1:0°8401 90 O
Propylacetanilide . a MeO a= 132648 108410: *90 O
i GLUE
P.-brom-formanilide . ; cc: 0) 2a=V 4100s = 2:2056 190 O
is acetanilide . ~ @203 c=1°3904 2120-7159 90
x propionanilide . ba@:b: c=1:3400:1: 08948 90 O
IV.
P.-brom-acetanilide . 2 Gros ¢=1:3904 21% 0:7159 490 O
4 methyl acetanilide a:b: c=1'5546:1:09719 70 7 M
5 ethyl PY +. @:0: c=1:4063:1:1:5686 95 35 M
Ve
P.-chlor-acetanilide . . a:b: c=1°3263:1:0-6804 90 re)
P.-brom i : » @:2b: e=1:3904:1:0°7159 90 M
P.-iodo A 5 A @:b: c=1:4185:1:07415 9029 M
VI.
2:4dichlor-acetanilide . a:b: c=08263:1:06828 77 33 M
,, chlorbrom-acetanilide a:b: c=0°8144:1:06722 7740 M
. bromchlor A « @:6: =0:8214:1:0:7074 77 46° M
,, dibrom y - @:6: e=081381:1:06895 78 24 M

In series 1, although the first member is monosymmetric, whilst the
others are orthorhombic, a well-marked morphotropic similarity in the
magnitudes of the ratio a/b is observed to follow the displacement of the
hydrogen atom in the acidic group by Me, Et or Pr. The effect of dis-
placing the aminic hydrogen atom by Me, Et or Pr is less, as is shown by

ON ISOMORPHOUS DERIVATIVES OF BENZENE. 169

an inspection of series 2 ; in this case the ratio c/b is more nearly constant
throughout the series than in the case in series 1. In series 3, obtained by
displacing the acidic hydrogen atom in parabromoformanilide by either
Me or Et, the ratio a/b again shows approximate constancy. No simple
relationship is observable between parabromacetanilide and its methyl or
ethyl derivative. Parabrom- and paraiod-acetanilide are isomorphous ;
the corresponding chloro-derivative is not isomorphous with them, although
it bears a marked morphotropic relationship to them.! Group 6 forms a
well-marked isomorphous series.

Otten? has observed that butyranilide is dimorphous, but has not
examined the substance in great detail ; a study of this compound has
shown that the dimorphism is of a very remarkable character. At
ordinary temperatures the anilide separates from alcoholic solutions in
large transparent crystals of pyramidal habit, which are distinctly
orthorhombic, showing a characteristically orthorhombic interference
figure of small optic axial angle. The axial ratios of such crystals are
a:b :c=0'6920:1:0-6792. On preserving crystals which had been
measured at a constant temperature of 8° to 11° they have been found to
change gradually, and in the course of three months completely, into
tetragonal crystals, without at the same time losing their brilliancy and
transparency. The axial ratio a : c=0-6652 : 1 in these crystals ; they
exhibit the characteristic uniaxial interference figure. On preserving the
definitely tetragonal material at 30° for eighty days the reverse change
occurs, the crystals becoming orthorhombic and biaxial, although the
axial ratios never revert to quite their original values. The density of
the orthorhombic form is 1-130, whilst that of the tetragonal form is 1:139.

The molecular volumes of several of the anilides have been determined,
with the object of examining the relations between the topic axial ratios
of Muthmann ;* the ordinary axial ratios seem, however, in most cases to
express the morphotropic relationships just as clearly as the topic ratios.

Iso- and Poly-morphous substituted Benzene-sulphonic Chlorides and Bromides.

It has already been stated * that the sulphonic chlorides and bromides
derived from the 1:3: 4 dihalogen-benzene-sulphonic acids together
form an isotrimorphous series. Dr. Jee’s further study of this group has
led to important results. The series includes anorthic, orthorhombic, and
monosymmetric terms, in the manner shown in the following table :—

i}

Orientation Crystallographic Systems |
- ————— — |
fo 1 | 5 4 | Anorthie | Orthorhombie | Monosymmetric
| a SSS eee = |
I.| cl | cl | S80,Br | stable | ae ue
II. | Cl | Br | SO,Br {| stable -— ——
DL Bes Cl SO, Br stable — . a=
Wen eoresh bre) ;eSOsBn wi) Jabile> stable | —
VecheBr | BES OsCl yas Gabile)=-aaml stable labile
Wa.) sBr Cl S0,Cl | —- stable labile
vil.| cl | Br | 80,1 aS labile> stable
Vill. |; Cl | Cl | 80,Cl _ labile> / stable )
' Compare Fels, Dissert., Leipzig, 1900. * Zits. f. Kryst. xvii. 391,

3 Zits. f. Kryst., 1894, xxii. 497. B.A, Report, 1899, p. 688.

170 REPORT—1900.

Of these eight substances, three are stable in the anorthic system,
three in the orthorhombic system, and two in the monosymmetric system.
Change of the one form into the other has been observed in four cases
(IV., V., VII., VIII.) on allowing the fused substance to cool on a
microscopic slide ; the direction of the change in each case is indicated in
the table by an arrow. A labile anorthic crystalline form of dibromo-
benzene-sulphobromide (IV.) has been obtained from solution ; and it has
been found that each of the four sulphochlorides (V.-VIII.) can be caused
to crystallise in the alternative system by admixture with a sulphochloride
which usually separates in that system. It has been possible to determine
the symmetry of all the forms referred to in the table by crystallographic
measurement, with the single exception of the labile anorthic form of
dibromo-benzene-sulphochloride, but the existence of this form is indicated
by the dimorphous change which occurs on cooling from the melting point
to the atmospheric temperature.

The detailed study of such a series of isomorphs—especially of the
melting points of mixtures and of the conditions which determine the
separation of the various crystalline forms-—will be of importance, as it is
likely to furnish information of value in discussing the phenomena pre-
sented by igneous rocks containing isomorphous minerals,

The investigation has been extended by Dr. Jee to the corre-
sponding derivatives of the 1: 3:5 dihalogen-benzene-sulphonic acids.
The results obtained indicate the existence of an isodimorphous series
having no apparent similarity with the 1:3:4 series. One of the
members of this new series—1 : 3 : 5 dibromo-benzene-sulphobromide—has
been obtained in two distinct crystallographic forms, both belonging to
the monosymmetric system. At atmospheric temperature one of these
forms is labile and isomorphous with the corresponding sulpho-chloride,
and with 1 ; 3 : 5 bromo-chlorobenzene-sulphochloride. The stable form
of 1: 3:5 dibromo-benzene-sulphobromide, on the other hand, is iso-
morphous with 1 : 3 : 5 bromo-chlorobenzene-sulphobromide. The deriva-
tives of the symmetrical dichloro-acid have not yet been satisfactorily
measured.

Even in their present incomplete form these results are of considerable
importance as showing the manner in which the occurrence of polymor-
phism may render obscure otherwise well-marked isomorphous or morpho-
tropic relationships. Apparently a substance may crystallise in a whole
series of different forms, A, B, C, D, the particular form obtained under
ordinary conditions being the form stable at the temperature at which the
crystals are grown. Another substance, the immediate homologue of the
first in an isomorphous series, can also assume crystalline forms corre-
sponding with A, B, C, D, &c., but the particular form stable at ordinary
temperatures will not be the same as before, owing to the non-corre-
spondence of the transition temperatures. Consequently the first member
of an isomorphous series may crystallise in a form of type A, the second
member in a form of type B, the third of type C, and so on, the
isopolymorphism completely masking the isomorphism.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 171

The Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.— Sixth Report of the
Committee, consisting of Professor J. EMERSON REYNOLDS (Chair-
man), Dr. C. A. Koun (Secretary), Professor P. FranKLanD, Pro-
fessor F. Crowes, Dr. Huca Marsuaui, Mr. A. E. FLETCHER,
and Professor W. CARLETON WILLIAMS.

Tue work of the Committee, appointed in 1894, has hitherto included a
complete bibliography on electrolytic analysis up to the end of 1894 and
experimental investigations on the electrolytic determination of antimony,
bismuth, cobalt, nickel, zinc, and the separation of antimony and tin.

The present report deals with further work on the determination of
bismuth, and with the determination of iron, its separation from man-
ganese, and the application of the electrolytic method to the determination
of iron in organic products.

These experiments cover some of the most important applications of
electrolytic analysis which required further investigation, and the
Committee propose to conclude their work with the present report.

The more recent bibliography of the subject has been summarised by
Neumann.! The Committee would also refer to Neumann’s book on
electrolytic analysis,? which has been issued since their bibliographical
report, and an English translation of which has been prepared by
Kershaw ;% also to the annual reports on electrolytic analysis published
in the ‘ Jahrbuch fiir Electrochemie.’

The Determination of Bismuth (Part II.) By Professor J. EMERSON
Reynoups, D.Se., M.D., F.RS., and W. C. RaMspDEN.

In a previous report (1896) it was shown :—

1. That carefully spun platinum dishes were better suited fer use
as negative electrodes than any other of the various forms experimented
with.

_ 2. That irregular results only could be obtained with simple bismuth-
nitrate solutions containing varying proportions of free nitric acid ; but
that good determinations were more easily made in solutions of the
sulphate when electrolysed by currents beginning at 0-08 and finishing
at not more than 0-2 ampere.

3. That the best results were obtained in presence of metaphosphoric
acid and of citric acid, both of which controlled deposition in a very
‘marked manner.

4, That citric acid is quite as effective as metaphosphoric acid and
possesses the additional advantage that the metal can also be separated in
satisfactory condition from ammoniacal solutions of the citrate.

_ Two questions remained for consideration, viz. (a) the separation of
bismuth from strong but simple solutions, and (b) from solutions con-
taining other metals.

' Chem. Zeits. 1900, 24, 455.
* Theorie u. Prawis der analytischen Electrolyse der Metalic, 1897.
* The Theory and Practice of Electrolytic Methods of Analysis, 1898.

172 REPORT— 1900.

The work under the first head was in progress at the time the former
part of the report was published by one of the present writers and Mr.
Bailey, and was subsequently carried as far as seemed desirable. The
results obtained with moderately strong solutions of bismuth were very
unsatisfactory, even in presence of much citric acid and when treated
with all the care indicated by our former experience. We then proceeded
to determine the major limit of concentration at which good determina-
tions can be made.

Taking 150 e.c. as the most corvenient volume for use in the electro-
lytic capsules employed, we found that excellent results could be obtained
in presence of 2°5 gr. of citric acid, so long as the weight of metal in
150 c.c. did not exceed 0:22 gr. With stronger solutions we failed to
obtain satisfactory reguline deposits, even when the proportion of citric
acid was increased and the current at the commencement of the operation
was reduced to 0:005 ampere, so that the rate of deposition should be very
slow.

We therefore arrived at the conclusion that 150 c.c. of bismuth solution
should not contain more than about 0:22 gr. of metal in the form of
nitrate or sulphate, and that 2°5 to 3:0 gr. of pure citric acid suffice
to control the deposition, provided the initial current used and acting for
some hours be about 0:01 ampere, increased at the end, and for a short
time, to 0°15 or 0-2 ampere.

Separation of Bismuth from other Metals.

Extended experience in the electrolytic determination of bismuth in
simple solutions of varying strength led us to doubt that the purely
electrolytic separation of the element from other metals would prove satis-
factory. The results obtained by the present writers have justified this
anticipation.

The least unfavourable determinations of bismuth in such mixtures
with other metals as would probably be met with in practice were those
obtained with cadmium and zinc ; but even in these theoretically favour-
able cases it was found that, however feeble the currents used, the deposited
bismuth carried down sensible amounts of the much more positive metals.
The method of experimenting was as follows :—

A carefully measured volume of a bismuth-nitrate solution known to
contain 6-018 gr. of metal per litre, in the form of nitrate, was placed
in a platinum capsule. The special treatment to be applied in each case
was then carried out ; pure citric acid added, the solution diluted with
water to about 150 c.c., and a current passed through the liquid of such
strength (generally 0-01 ampere) as to secure a good reguline deposit of
bismuth. The whole of the metal was seldom separated under fifteen to
twenty hours, and was hastened at the end by passing a current of about
0-1 ampere fora short time. The contents of the capsule were then washed
with water and alcohol, and the vessel] dried and weighed.

Of the experiments recorded below, the first three aimed at fixing the
degree of accuracy with which bismuth could be electrolytically separated
from the particular simple nitrate solution used in presence of citric acid.
The citric acid used in work of this kind should be tested for lead, &e.,
before use, as samples are sometimes met with which contain metallic
impurities. The total volume of liquid used was the same in these as in all
other cases, viz. about 150 c.c.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS, L¥3

Experiment A, 0:2407 gr. of bismuth in solution + 3 gr. of citric acid
gave after eighteen hours a fairly firm reguline deposit, which weighed
0:2382 gr.

Experiment B. 01805 gr. of bismuth gave under the same conditions
a perfectly tirm deposit weighing 0°1807 gr.

Experiment C. 0:1805 gr. of bismuth with 2°5 gr. of citric acid gave
an excellent deposit of 0°1804 gr.

The concentration of the solution in experiment A was too high, as
already pointed out ; but the results obtained in the weaker solutions used
in B and C were as good as could be obtained in any determinations of
this class.

The effect of the addition of sulphuric acid is shown in the next three
experiments.

Experiment D, 0°1805 gr. of bismuth in solution with 0°5 ¢.c. of pure
freshly distilied H,SO, and 2 gr. of citric acid gave, after twenty hours, as
good a deposit as in B, and weighed 0°1807 gr.

HLeperiment EF. 0°1805 gr. bismuth with the same volume of H,SO,,
but with 4 gr. of citric acid. The metal came down very slowly from
solution, but in good condition, even when a stronger current was used
for a longer time than usual: at the end the weight obtained, after
twenty-six hours, was 0°1801 gr. The proportion of citric acid used was
therefore needlessly large.

Experiment F. 0:1504 gr. of bismuth in solution, 1 ¢c.c. of H,SO, and
2 gr. of citric acid gave a good deposit, which weighed 0:1507 gr.

Therefore good results can be obtained in presence of much more free
sulphuric and nitric acids than would probably be present in actual
analysis, or could be separated from mixed sulphates.

_ In the remaining tests cadmium or zinc salts were present.

Haperiment G, 0°2106 gr. of bismuth in solution, 1 ¢.c. of H,SO,, 2 gr.
of citric acid, and 0-125 gr. of cadmium in the form of sulphate. Result :
0:2687 gr. The deposit easily oxidised and contained some cadmium,
though the current was kept as low as possible throughout.

Haperiment H, 0°2106 gr. of bismuth in solution, in all respects as last,
gave 0°2986 gr. of deposit containing cadmium.

Experiment I. 0:1805 gr. of bismuth as last, except that only 0:5 c.c.
of H,SO, was added, gave a fair deposit, but contained cadmium and
weighed 0-2096 gr.

Experiment J. 0:1925 gr. bismuth ; treated solution as last, but with
4 gr. of citric acid, gave 0:2340 gr. deposit, easily oxidised as in the other
cases, and cadmium was found in the film.

The results with zinc were similar; for example :—

Experiment K. 0:1504 gr. bismuth ; the solution containing zinc in
the form of sulphate instead of cadmium, 0°5 ¢c.c. H,SO, and 2 gr. of
citricacid. The metal separated in fair condition, but was easily oxidised ;
it weighed 0:1642 gr. and contained traces of zine.

Experiment L. 0'1805 gr. bismuth as last, and with zinc sulphate, gave
0°1851 gr., and contained zinc also.

Therefore, while bismuth can be determined electrolytically with
accuracy in simple and dilute solutions containing citric acid, and even
relatively large proportions of free nitric and sulphuric acids, we are
unable to recommend its electrolytic separation from any of the metals
with which we have experimented.

174

The best course, in our opinion, is to separate the bismuth’ by any of
the well-known methods in the form of hydroxide, to dissolve the latter
in sufficient nitric acid, and, after necessary dilution with addition of citric
acid, to electrolyse, with the precautions already described.

The Determination of Iron.

By Cartes A. Koun, W.Sce., Ph.D.

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Verwer, H., | Ber. 1899 32 806 Ammonium oxalate.
and Groll, F. /

Vortmann, G. | Monatsh. ; 1893 | 14 536 Sodium potassium

Chem. | tartrate and so-
dium hydrate.

Wolman, L. . | Zeits. Hlectro-| 1897 3 542 | Ammonium oxalate.

chem.

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 175

The electrolytic methods for the determination of iron can in no way
be regarded as comparable with the usual volumetric and gravimetric
methods in their general applicability. Under special circumstances, how-
ever, they may be found advantageous, especially in the determination of
relatively small quantities of iron in organic products, an application
which has been specially studied in the subjoined experiments.

Of the various methods proposed, that in which the metal is deposited
from a solution of the double ammonium oxalate, first suggested by
Parodi and Mascazzini, and subsequently worked out by Classen, is the
most reliable. When separated from a citrate or tartrate solution, the
precipitated iron contains a considerable proportion of carbon, and the
deposition from phosphoric acid or ammonium pyrophosphate solution is
too slow to be of practical value ; further, it necessitates a high current
density, and the introduction of phosphates into the solution is an obvious
disadvantage from an analytical standpoint.

The experiments have therefore been restricted to the investigation of
the deposition of iron from the solution of the double ammonium oxalate,
They may be conveniently grouped under the following heads}:—

l. The conditions under which iron is deposited from ammonium oxa-
late solution and the most favourable conditions for its electrolytic deter-
mination.

2. The influence of ammonium chloride on the electrolytic determina-
tion of iron.

3. The complete separation of the iron when deposited from ammonium
oxalate solution : the sulphocyanide reaction for iron under the conditions
of the experiments.

4. The presence of carbon in iron deposited from ammonium oxalate
solution and the determination of its amount.

5. The electrolytic separation of iron and manganese in ammonium oxa-
late solution.

6. The electrolytic determination of iron in urine and other animal pro-
ducts.

1. The Conditions under which Iron is deposited from Ammonium Gxralate Solution,
and the most favourable Conditions for its Electrolytic Determination. By
Cuaries A. Koun, M.Sc., Ph.D., and H. H. FRroysstt.

Classen recommends the addition of 6 to 8 gr. of ammonium oxalate
per gr. of iron in 150-175 c.c. of solution, and conducts the electrolysis
with a C.D.;9) of 1:0 to 15 ampere and 3 to 4 volts ina warm solution
(40°-60° C.). Nitrates, if present, must be removed by repeated evapora-
tion with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid; free sulphuric acid can be
neutralised by ammonium hydrate ; any free hydrochloric acid is prefer-
ably removed by evaporation on the water-bath. The complete deposition
of the iron is tested with potassium sulphocyanide, after acidifying with
hydrochloric acid ; 0:2 to 0:3 gr. of iron is deposited in three to four
hours.

In a later paper Classen states that the most favourable condition for
the deposition of iron is with a current N.D.,99=1-5 ampere at the ordi-
nary temperature. Neumann! adds that weaker currents (0:3 to 0°5 ampere)
ean be used, but then a larger proportion of ammonium oxalate must be

Theorie u: Praxis der analytischen Electrolyse der Metalle; p. 114,

176 REPORT—1900.

added and the current increased to 1:0 ampere at the end of the determina-
tion to ensure the precipitation of the last portion of the iron. According
to Wolman, eight to ten hours are necessary for the deposition of 0:15 to
0:30 gr. of iron with a C.D. ,59=0°3 to 1:0, and finally to 1:5 ampere, and
an E.M.F. of 4 volts at 50° C. The majority of the results recorded by
this method are slightly low, on an average 0:2 to 0-6 per cent. on the
weight of iron taken.

Variations in current and in the proportion of ammonium oxalate
added constitute the only real differences in the conditions of deposition
recommended, and they bear on the one practical difficulty of the method—
the prevention of the separation of any ferric hydrate during the electro-
lysis. As pointed out ina previous report (1896) on the electrolytic de-
termination of tin in ammonium oxalate solution, the electrolyte gradually
becomes alkaline, owing to the decomposition of the oxalate and the for-
mation of ammonium carbonate ; in presence of a sufficient excess of
ammonium oxalate the iron will still remain in solution after the latter is
alkaline, but otherwise ferric hydrate separates out and oxalic acid must
be added from time to time during the electrolysis to redissolve it. Such
addition of oxalic acid renders it necessary to watch the experiment ; a
further drawback is that the quantity of ammonium oxalate solution
necessary leaves little room for any further addition of liquid in an ordi-
nary dish of 175 c.c. to 200 c.c. capacity. Hence the ammonium oxalate
must outlast the deposition of the iron if an addition of oxalic acid is to be
avoided. A series of experiments were, therefore, first arranged in which
the time necessary for the solution to become alkaline, the proportion of
metal deposited up to alkaline reaction, and the proportion subsequently
deposited, were noted.

A ferric chloride solution of known strength was used, made up from
pure ferric oxide, the method of working being as follows :—The slight
excess of hydrochloric acid in the measured portion of the solution was
first neutralised with a few drops of ammonium hydrate, oxalic acid
solution added to acid reaction, and the whole then added to the ammonium
oxalate solution. The additional oxalic acid recorded was either added to
the original solution or at intervais during the electrolysis. The current
density, C.D.,99=1:0 to 1:5 ampere, and electromotive force of 3:5 to 4:0
volts employed in these first experiments are the values hitherto regarded
as the most favourable for the deposition of iron. Both warm and cold
solutions were tried. The ammonium oxalate solution contained 40 er.
per 1.000 c.c. ; the oxalic acid solution 80 gr. per 1,000 c.c.

Platinum dishes of about 200 c.c. capacity were used as the cathode
and bored platinum discs as the anode ; the circuits and measurements
were arranged as described in the Committee’s third report (1896).

The following results illustrate the conclusions to be drawn from this
series of experiments :—

Series I.

In experiments 1, 2,3, 4, and 5, 10 c.c. of oxalic acid solution were added
to the solution prepared as stated above and the electrolysis continued
until the mixture became alkaline, when the current was broken and the
deposited metal washed, dried, and weighed in the usual manner. The
solution became alkaline very quickly when electrolysed warm, but on an
average about 25 per cent. of the total iron was deposited in this short
period of fifteen to twenty minutes. Although alkaline, no separation of

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 177

ferric hydrate took place up to this stage, there being sufficient ammonium
oxalate left to keep the iron salt in solution. In experiments 6 and 7
a larger proportion of oxalic acid solution (50 c.c.) was added to the
original solution, which allowed the electrolysis to be continued for
15 hour before alkalinity was reached ; the rate of deposition is evidently
slowed by this increase of free acid. When cold solutions are electrolysed
the deposition is quicker, as shown in experiments 8 and 9 ; the larger pro-
portion of metal deposited is also partly due to the somewhat higher
current and E.M.F. employed, and, taking this into account, the solution
takes longer to get alkaline when electrolysed cold, as would be expected,
since the rate of the decomposition of the oxalate will be slower. A
comparison of experiments 5 and 8 with the remainder shows that,
with less iron and the same proportion of oxalate, there is an increase
in the proportion of iron deposited, despite the retarding effect of the

|

if
|

| Ammo- Oxalic |
Tron Tron de- |Per cent. | en Ee | Tem-
; d : Oxalate | Solu- |C.D.49)| E.M.F.
No. | taken, posited, nor der Time Solution | age ness! | Volts. Peta:
gr. gr. posite added, added, jure
C.c. C.c.
1 |0:0970 0:0415 42-8 |14 min, 125 10 1:5 3°8 50°
2 00970 0:0300 20:9) ies 125 10 | 15 3°8 50°
3 0:0970 0:0270 Pap Maly Fe, 125 10 15 4:0 50°
4 |0:0970 0:0230 23:7) |) WO ys 125 10 16 39 50°
5 |0-0194. 0:0130 67:0 |20 ,, 25 10 1-4 4:0 50°
6 0:0970 ee 42°3 1y hr. i 50 |1:4-1'2'3-9_4-3 50°_56°
7 |0:0970 0:0410 | 42°3 /12 ,, 25 | 50 |1:4-1:1|3-9_4-5'50°_56°
8 00194 Goren aon |se neal, ge) | to | acl £e dem
9 00970 | 0-0790 81-4 | 14 hr. 125 50 {15-18} 4:7 | Cold
10 |0'0970 | 4.00300} @.30'9 |13 ,, 1) fs | : a
[ . 00630! b.650 1° f 125 | 50 |1-4-13'3-9-4'3'50°_53°
| «+ 00-0920 95-9 | | | |
11 |0:0970 (| a. 0-0410 @.42°3 |1h.10m.}] 125 | 50 |1:5-1:8) 4:8 Cold
| 5.00520) 6.536 |Lhr. | | |

a+00930) 959 |
|

i

relative increase of free oxalic acid present. In experiments 10 and 11
the solutions were electrolysed till alkaline, and the deposited metal
weighed (a) ; the solution was then poured back into the dish, and the
electrolysis continued until a precipitate of ferric hydrate separated, when
the additional iron deposited on the cathode was weighed (4). The
deposition in both warm and cold solutions proceeds more rapidly after
alkalinity than before, and there is evidently little difference in the
results of the two experiments.

Tt is clear from these results that 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate will
not outlast the deposition of 0-1 gr. of iron under the above condi-
tions of current and E.M.F. ; further, that an initial acidification with
oxalic acid up to 4 gr. is no real help in preventing a separation of
hydrate ; and, finally, that it is advantageous to electrolyse cold solutions
in preference to warm. To complete the deposition of iron under these
circumstances it is necessary to add oxalic acid from time to time durin
the expen so as to prevent the separation of ferric hydrate ; if this

. N

178 REPORT—1900.

is done, accurate results can be obtained, our own determinations, which
need not be detailed here, confirming those of previous experimenters. The
continuous attention thus entailed of course robs the method of its
practical value.

Experiments were made on the use of acid ammonium oxalate instead
of the neutral salt as the electrolyte, and it was found possible to complete
the electrolysis without the addition of oxalic acid, 6 gr. of the acid salt
being added to 0-1 gr. of iron as ferric chloride. But there is always a
risk of ferrous oxalate separating out from this solution after the ferric
salt has been reduced, which is extremely difficult to redissolve, so that the
conditions of deposition were not regarded as worth further study.

By working with a lower current density and allowing the electrolysis
to proceed for six hours, or preferably overnight, in cold solutions, it was
found that 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate will outlast the deposition of
0-2 gr. of iron, and these conditions afford a thoroughly satisfactory
method for the electrolytic determination of iron. The metal is deposited in
a steel-grey, coherent form, and adheres equally well to a polished or sand-
blasted dish ; the washing and drying can be done without any fear of
oxidation.

After some preliminary experiments it was found that a C.D.;o9 of
0-4 to 0-5 ampere and an E.M.F. of 3-0 to 3-5 volts are best ; from five to
six hours are necessary for the deposition of 0-1 gr. of iron. The following
experiments illustrate the results to be obtained under these conditions ;
a ferric chloride solution was used, the excess of free acid being first
neutralised as in Series I. Nos. 8-12 were consecutive experiments.

Serres IT,
Tron Tron de- ae C.D ELF T
| 5 xalate Solu- Dy, ).M.F. | Time, |
| No. Cee noe tion added, | Ampere | Volts “Hours, Hewes
eo | (ores |
ee == —— _———$_= ae = io
1 | 01060 | 06-1060 125 | 0-42-06 | 31-30] 5 Bi
2 01060 01064 = | 125 0-4 -0°6 3°2-3'0 6 | —
3 0:1060 0°1066 125 0-4 ~0°6 32-30 Le) —
4 | 01060 01065 | 125 0:3 —0'29 | 2°8-2'9 — Overnight
5 | 01060 0°1065 125 OBA) i Gwe ey, | ?
6 | 01060 01065 | 125 OE a ar ae
7 | 01060 01062 | 125 O:3 -D:2o) |S ae stp 3
LS 0:0920 0:0920. | 125 0-4 -—0°32 | 2°3-2°6 17 Pe
9 071840 071840 125 O38=0r02 | eoneore 143 a
10 0°1050 0-1050 125 0-4 —0°36 ‘| 2°0=2°5 18 | +3
11 | 0:0920 | 00919 | 125 056-0955" 5302875 81 A
12 | 0:0920 0-0919 125 05 —0°5 28-28; 18 | a

Note.—The two figures for Current and E.M.F. indicate the measurements at the
beginning and end of the determinations respectively.

Considerable latitude is permissible in the current density and E.M.F.,
but it should be on the low side of the values given above. The deter-
‘minations require no watching, and by allowing them to proceed overnight
one of the most marked advantages of electrolytic analysis is gained.

Experiments made under similar conditions in warm solutions indi-
‘cated no advantages whatever ; the rate of deposition is not increased,
and there is always greater risk of ferric hydrate separating out, as
already explained

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 179

2. The Influence of Ammoniuin Chloride on the Electrolytic
Determination of Iron.

Since any iron solution in the ordinary course of analysis is likely to be
acid with hydrochloric acid, a few experiments were made to decide whether
the ammonium chloride formed by neutralising it has any deterrent effect
on the deposition of the metal, since Classen states that it is desirable to
remove free hydrochloric acid by evaporation previous to the electrolysis.
1 gr. of ammonium chloride was added to each of the solutions electrolysed
under the conditions tabulated below ; from the results it is evident that
the addition is without influence on the determination of the iron.

Series ILI,
Ir Ammonium |

ti von | Iron deposited, | Oxalate Solution | C. Doo E.M.F. Time,
No. | a, | gr. added, | Ampere Volts Hours
parte. = cc. |
goes | | | : = o

1 | 0:1060 0°1058 125 0:5-0-4 | 35-36 | 5

2 0:1060 0:1063 | 125 05-04 | 3:5-3°6 5

3. The complete Separation of the Iron when deposited from Ammonium O.alate
Solution: the Sulphocyanide Reaction for Lron under the conditions of the
Experiments. By Cuartus A. Koun, M.Sc., Ph.D., F. J. Bristyn, and H. A,
FROYSELL.

The apparent accuracy of the results obtained in the electrolytic
deposition of iron from ammonium oxalate solution has led the method to
be regarded as free from the source of error generally associated with the
deposition of metals from solutions of organic salts, viz. the separation of
carbon with the metal at the cathode. Citrate and tartrate solutions both
yield deposits containing a considerable proportion of carbon, and the
quantitative results obtained are correspondingly high. Our own results
with ammonium oxalate solution, contrary to those recorded in the litera-
ture on the subject, are hardly ever on the low side ; they average from
0-2 to 0°3 per cent. high (Series II. p. 8). The possibility of com-
pensating errors consisting in the presence of carbon with the deposited
metal on the one hand, and the incomplete separation of the iron on the
other, has recently been discussed by Avery and Dales! and by Verwer
and Groll.2- The former find that the deposited iron does contain carbon,
on anaverage 0:21 to 0°42 per cent. on the metal deposited, and that some
iron remains in the electrolysed solution. The latter was determined gravi-
metrically after evaporating the solution and igniting the residue, and in
the three experiments made averages 0°35 per cent. The results published
from the Aachen laboratory, on the other hand, confirm Classen’s original
view, that there is no carbon with the deposited iron, and that the iron is
completely precipitated. Eight experiments are given by Verwer and
Groll ; the results are all low, a total of 7:6 mgr. of iron being wanting
in the eight experiments. Still, no iron could be detected on evaporating
all the solutions left after the electrolysis together, anda testing with
potassium sulphocyanide or other reagent after ignition and solution.
These ‘experiments were conducted with warm solutions, with a C. D.,o5

Ber. 1899, 82, 64 and 2233. ® Ber. 1899, 32, 806.
N 2

180 REPORT—1900,

=1-0 ampere, an E.M.F. of 2°5 to 3:0 volts, and the addition of 8 gr. of
ammonium oxalate for 0-1 to 0:3 gr. of iron. From the contradictory
nature of these results it became important to ascertain whether the
accuracy of our own determinations was really due to small compensating
errors.

To test the complete deposition of the iron in the experiments in
Series II. (p. 178) a small quantity of the solution was withdrawn by a
capillary tube, and tested with potassium sulphocyanide after acidifying
with hydrochloric acid. The reaction is, however, known to be inhibited
by the presence of organic acids, such as oxalic, unless a large excess of
hydrochloric acid is present to prevent the dissociation of the ferric
sulphocyanide ; this addition may so far dilute the solution as to prevent
the detection of small quantities of iron. Further, the metal is present
as a ferrous salt at the end of the electrolysis, and this fact may also be a
cause of any iron present escaping detection. The delicacy of the sulpho-
cyanide reaction was, therefore, carefully studied under the conditions of
the electrolytic experiments, as well as in presence of ammonium oxalate
and of oxalic acid. Our results show that whilst up to 0:4 mgr. of iron
can readily escape detection when the test is made by the usual method
of withdrawing cnly a little of the solution, 0-1 mgr. can always be
detected with certainty if the whole of the solution, after electrolysis, is
tested by acidifying with 75 c.c. of hydrochloric acid (conc.), and then
adding 10 c.c. of a 20 per cent. solution of potassium sulphocyanide.
The coloration is quite distinct in presence of ammonium oxalate, oxalic
acid, ammonium chloride, or of the salts remaining after the electrolysis
of the mixture of these salts as used in the deposition of iron under the
conditions of the experiments in Series II. The sequence of the addition
of the reagents in no way affects the delicacy of the reaction, nor is the
addition of any oxidising agent, such as hydrogen peroxide, necessary to
convert the ferrous into ferric iron when solutions containing oxalic acid
or its salts, or the products of their electrolysis, are tested ; in their
presence a little stirring appears ample to completely oxidise small
quantities of iron. As a matter of fact, less than 0-1 mgr. can be
detected thus, but this limit is of course sufficient to check the presence
of iron left in the solution after electrolysis. With this check on the
complete deposition of the metal a series of determinations were made, in
which the iron remaining in solution was determined colorimetrically
by potassium sulphocyanide after the electrolysis.

Series IV.
w |] ]
. ; ’ | | Tron left
No Iron taken, | an op: | C.Diio0 ‘.M.F. | Time, |} in solu-
ane gr. pes - } Ampere Volts | Hours tion,
ES: mgr.
] 0:1036 | 01036 | 05—0-42 34-37 23 O1
| 2 | 01558 0:1550 O5—045 | 23-3:0 | 23 0-2
3 | 0°2590 0'2592 0'5 + 0°46 oi —37 || 28 03
!

The above were three consecutive experiments made with a ferric
chloride solution prepared for electrolysis as in the previous experiments,
and to which 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate were added. Despite the
prolonged time of electrolysis a little iron still remained in solution ; other

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 181

results showed the presence of 0°2 to 0°35 mgr. of iron in the electrolysed
solution. Nevertheless, as in the experiments of Series II., the error in
the weight of iron deposited is on the plus side.

4. The Presence of Carbon in Iron deposited from Ammonium Oxalate Solution,
and the Determination of its Amount. By Cuartus A. Koun, M.Sc., Ph.D.,
and F. J. BrisLer.

To ascertain the presence of carbon in the metal deposited under the
above conditions the following method was adopted :—A solution of ferric
chloride, neutralised with ammonium hydrate, and to which ammonium
oxalate was added, was electrolysed under the usual conditions, a piece of
platinum foil being employed as the cathode. After the electrolysis the
foil was thoroughly washed, then dried, and rolled up for combustion.
The combustion was carried out in an ordinary combustion tube in a
eurrent of oxygen, a solution of barium hydrate being used for the
absorption of the carbon dioxide. In every case a blank experiment was
conducted for one hour before the introduction of the deposited iron, and
the absorption bulbs weighed both at the beginning and end of the blank
experiment ; no difficulty, however, was found in keeping out all traces
of carbon dioxide. The results tabulated below leave no doubt as to the
presence of carbon in the deposited metal ; the quantity appears to be
independent of the quantity of iron precipitated, but increases with the
quantity of ammonium oxalate in the solution electrolysed, when this is
completely decomposed. The results are likely to err on the low side, as
the combustion of the carbon deposited with the iron is likely to be
incomplete. In order to make sure that the carbon dioxide was not
derived from any slight residues that might have adhered to the iron from
the alcohol used in the washing of the deposit, this washing was omitted
in experiments 3 and 4, and the precipitated metal dried in vacuo after
washing with water. Further, in experiment 4 the deposited iron, which
was beautifully crystalline, was detached as far as possible from the
platinum, and this portion (a) very completely washed with water before
drying, so as to be certain that the carbon did not arise from any adhering
traces of the decomposed oxalate solution ; the iron that still remained on
the platinum was combusted separately (0).

Series V.
Per cent.| Ammon-
No peat fe. moa Carbon |ium Oxa-| Time, | C.D.yoo [E-M-F.! Romarks
3 P a Sees Tron late Hours} Ampere | Volts |
gr. | ©" ‘deposited! added
1 00814 | 060 O74 | Ggr. | 19 0-4 5:2 | ( Washed with
| | water and |
i) o1908 | 082 043 | Ger. | 212 | 02 | 55 || alcohol |
3 071220 | 0-76 0°62 6 gr. 19 02 3:0 4
{| % 00674 | 055 | 0-82 ] | bs samen eet
aes Wee leo. | bISer. | 48 hee aioe dried in
@+b03230 | 2:02 | 0-62 j abkiie

The variations in current density and electromotive force do not seem
to make any appreciable difference. On an average the iron: deposited
from a solution containing 6 gr. of ammonium oxalate contains 0°84 mgr.
of carbon, and, therefore, proportionately the results recorded in Series II.

182 REPORT—1900,

and IV., in which 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate were used, should be
0:7 mgr. too high from this source of error. In the two sets of experi-
ments the values obtained average an excess of 0°2 mgr., and the weight
of metal remaining in solution after the determination is 0-2 to 0°3 mgr.
These compensating errors, therefore, contribute to the apparent accuracy
of the method ; they are sufficiently small to bring the process within
the range of practical analysis. This conclusion is in accord with the
experiments recorded by Avery and Dales ; the difference in the per-
centage of carbon found is in all probability due to the time of electro-
lysis. It is impossible to reconcile these results with those of Verwer
and Groll ; but that their results, like those obtained by Classen, are low
is undoubtedly to be attributed to the method adopted for testing the
completion of the deposition of iron by means of potassium sulphocyanide.
The origin and direction of the errors arising in the electrolysis of
ammonium oxalate solutions containing iron are clearly shown by our
experiments, and it is unlikely that different conditions prevail when
other metals are present in the same electrolyte. The facts thus esta-
blished must be duly considered in judging of the results obtained by these
methods, especially in such cases as atomic weight determinations.

The quantities of carbon deposited with the iron were too small to
allow of the investigation of its condition of combination. We are, how-
ever, inclined to think that it is present as a carbide, for whenever the
deposited metal is dissolved in acid the smell of hydrocarbons can always
be noticed ; also, after the upper layer of the metal has dissolved, the
underlying portion is very often darker in colour and more difficult to
dissolve. P

5. The Electrolytic Separation of Iron and Manganese in Ammonium Oxalate

Solution. By Cuartes A. Koun, M.Sc., Ph.D., and H. H. Froysett.

Bibliography.
Author Journal Year | Volume Page Composition of
Electrolyte
Brand, A. Zeits. anal. 1889 28 581 | Sodium — pyrophos-
Chem. phateandammonium
oxalate
Classen, A., | Ber. 1881 14 1,622 Ammonium oxalate
and Reis, |
M. A.
Classen, A. ée 1881 14 2,771 | Ammonium and
| potassium oxalates
oe FA 1884 LT 2,351 Ammonium and
| potassium oxalates
sy 3 1885 18 168 | Ammonium and
| potassium oxalates |
A s 1885 18 | 1,789 | Ammonium oxalate |
Engels, C. Zeits. Elec- 1896 2 414 | Ammonium acetate
trochem. | |
+ Chem. Rund- 1896 — 5 and 20! Sulphuric acid
schau |
Kaeppel, F. Zeits. anorg.| 1898 16 268 | Sodium — pyrophos-
Chem. phate and phos-
| phorie acid
Moore, T, Chem. News 1886 53 209 | Phosphoric acid and
ammonium carbonate
Wieland, J. Ber. 1884 17 | 2,931 Ammonium and
| potassium oxalates

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 185

In the electrolysis of manganese salts in presence of dilute mineral
acids, sodium pyrophosphate, or ammonium oxalate, the manganese is
separated at the anode as hydrated peroxide. This property is of little
value, however, for the determination of manganese itself, because it is
difficult to effect the complete separation of the metal as oxide, and special
conditions must be adopted to cause the precipitate to adhere to the
anode. On the other hand, the difference in the behaviour of iron and
manganese when subjected to electrolysis in ammonium. oxalate solution
is attractive as a method for the separation of the two metals.

The practical difticulty in effecting a separation on these lines is that
the precipitated manganic oxide always carries down some iron with it ;
this can only be overcome by adepting such conditions of electrolysis that
only one of the metals is separated, the other remaining in solution. By
means of a divided cell Engels states that manganese can be completely
separated as peroxide, using a sulphuric acid solution ; this involves the
subsequent determination of the iron. The chief work on the subject,
however, has aimed at the determination of the iron by deposition on the
cathode, obviously the more useful line of separation.

According to Classen, the separation is possible if 8 to 10 gr. of
ammonium oxalate are added to the solution of the mixed salts and the
mixture electrolysed warm with a ©.D.,9) of about 1:0 ampere. This
proportion of oxalate is said to outlast the deposition of the iron ; the
manganic oxide does not separate until the mass of the oxalate has been
decomposed, and even with large proportions of manganese only very little
peroxide separates at the anode under these conditions.

Neumann! and Engels? both state that the separation is incomplete, and
our own experiments confirm this view. We have not found it possible
to completely deposit iron without a separation of manganese peroxide,
nor to separate the latter free from iron. The presence of even small
proportions of manganese has, moreover, quite a remarkable effect in
hastening the separation of iron as hydrate in the electrolysis of oxalate
solutions. In some early experiments on the determination of iron the
results were from 3 to 4 per cent. too low, and a separation of hydrate
always took place after about two hours ; on testing the precipitate it
was found to contain manganese, derived from the iron wire used in
making up the solution. In the subsequent work recorded above the
iron was always purified from manganese by precipitation as basic
acetate.

The following experiments show the extent of the error when the
separation is conducted under the conditions most favourable for the
deposition of the iron. The mixed chlorides of the two metals were
neutralised with ammonium hydrate, 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate added,
and electrolysed as usual. In experiments 4, 5, and 6, a C.D.;o9 of only
0-2 ampere was used ; but still the deposition of the iron was incomplete,
and in all cases manganese peroxide contaminated with iron separated
at the anode or remained suspended in the solution. A comparison of
the results tabulated on p. 184 shows that the error in the iron increases
with the proportion of manganese taken.

' Theorie %. Prawis der analytischen Electrolyse, p. 194.
2 Chem, Rundschau, 1896, pp. 5 ana 20,

184. REPORT—1900,

Series VI.
Tron Manganese| Per cent. .

Tron taken : Ss C.D E.M.F Time

’ k 100 . ’

No gr. sete ee dopouité a | Ampere Volts Hours
1 01104 0:1080 0:0100 | 97°82 0:4-0°2 JeoD 18
2 0'1104 01080 0:0250 | 97°82 0°4-0°3 3-3'8 18
3 071104 0:0964 01000 | 87:32 | 0°4-0°3 3-3'8 18
+ 0°1104 0°1086 0:0100 98°37 | 0:2-0°16 B= aes
5 0°1104 01070 0:0250 96°92 0:2-0'3 BB oul nal He
6 071104 0:1045 0:1000 94:65 0:2-0°3 3-3'4 18

Not more than 0°1 mgr. of iron was left in the solution as determined
colorimetrically with sulphocyanide ; the remainder must therefore have
been carried down by the manganese peroxide ; it was detected qualita-
tively in each case in the precipitate, but no quantitative estimations were
made.

Direct experiments on the electrolysis of solutions of manganese
chloride, to which 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate were added, and in which
variations both of current and of electromotive force were tried, showed
that it is not possible to electrolyse such solutions, under conditions per-
mitting the deposition of iron, without the separation of manganese per-
oxide. Theseparation is effected the more rapidly the greater the propor-
tion of manganese present and the higher the current density and the elec-
tromotive force. With only 0:01 gr. of manganese in solution, an E.M.F.
of 3 volts, and C.D.o) = 0°2 ampere, the precipitation of hydrate occurred
after four hours’ electrolysis in the cold solution, and in eighteen hours,
the time required for an electrolytic determination of iron, with only
0-002 gr. of manganese, an E M.F. of 1°35 volts, and C.D.,)) = 0°1 ampere,
the hydrate also separated. With the view of delaying this separation of
the manganese a series of experiments were tried in which a small
quantity of hydroxylamine sulphate was added to the solution to be
electrolysed. It has been shown that this reagent acts favourably in
preventing the separation of stannic acid in the electrolysis of tin salts in
ammonium oxalate solution,! and it might, therefore, have a similar
favourable effect in the case of manganese.

To a small extent this is the case; the addition of 1 gr. of hydroxyl-
amine sulphate, under conditions similar to those recorded in Series II.
of our experiments, considerably delays the separation of the hydrated
peroxide. But the deposition of iron is also delayed, and attempts to
separate the two metals with this addition gave results similar to those
of Series VI. The separated peroxide contained iron, and the deposited
metal was from 3 to 16 per cent. too low ; in addition, the iron deposit
was uneven and showed a tendency to scale off.

We therefore conclude that the quantitative separation of iron and
manganese in ammonium oxalate solution cannot be effected. Further,
the influence of small proportions of manganese on the electrolytic deposi-
tion of iron, referred to above, is a factor that detracts very considerably
from the analytical value of the electrolytic method for the determina-
tion of the latter.

On the other hand, very small proportions of manganese can be sepa-

1 Third Report, 1896,

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 185

rated qualitatively from iron or other metals, which are deposited at the
cathode in the electrolysis of their solutions, with greater certainty than
by the ordinary analytical methods.

6. The Electrolytic Determination of Iron in Urine and other Animal Products.
By Cuartes A, Kony, M.S8c., Ph.D., and G. C. Crayton, Ph.D.

Tron is the only heavy metal present in the body, and the part it plays
in animal metabolism is of special interest. The varied conditions of its
combinations can as yet only be approached by histochemical reactions F
for its total and quantitative determination the ordinary volumetric,
gravimetric, or colorimetric methods have been applied. As the
quantities present in certain organs and excreta are extremely small,
special importance attaches to the methods adopted for their estimation.
The usual method of procedure is to dry and ignite the product to
be tested, extract the residue with acid, and determine the iron in
the resulting solution. In the case of urine, for instance, a day’s
discharge (about 1,500 c.c.) is evaporated and ignited until the
residual ash is quite white, then dissolved in sulphuric acid and titrated
with a dilute permanganate solution, after reduction with sulphurous
acid (Hamburger!) or with zinc (Damaskin,? Jolles 3), Gottlieb and
Ludwig * employed a gravimetric method in which the iron is precipi-
tated as Prussian blue in presence of a 1 per cent. zinc chloride solution,
the precipitate subsequently decomposed by alkali, and the resulting ferric
hydrate weighed after separation from the zinc by repeated precipitation
with ammonium hydrate. More recently Jolles has recommended the
gravimetric determination of iron in urine by precipitation with nitroso-
8 naphthol.” The great variations obtained by the adoption of these
methods are shown in the following data as to the quantity of iron present
in a day’s discharge of normal urine :—

Hamburger

- 7-6 to 14:5 mgr. per 24 hours.
Gottlieb and Ludwig . ‘ . 159 to 3:69 »
Lieber and Mohr . 3 : é . 08 to 1:7 as
Damaskin : : » Oto 1:5 ee
Jolles . : : : . 46 to di +H
Kumberg b 3 § y ; . 0-47 to 1:15 3

The values found by Damaskin, Lieber and Mohr, and Kumberg are
usually regarded as the most correct, and 1 mgr. iron per diem in normal
urine is looked upon as the average amount.®

Two sources of error beset these methods of analysis. In the first
place, the very large quantity of mineral salts, especially chlorides and
phosphates, left after ignition has a disturbing influence on the titration
with permanganate, especially with such small proportions of iron as
1 mgr. in the total solution ; secondly, it is impossible to completely
remove the organic matter in the ignition, and its presence in solution
affects the titration to a marked extent. These errors, which are of
necessity irregular in character, are still more serious when gravimetric

‘ Kobert, Pharmak. Mittsil., 1891, 7, 40.

* Arbeiten d. phaimakolog. Inst., Dorpat, 1871, and Zeits. anal. Chem., 1892, 81,
481

3 Zits, anal, Chem., 1897, 86,149, * Archiv, eapt. Pathologic, 1889, 27, 139.
5 Loe. cit. ® Stockman, rit. Med. Journ., 1893.

186 REPORT—1900.

methods are adopted, whilst they make colorimetric methods altogether
unreliable.

The electrolytic determination of iron presents the important advan-
tage over the above by not being affected by these adverse conditions,
and our results justify the conclusion that it is reliable and accurate.
The presence of phosphoric acid does not interfere with the determination.
Any organic matter present in the solution of the ash can be completely
removed by a preliminary electrolysis in presence of sulphuric acid. This
was proved in a series of experiments in which the attempt was made to
effect the deposition of the metal directly in urine without concentration
and ignition of the resulting ash. In order to overcome the frothing due
to the decomposition of the urea in the urine, during the electrolysis, the
latter was first decomposed with nitrous acid, the details of the method of
decermination being as follows : 100 c.c. of urine are treated in a flask with
12 c.c. of sulphuric acid (1:5) and 5 gr. of sodium nitrite, and gently
warmed. After the decomposition is complete 5 c.c. of sulphuric acid
(cone.) are added, the sclution boiled to complete the decomposition of
the urea, and electrolysed overnight with a C.D.,),=1:0 ampere. The
urine is completely decolorised by the current, a crystal clear solution
resulting, whilst a deposit of carbon quite free from iron takes place on
the cathode. The solution is then neutralised with ammonium hydrate,
oxalic acid added to acid reaction, then 5 gr. of ammonium oxalate, and
boiled. The precipitated calcium oxalate, which does not retain any of
the iron, is filtered off, washed, and the filtrate electrolysed either at 60°C.
with a C.D.,99=1:0 to 1:5 ampere, or, better, overnight, cold, with a
C.D.\99 of 0°5 ampere and 3-0-4:0 volts. It is important not to de-
crease the proportion of oxalate, or magnesium carbonate may be
formed on the cathode ; it is easily soluble in ammonium oxalate. A
platinum spiral of 1 to 5 gr. weight, according to the quantity of iron
present, is used as the cathode, and a platinum dish of about 200 cc.
capacity as the anode. The deposited metal, which is quite bright and
metallic in appearance, after being washed, dried, and weighed, can be
dissolved off, and the spiral re-weighed as a check on the determination,
whilst confirmatory qualitative tests can, of course, be made with the
resulting solution. In the following experiments known weights
of iron were added to 100 c.c. of normal urine. (The quantity of metal
present in the urine is negligible, less than 0-1 mgr.) A blank experi-
ment was first made, with all the reagents employed in the method as de-
scribed, to determine the contained iron and to make allowance for the
carbon deposited ; the total amounted to 0-2 mgr., which was deducted in
all cases.

Tron taken. Tron found. Tron taken. Tron found.
er or. er. gr.
0°0151 0°0152 0:0030 0:0027
00101 0:0100 0:0020 00015
0:0050 0°0051 ! 00010 00008

The results show that 1 mgr. of iron per 100 ¢.c. of urine can be very
satisfactorily estimated by this method ; but this amount is far in excess
of that ever found in normal urine or likely to be present, even under
pathogenic conditions. In both cases at least 1,000 to 1,500 c.c. should be

used for a determination, and this when concentrated to, say, 200 c.c., is
so highly charged with organic matter that even when electrolysed for

ON THE ELECTROLYTIC METHODS OF QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS. 187

forty-eight hours in presence of sulphuric or nitric acid the decolorisa-
tion is incomplete. This direct method of determination is therefore
inapplicable. The results are recorded to prove that the salts and
organic matter are practically without influence on the deposition of
the iron. The only alternative, therefore, is. to evaporate to dryness,
ignite, best after a preliminary drying at 180° C., and then proceed as
above, omitting, of course, the decomposition with nitrous acid. Thus
modified the method loses much of its absolute, but none of its relative
value. A mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric acid (1:2) and hydro-
chlorie acid (cone.) is best for the extraction ; the solution is then con-
centrated to remove hydrochloric acid, and electrolysed to destroy all
traces of organic matter ; it is then ready for treatment with ammonium
oxalate and the final electrolysis as described.

The following results with normal urine were obtained by this
method :—

Volume of urine taken, Tron found.
C.c. m. gr.
3,750 19
1,320 iy
1,02¢ 09
1,600 0-9

Taking a day’s discharge at 1,500 c.c., the average amount of iron per
diem in the above experiments is 0°91 mgr., a value which confirms the
most reliable of the results given above.

In all cases in which the determination of very small quantities of
iron in organic products is concerned, the exceptional delicacy of the
electrolytic method, its freedom from the sources of error that arise with
other methods on account of the inherent presence of salts and of organic
matter, and, finally, the ready check on the nature and amount of the
deposited metal, render it capable of giving reliable and comparable
results under all conditions. We have made use of it, with advantage,
not only in the analysis of urine, but also in the determination of iron
in liver, spleen, and feces, both under normal and pathogenic conditions,

The Teaching of Science in Hlementary Schools.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE (Chairman), Professor
H. E. Armstrone (Secretary), Lord Avesury, Professor W. R.
Dunstan, Mr. GrorGE GLADSTONE, Sir Pamir Maanus, Sir
H. E. Roscor, Professor A. SMITHELLS, and Professor S. P.
‘THOMPSON.

Ir has been the custom of your Committee to give some comparative
tables derived from the return of the Education Department showing the
relative attention given to the teaching of scientific subjects in elementary
schools for a period of years. By these it has been shown that for the
eight years prior to 1890, during which time English Grammar was an
obligatory subject provided any class subject was taken in the school, and
as the Code allowed only two class subjects to be taken for the purpose of
a grant, it was only in those schools where two of these were taken that

188 REPORT—1900.

science teaching could be given throughout the standards. But the effect
of this was that as the other recognised class subjects were History,
Geography, and Elementary Science, and of these Geography was by far the
most popular amongst the teachers, while English History was adopted in
most other cases, Elementary Science scarcely received any attention at all.
It should be borne in mind, moreover, that up to that date Geography itself
was but little taught from a scientific standpoint, the details of topography
occupying the pupils’ time almost to the exclusion of the study of the physics
of our globe. In the year 1889-90 the number of school departments in
which English Grammar was taken amounted to no less than 20,304,
while Elementary Science was taught in only 32. Since that year a free
choice of subjects has been allowed, and the wide discrepancy between
these figures has been regularly reduced year by year; in 1890-91
English dropped to 19,825, while Elementary Science rose to 173; and
the table below will show the change that has been going forward since
that date. It will be observed that Object Lessons were introduced in
1895, and these were made obligatory in the three lower standards on
and after September 1, 1896. In the report presented by this Committee
last year it was pointed out that the distinction between Object Lessons
and Elementary Science was one of nomenclature rather than anything
else, and now in the Government return for 1898-99 the distinction in

name has been abolished, and all are included under the term Elementary
Science.

. | |
Class Subjects—De- | 1391 99 1899-931 1893-94! 1894-95) 1895-9611896-971 1897-98 1898-09
partments | | | |
English. . — . |18,175/ 17,394 | 17,032 | 16,280 | 15,327 | 14,286 | 13,456 | 13,194
Geography . . | 13,485 | 14,256 15,250 | 15,702 | 16,171 | 16,646 | 17,049 | 17,872
Elementary Science} 788 1,073) 1,215 | 1,712| 2,237| 2,617} 2,143} 91.301
| Object Lessons. | | 1,079 | 8,321 | 21,882 \ 21,

The number of departments in ‘schools for older scholars’ for the year
1898-99 was 23,191, all but two of which took one or more class subjects.
But History was taken in 5,879 departments, and needlework (as a class
subject for girls) in 6,952 departments, and sundry minor subjects in
1,034, making, with the other three subjects of the table, a total of 66,232.
This shows an average of nearly three class subjects to each department ;
but it must be borne in mind that the same subject is not always taken
in all the standards, in which case three or more class subjects will appear
in the return fora single department. That there has been less splitting up
of the subjects between the upper and lower standards is apparent ; and
also that such a subject as Geography must, in some cases, have been
taught by means of object lessons, as otherwise it would have been found
by this time that the figure for object lessons had equal]led the number of
departments, whereas the 21,301 is actually considerably less than that
for the previous year. It can hardly be assumed that under the regula-
tions of the Code there was any actual diminution of such teaching.

It has, been previously remarked that ‘the increased teaching of
scientific specific subjects in the higher standards is the natural conse-
quence of the greater attention paid to natural science in the lower part
of the schools,’ The following table shows that such is the actual
result :—

ON THE TEACHING OF SOIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 189

]
Specifi: Subjects :| 1991 99

: 1892-93 | 1893-94 | 1894-95 | 1895-96 | 1896-97 | 1897-98 |i898-99
Children | |
Algebra . . | 28,542 | 31,487) 33,612) 38,237) 41,846) 47,225) 53,081\111,486)
Euclid . ; 927 1,279} 1,399) 1,468} 1,584) 2,059) 2,471) 5,932
Mensuration .| 2,802 3,762} 4,018) 5,614) 6,859) 8,619, 10,828] 24.848
Mechanics . | 18,000 | 20,023) 21,532; 23,806) 24,956 26,110) 27,009) 50,324
Animal Physio- | 13,622 | 14,060) 15,271, 17,003} 18,284, 19,989) 22,877| 41,244
lo |
Bolany . | 1,845 1,968) 2,052; 2483) 2,996) 3,377) 4,031 8,833
Principles of | 1,085 909; 1,231); 1,196) 1,059 825 870) 1,168
Agriculture
Chemistry . | 1,935 2,387; 3,043) 3,850} 4,822) 5,545) 6,978] 14,737
Sound, Light, | 1,163 1,168} 1,175 914 937); 1,040; 1,155} 1,943
and Heat |
Magnetism & | 2,338 2,181; 3,040; 3,198) 3,168) 3,431) 3,905) 7,697
Electricity | |
| Domestic Hco- | 26,447 | 29,210) 32,922) 36,239} 39,794] 45,869 51,259) 95,171
nomy bal sabe ay |
Total . | 98,706 | 108,434) 119,295) 134,008] 146,305] 164,089 184,464|363,378

It will be observed, however, that there is a very remarkable increase
in the figures for 1898-99, and that this applies to every one of the
specific subjects. Strictly speaking, the return for this year is not
comparable with those for the previous years, as they represented the
number of children who were presented for examination in these several
‘subjects, whereas the return for this last year represents the number of
scholars qualified for grants. In order to be so qualified in each subject,
not less than twenty hours’ instruction must have been received by each
scholar, but calculating from the standard unit for estimating the grant,
it would appear that the amount of time given during the year to such
instruction was actually about fifty-two hours. The mean number of
scholars in Standard V. and upwards was 716,157, which would give
50°7 per cent. as the proportion of scholars qualified for grant as compared
with the possible number of students ; but it must be remembered that
nearly one-third of them take two subjects, and are therefore counted
twice over. Though, as indicated above, too much stress must not be
laid upon these increased figures, it is quite evident that the abolition of
individual examination in the specific subjects has been received with
favour by school managers and teachers, with the result that much more
attention is devoted to this branch of instruction, and, it is to be hoped,
with much less cramming.

The Code which has been introduced this year will further carry out
this principle by substituting one block grant for all the elementary, class,
and specific subjects, so as to avoid the temptation to study what would
bring in the most grant rather than what is most adapted to the cireum-
stances of the individual school. At the same time, the Code requires
that ‘lessons, including object lessons, on Geography, History, and Common
Things be taken as a rule in all schools,’ and that one or more of the
subjects of instruction hitherto known as ‘ specific subjects’ is to be taken
‘when the circumstances of the school, in the opinion of the Inspector,
make it desirable.’

For the guidance of teachers in preparing their course of study, the
Board of Education (which now takes the place of the Education
Department) have issued a number of specimen schemes adapted for

190 REPORT—1900.

schools of different sizes and circumstances; and in the explanatory
memorandum one of their objects is declared to be ‘to make the course
of instruction in all schools more comprehensive, so as to give all scholars
the rudiments of general information, while enabling the details of the
instruction to be adapted to the special needs of various kinds of schools.’
Tt is added that in all schools both boys and girls ‘should learn something
of their own country, and be taught to observe and to acquire for them-
selves some knowledge of the facts of nature... . In country schools
lessons on the objects and work of country life are valuable that would
be inappropriate in town schools, while in the latter the instruction given
in lessons on Common Things and in Elementary Science should be varied
with reference to the probable future occupations of the children. . . . The
introduction of a wider and more generally interesting course of instruc-
tion will, it is hoped, be a welcome relief from the continued repetition
of the restricted course of lessons, which has a tendency to become lifeless
and wearisome. As an illustration may be quoted Scheme 5, for a boys’
school in a seaside town, in which the course for ‘ Elementary Science and
Common Things’ is thus set out :—‘ Class V. to IIT. : A course of lessons
on marine animals and plants, on local rocks, pebbles, &c. ; various sorts
of boats, ships, &c. ; lighthouses and lightships ; the local tides ; flags of
different nations, &c. Class IJ. : The magnet and compass ; practical
methods of finding the cardinal points ; apparent movements of sun and
moon ; measurement of sun’s altitude by shadows. Class I.: Practical
measurements of areas and volumes; lever; pulley ; inclined plane ;
practical examples of parallelogram of forces and parallelogram of velo-
cities ; the chief constellations and the apparent movements of heavenly
bodies.’

Since the issue of the Code for this year the Board of Education have
issued a minute establishing Higher Elementary schools. Higher-grade
schools, as they have usuatly been called, have grown up in all the large
industrial centres during the last twenty years or so, with the approval] of
the Education Department, though questions have been raised as to the
right of School Boards to carry them on. All such doubts would he set
aside by working under the minute, which provides for a four-year course,
commencing at a point equivalent to Standard V., and contemplating a
continuance of study up to fifteen years of age. No definite scheme of
instruction is laid down in the minute, as that is to be regulated by ‘ the
circumstances of the scholars and the neighbourhood,’ and the grants will
be assessed at the higher or lower scale according to ‘ the thoroughness
and intelligence with which the instruction is given, the sufficiency and
suitability of the staff, the discipline and organisation.’ Though there are
some inconvenient restrictions which it may be found necessary to modify,
the effect of this minute should be in the direction advocated by your
Committee.

This, however, will depend absolutely upon the will of the Managers
and the consent of the Board of Education, as the minute only provides
that ‘the Managers of any school who desire such school to be recognised
as a Higher Elementary School must submit for the approval of the
Board before July 1 in any year proposals for a curriculum and time table,
and supply such other information as may be required by the Board.’ In
contrast to this may be quoted the provisions of the Scotch Code for
Higher Grade Schools, which include the following :—‘ Such schools or
departments may give an education which is either predominantly

ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 191

scientific and technical— Higher Grade (Science) Schools—or predominantly
commercial— Higher Grade (Commercial) Schools, or they may give a course
which is recognised by the Department as specially suited to girls or to
special classes of pupils. In all cases the Department must be satisfied
that the school possesses the proper provision of class rooms, laboratories,
and workshops necessary for the particular type of education to be given
therein. . . . Pupils following the Higher Grade Science course must
take in addition the following subjects: Mathematics, Experimental
Science, and asa rule some form of Manual Work. . . . In the second year
of the Higher Grade Science course not less than eight, and in the third
year not less than ten, hours a week must, asa rule, be allotted to Science,
and at least half of this time must be spent by the pupils in individual
experimental work. For the purpose of this article three hours of
Drawing or of Manual Instruction, or of both conjointly, will be reckoned
as equivalent to two hours of Science. In the third and following years
Manual Instruction may be dropped, and the pupil should devote himself
to the study of some special branch of Science.’ In Appendix V. it is
further stated : ‘The course in Science should proceed from elementary
exercises in measuring and weighing, and calculations based thereon, to
the experimental investigation of elementary notions of Physics and
Chemistry. In rural schools, and in summer, some investigation of plant
life and of the elements of Botany should be added. At least half the
time devoted to this subject should be spent by each pupil in practical
work, . . . The Department must be satisfied that the teachers have a
competent knowledge of the subjects which they are to teach in each
subject individually, and in the case of Science that they have had
experience in treating the subject experimentally.’

In the Reports for 1897 and 1898 your Committee referred to the
improvements which were being effected in the teaching of Science in the
London Board Schools, and to Professor Fitzgerald’s advocacy of the
extension of the same system to Ireland. The Commission on Practical
and Manual Instruction, of which he was a member, reported strongly in
favour of such work, and decided that similar instruction should be given
in schools under the National Board of Education. To this end Mr. Heller
(whose transference from London to Birmingham has been already noted)
has been appointed Organiser of Science Instruction in Irish Schools, and
will take up his new duties as soon as he can be released from the Head-
mastership of the Municipal Technical School of Birmingham. The
syllabuses of specific subjects in the Irish Code are similar to those in the
English Code of regulations. For the present a scheme corresponding to
Course H of the English Code has been introduced in a slightly modified
form, and notes have been added indicating the spirit in which the
instruction should be given. A training laboratory is being equipped in
Dublin at which selected teachers will be taken through a course of
instruction in heuristic methods, and where they will receive the benefit
of the experience gained in the London schools. The training colleges
not under the control of the National Board are also understood to be
sympathetic, so that there is very good prospect that the Science teaching
in National Schools in Ireland will be energetically developed.

The advance which was noted last year in the work of the Evening
Continuation Schools does not seem to have been maintained, as will be
evident from the following table. Nearly all the subjects show a falling
off, except Elementary Physics and Chemistry, Domestic Science and

192 REPORT—1900.

Navigation, which give an increase ; and Horticulture and Ambulance,
which are practically stationary.

Number of Scholars
Science Subjects ~ -

| 1896-97 | 1897-98 | 1898-99

Hchiciaees ) .porkesane Silay) SATELORG Mat agESH 1,216
Algebra . . fe A 4 rt =f 7,467 | 9,996 | 7,432
Mensuration . ; : : “ 27,388 | 29,966 | 24,369
Elementary Physiography 4 : - 1) oat | 4,807 1 aeons
Elementary Physics and Chemistry : 24 8,185 | 2,902 | 3,116
Domestic Science . : , i j | bi lrg 142
Science of Common Things . P ; -| 10,910 | 13,874 11,499
Chemistry . F . : § : . 5,658 | 6,590 5,963
Mechanics . : \ : ikmelpop se: cllZo 987
Sound, Light, and Heat . 3 : : . | 726 | 813 | 437
Magnetism and Electricity . : 5 a 3,834 3,967 / 3,005
Human Beysiekey 4 4 ‘ : F 5,865 6,237 4,296
Hygiene. ; F ; . . si} 3,179 4,062 3,276
Pee hath wntentrcatin teen ratite 692 763 597
Agriculture . . : 3 ; 2 3 2,355 2,300 | 1,826
Horticulture . 5 : : ‘ , rules ak {olone 1,354 | 1,850
Navigation. | 68 on 4 46
Ambulance ; 3 5 Z | 9,086 13,030 | 12,980
Domestic Economy ls ; ‘ ; SU memlishaiirne || pez) 19,915

| |
Totals . : : 107, 042 | 126, 740 106,665

In the last Report oe was Gi to te ee attention
which was being given by the School Board for London to the teaching
of Experimental Science in their schools, and to the preparation of a
properly qualified staff of teachers for that work. In this they have had
the advantage of the advice of Dr.C. W. Kimmins. The supply of suitable
accommodation and appliances for carrying this out has also been seen to,
so that the Board have at the present time more or less complete provision
for the experimental teaching of science in 79 of their schools : of these
11 are pupil-teacher centres, 37 are classed as higher-grade schools, and
31 as ordinary schools. In some cases there are both chemical and
physical laboratories, with lecture rooms furnished with demonstration
tables, with gas and water laid on ; in others there is only one laboratory
specially fitted for Chemistry, but which can also be made available for
the teaching of Physics.

In the Act of Parliament creating the Board of Education it was
provided that a Consultative Committee should be established, two-thirds
of the members of which should consist of ‘ persons qualified to represent
the views of Universities and other bodies interested in Education ;’ and
it will be noted with satisfaction that one of the members of your
Committee—Professor Henry E. Armstrong—has been nominated to that
office.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF

THE ELEMENTS. 195

On Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and Coivpounds.
—Leport of the Committee, consisting of Sir H. E. Roscor (Chair-
man), Dr. MarsHatL Warts (Secretary), Sir J. N. Lockyer, Pro-
fessor J. Dewar, Professor G. D. Liveinc, Professor A. Scutstsr,
Professor W. N. Hart ey, Professor Wotcorr Gibzs, and Captain

ABNEY.

Index to the Tables of Wave-lengths in the Reports of the
British Association from 1884 to 1900.

Abbreviations: Sp.=Spark Spectrum; A.=Arc Spectrum; Ab.=Absorption Spec-

trum; Fl.=
Compound-line Spectrum;
Spectrum.

Arr, Sp., 1884, p. 352 ; 1893, p. 387.
: Ab., 1886, p. 171.
Alumina, Sp., 1885, p. 310; 1892, p. 237.
Aluminium, F'l., 1895, p. 334,
Sp., 1884, p. 356.
A., 1884, p. 356; 1893, p.
Ammonia, Fl., 1885, p.310; 1898, p.
Antimony, FI, 1895, p. 324,
Sp. 1884, p. 357.
A., 1884, p.357; 1894, p. 265.
Argon, V., 1896, p. 273.
Arsenic, FI., 1895, p. 322.
Sp., 1884, p. 360.
A., 1894, p. 264.

a” Sp., 1884, p. 362.
A., 1884, a4 362 ; 1892, p. 206.
Barium Chloride, FL, 1885, p. 311; 1894,
p. 259.
Bromide, FI., 1885, p. 311.
Todide, Fl., 1885, p. 311.
Oxide, Fl., 1885, p. 312
p. 259; 1895, p. 321.
Beryllium, Sp., 1883, p. 129; 1884, p. 364.
A., 1884, p. 364.
Bismuth, F1., 1895, p. 325.
Sp., 1884, p. 364,
A., 1894, p. 266.
Bismuth Chloride, Sp., 1885, p. 312.
Oxide, oe 1885, p. 312.
Boron, Sp., 1880,
1894, p. 7560.
Boron Oxide, Fl., 1885, p. 313.
Bromine, L., 1880, p. 270; 1884, p. 367;
1900, p. 195.
Ab., 1886, p. 180 ; 1892, p. 211.

2; 1894,

CADMIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 368 ; 1895, p. 297.

, 1892, p. 204.
Cesium, Fl, 1884, p. 371.
Sp. 1884, p. 371.
A., 1884, p. 371; 1892, p. 196.
1900.

. 274; 1884, p. 367; |

Flame Spectrum; Bd.= Band Spectrum; L.=Line Spectrum; Cl.=
V.=Vacuum-tube Spectrum; P.=Phosphorescent

| Calcium, Sp., 1884, p. 371.

A., 1884, p. 371; 1892, p. 198.
| Calcium Chloride, Fi, 1885, p. 313; 1894,
p. 257.

| Bromide, Fl., 1885, p. 313.

2 (I Fluoride, F1., 1885, p. 313 ; 1895,

p. 320.
Iodide, Fl., 1885, p. 314.
Oxide, Il., 1885, p. 314; 1894,
p. 257,; 1895, p. 322.
Carbon, Bd., 1880, p. 265; 1883, p. 129;
1884, p. 374; 1893, p. 412.
L., 1880, p. 265; 1884, p. 374;

1893, p. 406.
Carbon Hydride, Fl., 1885, p. 316; 1895,
p. 317.
Oxide, 1880, p. 269; 1895, p. 314;
1895, p. 319.
Nitride, Fl., 1880, p. 268; 1885,
p. 316.
A., 1893, p, 418.

Cerium, Sp., 1884, p. 378.
Chlorine, Sp., 1880, p. 269; 1884, p. 378.
| V., 1899, p. 257.
| Chromium, Fl., 1895, p. 334.
| Sp., 1884, p. 380.
A., 1894, p. 248.
Chromium Chloride, Sp., 1885, p. 318.
| Cobalt, FL, 1895, p. 333.
Sp., 1884, p. 382
1897, p. 75.
A., 1884, p. 582; 1890, p.
1897, p. 75.
| Copper, Fl., 1895, p. 335.
Sp., 1884, p. 384 ; 1896, p. 308.
| A., 1884, p. 384 ; 1893, p. 392.
| Copper Chloride, Fl., 1885, p. 318.
Bromide, F]., 1885, p. 319.
Todide, Fl., 1885, p. 319.
Oxide, Fl., 1885, p. 319;
p. 334.

; 1890, p. 225;

90>.

wim

1895

DIDYMIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 386.
Didymium Chloride, Ab., 1886, p. 181.
0

194

ERBIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 388.
Erbium Oxide, Fl., 1885, 319.
P., 1886, p. 186.
Chloride, Ab., 1886, p. 181.

FLUORINE, FI., 1880, p. 272; 1884, p. 388.
Sp., 1884, p. 388.

GALLIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 388.
A., 1884, p. 388.
Gold, Sp., 1884, p. 389; 1896, p. 328.
A., 1893, p. £00.
Gold Chloride, F1., 1885, p. 320.

HyDRoGun, L., 1884, p. 389.
Cl., 1884, p. 590; 1886, p.
187.

INDIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 392.
A., 1884, p. 392; 1893, p. 402.
Iodine, Sp., 1880, p. 271; 1884, p. 393.
Ab., 1886, p. 182; 1890, p, 234.
Iodine Chloride, Ab., 1886, p. 183.
Jridium, Sp., 1884, p. 394.
A., 1884, p. 394.
Tron, Fl., 1895, p. 330.
Sp., 1884, p. 395; 1898, p. 313.
A., 1884, p. 395; 1891, p. 161.
tron Oxide, Sp., 1885, p. 320.

LANTHANUM, Sp., 1884, p. 415.
Lead, Fl., 1895, p. 326.
Sp., 1884, p. 417.
A., 1884, p. 417; 1894, p. 262.
Lead Oxide, Sp., 1885, p. 321.
Lithium, F'l., 1894, p. 256; 1895, p. 319.
Sp., 1884, p. 420.
A., 1884, p. 420; 1892, p. 193.

MAGNESIUM, Fl. 1884, p, 420.
Sp., 1884, p. 420.
A., 1884, p. 420; 1892, p.197.
Magnesium Hydride, 1885, p. 321.
Oxide, 1885, p.321; 1895, p.
821.
Manganese, F1,, 1895, p. 335.
Sp., 1884, p. 422.
A., 1884, p. 422.
Manganese Oxide, 1885, p. 322; 1895, p.
337

Mercury, Sp., 1884, p. 424; 1895, p. 800.
A., 1892, p. 209; 1895, p. 300.
Bd., 1895, p. 312.
Molybdenum, Sp., 1884, p. 426.
A., 1884, p. 426; 1899, p. 261.

REPORT—1900.

NICKEL, F1., 1895, p. 332.
Sp., 1884, p. 427; 1890, p. 230 ;
1897, p. 108.
A., 1884, p. 427; 1890, p. 230;
1897, p. 108.
Nitrogen, L., 1880, p. 259; 1884, p. 428;
1893, p. 405.
Bd., 1880, p. 260; 1884, p. 430;
1886, p. 188.
Nitrogen Oxide, Ab., 1886, p. 183.

OSMIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 431.

Oxygen, L., 1880, p. 262; 1884, p. 432.
Cl., 1880, p. 263 ; 1884, p, 432.
Ab., 1891, p. 245.

PALLADIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 434.
Phosphorus, L., 1884, p. 484.
Bd., 1880, p.274; 1884, p. 434.
Phosphorus Oxide, F1., 1895, p. 322.
Platinum, Sp., 1884, p. 486; 1898, p. 411.
A., 1898, p. 411.

| Potassium, Fl., 1884, p. 436; 1894, p. 256;

1895, p. 320.
Sp., 1884, p.436; 1895, p. 295.
A., 1884, p. 436; 1892, p. 194.
Potassium Permanganate, Ab., 1886,
p. 186.

ROWLAND’ Standard Waye-lengths, 1895,
p. 273.
Rubidium, F'l., 1884, p. 438.
Sp., 1884, p. 438
A., 1884, p. 438 ; 1892, p. 195,
Ruthenium, Sp., 1884, p. 438.
A., 1884, p. 438.

SAMARIUM, Sp., 1884, p. 438.

Samarium Oxide, P., 1886, p. 186.

Scandium, Sp., 1884, p. 439.

Selenium, Fl., 1880, p. 272; 1895, p. 323.

L., 1884, p. 440.
Bd., 1880, p. 272; 1884, p. 440.

Silicon, Sp., 1880, p. 274; 1883, p. 129;

é 1884, p. 441; 1893, p. 407.
A., 1884, p. 441.

Silicon Chloride, V., 1886, p. 167.
Bromide, V., 1886, p. 167.
Fluoride, V., 1886, p. 167.
Hydride, V., 1886, p. 167.

Iodide, V., 1886, p. 168.

Silver, FI, 1895, p. 328.

Sp., 1884, p. 442; 1896, p. 318.

A., 1884, p. 442; 1893, p. 398.
Sodium, Fl., 1894, p. 256; 1895, p. 320.
Sp., 1884, p. 443; 1895, p. 295.
A., 1884, p. 443; 1892, p. 193.

Strontium, Sp., 1884, p. 444.

A., 1884, p. 444; 1892, p. 202.

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE

Strontium Chloride, 1866, p. 168; 1894,
p. 258.
Bromide, 1866, p, 168.
Fluoride, 1866, p. 168.
Todide, 1866, p. 168.
Oxide, Fl., 1866, p. 169; 1894,
p- 258; 1895, p. 321.
Sulphur, L., 1880, p. 272; 1885, p. 290.
Bd., 1880, p. 272; 1885, p. 290.

TANTALUM, A., 1885, p. 292.
Tellurium, L., 1880, p. 273; 1885, p. 292.
Bd., 1885, p. 292.
F1., 1895, p. 323.
Terbium, Sp., 1885, p. 296.
Thallium, F1., 1885, p. 297.
Sp., 1885, p. 297.
A., 1885, p. 297; 1893, p. 403.
Thorium, Sp. 1885, p. 298.
Thulium, Sp., 1885, p. 298,
Tin, Fl., 1895, p:327.
Sp., 1885, p. 299.
A., 1885, p. 299.
Tin Oxide, 1866, p. i69.

The Solar Spectrum, 1878, p. 27; 1895,

SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 195

Titanium, Sp., 1885, p. 301.
A., 1885, p. 301; 1896, p. 293.
Tungsten, Sp., 1885, p. 304 ; 1898, p. 355.

URANIUM Sp., 1885, p. 304; 1900, p.201.
VANADIUM, Sp., 1885, p. 304.

WATER, A., 1866, p. 169.
Ab., 1886, p. 171; 1891, p 245.

YTTERBIUM, Sp., 1885, p. 305.
Yttrium, Sp., 1885, p. 806.

A., 1885, p. 306.
Yttrium Oxide, P., 1886, p. 186.

ZINC, Sp., 1885, p. 307.
A., 1885, p. 307 ; 1892, p. 207.
Zirconium, Sp., 1885, p. 309.
A., 1885, p. 309.

p. 273.

Telluric Lines of the Solar Spectrum, 1886, p. 171; 1891, p. 245.
Bibliography of Spectroscopy, i881, p. 328; 1884, p. 295; 1894, p. 161; 1898,

p. 439.
Spectra of Metalloids, 1880, p. 258.

On the Influence of Temperature and Pressure on Spectra, 1880, p. 275.
Absorption Spectra of Rays of High Refrangibility, 1880, p. 303.
General Methods of Observing and Mapping Spectra, 1881, p. 317.

Genesis of Spectra, 1882, p. 120.

Ultra Violet Spark Spectra, 1882, p. 143; 1883, p. 127; 1885, p. 276.

BRoMINE (VACUUM-TUBE).

Eder and Valenta, ‘ Denkschr. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ Bd. Ixviii. 1899.

| Previous Measurements Redtiction to |
Wave-length Tptenstty, ae LS ene aw! | ae a Cee
(Rowland) ~} ..27e . sna | ‘requency
| Character | Salet Eldoheu es | ae a in Vacuo
6682°83 2 6990 6862 | 1°81 4:0 14959°7
32:02 5 6631 6622 1:80 4:1 | | 15074:3
6582'52 1 6581 6577 | alerds) | 187°6
60:17 4 6556 6556 | 1°78 A dl 239-4
45-00 3 | ” ” 274-7
6353-07 I 173 ‘o 7361
51-02 10 6357 6358 Nees, 55 741-2
6204.36 3 169 44 16113°3
6178°72 2 1-68 es 180:2
70:09 2 es 33 = 202°8
59°60 2 ” ” 230°4
49°95 10 6166 6159 1:67 5 255:9
42:02 4 6152 * fr 2769
23°49 3 6132 33 PF 326°2
18°89 4 | 6129 7 i 338°4
6097:05 ail | 1:66 Pr 397:0

02

196 REPORT—1900.

BROMINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

Previous Measurements ‘Reduction
(Rowland) to Vacuum

Wave-length tntennty Oscillation
(Rowland) Gis akoe Heegieney
Sales | Pliicker and | a+ ae RECO
Hittorf A
§954:°3 3 1:62 4:6 16790
50°7 4 ” ” 800
40°83 4 ” ” 8281
5871:97 3 5881 1:60 ” 17025°5
68°40 2 5869 ” ” 032°'3
64:55 3 ” ” 047':0
52°40 5 1:59 ” 082°4
33°71 3 | ” 4:7 17137 2
31:04 i 5841 5828 a5 5 1449
21-40 3 5825 wy | on 173°3
5794:50 2 5793 ESS al ts 17253°0
a = 5740 — — —_
19:17 4 5721 5723 1:56 4:8 17480'3
16°5 3 aa WH 8439 488
11 +25 | 4 5713 ” ” 175045
ey —— 5697 — — Ss
5657°83 4 5663 1°54 ” 17669°8
43°40 3 ” ” 177150
30'3 1 ” ” 756
27'5 1b 5627 1°53 ” 765
22°38 y 1 5623 ” ” 7813
21°95 1 ” ” 782°6
5600:90 4. 5601 5599 ” 4-9 17849°4
5590715 8 1:52 * 883'7
88°40 | 2 ” ” 889°3
~ 84°98 1 ” ” 900°3
60°10 1 5567 ” ” 980°4
45°91 1 5553 151 * 180264
39°21 1 ” ” 0482
36°52 4 ” ” 057°0
32°38 5 ” ” 070°5
29:19 2 ” ” | 080°9
Ive Ae the yil 5516 5516 9 ” 18121°3
11°04 | 2 1:50 ” 140°5
08°49 | 3 ” 99 148°9
06:97 8 | 5 55 153-9
549524 7 5501 5503 | 99 5-0 192°6
89:00 6 5496 5493 ” ” 182135'2
83:20 2 \ a as ” 232°5
8141 2 bs iss » 238°5
80-20 3b pu Ma | 242-5
66°43 5 | 1-49 Fee 288°5
50°28 3 5451 5447 ” ” 18342°7
42°55 4 ” ” 3687
33°49 1 ” ” 399°4
25°21 | 5 | 5426 | 5429 ” ” | 18427°5
23-01 | a | 5423 ” ” | 4349
539569 5 5392 | 1:47 b>) 18528:2
1 — | 5384 “5 3) ==
70°51 | 2b” | | I, 99, ae at 18615'1
64 35 | 3b” | | ” / ” : 636-4
60°99 2 AE TS a eae 648°2
45°53 AbY ” ” 187021
35°30 5 5336 | 5327 i’ #5 y 7380

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 197

BROMINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

Previous Measurements Reduction

Ne oth Intensity (Rowland) to Vacuum Oscillation
ean) d Frequenc
pomiant) Chaecies in V. :

Pliicker and 1 econ
Salet F Ar =
Hittorf A
5333°49 1 1:46 5:1 18744°4
32:1 8 10 ” ” 749:0
30°76 2 ” ” 754:0
04:31 ii 5300 1-45 a 18847'5
— — 5311 5293 ” anes || —
5272°89 4 ft 5276 | 5264 ; 1:44 52 | 18963°3
63°68 | 4 | 5267 | 5251 i A Bs 992:9
49':219 3 1:43 oy fy 1904526
39°994 2 6241 5226 ”» ” 078°79
38°472 8 ” ” 084:°34
33°65 2 §221 ” ” 102°9
27-911 3 5217 a a 129°4
Say on 9 ” ites
5199-50 3 ” 53 227°3
94:075 4b ‘ 1:42 i ot 247°4
84074 4 5188 “ +. 284°5
82:573 ii os rp 290°1
80°19 2 5186 5181 ” ” 299-0
74:09 1 141 3 321°8
64560 5 5166 5169 +i ; 361°2
43-626 2 6151 FY cf 436°3
— =e 51232 1:40 —
ie iF a 5107 ” ” a
— — 5093 1°39 3 —
5054°853 4 5061 5055 » 54 7776
38962 3b } | 5036 1:38 » | 840-0
20°756 3 | 1:37 5:5 911°8
11:000 1 5011 fs 7 950°6
02°96 1 a 7 982°7
4987-234 | 1 4991 1°36 Fe 20045:7
79°950 4s 4983 ‘3 is 075:0
59°51 4b 4961 rf + 157'8
45°768 3n 4956 1:35 rr 213°8
42°21 ln re 56 228°3
30°816 5s 4931 4933 oe Pe 2750
28-966 5s 4925 Fi a3 282°6
26°758 2n rs 5 291°8
21:386 3n 6) 3 313°9
21:20 In H a 3146
4867-935 3b 4869 1:33 as 537°0
66°851 3b 3 a. 5415
48988 6s 4853 “6 57 617:2
45-196 3b | 4848 ” ” 633°3
38°823 3 | 1-32 er 660°5
34:699 2n | . as 6781
16900 8s 4816 4819 5 A 7545
02°544 4s 4808 1:31 A 8166
4799-794 3n | ” ” 828°5
98-415 | oD H ” ” 834°5
91-989 | 2n af e 862°5
85'644 10s 4786 4788 - ‘ 890°1
80524 6s | 4779 a 5:8 912-4
77°30 } 38 ) * a 926°5
76605 | 7s | | aan a 929°6
Ta 4l | 38 i em}. | 934:8

1

198

REPORT—1900.

BROMINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

Previous Measurements | Reduction to
Wavelength | Intensity Negib sey |, nee Oscillation
(Rowland) an eee See Brequency
Character | Salet aoe eng ers i in Vacuo
4774.01 4s 1:31 |; 5°8 20945°3
72°91 3b 4772 fe $: 945°8
67-282 8s 30>, i 970°5
66°27 dbY “a A 975:0
53°05 i 3 Es 21033°3
52:47 3b 5 “ 035-9
50°10 2b - _ 046:4
44:53 3b 4747 - = O711
42°87 8s | 4737 a - O78°5
35°67 5bY | 4731 a = 110°5
28°90 2 1:29 ms 140'8
28°49 Ba = . 142°6
20°56 1b 472i 4721 a Fe 1781
19°95 8 | a rs 180°9
I Gays 3 a Pe 191°5
14-66 In ) = 2 205-0
11-32 1 | 5 3 219-7
08°16 1 - 233:9
05:00 10b 4706 4707 a) APSR 248-1
01:93 2n ss ss 262-0
469877 2n 4696 Bs - 2763
96°59 2n - ‘s 28671
93°48 8s e x 3003
92°51 3b eB cal as 304:7
91:42 3b aid | ee 309°6
78°88 8b 4676 4681 a || Gee 3667
75°82 2s 4677 1, Peon et oaiisy 380-7
73°56 2s 1h deed Va 3911
72°750 6s PCE. 394-8
66°42 2 ed 423°8
52-18 6s 1:27 : 489-4
44-17 2n 4645 Sa Sahise 526°5
43°74 4s a ee 528-4
42°35 3 . 3, “3 534:7
29°66 3b ss eat a0 593-9
22°99 8s 4621 4626 e . 630-4
14:86 6s 1:26 . 662°6
05:90 2b x 55 7053 ©
01°63 5n - Ps 725-4
4597-14 3n ” ” 7467
75:95 6br 1:25 . 847-4
58°21 4n ! 1 he 61 932:3
43°12 8s 4543 | 4544 3 Pa 22005:2
42-67 | 2n Fa 55 007-4
38°95 5b ie | | 025°4
30°21 1 Ate! real | 067°9
30:00 5s Sl es, e | 069-0
29-78 2s : | 070-0
25°82 Sbr | ., a A 089°3
13°99 iL | 1:24 " 147:2
13°67 5s . * : 148°8
08:29 Qn | ef ¥ 175°3
4477-96 5by 4486 | 23 62 325:4
72-83 8 - bd 351-0
F199 1 355°2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 199

BROMINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

Previous Measurements | Reduction to | |
Wave-length ae (Hemland) Yaeuunt Osaillation
(Rowland) ste Or aes ‘requency
| Character gajot es ea xe -- | in Vacuo
4470-22 1 123 | 62 | 228641
66°42 In | 1°22 a 38371
65:99 In ms Pe 385°2
60°92 1 = * 410°7
60°39 1 ” 3 413-4
53°75 1 A i 446°8
41-94 Sb cr * 506°5
31:15 2 ” 6:3 561°3
30:07 2 pA | ee 566-7
25°32 5s » re 590°9
23°22 2 ” C 601°7
12°66 1 ” ci, 655°8
07:80 4. ” Cr 680°8
05°18 1 ” $9 694°3
4399°87 3 ” 3 7216
98°55 5 ” op 738°8
95°10 4 ” op 746°3
91:76 3 1:20 e 765°6
86°83 2n 9 5 789°2
T8311 4b ” ” 834°6
77-40 2s ” Fe 838°3
7220 3n » Fe 865°5
65°76 8s 4368 4366 » 6:4 899-2
65°31 4s 3 os 901°5
4297-27 38 5 6°5 232641
91°54 6 4287 4988 1:18 %3 300°6
36998 6s + 6:6 595-0
307101 I 4231 4242 ET hiss 633-4
23-996 8 4229 116 Pal 667-7
02°64 4s 4199 1:15 4 7880
4193-62 | 6 ” 67 839-0
93°34 | 2 3 saaay 840°6
79°76 8 4181 | 4182 " ae ||| 918-1 |
%5:92 5s ” ” 940°1
(Eis 1 ” ” 941:°0
60:14 2s 114 Pe fa 240310
57-54 2 of “6 046:0
57°23 3s 9 a5 047°'8
51°52 38 ” % 080°9
44°12 2s ” 6:8 123°8
40°37 6s 4143 -f, Fr, 145°6
38°78 8b ” 3 155°9 |
35°79 5s ” is 172-4 |
17-58 3b 1:13 's 279'3
10°12 4 ” ” 323°4
09-96 1 ” ” 324:3
06°52 | 3s ” ” 344-7
05:56 J 2s cr) a5 350°4
02-62 4 % 3 368°3
4096°27 3b ” 69 405°6
90°74 3s 1:12 op 438°5
89°29 3b 3981 » ” 447-2
75-66 4b ” ” 529-0
37-486 2s 111 70 7609
36°538 4s ” ” 766°7

200 REPORT—1900.

BROMINE (VACUUM-TUBE)—continued.

Previous Measurements | Reduction to

pwievollencth Intensity (Rowland) Vacuum
(Rowland) Character Pliicker and ba
Salet Hittorf A+
| ae 2 Se | eee id
402419 | 5by | 111 | 70
22:04) | 2 | | PA
B95, | 1 | | bie
12°70 3s | 110 | 2
08:93 6bY ee oF 5
O7-45 5s as ‘i
05°69 2s | yy ie Maa
0160 | 13 / 5 TI
3999°77 4b | \ ee
97:27 4b » 9
92°51 4s | | ante f
91°485 3s | hes oF
85°666 8s 4 ss
80°585| | 10n | € i
80'151 | 5s | Paras] oy
68°804 5s 1:09 a
55°504 8bY oH V2
50°745 Tb’ 3 -
39862 5b¥ 1 ee be
38°801 Bbr as 5
35°310 6bY - 1:08 .
29°726 6b} ees ~ a
| 24-239 SbY See
| 23506 | 6 - *
20°838 6b* a s
19-770 | 6s ee ae
17°960 | 35 | 55 a
14-419 | 9 cs -
14:270 — ” 55
01-418 4 bo tees
3891°:790 8s | $500 Fules ay
88-665 4bY | 1:07 a |
HLS ee 6s | fi 3
57°363 6s . Gil eae
40-775 | 3br | | 1:06 | ,,
34861 | G6br | | ; #
29-920 | Sn ig | fie a
28-640 3 | 1s eee) uae
15:771 | 4s | | | 1:05 7-4
11°55 | 3 | im Ps
01-09 Is | - 53
| 3794:153 | 4s | ” ”
Pesog, it ue Ab. ail 1:04} 7:5 |
70410 | 2b | ” ” |
53°87 | 4b | ” ”
40:66 i 5b | ” ”
Gein ho aed. «| . 1031 <;
35°91 1 pee ii
25°54 1 ee) URS
14:45 | 4 | ‘ “nt
3699595 | 2 | 02 1-5
84:84 | 3 | | ” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

24842°7
856:0
856°6
913°9
9 37: 3
946°5
9575
982°9
994-3
25010:0
039°8
0442
076°5
114'8
117-6
189°4
2746
304:5
3744
381-2
403°8
4409
A754
480-2
497-5
504°5
5163
539°4
540°3
624°4
687:9
709'5
$23°3
9171
26029°1
069°3
102:9
1115
199°6
228°6
300°8
349-0
498°5
514:8
631:7
725'7
7461
7597
834-1
914:3
27022°4
130°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 20]

URANIUM.
Exner and Haschek, ‘ Sitzber. kais. Akad. Wissensch. Wien,’ cvii., 1898.

Reduction to 14a
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum ae |
spark eis =H in Vacuo |
Spectrum Character x Be |
i | | |
4699-95 In be LORD ab SD: & | 21270°9
99°3 In | »” ” { 274 Hl
99°02 In ie sx eer 275-1
97°55 In out Bes | 281°8
96°77 / 1 ” ” 285'3
96°30 1 ob 287°5
95-4 1b | ‘ ‘i 292
93:95 In a2 Z 298°1
92°6 lb 1:28 2 304
92°32 In i, x 305°5
92:15 In i 3063
ee In : r 309-5
90°95 In a s 311-7
es 1b tee: ‘i 312
pee 3 S 3 319-4
88:0 In - . 329
ae In A ‘ 329
85'9 Qn a + 835
ome In és ; 339-4
84:20 1 im { od 349-5
aoe u ao) i) eS ae 3440
83°29 1 a | 347-0
$2:90 . 1 x | 348-4
82:77 1 f i 349-0
§2°33 } in - - 351:0 }
81°40 | In Seen 355'1
80 85 | In ie i | 358°6
80-4 In | ts 3 | 360
78°'8 1b cd ‘. / 367
78:1 lb es : 370
15°6 In ” ” | ‘ 382°5
4-45 In i ‘ 386-9
7£0 In ” ” j 389
71°66 2 a i 399°7 |
69°55 1 | = i, 409-4
69:22 1 fs Ps 411-0
69:05 1 i 2 411-7
68-67 1 re 413-5
67:45 1 is i 419°] .
67-07 2 s st 420°8 |
66:23 1 a - 424-7 |
65-42 1 ts . 428-4 |
64-98 | 1 bs % 430°4 |
64°30 1 e ‘ / 4885 |
63:97 1 En | 4351
632 1b > ee 439 |
62-78 1 x n 440-6
62:40 1 | ” ” 442°3
Slay In Bs 4 444-7 |
610 In ” ” 449
GOL In 5 halae| 453 |
59-52 in ot tee 4555
58°92 . In ohn 4582

202 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

=

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity ie Oscillation
Spark and > Frequency
Spectrum | Character A+ he | in Vacuo
iN |

4658-4 | Ib | 1:28 59 21461
576 1b 4; a 464
567 In 4 4 468°5
55°40 In n % 4745
55:03 2 D ») | AT57
54:43 In 1:27 ” 4789
53°65 . 1 % i 482-6
53°25 1 aA 3: 484-4
53:05 ] “5 Ay 485-4
52°09 1 7 ” 489:7
51°75 In ” ” 491-4
50°7 In 9 .9 496
50°24 1 0 ” 498°2
49°37 2n is A 502-2
48°15 1 Bs 5 508-0
46°85 4 3 3) 514-0
46°30 1 4 Phy 516°6
45°80 in ” a) 5189
45:13 In fe 43 522:1
44-30 1 ay 5259
43:86 i = a 527-9
42°72 In fy a 533°2
41°91 2 2 +) 536°9
40:57 If ” ” 543:'0
393 1b oy A) 549°5
38°16 in > A; 554-7
35°73 In 5 x) 565°7
35:2 In an At 568
34:2 | In 2 a 573
31°92 | 1 x 3 583°4
31°81 | 1 5 -) eS 5839
B11 1b x ” 587
30-4 | lb i fi | 590
29°94 if on 6:0 592°6
29°37 In 53 24 595°2
28°5 | 1b FA o. 599
27°30 5 5 ; 605-0
26°14: 1 | os “4 610°4
25°26 In > 55 6145
24:91 In A + 616'1
24:27 In if A 619°1
23°68 | i a - 620°8
22°23 il cs A 627°5
22°13 1 ay 5) 628°0
20°42 3r | By i. 636-9
19-4 : In oD A 642
18°60 2d s; F 645-7
17°80 In eA 5 649°3
17°33 In Rs 5 6515
16-7 | In 1:26 SS 6545
15°85 In a i 658-5
15°32 In 5 x 661:0
15:18 In + A 661°6
14°90 1 Bs *4 662-9
14:50 In 0 A | 664-6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued.

9

~

0

3

ee eee

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4612°8
12°47
11-70
10:07
09-0
06-4
05:38
03:88
02-04
01:38 |
00:96
0013
4599-73
99-03
98-51
98-05
97-77
96-95
95-91
95°73
95-30
94-49
92°75
91:96
91-0
90-46
90-21
89-55
886
88:1
87-45
871
86°5
85°75
85:03
84-5
83°52
83-00
82°65
81-98
81-33
81-02
79°87
79°20
78°5
77-40
76°85
76°25
75°3
75:00
74:6
73:90
73:50
732

72-47

Intensity
and
Character

In

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

21673
6748
678:0
685-7
691
703
(077
714°8
723'5
726°6
728°6
7325
134-4
7307
740°2
TA2°4
743-7
TAT 6
7525
753°3
755-4
759°3
767-4
1712
776
778:2
T794
7825
787
789°5
7925
794
797
800'6
804-0
807
811°2
813°8
815°5
818°7
821°7
823-2
823°9
831:°9
835
840°5
843-1
846°0
850°5
851°9
854
857-2
859-1
860°5
864-0

204 REPORT—1900.

rae URANIUM—continued.
Reduction to |
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum
Spark and fe Oscillation
Spectrum | Character | 1 Frequency
| A+ a in Vacuo
| ioe
4571'8 : — ten a.
71:50 | ae a 6:0 21867
7116 il ie ” 868-6
70:87 | 1 aT) ” 870°2
7011 i 3 } 3 ” 871°6
69°40 | 1 | # ” . 875:2
| 63841 1 uz ” 878°7
67-89 3 ” ” 883°4
67-1 1b a ” 885-9
65'8 1b | Be ” 890
64:50 | ln =) ” 896
64-26 A ” 61 902'1
63°56 | In ” ” $03°3
62710 | 1 » ” 906'7
61°6 \ In | a ” / 913°6
61-45 i » ” 916
60°50 1 4 ” 916°7
60:0 1b | ” ” 921°8
58°60 1 2 ” 924
58°32 1 a ” 930°5
58:07 1 ¥ ” 931°8
57:99 | 1 | ” ” 933:0
56°50 ] * ” 933°4
56°18 1 ” ” | 940°5
55°30 4 3 ” | 942°]
54:03 | 2 | ”? ” | 946°3
| ae | In ” | ” poe" /
| 52°63 In 43 | ” | 957 |
52-24 In rd ” 959-2 |
51-87 } in ” ” 961°1
/ 5131 | In ” ” 962°9
50°68 / In ” | ” 965-6
| 50°55 | In ” | ” 968°6
50°05 2 | ” 969-2
49-4 In ” ” 971-7
48°75 In ” ” 975
48-4 In i) ” 9779
48°2 ln » ” 980
47°65 ln bid ” 980°5
46°43 1 ” ” 983°3
45°76 4 vw ” 989-2
45:16 1 ” ” 992°4
45:01 1 ” ” 995°3
44°57 H 1 ” ” 996-1
43°83 7 ” ” 998°2
43°21 In ” ” 22001°8
42°75 in 1:34 ” 004-8
| 42°25 In = | ” 007:0
| 41°90 1 3 ” 009°4
| 40:70 1 | ” ” Ol11
40°41 | 1 | ” | ” | 016-9
39°4 In 3 ” } 018°3
38°37 4 | 2? | ” | 023
3735 T | ” ” 028-2
4 ” | 033 2 |

370 In ae
’ ~ ” i Bis)

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued,

205

Reduction to

Wave-length pase
g Spark Character
pectrum
|

4536°80 | 1
36°24 ]
35°45 In
35°32 In
3473 In
33°91 1
33°25 In
32:7 lod
31°95 In
31°50 in
30°93 In
29°92 1
29°3 1b
28°74 ld
28°20 1
27°85 1
26°85 1
26°20 In
25:98 1
25°87 1
25°57 1
25°14 1
24:3 1b
23°43 1
2371 lb
21°81 2n
20°7 Ind
19:97 In
19°4 in
18°80 In
18°30 In
17°45 1
16°95 1
15'8 2b
15°50 4
14°49 1
14°30 il
13°89 | 1
13°55 | I
13°04 1
12°62 1
12°37 1
11:98 1
11°88 1
11°46 1
10°53 3
10:08 1
09°55 in
09'1 1b
084 1b
07:96 1
O7'67 | 1
06°85 In
06°42 2
06°31 2

Vacuum
Ae oe
A
1:24 671

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

22035°9
038°6
0424
043-4
045°9
049°9
053°1
056

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and €; Frequency
Spectrum Character a cles in Vacuo
A
4504-95 1 1:23 G1 22191°7
04:47 In D | 3 193°1
03:97 ] Py £ 196°5
03°86 1 5 # 197-0
02°56 In 4 Fi 203°5
O211 1 5 - 205°7
01°65 In & 208-0
00°9 In ” ” 212
00:00 In “5 | # 21671
4499°87 ln 2 Fi 216°7
99-40 1 rs i 219'1
98 47 Ind x is 2237
O77. 1b rs cr 227°5
96°83 In a9 A 231°8
96°35 In - a 234-2
95°85 In A > 236°6
95°5 In a 6:2 238
95°3 In on 4 239
94°90 1. 5 A 2412
94°09 In 4 A 245°2
93:28 1 x 55 249°3
92°60 1 h a 252°6
92°20 1 * “ 254-7
O17 1 cf _ 257°1
91°53 il a A 257°9
91:02 3 , » 260-4
90°4 1b Bs es 263
89:29 ] 7D 3 269°9
891 In a rf 270
88°40 1 5 it 273°6
87°90 In ” 5 276-0
87:27 1 5 3 279°2
87:15 1 y 5 280°0
86°52 1 ” » 282'9
8612 1 0 - 284°8
85-40 1 cb 2 288°
84:7 1b H ‘ 291
83°99 1 i ss 294°3
83°67 1 * “4 295°8
82°91 il - * 300°8
82-4 1b 5 x 303
81:25 * In a - 809:0
80°83 In + . 5110
80°55 In nS i 312-4
79°63 In % a 3167
7915 In A 3 318°9
77-93 2 53 325 9
77-67 In e . 8271
76°70 | ys ;, 337
75:91 | . a 3355
75:50 In ‘5 : 3387-7
75°04 In ” ’ 339'8
74:73 In 5 * 341°3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Vacuum

Wave-length Intensity Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character {| 44 i in Vacuo
r
44745 In 1:23 6:2 22342°5
T44 In | ¥ * 343
74:0 1b : ; 345
73°6 1b ik ‘ 347
72°55 6 a ss 3524.
71°82 1 3 ; 357-7
765 In ey) at 363:3
‘oO Fo 3 362°6
ee | Sees | ae
SOS » A 367:
69°42 il Pr 2 368-1
69°05 1 - % 369:'9
68°57 1 1:22 ¥9 3723
68:49 1 : 5 372-7
68°34 1 | ‘ ie 373°5
68°16 1 ae » 374-4
oe | ” ” 375:0
A ” ” 377'5
67:27 1 Fp : 378'8
665 1b : ‘ 383
IS 5 .
65:35 3 ee: 4 3886
a eae ie:
% ” ” 393°3
63°98 1 » ” 395+4
aan : » > 399-7
es » ” 400°8
0 » | FP 403'0
62°04 1 cp ‘ 40571
ees ; a 407-2
” uP 409'7
60°77 1 ” ” 4115
59°97 In a Ei 415°5
58°85 Ind Fr i 421+1
58:15 In ae 4 424-6
58:03 1 $5 i 425-2
57°67 1 ” ” 427°0
57°33 1 ” ” 428°7
57:0 In | a 5 430
BBra4 i} | ” ” 433°2
56°08 1 | » : 435°1
553 In | : | 7 439
541 In | as 3 445
53108 In » » 445°7
53°68 1 ” ” 447-1
53°46 1 ” » 448-2
52°48 1 - 3 4531
52°19 1 » ” 454-6
5172 | eae ” 456°9
ae In » » 159°6
50°75 2 ¥ # 461-9
50°59 2 7 + 462-7
Frcs 1 ” ” 467'0
49°2 1b 470

208

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Wave-length | Intensity
Spark and
Spectrum Character

4448°5 1b
48:2 1b
47:30 2
46:18 1
45°70 | 1d
45°38 1
44°90 1
43°80 | 1
43°60 1
43°47 1
42°95 In
42°80 in
42:20 In
4175 In
41:29 1
41-20 1
40°94 1
40°54 1
40°22 Jn
39°32 1
38°90 . a
38°61 1
38°42 In
38°16 In
37:12 In
36°97 1
36°5 in
35°72 In
34°81 2
34:08 3
33°58 in
33°35 In
32°90 1
32°60 ]
32°2 | lb
als | 1b
30:27 1
29°79 | ]
29-05 1
28°63 | 1
27°81 3
27°14 1
26°85 2
26:25 1
26:03 1
25°6* ln
25°35 i In
24:73 in
23°96 2
23°49 | uf
23°15 J
22°78 | 1
22:2 i In

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
| Frequency
ate. OH Le in Vacuo
| A
At
|
1:22 | 62 22473
>. ae 475
” | ” AT9'2
same 4848
” ” 487°4
” | ” 489°1
5.) hemes 491-5
” | ” 497°1
” ” 498'1
| AM aes 498'8
” ” 501°4
” ” 50271 ™
” | ” 505°2
” i ” 507°5
’ ” 509°8
” ” 510°3
” | is 511°6
” ” 513°6
” ” 5153
” ” 519'8
” ” 521°9
” ” §23°3
” ” §24°3
” | ” 525°7
” | ” 530°9
” | ” 531-7
” ” 534
” | ” 538'0
” | ” 542°7
” ” 54674
22 ” 548°9
” ” 550'1
” ” 552°4
” ” 5539
” ” 556
” 63 558
121 » 565-7
” ’ 568°1
” » 571°9
” ” 5745
” ’ 5782
” | ” 581°6
” | ” 5831
” ” 586°2
” ” 587°3
” ” 589'5
” ” 590°8
” ? 593°9
” ” 597'8
: ” 600°3
” ” 602°0
” ” 603°9
” ” 607

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 209

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to |
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum ” Oscillation
Spark and 1 Frequency
Spectrum Character | A+ oe in Vacuo |
a
| * ——— —
4420°89 2n 1:21 63 22613°6 |
20°57 1 39 ” 615:2
19°8 In i = 620 |
19°3 | In er, | 2 620
18°68 1 | - a | 624-9
} 18-22 1 | 3 » 627-2
17°94 | 1 os ss 628°7 .
17°61 1 “p » | 630°3
17:00 1 7 | > 633°5 |
16°73 1 » PA 634:9
16°05 1 4 a 638°3
15*46 2 ” » 641-4
14:97 1 aA = 643°9
14°85 1 se is 6445
14:50 1 » ” 6463
13:33 1 é 4 6523
13:07 il oD 4 653-7
12:7 In i: » 656
) 12°5 In be ” 657
| 12:0 nea. 9) Fr » 659
11°65 | 1 j ” ” } 661:0
11°50 1 + 3 661°7
11°31 1 FE » 662-7
11:10 1 As 7 663°8
10°6 In ay ” 666 |
103 In oF ” 668
09:90 1 is “6 669°9
09:1 In os » 674
08°92 1 a5 » 6750
08°73 1 oo » 676-0
08°15 1 es is 679:0
07-4 In A ” 683
06°74 1 = 686°2
06°13 1 3 Fi 689°4
06-0 In Ss - 690
05°47 1 9 - 692°7 )
05:09 tL BS 5 694:7
* 04:99* 1 3 iv 695:7 |
04°53 1 = 7 697-6
04:22 1 3 9 699°2
03°52 1 ” ” 702°8
02°70 1 A ” 7071
02°57 1 ” ” 707°7
02-06 1 ~ 7 710-4
O11 In ” » 715
00°65 In ” ” 717-6
4399°81 1 “ » 7218
98:0 In “ ” 731
97°50 1 7 » 7339
95°96 In + ” 741°8
95°45 | In As FS | T44°5
951 | In we Fe | 746
94°83 1 1:20 i a T47-7
* Fel

1900 P

210

| |

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM —continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity | Vacuum
Spark and ) =:
Spectrum Character e% 1
; | aS
4393°80 | 2 { 1-20 63
92°73 a se r
92°40 1 : #1
92-04 1 4
91°69 1 : fi
91°46 7! gs if
91°30 1 zt ‘
91-1 In = ri
90-74 1 is ;
90°50 1 i . £
90°36 } i 4 ie
90°20 1 2 | ¥
88:9 In e : 4
88:4 In PS : if
87°95 ln - | +
878 In a a
87:45 In x fi
86°9* In sd s
86°35 ln BE a
86°21 In fe x
85°76 In | Bs ie
84:95 iL * i
84°82 1 s ,
83°77 2 i 3
83°50 2 . f
82°60 iL in if
82°32 1 - é
82-04 1 is ‘i
81:60 1 = } f
81°35 1 € ii
80°95 1 is >
80°49 1 i 4
79°9 In 3. vs
79°41 1 2 t
78:75 In i ‘
po In } ” ”
78:0 In | i Ff
17-48 In | 2? ”
77-00 1 = k
76°37 In | : ‘
1595 les :
75°79 | In - ‘
74:22 1 4 i
| 73°61 2 Ks ‘
| 72-95 | i i
j 72-78 2 a ;
| 71:99 2 : if
71:26 1 i i
70-21 | 1 3 ;
69°75 In : j
69°5 In a4 i,
69:0 In - £
68°42 1 ” 6-4

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

227530
758°6
760°3
762-1
763°9
T65°1
766-0
767
768°8
T7701
7708
7716
778
781
783°3
784
785°9
789
791-6
792-4
7948
799:0
7997
805°2
806°5
811-2
812-7
8141
816-4
817-7
819'8
822°2
825
827-9
831-3
832°6
835
837-9
840°4
843°7
8459
846-7
8549
858-1
8616
862°5
866-6
8703
875°9
8783
880
882
885-2

ea i i

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 21

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

URANIUM—continued.

Se Ss ee a

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

4368°33
67-95
67-6
65°77
65°28
65:18
65:00
64°61
64:50
64:03
63°15
63°00
62°48
62°23
61°36
61:2
60°45
59°92
59°68
59°10
58°83
58°60
58°36
58:0
578
57-06
56°75
55°89
54:77
54°53
54:25
53°95
533
52°98
52°62
52°30
51:98
51°84
50°5
50°3
50:1
498
48'8
48°32
47°36
46 95
46°48
46°20
44°88
44-45
44°15
43°5
42-60
41°89
40°86

B

BPW NRP RP REE HERP Pee

eee
een er aa

=
=}

Pa tebe eit ES RO) ND Hem bie

Be

eRe
=] B

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

22885°7
887-7
889°5
899:2
901°7
902°3
903°1
905°2
905'7
908°1
912°8
913°6
916°3
917°6
922-2
923
927°1
929°8
931-1
_ 9384:2
935°6
936°8
938-0
940
941
944:9
946:5
951-1
957:0
958°3
959-7
961-4
965
966°5
968-4
970-1
971:7
972°4
979
980
982
983
988
989°6
996°1
998-2
23000°7
002°2
009°2
O114
O13'1
O16°5
0213
0250
030°5
P2

212 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

; ; St ad

| Reduction to
Wave-length | Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
Spark | and Ee a | Frequency
Spectrum Character / “CPE Ba cae in Vacua
fA
: | + Ae SS. ©. Je
4340-63 1 1:19 64 23031°8
39°94 1 | a * 035-4
39°55 1 aes | ¢ | 037-4 |
39°16 1d 5 ¥ 039°5 .
38:93 1 ae f 040°7
38:80 1 - * 041-4
38-48 1 A m 043-1
38:1 1b ; . 045
37-61 1 9 } ” 047-7
36:93 In a res | 051-3
| 36°60 2n Pines ‘oa 053-0 /
39°92 2n - 7 056°8
30°44 1 - 5 059°3
35°13 1 . i 060°9
34°66 1 . 063-4
33-71 1 z i | 068"
33°15 1 ) 5: ‘ 071°5
32°47 1 | = * O7T5'1 )
32-05 1 * . 077-4 )
31°63. 1 x if 079°6
30:9 ! ] b ” ; ” 083°5
30°20 ln = ‘ O87:2
29°7 1b | ” ” 090
29°40 1 K | = / 091°5
28°92 1 &. - 094-0
28°35 a 5 E | 097-1 .
| 28-0 1b ; et 099 )
27°18 | 2 / Es * 103-4
36-06 | 3 | 5 | 109:3 |
25°32 1 a by) ad 113-2 |
) 24:90 | 1 | x ee 1155 |
/ 24°75 1 | 3 $ / 116°3 |
23-92 2 % 6°5 220°8
22-55 In 5s 4 128-2
222 | 1b | al ieee a ae 120
21°51 1 : a 133°8
21:2 lb is lea ies 135
20°6 1b + i 1385
19-97 2 - i 141°8
19-67 1 ee < / 143-4 .
19-22 | 1 “ +: 145-9
18-5 1b 1:18 a 150
18-2 1b é 55 151
17-78 1 - iM 1536
17°46 1 5 - 155-4
17-27 1 : « 156-4
16:70 1 2 is | 159°4
16°20 | In : 4 162°1 .
16:08 In ) e a 162-7
15°7 in u = 165
15°4 ln i ; 166
14-08 2 | t ¥ 173-4
13°39 2n : d 177-1
) 12:87 1 / i :. 179-9
12°51 | 1 4 a 181°8

:
;

—_— =

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 213

URANIUM— continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity vee Oscillation
Spark and i . i Frequency
Spectrum Character A Ea in Vacuo
r
4311-95 | 1n 1:18 65 | 23185°0
11°66 in ss a | 186°6
113 1b ” ” | 187
10:62 1 é 4 191:1
09-95 | 1 2 i 195°8
09°40 in < cf 198'7
08'8 | 1b a el 202
08-13 In 5 op | 205°5
07°50 1 E- | 208'8
07:06 1 ) . rf 211-1
06:99 1 * = 211°5
06-71 1 . 3 213-0
06°48 1 3 is 214:3
06:1 In ‘4 x 216
O54 In i i 220
O49 ln a 5 | 223
04:67 1 b: if 224-0
04:25 | In z ® 226'3
03°53 1 a fr: | 230°3
03-43 | 1 Es fe 230°8
03-00 1 ie % 233-1
02°60 1 iz 2352
02°51 1 fy 2357
02°30 1 ee i 236°8
O19 In | ” ” 239
01:70 1 , ¥ 2401
01-60 1 is c 240°7
01-05 In if is 243°7
00-95 In f } 244-2
00:53 1 “ ok 2465
00-26 1 . i 247-9
00-08 1 - £ 2489
4299-61 2 f is 251-4
99°26 In 55 & 253°3
99-05 In _ Fs 2543
98-6 In - A 257
98°2 1 ln Be, 9 | 260
97-78 1 . fy 261-4
97°31 3 is +, 263°9
9677 1 - a 266°8
96°49 1 is F 268°3
95°93 1 : . 271°3
95-47 1 a . 273'8
95°32 | 1 a eae | 2746
94°85 i ‘i 277-2
94-40 | In ys 4 279°6
94:13 1 58 I, 281-1
93-95 In + ‘. 282-1
93:53 1 : ” 284-4
92°87 | In ” ” 287-9
91-81 1 i; ( 293-7
91:08 2 Ss Pe 297°6
90:05 2 . i 299-1
89°72 1 | < Pe 305:1
89°05 2 308°7

214 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | ee Oscillation
Spark and | Frequency
Spectrum Character Aa: oa | in Vacuo
xX
i — =

4288°56 1 1:18 65 23311°4
88-05 3 ” ” 314-2
87:10 3 > 7 319°3
86:5 in 4 % | 322°5
85°96 it a : 325-4
85°63 aif ” | ” 327-2
85°45 1 9 ” | 328-2
85-20 1 » ” | 329°6
85:03 1 ” ” '330°5
84°73 1 | He “3 332°2
84:15 in 55 a5 338b°3
83°65 In . a3 3381
83:3 In s 3 340
82°67 3 as 5 343°5
82:25 a4 = As 345°8
82:00 1 ” | B47°1
81:5 In | Sf ” 350
80:86 Sin per iba ke 4 / 354-7
80:4 In = A | 356
79°53 In ” ” 360°6
78°37 2 A 5 367°0
77-76 i a Fo 370°3
77-43 In a * 372°1
77-08 1 a 55 3741
76°69 2 s AS 3762
76:2 In - ; 379
7594 1 > o 838071
75:46 1 = 59 | 382°8
75:2 In 5 A 384
74:20 3 5 R: 389:7
73°64 1 5 5 392°8
73°16 In 4 | 4 395°4
72°52 1 in FA 3989
72-03 In 35 5 401°6
71°46 1 BA i 404:8
WAZ 1 A a 406°6
70°88 1 ; e 407°9
70°50 ld = . 4100
69°84 4 Pe 5 413°6
69°05 2 a F 4186
68-67 1 Es ns 420-1
68-22 1 s aS 492°5
68:12 1 3 = 423°0
67-76 i 6 f 4250
67°50 2 z 3 426°4
66°89 1 5 As 429°8
66°53 in if | Bf 431°8
658 In on > 436
65:45 il * Bs 4377
64:95 1 Be Ae ah 440°5
64:49 i ; bs 443-1
64:05 1 ’ | ” 445-4
63:97 1 ¥ Ps 445°8
63°66 i - 3, 447°5
63°38 1 - EN 449°0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 215

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction
Waye-length | Intensity | to Vacuum | Oscillation
Spark | and 7 Frequency
Spectrum Character | a | Be in Vacuo
. A
4263-12 i 1:17 | 65 23450°5
62:75 il 5 | 3 | 452°6
62°40 | In | 1 | a 454°5
61°73 1 ‘ ‘ 458:2
61:25 In | i . * 460°8
61:1 In | és 53 462
59°65 1 a | x 469°6
59°43 | 2 i Fe 470°8
59°10 1 . i) 472°6
58:7 In - + 475
58°45 In # _ 4762
58:3 | In ) . 0” ) 477
579 In a + 479
57-21 . 1 | e . / 483°]
56-75 In 53 : 4 | 485°7
5595 1 is ee 490:0
55°65 / 1 , ve 491:7
55°50 1 | a rd 492°5
55-0 | In 1 ieee i 495
54-6 In | E . 497
54:45 In | 5 e 498:3
54-10 1 > m 500-2
53-9 In / % | £ 501
52°65 2 .- | 6F 508'2
52°30 In ss + 510-2
51:9 In + ¥ 512
51-60 In | is 3 5141
511 1b | sn F 517
50-42 In % ; 520°5
50-2 In | » i" 522
49°73 . 1 s . 524:3
49:3 lb a: ;: 527
48:8 | lb es i? 529
48°13 1 % . 533°1
47-57 1 - 3 536-2
47°33 1 : . i 5376
46°45 g > f 542°5
46°18 | 1 “ % | 544-0
45°96 1 i 5 545-2
45°60 i! 4 x 547-2
45°10 1 + | " 5500
44-53 3 ‘3 | " 553°2
43°53 1 TG, ‘ 558°7
43°25 | 1 - z 560-2
42°70 1 a | a 563°3
42°52 1 - e / 564:3
41:88 4 ee | if 567'8
40°80 2 a | i 573°8
40°35 In . 3; | 3 | 5763
39-9 In ‘ 3 579
39°33 1 7 | Z 582'1
38°8 | 1b oi 585
37-93 . in Ks . 5s 589°8
36°62 | 1 cs - 597-1
36°21 3 | ee 5994

16

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4235°60
34:90
34:77
34:25
33°92

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

Wwe eH ee eee

In s

nol wed san ae es oe

In

Cn ee ell oll all are
p =]

23602'5
606°7
6074
610°3
612°2
613-4
615°5
619°7

SS

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES QF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 217

URANIUM—continued.
| Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | Vacuum | Oscillation
Spark and lg ] ail Frequency |
Spectrum | Character | A+ hae ne | in Vacuo
|
= pall 5 Noor meee es Beaks ‘et
4213°50 1 1:17 66 " 23726°6 )
13:19 1 . 33 7283 |
12°94 1 Pie One 729:7
12°67 1 5 3 7313
12°47 2 “ A 732°4
12°35 1 . a 733°1
11:87 2 | 4 7 735'8
11°52 1 | * 3 737°7
11:05 ld | As - | 740-4
10°64 2 “a | “ | 742-7
097 | lb ¢ | is 748
07'4 * 1b f é ) 761 |
06 54 ld C a 765°8
06-14 1 m es 768-2
05°2 In 115 fs T7135
04°63 1 = 8 TI67 |
04:51 2 . | se 117-4 .
03:27 1 . | re | 784-4 |
02:9 In ie | fe | 786°5 |
02°60 | In Es . | 788-2 |
02°45 In | ., ih 789:0 |
01:80 In iS * | 792-7
01:59 1 ‘e Ks 793'8
01:30 1 3 3 7955
01:13 1 “ # 796°4
00:30 Oy 95 67 8011
4199°8 In 3 i 804
98°9 In | FS A 809
98°39 | 1 e 4 812:0
97-69 | 2a2 x | xf 816-0
97°35 In | > | 5 | 817°9
96°9 In ss | is 820
96:70 1 s 5 821:5
96:0 in f 825°5
95°7 In » ” 827
95°4 In ” ” $29
95:22 In 3 | 5 829:9
94:55 1 | 5 * 833°7
94:15 In * - 836-0
93°95 | In | a | J | 837-2
93°60 | In io | ¥ | 8391
93°15 In F x 8416
92°35 | In f bi 8463
92°15 1 “ . 0 | 847-4
91-76 1 cn | 5! 849'6
90°5 1b » ” 857
89°40 2 : i 863'1
89.0 In ” ” 865
88°33 2 ” ” 869°1
88:02 1 a a 870:9
87°57 1 3 FS 873°5
87°15 c I ie *) 875°9
86:95 1 ” ” 877-0
86°63 1 Ee A 8789
86:22 1 - os) 881°3

218 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM —continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Zz Frequency
Spectrum | Character nee gl | in Vacuo
| | > al |
4185°97 | 1 Id Ou 23882°7
85°85 1 “5 55 883 4
85:04 1 cn a3 8879
84:67 In a 3 890:0
84:27 In . is | 892-3
83:79 1 3 55 | 895-0
83°47 | 1 :, s | 896-9
83°15 1 ct) on 898°7
82°88 1 on 900°2
81-75 i “ s 906°8
80-90 1 % a. | 9116
80°53 In Fe “4 | 913°7
80°3 | 1n os a O15
79°20 o} e bs 921°3
78:69 1 7 = | 924-2
78:00 1 a 928:2
77:56 ! » rh 930°T
| (ire In 3 = 933
76°75 In 5 . 935°4.
7611 1 a A 939'1
75°63 1 fe 5s 941:8
| 74:40 2 oe 948-7
| 74:01 1 “ K 950°9
73:90 1 3 if 951-7
73:19 2 oe Pp 955°'8
72°8 In 3 ees 958
72°40 1 i * 960°3
71:80 5 %5 a 963°8
71:00 1 “ 968-4
70°60 In or Pe 970°7
70°17 1 i a 973-1
69°7 In Sy : | 976
69:25 1 | is 4 | 978-4
68°3 1b 1:14 + | 984
67°87 In 5 + 986-4
67°25 | In 7 .j 989-9
66°8 in | * | * ' 992°5
65°87 2 59 * 997:9
65°35 | In a = / 24000°9
64:97 | 1 | x * ! 003°1
64-6 | In 2 : | 005
63°90 | 2 a SF 009°2
63°44 1 2 sf 011:8
63:22 1 | i 3 013-1
62°88 1 | = 2 015‘1
62°62 1 ‘ bi | 016°6
62:00 | 2 i | 020°2
6114 1 ” ” | 025°1
60°5 | 1b . mh 029
| 60:05 | 1 ‘ 3 | 031°5
| 59°59 | 1 si 034-2
| 59°30 iL | 7 ° 0385°9
59°15 i | se Aj 036°8
588 in rs i 039
58:48 2 | . iF yaed 040°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 219

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Macuun Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character At us in Vacuo
Xr
4156°81 2 1:14 6:7 24050°2
55°58 | 3 ” ” 051°3
54°16 2 Pr 4 064:5
53°75 2 np 5 066'8
51°83 if ap + 079:0
51-48 | 1 as 3 08171
51:00 1 . . 083'9
50°61 2 cf 3 086:1.
50°25 in - .f 088-2
49°57 | In pe if 092-2
49°38 In | 3 » 093°3
48°97 1 Fr * | 095-7
48°76 1 ce Oe aes 096-9
48:33 In Ff e 0993
47°62 1 co 7 103-4
47°30 1 ”» 68 105°3
47°20 1 3 A} 1059
46°83 1 es 3 1081
46°45 i i 5 110-4
45:58 2 ei . 1155
44:92 1 3 F 119°1
44°15 In a4 : 123°6
43°76 1 3 Bs 125°9
43:19 a fc 4 129°2
42:59 i! ” ” | 133°2
42-49 1 ” ” Hoot
42°32 1 Pr 3 | 1343
42:09 1 : Piet 35°6
41°45 3 a 5 139°3
40°80 In ” » 1431
40:53 In 5 F 144-7
39°34 2 F 3 1517
38°84 1 ss : 1546
38°15 1 : P 158-6
37:00 1 e rp 1653
36°68 1 a AS 167:2
36°32 1 . * 169°3
35°97 il A A 171:3
35°39 1 3 5 174-7
35°03 1 BS 3 176'8
34:23 In as f 181°5
33°71 2 a2 pS 1845
33:40 2 ” ” 186°3
32°30 1 - fi 192°8
31-98 1 1:13 * 194:7
31:55 1 P4 197:2
30°89 1 re, Ay 201°1
29°9 In 9 » 207
29°65 In _ A, 208°3
29°18 1 rf Aj 211:0
28-52 2 a A 215-0
28-13 i * 5 ‘ 2172
27°65 1d a 2 220°1
27:05 In 3 £ 223°6

2616 1b Z : 2245

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length _ Intensity ve tte Oscillation
Spark and Sea oe ee a | Frequency
Spectrum Character | A+ | lig: | in Vacuo
Ar |
See eS I pe et
4125:3 In bis.) 4 Ge > | 24234
24:92 3 x “5 236:1
24-19 1 - 7 240-4
23°83 1 5 of | 242°5
235 In ” ” | 244
23°3 In 3 + | 246
22°58 In | Ap | 2499
22°39 In 4 7 251:0
21:45 In a 3 256°5
21:0 In - + 259
20°3 i In | 2 | * 263
19:90 In Pa if 265°6
19°1 In ie . | 270
18°59 2 amb a ee pu'| 273-4
17°75 | ln - | ie 278-3
17°10 1 sp aaa uae 282-1
16°6 | In is eae 285
16°30 | 3 eh” eee 286-9
15°10 ] a Fe 293°9
14-82 1 A ; 295°6
14-42 1 <P) ie ae 298-0
14:18 1 -s | 4 299'3
14°10 1 3 3 299'9
13°77 it a 5) 301°8
13°27 1 a a 304'8
12°95 1 x sf 306°6
12°70 1 ee 3 308°1
11:8 1b Bs - 313
11:05 1 we s 3179
10°7 In Bs A 320
10°20 1 is i 322:9
08:9 In e iS 331
08:60 1 x f 3324
07°11 1 < 341-2
06°52 2 M3 | a 344-7
06:08 1 . J 347-4
05:9 In a | a 348
05-48 | In * es 350°8
O495 | In - a | 354-0
04:58 In | . a | 356°2
04-22 | In | i | A 358-3
03-73 1 Rome a tye ae 361-3
03:29 1 : Z 3639)
02:98 1 a a | 367-0
02-41 1 a uf 369-0
02°10 1 = f 371-0
015 In * a 8745
00°67 1 x ss 379°4
00°10 1 m ‘a 382°8
4099°45 In iS y 386°7
99:2 1b 5 6:9 388
98:30 1 b 3 393-4
98:20 1 = 3 394-1
97-9 In i =< 396
97°55 In 3 | . 397°9

oe =e en nn a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELF MENTS, 221

URANIUM—continued.

| | Reduction to |
Wave-length | Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and ; Frequency
Spectrum | Character ne Shea? in Vacuo
A

4097-23 1 1:15 6-9 24399°7
96°93 1 9 e 4015
96°83 | 1 Pe e 402:2
96°56 1 i 35 403°9
95:90 | 1 Fs " 407°8
95°8 In 5 . 408
95°03 L a } 412-9
94°75 1 a ne 414-6
94:2 | 1b 95 FE 418
93°80 | In 112 Fe 420°3
93°43 In i a 422°5
92°97 In FP Pr 425'2
92°47 In e Pe 4281
92°05 In a 7% 430°8
91°66 2d a 432°2
90°28 4 a 4 440°3
88:98 1 PA 4 449°]
88°40 2 5 rF 452°5
87:87 1 on a if 455t
87°51 1 is a | 4577
86:92 | it i % { 461°2
86°83 1 io ef 461°8
86°63 il ve cs 463-4 |
86:28 a | % : 465°4
85:1 2n aa: = 472 |
84-69 1 | > # 474:7
84:31 1 | ny ; 476-4
83°85 In = Aa 4796
83:15 In . BS 484-0
82-80 1 f Fe 486'1
82:20 1 | ” ” 489'7
81-45 1 | ” ” 494°]
80°79 3 4 Fa 498-2
80°05 In is E 502°6
79°51 1 a a 5058
79-00 1 | _ 5 508°9
78°35 in | % ss 502°8
W795 1 .s i 505-4.
76°86 2 ce 7 521°9
76:3 1b s i, 525
75°83 In | 5 hi 528:0
74:68 1d » io 5384:9
73°93 1 i 3 539-4
73°80 1 7 e. 540-2
73°38 In Fr 543
73°00 1 < ie 545°0
72°20 1 % ug 549'9
71°63 1 5 oe 553°4
71:30 2 Fe 3 5553
-70°9 | In . Pr 558
70°6 In cf) s 559°5
70:20 1 A 561:9
69°90 1 rp ; 563°7
69°23 1 3 Fs 567'8
69°15 1 ri ” 568°2

222

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4068°75
67°90

* Pb?

Intensity
and
Character

NRHN RP eRe Ee ew
on =)

ee
Lome on

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
r

69

+ Fe

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

24570°7
575'8
5792
581-4
583-4
585
586
587
597-4
600°7
603°8
607-2
612-1
614°5
617-0
621°3
622°0
625
628
630
633-4
635°5
639
644-4
646°7
648°8
652
654-1
654-8
657°3
661
665:0
668°3
671
6718
676
678
683-1
684-7
6862
688-0
692°3
695-0
697-9
701-2
708
768°8
712-4
7143
T7171
720
725
7274

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF

—UrANIuM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

4042°63
42-15
41-78
41-23
40°6
39°9
38:8
38°36
38-10
37-2
36°75
363
35°8
35-45
34-67
34:50
34-15
33-93
33°58
32°6
32:00
31:50
30:93
30°57
30°05
29-90
29-27
28°55
28°37
27:97
27°58
27-18
26-19
25°60
25°22
24-9
24-45
24-33
23°76
23-40
23-05
22-95
22-2
22:0
21-65
21:35
21:17
20.35
19°39
19°13
18-65
18-43
17-88
17-65
17-40

THE ELEMENTS.

223

Reduction to

Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
and Frequency

Character 4 ji_ in Vacuo

A

1 111 70 2472974
In ” ” 73273
In if " 734-6
In 3 5 738-0
In ” ” 742
In ” ” 746
lb ” ” 753
In i « 75S
1 ” » 7571
1b a > 763
2n p ° 765°8
In 4 * 768
In ” ” 771
In b: 1713-4
1 ” ” 7782
1 » ” 779-2
In a 3 7813
1 ” ” 782°7
1 > 7848
1b ” ” 791
1 * i 794°6
In a i 797-7
1 ” ” 801:2
1 ” ” 8034
In 3 » 806-6
In a fe 807°5
In +) » 811:4
in 7 B $15°8
1 » » 816.9
1 ” ” 819-7
1 Pr Le 8221
1 ” ” 824-5
2 ” ” 830°8
T » ” 834-0
1 ce) ” 836°4
In ” ” 838
1 ” cB 841-1
In Fr 9 841°8
In ” ‘9 845-4
1 » » 847 6
In ” ” 849°8
in ” nh 850-4
In ” » 855
In ” ” 856
In ” ” 858-4
In ” ” 860°3
i! ” ” 861°4
1d ” ” 8665
1 ” ” 872°4
1 ” ” 874:0
1 ” ” 877:0
1 ” ” 878°8
2 ” ” 8817
1 ” ” $83°2
1 ap y 884-7

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

| Reduction to

urease | ty Vacuum Oscillation
park an ) FE
Spectrum Character ea Le in Vars
A |
ae de 1 stant en a Boe 6..5* | Se
101702 1d tov aera 704. | 24887-0
"De j -
fee [trac | eel ene 3920
ae 1 1:10 age 896°1
ote 3G
199 ; : sii
ah : is M 901-4
“35 a * 903°7
13°6 In = | es 908 ;
van 1 Sen 910-1
12-60 : ey ee a are
2-60 - a 9145
12°38 1 3 a 915-9
12-03 1 a :, 918-0
11-93 1 ¥ 918-7
1164 ld e s 920'5
11-20 1 1 - 923-2
11-00 1 k 924-4
10°88 1 ip cs 925°1
0973 1 See 9393
ode | ” 3
09-60 1 tee ie ae 933°1
. ' 2
03°89 1 : 9376
08-59 | 1 eS 939°4
08-22 In € 941-7
08:10 1 " < 942°5
mee. | ee ee
i ” ” 9 3°
07-28 1 2 2 945'6
07:13 1 a ¥ 946-6
( eeeereee, a8
05°83 : | aie if a
05:40 1 i if 959°3
05°00 1 “3 i | 961°8
ee : ; 968-7
. | “5 on 963°7
04:30 | 1 _ y 966"1
04:20 1 |: reaegs jy. 966'8
03°95 1 a a 968°3
03°58 i i“ i 970°6
03:32 1 i i; 972-2
02-14 1 : : 9797
: . 979-7
01°82 1 = 9815
01-40 1 - i 984-1
01:08 1 . s 986:2
00:87 1 . 987°5
00°47 1 we Bie 990-0
Sc ne oe ar
99°33 In ti ets | * ere
98-95 in alls 15a 999'7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 22

UBANIUM—continued.

~

(3)

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3998-36
97°49
97:26
96°90
96°1
95°67
95°17
94°42
94:0
93:2
92°70
92°35
91:9
91°75
90°61
90°24
90:10
89°47
89:02
88°78
88°50
88:18
86:87
87:19
87:03
86°60
85°95
85°19
84:90
84:70
84:33
84:03
83°45
83'1
82°69
82:27
81:93
81-71
81:06
80°95
79°92
79°67
79°27
78°95
78-4
77-50
717-22
766
754
75-13
74:70
74:50
7415
73°40
72°51

1900.

Intensity
and
Character

Bee DEER He EEE
BB > ss

i al laced =

BB

BRR ee Hee

olen eae ee
Bo

oe
BB

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

249934
998-8

25000:2
012°3
017°5
020:2
023°3
028-0
030°5
0355
038°6
040°8
044
044°6
051°7
054:0
055°5
059-2
061°2
063°8
065-0
067-0
069:0
073°2
074°2
076:9
081:0

* 085'8
087°6
088°9
091:2
093-1
096:7
099
092°6
095-1
097°3
098°7
1118
112°5
1190
120°6
123°1
1251
129
134°3
1361
140
148
1490
152°0
153'3
155°5
160°3
165°9

226 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | \ canes Oscillation
Spark and | | Frequency
Spectrum Character | A+ it in Vacuo
| A |

| 3971°58 1 1:09 | fis | 25171°8

| 713 In ” 99 174
70°75 1 | a 1770
70°60 1 i | a 178-0
70°30 1 5 2 179°9
69°55 1 ; i 184°6
69°23 1 he sa 189°2
68°63 2Ca ia “A 190'5
68°16 1 . an 193°5
67°8 In - A 196
67°6 in “ + 197
67°25 In | i i | 199°3
66°73 2 | a = 202°5
66°5 | In py A! 204
66°10 i oa = 206°6
66°00 M aie a 207°2
65:43 1 3 | “ | 210°8
65°15 i a 5 212°6
64:85 if - rs 214°5
64°32 1 an Bs 217°9
63°13 i 9 . 225°6
62°95 i - ed 226°7
62°60 1 i . 228°9
62°43 1 | es * | 230°0
62°18 1 y 7 231°6
61°88 In | FA 5 235°7
61:70 In a: < 234°6
61:29 1 ss 7 237°2
61:00 il a : | 239°0
60°70 1 5 5 241°0
60°4 In me s 243
59:9 1b Be as 246
59"5 1b in 2 249
58°3 1b - a 256
57:97 1 *s pe 258°4
57°65 al PD rr 260-4
57°50 1 - a” 261°4
57°08 1 es | oe | 2641
56°72 1 Pa F 266°3
56°45 In aa Ee 268:0
56:2 1n os 72 ) 270
55°91 1 - | 2 271°5
55°55 1 a | 5 273:7
54°87 2 a as 2781
54:40 1 a | me | 281:1
53-75 1 Ps a 285°2
53°13 1 3 e | 285°9
52°67 In An “5 289-0
52°45 1 et 293°6
52°03 In . j a 296°2
61°75 In i / th 298°8
50:90 1 es a i 303°5
50°27 1 rs 5 | 307'5
49-69 1 | 4 i oe 311-2
49 44 1 = a 312°8

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 227

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length | Intensity Vacuum. Oscillation
Spark | and Frequency
Spectrum | Character 1 in Vacuo
A+ az
3949-20 1 1:09 7:2 | 253144
48°54 1 n .; 318°5
48:13 | 1 a | A 321:2
47:05 In PP Pa 328°2
46:88 1 4 - 329°3
46:40 1 | : as 332°3
45°88 In 7 | Ff 335°1 |
45-45 1 4 es 338'5 |
45:10 i PP BS 340°S
44-77 1 is Pr 342'9
44°32 2 “A ” 345'8
43°97 1 re Pe 348°1
43°68 1 Z 33 350'0
43-00 1 > Fe 3542
42°71 1 Pe Pe 356'1 |
42°43 1 * 3s 357'9 |
42-22 1 59 2 359°2 |
41°60 1 a i 363°2
41:26 t Fe a 365-4
40°80 1 Fe z 367-4
40°64 i =f is 368-4
40:45 1 a Rs 369°6
39°93 1 i - 3780
39°56 1 of PB 380°4
39°27 in B Fe 382:2 |
38°57 In . * 3827
38:00 In of a 386°4
37:23 1 3 re 3913
36°88 | i 1:08 PS 393°6
36°55 ld ‘3 Fe 395°7
36°18 i 45 fi 3981
35°52 2 - | i 402°4
34/9 in | e | is 406
° 33°92 i or rc 412'8
33°81 4Ca + i 413°5
33:18 1 ch oA 4176
32°20 3 on + 424-0
31°65 | 1 | 4 cs 427°6
31:37 / In e . 429-2
31:15 2 a a 4£30°6
31:0 In i = 432
30°58 iH * as 4343
30°22 1 KS iz 436°6
29:90 1 of “ 438°7
29:38 1 ' 442-1
29:22 1 3 7 443-2
28°95 1 s _ 444-9
28°60 i * % 447°2
28°45 1 Fe xs 448°5
28:20 i A 3 449°8
27:92 1 ; 5 451°6
27°10 il a 5 4569
26°90 1 | 3 458-1
26°45 In is 3 4611
25:7 In } “3 7 | 466

228 REPORT—1900.

UrantuM—continued.

Reduction to

5 Intensit: Vacuum Oscillation
Wave-length and “f ee Frequency
g Spark Character 1 in Vacuo
pectrum A+ eS
A
3925°45 ln 108 V2 25467°6
25:17 In ee ¥ _ 469-4
25:0 In »” » 470°5
24°67 1 Ry 5 472°7
24°45 1 “ =p AT4:1
24-11 1 ob sy + 4763
23°8 In a “yes 478
23°5 ln ” 5 480
23:25 1 “9 ro 481°8
22°60 1 ” a 486:1
22°35 1 ” ” 487-7
22°18 1 ”» “5 488°8
21°74 1 ” “3 491-7
21°40 1 ” ” 493°9
21:2 In + “A 495
20:07 In i 498-4
20:05 In 7 ” 499-7
19:95 In ' + 503°3
19:49 1 a) ah 506°3
19:22 1 ” ” 508°0
18°57 1 ” ” 612°3
18:27 1 A =) 5143
17:96 1 *” * 516°3
17:78 1 9 cr 617'5
17°55 1 53 1 518:9
17°45 1 ” 3 519°6
17:18 1 ” +, 21:4
16°75 In ” §24°2
16:60 In 7 = §25°1
16:05 2 A “5 5628'S
155 In ” ” 532
15:20 1 05 A 534:°3
14:94 1 » oy 536:0
14:45 3 as > 539°2
14:0 In ” a 542
13°63 1 * 3 5445
13:48 1 a 55 545°5
12°95 1n ¥) A 549°0
12°60 1 ” 73 55171
11:90 1 a * 555°7
11°45 ln 45 ” 558°8
11:15 In or 5 560°7
10°67 1 i "f 563'9
10:37 1 * » 566'8
09°88 1 53 A 568°9
09°22 1 » a 573:2
09:10 1 a 43 574:0
08:60 In on > 577°3
08:01 u ” 35 581:2
07°72 1 rr a 583°1
07:42 1 ” = 5851
07:17 1 oH ” 586°8
06:7 2b rs nn 590
06°1 1b ay if 594
05 00 il “f 7 600°9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued.

229

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3904-73
04°44
04:06
03°47
03:13
02:70
01:75
00°48

389998
99°64
99°24
98:97
98:1
97°87
97:44
97:22
96°92
96:27
96:07
95:82*
95-41
95°20
94°89
94:26
93:96
93°48
92°85
92°56
92:22*
91:93
91:22
90°51
89°54
88°72
88°32
87°85
87:36
86°6
85°83
85:12
84°83
84°47
84:09
83-4
83°20
82°79
82:52
82°05
81°61
80°8
79°88
79°73
79°12

Intensity
and
Character

Wr St Ph Ps it Ys fat

aa
BBB

EAA SS tnt ber eh Pn Ph 0 rad Pps tf te Ps fe ds er ND: Fr

i=)

ating ad gical al aaa

Reduction to

Vacuum

1

A+ :
1:08 i st:
” ”
” ”
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
1:07 =

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

25602'8
604°6
607:2
611°0
613-2
6186
622°3
630°6
6339
63671
638°7
640°5
646
648°7
650°6
652'0
654:0
658°3
659°6
661:2
663°9
665°3
667°4
671°5
673°5
676:7
680°8
682°7
685 0
6869
691°6
696°3
702°7
708-1
710°8
713°8
717-2
722
7273
7319
7338
736°2
738-7
743
744:6
746°8
7478
7509
755°6
761
7669
7679
761°9

30

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and — SS ee Saas Frequency
Spectrum Character en 1 in Vacuo
A

3878°23 2 1:07 73 2577177
7760 In a a 7819
7750 in 5 i 7825
771 In Xs “p 785
76°75 1 4 a 787-4
76°48 1 ” + 784:2
76°28 1 7 * 790°5
75°66 1 + aA 7948
75-15 In oy an 7981
74:68 1 + an 801°3
74:20 2 5 oF 804°5
73°28 il ” ” 810°5
73°22 if - + 811-0
73°03 1 *) + 8122
72°70 i 5 st 814-4
72°50 1 PA on 8158
72-06 1 7 + 818°8
71-69 1 “5 A 821°3
71°52 1 aS ri 822-4
7118 it + + 824°6
70°73 1 o a 827-7
70°22 1 x 5 831-0
69-90 1 » oF 833-2
69°05 1 5 - 838°8
68°95 1 oF Be 839°5
68°57 1 54 ne 842-0
67°32 1 a ” 851-2
67:17 1 ip 7 852°1
66°89 1 5 + 8539
66°62 1 of > 855°7
66:08 2 es & 859'3
65°65 1 (Fe) + + 862°2
65°26 EL a oa 864 ‘7
64°85 In re a 866°9
64°65 1 i os 868°4
64°48 iT 53 o 869°5
64:24 ii . * 871-1
63°90 1 aS or 873'3
63°57 1 aS .. 8755
63°25 In 4 7 877°6
62°45 In n FF 882°9
61°9 In “A 7 887
61°30 1 + 3 890°8
60°75 In - > 894-4
59°75 3 x x 901°1
59°16 1 ds 7 905:0
58°8 in a a 907-5
58°35 in 35 *) 914-2
57°8 in . se 914
57°35 In te 917:2
56°94 1 1:06 z 919°9
56°74 1 5 a3 921:°3
56°5 In (Fe) 7 ” 923
55°96 1 a = 926°5
55°60 1 929:0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 231

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

. Wave-length . Intensity | he Oscillation

Spark ‘| and -| Frequency

Spectrum | Character ae ae in Vacuo

A

| |

| 3855-00 1 | 1:06 73 25933°0
54°80 2 5. 3 934-4
54-42* 1 ee a : 987°0
53:95 1 + 3 94071
53°53 1d + . 942-9
53°16 1 fr 3 | 945°5
52°86 In Fe Fe 947-4

| 52:28 In 3 _ | 951:3

| 52-0 In % #9 953
51°45 | 1 P: “3 | 956°9
51:10 il x 3 959°3
50:95 In . <3 960°3
50°5 1 ” ” | 963
49°87 1 | 7 # 967°6
49°6* | In - - 969
48-9 | In | a 3 974
48-77 1 ” 6 9756
48-24 1 ” Sr 978°6
47-95 In ” “1 980°6
47°25 In sp is 9853
46°70 1 “5 Pe 989-0
46°38 1 + FS 991°2
45°98 1 ” Fe 993°9
45°50 2 ” eS 26997-1
45:27 1 3 Fe 998°6
44:85 1 ~ Fr 991°5
44:33 In | 7 D 995-0
44-13 1 3 3 996-4
43°92 1 ae i 997°8
43°61 1 3 by 999°9
42°86 1 ro % 015°0
42°36 1 on a 018-4
42-00 1 + Pe 020°8
41:20 1d (Fe) é Ps 026°2
40°50 1 3 % 031:0
40:05 in y x 034:0
39°77 1 a “- 035'9
39°63 1 of “1 036°9
39°15 2 ec Ee 040°2
38°28 2 = ¢ 046°1
37-95 1 “5 mC 048°3
37°63 1 = a 0504
37-40 1 - ” 052:0
37-0 In ” % 055
36°6 In | fr Si 057
36°45 In | » a 058°3
36:05 1 ee z 061-2
35°25 1 = Fe 066°6 |
34-94 1 3 y 068°7 |

\ 34-72 1 a a 070°2 |

| 33:90 - 1 57 0758
33°16 1 | 7 i 080'8
82°75 1 ” ” 083°6

232 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity eo Oscillation

Spark and LT | ay oo ee ee Frequency

Spectrum Character ae 1 oe in Vacuo

r |
3832°07 i 1:06 73 26088-2
31:60 3 oa 3 091°4
30°77 1 i - 097-0
30°36 1 4 a 099-8
29-95 f ‘4 Z 002-7
29:50* 1 . ‘ 1058
29:20 1 id i 107°8
28°92 i +5 a 109°3
28-22 1 q _ 1145
27:93* 1 * a 116°5
27-56 1 4 ‘ 119-0
27-02 1 i c 122-7
26°65 2 ce i 125-2
25°61 i 4 : 132°3
25:29 1 st f 134°5
24-85 1 id , 1375
241 In x . 143

23°62 1 » ” 146:0
23:26 l c 3 148-4
23°10 1 i = 149°5
22-71 1 i : 1522
22°56 1 ” ” 153°2
22/14 1 is ee | 1561
21-38 1 : ‘ 161-2
21:15 1 is 162°8
19:46 1 % + 174:4
19°19 1 i 3 1763
18°86 1d 3 i 178'5
18-62 1 if 2 180-1
18-28 1 # ae 182°5
17-80 1 4 3 185°7
17°30 1 . T4 189-1
16°75 1 1:05 % 192°9
16:22 1 re : 196°5
15°50 1 5 zs 201°5
15°30 7 a x 2 202°9
14:96 il ee Es 205-2
14°25 2 fe A 2101
13-94 2 i A 212°2
13°40 1 ‘, e 215'9
12°86 1 7 ¥ 219-6
12°72 1 < # 220°6
12-42 1 Bie A 229-7
12:16 1 af s 224-4
11°81 1 . 5 226°8
11-67 1 . E 227°8
11-20 1 ; < 2311
11:05 1 as , 232°1
10°33 1 "4 “* 237-0
09:73 In i‘ & 241-2
09:36 1 i s 243-7
09:12 1 if 2 245-4
08°35 In 5 ” 250°7

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3807°75
07-4
06°5
06:40
05:99
05°83
05-20
05:00
04:52
04:1
03°50
03°25
03:00
02°43
02°10
01:90
01:45
01°35
00:9
00:43
00-30

3799-75
99°36
98°99
98°40
97°93
97-70
97:2
96:98
96°70
96°62
96°38
96°20
95°76
95°29
94°50
94:15
93°74
93°45
93°24
92°69
92°50
92°03
91:50
91:25
90°94
90°50
90°36
90:03
89°76
89°36
89:02
88°77
88°37
88:15

URANIUM—oontinued.

Intensity
and
Character

ad
or a

i ag ag a as a a a a acca

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

26254'8
257
263
2641
267:0
275:0
272°4
273°8
2771
280
2842
285°9
287°6
291°6
293°9
295-2
298-4
299:0
303
305-4
306°3
31071
312°8
3249
319-4
322°8
324°3
328
329-4
331°3
3318
333°5
3347
337°8
341°1
346°5
349:0
351°8
353'8
355°2
3591
360-4
363°7
367°4
369-1
371:3
374°3
375°3
377°6
379°5
3822
3845
386°3
389-1
390'6

9

=

33

bo
oo
rg

REPORT—1900,

URANIUM—continued.,

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Gee Oscillation
Spark and lia a io oan Frequency
Spectrum Character Ae slg in Vacuo
A
| 3787°40 1 1:05 74 26395°9
| 86:99 1 “5 os 398°8
86°74 1 | 4p i 400°5
86°30 In 5 ” 403°6
85:5 In 4 = 409
85°30 1 + 5 410°6
84:90 1 | 3 - | 413°4
84:02 1 5 = 419°5
83:80 In 5: ‘As 421-1
82°99 2 * is | 4267
82°5 1b 5 B 430
82-1 1b 35 $5 433
81:60 1 PA * 436°4
81:33 i! 5 - 438°3
81:23 1 as 2 443°6
| 80°90 2 ” ” 441°3
| 80-44 1 <) os 444-5
| 79°3 In ” ” 453
| 79:18 1 5 if 453-4
78°75 In a i | 456°4
78:5 In . i, | 459
7815 1 4 e | 460°6
77°83 1 Re a 462-9
77°61 1 - 7" 464-5
77°50 In - 465-1
7717 1 , 467-2
76:87 1 1:04 wt 469°3
76°63 1 = , 471-0
| 76°15 1 “3 7 ATA3
(574 il ‘ 3 4769
75°65 1 ‘s 3 477-9
75°42 1 a e 479+5
75:02 1 ap, 482-3
74°57 1 4 ¥ 485-5
74:22 1 a ry, 488-0
73°82 1 53 ¥e 491-0
73°72 | 1 ‘2 493-7
73°57 1 4 3 492-7
| 72-97 2 E, - 496-9
72°50 1 # U5 500-1
71°55 1 x 3 506°8
70°60 1 BS D. 513+5
| 70°30 1 F $s 515-6
| 69°68 OO he 2 im, 519-8
. 68°95 1 - a. 525-0
68°67 1 a 3 527-0
68°57 ] # A 527°8
68°22 In = 7 | 530-1
| 68°02 In 4 R | 531-5
67°62 1 a a 534-3
. 67°33* 1 of B! 536-4
67:05 1 ee a 538-5
66°6 1b - is 542

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued.

235

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum . Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character nf ‘es in Vacuo
A

3766:00 1 1:04 75 26545'9
65°47 In + P 549-6
64°95 In Pe 4 553°2
64-71 1 Fy Fe 555°0
64°30 1 2 a 557-9
64-00 1 F 4 560°0
63-43 1 PA % 564:0
63:13 1 ” » 566"1
62°89 1 * FA 567°8
62°27 1 3 4 572°2
62711 1 * 5 573°3
61°74 1 % 9 575°9
61:23 1 x m 579°5
61:02 1 Rs 581-1
60°5 In is “ 585
60-00 1 s 5 588-2
59°38 2 i PA 592°6
58-2 In i 3 601
57-09 1 is BI 608-9
56-82 In is % 610°8
55-7 1b > iy 618
55:2 1b ; Pe 622
54-46 1 ‘ i 627°
54-12 1 3 FA 629°8
53°85 In es a 631:9
53-7 In FS Fi 633
53°22 1 pS i 636:2
53-02 1 - Pa 637-7
52°84 1 3 s 639-0
52-49 di _ 3 644°4
52°30 1 . 5 642-9
51:92 1 An P 645-6
51°46 1 a é 648°8
51:3 In 5 F 650
50-51 1 = i 6555
50°14 1 * 3 658:2
50-02 1 a PA 659-0
49-35 1 5 FA 663'8
48-90 2 - a 667°0
47°34 2 a % 668°7
46°82 In 5 a 6782
46°60 2 ce A 683:3
46:10 In f 5 686°9
45°75 1 ” ” 689°3
45°53 1 + i 690°8
45°15 1 35 ¥ 693-7
44-95 FE ” | ” 695°1
44°65 1 , ) ” 697-2
44°39 1 +3 n 699-0
43°97 ld : A 702-1
43°55 1 " BS 704-9
43-07 In 3 4 7086
42-96 1 : | 709°3
42°67 In ¥ . (I) 3
42°50 1 7126

236

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

374187
41°56
41°43
41:12
40°85
40°4
39°50
39:18
38°80
38°48
38°23
37°45
36°75
36:2
35°7
35°05*
34°83
33°95
33°75
33°25
32°77
32°43
319
31°64
31:10
30:98
30°37
30:00
29°49
29-00
28°60
28°01.
27:91
27°30
27:02
26°72
26°49
26°22
25:93
25°80
25°55
25°26
25°18
24°50
24°35
23°85
22°92
22°6
21:95
21°55
20:54
20:13*
19:75

REPORT—1900,

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

DH RR eee eo
op

NON Re

5

Cellet el ae oe oe

Bee ee
j=}

BDH eee

a
BBB

26717:0
719°3
7202
7224
7243
728
734:0
735°3
7380
740°2
742:0
7475
7537
758
761
766'6
767'4
T73°T
7152
778-7
782°2
7846
7885
790°4.
794°3
795-1
799°5
802-1
805°6
805°3
8122
8165
8171
821°5
823°5
828°7
827°3
829-2
8313
832-2
8340
856°1
836°6
8416
842°5
8462
853°0
855
866:0
862°9
8701
873°2
875'9

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 237

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and ————S Frequency
Spectrum Character 2% de, in Vacuo
+ x

3719°50 1 1:03 16 26877°7
18-98 In ” ” 8815
18:78 1 ” ” 882°9
18°25 2 ” ” 886°'8
17°60 1 » ” 891°5
17°23 1 ” ” 8932
16:95 1 " 1 895:2
16°72 1 ” ” 896'9
16°32 1 ” ” 899°8
15°85 1 ” ” 9041
15°63 1 % > 905°7
15:15 1 ” ” 909-2
14:93 1 ” ” 910°8
14:60 1 \ ” ” 913-2
14:40 1 7 ee 9146
13°95 1 ” ” 9179
13°82 1 ” ‘a 918-7

12:4 1b ” ” 929
11:98 1 ” ” 932:2
11:10 1 ” 1% 938°6
11:00 1 5 Fe 939°3
10°73 1 ” ” 941 2
10°36 1 ” + 948°4
10:05 1 -s ‘ 946:2
09°65 In ” ” 949°1
09:45 In cf . 950°5

09:2 In ” F 952
08°75 In ” ” 955:7
08°10 1 ” ” 960-4
07-80 1 9 ” 962°5
07°45 In 7 3 965:0
06°86 1 "7 2 969-4
06°10 2 ” ” 974:9
05°72 2 ” ” 977'7
05:20 1 ” 981°5
04°50 1 ” ” 986°6
04:25 1 “ Pp 988°4
03°80 1 ” ” 991-7
03°45 1 ” A , 994:2
02-80 1 ” ” 999-0
02:38 In " a 270021

01:9 1n ” ” 006
01:68 2 ” ” 007°3
00°74 1 ” ” 0141
00:00 1 ” 9 019°4
3699°83 1 ” ” 020'6
99:60 1 ” ” 022°3
98°63 1d ” ” 029-4
£810 iL ” ” 033°3
97:69 1 1:02 3 036-4
97°32 1 7 r 039°1
96°98 1 aa of 041°5
96°48 1 i 7 045°2
96°25 1 7 cf 046-9
| 95-98 1 f ‘, 048°8

238

; Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

3695°35
94°95
94:46
93:89
93°46
93-08
92:48
92°15
92:07
91-65
91:15
91:00
90:43
90:18
89-80
89°37
89:19
88:93
88:53
$8-02
87°88
87°55
87-27
87-12
86:93
86°63
85:94
85:71
85°45
84:77
84:45
| 84°30
83°75
§3:00
82°63
82-25
| 81:85
| 81:07
80°68
80°45
80:10
79:99
79°54
73:93
78°3
1182
77°60
172
16°75
15°75
15°26
15:19
74:90
74:25
73°56

Bee Eee Ee ee EP Ee eee eee

i=]

PRR RR Re

Q

PREM RP RHEE

270534
0563
060:0
064:1
067°3
0701
074-4
079°6
077°5
080:5
081°6
085°3
084-2
091-3
0941
097°2
098°6
100-5
103'5
107-2
108-2
110°6
112-7
113'8
115-7
117-4
122°5
124-2
126'1
1311
133-4
134-6
138°6
144-1
146'8
149-6
152:6
158°3
161-2
162:9
165°5
1663
169°6
1741
179
182°3
184-0
187
190-2
197-6
201°3
901:8
203-9
208°7
213'8

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Reduction to

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3673-22
72°75
71:98
71:75*
70°7
70:40
70°26
69-50
69:33
68°90
68:25
68:13

| 67:9

67:30

66:95

66:35

66:28

65:6

65:3

64:92

64:69

64:40

64:0

63°5

63:2

62°8

62:50

62°10

61:60

61:47

60:90

60°5

60:27

59:76

59:28

59:19

58-8

58:30

58°01

57:50

57:09

5680

! 56:40

56°30

56:09

5561

55°35

55:06

| 54:80

| 54:43

54:25

| 53°65

| 53°34

URANIUM —continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Vacuum

A+ <-

5

BRR BEE EHP Re Re ERP RPE ERR Re

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

27216°3
219°8

940 REPORT—1900.

Uranrtum—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity imate Oscillation
Sp ark and Frequency

Spectrum Character Ae ; - in Vacuo

3652°21 1 1:01 7:7 273730
51°6 1b ” ‘ 378
50'8 1b ” B 384
50°55 In ” 3 385°4
50:16 1 ” e 388°4
49°83 1 ” a 390°8
49°53 1 59 3931
49:02 1 ” a 3969
48°65 1 ” 5 399°7
48-27 1 ” = 402°6
47:9 In » s 405
ATT In +: yi 407
47-00 1 5) ms 412-1
46°63 1 a 3 4149
46:13 1 4 ; 4186
45°82 1 ” . 421:0
45°60 1 » 3 422°6
45°19 1 ” if 4257
44°93 1 ” a 427°7
44:38 1 ” “0 431°8
43°75 1 ” y 436°6
43-2 1b ” 3 441
42°95 1 “6 i 442°6
42°59 1 ” iS 445°3
42°20 1 » ¥ 4482
41°37 1 + i 454:5
41:09 1 s 3 456°6
40°84 2 5 = 458°5
40°17 1 ” si 463°5
39°75* In + a 4667
39°31 1 ” 7°83 469°9
38°79 1 ” a 4739
38°33 1 a 477°3
38:03 1 F af 479°6
37°63 1 0 ss 482°6
36:7 1b a uf 490
36°3 1b s + 493
35-74 in 5 3! 4969
35°45 1 9 a 499-1
85:17 1 a . 501-2
34:70 1 * a 5048
34:40 In a 5 507-1
33°42 2 - a 514°5
33°05 1 55 s, 517°3
32°9 in a 5 518
32:33 1 ‘ 4 522°7
32:0 in p z 525
30:84 3 hs “ 534-0
30°40 1 - 53 537-4
30:17 it & 3 539-1
29°70 1 4) t 542-7
29°25 1 > 43 546°1
28°96 1 9 + 548°3

a

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

362851
28-23
27°86
27:60
272
26-95
26°80
25°65
25:25
25:00
24°75
24-49
24-00
23°6
23°21
22°83
29°45
22:25
22:00
21:72
21:65
21:20
21:03
20°68
20°31
19:95
19:56
19°32
18:94*
18-65
18-2
17°72

* 17-28
16:90
16-49
15-98
15:6
15-42
15°15
14-85
14-4
14:16
13-95
13°55
13:30
12:88
12-7
12-06
11:85
11-44
11:20
10:87
10-65

1900,

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

RNP EE Ree
RBBB

Bee eee

BB

B as

Pa re ee ee
BB

=}

DNR ERE

Reduction to

Vacuum

—_
A

78

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

27551°7
5539
556:7
558°6
562
563°6
566:2
573°5
576°5
5784
580°3
582°8
586:0
589
5920
5949
5978
599-4
601°3
603-4
603:9
607°3
608-7
611°3
614-1
616°9
619°9
621°7
6246
626°8
630
6339
637°3
640°2
643°3
647:2
650
651°5
653°6
655°9
659
6611
662°8
665°8
667°7
670'9
672
677°3
678'8
682°0
683'8
686"4
688-0

241

949 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continucd.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity ih cies Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character AE 1 in Vacuo
a
3609°86 2 1:00 78 276941
09°53 1 | ” | ” 696°6
09:13 1 | _ a 699°7
08°84 1 ” 3 7019
08°55 1 ” | ” | TOL2
08:20 1 ” ‘ 7069
07:97 1 ” ” 708'6
07:18 in ” F 713°9
07°52 1 ” ” 712°0
07:15 1 ” ep 7149
06°51 2 ” ” 719°8
06:26 1 ” 9 721°8
06:00 1 ” = 723'8
05:90 1 ” DO 724°5
05°65 1 ” a 726°5
05°35 1 ” 7 728'8
04:80 1 ” 5 7331
04:58 1 ” 4 734-7
04:35 1 ” 5 736'5
03°95 1 ” ” 739°5
03°65 1 FA ” 741°8
03:28 1 ” mS TAT
02°67 1 ” 7A9°4
02°45 In “A p 7511
01°6 In D yy 758
01:3 1b ” ay 760
00'9 In *» x 763
00:7 In 5 os 765
00°02 2 ” ” 7698
3599'50 1 ” a 7738
99°13 1 a5 . 1768
98:72 1 ” op 7799
98:4 In “4 if 782
98°25 In rH “1 783°4
97°95 1 * 9 785'8
$7:78 1 7 ” 786°2
97°40 1 “A ‘1 7891
97°31 a 5 MD 789'8
97:01 1 ” 4 7931
96:2 In ” + 799
95°69 1 ” rh) 803-4
95°14 | 2 ” ” 807-6
94°25 ld H s 8143
93°88 1 + 79 817-1
93°68 1 PY rn 818°1
93°40 1 p Fy 820°9
92°92 ld os 7 824:7
92-50 1 A ” 827°9
92-03 1 H + 831-4
91:74 1 0 5) 833°6
91°4 In a 3 836
90°71 1 A + 8419
90°48 1 1) 7 843°6
901 1b ” Pr 846°5
' 89°9 lb ” ” §48

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

35893
88°5
88:05
87-70
87:2
865
86:02
85°54
85°33
85:05
84:13
83°6
83:4
83:00
82:23
82:02
81:41
80:45
80°30
79°96
79°56
79°12
78:97
78:53
781
717-26
77:05
76:78
76-41
75:97
75°64
74:98
T7455
74:25
73°40
73°10
72-75
72:55
72:27
71S5
71:42
CUA)
70°80
70°34
70°05
69°85
69°72
69°25
68:97
68°83
68°45
68:19
67:97
67°65
67:18

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

BPR HE Ree ee
so +2

i=}

B

CN NN el ee ee ee ee

Reduction to

Vacuum

243

Oscillation
Frequency

in Vacuo

27853
859
862°4
865'1
869
8745
878:3
881:9
883°5
885°6
892°5
897
899
901°7
907'8
909°4
914:0
921°2
922-7
925-6
928-6
9319
9330
936:3
940
946°7
948°3
950°3
9531
9564
9589
965°3
9685
970°7
9767
9791
982-0
983-6
985°7
988'8
992°0
993°8
997-6

28000°4
002°5
004°4
0084
009'2
011°4
012°5
015°5
017°6
019:3
021°8
025°6

R2

REPORT—1900,

URANIUM—continued.

Pebiehon miele |
ee ' : to Vacuum scillation
ae | a ee
Spectrum Character 1 in Vacuo
At -
ay | bere S|
3566°78 04 0:99 19) 28029°6
66°55 1 a4 Hs 030 2
65°93 2 y a 0351
65:56* a ; . 0381
65:20 In 3 a 040°9
65:07 1 a 041°9
64:78 1 - - 0442
64:40 A a, yi 047°3
64:1 in 9 ; 050
63°85 1 3s *p 051'7
63°60 1 = “5 053°6
63°50 1 35 55 054°4
63°23 1 - BS (056°4
62°25 In A i 064:°2
61:95 2 = : 066°6
61°62 1 a 5 069°2
61:24 1 65 P 072:°2
60:65 In cs 5 0769
60°5 in - 5 078
60°10 1 a e 081:2
59°21 i Be 3 088:2
58°71 1 4 a 092°2
58:22 1 "s - 096:0
58:00 1 - +9 097'8
DID 1 ¥ Sy 099°8
57°49 1 - - 101'8
67:15 1 a Me 104'5
56°75 1 as 3 1076
56°43 1 os 5 11071
56:05 1 e as 118°7
55°70 1 ., os 115°9
55°52 1 - oa 117°3
55:00 In s 4 121°5
54:70 In 55 Fe 1239
54°43 1 - i. 1260
54-00 In + < 129°4
53°62 In 4 . 132°4
53°1 1b a . 136
52°84 1 , ss 148°5
52°36 2 As 142°2
51:95 in . 8-0 145°5
51°49 1 hs 3 149:2
51:24 1 55 5 151:2
51:02 2 = RS 152°9
60:77 1 as Ba 154:9
50°68 1 * Es 155°6
50:43 1h 3 % 157°6
49°88 In ¥ P 161'°9
49°36 i 2% 5 166:1
48°95 In x ) 169°3
48-4 1k am 3 174
47:96 1 a 177:2
47:70 1 a 5 179'3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3547°36
46°90
46°55
46°31
45°86
44°86
44°40
44-1]
43°90
43°58
43°35
42°9
42°5
42°06
41°45
41°15
40°82
40°64
39°81
39°60
39°40
39°10
38°81
38°57
38°35
38°00
37°60
37:23
36:95
36°52
36°25
36:0
35°8
35:3
35°1
34:50
34:23
33°75
33°18
32:97
32°80
32°3
31°85
31:29
311
30°30
29°95
29°75
29°35
29°26
28°87
28°50
28°20
27°78
27:00

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

ee be bo bo bo

BB

Lal sel ell peel cell cel ee ol eee ceed cel elt Ne se oe cel ae ee

B

i=}

B

ph Bet sh SSAA et es ptt Jet Rs

Lo
or

4.

Reduction to

Mee Oscillation
Frequency
At Le in Vacuo
A
0:99 8:0 281820
” ” 185°6
” ” 188-4
”» ” 190°3
” ” H93:9
” ” 201°8
” ” 205°5
” ” 207°8
” ” 209°5
” ” 212°1
» ” 2139
” ” 2175
” ” 221
” ” 224°0
” ” 228°9
” ” 231°4
” » 2340
” ” 235°5
” ” 242°1
” ” 243°8
” ” 245-4
” ” 247'8
” ” 250°1
” ” 252:0
” ” 253°8
0:98 ” 256°6
” ” 259'8
” ” 262°8
” ” 265°1
” ” 268:3
” ” 270'°5
” ” 272
” ” 274
” ” 278
” ” 280
” ” 284:°5
” ” 286°'8
” ” 290°5
” ” 295:1
” ” 296'8
” ” 298°2
” ” 302
” * 305°7
” Pr 310°3
” ” 312
” ” 318°2
” ” 320°9
9 Fe 322°5
3 a 325'7
” a 326°6
” a 329°6
> -- 332°6
aD a 335°1
“ A 338°5

” 344-7,

24.6 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM— continued.

Reduction to |
Wave-length Intensity eeu Oscillation
| Spark and | Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ <- | in Vacuo
| |
| 3526-74 1 58 at 80 | 28346°8
26°25 1 3 5 | 350°7
25°98 il 5 * 352:9
25°88 1 5 A 353°7
25°35 1 5 ss | 358°0
24-93 1 35 | ‘3 361:4
24:62 i | aa Pa | 363°8
23°77 2 _ | Es | 370:7
23°52 1 # | i | 372°7
22'9 Ib 35 | 45 | 378
22:72 In * | a 379°2
| 22:22 1 op * 383°2
21-67 1 4 7 3876
20:98 2 by ! Pe 393'2
| 20 15 2 5 fy 399°8
19-91 1 . ¥ 401°7
19-55 ln | 3 na 404-6
19:16 1 | ” | ” | 4078
18-92 1 a | ; 409'8
18°69 1 39 ‘ | 411°6
17:84 1 55 35 4184
17:62 1 ee 4 420°3
17:40 1 Me | x | 429-1
17:23 1 ms 5 423°5
17:03 1 “6 45 425-1
16°65 1 | » » 428-2
15°56 a 5 | 9 437-0
15:43 1 a % 438-1
15:10 i . 3 440-7
14:83 1 59 %3 4429
14:65 In 2 | 444-3
13:85 In ‘ : 450-8
13°56 1 x r 453:2
13°25 1 ” ” 455°7
12:86 1 55 95 4589
12-64 1 a 5 460°7
12-40 i . 4 4626
12:06 1 a sy 465:3
11-80 1 , ; 467-7
11°65 1 ” ” 468'8
11°20 In ” ” 4723
11:03 1 is | - 473°7
10°65 Ind 5 | 5 476°7
10°25 1 4 | 4 480°0
09.85 2 7 | as 483°2
09°52 1 a | 485°8
09:25 1 5 8-1 488:0
09°21 1 4 % 488°3
08:49 In = iy 494°]
07:9 In 9 499
O7:47 1 ‘ x 402°5
07:22 1 1 s 4045
06:95 1 a Hy 4067
06°75 1 5 5 508°3
06°50 | 1 | 5 510-4

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 24:7

URANIUM —continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Meuuae Oscillation
Spark and Frequency

Spectrum Character A+ +- in Vacuo

3505°65 In 0:98 8-1 28517°3
05:28 1 F sy 520°3
05°20 1 ‘a PA | 520°9
04°85 1 i Pr 523°7
04°62 ib s 5 525°6
04:17 In 5 Pr 529-2
03°97 In * Fp 5310
03°50 In . 8 534:8
03°16 In 2 re 537°5
02°79 1 Ee Po 540°4
02°48 In F PA 5430
01:9 1b 35 a 548
01:47 1 5 3 551-4
01:15 Ind 3 AS 554-0
00°65 1 ps x 658-2
00°55 if oS of 559'8
00:27 1 % 7 661:3

349998 1 fe re 563°5
99°53 il x Fs 567°2
99°25 1 “ ss 569°5
98°90 i 0:97 F 572°3
98°78 1 - - 573°4
98°57 1 Me a 5751
98°37 1 “a MY 5768
97:81 1 eS Zz 581-1
97°45 1 5 Ps 5841
97:23 1 _ - 5859
97:05 1 = _ 587°4
96°7 In ” % 590
96°57 1 - * 591-4
96:13 1 i BY 595:0
95°87 1 5 : 597-2
95:04 2 3 A. 604:1
94:19 1 * J 610°6
93°87 1 7 3 613°3
93°52 2 is PB 616-2
92:97 ii 9 sf 620°8
92-4 1b Bs + 6255
92:0 lb < EF 629
91°65 1 + 3 632°5
90:97 1 35 re 6373
90°77 1 + 639°0
90°43 2 as _ 641-6
89°75 2 ra = 647-2
89°53 1 3 4 649:0
89:00 1 3 | BA 653-4
88°35 In _ Pe 658°8
87-75 In = Fe 663-7
87°25 In #5 Fi] 667:9
87:07 In ha FY 669-2
86°47 1 - e 674-1
86:16 1 = Fi 676:7
85°45 # * a 682°6
85:10 1 Es " 685°5
8471 1 . . 688-7

248 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Maas? i... 3 Frequency
Spectrum Character Na ae) in Vacuo
A
348448 1 0:97 8-1 286901
83:98 1 ” ” 694:°7
83°73 In *Y a 6968
83:30 1 5 a5 700°3
82°67 2 ” 93 705°5
82°40 1 aS 4 TOT'7
81:9 1b ay 4 712
81:3 1b D 717
80°49 2 » 5S 723°4
79:99 1 ” 55 727°6
79°40 1 a + 7325
78:47 1 Bs H 7401
78:01 1 ” nS 744:0
77:68 1 x 4 7466
17:26 i 7H 55 7501
76°65 1 i + 7552
76°30 1 as ef 7581
76:08 1 i" > 759°9
75°88 1 = p 7616
75°18 1 " a 7674
74:75 2 a a 7700
74:35 1 5 of T74:3
73°90 In a 3 7780
73°57 In +5 7 780°7
73:19 1 sy 1 783'9
73:00 1 Ps = 785°5
7273 1 or 9 7877
72:67 1 as 788-2
72:25 1 es + (Ser
71:90 1 A = 7946
71:26 1 p oy 7999
70:8 In “5 8:2 804
70°47 1 9 a 808°8
69:96 1 n > 810°5
69:7 1b 3 ae 813
69°38 1 by 5 8154
69:28 1 A ¥ 8162
68:70 In a3 ay 821:0
68°26 In a 8247
67°85 In a 7 828'1
67:3 1b i 833
66°80 1 3 837'8
66°50 1 re aK 839°3
66-05 In es 1 843-2
65°6 Ind ae Hf 847
65:12 1 os 850°8
64°82 1 ss é 853°3
64:41 1 4 6 856°7
63:82 2 3 is 8616
63:50 1 i d. 8643
62°87 In $9 is 869'5
62°40 1 “y “ 873°5
62:17 1 45 = 875°4
61°65 In aS - 879'8
61:19 1 a ‘3 883'6

ON WAVE-~LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 249

UBANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity yeh Oscillation
Spark and Frequency

Spectrum Character A+ x in Vacuo

3461-00 1 0:97 8:2 28885°2
60°64 1 ” + 888°2
60 55 1 ~ oF 888°9
60°10 1 tr FF 892°7
59°88 1 % * 894°6
595 In : 898
59°3 In = 7 899
59:1 lb y ro 901
58°85 1 0:96 FF 903°3
58°37 1 . “6 907-4
57°89 2 3 911°6
57:24 2 + y 916°4
56°74 1 rr % 920°7
56°50 1 5 f 922'8
56:1 In os 926
5591 1 os bs 927:9
55°57 1 f a 930°9
55:00 1 5 + 935-4
54°80 In 3 937:0
54°40 In a x 940°4
54:26 1 rp 3 941:2
53°98 1 ra ~ 943°8
53°72 2 9 " 9459
531 In 13 + 951
52°92 In ‘3 55 952°8
52°63 In Bs i 955°4
52°52 In a + 956°3
52°1 1b 2 eS 960
518 In 3 y 962
51°41 2 CF) is 965°5
50°15 In er “6 975°8
49°40 1 5 982°3
48°94 1 7" + 986°3
48°57 1 A: te 989°5
48°36 1 re : 991°3
47°95 In 5 rf 994°5
A747 In a3 5 998°7
46°88 Ik ” » 29003°3
46°73 1 ” ” 004°6
46°47 1 + x 006°7
46:23 1 % a 008'9
46:00 1 6 os 010'9
45°83 1 é + 012°4
45°45 In > * 015-7
45:15 In 7 “6 018°3
44-90 1 + “ 020:2
44°85 1 i * 020°6
44°53 1 + + 023°4
43°97 In cf “ 028°6
43°66 1 4. * 031:0
43°10 1 i. ~ 0354
42°80 1 of = 038:0
42°56 1 9 + 040°5
42°45 1 a + 041°3
41:95 1 A * 045°1

bo

REPORT—-1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

Intensity
and
Character

3441°65
41:15
40°74
40°37
40:20
40:07
39°58
39°25
38:84
38°56
38-08
37°31
37:18
36:93
36:20
35°65
35°32
34:92
34:70
34°42
33°85
33'6
33:2
32°67
32°15
31°65
31:23
30°87
30:60
30°35
29°47
29°05
28°30
28-06
27:90
27°58
27:20
26°72
26°52
25°97
25°66
25°48
25°25
24°96
24°69
24°45
24°25
23:9
23:16
22°63
22°45
21°85
21°52
21:30
21:17

i
i=]

PR rt = he ae a Reha Sta het at a is er

B

BHHE ND HH eH

Reduction to
Vacuum

&
r

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

29047'7
051'9
055'3
058'5
059°9
061-0
065:1
0680
071°5
073°9
077'8
0842
085'3
087'5
093°7
098°4
101:2
1044
106°3
109°2
113°6
116
119°5
123°5
127°'9
132°2
135'8
138°8
141:2
143°2
150°7
1543
160.7
162°7
164:1
166°7
170°0
174:1
1758
180°5
183°4
184:7
186°6
189:1
1914
193°5
195:2
198
204:5
209:0
210°5
215:7
218°5
217°3
221°5

— ee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM— continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3420°67
20:22
20:02
19°72
19°55
19°20
18:73
18°55
18°30
17°62
17:50
17:00
16:70
16°46
16°28
16°04
15°75
15°53
14°80
14°50
14:00
13°50
13°22
12°90
12°50
12°26
11:70
~ 11:40
11°25
10°75
10°55
10°31
09°96
09°85
09°52
09°36
09°11
08°96
08°74
08°17
08:03
07:50
07:05
06°76
06°44
05°88
05°73
05°32
05:08
04°40
04:02
03°72
03°37
02°90
02°60

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

Ind

el al a la

Deere
BBB

ee ee i pg ee ee ke

a

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

29225°7
229°6
231°3
233°9
235°3
232°9
242°3
243°9
246:0
251:8
252°8
257°1
259-7
261°8
263°3
265-4
267'8
269-7
276:0
278°6
282°8
287-1
289°5
292°3
295°7
297°8
302°6
305°2
8055
3108
312°5
3201
3176
318°5
320°3
322°7
324°9
326°2
32:0
333:0
3342
338°7
342°6
345°1
3479
352°7
3541
357°5
359°6
3654
368°7
3713
BT4-4
378°'3
3810

2

2

REPORT—~1900,

URANIUM—continued.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

340203
01°37
01-15
00:90
00°66
00°45
00°35
00:06

3399°83
99°64
99°40
98°75
98°40
98°10
97-75
97°30
97:10
96-71
96°58
96°20
95°73
95°48
94°92
94°45
94-05
93°33
93:12
92°81
92°50
91°37
91:19
90°98
90°45
90:10
89°88
89°50
89°21
88°65
88°50
88:17
87:30
86°65
86:26
85°79
85°50
84:7
84°58
84:37
84°15
83°94
83°55
82°80
82°45
82°11
81:00

Intensity
and
Character

lomo

a eg Ha ee oa iA lll ral atl A elaine a

6B

Pee HE Ee eee bo

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

293859
391°6
393°5
395°5
397°8
399°5
400-4
402-9
4049
406°6
408°6
414:3
417-2
4199
4229
426°8
428°6
432:0
433°0
436-2
440°3
442-4
447-4
451°5
459°9
461:2
463:0
465°7
466:3*
4782
479'8
481-6
486°2
489:2
491°2
594:5
597-0
500'9
503°2
506°1
513°6
519-3
522°7
526°8
529°3
536
537°4
539-2
5411
542°9
546°3
5529
556°0
565°0
568°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3380°83
80°37
79°95
79°80
79°52
79:00
78°87
78°40 |
78:15
7755
77°20
76°68
75-95
75°05
74:6
74:32
[4:22
73°84
73°57
73°20
72:74
72:18
71:45
7115
71-06
70°83
70°60
70°28
70-11
69°82
69-4
69:00
68:90
68°44
68:02
67°85
67°68
67:50
66:99
66:70
66°50
65°77
65°30
64:78
64:05
63°60
63°40
62:87
62°15
61:86
61:37
60:97
60°80
60°50
60:27

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

ew A dee Ra ae deed

Reduction to

253

Vacuum
1
A+ —
A
0:95 8-4
” »”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” Pr
” ”
” »
0-94 D
” ; ”
” ”
” %
” ”
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 9
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
3 8°5

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

2957071
574-2
5778
579-1
5816
586°1
587°3
591°5
593°6
598:9
601°9
606°5
612°9
620°8
623
627-2
628-1
631-4
633°8
637-0
640'1
646-0
652°4
6551
656°1
657°9
659°8
662-7
666:2
666°8
669°5
674:0
674-9
678-9
682-6
684-1
685°6
687°2
692°5
694-3
696:0
702°5
7066
711-2
CAEL
721°5
7235
728°5
734-4
737-0
7413
7448
746°3
749°0
7510

254

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3359-73
59-2
59-05
58-75
58-60
58-06
57°70
57-32
56°65
56:35
5615
56:00
55°56
5524
54-94
54°65
54-22
53°75
53-40
53:20
52:81
51:98
51:83
51:40
51-05
50°80
50°45
50:20
49:56
49°19
48°85

/ 48°45

48-00
47°72
47-17
46:87
. 46:56
46°35
46-13
46-00
45°67
| 45-00
44-45
44-9
43-60
43-1
42-83
42:5
41:83
411
40°80
40°47
40-23
39°56
\ 39°37

|

REPORT—1900.

UnaniuM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

B

pr Le pte plac a yo

RH RD RR REE ee ee

Nore
BUBB

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

29755'8
760°5
7618
7645
765°7
770°6
7738
7773
783°1
7858
7876
788°9
792°'8
778-0
798'3
799°9
805°7
808°9
8120
812°9
817-2
824°6
825°9
829°8
832°9
835-7
838-2
840°5
845°6
849-4
8525
856-0
860°1
862°5
867°5
870°1
8729
8748
8768
877'9
880°9
8869
891°8
894
899-4
904
906°3
909
9152
922
9245
927-4
929°6
935°6
937°3

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3339-715
32°00
38°62
38°10
37°93
37:50
36°84
36°42
36°12
35°78
35°4
34:99
34°60
34:40
3410
33°40
32°60
32°12
31°93
31°45
31:12
30°93
30°65
30°50
30°08
29°65
29°47
29°15
28°70
28°40
27°66
27°42
27°20
26°88
26°52
26°32
25°84
25°36
24°77
23°50
23°25
23°13
22°83
22°55
22°26
21°9
21°51
21°37
21:07

: 20°46
19°46
19:00
18°45
18°35
17-99

URANIUM—cyntinued.

Intensity
and
Character

B

o

j=)

BREE ER REE ER ERE Re BP PS ee EE ee eee

i
i=]

wl ol ge aaa ah lal a a)

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

d (Mg)

o~

29939°2
940°6
942-0
948-7
950°2
9540
960°0
963-7
966°3
969°5
973
976°6
980°1
981-9
984-6
990°9
998-1

30001'3
004°1
008°5
011-4
013'2
0155
017-0
022-2
0247
026°3
029°2
033°3
0360
0427
044°8
046°8
050°5
0534
055°2
059'1
063-4
068°5
080 0
082-1
083°5
086-1
088 7
091-4
095
098°3
099°5
002 2
007-7
016°9
1210
1262
126°9
130-1

255

256

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

331762
17°37

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Lomo

pet dla ah mil alte

Is hoe
B 6

el el ee eee eee ee ee eee

Reduction to

Vacuum

i

A+ ==
A

0:93 8:6
”» ”
” ”
” bb)
” ”
> ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”»
” »
” ”
” ”
bh) %”)
39 ”
” ”
” bb]
” ”
” ”
” 9
” tb]
+e) ”
” ”
” »”»
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” bh)
” ”
” ”
9 ”
9 ”
+h] ”
” ”
” be)
” th)
th} ”
” te)
” ”
39 th)
” th)
2” %”
0:92 as
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »”
” ”
” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

30133°5
135°7
140:0
142
147
1552
159°8
164°4
165:2
167:2
1732
178°8
185
1858
188°8
193
197-1
2045
207°9
208°7
211°3
215'7
217°5
220

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 257

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character re (ee Be in Vacuo
A

3295-95 1 0:92 86 30331:7
95°69 1 iy ” 3341
95°37 1 ” » 337-0
95:00 i 73 : 340°4
94°28 In ” ” 347:0
94:13 1 5 FE 348:2
93°77 1 C5 + 351-7
93°15 1 ne : 357-5
92°51 at rf 3 363-4
91°51 3 ” ” 372°6
91:23 1 Fi ss 3755
91°10 1 99 9 3764
90:63 1 3 . 380°7
90:27 1 +3 n 384:0
89°60 1 ce fh 390°3
89°50 1 % .” 391-2
88°75 1 ” 87 398:0
88°38 2 7 ” 401-4
88:06 1 7 FP 404:4
87°63 2 fr ee 408°3
86'8 In rr Fi 416
86°63 l a Fe 4176
86°42 il rf ; 419-6
86:09 1 7 s 422°6
85°76 1 55 3 425°6
85°44 2 A or 428°6
85:20 1 A 7 430°8
84:80 1 o : 434°5
84°53 1 a s 4371
84:17 1 + op 440°4
83:92 1 . * 442-7
83°30 In <1 % 448°5
82°8 In 4 5: 453
82°68 1 A: oF 454°2
82:3 In 5 5 459
81:83 1 - a 4621
81:70 1 " A 464°3
81:26 il “f a 468-4
80°95 i) ss 470°3
80°80 1 3 a 4717
80°53 1 e i 474-1
80:20 1 7 Py 477-2
79°75 1 * o 4814
79°38 1 % 484-9
79°25 1 “5 5) 486-0
78°6 1b “5 % 492-1
177 2b * 5 500°5
17:27 1 7 Cf 504°5
76°80 1 cs 5 5089
16°32 1 % 5 513°3
756 1b 2 5, : 520
74:70 1 ” 4 528°5
74:40 1 He FS 5313
74:12 1 7 Fs 533°9
73°65 In [ 4 5383

1900. s

58

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

327345
73°25
72°75
72°33
71°65
713
70°73
70°32
69°95
69°65
69-20
68°95
68°8
68°35
67°93
67:80
67-40
67:17
66°68
66°35
66:07
65:99
64°83
64°55 -
63°93
63°67
63°28
63:00
62°80
61°89
61:27
61:15
61°05
60°70
59°99
59°65
59°08
58°55
58:23
57-95
57:50
57:40
56°88
56°60
56:18
55°50
55°20
55-00
54:73
5444
53°50
52:95
52°80
52°50
52°3

REPORT-——1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

5

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
A+ as
A
0:92 87
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
|
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
”” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
09 i
FOL

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

3054071
5420
546°6
550°6
556°9
560
565°5
669°3
572'8
575°6
579°8
582-2
584
587°8
591-7
592°9
596°7
599°8
603°4
606°5
609°1
609°9
620°8
623°4
639°2
6316
6353
6379
639°8
648-4
654°2
6553
656°3
659°6
666°2
669-4
6743
679°8
682°8
685'4
689-7
690°6
695°5
698-2
602:1
708-5
711-4
713°3
7158
7185
727-4
732°6
7339
7368
739

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 259

_ URANIUM—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and a ) an | Frequency
Spectrum Character we i in Vacuo
A

825115 In 0°91 87 30749°6
51:00 1 »” ” 751:0
50°50 1 FP " 7557
50:07 1 Fy “ 7598
49-62 1 ” ” 764:0
49°37 1 3 Pe 766°4
49°12 1 ” ” 768'8
48°52 1 3 of T745
48°17 1 ” ” T7178
47°96 1 PH rf 7798
47°75 1 FF fist ss 781°8
47-43 1 re of 7848
46°55 1 3 F 793'1
46°33 2 er 7 7952
45°95 In Fr Fi 798'8
44:98 1 a os 8080
44°69 1 “5 m 810°7
44°39 2 of fe 813°6
43°85 1 * a 818'8
42°90 1d Fr Fe 827:8
42°17 1 A Ef 834-7
41-77 1 4 ef 838°5
41°30 1 7 7 843°0
41:00 1 ¥ = 845°9
40°55 1 or 9 850°2
40°30 1 3 Pe 851°6
39°80 1 - FE 857:3
39°65 a ” ” 858°7
38°62 1 P | 7 868°6
38°10 In E re 873°5
37-4 1b B BE 880
36°93 I ; o 884°7
36°4 ln a5 Be 890
35°44 1 is FE 898:°9
35°20 In 3 Fa 901:2
34:70 In a # 906:0
34:14 1n - pS 911°3
33°53 hi 5 oe 917-1
32°83 In ey . 923°8
32°33 2 x “f 928°6
32:13 1 a9 = 930°5
31:2 1b = Fi 939°5
30°3 1b | oy ” | 948
29°65 3 j 5 Fe 954:3
28°7 1b ¥ 5 963
27°6 1b ns + 974
27°33 1 a Fy 976°5
26:97 1 “ BS 980:0
26°33 2 PA “e 986:2
25°9 In ae Pe 990
24-45 2 + Ne 31004°2
23°88 1 * A 009°7
23°65 1 ey ¥, 0119
23'2 1b x re 016
22°65 1 H - ss 021°6

§2

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3222°46
22°16

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

BS

=]

Serre Pt sk Pg a a Fa a eee

Reduction t°

Vacuum
AH a.
| A
0°91 8:7
” ”
0°90 ”
” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

31923°4
026°3
032°1
048
053°3
061°6
063°6
067°5
074'3
078°5
084:5
092°6
095'8
096°7
100'9
104°5:
1069
109°7
112°3
116°9
1243
129°7
132:1
136
142°8
146
150°3
156
160°5
169
1790
180'9
184
189°9
194°4
1977
223
206°5
208°1
212°3
2152
20371
227°5
233°3
238°2
243°5
247-2
251
256°2
257-7
271°4
278
283
290
299

Planters

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3193°45
93°36
92°82
92°30
91°90
91:02
90°86
90°6
89°65
89°17
88°50
87°65
86°35
85°85
85°33
84:9
84°60
84:15
83°63
83:00
82°72
81:5
81:2
80°75
80°48
80°33
79°98
79°50
79:18
79:03
78°45
77-79
77-48
76°78
76°34
75°50
74:96
74°15
73°82
728
72:24.
71:95
71°53
71:22
70°96
70°69
70°48
70:2
69°2
68°55
68°33
67:9
67:22
66°64
65°62

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

BR BE eRe eee Pe

Speen ERA rt ee tak Fh rt NO) at Df nth It

Reduction
to Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

313049
3058
311:2
316-4
320°4
329°2
330°8
333
342°7
347°2
353°8
362-2
3750
379°9
3850
389
3923
396°7
4018
408°0
410°8
423
426
43071
432°8
434°3
437-7
442-4
445°6
447-1
452°9
4594
462°5
469-4
474°8
4821
4875
495'5
498°8
509
5145
5173
5216
524°6
527-2
529°9
532°0
535
545
5512
5534
558
564°5
570'3
580°5

261

bo

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3165°41
65°20
64:29
63°90
63°10
62°95
62°4
61:95
61°66
60:90
60°48
60 06
59:94
59°41
59:06
58-7
58'3
57:97
57:57
56:70
56°22
55°98
55°53
55°40
55:02
54°55
54:30
53°62
53°36
52°57
52°45
51°81
51-2
50°90
50°62
50°50
50°10
49°76
49°34
49°17
48°85
48°73
48-40
48°28
47-93
47-19
46°85
46-43
46:2
45°67
A547
45:09
44-84
43°45
42-74

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM— continued.

Intensity
and
Character

BS

Se ee eee aS te a ee eS oe ne

6B

ea ae la) all al a

Reduction to

Vacuum
he
0:90 8:7
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”?
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
»” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” EE
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
fs 91

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

31582°6
5846
593-7
597-6
605°6
607-0
612°6
617
620:0
627°6
631°8
636-0
637-2
642°5
646:0
650
654
6569
660°9
669°6
674-4
6769
681-4
682-7
686°5
6912
693°8
700°5
703°2
(GL
712°3
718°8
725
7280
730'8
732°0
736°0
739 4
743°6
745°3
748°6
7498
753°2
7544
7579
7654
768°8
773-0
715
780-7
782-7
786°5
789°1
803°1
810°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 263

URANIUM—continued.

Re rction to

Wave-length Intensity Voowes
Spark and
Spectrum Character KF 1
A
3142°46 1 0:90 | 91
42-03 1 $ . 4
41°75 i 0:88 ”
39°69 2 » 9
39°29 1 a Bf
38°99 1 a sf
38°6 In ” ”
38-4 In ” ”
37°85* 1 7 A
3701 1 ” ”
36°30 in ” ”
35°92 1 is 7
349 1b ” »
33°99 1 » ”
33°69 1 ” ”
33°50 In 3 4
32°75 il E $
32°32 In 3 5
32°07 1 »» ”
31:72 In 5 *
31°42 In a aA
30°67 2n a 4
29°86 2 a ri
28°88 In i F
28°20 In A, 4
27:75 In rs %
27°35 i a +
26°78 1 2 %
26°28 2 * FA
25:03 2 a P
24:53 1 a 4
24°28 1 Pr 3
23°82 1 » ”
23°70 1 P 4
22'8 In 3 ‘
22°43 in Pe £
21:97 In Fe 4
21°49 1 # Fa
21°15 1 2 4
20°97 1 3 :
20:77 In aa 4,
20°25 In x %
19:99 In s ;s
19:42 2 3 ‘
19°13 In 4 ‘,
18°88 in 3 ¥,
18°51 In eS 5,
18:13 1 i ¥
ITT th » »
17:14 1 ¥ i,
16°83 1 ” ”
16:53 1 » ”
16:02 2

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

318132
8175
820-4
841°3
845'3
848°3
852
854
859°9
868°4
875°6
879°5
890
899-1
902-2
904-1
OTT
916:1
918-7
9222
925°3
933-0
949-2
951-2
958-2
962°8
966°9
972°7
977'8
990°6
935:7
998°3

32003°0
004:2
013°6
017-2
022:0
0269
030-4
032°1
034-4
039°6
042°3
0482
0511
0537
057°5
061°3
065°8
071°6
0748
077-9
083°0

264

a

Wayve-length
Spark
Spectrum

3115-12
14°75
14°42
13°75
13:16
12°50
12°35
11°76
11°52
10°96
10°65
10°3
09:9
09-4
08:79
08°43
08:07
07:79
07°65
OT-47
069
06°42
06°29
05°73
05°50
05:20 |
04:8
04:27
03°87
03°10
02:70
02°55

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—vontinued.

Intensity
and
Character

HH NH EEE EP eee ee

lemon

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

32092-4
096-1
099°5
106°4
112°5
119°3
120°9
127:0
129°5
135°2
138°4
142
146
151
157°6
161°4
165°1
165:0
169°5
1713
177
180:2
183°6
189°4
191°7
194°8
199
204-5
208°7
216°7
220°8
222°4
229°7
237°9
239°'8
246°5
250
255
257
260°5
261°7
268:1
28071
2832
290:9
292°1
297°5
299°3
3018
305-4
311-7
316°5
320°3
335°5
339

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS,

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3090°70
90°45
89°98
89°10
88°68
88:05
87°80
87:23
86:90
86°13
85°60
84:8
84°37
83°75
83:2
82-7
82°14
81:18
80°83
80:10
79°40
79:05
78°55
77°95
177
7750
16-7
76:2
75:93
75°60
75°15
74°62
74:47
73°93
73°60
73°3
7291
[247
71:87
716
W117
70°80
70°40
69-6
69°3
68°74
67°85
67:37
67:00
66°43
65°8
65°4
65:02
64:70
64°30

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

in
In
In
i

In

o>

omen

l=}

Fe ye ple el rao

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

265

32346°0

348-5
353°5
362°7
367-1
373-7
376'3
381:3
385'8
393'8
399°3
408

412°3
418°8
424-5
430

435°7
445'8
449°5
457-2
464°5
4681
4735
4799
482'5
484-6
493-1
498

512

505°7
509'4
615'1
516-7
522'3
526°8
529

533-2
537°8
549-2
548

551°6
555:5
558-8
569

571

BIT-4
586'8
591-9
595'8
601-9
609

612

616:9
620°3
624-6

to
So:

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

306398
63°62
63°25
62°97
62°62
62:23
61°74
61:30
60°80
60°15
59°68
59°3
69:1
58°05
57°35
56°83
55:99
55°71
55°18
54°86
54:5
53°42
52°96
52°56
52:00
51:43
51:20
50°61
50°30
49:9
49-05
48°75
48°45
47-98
47-66
46°96
46°6
45°55
45:1
44:26
44-1
43:3
42°85
42:0
41:3
40°6
40:00
39°3
38°58
38°01
37°63
37:38
36:7
36°53
36°05

eb
BS

no)

lon

Q

am a a a Na ak a eae oh a

i
i=]

a ee etl ool oll at
coor o

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

326280
631'8
635°8
638-7
642°5
646°6
519°3
656°9
661°9
668 8
673°9
678
680
691°3
698°8
703°3
7133
7163
722°0
725°3
729
740°4
745-7
7500
756:0
7619
764°6
7710
7743
7785
187-7
791-0
7942
799°2
802°8
810:2
814
8254
830
839°3
841
850
8545
864
871
881
885°3
893
900°7
906'9
910°9
913°7
921
923-0
928-1

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3035-60
34:50
34:15
33°86
33°52
33°27
32°52
32°09
31°65
30°9
30°45
29°52
29°23
28°7
28°48
28°33
27-77
26:99
26°77
26°55
26°25
25°16
24-57
23°9
23°4
22°94
22°58
22°31
21°68
21°30
21:02
20°71
20°35
19-9
19-40
18°95
18°68
18-2
17:50
17-05
16°50
16°16
15°78
15:03
14:35
13-96
13°60
13:49
13:08
12°83
12°22
12°04
11°66
11:30
10°87

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

i=} os

i=}

BER AA, FA SAEs ttt rh debt et
BB

io”

Bo

se cil ae La ag — lida la a

|

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

32933°0
945°5
948°8
952:0
965°6
958°3
966°4
9711
9754
984
989-0
999:2

33003°4
008
010°5
012°1
018°2
026°7
029°1
031°5
045°6
046°6
053°1
060
066
070°9
0749
077°8
084:°7
087-8
091°9
095°3
099°3
104
109°6
1146
117-6
123
133°5
135°5
1415
145:2
149-4
157'7
165'1
169°4
173°4
1746
1791
179°9
188°6
190°6
194°7
198°7
2034

267

268 REPORT—1900.
URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and cic, a aa Frequency
Spectrum Character Lae in Vacuo
At+ Ey
3010°49 | 1 0°85 9-5 33207°6
09:80 1 4 2 215°3
69°51 1 if 4 2186
09-00 1 ; . 224-1
08-29 1 J - 232-0
pe | Bee ae
06:2 1b : - 255
05°65 1 - 4 261-2
05-23 1 4 : 265°8
04:9 In . A 269°5
04-70 1 is 2 271°6
04:30 1 te a 276-1
03-45 ‘ig e : 85-5
03:17 1 ; i 288-6
02:80 1 ; ‘ 292-7
02:50 1 A - 296-1
01-76 i , i 3043
re 1 ” ” i
01:32 1 B ¥ 309:2
00:90 In 4 313°8
00:26 1 4 % 329°5
2999-28 1 4 ; 3318
99-15 1 BA ‘ 333°3
98:50 In E A 340°5
98-2 In ‘ 344
97°70 In Hs ‘ 349-4
97-48 In * 9:6 351°
97-15 In 4 355°
lee | | See
1 ? ” r
59 CS a ss
rt ln ’ ”
95°6 In x" 373
95-00 1d ~ 5 379-4
94:57 1 ., if 3843
93-80 1 if 392°8
93-46 1 E : 396-6
aegis. eee:
; ” ” 2)
91-10 In ‘ \ 4999
90-65 In : i 428-6
90:1 1b : 434
39.51 ; : 1407
. 1 ; 5 .
88-05 In i i 457-0
87:93 1 r “4 458°5
86°35 In sf 47611
85-90 1 is : 481-1
85-24 1 S : 488-6
84-74 1 3 . 494-1
84-19 1 :, . 490°3
83°85 1 if ve 504‘
83°60 1 “ : 507-0

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued.

Wayve-length
Spark-
Spectrum

298289
82°40
81:95
81:3
81:18
80°80
80°46
79°31
78°30
77-95
TT41
76-46
75-97
75-73
15°25
75:0
742
73-40
73°20
72°75
72°3
71-72
71:17
70:90
70°56
69°85
69°6
69°35
68°68
68-45
68-02
66°77
66-26
65:8
65:5
65°17
6476
64:35
63°70
63-30
62:87
61:28
61-02
60°38
59:96
59-20
58-25
5785
573
56°85
56-46
56°15

“673
55°20
54-92

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to

Vacuum
an
A

9°6

Ja)

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

33514°7
520-4
525°5
533
534-2
538-4
542°3
5552
566°6
570°5
576°7
587'3
592°9
595-6
601-1
604
613
621°9
624-2
628°3
634
641°0
647°2
650°1
654:0
662°1
665
66°77
675°3
677°9
682-9
69771
702°8
708
713-4

"7152
7199
724°5
7319
7365
741-4
759°6
762-4
769°8
TT44
783°2
794-1
798°7
805
8101
8146
818°1
822°9
829'0
832°2

270

Wave-:ongth
Spark
Spectrum

295446
53:9
53°45
53°0
52°85
52°46
62:00
51°67
51°45
51:16
50:93
50°62
50°37
50:04
49°64
49:03
48:56
48°12
AT 52
468
46°38
45:92
44°73
44°62
44°22
43:93
43°50
43°25
42:90
42°13
41:95
41:35
40:80
40°39
40:02
39°50
38°95
38°60
38:1
37°40
37:23
37:00
36°85*
36°46
35°60
35°0
34:5
33°86
33°65
33°33
33°03
32°65
32°23

REPORT —1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

eae
BBS

a a a aoe a La

a

FSi RON Sn Seopa es a ean ta

He
op

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

33837°4
844
849'0
854
856'1
860:1
865:6
869°4
871°9
8753
877'9
8815
884-4.
888°2
892°8
899°8
905:2
910:2
917-1
925
930°3
935°6
949-2
950°5
955'1
958°8
963°9
966°3
970°3
978°8
981:2
988-2
994:°5
999°3
003°6

34009°6
0159
020:0
026
033°9
0359
038°5
040°4
044°9
054'8
062
068
075:0
O77°4
081-1
0846
089-0
093°9

eee —@—eeeemcoOrmOrmrmCrC——™—~—~—~—

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2931°90
31°60
31°45
30°87
30°68
30°47
29°85
29°70
29°16
28°61
28°16
27:77
27-45
27:30
26°64
26°42
26:18
26:00
25°61
25°25
24°62
23°52
23°20
22-90
22°71
22°23
22°10
21°76
21-15
20°77
20°46
20°23
20:00
19°50
19:08
18°98
18°73
18:48
178
17:2
16°90
16°54
15°80
15°57*
15°32
14:82
14:69
14:30
14:03
13°50
12°83
12°65
11:90

URANIUM—continued,

Intensity
and
Character

PAL rat ett fo pdf eh bh Ak eke eh ft ft ooh eft ot oh dP deh

BRB Ree eee

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

34097°8
101'3
103:0
109°8
1120
114°4
121-7
123°3
129:7
1362
141°3
145°9
149-6
151°4
159°1
161°7
164°5
1665
182'8
1753
1827
195°6
199:3
202°8
2050
2106
212.2
2162
223°2
2276
2313
234:0
2367
242°5
247°5
248°6
251°6
254°5
262°5
269°5
2731
2773
286:0
288.7
291:°7
297°6
298-1
303°7
306°8
313°1
320°0
323'1
3319

9

“

71

bo
bo

REPORT—1900.
URANIUM—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity aes Oscillation
Spark and cs > aS ee a Frequency
Spectrum Character a Les in Vacuo
A

2911°60 1 0°83 9:9 34335°5
11:22 if ” ” 340°0
10°88 1 ” ” 344:0
10°75 In ” ” 345°'5
10°3 1b » 7 351
09 78 1n “a 3 357-0
09°30 i ” 362°6
08°8 1b ” ” 368°5
08°31 3 ” 7% 374:3
07°65 Ind r 382-1
07:00 in 53 a 389'8
06°85 2 % Be 3916
05°8 lb 5 ss 404
05°32 1 » x 4097
04:52 2n a % 419-2
04:07 1 » . 424-6
03°63 1 0°82 is 429'7
03-08 1 » 99 4363
02°50 1 ” ” 443°2
02"1 lb m3 19 448
01:70 1 ” ory 4517
01:27 i ” ” 457°9
00:22 In ” ” 470°2

2899°65 In # ATT'1
98°80 1 ” ” 487°1
98°12 In + - 491-2
97-70 1 ” ” 499-2
97-45 1 ” ” 503'2
97:00 In . 10:0 508°5
96-77 1 4 5 511°2
96°52 it 5 RS 514:2
96°15 In 3 517-4
95:96 1 s 3 520°9
95:60 In x uf 5251
95°30 1 2 # 528-7
9498 1 7 "4 532-5
94°60 1 ” 3 5371
94:20 1 * x 541-9
93°80 In ; f 546-6
93°5 lb + A 550
92°70 1 9 4 559°8
92-25 1 ” ” 565°1
91°80 In _ : 570°5
91-10 i a P 578-9
90°82 1 S 3 582°3
90°50 1 " % 5861
90°15 1 + : 590°3
89°65 2 ” ” 596°8
89°32 il x a 600°2
89°12 1 x x 602°7
88:76 1 * 4 606:9
88°42 1 £ , 611-0
88:28 1 ” ” 612-7
87-97 1 > : 616-4
87°65 1 3 65 6202

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

328731
87:00
86°87
86°50
86:10
35°70
85°49
85:28
85:05
84:70
84°43
83°87
83°50
83:00
82°82
82:00
81-67
81-1
80°50
80:28
80:00
79°70
78:95
78:3
7786
7765
77:10
76°55
759
75:24
74:81
74:16
73°75
73°60
73°35
73:1
72:53
72:15
71:30
71:04
70°80
70°4
69°49
69°00
68°87
68°51
68°20
67°89
67.45
67-15
66°90
66:47
66°22
65°73
65°40

1900,

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Se ee

len
BSB

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
A+ =i
A
0:92 86
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
” ”
” | ”
” } ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
“ 10-1
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” bbl
23 ”
” ”
”» ”
” ”
” ”
” ”

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

30624:3
628-0
629°6
6340
638'8
643°6
646°2
649°9
651°4
655°6
658:9
665°7
670'1
6761
6783
688-1
6922
699
706°2
708°7
7122
7158
7249
723
738°0
740°6
TAT 2
7539
762
769°7
TT4:9
782°8
787-7
789°6
7926
796
802°4
807:0
817°3
820°5
823°4
828
839°3
8452
846'8
8512
8550
858-7
867°7
864'1
870°8
8760
879-1
8840
889:0

273

274 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

| Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and waar -T|| ota aa Frequency
Spectrum Character A ee in Vacuo
A

3265°20 1 0°92 10°1 30891°5
64°95 1 0°81 39 894°5
64°70 1 ” * 897°6
64°35 1 ” Fa 901°8
64°18 1 5 + 903-4
63°65 In ” _ 910-4
63°28 1 ” = 914°9
62:90 In ” > 9195
62°72 1n ” 5 921-7
62°45 in ” 925°0
61°8 1b *) 934
61°31 1 7 u 938°9
60°86 1 a i 944-4
60°53 1 9 A 948°5
59°85 2 3 x, 956°8
59°36 1 » a 962°8
58°95 2 > _ 967°8
58°40 In > + 9745
58°25 In ” > 976°4
57°53 in » + 985°2
57-15 In » s 987°8
56°63 i an . 996-2
56°30 In 4 35000°2
56°05 1 £ th 003°3
55°67 1 x " 008°0
55-00 1 os op 0161
54:55 1 - - 021°7
54-30 1 5 A 024°8
53°90 1d : mo 030°7
53-60 1 “) 3 033°3
53°50 1 7 5 0346
53°07 1 Ss Fr 0349
52°83 1 oy 5 042°8
52°50 1 » * 046°9
52-20* 1 ” 050°5
51-90 1 - sn 054-2
51°35 In 59 + 061:0
50°S5 1 3 5 065°9
50°57 1 + “ 070°6
50-0 in 3 + 078
49°8 In > a 080
49°55 4 5; 5. 078°2
49°26 1 * = 086°8
49-00 1 nf “ 089°9
48°75 in 9% ” 093°0
48°35 J 7 10:2 097°8
48°12 1 A ” 100°7
47°83 1 5 a3 1043
47:50 In ” x 108°3
46°95 1 > is 1148
46°70 1 5 " 1182
46°44 1 , AS 121-4
46°21 | 1 9 Fi 124-2

———— eee leer

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 275

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3246-00
45°70
45°43
45:10
44°78
44°60
43°95
42°98
42°60
42°30
42°20
41°48
41°25
40°78
40°60
40:00
39°2
38°73
38°40
38°10
37°86
37°40
37°31
37:00
36:1
35°88
35°68
34°82
34°70
34:2
33°90
33°35
32°75
32°53
32°16
31:7
31:05
305
29°96
29°4
29:00
28°1
27:90
27°47

, 27-05
26°77
26°60
26:28
25:90
25°65
25:5
24°95
24°70
24:45

23°65

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

ion

B

ion

ec terra tage ea t= a a ear ar

ee

Reduction to

Vacuum
1
A+ <-
A
O81 10:2
” 22
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
9 ”
» ”
ea ”
” ”
” 29
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
|
3 ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” | ”
|
”
” | ”
|
Fy | ’
” ”
” ”
” »
” ”
0:80 é
” ”
” ”
” 10:3

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

351268
130°5
133°9
1380
1419
144:1
152-2
1642
168°8
172°6
173°8
182°8
185°6
191-4
193°7
201-1
211:0
2168
220°9
224°6
2277
2333
2345
238°3
248°5
252°3
2548
265°5
266°9
273
2769
283°7
291-2

T2

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

3223°24
22°80
22°63
22°27
22°08
21:48
21°20
20°75
20°57
20°34
19:89
19°26
19:06
18°85
18-70
18°43
18:05
17-75
17°3
17:00
16°88
16°52
16°15
16:05
15°85
15°30
15:18
14:90
14:73
1412
139

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to
Vacuum

5

ee a age ee ee

stip leeds ell mentioned

El

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

35410:0
415°5
417-7
422°2
426°6
432-1
435°6
441°3
443°5
446-4
4521
460°0
461°5

» 465°2
467:0
470°5
475°2
479°0
485
488°5
4900
494-5
499-2
500°4
503:0
509'9
511-4
5149
5171
524°S
527°5
529
534
537°6
542
5475
554
558°0
562
565°9
570°6
576°3
5807
588°5
593°9
595°9
612-4
6175
622°5
630°3
636°1
651-7
6543
6649
679°2

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMEN'IS.

URANIUM— continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum
Spark and

Spectrum Character Pe i
a

3202°30 1 0*80 10°3
O175 1 . g
01:45 1 d i
00°93 J . i
00°42 In ; 4
00:22 In . i
2799'8 1b f i

ae a . 10-4
98°28 1 a 5
97:87 1 2 é
97°45 In £ i
97°25 In % :
96°80 1 4 i
96°1 1b 7 ‘
95°65* 1 a ‘
95°30 2 ke i
95-00 il ‘ y
94°50 In a I;
94:05 D) z ‘i
93°54 1 3 i
92°15 In Ks a
91-4 In 3 ‘
91:16 1 i %
90°78 In ; :
90°4 1b qi i
89°9 1b ci k
89-2 1b et ‘
88-7 1b bs ‘
88°24 il ki ‘
87-45 1 hi i
869 1b < %
86:27 ln a 4
86:0 In bi ‘
85°76 In ‘4 a
85°50 1 7 g
85°30 1 id s
85-02 1 . ‘
84:77 it i z
84:57 1 i ”
84:12 1 si
83:99 n | 0-79 is
83°55 in * -
83°33 In a -
82°52 © In if
82°22 1 v. Z
81:90 1 i :
81°67 1 ‘3 Z
81°52 1 : ¥
81:16 1 ne 3
80°89 In i 3
80°13 il by .
79°53 In < ;

79°05 In

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

35674'2
6817
685'8
692°1
698°6
7012
706°5
714
725'8
7311
7364
739°0
T44T
754
759'5
763°9
7678
TTA 1
7799
786°5
8043
814
817-0
821-9
827
833
842
849
8545
864:7
872
879'9
883
886°5
859°7
892°4
896°0
899:2
901°8
907°8
909°4
915:0
9178
9283
9321
936°2
939°2
941:2
945°8
949°3
959°1
966°9
973-1

27

7

8 REPORT—1900

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity as Oscillation

Spark and S| ae Frequency

Spectrum Character Be: Le: in Vacuo

r
2778°35 1 0:79 10°4 35982°2
WT20 1 ”» ” 998-1
76°66 1 ” ” 36004'1
76:45 In ” ” 006°8
75°95 In ” ” 013°3
75°60 1 ” 10°5 017'8
75°50 1 ” y) 019-1
75°37 1 ” ” 020°9
75°16 1 ” ” 023°5
74:88 1 ” ” 0271
74:54 1 ” ” 031°5
74:25 1 ” ” 035:3
73°90 1 ” ” 039°8
73°74 1 ” ” 0420
73°20 1 ” ” 048°9
42-45 1 ” ” 054°8
72°45 1 + 5 058-7
72°33 1 ” A 060°3
72:02 1 ” ” 064:3
71:69 1 1 A 068°6
71°35 In ” “ | 072°9
70°85 1 + a 079°5
70°41 i 5 i 085°3
70°15 1 es a | 088°6
69°56 1 > - 096°3
69-40 1 ” ” 098°4
69°17 1 “6 > | 101°4
68°95 1 “5 a 104:°3
68°53 1 ” 3 109°8
68°30 1 ae A 113°9
67°85 1 rs * 118:7
97:52 In 2 os 122°9
66:97 il a a 130-1
66:26 1 45 4 139°4
66:00 1 os BS 142°8
65:78 1 ” ” | 145-7
65°50 1 * 5 | 149-1
65:3 1br y ” 153

64:80 1 a “n | 158°5
64°35 1 4 A 164-4
63°82 1n 4 | x 171°4
63°57 1 = | a 174°6
62°98 1 ” | ” 182°3
62°50 In 5 | 4 | 188-6
61:90 1d a 55 196-4
61°55 1 ” ” 201'1
61:33 1 ” ” 203°9
60:46 1 - a 215°4
59°90 1 “ ” 222:7
59:05 1 | ” | ” 233°9
58:62 1 | ” ” 239°5
58°53 1 | ” ” 240°7
58:26 1 | 5 5 244°5
58-03 1 ‘, . | 246°3
57°93 1 | #5 i 35 i 248°6

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 279

URAIIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and (aia ies. rae Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ S., in Vacuo
A
2757-65 1 0:79 10°5 36252'3
57:40 1 r 255°5
57°25 1 ” ” 257°5
56°40 iT s ‘ 268-7
55.26 1 Bs 5 283-7
55°06 1 8 3 286°3
54:70 1d +s 5 291-0
54:27 2 FP sj 296°8
53°87 1 E . 301'8
53°52 1 ” ” 306°7
53°42 1 c . 308-0
53:09 1 4 a 312°3
52°57 1 99 4 319-2
52-03 2 ee 33 3263
51:32 1 # 10°6 335°6
50°95 1 » ” 340°5
50°69 1 » ” 343-9
50:50 1 ” ” 346°5
50:23 1 i , 350°0
50-05 1 3 i 352-4
48-98 1 4 . 366°5
48-60 1 33 $i 371-6
48-03 1 F i 3791
47-47 ‘| i 3865
47°26 1 - . 389°3
46°82 1 : r 395-1
46:27 1 + . 402-4
45-99 1 5 3 406'1
45°22 1 ; r 416°3
44-95 1 : i 419-9
44-50 1 - 3 425-9
44°38 1 % if 427°5
43°79 1 7 d 4354
43°50 2 Fe 4 439-2
43°32 1 = i 441-6
42°70 1 a 33 449-8
42°18 1 ” ” 456-7
41-88 1 0:78 ¥ 460°8
41-70 1 a F 463:1
41°34 1 7 i 467-9
41:19 i Fe Pe 469-9
40°94 1 ” ” 473°2
40°63 1 2» ” 477-4
40:40 1 ” ” 480°4
39°50 1 i 3 492-4
39:08 1 . a 498-0
38°65 1 a 34 503°8
38°50 il FS e 505'8
38°23 1 s 4 509°3
37°93 1 e if 513°3
37°75 1 - a 515°7
37°19 1 _ ” 523-2
36°45 1 3 43 533°1
36°10 1 G 537'8
35°86 1 _ 541:0

980 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity eae Oscillation

Spark and Frequency

Spectrum Character Nea a in Vacuo

. A
273565 1 0-78 10°6 36543°8
35°42 1 is a 546°9
35°05 1 * i 551°8
34:80 1 ” ” 5551
84:34 ul a ” 561°3
34-04 1 * ” 5653
33°85 in + ” 567°8
33°41 in ” 573°8
33°06 1 Fe 3 578-4
32°60 1br a ” 5846
32°15 In 3 ry) 590°6
81°52 1 a ” 5991
31°38 1 ey 3 600°9
30°90 in 7 ” 606°2
30°43 il RS if 613°7
30°20 1 " ” 616°7
29°75 ld 3 ie 622°8
29°35 1 7 ” 628-2
29°15 1 - é 630°9
28°8 ln 3 5) 635'5
28°65 in 3 ” 637°6
28:3 lbr zn Fr 642
27°65 1 - af | 651:0
27°40 1 a 73 6543
26°75 ln ; 10°7 663°1
26°61 al 53 oa 664°9
26:01 1 a + 673:0
25°78 1 3 si 6761
25°56 1 3 = 679:0
25°14 1 + a 684-7
24°55 in es x, 692°6
24:2 lbr 4 FF 697

23°90 il * » 701°4
23°80 1 ; a 7027
23°43 1 is ‘7 107-7
23:25 1 cr i 7101
22-90 1 & “a T7148
21°95 1n + 7 727-7
21°53 1 Fs ¥. 1343
21°25 1 ae a 7371
20°99 1 7 ai 740°6
20°78 1 5 £ 7435
20°50 1 * 93 TAT-2
20°33 1 Fe 5S 749'6
20:00 1 _ =, 754-0
19°63 1 Ps 3 759'1
19°43 1 . PF T61:7
TOS il 4 3 765°5
19:00 1 Vs - 7675
18°72 1 5 “5 T7113
18:18 1 53 7786
17°65 1 Ng 5 7858
17°25 in * ” 791°2
17:10 in A. 5S 793°2
16°63 1 Fi 799°6

EE Eee

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2716-48
16:20
16:09
15°66
15°40
15°10
14°68
14°40
14:04
13°57
13°33
12°68
12:20
11:86
11°64
11-23
10-70
10:20
09°63
09°12
08-60
08°45
08:05
07:79
07:59
07:09
06°85
06°6
06:3
05°87
05°33
04:90
04:2
03°83
02:9
01:95
01:68
01:50
01°08
00°38

2699°75
99°46
98°57
98°15
97:52
97:15
96°68
96:40
96:00
95°60
94.35
93°88
93°41
92°49
91:93

URANIUM— continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Reduction to

Vacuum

1
r

lop)

Bee ee

BRE RE R EP PpRPR Re
Bp 6B

BB

ENR RRR eRe

BEDPD NE NRP REPRE RP HEWN REPRE RP RE H

10°7

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

36801°6
8054
806°9
8128
816°3
820°3
826°1
829°8
835°7
841-1
844-4
8532
859°8
864-4
867-4
872°7
880°1
886°9
894-7
901°7
908-7
910°8
916-2
9198
922°5
929°3
932°5
936
940
946°0
953°4
959°2
969
973°9
985
999°5

370032
005'6
011-4
021:0
029-7
033-7
045-9
051-6
060°2
065°3
071°9
0758
081-2
096°7
101:2
110°5
116°9
129°5
137°3

282 REPORT—1900.

URBANIUM—continued.

oo a —— eee

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity oes Oscillation
Spark and ia? | > Stee Frequency
Spectrum Character as fea in Vacuo
A

2691:17 2 0:78 10°8 37147°8
90°65 1 = ks 155:0
90°15 | 1 os 3 161:9
89:23 1 B is 174:6
88°76 1 ; a 1811
88:07 1 i - 1913
87°55 In a re 1978
86°9 1br a sy 207
86:06 2 % x 218°5
85°7 In * 5 223
84:70 1 F s 237°2
84:40 1 ip 55 241°5
84:17 1 :. “J 2446
83°40 2 a “4 2554
82°40 2n 5 4 269'2
81°80 1 3 3 277°6
81°23 In = is 285°5
80:75 1 “3 Pe 292-2
80°3 In a B 298°5
80:0 In = as 303
79:1 ln fe 10:9 316
78°96 1 5 3; 317-1
78:53 1 - i 323-0
78°14 1 BS i 328°5
77:68 1 - n 335-0
77:25 1 x 5 340°9
76°75 1 S Ni 347°8
76°50 2 ss ea 3513
76:00 1 s - 358-3
75:18 2di = . 8369'S
74:63 In . i 5 377-5
74:10 In a 4 384 9
73°73 1 a * 3901
73°51 1 . ne 393-1
73°25 1 Me 7 396°8
72°80 1 * 4 403°0
72°38 1 a es 4089
72:08 1 3 _ 4131
71°40 1 - - 423-7
70:99 1 i 5 4284
70°65 In * - 433°2
70°50 in - D 438°2
69°9 1n hs 444
69°31 2 ~ i 452:0
69:02 1 Fa 2 456-0
68:28 1 * “p 466°5
68:11. 1 x a 468'8
67°25 In “ + 480°9
66°6 2br 3 : 490
65°96 1 ‘5 + | 499:0
65:76 1 55 5 501°9
64°24 2 5 x 513°6
63°95 1 | bs € 527°3
63:5 lbr | 5 i 3 534

|

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity

Reduction to
Vacuum

Wave-length Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ i in Vacuo
A

2663-3* lbr 0:78 10:9 37536'5
62-90 1 2 ” 542-1
62:2 lbr ; ” 552
61:27 1 #3 5 5652
60:23 1 $3 5 579°8
60°00 2 fr %9 583'1
59°60 1 3 c 588°7
59:19 in ” ” 594-7
58°85 1 3 # 600°2
58-49 1 i 53 604:9
58°20 1 3 # 608°5
57:96 1 " ” 611°9
57:45 In +. * 619°2
57°25 in ” ” 622-0
56'6 1b ef . 631
55:5 1b A “4 647
55:05 in s 110 653:1
54:70 1 0°76 5 6580
54:3 1b ” ” 664
54:00 1 5 e 668:0
63°50 1 ” ” 675-1
53°20 1 ” ” 679°3
52:95 2 i? 4h 682°9
52°8 In . e 685
52:27 1 f ss ou G
51:96 1 in i 697:0
51-40 1 a - 7049
50:95 In a a 7113
50-25 In x . 7213
49-65 1 a a 729°8
49-15 2 i z 737-0
48-84 In a = 7414
48:3 1b 32 a 749
48-00 in * 753°3
47-65 In “J i 7583
AT-AT in a As 760:9
47-1 1b a fe 766
46:6 1b x i 773
45:54 2 3 3 788°5
44°50 1 ” ” 803°3
44-22 1 4 5 807:3
43 62 1 i i: 815°9
43-38 1 3 . 819°4
42°9 In 5 826
42-00 1 Bs f 8391
41°66 1 * "i 844-0
41:2 In i Ss 851
40°43 1 a ss 861°6
40:00 1 a 5 867°8
39:70 1 ‘ a 872:1
39-45 1 a Ye 875'8
39:10 1 3 Fr 880:7
38:7 1b 886

284.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2638°4
37°82
37:48
373
36°33
35°91
35°59
35'3
346
34:2
33°35
32°74
32°50
32°08
31-74
31:42
31:15
30°7
29°95
29°26
28°99
28°57
28:02
27°62
26°70
25°98
25°30
24:99
23°62
22°50
21°86
21°39
21:08
20°80
20°30
20:18
19°37
18°25
17°36
16°99
16:13
15°21
14:0
13°35
13-00
12°52
11:70
11:23
10:75
10°51
10:01
09°82
09°34
09°13
08°62

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

1b
1

lr
lb
ln

Bo

PRE HDB EHP R EEN NR REE

BREE Ee Eee Hee HEE
BBB

allie ac al ral else a

Reduction to
Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

37891

899°]
904-0
907
920°5
926°6
931°2
935
945
951
963°4
9722
975°7
9818
986°7
991°3
995'2
38002
012°5
022°5
026-4
032°5
040°5
046°3
059°6
070°0
079°9
0844
104:3
120°6
129°8
1366
141-1
145°2
152°5
154°3
166-0
182-4
195'3
200°7
212°6
226'8
244
2540
259°1
266°2
278°1
285:0
292°1
295°6
302°9
3057
312°7
313°7
3233

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 285

URANIUM—continued,

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Mae Oscillation
Spark and ee ae a Frequency
Spectrum Character ee iL in Vacuo
A

260825 1 0:75 11:2 38328°8
07°55 1 5 3 339°0
06°80 1 3 - 350'1
06°60 1 - 3 364:1
06:26 1 3 7 358:0
05°86 1 3 s 363°7
05°48 1 is i 369°5
04:93 1 9 in 377°6
04:74 1 Be if | 380°3
04:37 1 7 ‘ 3860
04:00 1 ‘5 ; 3913
03°68 1 * 5 396°0
03°50 1 % a 3920
03-10 1 es ee 405°5
02°51 In 5 *y 4133
01°62 2n : 2 4264
00°9 1b 8 FP 437
00-4 1b = - 444

2599-90 1 6 es 451°'8
98°95 1 _ 5 4659
90-77 iL i > 483°4
97:40 In 3 FS 488°8
97:10 In 3 . 4932
96:23 1 = £ 506:2
95°71 Z . 513°9
95°45 1 s 517'8
95:10 In e . 522:9
94:40 1 8 Ee 532°6
93°9 In ” 5 541
93°67 in * 5 5443
92°67 1 3 3 5592
92:2 1b 3 3 566
91°35 2 s 5 578'8
90°90 1 v $5 585°4
90°55 1 *, 3 590°7
90°22 1 - 595°6
89°70 1 3 be 603°3
89:27 1 op 3 609°8
89:00 1 of i 613-7
88°65 in Fy oo 619:0
87:9 ind * 11:3 630
87°60 1 % * 634°6
87°16 2 ss 9 641°1
86°33 1 3 A 653°'5
85°30 1 : Hs 668-9
84:9 2b | . as 675
84:50 1 Fe 3 680°'9
83°5 2b . r 686
82°72 1 be e 707°6
82°23 1 3 | " 714:9
81:83 1 ‘i | $ 720°9
81°22 2 : 7a 7301
80°67 1 | ¥ x 738°4
79°62 on | *, e 753'6
79°23 In . oF 760°0

286 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continuet.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity ae ? Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character Ae ihe in Vacuo
Xr
2578°40 1 0-75 11:3 38772°5
77-46 1 _ 4: 7865
77-14 1 a pits 45 7T91°4
76°25 1 ” ” 804'8
75°53 ~ a 4p 815°7
753 In 5 ” 819
74:8 1b 3 ” 827
733 In . ay 849
73°04 In y y 8532
72°73 2 - ay 857°9
72°43 2 4 rh) 862°5
71-90 1 50) 4; 870'5
71°60 1 a % 874:9
71:16 1 FS <5 881:7
70°77 1 mH 4 887°4
70°43 1 5) > 892°7
69°85 if i a 901°5
69°46 1 i ro 907-4
68°95 1d 3 * 91571
68°05 1 . 33 928-7
67:22 1 5 11-4 9413
67:00 1 Pr a 944°6
66°75 1 " op 948-4
66:00 1 3 3 959'8
65:52 2 4 4 967°1
64°55 Ind 0:74 ” 9818
64:02 In 6 989°9
63°60 In . : 996°5
63:07 i op nf 004°3
62°93 1 3 ¥ 006°4
62°68 1 : cs 0103
62-19 1 3 017-7
61°76 1 y " . 024°3
61:03 i s 035°4
60°35 in 3 045'8
60:10 1 m1 " 049°6
59°60 1 = . 057°2
59°30 2 = * 061°8
58-43 In 53 if O75:1
58:07 In . © 080°6
57-5 1 - % O74
[ B71 | 1 : . 095:2
56°29 2 s ; 107-7
55:95 In + % 113:0
55°62 In i; | 3 1181
55°27 In ee : 123°4
54:9 In » ” 129
54°52 In - + 134:9
53°82 In + 7 145°7
53°53 In An 4 1504
52°47 In A ss 166°3
52-00 1 s 5 1735
51°56 1 + y 1805
51:2 in x a | 186
50°9 1nbr “R ;; 190

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2550°7
501
49°43
49°26
48°40
48:08
4AT-T4
4T47
47-52
46°45
46:00
45°9
45°55
45°12
44-73
44,45
44-12
43°46
43°30
42°80
41:95
41:60
41:47
41:14
40°77
40°50
40°40
39°98
39-60
39°38
39°05
38°83
38:51
38°3
37°80
37°36
36°88
36°70
36°33
36:00
35°65
35°03
34:95
33°32
33°03
32°80
32°40
31°88
31°65
315
30°95
30°38
30:14
29°60
29°06

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Et et
BB

ee ee)

i=}

Baek Fk at Pt nh ttt J8Sh et tt bk Pt

BB
Qu

Bee

Reduction to

Vacuum
At ~~
0°74 11:4
” ”
” ”
” ”
* 11°5
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ce)
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
9 ”
9 ”
9 bhi
” ”
’ ”
” ”
” ”
” be)
” ”
Lh] ”
” 2”
” 29
” bl
” ”
” ”
” ”
” 2
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
, ”
”° ”
” ”
% ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
” »
” ”
” ”
” ”
” ”
* 116

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

287

38193°5
203
2131
215°6
228°8
233°8
239:0
243°2
242°4
258°9

39265°8
281
272'8
279°4
285-4
289°7
2948
305°0
3075
3152
328°4
333°8
335°9
340°9
346°7
350'8
352-4
358°9
364°8
370°2
3733
3768
3817
385
392°7
399°6
407-0
409-7
415°6
420°7
426-2
435°8
437-0
462-4
4669
470°5
4768
484°9
488°5
491
499°0
508°3
o1l9
5203
528°8

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2528°83
28°65
28°44
28°17
27°80
27°50
27:23
26°62
26:0
25°46
25:02
24°55
24:4
23°98
23°8
23°1
22°17
219
21°45
20°99
20°8
20°35
19°50
19°20
19°05
18°56
18:0
17:27
17:06
16°20
15°80
15°63
15°20
14°86
14°50
14:17
13°8
13°4
12°7
12:29
12-10
11:05
10:97
10°45
10°23
09°60
09°23
08°45
08:02
07-80
07°50
07:18
07:05
06°55
06°12

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Intensity
and
Character

Se ae eS ee
F

—
ae ts a5

a

Reduction to

Vacuum

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

5353
538°5
542°7
548-4
5532
557-5
570°7
577

585-2
592:0
599-4
602

608-5
611

622

636°8
641

648:2
6554
658

665°5
678:°7
683°6
6859
693'8
702°5
7140
717°3
730-9
737-2
739°9
TA6-7
7520
T7577
763°0
769

775

786

779'3
7796
812°3
8135
8218
$253
835°3
841°2
853°6
860-4
863°9
868°7
873-7
875°8
883°8
890°6

39532°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 289

URANIUM—continued.

——————

: Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity \etoey | Oscillation
j Spark and oF 4 Frequency
Spectrum Character Fete hi in Vacuo
Ar
2305°38 1 0-73 Le? 39902-4
. O47 Ind 33 = $13
. 04:0 Ind 5 4 924
03°4 1nbr 3 a 934
02°5 in 7 rf 945
02:00 1 e * 956°3
01°45 1 fe = 965-71
00°95 2 * ‘, 9731
2499-68 2n #9 ss 993°4
98°90 1 3 4 40005:9
98°35 if Fe - 014-7
97°85 ul ea fi 022°7
97:05 2n Be 3 0356
96°13 In of =e 050°3
95°85 In 5 3 0548
95:4 in FP 3 062
94°86 il Pe a 070°7
94:5 In 3 Pr 076
94:3 1n En +9 080
93°8 1b i 11:8 088
93-00 1 . 100°5
92°4 1b i Fe 110
91:43 ln a Ss 125'8
91:03 2 Py | 132°2
90°72 1 A * 137°2
89°87 I - > 150°9
89°33 1 a Ff 159-7
89°12 ut Pe 4 162:0
88-87 il Pa 5 167-1
88°63 1 es : 1710
88:25 if op ; 1771
87:95 if as ; 181:9
87-70 1 A mS 186:0
87:50 1 fe s 189-9
87:17 1 Pr ES 194:5
86°83 1 an 3 200-0
86°50 1 a a 205°4
86°27 1 ms oe 209°1
85°85 1 os Pr 215°9
85:18 1 es ‘ 226'7
| 85-00 1 3 oo 229°6
. 84:72 1 - a 2342
| 84-30 1 si es 241:0
84:08 af a a 244-6
83°88 1 FF 33 246'8
7 83°37 1 s 5 256°1
83°08 1 ‘a Pe 260°8
82°75 1 AA % 265°6
} 82°30 1 8 A 283°3
; 82:00 1 *, Pr 278°3
h 81-60 In on iz 284:8
; 81-10 In a » 292°9
, 80°73 1 3 bes 298°9
; 80°58 1 - sn 301°4
' 80°25 il 4 Fe 306-7

1900. ?

290 REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity Faconm Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character ie 1 Ee in Vacuo
A

2479-67 2 0-73 11°8 403161
73:69 3 c as 3321
78:10 In PA Ge 341-7
77°88 it A 9 3443
77-27 1 i. = 3552
76°56 2 * 1989 383°0
75:71 1 a . 380°6
75°40 1 A bs 385°6
751 1b - = 390°5
74:26 1 - 3 404:2
73°75 In 5 5 4126
73°46 1 Pe “ 417°3
73°22 1 ‘3 5 421°2
72°98 1 i‘ a 425-1
72°82 1 ee i 4278
72°28 1 . 3 436°6
71°22 1 om 5 454-0
70°93 1 *5 2 458-7
70°76 1 25 + 461-5
70°52 ) 1 3 “A 465°4
69°67 1 0:72 . 479-4
69°55 1 . °. 481°3
69°23 1 as - 486°6
68°43 il 5 * 499-7
68°35 uf * es : 501-0
67:98 1 ; s 507-1
67-41 1 ms 516-4
66°80 2b a s 526-4
65:93 1 = nN 540°8
65°25 1 a 3 5519
65:01 1 si s 5559
64:13 In aS > 570-4
63°87 In a 3 573°7
63°45 Ind 55 - 5816
62-50 il is ; 597-7
62°40 1 ‘ Fe 598-9
62-00 1 = 53 605°5
61:47 1 ., Ss 6143
60°95 In PP PA 622°8
60°75 1 a 2 626°1
60°4 In a aa 632
60°22 1 - 12:0 6349
59-79 1 - 3 641°8
59°30 i - 5 650°0
58°88 2n FD 657-0
58:4 In a is 665
58°03 1 3 ey 671-0
57-72 1 a3 a 676:2
57:25 2 — es 684:0
56°30 1 = “ 700°1
55°77 1 35 7 708°4
555 In ; - 5 718
5571 In os As 719%
54:46 2 a ge 730°2
53°9 Ind c. 5 7395

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 291

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to |
|

Wave-length Intensity Yea | Oscillation
Spark and leas ew ces. | Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ aby in Vacuo
A
2453°52 1 0°72 12:0 40745°8
52°78 1 + 5 7581
52°21 1 Fh ve 7675
51°83 1 - a Mise)
51:20 1 p as 7843
50°90 1 % ca 7893
50°68 1 » _ 7930
50°51 1 9 ~ 795°8
49-92 it ” ” 805°6
49°80 1 rf = 817-6
49°55 1 “p JF 811-6
49°21 1 ” 4p 817°5
48-98 1 oH a 821-1
48°61 1 3 n 8275
48°37 1 Fe a 831-7
47-9 In % ” 839°3
47-52 1 rf | Z. 845°8
46°95 1 ” fp 8552
46°60 Ind ” ” 861-2
46°22 1 ” ” 867-4
45°78 Ind op 5 8747
! 44-9 Ind ep “ 889°5
: 44-65 LI ” ” 893-7
44-12 2 rr 902°5
43°60 1 ” 12°1 911:3
42:97 2r ” “i 921°6
42°50 1 : 9 a 929-7
42-0 1b cf *y 938
41°63 1 ” ” 944-1
41-40 1 19 FS 953-0
: 40°52 Ind i . 962°8
39°6 1b ” FP 978
39°44 1 ” ” 980°9
39°14 1 PF, % 986-0
38°60 1 ” FP 995-1
38:13 1 ” ” 41002°9
37°75 In ” = 009°4
37°55 1 ” ” 012-7
36°70 1 ” ” 027°1
36°45 1 ” fc 031-2
35°13 1 ” ” 053°5
34°84 1 ” -c 058-4
34:44 1 a ” 065-1
33°85 2 7” ry 075:1
33°37 1 cr, es 083:2
32°97 1 a9 3 090:0
32°64 1 + of 095°6
32°41 1 3 My 099-4
31°92 In p or 107°8
31-7 In 4 3 111
31°35 J os a 117°5
30°95 Ind oF 7 124°2
30°23 1 7 - 1363
29°55 1b “6 + 147°9
29°71 1b oh f 155

bo

REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

| Reduction o

Wave-length Intensity | pas Oscillation
Spark and Sern Tt Frequency
Spectrum Character A+ ne in Vacuo
A
2428°53 1 0-72 12:1 41165'1
28°19 1 “ 12:2 170°7
27°73 1 5 > 178°6
27°56 u 5 + 181°5
27:20 1 + = 187°5
26°65 1 45 “3 196°9
26°20 1 + i 204°5
25°46 In % a 217:1
2571 In oa i 223
24°5 In "9 s! 230
24:28 1 ” + 237-2
23°84 1 | 7 3 244-7
23°35 In ) + 253:0
23°15 1 3 + 256°4
22-7 1b “ + 264
22:0 1b r 5 276
20°6 1b O71 - 300
19°69 1 > > 315°5
18-90 1 » 3289
18°44 2 ie 5 336'8
18:00 1 en * 344:3
P iene iL ” ” 349:0
16°85 In » + 3643
16°52 In » a 370°7
14:7 Ind 6 7 401
14:20 In » * 409-4
13°77 1 ” 3 4168
13°05 1 » 9» 429-1
12°60 1 12°3 4378
12°38 1 35 =A 440°6
11:97 uh ” ” 447°6
11:50 1 + 455°7
10°35 In » -F) 4755
09°67 1 4 3 487-2
09°37 1 1 a 492°3
07°67 1 5 + 521°7
07-15 1 i 530°6
06°77 1 s = 537°2
06°54 1 Ff 541°2
06:3 In + + 545
05-87 In » $ 552°7
04:51 1 ob as 576°2
03:50 2n + - 593:°7
03-00 In “5 3 602°3
02°68 1 + =p 609°7
02°28 1 5 + 6148
01°55 In = = 6271
01:4 In “A is 63071
01-2 In x a 633°5
00°55 1 7 6449
00:42 1 5 - 64771
00-09 1 mn Of 652'8
2399°85 it 5 ¢ 657-0
98°65 In , = 6779
97-80 1 ae Las 692°5

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMEN'rS. 293

: URANIUM—continued.
Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum | Character | 1 in Vacuo
| A+ nA
2497-45 2 \ 0°71 12:4 41698°6
: 97°20 2 i 4 703°0
96°23 1 % a 719°'8
94-14. 1 es is 756:2
93-32 In Fe a 770°6
92°8 In = 3 780
92°4 In ee 5 787
92°71 In Pe 7 792
91-68 In 3 - 799°3
91:07 1 - i 809°9
90°80 1 te Pe 814'6
90°48 1 5 3 820:2
90:2 1nb ny A 825
89°33 il a i 840°4
88°51 1 - a 854'8
87°30 ih i 3 8759
87:0 1inb a Al 881
85°65 1 55 AA 904-9
85°39 1 Fe Pe 909°5
85°18 1 a 4. 913°2
83°45 iInb . 3 943°6
83:00 1 Pf 12'5 951-4
} 80°8 In * us 990
. 79°85 1 we iy 42006°9
78°67 1 3 iA 027°8
78°24 2 ‘4 - 035-4
2 W791 2 Pa a 041:2
17-58 1 5 ik 047:3
77:05 1 5 3 056°5
76°61 1 oe 3 064°3
76°24 1 5 % 070°9
75:92 1 es Pe 076°5
74:2 inb 55 af 107
73:00 1 0:70 3 128:2
72°85 In PR id 131°1
72:0 In a 3 146
71°6 In or sf 153
70°96 1 a My 1645
70'8 1nb m7 3 167
7017 In 33 * 178°6
69°12 In Ae AS 197°3
68°50 In % 12°6 208°2
68:2 1Inb = a 214
67°5 1Inb a i 226
67°20 In 3 - 231°4
66°7 Inb 3 4 240
66:05 ln ~- F 251:9
65:7 1nb ee Ki 258
65:28 In 5 ve 265°7
64°34 1 Ee 3 282°5
64:0 1nb ss oy 289
63°50 1 iP = 297°4
62°8 inb PA a 310
62°44 1 rs wy 316°5
62:1 1inb ee * 323

294, REPORT—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character ita in Vacuo
A+ r
2461:53 1 0:70 12°6 41332°9
61:23 1 ” ” 338°2
60°85 In ” » 344-7
59°5 Inb » 33 369
58°92 In os 3 379°7
58:28 1 ” “ 391°2
58:02 1 ” , 395-9
57:67 1 = + 402°2
56°95 1 3 . 415-1
56°53 In 4 * 4227
56°13 1 x is 430°0
55°70 1 ” " 437°6
55-40 In » 3; 443°1
55:20 1 ” 4 446-7
54:83 1 * A 453-4
54:3 iInb + 12:7 463
53°6 Inb * 6 475°5
52°9 Inb ” i 488
51:96 2 “5 3 5051
50:2 Inb a 5 537
49:97 2 + a 541:0
49°70 2 FP) 2 545°9
49-00 In 35 » 558°6
48°35 In o o 570°4
47-6 ind + 6 584
47-08 i fs 5934
46°26 2 op cf 608°3
45°50 in as 3 622-1
45 08 In as “6 629°8
44-65 1 “ “A 637°6
44-02 In a 2 649°1
42-96 1 ” aS 668°3
42-50 In + i 676°7
41°45 2 s 5 695°9
40-99 1 aye 128 T7041
40-44 1 a a 714:2
38°98 In 3 > 7226 °
38°57 1 yy s 748°4
38:07 2n (Fe) ” ” 7T5T-o
37-01 2 3 777-0
36°50 In I + 7862
35°88 In a * 797°6
35-20 1 » AD eae 810°1
34:37 In “5 95 825°3
33:13 1 o : 849°2
32°65 1 ” % 857:0
32°23 | 1 5 5 8646
31:93 1 + = 870°1
30°28 1 3 4 900°5
29°50 1 53 ” 914-7
29°40 1 Re “ 9168
28°95 1 55 0 925:0
28°58 1 ay mh 931-9
28°35 In + ” 936:1
27:93 1 %5 9 943°8

ig

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS.

URBANIUM—continued.

295

Wave-length
Spark
Spectrum

2427-45
27:07
26°50
25°72
25°51
24°90
24-07
23°44
21-6
21:1
20°22
18°51
18°21
17-9
17°6
17-2
15°92
15:07
14°43
14:22
13°87
13°23
12-60
11°67
10°71
10°43
09-80
08-80
08°35
06:94
05°68
04:46
03°95
03:70
02°75
01:97
01°55
01:0
00°80

2299°22
98-41
97°77
97°06
96°91
96°29
95°93
95°70
95°40
94°93
94:53
93°65
91°69
90°70
90°60

89°33

Intensity
and
Character

{

Reduction to
Vacuum

A+

Oscillation
Frequency
in Vacuo

i=]

cal aad Bae

_
=]
low

In

BB

pete et Reet toh ae ee

BREE HE DH eee PPE pee be

42952°8
959°6
970°0
984°6
988-4
SSSPY
3015-2
026-7
061
070
085:5
431183
123°8
130
135
143
166°6
1823
194-3
198-1
204'6
216°6
228°4
245°8
263°7
269°0
280°8
299°5
308°0
3345
358'2
381-1
390°7
395-4
4133
428-1
4360
446
450-0
4799
495:2
507-4
520°8
5237
535-4
542°2
546°6
552°3
561°2
568°8
585°5
622-8
641-7
643-6
667°8

296

REPORT-—1900.

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to

Wave-length Intensity Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and Frequency
Spectrum Character 1 in Vacuo
A+ =—
A

2288°97 il 0:69 13:1 43674:7
88°66 1 FS 4 680°5
88°35 1 55 13:2 6864
87°85 1 od 3 696:0
86°82 1 % > 715°6
85-76 In o 5 7359
85:23 In _ A. 746-1
84:90 1 ¥ 3 752°4
83°80 2 Ry 5 T7135
83°42 In 3 3 780°8
82°85 2 9 Fs TILT
81-9 In " = 810 '
81-20 1 Fe a 823-4
81:08 1 5) 4 8266
80:20 1 a # 842°6
80:05 1 t 4 845°5
79:15 1 4 #3 862°8
78:7 In # Fe 8715
785 In : D 875
78:0 In ¥ 5 885
77°65 1 0°68 3 891-7
7715 In % 5 901:3
76°80 In 5) 5 908°1
76°25 In 5 a 918°7
76°10 2 FR ; 921°6
7518 1 7 13:3 939°3
74:65 1 F y 949°5
74°55 1 by 9514
74-15 2 . 3 959°2
73°93 1 3 “A 963°4
73°44 2 iS E 972°9
72:73 1 7 ‘ 986°6
72°40 1 5 . 993°0
71°85 In 9 Ft; 44003°7
10°37 1 4 5 032°4
69°8 Inbr i +3 043
68:9 Inb - : 061
68°55 In i A) 067-7
67:3 Inbr i, - 092
66:02 2n % 5 116°9
65°50 2n ie s 127-1
64-4 Inb ms = 148°5
63°90 In 5 a 158°3
63°37 In # 13°4 168°3
62-80 in ss £ 1796
62°45 In A 7 186°5
61:5 In - - 205
59-70 1 “) 4 240°2
58-00 In . 5 273'6
54:60 In i * 340°4
52°8 ln fn A 376
52:47 1 9 . 382°3
51:18 1 x 5 407-7
49°93 il As 13°5 432°3
49°35 In 443°8

—

ao aes

ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 297

URANIUM—continued.

Reduction to
Wave-length Intensity | Vacuum Oscillation
Spark and | Frequency
Spectrum Character 1 in Vacuo
juste =
A
| -

2248°83 1 0-68 13°5 44454°1
48:06 - 2 i‘ <3 469°3
47:12 1 s Ms 487°9
46°34 1 cs 3 503°4
45:00 In e f 529°9
44°40 In re i 541°8
44-17 In _ 4 5464
43°65 In Fe 556-7
43°45 In aS i 560°7
42-73 In 3 7 575°0
40:18 1 ~ S 625°8
69°9 In . 3 631
38:02 1 af 136 668°8
37:46 2 os = 679'9
36°57 1 Bf ” 695°7
35°88 1n zn - 7115
34:0 Inb 5, 7 749
32°88 In FE ¥ T7116
32°41 In F- Ps 781-0
30°67 In # “ 816-0
29°6 Inb 0°67 on 837°5
28°88 1 4 . 852°0
28°39 In 3 ‘3 861°8
28:23 In x . 8651
27°95 In Fa *s 870°7
27°18 In sa * 8862
22°35 1 = 13°7 983-7
21°5 Inb a 3 45001
19°32 In r 5 045-1
17°63 In AS - 079°5
16°15 In a > 109°6
15°45 In 2 33 1239
10°96 In . 13°8 2154
06:05 In . 6 31671
00°80 1 13:9 424-1

2194°85 1 5 ii 547°3

Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor W. A. Titpen (Chairman) and Dr. H. EB. ArM-
STRONG (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE investigation of the action of bromine on betanaphthol, referred to in
the 1898 Report, has been continued during the past year with the assist-
ance of Mr. W. A. Davis. One of the most important points established
is that the nature of the product obtained on tribrominating is largely a
question of the conditions. In the presence of a solvent (glacial acetic
acid) the tribromonaphthol melting at 155° is the chief product ; but if
bromine be used alone, and the action take place rapidly at 100°, the
isomeric tribromonaphthol (m.p. 159°), described in the 1898 Report, is
principally produced. This result is more particularly of interest on
account of the fact that the latter compound contains but one, whilst the

298 REPORT—1900.

former contains two, of its bromine atoms in the hydroxylated ring—
which is proved to be the case by their behaviour on oxidation, the tribro-
monaphthol melting at 159° being convertible into dibromo-, and that
melting at 155° into bromo-phthalic acid—so that in the one case the non-
hydroxylated ring, and in the other the hydroxylated ring, is attacked.

Unexpected difficulties have been encountered in attempting to deter-
mine the position of the second bromine atom in the hydroxylated nucleus
of the tribromonaphthol melting at 155°. This compound affords a
dibromoquinone isomeric with that produced on decomposing the dibromo-
nitroketo-compound derived from dibromonaphthol. Both these dibromo-
quinones are converted into 1 : 3: 4 bromophthalic acid on oxidation.
Consequently the one contains a bromine atom in position 3, and the other
a bromine atom in position 4. When subjected to the action of aniline,
however, both yield the same two anilides.

O O
wo: OH NH.Ph
Sa ke , ag
Br Br 2

NH.Ph NH.Ph

Nor have results yet been obtained by means of alkalies which afford a
solution of the problem.

The dibromoquinone obtained from the bromonaphthol melting at 155°
is remarkably sensitive to oxidation, being slowly converted into the
dibromohydroxy-quinone when kept ; a result which appears to favour

O
OH

Br Br
O

the view that bromine is present in the tribromonaphthol in position 3.
The dibromoquinone in question may be recrystallised from ethylic acetate,
but if left too long in contact with the solvent it is converted into an
infusible condensation product. -This quinone is therefore a compound
which it will be desirable to study in detail.

The tribromonaphthol melting at 155° is acted on with difficulty by
bromine, remaining for the most part unchanged when its solution in
acetic acid is digested with bromine during thirty to forty hours at 100°
to 120°, only a small portion being converted into the tetrabromonaphthol
melting at 172°, described by Armstrong and Rossiter. The tribromo-
naphthol melting at 159°, under similar conditions, is without difficulty
converted into a tetrabromonaphthol melting at 184°, which is convertible
into a tribromoquinone isomeric with that obtainable from the isomeric
tetrabromonaphthol. A third tetrabromonaphthol has been obtained in
small quantity together with that melting at 184° by acting directly on
betanaphthol with dry bromine. It is distinguished by yielding a tetra-
bromonaphthaquinone.

Both tribromonaphthols are easily reduced at 100° by a saturated

ON ISOMERIC NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVES. 299

solution of hydrogen iodide, the bromine atom in position | being dis-
placed. Two new dibromonaphthols are thus obtained: that from the
tribromonaphthol melting at 155° melts at 137° to 138°, and that from
the isomeric naphthol melts at 127°. On digesting these dibromonaphthols
with alcohol and sulphuric acid under similar conditions that containing
one of the bromine atoms in the hydroxylated ring yields only about 55,
whilst that containing both bromine atoms in the non-hydroxylated ring
yields about 61 per cent. of ether.

A comparison of the behaviour of the various chloro- and bromo-
betanaphthols towards hydrogen iodide with their behaviour on etherifi-
cation is of interest as showing that both changes are subject to similar
influences ; they therefore may be discussed from the same point of view.
As the reducing effect is confined to the bromine atom contiguous to the
OH group, this alone being displaced by hydrogen, the OH group must
be supposed to be concerned in the change. Probably it exercises an at-
tractive influence, and this influence must be regarded as subject to modi-
fication by every change in the hydrocarbon radicle, so that reduction
takes place less readily just as etherification takes place less readily in the
case of the more fully substituted compounds. The etherification of the
derivatives of betanaphthol has been discussed by Mr. Davis from this
point of view in a paper published in the ‘Transactions of the Chemical
Society ’ early in the present year (77, 33).

On the Constitution of Camphor. By A. LarwortH, D.Sc.

[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed im extenso.]

THE question of the constitution of camphor has occupied the attention
of a large number of chemists for many years, and it still presents oppor-
tunities for much speculation. Recently, however, it has come to be fully
recognised that the earlier writers on the subject were misled by the ease
with which benzenoid compounds could be obtained from many camphor
derivatives, and it is now quite clear that the greatest care must be exer-
cised in attributing special significance to evidence based on observations
of this kind.

The formation of large quantities of p-cymene and carvacrol from cam-
phor by the action of phosphorus pentoxide was the basis of some of these
earlier speculations, and to carry the arguments to their logical conclusion
it would be necessary to make the formule account for the production of
m-cymene, which is obtained in considerable amount when zinc chloride
or phosphorus pentasulphide is the agent,! and also of 1. 2. 4 . dimethyl
ethyl benzene and 1.2.3.5 tetramethylbenzene.2 The formation of
1.3. 4 acetyldimethylbenzene by the action of sulphuric acid on camphor 3
would also require elucidation.

It appears natural to suppose that, if we are still unable to discover
with certainty the principles underlying the changes referred to, we
should also be cautious in interpreting the meaning of other transforma-
tions which involve any alteration in the structure of closed rings, and it is
now pretty generally recognised that the divergence of opinion which still
exists with regard to the constitution of the camphor nucleus must be due

' Armstrong and Millar, Ber. 16, 2225. 2 Thid., loc. cit.
$ Armstrong and Kipping, 7rans. Chem. Soc., 68, 75.

300 REPORT—1900.

to the occurrence of unsuspected intramolecular changes during reactions
which are at present deemed susceptible of only one simple interpretation.

In the case of a problem of this kind in which a very large amount of
experimental material has to be dealt with, some of which appears to
point conclusively to one view and some in an equally unequivocal manner
to another, it would appear to be the most logical course to sift the
material in such a way that the relative value of the evidence on each
side may be compared, and, if possible, so as to gain a clue as to the exact
points at which the tendency appears to change, so that particular atten-
tion may then be directed to those points.

In the present communication it is proposed first of all to select from
the material those facts which bear directly on the points at issue,
accepting only those conclusions which no longer reasonably admit of
dispute, and then to discuss the significance of the rest of the evidence
relating to the still undecided question of the ultimate structure of the
camphor molecule.

A.—_GENERAL NATURE OF CAMPHOR.

Camphor has the formula C,,)H,,O0: it isa ketone, as it yields well-
defined hydrazones, an oxime and a semicarbazone. It is saturated, and
therefore must be considered to consist of two closed carbon rings, of which
one includes the carbonyl] or ketone group > CO.

As it will clearly be of importance to be able to refer to either of these
rings, one will afterwards be termed the ketone ring, and the other the
hydrocarbon ring.

B.—PROPERTIES AND TRANSFORMATIONS
OF THE KETONE RING.

1, THe Ketone RING contains THE Group —CH,.CO—

That the carbonyl group >CO of camphor is in direct attachment to
a methylene group —-CH,— is proved conclusively by the following
considerations :—

(a) Formation of Camphoric Acid by the Oxidation of Camphor.

When camphor is treated with the usual oxidising agents it is con-
verted into camphoric acid, C,)H,,O,, a saturated, dicarboxylic acid.
This transformation is simply explained only by the assumption that the
change proceeds in accordance with the scheme

, os COOH
H | > C,H
8

“\Nco * "coon
Camphor. Camphoric Acid.

(b) Formation and Properties of the simplest Substitution Derivatives of Camphor.

(i) Halogen and Nitro-compownds.—Camphor ordinarily yields only
mono- and di-substitution derivatives (termed a-derivatives) on treat-
ment with the characteristic substituting agent such as the halogen or
nitric acid, and with aliphatic saturated ketones the position of substitution
is at the carbon atom contiguous to the carboxyl group.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 301

The a-mono-halogen derivatives, such as a-monobromocamphor, on
treatment with oxidising agent are converted into camphoric acid

CHBr COOH

ee i war COOH

The a-di-derivatives are only oxidised with great difficulty, and on
treatment with alkalis are usually converted into the a-mono-derivatives.
Thus when a-bromocamphor is chlorinated it yields a mixture of two stereo-
isomeric bromochlorocamphors, both of which are converted into a-chloro-
camphor on treatment with alkali, so that both halogen atoms must be
attached to the same carbon atom !

ee CClBr yee
iis) CO 7 OO ‘co
a-Bromocamphor. aa-Bromochlorocamphor. a-Chlorocamphor.

Again the a-monohalogen derivatives when heated with nitric acid
are converted into nitroderivatives, which yield a-nitrocamphor on treat-
ment with alkali ; nitrocamphor when heated with acids is converted into
the oxime of camphoric anhydride. Moreover the a-nitrocamphors exist
in tautomeric forms, characteristic of nitrocompounds containing the
group >CH.NO,.?

cs Poo: CH.NO,
CsHiic aes Beare
C:N.OH
—-C,H Beer 8
8 “\co7

(ii) Camphor yields Alkylidene Derivatives on Treatment with Alde-
hydes.—When camphor is acted on by, for example, benzaldehyde, in
‘presence of sodium, condensation occurs, and a benzylidene camphor is
finally obtained. Its constitution must be expressed by the formula

© = CH-PE
CsA s< |
"Noo
as only ketones containing the group —CH,.CO— are known to react in

this way.

(iii) Camphor is capable of taking part in the Claisen Reaction.—The
Claisen condensation, which is capable of application among saturated
ketones only to those containing the group —CH, . CO—, is applicable to
camphor under certain conditions, and isonitro-, and hydroxy-methylene
camphor, &c. are readily obtained. These can only be expressed by the

formule
ye : N.OH C : CH.OH

| and C,H

C,H
8 tac do

1 Lowry, Trans. Chem. Soc., 78, 569.
* Tbid., 73, 986.

302 REPORT—1900

2. THe RELATION BETWEEN CAMPHOR AND CAMPHORIC ACID IS IN
REALITY THE SIMPLE ONE EXPRESSED BY THE SCHEME

It has been usual in discussing the relationship between these two
substances to dismiss the subject with a few words, but the point requires
much more careful consideration and proof than it is usually deemed
worthy of, and it cannot be insisted too frequently that in dealing with
the mutations of closed-chain compounds, such as the derivatives of cam-
phor, such transformations should be regarded from all points of view,
especially, as in the present instance, where the evidence derived from the
different fields of work cannot be viewed in its entirety until the point is
decided beyond all doubt.

In the case in question, fortunately, there is no doubt whatever that
the ordinary view is the correct one, as, besides the various modes in
which it is possible to pass from camphor to camphoric acid, which have
already been referred to, the relationship has been established by a series
of simple changes which render it possible to traverse the ground in the
reverse direction. The evidence is as follows : |—

(a) Camphorie Acid readily yields Homocamphoric Acid.

When camphoric anhydride is treated with sodium amalgam under
suitable conditions, it is reduced to a lactone, campholide, as follows :—

co CH
7) So aon
8 “CO”, a 8 “co

and campholide when heated with potassium cyanide yields cyanocampholic
acid, from which homocamphoric acid is easily obtained on hydrolysis.
The changes are of the following kind :—

2
Cc So +H,0
ott:

me, po. CH,.CN /CH2.COOH
O>C,H C,H, .<

Tad CO” <.\ .. \COGamEE fae COOEL

Campholide. Cyanocampholic Acid. Homocamphoriec Acid.

(b) Homocamphorie Acid and Camphor are related to one another in the
following way :
CH,.COOH CH,
Cs. ae |
COOH CO

and the evidence on which this statement is based is twofold.
a-Cyanocamphor yields Homocamphoric Acid on Hydrolysis. —Cyano-
camphor, a product of the action of cyanogen or cyanogen bromide

and C,H

' Haller, Compt. Rend., 122, 446,

————————— CC

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 303

on sodium camphor, or of the dehydration of the oxime of a-camphor-
aldehyde, must necessarily be an a-derivative.

CHNa CRON
CH, | +Br.CN=C,H,,/ | +NaBr
co eo
pee :N.OH fae oe
CoH pO Oak |
CO CO

and when this compound is boiled with alkalis it suffers hydrolysis in two
senses, being converted into ammonia and homocamphorie acid.!

CH.ON CH,.COOH
& apie os

ae + 3H,O =C,H

+NH,
'“\cooH

(c) Camphor may be regenerated from Homocamphoric Acid.

When the barium salt of homocamphoric acid is subjected to dry
distillation it is broken up into barium carbonate and camphor, a change
which must be expressed by the equation

CH
\Ba=O,5e plop BaeO,
L CO

3. THE Kerrone RING Is EITHER A 4- oR A 5-Carspon RING.

Since camphoric acid very readily affords an anhydride on treatment
with acetyl chloride, even in the cold, it follows that it must be a deriva-
tive of succinic or of glutaric acid, so that it may be represented by one
of the formule

5: COCOOEL
ine: C.COOH |
| or Bs OS:
sees C.COOH |
sesseee C.COOH

poset ¢—cH
paula. 6—CH, : |
| | or -C:
ete C—co |
ee

males CH—CH,
|
C—CO
C

! Haller, Dissertation, Nancy, 1879.
* Haller, Compt. Rend., 122, 446; and Baeyer, Ann., 289, 6.

304: REPORT—1900.

In support of this conclusion there may be advanced a number of
well-established facts, and the necessity for the discussion of the points
involved may be made the occasion for introducing the nomenclature
necessary for reference to the derivative of camphoric acid.

1. CampHor ACID CONTAINS ONLY ONE HyproGEeN ATOM IN THE
a-POSITION WITH REGARD TO A CARBOXYL GROUP.

(a) Bromination of Camphorie Acid.

Camphoric acid is capable of affording, by direct bromination, one,
and only one, monobromo-derivative, w-bromocamphoric acid. From
the study of a very large number of acids it has been ascertained that it
is possible to introduce as many bromine atoms as there are hydrogen
atoms in the a-position with regard to carboxyl groups, and in each
case where the products have been completely investigated it has been
shown that the entrant bromine atoms occupy the a-position. The
conclusion thus derived regarding camphoric acid is confirmed by a
large number of observations, and there is no sufficient reason to imagine
that the bromination of camphoric acid pursues any but the normal
course.

(b) Differential Reactivity of the two Carboxryl Groups.

Camphorie anhydride on treatment with ammonia yields exclusively,
or almost exclusively, a-camphoramic acid. This on distillation loses
water, yielding camphorimide, which when subjected to alkaline hydro-
lysis affords only 6-camphoramic acid.

The reactivity of carboxyl or carboxyl groups in aliphatic compounds
invariably appears great or small according as the adjacent carbon
atom is hydrogenised or not. The above observations, which show that
there is an enormous difference between the reactivity of the carboxyl
groups in the anhydro-camphoric derivatives, are doubtless accounted
for by the fact that only one of the two carboxyl groups of camphoric
acid is an attachment to a hydrogenised carbon atom. On this assump-
tion the course of the changes referred to may probably be expressed
as follows :—

OH O
ie ll
es CH. COx mores Oe) Cagis CH.C.NH,
a © .CO oi ney C .CO.0H
C C Cc
Camphoric Anhydride. Hypothetical Addition a-Camphoramic Acid.

Caen Ye
O 2 ae OH O
4

VA een). /
bees CH oN Se ~~ CH. C: OH CH.C.OH
> NH+HL0 > : NH >
nde C.co at GOO C.CO.NH,
C
Camphorimide. 8-Camphoramic Acid.

—

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 305
Camphoric acid also yields two series of alkyl hydrogen esters, which
have been obtained in the following way :—

Camphoric anhydride when treated with sodium ethoxide yields the
sodium salt of ovtho-ethyl hydrogen camphorate

ONa O
A Vi
Pes, CH. CO. SaM OLY C—OEt a CH. CLORE
: J O+Et.ONa > : Pp? Sx :
ee. C.CcOoO eres OT pote Ca UG)ONa,
C C
Camphorie Anhydride. ortho-Ethyl Hydrogen

Camphorate.

Diethyl camphorate when hydrolysed with soda, however, affords the
sodium salt of a//o-ethyl hydrogen camphorate.

OEt
| vi
oe CH.CO.0Et ~~ CH. COOH
: +Na.OH > : ONa
=. C.CO.OEt ~---C.CO.OEt
C
Diethyl Camphorate,
a CH.CO.ONa
Re : + Et.OH
Beane C.CO,.OEt
C

allo-Ethyl Hydrogen Camphorate.

The carboxyl groups of camphoric acid have therefore been referred
to in two different ways, namely—

CH . COOH (a- or ortho-)

C.COOH (- or allo-)
C

The above inferences regarding the constitution of the two camphor-
amic acids and the two ethyl hydrogen camphorates receive confirmation
in the behaviour of the former on treatment with hypobromite (compare
E. 2. c.), and of the latter when subjected to electrolysis (compare E. 2. a.).

(ce) The B- or Allo-carboayl Group of Camphoric Acid represents the Carbonyl
Group of Camphor.

Whilst the facts on which this conclusion depends are few in number,
they are such as to render their interpretation simple and beyond ques.
tion. The following may be mentioned here.

When isonitrosocamphor is warmed with hydrochloric acid it is
converted into a-camphoramic acid,! and, in accordance with the con-

‘ Claisen and Manisse, Ann. 274, 78
1900, x

306 REPORT— 1900,

stitution of the latter compound (C. |. b.), the change can only be
written as follows ;—

pete. CH.C:N.OH _.. CH.CO,NH,
| +HOH =)

cone C—O ----C.COOH
C C

Lowry’s observation that a-nitrocamphor yields the same camphoryloxime
as is obtained directly from camphoric anhydride by treatment with
hydroxylamine leads to the same conclusion (compare B. 1. b, i.),

2, FORMATION OF CAMPHENONE,

When a-aminocamphor is treated with nitrous acid it is converted
into diazocamphor, which loses nitrogen when heated and yields consider-
able quantities of camphenone, C,)H,,O, which has all the properties of
an unsaturated ketone.!

N
_- OH. CH.NHg cHOL I ne OCH
: > | : 1) NaN Sea :
so G=Co es @— CO -- C—CO
C Cc C
Aminocamphor. Diazocamphor. Caraphenona,

3. FoRMATION OF DEHYDROHOMOCAMPHORIC ACID,

When homocamphoric acid is brominated it yields a monobromo-
derivative, a-bromohomocamphoric acid. When the diethyl-ester of
this monobromo acid is heated with quinoline and then with alcoholic
potash it loses hydrogen bromide, affording dehydrohomocamphoric acid,
which is certainly an af-unsaturated acid. Taking into consideration the
relationship subsisting between camphor and homocamphoric acid, this
fact is readily explained by the assumption comprised by C, and it may
be added that its behaviour on oxidation is only explicable by the aid of
that view (compare E, 3.).

een CH—CH, -..-.-CH.CHBr.COOH _ .....C:CH.COOH
aoa
saa Cc —CO~ ---C.COOH ~C,COOH
C C C
Camphor, a-Bromohomocamphorie Acid. Dehydrohomocamphoric Acid.

D.—CAMPHOR AND CAMPHORIC ACID CONTAIN TWO
NON-EQUIVALENT ASYMMETRIC CARBON ATOMS.

Camphor and camphoric acid are optically active, and therefore
contain at least one asymmetric carbon atom. Whilst the former is only
known in two enantiomorphous forms and their externally compensated
_ inactive combinations, the latter is known to exist in six forms, of which
two pairs are enantiomorphously related, and the other two forms are
externally compensated mixtures of the other pairs.

1 Angeli, Gazzetta, 28 [2], 351.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 307

The six forms of camphoric acid are completely explained on the
assumption that in the molecule there are two asymmetric carbon atoms
which are not equivalent. Designating the two carbon atoms by the
letters A and B, the six forms may be represented by the combinations,
no internally compensated form being possible :

(A,B,) and (A,B,)...d- and /-camphoric acid.
(A,B,) and (A,B,)...d- and /-isocamphoric acid.
A,B,+A,B,)... Inactive camphorie acid.

(A,B, +A,B,)... Inactive isocamphoric acid.

It does not appear that the sign of both asymmetric carbon atoms can
be reversed by simple means, but d-isocamphoric acid may be obtained
from d-camphoric acid fairly readily ; as, for example, by treatment with
phosphorus pentachloride and water successively, whilst the reverse change
may also be effected by suitable means, such as boiling with acetyl
chloride, or by the process of bromination, when ordinary bromocamphoric-
anhydride is obtained.

The readiness with which one of these asymmetric carbon atoms is
affected makes it seem certain that this must be the atom on which a
carboxyl group and a hydrogen atom are attached, as there is here the
only grouping where the existence of tautomerism, or simple internal
change, appears possible. A glance at the simple scheme for camphoric
acid, moreover,

CH.COOH

C.COOH
6)

wakes it appear highly probable that each carboxyl group is an attach-
ment to one or other asymmetric atom, and the difficulty of conceiving
any simple internal change which would affect the condition of the second
asymmetric atom accounts sufficiently well for the non-occurrence of
inversion in this instance.

The occurrence of only two enantiomorphously related camphors is
probably dependent on stereochemical considerations, analogous to the
non-formation of anhydrides from ¢rans-dicarboxylie acids of the poly-
methylene series.

E.—_DEGRADATION OF CAMPHOR DERIVATIVES.

Whilst the material which has already been deaJt with affords us much
useful evidence regarding the structure of the ketone ring, there is little or
none of it which affords us any assistance in coming to any conclusions
regarding the hydrocarbon ring. In order to gain any conception as to
the structure of the second nucleus it becomes necessary to consider the
nature of products which are obtained when this ring is broken down in
various ways.

It will be convenient to refer to each of the various modes in turn,
and to consider the constitution of the products of known character as
they come under consideration.

1 Aschan, Acta soc. Sci. fennice, 21, 1.
x2

308 REPORT—1900.

1. OxIDATION OF CAMPHOR AND CampHoric ACID.
(a) Oaidation with Nitric or Chromic Acid.

When camphor is subjected to prolonged heating with nitric or
chromic acid a large number of products are obtained, of which the more
important are camphoric acid and its oxidation products, namely, cam-
phanic acid, camphoronic acid, and trimethylsuccinic acid, together with
a small quantity of isocamphoronic acid, which is certainly an independent
product, as it does not appear to be produced from camphoric acid under
any circumstances.

(i.) Constitution of Camphoronie Acid.—From a study of the products
obtained by the dry distillation of camphoronic acid Bredt was led to
the view that this acid had the structure

COOH. CMe,. CMe(COOH).CH,.COOH !

and this conclusion has been rendered final by the synthesis of the acid
by Perkin and J. F. Thorpe? in a manner the course of which admits of
only one interpretation.

(ii.) Constitution of Isocamphoronic Acid.—Isocamphoronic acid has
the structure OMe,(COOH).CH(CH,.COOH),, as follows from the
following observations :—

When the acid is warmed with sulphuric acid it loses carbon
monoxide, and is converted into a lactonic acid of known constitution,
namely, terpenylic acid :

CMe, . CH.CH,.COOH CMe, . CH.CH,.COOH
Le fa Ba | +CO+H,0 3
COOH CH,.COOH O CH,

\co7

Additional support for the formula given is supplied by the following
indirect observations :—

a-Keto-isocamphoronic acid, obtained by a series of changes from
pinene, yields isocamphoronic acid when reduced, and when oxidised with
lead peroxide and acetic acid is converted into a-dimethyltricarballylic
acid. The latter acid is not a malonic derivative, and when treated
with bromine is converted into the lactone of the hydroxy-acid, which
yields a-dimethylsuccinic acid on fusion with potash :

CMe,.CH.CO.COOH CMe, .CH.CH,. COOH

| | =2 |

COOH CH,.COOH COOH CH,.COOH
a-Keto-isocamphoronic Acid, Isocamphoronic Acid.

L
CMe,.CH.COOH CMe,.CH .COOH CMe, . CH,

| mon | al
COOH CH,.COOH CO CH.COOH COOH COOH

No

a-Dimethyltricarballylic Acid. Lactonic Acid. a-Dimethylsuccinie Acid.

1 Bev., 26, 3049, 2 Trans, Chem. Soe., 71, 1169. 3 Tiemann, Ber., 29, 2612,

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 509

(b) Ovidation of Camphoric Acid with Dilute Cold Permanganate.

When camphoric acid, dissolved in the requisite quantity of soda, is
allowed to remain with cold dilute potassium permanganate solution for
some months, it is converted into a dibasic acid having the formula
C,H,,0; or C;H,,O (COOH), and oxalic acid, the products being in
approximately equivalent amount. This acid yields only additive pro-
ducts with hydroxylamine or hydrazines, so that the fifth oxygen atom
does not possess true ketonic functions. On reduction it yields, first, a
lactonic acid, C,H, .0,, and then «)3G-trimethylglutaric acid.

Balbiano explains the behaviour of the acid C,H,,0, on the assump-
tion that it isan acid possessing the structure of an oxide derived from
a dihydroxy acid

COOH . CMe. CMe, . CH . COOH,
Sep qi

and it is not easy to understand what other view can be taken. The
successive stages of its reduction are consequently

CMe. COOH CMe .COOH CHMe. COOH
| one | Ne |
CMe, SO is CMe,0(!) > OMe,

|
ae
OOH CH, « CO CH, . COOH.?

2. THE PRODUCTS OBTAINED BY ELIMINATING A CARBOXYL GROUP
FRoM CampHuoric ACID.

(a) Electrolysis of the Isomeric Ethyl Hydrogen Camphorates.

When the two isomeric ethyl hydrogen camphorates (compare C. 1. b.)
are submitted to electrolysis the products consist for the most part of
esters of unsaturated, ciosed-chain, monobasic acids, produced in accord-
ance with the equation

OH Googe = C0, +H, +CsH). COOEE.

(i.) Electrolysis of Ortho-ethyl Hydrogen Camphorate.—Ortho ethyl
camphorate (C. 1. b.) on electrolysis yields mostly the esters of two
isomeric acids, namely, campholytic and isolauronolic acids. These two
acids are inactive, and are intraconvertible by processes analogous
to ae whereby fumaric and maleic acids may be converted one into the
other.®

} Balbiano, Ber., 27, 2133.

* Compare also Balbiano, Ber., 28, 1506; Atti Lincei, 1894, i. 278, and ii. 240;
Gazzetta Chim. Ital., 26,1; and Ber., 80, 289 and 1901. Also Mahla and Tiemann,
Ber. 28, 2151 and 2811,

* Walker, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 68, 495, and 67, 347. «

310 REPORT—1900.

Structure of Isolawronolic Acid.—The structure of this acid is almost
certainly represented by the formula

CMe,—CMe
CH, |
\cH, — C. COOH

first suggested implicitly by Perkin! and independently by Bouveault ;?
and the grounds for this statement are briefly as follows :—

It is inactive, and cannot be separated into active forms. It therefore
does not contain an asymmetric carbon atom.

It is an af-unsaturated acid, as its dibromide loses carbon dioxide
and hydrogen bromide on treatment with soda or sodium carbonate, a
behaviour associated almost exclusively with a/3-dibromo acids. Moreover,
dihydroisolauronolic acid is readily brominated, as usual in the a-position,
and the mono-bromo acid on treatment with alkali affords isolauronolic
acid and a-hydroxydihydroisolauronolic acid.*

CMe,.CHMe CMe,.CMe
‘il rd |
CH, a CH,
aN |
CH,. CBr.COOH CH,—C.COOH
8 Isolauronolic Acid.
s CMe,.CHMe |
a-Bromdibydroisolauronolic Acid. CH,
yo
CH,—CH
\CooH

a-Hydroxydihydroisolauronolic Acid.

The latter compound when heated with lead peroxide and acetic acid
affords a ketone which is identical with «/3;3-trimethylketopentamethylene,
obtained by distilling the barium salt of «33-trimethyladipic acid.*

CMe, .CHMe CMe, .CHMe CMe, .CHMe
Je rs i. |
CH, CH, _ CH, COOH
ae ot SS Di e
CH, — CH,—COo CH,—COOH
\cooH

Striking confirmation of the above formula for isolauronolic acid is
afforded by the following series of reactions.

Isolauronolic acid, when heated in closed tubes at 300°, loses carbon
dioxide, and is converted into a hydrocarbon, C,H ,,, which yields y-acetyl-
dimethylbutyric acid on oxidation. That the production of the hydro-

' Proc. Chem. Soe., 1896, p. 191. 2 Bull. Soc. Chim. (iii.), 19, p. 462.
* Noyes, Ber., 29, 2326 and 1900, and Perkin, Z7ans. Chem. Soc., 78, 838.
' Noyes, Ber. °

ON THE GONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 3il

ee ek hee

varbon is not attended with any isomeric change is proved by the fact
that it yields, on treatment with acetyl chloride in presence of aluminium
chloride, a ketone identical with that obtained by the action of zinc
methide on isolauronolic chloride :

CMe,.CMe CMe,.0Me CMe,.COMe
vA | vA A
GH, a OH, Ee CHS
| 4. of
CH,—COOH CH,—CH CH,.COOH
} U

OMe,.CMe CMe,.CMe

CH, —| ign, “CH,
“ideal <s
CH,—C.COCI CH,—C.COMe !

The formation of isolauronic acid, during the oxidation of isolauronolic
acid with faintly alkaline permanganate, hitherto so difficult to understand,
is easily explained by the use of the foregoing formula, as the first action
of the oxidising agent would result in the formation of an acid derived
from a 1 : 5-diketone, a class of compounds very prone to undergo con-
densation in alkaline solution, that is to say, under conditions similar to
those in which isolauronic acid arises : ”

CMe,CMe ©Me,.CO.CH, OMe,.CO
ta | : Le ae
cH, | _. CH, Oh Ser CH
ss ba VA
CH,—vU.COOH CH,.CO.COOH CH,.C.COOH
Tsolauronoiic Acid, Intermediate Product. Tsolauronic Acid.

Bouveautt’s formula for isolauronic acid has been submitted to searching
tests by Blanc, with the result that no reasonable doubt of its correctness
can any longer be entertained. The following observations are so
important as to warrant somewhat detailed description.

Isolauronic acid is reducible by two stages : first to dihydroisolauronic
acid, which is of a ketonic nature ; and secondly to the tetrahydro-acid,
which must be a y or 6-hydroxy acid, as it affords a lactone with great
readiness :

,/CMe,—CO CMe,-—CO
a ba
CH, OH, -+ GH, OH,
PK Z My, Peis
CH,—C.COOH CH,—CH,COOH
Tsolauronic Acid. Dihydro-acid.
/CMe,—CH.OH CMe,.CH—O
/ ,: yg | \
vA \ rs | |
+ CH, OH hasOH, CH, |
Ne rags) tied
CH,—CH.CO0OH CH,—CH—C0
Tetrahydro-acid. Lactone.

' Blane, Bull. Soc. Chim. (iii.), 19, 699.
* Bouveault, Bull, Soc. Chim. (iii.), 17, 999.

312 REPORT—1900,

Moreover, diliydroisolauronic acid when warmed with dilute sodium
hypobromite is converted into a tribasic acid, C,H, ,O,, which loses carbon
dioxide when heated, yielding aa-dimethyladipic acid.

CMe,.CO CMe,.COOH _CMe:.COOH.
me 7
CH, Ci) 45 CEs COOH - CH, +00,

oN us a hh \
CH,—CH.COOH ‘CH,—CH.COOH CH,—CH,.COOH

Dihydroisolauronic Acid. Intermediate Product. aa-Dimethyladipic Acid.'

(il.) Electrolysis of Allo-Ethyl Hydrogen Camphorate——When this
ester is electrolysed it yields a mixture of esters, chief amongst which is
that of (a) allo-campholytic acid, a Py-unsaturated acid, as it readily
affords campholactone on treatment with acids: it is probably stereo-
isomeric with lauronolic acid,? and (b) of camphononic acid produced by
the superposition of electrolysis and oxidation.

The constitution of lauronolic acid and allo-campholytic acid has not
been determined, but one must assign to camphononic acid one of the
following two formule

CO. CMe, CH, . CMe,
| _--CMe.cooH or | CMe. COOH

as it is readily obtained by the mere action of heat on the open chain
tricarboxylic acid, homocamphoronic acid, and must therefore be a penta-
methylene and not a tetramethylene derivative ; for since it affords
camphoronic acid (F. 1. a. ii.) on oxidation it could only be one of these.?

It should be pointed out that the first of the two formule above given
is almost certainly the correct one, as camphononic acid does not at once
afford an oxime or hydrozones as do the majority of acids having the
carbonyl group in attachment to two CH, groups. Moreover it cannot be
made to combine with hydrogen cyanide, and it is therefore highly pro-
bable that the reactivity of the carbonyl group is affected by its attach-
ment to a carbon atom on which no hydrogen is present.4

(b) Action of Aluminium Chloride and of Sulphuric Acid
on Camphoric Anhydride.

When camphoric anhydride is brought into contact with aluminium
chloride in chloroform solution it loses carbon monoxide and yields chiefly
isolauronolic acid.® A third method of obtaining isolauronolic acid is
supplied by the following series of changes. Camphoric acid when
warmed with sulphuric acid yields sulphocamphylic acid by loss of the
elements of formic acid and addition of the elements of sulphuric acid.

1 Compare Bouveault, Bull, Soc. Chim. (iii.), 17, 999, and 19, 462; and Blanc,
Bull. Soe. Chim. (ii.), 19, 277, 350, 533, and 699; 21, 830; and 23, 107 and 273; and
Perkin, Trans. Chem. Soc., 78, 796.

* Walker, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 69, 748.

* Compare Bredt and Rosenberg, Annaien, 1896, 289, 13; Wislicenus, idid.,
275, 309; and Perkin and Crossley, Trans. Chem. Soc., 78, 6.

* See Lapworth and Chapman, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 75, 989, and 77, 446, and Lap-
worth, ibid., 75, 1134.

» Blanc, Bull. Soc. Chim. [iii.], 15, 1191.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 315

This sulpho-compound when treated with superheated steam breaks up
into isolauronolic and sulphuric acids.!

(c) Action of Lypobromites on the Isomeric Camphoranie Acids,

(i.) When a- camphoramic acid is warmed with sodium hypobromite it
is converted into aminodihydrolauronolic acid in accordance with the
equation

COOH.C,H,,.CONH, + Br, + 2KOH=COOH.C,H,,.NH,
+2KBr+CO,+H,0.

This amino-acid on treatment with nitrous fumes yields a hydrocarbon
C,H,,, By-lauronolic acid, C,;H,,COOH, isocampholactone, C,H,,0.,
and an acid, melting at 180°, which has the formula C)H,,0%4.

Hydroxydihydrolauronolic acid may be obtained from the ethyl ester
of the amino-acid by means of nitrous acid and subsequent saponifica-
tion. On treatment with cold chromic acid mixture it loses carbon
dioxide and is converted into a ketone ; a behaviour which appears to
indicate that the hydroxyl group is in the /-position with regard to the
carboxyl group.”

(ii.) When (3-camphoramic acid is subjected to the action of hypo-
bromite it suffers a change similar to that which the a-acid undergoes,
and is converted into amino-dihydrocampholytic acid. This, on treat-
ment with nitrous acid, yields a hydroxy-acid and subsequently campho-
lytic and isolauronolic acids. The elimination of the a//o-carbonyl group
in this manner, therefore, leads to results similar to those already
mentioned.’

3. OXIDATION OF DEHYDROHOMOCAMPHORIC ACID.

When homocamphoric acid is brominated it dffords a mono-bromo-
acid, as usual an a-derivative: the ethyl ester of this mono-bromohomo-
camphoric acid when heated with quinoline loses hydrogen bromide, and
the product, after saponification, yields, amongst other things, dehydro-
homocamphoric acid, naturally an af-unsaturated acid

CHBr . COOH ee . COOH

C,H), > CsHi se +HBr

COOH COOH.

or writing it in accordance with what we know regarding the constitution
of homocamphoric acid (B. 2. b.)

POR dee CH.CHBr. COOH veeeee GOH COOH
: =

OY C . COOH scene + COOH
Cc C

When the latter acid is oxidised with cold dilute permanganate it is

} Walther, Ann. Chim. Ph. [iii.], 9, 177; Kachler and Spitzer, Annalen, 169,
179, and Perkin, 7rans. Chem. Soc. 78,796.

* Noyes, Amer. Chem. Journ., 16,500; Ber., 28, 547,and 29, 2326.

* Noyes, Ame, Chem. Journ., 16, 500; Ber., 27, 917, 28, 547, and 29, 2326.

314 REPORT—1900,

converted into oxalic acid and camphononie acid (compare E, 2.a ii.), ah
action which apparently must be expressed as follows :

_C=CH . COOH CO +COOH . COOH
GH, | ra
| CMe, > | CMe,
CH, CH,
C. COOH ‘CG. COOH
Me Me
or
__O=CH . COOH _00+C00H . COOH
CH, CH,
iru elee or. eee
CMe, | CMe,
“G. COOH NG. COOH!
Me Me

4. ForMATION AND PROPERTIES OF THE CAMPHOLENIC DERIVATIVES.

The isomeric substances a- and /3-campholenic acids are obtained in
several ways, the most important of these being the dehydration of cam-
phoroxine by various methods, when their nitriles are produced in large
quantities :

CioHi,: N.OH=C,Hi, . CN+H,0.

Interesting, also, is the fact that a-campholenic acid is found amongst
the products obtained by the action of sodium amalgam on /-dibromo-
camphor.

C,)H,, Br,O+2H+H,O0=C,H,; . COOH +2HBr.

The campholenic acids are undoubtedly both unsaturated monobasic
acids containing one closed carbon chain. The a-acid is optically active,
whilst the 5-acid and all its derivatives are quite inactive ; so that both
the asymmetric carbon atoms of camphor have been involved in the change
whereby this substance is produced. Both the a- and the /3-acids have the
double or ethylenic linking at the y- or ¢c-position, as both are readily
converted into lactones when treated with dilute acids.

a-Campholenic acid may be converted into /3-campholenic acid by several
processes, and invariably becomes inactive during the process. It would
appear from this that 6-campholenic acid is a secondary product of
change.

Each acid, on oxidation with potassium permanganate, is converted
into a dihydroxydihydrocampholenic acid by addition of the elements of
hydrogen peroxide in the usual way. When these dihydroxy acids are
distilled they are converted by loss of water into new substances, pre-
sumably ketonic acids, the a-acids affording pinonic acid, which is an
oxidation product of pinene.

' Lapworth, Zrans. Chem, Soc., 77, 1056,

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 315

a-Dihydroxydihydrocampholenic acid is dewtrogyrate and on oxidation
with chromic acid yields inactive isoketocamphoric acid, and with nitric
acid gives isodiketocamphoric acid. Both of these latter contain acetyl
groups, and isoketocamphoric acid is converted into bromoform and _iso-
camphoronic acid (E. 1. a. ii.) on treatment with cold hypobromite. These
changes are expressed by Tiemann ! as follows :—

CMe,—CH—OH,, OMe,—CH—CH,, OMe,-—COH —CH, es a ee
| | |
| CH. > OH, > OH, > rea
| |
CMe =CH COOH CMe — bog COOH COMe COOH COOH COOH COOH COOH
| |
OH OH
g-Campholenic Acid, a-Dihydroxydihydro- Isoketocamphoric Isocamphoronie
campholenic Acid. Acid. Acid,
N
CMe, ae —CH, CMe, —CH -—OH, OMe, -—CH —-—OH,
| |
| CH, | co > |
| | |
CHMe—CO COOH COMe COOH COOH COOH COOH COOH
Pinonie Acid, Tsodiketocamphorie Dimethyltricarballylic
Acid, Acid.

This scheme expresses the foregoing facts in a highly satisfactory
manner, including the cessation of inactivity with the passage from
a-dihydroxydihydrocampholenic acid to isoketocamphoric acid, and
appears, moreover, to be the only mode of doing so. The inadequacy of
any formula for campholenic acid or pinonic acid which does not
contain the group

. CMe .UMe,
C C
is shown by the fact that one of the products obtained by oxidising pinonic
acid is hydroxytrimethylsuccinic acid, COOH .CMe(OH) . CMe,. COOH.
A-Dihydroxydihydrocampholenic acid (of course inactive, since /-cam-
pholenic acid has this property) on further oxidation with dilute per-
manganate yields oxalic and y-acetyldimethylbutyric acid, which affords
a-dimethylglutaric acid on treatment with alkaline hypobromite. Tiemann
expresses these facts in the following way :—

CMe, —CH—OH, er A OMe,—CH,—CH,

cit | = di.on | BT | | 4. coon..coor
Cue én COOH CHMe —CH on COOH COMe Goon

p-Camplenc Acid, gBibghoiydibydro. Ape Orato Aci

Such a change as that assumed in the transformation of the di-
hydroxy-acid is obviously inadequate without further proof. Moreover
the inactivity of }-campholenic acid receives no explanation whatever, as
it is scarcely conceivable that the asymmetry of the carbon atom to which
the activity of a-campholenic acid is due has been in any way destroyed.

Proceeding backwards in a logical manner from the fact of the
formation of y-acetyldimethylbutyric acid and oxalic acid, we are led
almost inevitably to the formula for /-campholenic acid which was first
suggested by Bouyeault,’ namely—

CMe=C —CH,
|
CH,

|
CMe,—CH, COOH
' Ber., 29, 3006, and 30, 409, 2 Bull. Soc. Chem. [iii.], 19, 565.

316 : REPORT—1900.

which contains no asymmetric carbon atom ; the oxidation of the acid is
then readily understood :

OH OF
CMe = C——CH, CMe a CH, COMe COOH COooH
| | | |
CH, | => CH, | => | CH, 3
| | | | |
CMe,—CH, COOH CMe.—CH, COOH CMe,—CH, COOH
fB-Campholenic Acid. B-Dihydrox) dilydro- y-Acetyldimethyl- Oxalic
campholenie Acid, butyric Acid, Acid.

5. FoRMATION AND CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHORPHORONE.

When the calcium salt of camphoric acid is subjected to the action
of heat it is converted into calcium carbonate and camphorphorone,
C,H,,0 _——

CO.O
CoH
CO.O

Camphorone has the structure

co
GHMe ©: CMe,

Sca=C,H.C 500 + CaCO,,

| |
CH, — CH,

as it is converted into a-methylglutaric acid on oxidation, and may be
synthetically prepared by the action of sodium ethoxide on a mixture of
a-methylketopentamethylene and acetone. Since these condensations in
saturated ketones occur only at a —CH,.CO— group, the action must be
expressed

_CO CO

GHMe CH,+OCMe,=CHMe C:CMe,+H,0
| V/ | |
CH,—CH, CH,—- CH,

as camphorphorone does not contain an acetyl group.”

F.—THE FORMULA OF CAMPHOR.

The earlier speculations regarding the constitutional formula of
camphor require no special discussion at the present time, as they are of
merely historical interest, and there is no doubt that the first great
advance was made by Bredt in his paper on ‘The Constitution of
Camphoronic Acid,’* and the value of his deductions has been greatly
enhanced since the achievement of the synthesis of this acid by Perkin
and Thorpe,‘ which provided a complete proof of the formula suggested for
it by Bredt.

Starting from the formula of camphoronic acid, as it is generally
agreed we may do, and taking into account the fact that camphor readily
yields cymene by the action of various agents, Bredt was led to advance
the formula associated with his name. This formula has since been
assailed by several chemists, notably Noyes, Tiemann, Bouveault, Blane, ~

1 See also Tiemann, Be7., 28, 1079, 2166, &c.
2 Bouyeault, Bull, Soc. Chim. [iii.], 28, 160. 3 Ber., 26, 3049.
4 Trans. Chem. Soc.; 71, 1169.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF GAMPHOR. 317

Walker, and Perkin, but the formula suggested by Tiemann must now be
regarded as quite out of the question ; whilst the formula specially
advocated by Perkin, whilst greatly preferable, is now known to have
no probability in its favour. It is significant that the chemists who at
the present day strenuously advocate the acceptance of any formula other
than Bredt’s have made a special study of isolauronolic acid.

Latterly chemists have come to regard it as definitely established that
camphor contains the grouping

CMe.C

ae \
CMe,
| C

aa /

and it is easily demonstrated that besides three formula containing this
complex, only one other structure for camphor can be devised which
contains the grouping of carbon atoms of camphoronic acid, and also
conforms to the established conditions referred to in B, C, and D. ‘That
formula is

CH,—CMe. CMe,. CO

| | He
CH. CH= en.

but nothing further can be said in favour of it.

Conclusive proof that the above trimethylpentamethylene nucleus is
present in camphor is afforded by the fact that camphononic acid, which
is obtainable from camphor in three entirely different ways, two of these
involving no change in the hydrogenised nucleus, undoubtedly has the
formula

CMe.COOH. CMe.COOH.
/ wai ke N Ze 2%
CMe, /CHa or CMe, CH,
| y |
(xe) d / CH,
perf esl
CH, CO

(Compare E. 2. a. ii. and E. 3.)

The only formule which contain this complex, and conform to the
established conditions, are the Bredt, Perkin, and Perkin-Bouveault
formule, namely

CMe.CO CMe.CO CMe.CO

| fe ee: |
uf CH, Zi tis CH—CH,
CMe, | CMe, | Me, |
one .. CH CH, Sa
A | |
CH—CH, CH, CH,
Bredt. Perkin.” Perkin-Bouveault..

' Trans. Chem. Soc., 71, 1169,
2 In Petkin’s original paper, Zrans. Chem. Soc., 78, 819, the position of the —CQ-
and —CH,— group in the ketone ring is the inverse of the above,

318 REPORT—1900.

of which the second, as has already been stated, has nothing further in
its favour, and it does not appear possible to explain by its use the
properties and constitution of many important products obtained by
degrading the camphor molecule in the various ways detailed in E.

It is quite clear, therefore, that in the light of our present knowledge
only two formule for camphor can be regarded as in the slightest degree
probable, namely, the Bredt and the Perkin-Bouveault formule; and
although it might at first sight appear an easy matter to decide between
two formule so different in configuration, each still finds support in
apparently incontrovertible evidence. A list of the facts to which each
formula appears capable of ready application may be dealt with in turn,
only those points being taken which appear to be of use in coming to a
decision as to the relative value of the two formule.

1. Brept’s Formuta:

affords simple explanations of the following points :—

(a) The Constitution of a-Campholenie Acid and its Oxidation Products.

The formation of a nitrite having the highly probable constitution
assigned to a-campholenonitrite by Tiemann is readily explained as follows
_(compare E, 4.)

CH CH
WN Ke |
CH, | €H, Ci; }. Cie
| CMe, | — H,0= | OMe, |
CH, | C:NOH CH CN
ee -l
~CMe ~“ CMe

(b) The Non-formation of an Anhydride from Homocamphorie Acid.
In accordance with Bredt’s formula, homocamphoric acid must have
the formula (compare B. 2. b. and E. 3.)
_ CH.CH,.COOH

egal
CH, |

| CMe,
On, 4

Sale
“S CMe.COOH

Homocamphoric acid has been shown to be incapable of yielding an
anhydride,! a fact with which the above formula is in accordaricé, as it

) Bredt, Ann., 289, 5.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 319

represents a substituted adipic acid, derivatives of which are almost
invariably incapable of affording anhydrides when treated by the ordinary
processes. Using the Perkin-Bouveault formula, homocamphoric acid
would have the structure

/CH,.CH.CH,.COOH

/
/

/

CMe, |
~~ CMe.COOH

which is that of a glutaric acid, and should therefore be expected to yield
an anhydride fairly readily, unless the structure is that of a trans-acid, an
assumption which appears to be excluded by the fact that d-camphoric
acid from which it is easily obtained is a cis-acid, the corresponding
trans-acid being represented by iso-camphoric acid.

(e) The Formation of Camphor in large Amount by distilling the Barium Salt of
Homocamphoric Acid (compare B. 2. ¢.).

As pointed out by Bredt and Rosenburg,' Wislicenus? and Perkin
and Crossley,® the formation of considerable quantities of ketones by
distillation of the barium or calcium salts of dibasic acids, in the simple
manner here observed, is met with only amongst the derivatives of adipic,
pimetic, and suberic acids, and never amongst those of glutaric acid, so
that here again the Perkin-Bouveault formula appears inadmissible.

(d) The extraordinary Readiness with which p-Cymene and its Derivatives are
obtained from Camphor.

This change, a knowledge of which assisted Bredt in devising his
formula, is very readily understood by means of it :

en C.CHMe,
Seat ates
CH. | CH, CH. (OR
CMe; | > | |
CHsg.... | iis CO CH CH
= / 24
CMe OMe
Camphor. p-Cymene.

(e) The ready Formation of the Lactonic Acid, Camphanie Acid from Bromocam-
phoric Acid or its Anhydride, and of its Ethyl Ester by heating Diethyl
Bromocamphorate.

When w-bromocamphoric acid or its anhydride (obtained by the direct
bromination of camphoric acid) is treated with water, alkalis, or sodium
acetate dissolved in glacial acetic acid, it yields camphanic acid, a very
stable lactonic acid. The great stability of the lactone ring of camphanic
acid excludes the idea that it is of the nature of a -lactone, so that it
must be a y-lactone. w-Bromocamphoric acid would therefore appear to
be a y-bromo-acid, and, in accordance with Volhardt’s rule, it should also

1 Annalen, 289, 13. b
2 Thid., 275,309. % Trans. Chem, Soc., 78, 6.

320 REPORT-——1 900.

be an a-bromo-acid. These facts are readily explained by Bredt’s, but
not by the Perkin-Bouveault formula, as in accordance with our ordinary
views the latter formula would make a-bromocamphoric acid a B- and not
a y-bromo-acid.

CBr . COOH CH,—CBr . COOH
| I |
|
CH, CMe, CH, CMe. COOH
| / Pad
CH, CMe,
Ee
CMe . COOH
Breat. Perkin-Bouveault.

That the position of the bromine atom in the nucleus represents the posi-
tion of attachment of the lactonic oxygen atom is shown by (1) the fact
that diethylbromocamphorate when heated yields ethyl bromide and
ethyl camphanate

sosccenee CBr ae onseuaee C0
; > : | + EtBr
ene y.¢ MOO Aub ee)

(2) that camphanic acid on treatment with phosphorus pentachloride (or
pentabromide) regenerates ordinary chloro- (or bromo-)camphoric chloride
(or bromide) ; a fact of which the author has convinced himself.

ap ow eres Cong eit
ee baa be ls = + POCI,
Rise c.co ae, OLC1
That camphanic acid does not contain the grouping
rec CH .O
é |
Pees. C—CO

receives support in the fact that it is obtained by oxidising camphoric
acid with chromic acid, and in accordance with the researches of Fittig
such an oxidation occurs only at the tertiary carbon atoms,

(f) The Formation of Balbiano’s Acid and Ovalie Acid in approximately equivalent
Amount by the Oxidation of Camphorie Acid (compare E. 1. ).).
The formation of an acid having the constitution given by Balbiano for
the product .C,H,,O, is readily interpreted by the use of Bredt’s formula
as follows :—

7 CH . COOH’ CH COOH
ie: COOH |
tr | CMe > | +O CMe
OE can tect COOH ae
CH, : CMe . COOH

">€Me . COOH

Using the Perkin-Bouveault formula, the course of the change becomes
very difficult to understand, and must necessitate the assumption that o

a

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 321

—-CH,— group ina hydrocarbon ring may be converted into —CH(OH)—
or —CO— or others equally improbable :

CH, ——CH, CH . COOH

| A

CMe, > O CMe,

| SI]
CMe(COOH).CH .COOH CMe. COOH+COOH . COOH.

(g) The Formation of Camphorphorone (compare E. 5.).

The formation of a ketone having the constitution of camphor-
phorone from calcium camphorate receives instant explanation by means
of Bredt’s formula, as follows :

CH.CO. 0 mK
| a: CHa.
<< 2 ff ~
(ie CMe, fo% > CREE! GOL CaCo,
CH, | A ee wh
me COMe/ CO. O CM

whilst if the Perkin-Bouveault formula is used the change must be
represented as the result of the following complicated series of reactions : !

_CMe, . CMe.CO: O OMe, CHMe.CO.....
ai 2 oe Ye |
CH, : Ca =s) JOE H
ye Der 4
\cu,—cHt “CO. 0 \cH,—CH mee

CMe, CO.CHMe
VA waa

-CH,

a necessity which leaves the probabilities greatly in favour of the first
depicted.

(h) The Formation of Camphononic Acid and Oxalie Acid from Dihydrohomo-
Camphoric Acid (compare E. 3.).

As has already been mentioned (loc. cit.) this change appears capable
of only two simple explanations, one of those being the assumption that
dihydrohomocamphoric acid has the formula which would be attributed
to it were Bredt’s formula the correct one, namely

_C=CH.COOH
CH,
| OMe,
CH,

\date.coon

1 Compare Bouveault, Bull. Soc. Chim. (iii.], 19, 462.
1900, Y

322 REPORT—1900.

and not only is this the case, but the derived formula of camphononic
acid is in complete accordance with the disinclination of the carbonyl
group to form additive complexes (compare E. 2. a. ii.).

The Perkin-Bouveault formula is, in this instance also, inapplicable,
unless, as usual, a special assumption is made to meet the case. Thus,
no doubt, it might be held that an intermediate compound having the
formula

igo s CO.COOH
CH,
\ ome,.Me.CooH

is produced which breaks up into oxalic acid and camphononic acid by
hydrolysis. Such an assumption, however, has nothing to recommend it.
2. THE PERKIN-Bovuveau.Lt Formu.a.
if aera tah
CH,

CH. CH= Ge

This formula offers simple explanations of the following points, for
which the Bredt formula appears inadequate.

(a) The Formation of Isolauronolie Acid from Camphoric Acid in
several Ways.

The formation of this acid by elimination of the allo-carboxyl group
from camphoric acid is readily explained by the use of this formula :

bee . CMe. COOH CMe, . CMe
CH, + ne | + 2H +O,
\cH,—CH . COOH Non,—¢ . COOH

The change represents the formation of acids having the formula proved
by Blanc to be correct for isolauronolic acid, and of course affects both
asymmetric carbon atoms, thus explaining the complete disappearance of
optical activity during their formation.

(b) The formation and properties of B-campholenie acid.
In explaining the production of a campholenonitrile from camphor-
oxime, as represented by the Perkin-Bouveault formula, we are led in a
most simple manner to the formula, which, as was pointed out by Bou-

veault, is the most suitable one for 8-campholenonitrile which can be
devised :

mes _CMe.C: NOH CMe,—CMe
CH, | 4 CH, |
\cu,—cH—cH, \CH,— Ge

Qe eee

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. jee

whilst it is clear that the use of Bredt’s formula would require the
assumption that isomeric change of a somewhat obscure character had
taken place. If this formula be the correct one, /3-campholenic acid, as
might be surmised from a consideration of its inactivity and its oxidation
products, is in reality homoisolauronolic acid.

(c) The Formation and Properties of Hydroxydihydrolauronohe Acid.

By the use of the Perkin-Bouveault formula the action of hypobromite
on a-camphoramic acid would be represented

CMe, .CMe. COOH _fMe, CMe. COOH
CH, ae CH,
| S
CH,—CH . CONH, CH,—CH .NH,

and the formula so deduced for the amino-acid represents a /(-amino acid,
which should naturally afford a 3-hydroxy acid on treatment with nitrous
acid. Since a (-hydroxy acid would yield a 6-ketonic acid on oxidation,
the elimination of carbon dioxide and production of a ketone are easy to
understand (compare E, 2. ¢. i.).

A consideration of the whole of the preceding facts leads to the con-
clusion that it is impossible to reconcile the results obtained in the various
departments of camphor chemistry without having recourse to the
assumption that, at certain points, intramolecular change takes place,
involving new arrangements of the carbon atoms. Thus, to take only one
example, the structure of the a- and /-campholenic acids cannot be re-
presented by two formule which differ only in the position of the double
binding as Tiemann suggested, for one acid clearly contains the grouping

Ca

: OMe . CMe, CH
C.c

-and the other the complex

:C. CMe, .CH,.C.@.

The formation of isocamphoronic acid on the one hand and of iso-
lauronolic acid on the other is also incapable of explanation on any other
grounds than that of intramolecular change ; and it would appear advis-
able, therefore, to consider the whole of the evidence from a broad stand-
point, and, having decided which is the more probable view, to endeavour
to ascertain the points at which difficulties first arise, and only then to
seek for explanations. It is obvious that it would be altogether ill-advised
to adopt the usual course and to take any one derivative, however well
established its structure may be, and however simple its apparent mode
of derivation, and to use this as the basis on which to form our conclu-
sions, employing a forced explanation for each inconvenient fact in turn.

Looking at the question, first, from a general point of view, without
regard to ultimate structure, it must be obvious that the probabilities are
greatly in favour of the view that the ketone ring in camphor is a penta-
methylene nucleus, as witness the readiness with which the substance is
obtained from homocamphoric acid. Moreover the properties of homo-
camphoric acid itself approach more nearly those of an adipic than glutaric
acid, since under no circumstances does it appear to yield an anhydride.

Y2

324, REPORT—1900.

The general properties of camphoric acid are those of a glutaric acid, as its
bromo-derivative at once yields a stable lactone ; a behaviour altogether
inconsistent with the view that it is an a-brominated succinic acid.

The supporters of the succinic acid formula for camphoric acid have
raised the contention that bromocamphoric acid is a /3-brominated acid
containing the complex

--CHBr . CH . COOH

and in support of this advance the fact that its anhydride on treatment
with water or sodium carbonate loses carbon dioxide and hydrogen bromide,
yielding a small quantity of lauronolic acid, a behaviour certainly in
accordance with the view that it is a (-bromo-acid. The necessity for
such an assumption, however, is in itself clearly an argument against the
succinic formula, since the bromination of a saturated acid in the /-posi-
tion is unknown. Moreover on this assumption bromocamphoric anhy-
dride itself still contains an a-hydrogen atom, and should be capable of
further bromination, a surmise altogether at variance with the facts. It
is much more probable that the formation of lauronolic acid is due to an
idiosyncrasy of the compounds involved, and little or nothing is known of
the behaviour of cycloid u-bromo-acids in this respect.

It obviously cannot be urged that the formation of lauronolic acid is
evidence in favour of the presence of the complex ;

CH, . CBr. COOH

C . CCOOH
Cc

as such an acid would afford an isomer of lauronolic acid, possibly campho-
lytic or isolauronolic, and containing the complex

CH, . C. COOH

I
c.c

Cc

and, in fact, that it does not do so isi in ‘tself evidence against the
succinic formula for camphoric acid.

It may therefore be stated that the general properties of camphor and
camphoric acid are of a kind which should be expected were Bredt’s
formula the correct one.

Comparing now the weight of evidence in favour of the two formule
as elicited by examination of the exact structure of the degradation pro-
ducts of camphor, Bredt’s formula is seen to be favoured in a high degree,
and only the structure of isolauronolic acid and of /3-campholenic acid
(probably, as has been pointed out, homoisolauronolic acid) appears to
militate strongly against its acceptance. It is especially significant,
moreover, that the j-campholenic derivatives are produced, probably in
all cases, as secondary products from the a-derivatives, and the behaviour

an ee ee ee

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 325

of the latter is in strict accordance with the requirements of Bredt’s
formula.

It is certainly difficult to understand the behaviour of hydroxydihy-
drolauronolic acid, but until more is known of this acid it is possible to
attach undue significance to the point.

Tt is impossible to overlook the fact that the Bredt formula affords an
excellent explanation of the behaviour of a very large number of camphor
derivatives, and is, in fact, the only formula which will do so, and that the
same words apply to the Perkin-Bouveault formula when the remainder,
namely, isolauronolic acid and 3-campholenic acid, are referred to.

Since the constitutions of the two different series of compounds appear
to have been established with such a high degree of probability, one is led
to the belief that there may, after all, be some close connection between
the two series which has escaped observation owing to the occurrence of
unsuspected isomeric change—a phenomenon which it is generally admitted
must be the cause of the present divergence of opinion on the matter.

It does not require much consideration to observe that if this explana-
tion be correct the isomeric change must occur during the formation of
isolauronolic acid, and in the transformation of the a- to the /-cam-
pholenic derivatives, so that a comparison of the probable formule of
these substances before and after the change should allow us to gather if
there is any simple connection between them.

__-CH.COOH = —C.COOH
CH, | CH, ||
| CMe, | CMe
CH, | CH, |
~~C.COOH C
Me Me,
Camphoric Acid. Tsolauronolic Acid.
eu: My
O11 2 eR AS 8 2 I CH wile p OH,
| CMe, | | CMe |
CH. | . COOH CH, |» COOH
een iT -
Se XC
Me Me,
a-Campholenic Acid. 8-Campholenic Acid.

It is fairly clear that the apparent change consists in the migration of
a methyl group to an adjacent carbon atom in both cases. The alteration
of the position of the double binding in the campholenic derivatives is of
little consequence, as the change is probably preceded by the formation
of a lactone in some cases, of an imide in others, and these derivatives
contain no double binding. Possibly the change in the former case may
be represented

-CH ere: o~
oi | ‘cH, Cn.. |) o Sen, OE, |) Ee
j|_ CMe, | 3 CMe, | > | CMe
CH | COOH CHa. CO CH, | COOH
.c e100 Ke

Me Me Me,

326 REPORT—1900.

The change is not unlike that involved in the transformation of
pinacone into pinacoline :

CMe,.0H CMe,

| |

CMe, = CMe+H,O
| |

OH O

or of pinacolyl alcohol into tetramethylethylene :

CMe, CMe,

| > | +H,O

CHMe.OH CMe,

changes apparently characteristic of complexes which contain several
adjacent methyl groups. It is well known, moreover, that in the forma-
tion of benzenoid derivatives from hexamethylene compounds the methyl
groups usually appear to move to adjacent carbon atoms ; as, for example,
in the change of isolauronic acid into paraxylic acid

CMe, CMe
me i
CH, CO > CH CMe
| |
CH, CH CH CH
iS at 6 ig
~C.COOH C.COOH

as well as in numerous similar instances investigated by Baeyer.

It may be urged that the conditions under which isolauronolic acid is
produced from camphor are not such as would be expected to produce
deep-seated isomeric change, but such a contention is altogether insufficient
to seriously militate against the great probability that it does actually occur
in this instance. It is easy to cite evidence that isomeric changes of very
unexpected character do occur under conditions which would at first sight
appear to be insufficient to produce them, such as, for example, the change
of a-dibromocamphor into bromocamphorenic acid when warmed with an
alcoholic solution of silver nitrate on the water bath, which certainly
involves the absorption of a carbon atom into a ring somewhat in this
manner :

CH. CBr
z zl a! eA N
CH, | CBr, e CH
| CMe, Gieeit |
Bt | Ha@e= wet CMe,
CH,!| co | |
ie eee 4
M ==) ‘COOH
e Me

and the change of pinacone into pinacoline does not involve any violent
action such as is usually associated with the production of benzene
derivatives from cyclomethylene compounds.

1 Lapworth, Zrans. Chem.'Soc., 75, 1138.

ON THE CONSTITUTION OF CAMPHOR. 327

Finally, whilst it appears unlikely that any simpler explanation than
that here suggested can be offered, the question clearly awaits further
investigation ; but it seems unlikely that the correct solution will be
obtained until the attention of investigators is directed to the examina-
tion of the points at which isomeric change probably occurs, since the
discovery of isolated facts in favour of either formula can only add to the
number of those already known, and can scarcely be regarded as conclusive
whilst strong evidence in favour of the other formula can be brought
forward.

Addendum (November 3, 1900).

The curious properties of lauronolic acid (2. a. ii.) may possibly be
accounted for by the occurrence of a change of structure similar to that
above suggested in the cases of /3-campholenic acid and isolauronolic acid,
and by applying a similar rule, the change might be represented

CMe . COOH CMe. COOH
CH, | qr
| CMe, ; CMe
CH, CH, |
aod a
CH .COOH CMe
Camphoric Acid. Lauronolic Acid,

and the formula thus arrived at is in complete accordance with all that is
at present known of the properties of the acid, and on oxidation the acid
would be converted into a compound

‘CMe . COOH

|
CH, CO. Me

CH,

CO. Me
which is, at the same time, a /-ketonic acid and a 1 :5-diketone, and

would therefore lose carbon dioxide readily, and suffer condensation in
alkaline solution, yielding a 3y-unsaturated ketone

CHMe CHMe
Yor <n
CH, CO CH, CMe
| or b VOI
CH, CH CH, CH
SZ et
CMe rere)

with the properties of the laurenone obtained by Tiemann and H. Tigges !
on oxidising lauronolic acid with potassium permanganate.

' Ber, 33, 2950.

328 REPORT-—1900.

Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Kauna.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Sir J. W. Dawson (Chairman), Professor D. P.
PENHALLOW, Dr. H. Ami, Mr. G. W. LampLuGu, and Professor
A. P. CoLeman (Secretary), reappointed to continue the investiga-
tion of the Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna.

PAGE

I. On the Pleistocene near Toronto. By Professor A. P. COLEMAN. : 57328
II. On the Pleistocene Flora of the Don Valley. By Professor D.P. PENHALLOW 33

Durine the past year the Committee has suffered a severe loss through
the death of its distinguished chairman, Sir J. W. Dawson, but the work
has been continued by three of its members. Dr. Ami has taken charge
of the Ottawa valley deposits, Professor Penhallow has examined the
fossil flora from both Ottawa and Toronto, and the Secretary has con-
tinued his investigations near Toronto. The following report on the
Pleistocene near Toronto has been prepared by the Secretary, and that
on the Flora of the Don Valley by Professor Penhallow.

I. On the Pleistocene near Toronto. By Professor A. P. CoLEMAN.

Since the preparation of the last report two new localities near
Toronto have proved of interest, one near a bend of the Don a little east
of the well reported on last year, the other a series of sand deposits in
the western part of the city. The outcrop at the bend of the Don just
north-west of Toronto was discovered years ago by Dr. G. J. Hinde, who
had described so excellently the section at Scarborough Heights, and who
has been good enough to hand over his material to the Secretary. Until
last year, however, it was not certainly proved to be interglacial. The
section at the bend of the Don is of special interest, since it occupies an
interglacial valley about 700 feet wide, having steep walls of Hudson
River (Cambro-silurian) shale, rising 8 or 10 feet on the eastern side and
16 feet on the western. The section is as follows :—

4. Coarse gravel with boulders and no shells, 4 to 8 feet. . 387to 40

3. Brown clay with sandy layers containing unios, &c., 4or5 feet 33 or 34

2. Blue clay with sandy layers containing shells and wood, 6 feet 29

1. Coarse shingle with clay and peaty layers, 4 feet . ; 28323
River Don, above level of Lake Ontario . 4 : Remi ks)

The lowest layer goes below the level of the Don, so that the bottom
ot the section is not exposed. The third layer corresponds exactly in
materials and fossils with the unio beds referred to in last year’s report,
which are in place 100 yards to the west, and there overlie a thin sheet
of boulder clay resting on a cliff of shale 16 feet in height. Beds 1 and 2
contain trees of a warm climate, as determined by Professor Penhallow,
and twelve species of freshwater shells, according to determinations
kindly made by Dr. Dall of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
two of the shells, Unio (Quadrula) pyramidata and Anodonta grandis,
being new to the Toronto formation.

The most important feature of this section is the evidence afforded that

CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 329

a period of erosion, during which the floor of Hudson River shale was cut
down more than 16 feet, preceded the deposit of the lowest warm climate
beds. This, with the downward extension of the interglacial beds, as
described in previous reports, for at least 15 feet, lengthens the time
necessary for the interglacial episode considerably.

The new deposits in the western part of the city are exposed partly
in cuttings for sewers, but chiefly in two large sandpits, now worked
energetically because of the increase of building operations in Toronto.
These exposures lie from three to four miles west of the Don and are
either interglacial or preglacial, since more or less boulder clay overlies
them, though wave-action on the old Iroquois shore, 160 feet above the
present Lake Ontario, has removed part of the overlying till.

Sections at the sandpits near Christie and Shaw Streets show
30 to 40 feet of sand and gravel tumultuously cross-bedded, as if formed
in a rapidly flowing river or near the shore of a large lake. The upper
part of the stratified sand is. often contorted and broken into irregular
masses immediately under the till. The more gravelly layers contain a
few shells, chiefly Campeloma decisa, Valvata sincera, species of Plewrocera
and Sphaeriwm, and occasionally fragments of unios. A few mammalian
remains have occurred also, fragments of a tusk of mammoth or mastodon,
and an atlas vertebra of an animal not smaller than an ox, having been
found within the past year. The latter bone could not be determined by
comparison with the skeletons at hand in the Biological Museum of
Toronto University, and so was sent by Mr. Archibald Pride of the
Biological Museum, to whom it had been referred, to his brother in
Dublin. There it was considered to belong probably to Bison americanus.
Toronto is the most easterly locality in Canada where remains of this
inhabitant of the prairies have been found.

As these stratified sands differ greatly from any of the interglacial beds
of the Don or Scarborough, though underlying apparently the same sheet
of till, it seemed possible that they were preglacial. To settle this point it
was decided tosink a well to bed rock from the bottom of the Christie Street
sandpit, using the grant of 10/. to the Committee for this purpose. As the
sand below the bottom of the pits is heavily charged with water, it was
necessary to drill the well and sink a pipe as the work progressed. After
thirty-eight feet of rather uniform sand had been penetrated, a layer of
cemented gravel or conglomerate put an end to the work with the appliances
employed.

Another well was sunk half a mile to the south, near a stream which
had cut through forty feet of till. Here the drill reached the underlying
Hudson River shale, giving a complete section of the drift, as follows :

ft. in. ft. in.
Till, blue clay with a few scratched stones . . 40 99
Fine and coarse grey sand . P : : o) nid: 59
Clay without stones . ; ‘ ‘ : alias 45
Gravel (loosely cemented) . ; : : Fn ae 35. 9
Clay without stones . : : : - Pe yes) dome
Sand and gravel . : 5 - é : Bed fe 30 6
Hudson River Shale. é 2 i : F 17
Level of Lake Ontario . - ; . : d 0

As no boulder clay was found beneath the sand, the question remained
undecided whether the beds are interglacial or preglacial ; but the open-
ing of a sewer on Dupont Street, half a mile north-east of the sandpits, has

330 REPORT—1900.

since provided evidence favouring the interglacial age of the sands. At
the sewer stratified sand, evidently a continuation of the deposits just
mentioned, contains clayey sheets with thin bands of peaty material con-
taining remains of beetles, mosses, seeds, plates of mica, d&c., precisely like
the peat from the cold climate series of Scarborough and the Don
valley. Since these peaty layers are probably equivalent in age to the
peaty clays east of the city, we may suppose that the sandy deposits of
the western part of Toronto are also interglacial, in the upper part evi-
dently belonging to the cold climate series, but perhaps representing the
warm climate deposits at lower levels. It is clear that the conditions in
Western Toronto must have been different from those to the east,
since here a great thickness of stratified sand replaces stratified clay.
This may be explained by supposing that an interglacial Humber river
brought from the west sand and gravel into the great lake then occu-
pying the Ontario Valley to mingle with the clayey delta materials of the
interglacial Laurentian river flowing from Georgian Bay to Scarborough.

Just beneath a thin sheet of till in the Dupont Street sewer the upper
end of the ulna of a mammoth or mastodon was found, the bone having
been polished and scratched by glacial action, suggesting that it lay on
the surface when the ice advanced for the last time. Some pieces of wood
occurred near by, but lower down in the section.

We may now sum up the results obtained by the Committee and
former investigators of the Toronto formation, so as to show the series of
events recorded, the thickness of the deposits, and the fossils obtained from
them.

In most places the Toronto formation is found to overlie a bed of cha-
racteristic boulder clay containing rocks brought from long distances to
the north or north-east, and covering the eroded surface of the Cambro-
silurian rocks of the region. This boulder clay probably belongs to the
Iowan till sheet of the United States. After the retreat of the ice there
was an interval of erosion shown near Shaw Street, and in the interglacial
river valley at the bend of the Don ; followed by the deposit of clay, sand,
and gravel containing trees and unios of a warmer climate than the
present, the greatest thickness amounting to thirty-three feet in the Don
valley, and to thirty-five feet below Lake Ontario at Scarborough.

These beds have nowhere been found at a higher level than fifty feet
above Lake Ontario, and the upper sands and gravels were probably laid
down in shallow water, since they are browned and sometimes cemented
with oxide of iron.

Conformably upon the warm climate beds are a series of beds
containing trees and other fossils, especially beetles, suggesting a cooler
climate than the present; not Arctic, however, but cold temperate.
These are best shown at Scarborough Heights, where stratified peaty
clays starting a few feet below the level of Lake Ontario have a thickness
of ninety-five feet, followed by fifty-five feet of stratified sand. It is pro-
bable that part at least of the seventy feet of sand found in the western
part of Toronto is of the same age. The interglacial lake at this stage
must have stood at least 150 feet higher than Lake Ontaric.

A long period of erosion followed the draining of this lake, during
which river valleys a mile or more in width were cut through the delta
deposits at Scarborough to the depth of more than 150 feet comparable to
those cut by the Don and Humber since the Glacial period.

Finally a fresh advance of the ice, probably belonging to the Wisconsin

CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 331

stage of American geologists, covered the Toronto formation with a com-
plex series of layers of boulder clay and stratified sand and clay reaching
a thickness of 200 feet at Scarborough Heights.

Accounts of the fossils of the Toronto formation have been given in
previous reports of this Committee and in various articles in geological
journals, but in this final report it is thought wise to give a more complete
list of the species collected, including a large number that have not yet
been published. As the trees will be taken up in Professor Penhallow’s
report, the present list is confined to the interglacial fauna. The forms-
occurring in the lower, warm climate beds will be given first, and after-
wards those of the cool climate.

Fauna of Warm Climate Beds, Don Valley.

Vertebrata ; possibly mammoth or mastodon and bison, and an undeter--
mined fish.
Arthropoda : several undetermined beetles and cyprids.
Mollusca :
Unio undulatus
» rectus l
» Juteolus
» gibbosus J

still living in Lake Ontario.

” Benet from Lake Ontario.
» trigonus

» occidens

» solidus not known in the St. Lawrence system of:
» clavus waters, but living farther south.

» pyramidatus

ane a living in Lake Erie, but not reported

Anodonta grandis, not reported from Canada.

Sphaerium rhomboideum Planorbis parvus
cf striatinum a5 bicarinatus
3 sulcatum | Amnicola limosa
A solidulum ” porata
+ simile (?) = sagana
Pisidium Adamsi Physa heterostropha
oe compressum » ancillaria
* novaboracense (‘) Succinea avara
Pleurocera subulare Bythinella obtusa
fn elevatum | Somatogyrus isogonus
- Lewisi (7?) | Valvata sincera
Goniobasis depygis » _ tricarinata
as Haldemani Campeloma decisa
Limnaea decidiosa Bifidaria armata (land snail)
= elodes

In all there are thirty-eight undoubted species of molluscs, and three:
more probably, included in the fauna. Of these eight or ten have not been
reported from Lake Ontario, but occur farther south.

332 REPORT—1900.

Fauna of Cool Climate, chiefly from Scarborough.

Vertebrata : Caribou, and perhaps mammoth or mastodon and bison.

Arthropoda (almost wholly beetles) :
Carabidae (9 gen., 34 sp.).

Elaphrus irregularis
Loricera glacialis
lutosa
73 exita
Nebria abstracta
Bembidium glaciatum
- Haywardi

”

3 vestigium
e vanum
a praeteritum
i expletum
damnosum
Patrobus gelatus
3 decessus
3 frigidus
Pterostichus abrogatus
u destitutus
- fractus
bs destructus
a gelidus
depletus

Badicer antecursor
Platynus casus

5 Hindei

5 Halli

53 dissipatus

5 desuetus

5 Harttii

a3 delapidatus

_ exterminatus

5s interglacialis

53 interitus
longaevus

Har palus comiiten

Dytiscidae (3 gen., 8 sp.).
Coelambus derelictus

5 cribrarius

y infernalis

disjectus
Hydroporus inanimatus

sf inundatus

~ sectus

Agabus perditus

Gyrinidae (1 sp.).
‘Gyrinus confinis LeC.

Hydvrophilidae (1 sp.).
Cymbiodyta exstincta

Staphylinidae (11 gen., 19 sp.).
Gymnusa absens

Quedius deperditus

Philonthus claudus
Cryptobium detectum

of cinctum
Lathrobium interglaciale
AD antiquatum
4 debilitatum
95 exesum
3 inhibitum
3 frustum

Oxyporus stiriacus
Bledius glaciatus
Geodromicus stiricidii
Acidota crenata, Fabr. (var.
nigra)
Arpedium stillicidii
Olophrum celatum
s arcanum
5 dejectum

Chrysomelidae (1 gen., 2 sp.).
Donacia stiria
i pompatica

Curculionidae (4 gen., 6 sp.).
Erycus consumptus
Anthonomus eversus

p fossilis

lapsus
Orchestes avus
Centrinus disjunctus

Scolytidae (1 sp.).
Phloeosinus squalidens

Mollusca :

Sphaerium rhomboideum
a fabale

Limnaea sp.

Planorbis sp.

Valvata tricarinata

CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 333

If the sand deposits of Western Toronto are to be included with the
cool climate beds, there must be added :

Campeloma decisa | Amnicola limosa
Pleurocera, two species Valvata sincera
Goniobasis, one species Unio, one species

These fossils may, however, belong to the lower warm climate series.
The molluscs do not give decisive information as to the climate ; but the
trees, and to a considerable extent the insects, point to a climate somewhat
cooler than at present.

Dr. Samuel H. Scudder has determined these beetles, seventy-two in
number, all of them in his opinion extinct except two. Twenty-five of
them were obtained from material sent by Dr. Hinde, the rest from
specimens collected at Scarborough and Toronto by A. P. Coleman. A
complete account of the new species, with figures, will be published shortly
by the Canadian Geological Survey. The new species confirm Dr. Scudder
in the opinion expressed when the first set of specimens was described,
‘that on the whole the fauna has a boreal aspect, though by no means
so decidedly boreal as one would anticipate under the circumstances.’
The Committee warmly appreciates the kindness and patience of Dr.
Scudder in working up this fragmentary and difficult material.

In all at least seventy-eight species of animals are known from the
cool climate beds, seventy of them extinct, and the total number may
reach eighty-seven ; while in the lower warm climate beds at least fifty
species are known to exist. Only four of the seventy-eight species
recognised in the upper beds occur also in the lower beds ; so that 124
species of animals, chiefly insects and molluscs, but including also the
caribou, bison, and mammoth or mastodon, have been found in the Toronto
interglacial formation. If we include the flora, with its numerous forest
trees, it will be seen that there are ample materials for reconstructing the
life of the time and for determining the climate. That the Toronto
formation is interglatial has been proved beyond doubt, and that it
represents an interglacial period lasting thousands of years is scarcely
doubtful. Two points are of special importance in this connection. In
the first place, there was a considerable interval of erosion after the
earlier withdrawal of the ice before the warm climate beds began to be
deposited, and there was a long time of active erosion after the cool
. climate beds had been formed before the ice advanced for the second
time. These times of erosion, with the long intervening time when the
valley of Lake Ontario was filled with fresh water to a depth of 50
to 150 feet greater than at present, demand not only a great lapse of
time but also important warpings and changes of level in the St. Lawrence
valley. In the next place it is striking that none of the scores of species
of plants and animals found is characteristic of an Arctic or even sub-
Arctic climate. All of them might live in Ontario to-day except a few
which require a warmer climate, z.c. they all belong to climates ranging
from warm temperate to cold temperate, meaning by the latter the climate
of the north shore of Lake Superior or of the lower St. Lawrence. The
deposits seem to have been formed, not during the earlier retreat of the
ice, nor during its second advance, but during a temperate era, when in
all probability eastern Canada was as devoid of permanent icefields as
it is to-day. Our investigations go far ta prove that between the two

38384 REPORT—1900.

advances of the ice there was a long temperate interval during which
even the heart of Labrador, 700 miles to the north-east, must have been
free from glaciers.

II. The Pleistocene Flora of the Don Valley. By Prof. D. P. Penwaiow.

Special studies relative to the pleistocene flora of Canada have now
‘been carried on since 1889, the first report on the subject having been
made by Dawson and Penhallow in 1890.1 Other contributions have
been made from time to time, but upon the occasion of the meeting of
the British Association at Toronto in 1897 a special impetus was given
to this work by the appointment of a Committee, to whom a grant was
made for the purposes of investigation, particularly in the neighbourhood
-of Toronto. Under these favourable conditions much material has been
brought together, chiefly from the immediate vicinity of Toronto, and its
determination has thrown much important light upon the climatic con-
ditions of the various geological phases through which that region evidently
passed in interglacial times. During the past decade or more, other
important material has been gathered from various localities—often most
widely separated—throughout the Dominion. As the work of the
Committee is now practically completed, it is considered wise, in this
final report, to bring together all the information from these various
‘sources and endeavour to ascertain its bearing upon questions of current
interest and importance.

Plants from eighteen special localities have been studied, ranging
from Manitoba to Cape Breton, and particular attention has been directed
to those from at least twelve of these locations, chiefly from the vicinity
-of Toronto.

Eighty-three species in all have been studied, the largest number from
any one locality (Taylor’s Brickyard) being twenty-seven. In several
instances only one or two species have been obtained from a locality, in
which cases they afford no definite conclusions respecting the climatic
conditions of the locality ; but in other cases the character of the vegeta-
tion is such as to leave no room for doubt as to the climatic conditions
involved. In the Valley of the Don, numerous collections from the same
localities have resulted in a constant diminution in the number of dis-
coveries, until latterly the total absence of anything new has brought the
‘conviction that the flora of the region has been exhausted, and an in-
spection of the accompanying table will at once serve to disclose the extent
of the flora in each locality examined. The explorations of the past year
have added nothing new to our knowledge of the flora of these localities,
since the various plants found have proved to be only such as had been
previously determined. There is therefore little to be added to the
observations made in previous years, but attention may be directed to a
few considerations of interest which appear upon comparison of the various
localities studied.

Of the eighteen localities under observation, five are so distant from
one another and from all others as to bear no obvious relation to each
other, or else the plant-remains are so few as to render them of little
value except from the general standpoint of geographical range. These
localities are Cape Breton, Rolling River (Manitoba), Solsgirth and Leda

* Bulls Geol. Soc. Amer. J. (1890), pp. 311-334.

9

CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 330

River (Manitoba), and Moose and Missinaibi Rivers. The remaining
thirteen localities are so situated as to bear a more or less definite relation
to one another, and all lie within the limits of the Pleistocene Sea which
extended up the valley of the St. Lawrence, and occupied the area of the
present Great Lakes. It should be kept in mind in this connection, how-
ever, that saltwater forms are to be met with only as far west as Green’s
Creek, near Ottawa, while freshwater types prevail in all the more
western localities, which thus correspond in a general way with the de-
posits of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Manitoba, and other western
regions.

Distribution of Pleistocene Plants.

Green’s Creek

Don Valley |

Erie Clays
Cape Breton _
Rolling River,
Manitoba
Leda River,
Manitoba
Moose and Missi-
naibi Rivers
Price’s
Scarborough
Besserer’s Wharf ;
Montreal

Don River

Gaol Farm

Simpson’s
Bend of Don

Bottom of

Solsgirth, Manitoba
Logan’s Clay

|
|
|

Abies balsamea : ; 5
Acer pleistocenicum 5 a
» saccharinum . ali). Lie it *
» spicatum P : e *
Bieersp.s | | | ae
Alnus sp. eet eee || | | x
Asimina triloba : : a al /
Betulalutea . : j | ool vibe *
Brasenia peltata . . | | . *
Bromus ciliatus . - *
Carex aquatilis . . . | | | Parl
» magellanica . : | | -
» reticulata . : | 9
Caryaalba . : : cil AY EH
Cocconeis sp. . : Z eH |
Chamaecyparis sphaeroi- | |
dea. é : Salle |=
Crataegus punctata : ee
Cyperaceae sp. : : Pe Ha |: | Ue
Distichium capillaceum . _ .
Drosera rotundifolia :
Elodea canadensis . : =

Encyonema prostratum
Equisetum limosum -

p scirpoides

~ sylvaticum
sf sp.. F . * |
Eriocaulon sp. ‘ : = x /
Fontinalis sp. . : : *)
Fucus digitatus ; : | Sigs
Fraxinus quadranculata . he
» Sambucifolia . EAA
» americana. ; eats, ||
Festuca ovina . ‘ 5 el*| |
Gaylussaciaresinosa .
Gramineae sp.. 4 | | *

Hypnum commutatum 2 |

>» AUitans) 7% : } | #
» recurvans. f oy

*

*
Kee KR
*

336 REPORT—1900.

Distribution of Pleistocene Plants—continued.

2 | =m Don Valle S
aE)#2/ 3 (2S lealeFls|al.| |#lg(zolcle
—— Ol! ao (|ee2/BS\e8/5/ Al. 218) S| a|2| 8
2(e) 88!) 3 lea] ®S igo [|e s/o] Sli el al sis
Biel 2S) £ SS] e3)/F2 |s|=/ 8/8] 26] 8] sl als
Cla | IF |S" |e) sls] sal sles] 8
3 2 [ae lalalS| als ra
LS ad ee ein vO ETC: A
| Hypnum revolvens . a
| ot) Spee : *
Juniperus virginiana. | bail ha =
_ Larix americana : cE poeta eam * *
,, cChurchbridgensis . er |
| Licmophora sp. ee
Lycopodium sp... : a
Maclura aurantiaca . Ra i a!
| Menyanthes trifoliata- . | *
| Navicula lata . : * | |
| Oryzopsis asperifolia | | *
| Oxycoccus palustris ; | *
| Picea alba A , Ra *
| 3 nigra ‘ e * | | } * | |e) ] ae | eT *
| » %Sp.. 7 . . | « | |
| Pinus strobus . : ; | Tel ca esa
Platanus occidentalis * =
Populus balsamifera 5 | ih fala
s grandidentata . le ci * *
Potamogeton pectinatus . 4
zs perfoliatus . | ey * | *
5 pusillus . | | Balhae
+ rutilans | *| *
7 natans 4 *
Potentilla anserina . 5 | Erle
Prunus sp. : . : eral eamt
| Quercus obtusiloba . : by |
| 3 | alba?) ® : pall ect
a rubra : 5 |* ae ba
% tinctoria ; “ ss
> oblongifolia j *
» macrocarpa eye Ned
2 acuminata a
| Robinia pseudacacia se
| Salix sp. . iY os =
Taxus canadensis pa [ea | *
Thuya occidentalis . < Fadler)
Tilia americana : ; alah tary
Typha latifolia : : | i
Ulmus americana Sia
» racemosa ‘ 3 |
Vaccinium uliginosum . | =
Vallisneria spiralis... ra | cai
Zostera marina : : | -
'
Totals : pyle lier 2 1 | 6 1 |17/34/27/3 1/5 14/24 14/7

The most easterly of the localities in the related deposits is Montreal.
The majority of the specimens recovered at this point represent drift
material brought down by tributary rivers, but the great abundance of
Zostera marina and the occurrence of Algae show that some of the plants
at least were deposited in place. The matrix is a blue clay. Seven
species in all have been recovered from this locality, and they are.all

CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA. 307

identical with species now common in the same district—except, of course
Z4ostera—thus indicating similar climatic conditions.

At Green’s Creek, near Ottawa, and at Besserer’s Wharf, a few miles
below on the Ottawa River, numerous plant remains are found enclosed
in clay nodules, but their very fragmentary character often renders their
determination most unsatisfactory. These two localities, although sepa-
rately treated, are in reality one and the same, since the deposit at each
place is of the same nature, and was undoubtedly laid down at the same
time, and they have proved to be among the richest in plant remains of
all the localities studied—no less than twenty-eight species having been
recovered from the clay nodules. An analysis of this flora shows
39°71 per cent. of the plants to be wholly aquatic, and therefore deposited
in place. 35°71 per cent. are land plants, drifted in by tributary rivers,
and 28°07 per cent. represent semi-aquatics and marsh plants from adjacent
land areas. The vegetation, as a whole, is identical with that now found
in the same region, from which we may infer similar climatic conditions.

At Scarborough Heights, near Toronto, the flora is rather remarkable
for the complete absence of aquatic types, showing the drift character of
the entire deposit. Fourteen species in all have been found there, and of
these six are trees, while the remaining eight embrace mosses, equiseta,
and herbaceous or half-shrubby plants. The vegetation as a whole is of
a decidedly more boreal type than that now flourishing in the same region,
and, if anything, somewhat more northern than that which is to be found
in the deposits at Green’s Creek and Montreal. This points to a climate
equivalent to that of northern Quebec and Labrador, as we know it
to-day, and somewhat colder than the climate at Green’s Creek and
Montreal during Pleistocene time.

In the Don Valley no less than eight separate localities have been
examined. Some of them, as at Simpson’s, proved practically barren of
results so far as plant remains were concerned, owing to the uncontrollable
influx of water. Others again, as at Taylor's Brickyard and the Don
River, proved to be exceptionally rich in material, and afforded some of the
most valuable results obtained. Within this area no less that thirty-eight
species have been recovered, and they point conclusively to the existence of
climatic conditions differing materially from those which now prevail, and of
a character more nearly allied to that of the middle United States of to-day.

The Erie Clays at Hamilton, Ontario, have afforded only one example
‘of plant life, and this does not materially aid us in any conclusions relative
to climatic conditions, since it is a type having a somewhat wide range
within the warmer zone, represented by the more southern types of the
Pleistocene flora,

Only one species appears to have disappeared in Pleistocene time. Acer
pleistocenicum, which was abundant in the region of the Don, bears no
well-defined resemblance to existing species. With this one exception, it
is a noteworthy fact that all the plants of the Pleistocene flora were such
as are now represented in the same localities, or, in the case of the Don
Valley, by plants which find the northern limits of their distribution at or
near that region, and the somewhat unequal distribution thus indicated
at once suggests definite climatic changes during Pleistocene time, as
represented by the northern and southern migration of particular types of
plants. This has already been referred to in previous reports and publi
cations, but it may be repeated at this time that the definite and abundant

occurrence of Maclura aurantiaca, Juniperus virginiana, Quercus obtusi-
1900. Zz

338 REPORT—1900,

loba, Quercus oblongifolia, Asimina triloba, Chamaecyparis sphaeroidea,
and Fraxinus quadrangulata points without question to the prevalence of
a much warmer climate than now prevails, while, on the other hand, the
equally abundant occurrence of boreal types at Scarborough points to
the existence of a colder climate at the time these deposits were laid
down. It is therefore clear that in the region of Toronto during Pleisto-
cene time there were at least two distinct periods, characterised, on the
one hand, by a climate equivalent to that of the middle United States at
the present day, and, on the other hand, a climate equivalent to that of
northern Quebec and Labrador. According to stratigraphical evidence
obtained by Professor Coleman, these changes followed the recession of
the ice sheet in the order given, from which we are to conclude that the
climate of the Don Valley is now intermediate between that of the first
and second periods, approaching the former.

On the other hand, again, the flora of Green’s Creek and Besserer’s,
as also that of Montreal, is practically identical with that now existing in
the same localities. It thus represents a climate colder than that of the
Don period, but somewhat warmer than that of the Scarborough period, but
present evidence does not enable us to ascertain if these deposits were
laid down before or after the Scarborough deposits. The following sum-
mary will probably assist in conveying a clearer idea of the distinctive
differences in the vegetation of these three periods.

Don Period,
Warm Climate
Scarborough Period,
Cold Climate
Green’s Creek Period,
Mild Climate

Se

Abies balsamea “ s
Acer pleistocenicum . .
Acer saccharinum
Acer spicatum : ¢ : :
Algae sp. . ‘ i : 2 : : 5 : |
Alnus sp. . , ° . ‘ : F ; :
Asimina triloba . f c .
Betula lutea
Brasena peltata .
Bromus ciliatus . 5 4 5
Carex aquatilis . 5 : .
» magellanica
» reticulata

Cara alba . ; 5 i
Chamaecyparis sphaeroidea
Crataegus punc'ata
Cyperaceae sp. . .
Drosera rotundifolia . o
Elodea canadensis . 5 :
Encyonema prostratum
Hquisetum limosum

Ay scirpoides .

" = :

A sylvaticum
Eriocaulon sp.
Fontinalis sp. . A : : : ( A : |

*

* * * *

%¥ FRR *

—

Summary—continued.

CANADIAN PLEISTOCENE FLORA AND FAUNA.

Fucus digitatus .

Fraxinus quadrargulata
Af sambucifolia
. americana .

Festuca ovina . ;

Gaylussacia resinosa .

Gramineae sp.

Hypnum commutatum

FS fluitans ‘
* revolvens .
” Sp. 5

Juniperus virginiana :
Larix americana
Lycopodium sp. .
Maclura aurantiaca .
Oryzopsis asperifolia .
Oxycoccus palustris
Picea alba . : :
» nigra . s .
ISDS auh- rliys :
Pinus strobus_ . -
Platanus occidentalis .
Populus balsamifera
» grandidentata
Potamogeton pectinatus
PH perfoliatus
ne pusillus
a rutilans
+8 natans .
Potentilla anserina .
Prunus sp. . ’ .
Quercus obtusiloba .
» alba (2).
os rubra. .
“3 tinctoria :
“ oblongifolia .
» macrocarpa .
acuminata .
Robinia pseudacacia .
Salix sp. . ;
Taxus canadensis
Thuya occidentalis
Tilia americana . c
Typha latifolia .
Ulmus americana
» racemosa
Vaccinium uliginosum
Vallisneria spiralis .
Zostera marina .

Totals : F :

_— —_

we
1
o By
n oO
~ os
34 Ae
oq
2.5 PE
eS) cos
Ay BS
aq ac
oa on
°
(aye 2c
e eo
i)
nm
%
'
‘ : ‘ x '
*
*
‘
*
3%}
~ *
*
:
* *
*
%
2
*
s . .
*
. . . .
. . *
*
. F
*
‘ . 5
%
%
*
. 4 é
R .
ye
*
%
*
*
* |
. * !
a }
- F |
* /
; * |
* *
* } |
. | |
* | |
N |
*
i *
*
*
a | i SE
c eT 38 14

359

Period,
ate

cc

Green's Creel:
Mild Clim

*

%

%

*

3840 REPORT—1900,

Exploration of Irish Caves.—Interim Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Dr. R. F. ScHarEF (Chairman), Mr. R. Luoyp PRAEGER
(Secretary), Mr. G. Correy, Professor GRENVILLE COLE, Professor
D. J. Cunnincaam, Mr. A. McHenry, and Mr. R. J. Ussuer.

Owine to various circumstances, especially illness of some of the
members, the Committee were unable during the past year to commence
the exploration of the caves in the west of Ireland. These caves promise
to yield satisfactory results, and the Committee recommend that they
should be reappointed, with a renewed grant of 20/.

Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks.—Report of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. J. E. Marr (Ohairman), Dr. WHEELTON
Hinp (Secretary), Mr. F. A. Batuer, Mr. G. C. Crick, Mr.
A. H. Foorp, Mr. H. Fox, Mr. E. J. Garwoop, Dr. G. J. HInbE,
Professor P. I. Kenpaui, Mr. J. W. Kirxsy, Mr. R. Kipston,
Mr. G. W. Lampiueu, Professor G. A. LEzour, the late My. G. H.
Morton, Mr. B. N. Peacu, Mr. A. Srrawan, and Dr. H. Woop-
WARD. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Ir is to be regretted that since the meeting at Dover no individual
reports have been received from members of the Committee, and that the
lamellibranchs collected at Eccup only have been examined and named.

The Secretary suggests that the most important points to settle are
the faunas of (a) the beds which occur between the Millstone Grits and
the Massif of Limestone in the South Pennine area, and (b) the fauna
which occur in the shales between the Millstone Grits and the upper beds

Limestone in the North Pennine area, This would settle at once the
correlation of Pendleside Limestone and its equivalent in the Yoredale
series of Wensleydale.

Mr. B. N. Peach has been at work on the faunas of the Calciferous
Sandstone series of Fife, and it is hoped that a full detailed report will
be received next year. It would be well if a grant could be made to
employ a collector to work the shales of Pendle Hill, and if possible in
Swale and Teesdale.

The Committee regret to report the loss, by death, of two of their
number—the late Professor Alleyne Nicholson and G. H. Morton. Mr.
Morton was an ardent worker at Carboniferous geology, and had
specially confined his attention to North Wales ; a full list of Carboni-
ferous fossils from this district was to have been prepared by him this
year.

APPENDIX.
Interim Report by Dr. WaEEtton Hinp.

In the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ 1898, Dec. IV. vol. v. pp. 61-69, I gave
a brief sketch of what was known of the Life Zones of the Carboniferous
deposits of Europe, and ‘at p. 68 showed the following table, which
represented the main results of my investigations up te that date.

ee

LIFE*ZONES IN THE BRITISH CARBONIFEROUS ROCKS, 34]

1. Zone of Anthra-

comya Phillipsii

2. Zone of Naia-
dites modiolaris
and Anthra-
comya modiolaris

3. Zoneof Aviculo-

pecten papyra-
ceus, Gastrio-
ceras carbo-
narium, Posido-

niella levis, and
P., minor

4. Zone of Pro-
ductus giganteus
and Productus
cora

5. Zoneof Modiola
Macadamii

ENGLAND

Upper Coal-mea-

sures of Lanca-
shire, Yorkshire,
Staffordshire,
Bristol, including
the Spirorbis
Limestones

Middle Coal-mea-
sures universally

Ganister Series

Millstone Grit
Shales below the
Millstone Grit
universally

The Carboniferous |

Limestone of
Derbyshire
Themeasuresfrom

* the Great Scar to

the Main Lime-
stone, N. York-
shire

The Carbonaceous
Division of
Northumberland

Carboniferous
Limestone of

Wales and the |

Mendips

The Lower Lime-
stone Shales of
the Mendips and

South Wales, |
with several
fossils common |

to the Old Red
Sandstone Series
andjthe Carboni-
ferous

ScoTLAND

The Red Beds of

Fifeshire

The Coal-measures

of Fifeshire

2? Wanting

NOoTE.—Aviculo- |

pecten papyraceus

is said to be found |
some distance |

above the Ell Coal

in the Wishaw dis- |

trict, Lanarkshire

The Carboniferous

Limestone Series
of

Upper

Lower

Scotland | Middle

|! The Calciferous

Sandstone Series,
with Schizodus
Pentlandicus and
Sanguinolites Ab-
densis in Fifeshire,
and a fauna very
different from the
English and Irish
equivalents. Mr.
Kirkby states that
Productus cora is
contained in the
upper 500 feet of
these beds

TRELAND

? Wanting

Coal-measures

Castlecomer, Lein-
ster Coalfield

Limerick

The Upper Lime-

stone
The Calp

| Coal-measures of |
Foynes island, co.

The Lower Lime- ,

stone

The Coomhola and
Moyola beds,
forming a pas-
sage from the
Old Red to the

Carboniferous, |
and containing |

certain fossils
common to both

Series 1-3 constitute what I consider to be the ‘ Upper Carboniferous,’
and series 4 and 5 the ‘ Lower Carboniferous,’ of my paper on the Yore-
dale Series. !

} Geol. Mag., April and May 1897.

842 REPORT—1900.

Further work has convinced me of the correctness of these main zonal
divisions, and observations on the subdivision of the lower part of Zone 3
are approaching to some degree of exactness.

With regard to the subdivision of group 4 I am in hopes that
Edmondia sulcata and Allorisma monensis may be found to indicate an
horizon in Zone 4; but as yet these fossils have not been found in the
South Pennine area.

I consider interesting the discovery of Cypricardella rectangularis,
C. Anna, Nuculania attenwata, Ctenodonta sinuwosa, and other shells in
shale above the Underset Limestone, nine standards near Kirkby Stephen,
and a very similar fauna at the same horizon on Wild Boar Fell. C.
rectangularis with an identical fauna is found to be common in the Lower
Limestone. Series of Strathavon and the Upper Limestone series of
Orchard near Glasgow :—a full description of the section and position of
the fossiliferous beds was published at p. 358 in Part IV. of my mono-
graph on ‘ British Carboniferous Lamellibranchs,’ 1899.

Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils—Report of the
Committee, consisting of Dr. H. Woopwarb (Chairman), Rev. G.
I. Wuiwporne, Mr. R. Kinston, Professor H. G. Sretey, Mr. H.
Woops, and Dr. A. 8S. Woopwarp (Secretary).

DurinG the past year the Committee have received a list of type-fossils in
the Norwich Museum, compiled by Mr. Frank Leney. The Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, has published a first instalment of a
list of the type-fossils contained in its collections (‘Type Specimens of
Eocene and Oligocene Fossils,’ by H. A. Allen, appended to the Annual
Report of the Geological Survey of Great Britain for 1899).

Ossiferous Caves at Uphill.—Report of the Committee, consisting of
Professor Ltoyp Moraan (Chairman), H. Bouton (Secretary),
Professor W. Boyp Dawkrns, Professor 8. H. Rrynoups, and
E. T. NEwTon.

THE excavation work of last year was continued until the approach of
winter, by which time the lower caves were worked out, nothing new
being added to the discoveries reported to the Association at the Dover
meeting.

The caves were found to lie along the bedding planes of the limestone,
and had clearly formed part of a subterranean drainage system, the
material in them being derived presumably from caves on higher levels.

Systematic search has been made for caves of habitation higher up the
hill, but hitherto with no success.

Work has therefore been arrested. It is hoped to secure a visit and
report from Professor Boyd Dawkins before further exploratory work is
commenced.

The Committee have, up to the present, incurred an expenditure of
451. 14s. 2d., 307. of which has been met by the grant made in 1898 at
Bristol. :

ON OSSIFEROUS CAVES AT UPHILL. 843

The Committee do not feel justified in requesting a grant for future
work, but they seek reappointment with a grant of 10/. (the sum not
claimed last year) to cover expenses already incurred. It is their inten-
tion to further examine the ground as quarrying proceeds,

Erratic Blocks of the British Isles—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor EH. Hutu (Chairman), Mr. P. F. KENDALL (Secretary),
Professor T. G. Bonney, Mr. C. E. Dr Rance, Professor W. J,
Sotias, Mr. R. H. Trppeman, Rev. 8. N. Harrison, Mr. J.
Horne, Mr. F. M. Burron, Mr. J. Lomas, Mr. A. R. Dwerry-
HOUSE, Mr. J. W. StaTHer, and Mr. W.'T. TUCKER. (Drawn up
by the Secretary.)

THE records of boulders observed during the past year have been derived
principally from Yorkshire, thanks to the activity of the local organisation
which has for so many years occupied itself with the investigation ; but the
Committee is hopeful that other areas may be subjected to an equally
stringent examination. Work had been commenced in the county of
Durham under the stimulus of an enthusiastic worker, the late Dr. Taylor
Manson, of Darlington ; and though the Committee has to deplore his
removal by death before any definite results were obtained, it is expected
that the movement which he initiated will be productive of valuable
contributions to the knowledge of a rich and scarcely touched field.

An important advance affecting much of the eastern side of England,
and particularly the counties of Northumberland, Durham, and Yorkshire,
is marked by a visit paid to the Cheviot country by the Yorkshire
Geological and Polytechnic Society at the instigation of members of the
Boulder Committee of the county. The object of this excursion was to
study the igneous rocks of the Cheviots, with a view to the recognition
of any erratics of similar types, and to determine how far the ascription
to this source was correct of a series of porphyrites which form a very
considerable proportion of the far travelled boulders of Yorkshire. It
was found that an even larger number of types of erratics could be traced
to the Cheviots than had been anticipated. A large number of specimens
were collected, and the Secretary of this Committee will be glad to furnish
sets of examples to any geologists willing to assist in the investigation of
the boulders of the East of England.

A very important further result was obtained from the excursion.
In the report for 1897 reference was made to the identification by
Professor Brégger of the Sparagmite Sandstone of Scandinavia in a series
of Yorkshire erratics submitted tohim. In subsequent reports occurrences
of a similar rock in various localities in Yorkshire have been mentioned,
but some doubt has been felt regarding the identification, and all such
records have been given with a ‘?’.

This caution has been justified by the discovery that a sandstone
precisely resembling some of the erratics of Yorkshire constitutes a signi-
ficant proportion of the stones in the ‘foreign’ drift of the country about
Wooler and Ingram in the Cheviots. It is referred to in the Geological
Survey Memoirs of the district under the name of ‘ Greywacke Sandstone,’
and its source is given as in the Silurian area of the Tweed Valley.

344 REPORT—1900.

A further extension of the known distributions of Shap Granite blocks
is furnished by the example reported from Gainsborough, and the interesting

Riebeckite-Eurite of Ailsa Craig has been recorded from Delamere, in
the very heart of Cheshire.

CHESHIRE.
Reported by Mr. J. Lomas, A.R.C.S., F.GS.

Birkenhead.—In cutting a sewer in Woodchurch Road, near Half-
way House, Boulder Clay about 25 feet thick ; boulder of diabase 3 feet
diameter.

Delamere Forest.—Great spreads of sands and gravels. Group near
station contains Lake District andesites, Eskdale and Criffel granites,
Riebeckite- Eurite from Ailsa Craig. Flints.

SHROPSHIRE.
Church Stretton, Watling Street-—
Criffel granite, 1 foot diameter.
Eskdale granite.
Gravel Pit under Hazler Coppice, 800 ft. O.D.—
Eskdale granite.
Buttermere granophyre.
Permian sandstone from north.
Comley—
Eskdale granite.
All Stretton—
Triassic sandstone.
NortH WaALEs.

Llandrillo, near Bala.—Section of Drift nearly 100 feet high, cut by
stream near Cadwst, full of large boulders, many over 6 feet in diameter.
Nearly all ash and greenstone ; exposures of similar rocks a little
distance southwards.

Greenstones increase in number on following up the stream Nant-cwm-
Dywyll as far as the firwood. To the east the ground is strewn with
large clusters of greenstone boulders. On the summit of the rising
ground the rock is found in situ, and shows roches moutonnées and
striations from the south. No greenstone boulders are found in the low
ground south of the outcrop.

Old Slate Quarry S. of Carnedd-y-ci—Many quartzite and green-
stone bouiders of large size resemble rocks found in sitw on Cader
Berwyn, immediately to the south.

Glyn Ceiriog.—Group of boulders in field just above cottage called
Pant. Some over 5 feet in diameter consist of Welsh felsites and
Denbigh grits. The grits, which are fossiliferous and beautifully striated,
occur in situ to the north and west. On the hills to the south of Glyn
Ceiriog, Denbigh grits occur as boulders up to 1,250 feet.

YORKSHIRE.
Reported by the Yorkshire Boulder Committee (Mr J. H. Howarru,
L'.GLS., Secretary).
By Mr. H. H. Corsert, I2.2.C.S., of Doncaster,

Cushworth.
1 Dolerite.

ON ERRATIC BLOCKS OF THE BRITISH ISLES, 345

By Mr. P. F. KenpAat.

Barugh Hill, near Robin Hood’s Bay.—Many boulders of porphyrite
and two examples of a very coarse pisolite containing Verinea.

Thirley, near Cloughton.—Great gravel-mounds here are strewn with
large blocks, all of Jurassic sandstone, in numbers greatly exceeding what
may be seen elsewhere in Yorkshire.

Whithy—Cliffs to West of Town.—A. bed of gravel lying between two
beds of Boulder Clay, the lower dark grey in colour, the upper reddish,
contains the following rocks roughly in order of prevalence : Jurassic and
other sandstones, Magnesian Limestone, Carboniferous Limestone, basalt,
conglomerate (? Sparagmite), Greywacke sandstone (or ? Sparagmite),
jasper, Alum Shale (a large block), Gryphza incurva, ball of red Boulder
Clay.

Wheatcroft, near Scarborough.—In corner of second field W. of road,
Shap granite 2 feet long.

Seamer.—The gravels between Seamer Quarries and Waydale House
contain very high proportion of basalts.

Seamer Beacon.—The tower here is built of rough blocks, mainly of
Jurassic sandstone, but with large numbers of basalt or dolerite and
some Cheviot porphyrite.

Yedmondale.—A pit shows gravel consisting of local stones with many
Cheviot porphyrites, some Greywacke, jasper, and a few granite pebbles.
Fragmentary marine shells are also found.

Hutton Bushel.—In gravel pit on 200 feet contour. Many local stones

with Cheviot porphyrites, Magnesian Limestone (Roker type), Kimeridge
clay, gneiss, granite.

Reported by Boulder Committee of the Hull Geological Society.
By Mr. Tuos. Suepparn, /.G.S.

Burstwick Gravel Pit, Holderness—

Shap granite, 8 in. by 6 in.
Rhomb-porphyry, 4 in. by 4 in.

By Mr. J. W. Statuer, 2.G.S.

Atwick.—At the foot of cliffs —
Shap granite, 18 in. by 20 in. by 14 in.
Augite-syenite (Laurvikite) 18 in. by 18 in. by 12 in.
Rhomb-porphyry, several pebbles.
Fordon on the Wolds.—250 feet O.D.—
Gneiss, 24 in. by 12 in. by 12 in.
Basalt, 30 in. by 24 in. by 24 in., planed on one side.
Carboniferous sandstone, 24 in. by 12 in. by 12 in,
Kirkmoorgate, near Robin Hood’s Bay.—600 feet O.D.—
Rhomb-porphyry, 7 in. by 4 in. by 4 in.
Also two smaller pebbles of same.
Peake—Yorkshire Coast—600 feet O.D.—

In thick glacial gravel, quarry above railway station, Shap granite 18 in.
by 15 in. by 12 in.
Rhomb-porphyry, Four small boulders,

346 ? REPORT—1900.

Runswick Bay—
1 Shap granite, 30 in. by 24 in. on the beach near the village.
33 66 in. by 48 in. by 36 in. on the beach near the village.

3 Brockram, 12 in, by 8 in.
4 Magnesian Limestone, 60 in, by 48 in. by 36 in.
5 Shap granite, 24 in. by 24 in, by 18 in.
6 A 48 in. by 36 in.

* 36 in. by 48 in.

This group, with probably many others, in the bed of the largest of
the four or five becks which run into the bay.

4

Speeton—
Shap granite, 12 in. by 8 in. by 8 in.

Stump Howe—
8 miles west of Whitby. 650 feet O.D.

Rhomb-porphyry.
A pebble,
LINCOLNSHIRE.
Reparted by Mr. J. A. Janpban, of Doncaster.
rainsborough.—On Spital Hill—

Large block of Shap granite, the light variety.
Block of ‘ Greenstone ’ (probably dolerite).

NoRTHUMBERLAND,
Reported by Mr, P. F. KENDALL.

Akeld, near the ruins of castle—

Gravel, comprised largely of porphyrite with some Silurian Greywacke.
Calder Farm, Roddam Dene—

Porphyrite and Greywacke.

The Movements of Underground Waters of Craven.—First Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor W. W. Watts (Chairman),
Mr. A. R. DwerryHousE (Secretary), Professor A. SMITHELLS,
Rev. E. Jones, Mr. Water Morrison, Mr. G. Bray, Rev.
W. Lower Carter, Mr. T. Farruey, Mr. P. F. KENDALL, and
Mr. J. E. Marr. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

TE Committee is carrying out the investigation in conjunction with a
Committee of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.

The present is merely an interim report, as the work is still in
progress.

It was decided that the first piece of work should consist of an
investigation of the underground flow of water in Ingleborough. This
hill forms with its neighbour, Simon’s Fell, a detached massif, which is
peculiarly suitable for investigations of this nature.

The summit of the group is formed of Millstone Grit, then follow
Yoredale Shales and Sandstones, the whole resting on a plateau of
Carboniferous Limestone,

r

|

|
|

ON THE MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS OF CRAVEN, 347

Many streams rise on the upper slopes of the hills and flow over the
Yoredales, but without exception their waters are swallowed directly
they pass on to the Carboniferous Limestone, to reappear as springs in
the valleys which trench the plateau.

The Committee first turned its attention to tracing the water which
flows into Gaping Ghyll.

It was generally believed that the water issued at a large spring
immediately above the bridge at Clapham Beck Head and immediately
below the entrance to Ingleborough Cavern.

On April 28 specimens of the water from this spring were taken for
analysis before the introduction of any test.

wo cwt. of ammonium sulphate was then put into the water flowing
into Gaping Ghyll, and at the same time the amount of the water was
gauged and found to be equivalent to 251,856 gallons per diem. <A few
hours later a second quantity of two cwt. of the same substance was
introduced.

On the same day 15 lb. of fluorescein in alkaline solution was put
into a pot-hole known as Long Kin East, about 1,300 yards north-east of
Gaping Ghyll.

In view of the important influence which the direction of the joints in
the limestone had been found to exercise over the flow of underground
water,' the direction of the joints in the limestone clints in the neighbour-
hood of Long Kin Hast was taken, and was found to be N.N.W. to
8.S.E., and to run in such a direction as to lead to the probability that
the water would reappear at the springs at the head of Austwick Beck,
and these were consequently watched.

The ammonium sulphate put in at Gaping Ghyll reappeared at the
large spring at Clapham Beck Head on the morning of May 3, and
continued to flow until the evening of May 6, when the water again
became normal. Thus the time occupied by the ammonium sulphate in
travelling from Gaping Ghyll to Clapham Beck Head, a distance of one
mile, was about five days.

No ammonium sulphate was found in any of the other springs in
Clapdale.

This result proved beyond doubt that Gaping Ghyll was connected
with Clapham Beck Head.

The fluorescein put in at Long Kin East showed itself at Austwick
Beck Head, but not at any of the neighbouring springs, on May 11, having
taken over thirteen days to travel, the delay being probably due to the
small amount of water flowing at the time of the experiments.

These results are of considerable importance, as they definitely reveal
two lines of divergent movement of these underground waters, and
indicate a subterranean watershed of much interest. The influence of
the master-joints of the Carboniferous Limestone in determining the
direction of flow of these underground waters was also, as at Malham,
clearly shown.

The next set of experiments was carried out by the joint Committee
on June 8 and following days.

In order to confirm the results in connection with the Gaping Ghyll
to Clapham Beck Head flow, and further to ascertain more definitely if

* See previous investigations of the Yorks. Geol. and Poly. Soc, Committee.

348 REPORT-—1900.

there existed any connection between Gaping Ghyll and the smaller
springs in Clapdale, 10 cwt. of common salt was put into the waters
of Gaping Ghyll on June 4, and a further 10 cwt. on June 5, samples
of the water from each of the springs being taken several times a day
until June 25.

One pound of fluorescein in alkaline solution was introduced into the
stream flowing through Ingleborough Cave on June 8 at 10 p.m, at the
point where the water plunges down a hole in the floor of the cave, and
marked ‘ Abyss’ in the 6-inch Ordnance map.

Five cwt. of ammonium sulphate was introduced into a sink on The
Allotment about 500 yards N.E. of Long Kin East on June 9, at 3 P.M. ;
and at 3.15 p.m. on the same day 1 Ib. of fluorescein in alkaline solution
was poured into the stream which flows past the shooting-box on The
Allotment and sinks near the Bench Mark 1320°1.

The fluorescein introduced into the abyss came out at Clapham Beck
Head, and possibly at Moses Well and other springs in Clapdale, but this
point requires further investigation, the evidence being as yet somewhat
unsatisfactory.

The salt from Gaping Ghyll appeared at Clapham Beck Head on June
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, and 21, being at its maximum on June 18, but not
at any of the other springs.

The ammonium sulphate put into the sink on The Allotment appeared
at Austwick Beck Head on June 22, the other springs in the neighbour-
hood being unaffected on that day ; but on the 24th and 25th there were
slight increases in the amount of ammonia in two small springs in Clap-
dale, viz. the small spring below Clapdale Farm, and Cat Hole Sike. As
one of these streams is close to the farmyard, and the other was at the
time nearly dry and flowing through pasture-land, no importance is
attached to these slight increases.

Of the fluorescein put in below the shooting-box no trace has since
been found, and the same is the case with 4 lb. of methylene blue intro-
duced into Grey Wife Sike, above Newby Cote.

Several most interesting problems still await solution in this area, one
of them being the relations of the Silurian floor, which underlies the
Carboniferous Limestone of the plateau, to the flow of underground water.

The two sinks Gaping Ghyll and Long Kin East are only about 1,300
yards apart, and yet the waters of the one take a direction quite distinct
from those of the other, and eventually emerge in a separate valley, the
distance between the springs being 14 miles, the great mass of Carboni-
ferous Limestone known as Norber, a hill upwards of 1,500 feet in height,
lying between the two valleys.

In Crummack Dale it is seen that the Silurian rocks form a ridge
running in an approximately N.W. and 8.E. direction, and unconformably
overlain by the Carboniferous Limestone.

If this line be continued it separates the Gaping Ghyll to Clapham
Beck Head flow from that of Long Kin East to Austwick Beck Head.

Thus it appears that this ridge of Silurian rocks forms an underground
water-parting, which the Committee hopes to be able to trace further
across the area.

The magnitude of this undertaking will be to some extent realised
when it is stated that upwards of 400 samples of water have been tested

for common salt, ammonia, and fluorescein, making in all upwards of
1,200 tests.

/

ON THE MOVEMENTS OF UNDERGROUND WATERS OF CRAVEN. 349

The whole of the grant of 40/. has been spent upon the investigation,
and a small sum in addition.

The experiments which have been carried out have indicated which
are the most suitable reagents for use in different cases, and it is conse-
quently hoped that future investigations will be carried out at rather less
cost than has been the case up to the present.

The Committee asks to be reappointed, with a grant of 60/.

Trish Elk: Remains —Fouwrth Report of the Convmitiee, consisting of
Professor W. Boyp Dawkins (Chairman), the late Deemster
GILL, Rev. Canon Savacr, Mr. G. W. Lampitucu, and Mr.
P. M. C. Kermope (Secretary), appointed to examine the Conditions
under which Remains of the Irish Elk are found in the Isle of
Man. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

THE Committee deeply regret the loss in October last of one of their
number, Deemster Gill, by whose pressing desire it was that the first
excavation was made near St. John’s in 1897, when their efforts were
rewarded by the discovery of the perfect skeleton of ‘Irish Elk’ now in
Castle Rushen.!

The following paragraph was added to our last report after it was in
type, and the bone in question exhibited at our Dover meeting, but by
some accident it was omitted from the report as published, so we insert
it here. ‘Ata depth of about nine feet below the surface, at the bottom
of the silt (Bed C of our first report), and just above the white Chara-
marl, were found two fragments of bone, which were forwarded to out
Chairman, who has identified one as the scapula of Bos longifrons, and
in a letter to the Secretary adds: ‘This establishes the presence in the
island of an animal which was domesticated and introduced into the
British Isles in the Neolithic age. It proves that this deposit in
which it occurs is not earlier than the Neolithic age.” ’

At the end of October last another trench, 12 yards by 3, was cut
across the Loughan ruy, Ballaugh,? parallel to and about 2 yards north-
west of that of last year. Ata point about 4 yards from the north-east
end the marl was found ata depth of 10 feet 3 inches, just over a foot
deeper than in last year’s trench, showing the dip towards the north-west.

In the peat, which extended from the surface to a depth of 3 feet,
were several pieces of timber, the largest being about 15 inches diameter at
the root : this bed rested upon silt, which extended to a further depth of
7 feet. It varied slightly in different parts, here more sandy, there more
loamy, but was really all one bed, the bottom of which consisted chiefly of
small flat water-worn stones, At a depth in this bed of 6 feet, that is to
say, nae 9 feet from the surface, was a layer of leaves about half an inch
thick.

In this layer, on the south-east side of the trench, about 3 yards from
its south-west end, was found a fragment of antler, thickly covered with
the blue phosphate which appears to be confined to this leaf-deposit. All
around it were minute decayed fragments of bone or antler.

Three or four yards away, at a depth of 10 feet from the surface,

' See Report, 1898. * Tbid., 1897.

350 REPORT—1900.

being about 3 inches from the white marl bed, but distinctly in the silt,
was another fragment of antler: this was in the north-west side of the
trench, and about a yard from its south-west end.

The marl was struck at a depth of 10 feet to 10 feet 3 inches ; andata
point from 9 to 12 inches within it, that is to say, about 11 feet below
the present surface, there was still another antler fragment, some 3 yards
further south-east than the last, in the south-west end of the trench.
Immediately below this the marl was bluish black, exactly as it was
round the head of the skeleton found near St. John’s (Close-y-Garcy).
This darkened marl was from 9 to 10 inches thick, and extended over an
area from the south-west end of the trench of about 3 feet square. All
through it were crumbs of decayed bones, doubtless ‘ Irish Elk.’

Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom.—Tenth
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor JAMES GEIKIE
(Chairman), Professor T. G. Bonney, Dr. Tempest ANDERSON,
Mr. Goprrey Bineiry, Mr. H. Coats, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr.
K. J. Garwoop, Mr. J. G. Goopcump, Mr. Wintiam Gray, Mr.
Rosert Kipston, Mr. A. §. Rew, Mr. J. J. H. Tea,
Mr. R. Wetcu, Mr. H. B. Woopwarp, Mr. F. Woo.nouen,
and Professor W. W. Warts (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

THE Committee have the honour to report that during the year 309 new
photographs have been received, bringing the total number in the collec-
tion to 2,655.

In addition to this 12 prints and 10 slides have been given to the
duplicate collection, making a total of 331 photographs received during
the year.

Five misplaced prints have been renewed by the kindness of Miss
Andrews, Mr. Brown, Mr. Coomara-Swamy, and Mr. Bingley.

The usual scheme showing the geographical distribution of photographs
is appended. There are no new counties in the list except Anglesey and
Meath, but the following counties are now much better represented than
hitherto :—Buckingham, Essex, Gloucester, Somerset, Pembroke, Inver-
ness, and Clare. The scheme of the main collection has been most
carefully checked with the prints, catalogues, and printed lists, all doubtful
numbers have been weeded out, and it may be taken to represent
accurately the actual state of the collection. For this reason it is not
quite consistent with previous schemes, when these precautions have not
been possible. Three photographs have been assigned to old numbers,
namely, 191, 399, and 400, and the missing photographs hitherto assigned
to these numbers cancelled.

Mr. A. 8. Reid has continued his photographic survey of the Island of
Higg and contributed a set of photographs taken there.

Mr. Greenly sends a valuable set of photographs taken under the
auspices of a Committee of the Association in order to preserve a reliable
and unbiassed record of the disappearing sections of elevated drifts on
Moel Tryfaen, in Carnarvonshire.

Mr. Coomara-Swamy contributes a considerable series taken on the
mainland of Inverness and in Skye.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

351

Mr. 8. H. Reynolds has illustrated the recent work of himself and
Mr. Gardiner at Clogher Head with a group of admirable photographs,
and he also sends groups from the areas of Clifton, Bath, and the DVorset-

shire coast.

district and several others.

ENGLAND—
Bedfordshire .
Berkshire
Buckingham-
shire .
Cheshire
Cornwall
Cumberland
Derbyshire
Devonshire
Dorset
Durham .
Essex . '
Gloucester-
shire .
Hampshire
Herefordshire.
Hertfordshire .
Kent ‘ ~
Lancashire
Leicestershire.
Lincolnshire -
Middlesex
Monmouth
Norfolk . c
Northampton-
shire 3
Northumber-
land . 6
Nottingham-
shire .
Oxfordshire
Shropshire
Somersetshire .
Staffordshire .
Suffolk ‘
Surrey
Sussex
Warwickshire .
Westmoreland.
Wiltshire
Worcestershire
Yorkshire ;

Total , é
WALES—
Anglesey :

Carnarvon

Duplicates

Mr. Monckton also contributes photographs from the last

Additions (1900)

Total

ah

| Hoo tse | wbe

sel | Ssal len

|

OO vw vw oum Lad
[ | wl Sool

a
ae

|S | | |}

Pre- ,
F Addi-
Races tions Total | Previous
fae (1900) collec-
tion
3 1 4 _—
3 — 3 _
4 3 Tf 1
46 — 46 12
37 5 42 3
8 — 8 —
27 3 30 di
122 4 126 8
59 31 90 6
27 2 29 1
1 2 3 —
15 9 24 1
19 —_— 19 1
u — 1 =
10 — 10 —
67 3 70 13
60 7 67 10
93 — 93 20
1 3 + —
3 — 3 a
5 — 5 2
16 2 18 7
6 6 —_—
41 1 42 —
12 1 13 i
1 — 1 —
29 4 33 8
39 8 47 9
42 — 42 10
10 — 10 —
24 11 35 3
9 1 10 —
36 — 36 3
56 5 61 6
1 — 1 _—
14 — 14 1
414 32 446 60
1361 138 1499 187
= 5 5 =
63 11 74 24

Prints Slides
2 3
—- 2

6 1
8 6

—————

302 REPORT—1900.
Duplicates
Ee, Addi-
= tions ‘Avi Additions (1900
collee- | agoq)_| 7°" | Pxerions| | total
; | tion Prints | Slides
Denbigh . 16 —_— 16 5 = — 5
Flint 5 —_ Do es — = =e
Glamorgan 12 — Ie? Il 3 aS =e 3
Merioneth 19 r ag 5 a = 5
Montgomery . 10 1 21 6 — — 6
Pembroke 1 1 — a ms Bey
Radnor . 20 — 20 _— <= a, 3
Total . 146 7 173 43 = = 43
CHANNEL Is-

LANDS . 15 _ 15 — — = sie
ISLE OF MAN . 53 7 60 = = 4
ScoTLAND—

Aberdeen 6 — 6 — — = a
Argyll 20 we COM Oe il c= = 1
Ayr. 6 — 5 Go. 5 — | — 5
Banff 4 == 4 a 1 eR 1
Berwick . 4 — | 1 = Me 1
Bute 6 — 6 =— — = =
Caithness 4 a 4 2 = pee 2
Edinburgh 47 — 47 > 210 SF ee — 10
Elgin 9 _— 9 9 =, | oa 9
Fife 24 —_ 24 | 7 ee 7
Forfar 7 — 7 = rn ee
Haddington 4 — 4 oa) | dat 1
Inverness 72 42 | 414 an | 1 3 32
Kirkcudbright 3 2 3 2G ape ie us
Lanark T — if oye) = ha 5
Linlithgow 2 — 2 SS ee Ba
Orkney 1 — 1 —— = ae
Perth 20 _ 20 3) = 3
Renfrew . 1 — | J =) = was
Stirling 15 15 2) —_ 2
Sutherland 6 — 6 2 pas | BS 2
Total . 268 2 310 77 :. Wes 81

|

IRELAND— |
Antrim 195 31 226 29 ibe Sees 30
Armagh . 2 — 2 — i= i =
Cavan 1 — 1 = aa ae RES
Clare 8 Be Hecate = ee al =
Cork 2 —_- 2 —— = ae arr
Donegal . 39 5 44 2 1 = 3
Down 71 15 86 16 —_ a= 16
Dublin 27 — 27 3 = — 3
Fermanagh 4 — 4 1 = me 1
Galway . 28 1 29 3 = = 3
Kerry 10 16 26 — — = =
Limerick i 1 2 — = a =
Londonderry . 22 1 23 1 ~ == 1
Louth ut — 1 er ee a ae

>~ . « ns

E ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 353
| | | | Decheates
| | Pre- | Addi- | Previous | | === Sn SE ee
| a | vious | tions | Total collec- | Additions (1900)
collee- | (1900) | tion Total
| tion |

|

| Prints | Slides

eye. .| 14 ae es yy
' Meath — 2 2 — | |
Sligo. ; 2 2 4 — = eae a
‘Tipperary } 1 _— 1 — — _— = 56
Total . é 428 79 507 0}! ay oar ea 58
_ Rock Srruc- | |
| TURHS, kc. (i) 1G Ais Ht 31 — | — 31
ForEIGN . | ee | —- | = 27 1 1 29
Enepanp .| 1361 | 188 | 1499 187 Sie thy oe 201
WALHIES .., «| 146. a~ 27 | 173 Ames ete i 43
CHANNEL Is- | |
- LANDS SB) des ust) —_ 15 —_ — |; — —
| ISLE oF MAN. 53 7 60 4 -- — 4
| SCOTLAND ios) Bia | 310 77 i eter) | aih
IRELAND . ; 428 79 BUT eines Dome || 2 — 58}
Rock STRUC-
TURES. : 75 16 91 BL — — 3
| FOREIGN . : _ _— =e ere 1 1 29
Total . ,2346 | 309 | 2655 .| 495 |. 12 10 ,| 447... |

| | | | | |

Mr. Bingley continues to illustrate the history of the rivers of Yorkshire
and the geology of the underground waters of that county.

Mr. Welch sends thirty-three beautiful platinotypes taken in Antrim,
Donegal, Down, Galway, Meath, and Sligo.

Special mention should also be made of the interesting Skomer Island
photographs of Mr. Small, the Irish ones of Miss Andrews, Mr. Gray, and
Dr. Fogerty ; those from the Lake district by Lord Avebury and from
the Isle of Man by Sir Archibald Geikie ; those illustrating a paper of
Dr. Blanford by My. H.R. Blanford ; and the contributions of Mr. Pledge,
Mr. Tucker, and the Hull Geological Society.

To the persons already named, and to Mr. Garwood, Mr. Hollingworth,
Mr. Cobbold, Mr. Davies, Mr. Lamplugh, Mr. Trevor Owen, the Yorkshire
Naturalists’ Union, the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club, and Mr. Midgley
the thanks of the Committee are due; the last-named has sent a con-
siderable series of micro-photographs for selection, together with a series
of views.

The members of the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society,
and especially Mr. Tate, have conferred a signal service on the Committee
by giving details of the Coal-measure sections taken some years ago by
Mr. Branson in the Leeds brickyards. The sections have been measured,
and each individual bed marked and numbered on the photographs by
Mr. Tate.

The duplicate collection has not received so many accessions as usual,
chiefly because it is very fairly representative already. The additions to

it during the year, and some others which have not yet been acknowledged,
1900. AA

354. REPORT—1900. ;

are given in List II]. Twelve prints and ten slides have been received,
and “the whole collection now numbers 336 prints and 111 slides. A list
of donors to this collection is appended to the list, and to each of them
the Committee express their thanks.

The duplicate collection has been sent to the following Societies during
the year :—The Limerick Field Club, the Leeds Geological Association,
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, ‘the South-Eastern Union of Scien-
tific Societies, the Faraday Society of the Morley Memorial College, and
the annual conversazione of the Birmingham Philosophical and Natural
History Society.

A request was received from the Science and Art Department that
the Committee would exhibit a typical series of geological photographs at
the Paris Exhibition. An appeal was sent to photographers, who
responded with their usual readiness. A small set was got together and
sent to Paris, where it is now exhibited. It has recéived the award of a
silver medal in Class XII. The following contributed prints or lent

negatives for this purpose :—Mr. R. Welch, Mr. Godfrey Bingley, Mr. A.
Str: ahan, Mr. C. A. Defieux, Mr. C. J. Watson, Mr. A. A. Armstrong,
Mr. A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Mr. A. 8. Reid, Mr. R. McF. Mure, Mr. H.
L. P. Lowe, Dr. F. J. Allen, Mr. W. Jerome Harrison, and Mr. AV. Sie
Tucker.

The question of publishing a typical series of geological photographs
has been considered by the Committee, and as a suflicient number of
subscribers has been obtained it has been decided to proceed to the issue
of twenty photographs annually for three years, both as prints and lantern
slides. A committee of selection, consisting of Professor Bonney, Mr.
Garwood, Dr. Mill, Mr. Teall, Mr. H. B. Woodward, and the Secretary,
has made a provisional selection of representative ‘photographs. It is
hoped that the first set may be issued within the year. The subscribers’
list includes a large number of foreigners and colonials. The list will be
closed on September 12, 1900.

Applications by local societies for the loan of the duplicate collectien
should be made to the Secretary. Hither prints or slides, or both, can be
lent, with a descriptive account of the slides. The carriage, and the
making good of any damage to slides or prints, are expenses borne by the
borrowing society.

ELEVENTH LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.
(To Aucustr 25, 1900.)
hs

This st contains the geological photographs which have been
received by the Secretary of “the Committee since the publication of the
last Report. Photographers are asked to ailix the registered numbers,
as given below, to their negatives for convenience of future reference.
Their own numbers are added in order to enable them to do so.

Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, be obtained
from the photographer direct, or from the officers of the Local Society
under whose auspices the views were taken.

The price at which copies may be obtained depends on the size of the
pom and on local circumstances over which the Committee have no control.

The Committee do not asswme the copyright of any photographs
included in this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 559

for permission to reproduce them, should be addressed to the photographers
direct.

The very best photographs lose half their utility, and all their value
as documentary evidence, unless accurately described ; and the Secretary
would be grateful if, whenever possible, such explanatory details as can
be given were written on the forms supplied for the purpose, and not on
the back of the photograph ov elsewhere. Much labour and error of tran-
scription would thereby be saved. A local number by which the print
can be recognised should be written on the back of the photograph and on
the top right-hand corner of the form.

Copies of photographs should be sent wnemounted to W. W. Watts,
Mason University College, Birmingham, and forms may be obtained from
him.

The size of photographs is indicated as follows :—

L= Lantern size. 1/1 = Whole plate.
1/4 = Quarter-plate. 10/8 = 10 inches by 8.
1/2 = Half-plate. 12/10 =12 inches by 10, &c.

E signifies Enlargements.
* indicates that photographs and slides may be purchased from the donors, or
obtained through the address given with the series,

EIST Ti;
ACCESSIONS IN 1899-1900.

ENGLAND.

Beprorv.—Photographed by H. C. McNuttx, 29 North Villas,

Camden Square, N.W. 1/4.
ie

oO. ~
191 ( ) Gas House, Leighton Buzzard False-bedding in Lower Greensand. 1897.

BucxincHam.—Photographed by J. H. Puupex,* 115 Richmond
Road, N.E. 1/2.

2416 (B13) South Windmill, Long ‘Shotover Sands.’ 1899,
Crendon.
2417 (B11) Littleworth Brickyard, Drift. 1899.
Wing, Leighton Buzzard.
2418 (B12) Warren Farm, Stewkley Northernmost exposure of typical Portland
Beds in England. 1899.

CornwaLi.—Photographed by A. E. Murray, Sé, Clare, Upper Walmer,
Kent. 5/4.

2419 (7c) Constantine’s Bay . . Raised Beaches? ~ 1897.
2420 (9c) +c % : : =
2421 (32) ‘ cyclase is is
2422 (33 ca) Constantine’s Church . Church surrounded by sand-dunes.
2423 (33 cb) ~ 9 . x

”

” ”

‘DerspysHine.—Photogruphed by Evan W. Sma, The Mount, Radbourne
Street, Derby. 1/1 E.

2500 (D991) L.& N. W. R. cutting, Anticlinein Carboniferous Limestone. 1899.
Tissington. i
2501 (D992) L.& N. W. R. cutting, Syncline in Carboniferous Limestone. 1899.
Tissington.
AA

356

Regd.
No.
2634

REPORT—1900.

(229) Lion’s Head Rock, E. side
of River Dove

Phatographed by W. W. Minetry, Zhe Chadwick Museum,
Bolton.

1/2.

Crag of Carboniferous Limestone, 1900.

DeEvoNnsHIRE.—Lhotographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden,
Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/1 E.

2424
2425

2426

( ) Hound Tor, Dartmouth

( ) Cockington Beach, near
Bideford.

( ) Cockington Seach, near
Bideford.

Photographed by H. Preston, Waterworks, Grantham.

399 ( ) Bowerman’s Nose, Dartmoor.

Granite, jointed and weathered. 1900.
Anticline in Culm Measures. 1900.

1/2.

Jointed and weathered granite. 1900.

Dorset.—Photographed by Y, H. W. Monckton, 10 King’s Lench Walk,

2429
2430
2431
2432
2433
2434
2435
2436
2437
2438

2439
2440

2441

2442
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
2449
2450

2451
2452

Temple, £.C.

(1827) Near Grange Gate,
Creech Grange.

(1328) Corfe Castle .

(13829) » :

(1530)

(1334) Studland Bay

(1335) ”

(1836) ; ;

(1338) The “Agelestone, near
Studland.

(1339) The Agglestone, near
Studland

(1340) The Agglestone, near
Studland

(1342) Durlston Bay, Swanage .

(1843) ” ”

(1345) ? f

1/4,

Working of pipe-clay of Bagshot
1899.
U. M. and L. Chalk. 1899.

” ” ”

age

” ” 9
Reading Beds resting on Chalk.
Bagshot Sands and Clays. 1899,
Bagshot Sands. 1899.

1899.

” ”

| indurated

” Mass of
Strata.

” ”

‘The Cinder Bed,’ Middle Purbeck. 1899.

Anticline of Peverel Point, Upper Purbeck.
1899.

Middle Purbeck between two faults. 1899.

Photographed by 8. H. Ruynoups, University College, Bristol.
1/2 and 1/4.

(18) Durdle Door

(12) Man-of-war Cove, Lulworth
(20) Stair Cove, Lulworth

(21) W. side of Lulworth Cove.
(22) W. side of Pondfield Cove

(23) Bacon Hole, Mewp Bay

(24) ” ”
(25) Mewp Bay
(26) _,, ”

(27) Bat’s Corner.
(28) W. of Lulworth Cove

Arch of denudation, Portland Beds.

Sea-stacks of Portland Stone. 1899.

Contortions in Lower and Middle Purbeck
Rocks. 1899.

Weathering and faulting of Middle Pur-
beck Rocks. 1899.

‘Broken Beds’ in Lower Purbeck Rocks.
1899.

Sea-stacks of Portland Stone capped by
Purbeck ‘ Broken Beds.’ 1899.

Sea-stacks of Portland Stone capped by
Purbeck ‘ Broken Beds.’ 1899.

Sea-stacks of Portland and Purbeck Rocks.
1899.

1899-

~ ” , ” >
Thrust-plane in Chalk clifts. 1899.
Resistent character of hard Portland Rocks.
1899.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. BO

aa

0.

2453 (29) Swire Head : : . Thrust-plane and inversion in Chalk. 1899,
2454 (30) E.of Swire Head . “ nN _ m
2455 (31) Man-of-war Cove. . Inverted Upper Cretaceous Rocks. 1899,
2456 (32) Crushed Flints. 1899.

2457 = (33) Arishmell Gap 3 : . Vertical bands of erushed flints. 1899.
2458 (34) Near Durdle Door . . Masses of chert in Upper Greensand. 1899.
2459 (35) ” ” Vertical Upper Greensand with chert

masses. 1899.

Duruamu.—Photographed by W. W. Mipetry, The Museum, Bolton. 1/2.

2336 (7) Roker Rocks, near Sunder- Concretionary Magnesian Limestone. 1896,
land.

2

Photographed by KE. J. GArwoon, Dryden Chambers, Oxford Street, W.C.
OE.

2502 ( ) Marsden Rock, near Sea-stack of Magnesian Limestone.
Sunderland.

Essex.—Photographed by A, E. Murray, St, Clare, Upper Walmer.
1/2.

2427 (1D) HalfmileS.ofDovercourt. Rapid advance of the sea, 1899.
2428 (2 D) »” ” ” ” ” ” ”

GLOUCESTER. —Photographed by 8. H. Rrynoups, University College,
Bristol. 1/2.

2460 (1) Observatory Hill, Clifton . The Clifton Fault. 1899.

2461 (2) - 5 - Junction of Millstone
Grit and Carboniferous Limestone. 1899.
2462 (3) ks 3 a Detail of Clitton Fault. 1899.
2463 (4) st Ree eS Minor Thrusts in Carboniferous Limestone.
r 1899.
2464 (5) Observatory Hill, Clifton, Minor Thrusts in Carboniferous Lime-
and Avon Gorge. stone. 1899.
2465 (6) The Gully, Avon Gorge, Oolitic band in Carboniferous Limestone,
Clifton. 1899.
2466 (7) Avon Gorge, Clifton . . The ‘Gully Oolite’ in the Carboniferous

Limestone, 1899.
2467 (8) Hotwells and Clifton Down Coarse Dolomitic Conglomerate. 1899.
Road, Clifton. :
2468 (9) Railway Cutting, near Chip- Unconformity, Dolomitic Conglomerate on
ping Sodbury, G.W.R. Carboniferous Limestone. 1899.

Kent.—Photographed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,
Guildford. 1/4. S

2369 ( ) Charlton . 3 5 . Lower London Tertiaries on Chalk. 1899.

2370 ( ) Erith. ; : Z . Drift, Thanet Sand, and Chalk. 1899.

2371 ( ») Cliff near Copt Point, Junction of Gault and Lower Greensand,
Folkestone. 1899,

LancasHire.—Photographed by W. W. Minatry, The Musewm, Bolton.
be

2333 (1) Hill Pike Quarry, near Saw- Ferruginous Upper Mountain Limestone,
ley, folded. 1899,

358 REPORT-——1900.

Regd.
No. f
2334 (2) Foxley Bank, near Grindle- Ferruginous Upper Mountain Limestone
ton. folded. 1899.
2335 (5) Foxley Bank, near Grindle- Ferruginous Upper Mountain Limestone,
ton, folded. 1899.

Photographed by G. Binciry, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds. 1/1.

2493 (5184) Pimlico Quarry, near Transverse section of Carboniferous Lime-

Clitheroe. stone Knoll. 1900.

2494 (5185) Pimlico Quarry, near Escarpment edge of Limestone in Knoll.
Clitheroe. 1900.

2495 (5186) Pimlico Quarry, near Slab of Carboniferous Limestone with
Clitheroe. heads and stems of crinoids from Knoll.

1900.

2496 (5186 1/2) Pimlico Quarry, near Carboniferous Limestone with slicken-

Clitheroe, sides. 1900.

Lincotn.—Photoqgraphed by J. Houtinewortu, Holderness Road, Hull,
and communicated through the Hull Geological Society. 1/2.

477 (12) ‘The Cliff” S. of Humber, M. Chalk on L. Chalk with black marl

between Barton and Ferriby. between. 1897.
478 (13) ‘The Cliff,” 8. of Humber, M. Chalk on L. Chalk, with black marl
between Barton and Ferriby. between. 1897.

479 (14) South of Humber, near Disturbed beds of Chalk. 1897.
Ferriby ‘ Cliff.’

Norroitk.—Photographed by Messrs. Raupu and Jutyan,* King’s Lynn,
and presented by W. T. Tucksr, Park Side, Loughborough. 1/1.

2497 (15432) Near Railway Station, Gravel pit showing site in which human

Hunstanton. bones were found. 1897.
2498 (1543) Near Railway Station, Gravel pit showing site in which human
Hunstanton. bones were found, 1897.

NorTHUMBERLAND.—Photographer unknown.

2503 ( ) Coaley Hill, near New- Outcrop of Coal-seam,
castle-on-Tyne.

Norrincnam.—Photographed by J. T. Ritny, and enlarged by
E. W. Smauu, The Mount, Derby. 1/1 E.

2499 (N 900) Quarry near Hucknall Anticline in Magnesian Limestone. 1890?
Torkard.

SHROPSHIRE.—Photographed by E. 8. Coppotp, Watling House, Church
Stretton. 1/4.

2635 (3) Comley Quarry, near The Cambrian Olenellus Limestone, 1899.
Lawley, Church Stretton.
2636 (2) Sand-pit, west slope of Sandy drift dipping steeply to N.W.

Hazler, Church Stretton. 1898.
2637 (4) Lawrence Hill Quarry, Banded coarse and fine Uriconian tufts.
Wrekin. 1899.

2638 (5) Lawrence Hill Quarry, Banded coarse and fine Uriconian tuffs,
Wrekin. 1899,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 359

Somunsut,— Photographed by 8. H. Reynotps, University College,

Bristol.

Regd.

No.

2469 (13) Shore between Portishead
and Clevedon.

2470 (11) . ” »

2471 (12) - is E

2472 (13) Woodhill Bay, Portishead .

2473 (14) Farley Down, Bath . ‘
2474 (15) ” ”

8475 (16) 9 "
2476 (17) 5 iY

1/4,

Unconformity of Dolomitic Conglomerate
on Old Red Sandstone. 1899.

Unconformity of Dolomitic Conglomerate
on Old Red Sandstone. 1899.

Unconformity of Dolomitic Conglomerate
on Old Red Sandstone. 1899.

False-bedding in Old Red Sandstone.
1899.
Weathering of Great Oolite. 1899.

Freestone and ‘Rag’ in Great Oolite,
1899.
False-bedding in Great Oolite.

” ” 3

1899.

Surrey.—Photographed by J. H. Preper,* 115 Richmond Road, N.L.
1/2.

9504 (S1) Gravelly Hill, Caterham.

2505 (S3) N. of road between Bletch-
ingley and Tilburstow Hill.
2506 (S4) N. of road between Bletch-
ingley and Tilburstow Hill.
2507 (S8) N. of road between Bletch-
ingley and Tilburstow Hill.

2508 (S87) N.N.W. of Tilburstow Hill
Farm.

2509 (S5) S. of Oxted Station

2510 (S6) N. of Oxted village .

Clay-with-flints over flint-pebble gravel.
1899.

Massive cherts, &e., of the Lower Green-
sand. 1899.

Massive cherts, &c., of the Lower Green-
sand. 1899.

Chert in Lower Greensand. 1900.

High dip in Lower Greensand. 1900.

Folkestone Sands in Lower Greensand.
1900.

Folkestone Sands in Lower Greensand,
1900.

Photographed by H. W. Moncxrow, 10 King’s Bench Walk,

Temple, E.C.

2511 (851) Chobham Ridges, Jack-
pond Hill.

2512 (854) Chobham Ridges, R. Albert
Asylum.

2513 (855) Chobham Ridges, R. Albert
Asylum.

2514 (856) Chobham Ridges, R, Albert
Asylum,

1/4,

Sarsen in gravel. 1897,

Large Sarsen. 1897.
Sarsens. 1897,

Large Sarsen. 1897,

Sussex.—Photographed by F. Cuapman, 111 Oakhall Road,

Putney, S.W.

400 ( ) Cliff at Aldrington,
Brighton.

near

1/4.

Raised Beach and Rubble drift. 1899.

Wesrmoretanv.—Photographed by Lorp Avesury, High Elms,

Farnborough, Kent.

2411 ( ) NearShap °

2412 ( ) Loughrigg Fell, near Amble-
side.

2413 ( ) Loughrigg Fell, near Amble-
side,

1/4.

‘Grikes’ or widened joints in Carboni-
ferous Limestone.

Rugged Fell made of
Volcanic Rocks.

Smooth hills of Silurian Rocks,

Ordovician

No.
2414 (
2415 (

) Churchyard, Ambleside

) "

Yorxs1rE.—Photographed
Headingley, Leeds.

2392 (5051) Conyngham Hall, Knares-
borough.

2393 (5052) Conyngham Hall, Knares-
borough.

2394 (5053) Lingerfield Quarry, Scriven,
near Knaresborough.

2395 (5054) Lingerfield Schoolhouse .

2396 (5055) Scotton gravel pit
2397 (5056) Barf Lane, Farnham
2398 (5057)

” ”

2399 (5058) Cayton Gill, Morcar Wood,
Markington.

2400 (5059) Cayton Gill, Morcar Wood,
Markington.

2401 (5060) Cayton Gill, Morcar Wood,
Markington. :

2402 (5061) Cayton Gill, Morcar Wood,
Markington.

2403 (5062) Cayton Gill, Morcar Wood,
Markington.

2404 (5063) Cayton Gill, Morear Wood,
Markineton.

2405 (5064) Cayton Gill, Morcar Wood,
Markington. ~~

2406 (5065) Near Ripley

2407 (5067) Gray Gill, Malham .
2408 (5070) Broach Scar, Malham
2409 (5071)

” ”

2410 (5075) Site of ‘Camden,’ over-
looking the village of
Malham.

2486 (5160 1/2) Ingleborough

2487 (5161 1/2) :

2488 (5187 1/2) Long Kin East, Ingle-
borough,

2489 (5188 1/2) Ingleborough, HE, side

2490 (5189 1/2) ‘ Jockey Hole,’ Ingle-
borough.

2491 (5180) Bashall, near Clitheroe

2492 (5181)

” 2

REPORT—1900.

Roche moutonnée.

Glacial grooves in roche moutonnée.

by G. Binatey, Thornichurst,
1/1,1/2 and 1/4.

R. Nidd flowing over highly inclined Mill-
stone Grit. 1899.

Kt. Nidd flowing over highly inclined Mill.
stone Grit. 1899.

Red Boulder-clay on Millstone Grit. 1899,

Moraine gravels covered by red Boulder-
clay. 1899. :

Moraine sands and gravels. 1899.

Extra-morainic stream course, looking W.
1899.

Extra-morainic
N.E. 1899.

Intake of Cayton Gill Valley.

stream course, looking
1899.

Looking down valley (Dole Bank). 1899.

Lateral escape of Markington Beck. 1899,

Valley looking down stream from road at
Dole Bank. 1899.

Inlet of lateral stream at Shutt House,
first tributary. 1899.

Fan delta of first tributary lateral stream,
1899.

Narrowest part. 1899.

Outlet of Cayton Gill, looking over delta.
1899.

Gorge in Carboniferous Limestone. 1899.

Weathered joints in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1899.

Weathered joints in Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1899,

‘Waterbursts. 1899.

Pot-hole in Carboniferous Limestone.
1900.

Pot-hole in Carboniferous Limestone.
1900.

Pot-hole in Carboniferous Limestone.

1900.
Swallow-hole in Carboniferous Limestone,
1900.

Pot-hole in Carboniferous Limestone.
1900.

Gravel-pit in Esker. 1900.

Conglomerate in situ, in Esker. 1900.

Photographed by J. Houuinewortu, Holderness Road, Hull, and

communicated through the Hull Geological Society.

2480 (15) Hessle .

1/2.

Upper Chalk overlain by recent grayel;
1897.

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 361

a

0.

2481 (16) Hessle Quarry. : . Joints, bedding and flints in Chalk,
1897.

2482 (17) Near Skidby ‘i s . Flint-bands in Chalk. 1897.

Photographed by H. W. Monckton, 10 King’s Bench Walk, Temple,
me. 1/P E.

2483 (761) Carnelian Bay,Scarborough Pillar of slipped Boulder-clay. 1896.

2484 (944) ” 9 2 Slipped Boulder-clay. 1897.

2485 (1133) _,, i 52 Slipped Boulder-clay showing flow-
structure, 1899.

WALES.

Anetisnty.—Photographed by J. Trrvor Owen, County School, Carnarvon,
and presented by E. GREENLY, Achnashean, near Bangor. 1/2.

2522 (1) Dwilban Point, Redwharf Sandstone ‘pipes’ in Carboniferous

Bay. Limestone. 1899.

2523 (2) Dwlban Point, Redwharf Sandstone ‘pipes’ in Carboniferous
Bay. Limestone. 1899.

2524 (3) Dwlban Point, Redwharf Connexion of sandstone pipes with the
Bay. overlying sandstone. 1899.

2525 (4) Dwlban Point, Redwharf Large sandstone ‘pipe’ in Carboniferous
Bay. Limestone, 1899.

2526 (5) Dwiban Point, Redwharf Deflected glacial strie in mouth of sand-
Bay. stone ‘pipe.’ 1899.

Carnarvon.—Photographed by J. WickEem,* Bangor, and presented by FE.

GREENLY on behalf of the Moel Tryfaen Committee. 1/1 and 1/2.

2527 (3) Moel Tryfaen Quarry . . Generai position of drifts relatively to the
topographic features of the district.
1898.

2528 (1) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Shelly sands and gravels resting on slate.
Tryfaen. 1898.

2529 (2) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Shelly sands and gravels resting on slate,
Tryfaen. 1898.

2530 (4) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Boulder-clay. 1898.
Tryfaen.

2531 (5) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Sandy beds below Boulder-clay. 1898.
Tryfaen.

2532 (6) Alexandra Quarry, Moel N.W. termination of Boulder-clay in sand
Tryfaen. and gravel. 1898.

2533 (7) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Terminal displacement of slates below
Tryfaen. sands and gravels. 1898.

2534 (8) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Terminal displacement of slates below
Tryfaen. sands and gravels, 1898.

2535 (9) Alexandra Quarry, Moel Terminal curvature in slate. 1898.
Tryfaen.

2536 (10) Alexandra Quarry, Moel fs 4 Fe
Tryfaen.

2537 (11) Summit of Hill, Moel Try- Summit rocks. 1898.
faen.

Prmproke.—Photographed by E. W. Smaui, The Mount, Derby. 12/9, E.
2538 (P991) Broad Haven, St. Bride’s Contorted Coal-measure strata, 1899.

Bay.

2539 (P oa Broad Hayen, St. Bride’s s $3 x ii
ay
¢ 7 ‘

REPORT—1900,

(P931) MarloesSands ., . Vertical Silurian beds, 1897.

(P 973) 7 . Coast-erosion in inclined strata. 1897.

(P 971) The Wick,SkomerIsland Dip-slope of Ordovician conglomerate;

inlet of the sea along fault. 1897.

(P 972) i; - a Felsitic rocks faulted against Basalt. 1897.

(P 976) < “A td Sediments faulted against Basalt. 1897

(P974) ‘Tom’s House,’ Skomer Dip-slope of Basalt, promontory of Rhyo-
Island. lite. 1897.

(P 981) ‘The Basin,’ Skomer Weathering of Spheroidal Rhyolite. 1898.
Island.

(P. 982) The Mewstone Inlet, Marine erosion guided by the nature of
Skomer Island. the rocks. 1898

(P 983) The Mewstone Inlet, Hffect of dip on surface feature. 1898,
Skomer Island.

ISLE OF MAN.

Photographed by Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, 28 Jermyn Street, S.W. 5/4,

2515
2516
2517
2518
2519
2520
2521

(1) W. end of Cromwell’s Walk, Vertical vesicular bands in Basalt. 1899,
Scarlet Point.

(2) W. end of Cromwell’s Walk, Gaps in lower edge of tabular Basalt now

Scarlet Point. filled with agglomerate. 1899.

(8) W. end of Cromwell’s Walk, Vesicular structure in tabular Basalt
Scarlet Point. parallel to the lower surface. 1899.

(4) W. end of Cromwell’s Walk, Steeply inclined vesicular Basalt with
Scarlet Point. wrinkled surface. 1899.

(5) Foreshore under Cromwell’s Dome-like strip of Cherty Limestone
Walk, Scarlet. ; amongst coarse agglomerate. 1899.

(6) Cliff, 800 yards S, of Close- Laminated Ash merging into confused, un-
ny-Chollagh Point, Scarlet. stratified ash. 1899.

(7) Cliff, 500 yards S. of Close- Ooarse Breccia of vesicular Basalt passing
ny-Chollagh Point, Scarlet. into solid Basait. 1899,

SCOTLAND.

INVERNESS.—Photographed by A. K. Coomaka-Swamy, Walden,

2372
2373

2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
2380
2381
2382

2383

. Worplesdon, Guildford. 1/4.

( ) Arnisdale, Loch Hourn . Moine Schists of Beinn Sgriol, 1899,

(¢ ) Road from Glenelg to 5 = e aa
Arnisdale.

( ) N. of Beinn Mhialairidh, Weathered Lamprophyre Dyke. i899.
near Glenelg.

( ) N.of Rudha Mor, Sandaig. Coast erosion of Lewisian Gneiss, 1899.

( ) Sandaig, near Glenelg . Felsite Dyke in Lewisian Gneiss. 1899.

¢ ) Half-mile S. of Sandaig- Actinolite in Lewisian Gneiss. 1899.
Burn.

G ) W. of Port Luinge, near Contorted Lewisian Gneiss. 1899,
Sandaig.

G ) E. of Camas-nan-geann,
W. of Raisaidh, Loch Hourn.

( ) E. of Ghlas Eilean, W.of Basaltic Dyke with vesicular centre. 1899,
Raisaidh.

( ) E. of Ghlas Eilean, W. of 5 ”
Raisaidh.

( ) Scuir-na-Gillean,- from Gabbro and Granophyre. 1899.
Druim-an-Hidhne, Skye.

( ) Bhasteir Tooth, Scuir-na- Gabbro with Basic Dykes and Sills. 1899.
Gillean, Skye. F

( ) Druim-an-Hidhne, Cu- Gabbro, with fine Felsite veins, 1899,
chullin Hills, Skye.

”? ” ” ”

” 9

Feed.

2385
2386

2387

2388
2389

2390
2391

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF

) Bruach-na-Frithe, Skye.

) Marsco, from Druim-an-
Hidhne.

) Marsco, from Glen Sli-
gachan.

) Ruadh Stac, Skye . “

) Beinn - na - Cailleach,
Broadford,

) Scorr, Portree Bay .

) W. Coast of Hige, W. of
Beinn Tighe.

cNoN Ci Yc SN

ey)
o>
co

GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Gabbro, 1899.

Granophyre Hills, 1899,
Granophyre Hill. 1899,
Granophyre. 1899.

Granophyre of the Red Hills, 1899,
Weathering of Basalt. 1899,

Sill in bedded Basalt, 1899.

Photographed by A. 8. Retp, Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perth.
1/2 and 1/4.

2549
2550
2551
2552
2553
2554
2555
2556
2557

2558
2559

2560
2561
2562
2563
2564
2565

(SR50) East Cliff of Rige
(SR 51) ” ” ”

(SR 92) Scuir of Higg °

(SR 45),

(SR 44) East end of Scuir of
Higg from N.W.

(KL 28) Scuir of Hige é .

(KL 30) ,, F

(KL 32) _,, »

(KL33) ” ”

(SR62)._,,

(SR 80) Hast end "of Scuir of
Bigg from §.

(KL 34) Scuir of Hige . 2
(SR 82)

” ”

(SR 79) East end of Seuir of

Higg.

(SR 87) North-west end of Scuir
of Higg.

(SR 66) Scuir of Higg, Corn-
bheinne Hill.

(SR 52) Laig Bay, L. of Hige .

Basalt flows with paler Andesitic band
intercalated. 1899.

Basalt flows with paler Andesitic band
intercalated, overlying Jurassic rocks,
1899.

With cloud-banner. 1899.

Relation to Basalt platform. 1899.

Position of E. of Scuir with regard to the
Basalt platform. 1899.

Exposure of Conglomerate under the
Scuir. 1899.

Conglomerate on floor of ‘Sheep Cave.’ 1899,

” ” ” ”

”” ” ” ”

East end of Scuir.

Devitrified bands of Pitchstone and two
exposures of the river-conglomerate,
1899.

Devitrified band in the Pitchstone. 1899,

Devitrified and Spherulitic bands in the
Pitchstone. 1899.

Banding, &c., of Pitchstone, 1899,

Truncated end of Scuir. 1899,

Curvi-columnar structure of the Pitchstone.
1899

Erosion of dyke and its margin of fibrous
Calcite. 1899.

Photographed by H. R. Buanrorp, 72 Bedford Gardens, Campden Hill, W.
1/4.

ad | North end of Loch Lochy ape of hills by glacial and stream

2566
2567
2568
2569

2570

Antrim.—Photographed by W. Gray, Glenburn Park, Belfast.

2339
2340

% Hillside 8.E. of Ceann Tah;
Loch Lochy.

(4) Hills 8.E. of Lagean, between

Loch Lochy and Loch Oich.
(5) Hills W. of Laggan . .

erosion,
Glacial and stream erosion. 1899.

” ” 0 ”

” ” ” ”

IRELAND.

(86a) White Rocks, nr. Portrush.
(44) th) te ”

1/2.

Marine denudation of Chalk. 1895.

Arch in Chalk, 1895.

(45) Near Dunluce

REPORT—1900.

(52) Giant’s Causeway, Lord

Antrim’s Parlour.

(53) Giant’s Organ,

Causeway.
(55) Windy Gap

(56) Giant’s Causeway

(43) Ballycastle
(42)

Giant’s

(58) Larry Bane Bay, Bally-

castle.
(54) Fair Head ,

(51) Ballygally, ‘Wren’s E Egg"

(47) Whitehead.
(46) Macedon Point. .

Chalk arch and headland capped by
Basalt. 1895.
Columnar Basalt. 1897.

Columnar Basalt with cross joints 1897,

Spheroidal weathering of Basalt. 1895,
Jron-ore zone. 1895.
Denudation of Chalk cliffs. 1894.

3)

Chalk cliffs, 1894.

Denudation of Columnar Basalt. 1890.
Erratic of Basalt. 1895.

Basalt Dyke in New Red Sandstone. 1895.
Two intersecting dykes of Basalt. 1898,

Antrim.— Photographed by R. Wetou,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast. 1/1.
(1176) Stack-a-boy, Rathlin Is.

2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
2606

2607
2608

2609
2610
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615

2616
2617

(496) Straidkilly, Coast Road .

(250) Giant’s Chimney Tops and
Amphitheatre, Giant’s Cause-

way.

(971) Giant’s Causeway .
(976) Giant’s Causeway, Middle

Causeway.

(242) Giant’s Causeway, The

Loom.

(5165) Giant’s Causeway
(978) Giant's Causeway, Port-

coon Cave.

(799) Giant’s Causeway, The

Stookans.

(5775) Carey River Head

(239) Carrick-a-Rede Ravine
(655) Whitepark Bay,

(609) Fair Head

Ballintoy.

(5153) Olifts of Murlough Bay .

(586) Cushendun

(551) Ess-na-larach, Glenariff .
(5204) Grant’s Mines, Toome

Sea-stack of rudely Columnar Basalt
Lavas. 1899.

Village, on Lias which is continually
slipping seaward, 1886.

Columnar and massive Basalt flows,
1886.

Floor of Columnar Basalt. 1890.
Columnar Basalt. 1890.

Long columns of Basalt. 1886.

Spheroidal weathering of Basalt. 1897.

Cave worn by marine action in Spheroidal
Basalt. 1886.

Breakers rolling over ledges of Columnar
Basalt. 1887.

Lower end of underground channel drain-

ing Lough-a-veena into Carey River. 1898.

Sea gully in a volcanic neck. 1890.

Prehistoric settlement and middens. 1897.

Coarsely Columnar sheet cf Dolerite. 1890,

Chalk cliff with talus, slipping over Trias
beds below. 1898.

Cave worn by marine action in coarse con-
glomerate of Old Red Sandstone age.
1889,

Ravine in Basalt worn by waterfall. 1894.

Diatomaceous Harth (‘ Bann clay’). 1899.

Crare.—Photographed by G. FoceErry, 61 George’s Street, Limerick. 1/2.

2353
2354
2355
2356
2357

(3) Fanore, near Black Head

(5) Caher, Lower, near Black

Head.
(6) Black Head

(2) Farrihy Bay
(4) Cliffs of Moher

Jointing in Carboniferous Limestone.
1899.

Terraces of Carboniferous Limestone.
1899.

Escarpment Cliff of Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1899.

Marine denudation of Lower Coal-
measures. 1895,

Steep and lofty cliffs of Carboniferous
Rocks. 1899,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

Go
ot

Doyucat.— Photographed by R. Wutcn,* Lonsdale Strect, Belfast,
and sent through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. 1/1.

2618 (2242) Cratlagh Wood, Mulroy Schistose area of Donegal. 1893.
Bay.
2619 (2259) Rosapenna . - . Section through sand-dune on which old
kitchen-midden rests. 1895.

2620 (5209) Barnesmore Gap . . Pass in granite area. 1900.

2621 (1440) Croaghconnellagh, Mt. Granite Mountain, cliffs over talus. 1900.
Barnesmore.

2622 (5135) The Pullins River, Bal- River entering underground channel.
lintra. 1894.

Down.—Photographed by R. Weicu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast,
and sent through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. 1/1.

2623 (5208) Sampson’s Stone, Down- Large Basalt erratic. 1900.
patrick.
2624 (5180) Newcastle . . . Sand-dune, showing the retaining action
of Bent, &c. 1898.
2625 (5179) ep : : . Section of sand-dune, showing wind erosion
and false-bedding. 1898.
2626 (5178) Newcastle and Slieve Storm ridges of raised beach partly covered
Donard. with sand-dunes. 1898.
2627 (5177) Newcastle 5 . Thin-bedded Ordovician strata. 1898.
2628 (5176) Cliffsat Maggie's Leap, Thin-bedded, slightly contorted, Ordo-
Newcastle. vician strata. 1898.

Photographed by W. Gray, Glenburn Park, Belfast. 1/4.

2358 (49) Ards Coast, Strangford Erratic Block. 1896.

Lough.
2359 (50) Ballyhalbert . . s - on Silurian Rocks. 1896.
2360 (62) Wallace’s Rocks, Bally- Folded Silurian Strata. 1895.

halbert Road.

2361 (65) Ballyhalbert . ‘ . Basalt dykes in Lower Silurian Rocks,
1895.

2362 (63) Gunn's Island . : . Basalt dykes in Lower Silurian Rocks.
1895. ‘

23863 (64) Sheepland Harbour . . Basalt dykes in Lower Silurian Rocks,
1895.

Photographed by Miss Mary K. Anprews, 12 College Gardens,
Belfast. 1/4.

2366 (11) Newcastle, little N. of Erosion of sea coast. 1899.

Harbour.
2367 (9) Newcastle, little N. of Pe .
Harbour.
2368 (10) Newcastle, little N. of $5 a
Harbour.

Gatway.—Photographed by R. Wetcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast,
and sent through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. 1/1.

2629 (5221) Near Ahascragh, Ballin- General character of the central Limestone
asloe. Plain of Ireland. 1900.

Kerry.—Photographed by 8. H. Ruynoups, University College,
Bristol. 1/4.

2585 (36) Near Clogh, Clogher Head Dip of Silurian flags, 1899.
District,

2365

2364

REPORT—1900.

(37) Gully near Clogh Point,
Clogher Head District.

(39) North of Clogh Point,
Clogher Head District.

(40) North of Drom Point,
Clogher Head District.

(41) North of Drom
Clogher Head District.

(38) Inlet S.E. of Foilwee,
Clogher Head District.

Point,

(42) 8. of Foilwee, Clogher Head
District.

(43) Coosmore, Clogher Head
District.

(44) Doon Pointand Sybil Head,
Clogher Head District.

(45) Minnaunmore Rock
Croaghmarhin Hill.

(46) Clogher Head District :

(47) Northside of Clogher Head.

(48) South-east of Foilwee,
Clogher Head District.

(49) Minnaunmore Rock, Clo-
gher Head District.

(50) West of Redcliffe Cove,
Clogher Head District.

(51) Off Bull’s Head, Dingle
Promontory.

and

Influence of dip on form of gully. 1899.

Inlet eroded along junction of flags with
overlying tuffs. 1899.

Bedded tuffs alternating with Sandstone
bands.. 1899.

Alternating coarse and fine tuffs and Red
Sandstone. 1899.

Erosion along bedding plane. 1899.

Faulting in bedded tuffs. 1899.

Disturbed Ludlow beds. 1899.
Joint cave. 1899.

Rugged rhyolite hill and smooth hill of

Silurian slate. 1899.
‘Fucoid markings’ on Ludlow flags. 1899.
Rhyolite blocks in coarse ash. 1899.

Weathered surface of nodular rhyolite.
1899.

Weathered surface of nodular rhyolite.
1899.

Weathered surface of tuff. 1899.

Sea-stack of Dingle beds. 1899.

LimERIcK.—Photographed by G. Foczrtry, 61 George’s Street,

Limerick.

(1) Gahetconlish }- 6, «

1/2.

Columnar porphyritic igneous rock. 1897

Lonponpirry.—Photcgraphed by W. Gray, Glenburn Park,

Belfast.

(66) Benbradagh ., . :

1/2.

Chalk quarry, the most westerly in Europe.
1899.

Meatu.—Photographed by R. Wutcu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast,

and sent through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

1/1.

2630 (1150) Gorge of the Boyne at Contorted Carboniferous Limestone cut

Beaupare.

through by river. 1900.

2631 (5222) Gorge of the Boyne at Contorted Carboniferous Limestone cut

2632

Beaupare.

through by river: nearview. 1900.

S1r1co.—Photographed by R. Wuucu,* Lonsdale Street, Belfast,

and sent through the Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.

(2095) Glencar, Sligo 5 .

1/1.

Escarpment cliff of Carboniferous Lime-
stone. 1892.

2633 (2100) Glencar Fall, near Sligo. Cirque with waterfall in Carboniferous

2337
2338

Limestone. 1892.

ROCK-STRUCTURES, &c.

Photographed by W. W. Mipeuzy, Lhe Museum, Bolion.

(4) Castleton, Derbyshire . .
(5) Corriegills, Arran ‘ .

1/4.

Coralline Mountain Limestone (micro.).
Pitchstone (micro.).

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST, 367

Regd
No.
2572 (8) Ennerdale, Cumberland . Granophyre. x 20.
2573 (9) Luxulyan, Cornwall . . Schorl-granite. x 20.
2574 (11) Tormore Shore, Arran . Pitchstone. x 60.
2575 (12) Brodick School House, Pitchstone. x 60.
Arran.
2576 (14) Arran : -, + Spherulites. x20.
2577 (16) Bolton, Lancashire . Blast-furnace slag. x 20.

2578 (17) Giant’s Causeway, Antrim. Basalt. x 20.
2579 (18) River Coquet, Rothbury, Dolerite. x 20.
Northumberland.

2580 (23) Cloughwater, Antrim . Rhyolite, with flow-structure. x 20.
2581 (26) Keswick, Cumberland . Agates in volcanic ash. x 20.
2582 (29) Inchcolm Rock . é - Picrite. x20.
2583 (30) Near Edinburgh “ = Pierttege 20:
2584 (36) Wolf Rock, Cornwall . Phonolite. x 20.

Photographed by G. Bineiey, Thorniehurst, Headingley, Leeds. 1/4.

2571 (5190) SalthillQuarry, Clitheroe Spiriferastriata, showing spiralarms. 1900.

LIST’ if
NUMBERS OF OLD PHOTOGRAPHS CANCELLED.
191, 399, 400.
LIST II.

RENEWALS AND CORRECTIONS.

Renewals.

Yornswine.—Renewed by G. Binainy, Thoriiehurst, Headingley,
Leeds. 1/2. 2.

506 (1755) How Stean Beck, Upper Deep Gorge in Carboniferous Limestone.
Nidderdale, near Pateley 1891.
Bridge.

Dnvon.—FRenewed by A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon,

Guildford. 1/4.
2058 ( ) Bindon, W. of Lyme Regis. Cliff caused by Landslip. 1898.

Antrim.— Renewed by J. Brown, Belair, Windsor Avenue, Belfast. 1 /2:
657 () MuckIsland. . ,. . Marine Denudation. 1892.

Down.—Renewed by Miss M. K. Anpritws, 12 College Gardens, Bebfust.
1/2.
340 (¢ ) Copelandisland . .« . Lower Silurian Rocks. 1891,

Lonponprrry.—Reviewed by Miss M. K. Anpruws, 12 College Gardens,
Belfast. 1/2.

529 () Downhill) . . «. | Chalk underlying basalt. 1891.
Corrections.

Wonrcustersiiint. —Photographed by W. J. Harrison, 52 Claremont
Road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 1/2.

1440 ( ) California,nearBirmingham EBoulder clay. 1896.

1441 () ” ” » ‘Indiarubber clay ’ on Till.
“1896,

368 REPORT—1900.

Regd. :
No.

1442 ( ) Moseley, near Birmingham. Glacial sands. 1896.

2275 ( ) California,nearBirmingham Bunter Sandstone.

LIST IV.
THE DUPLICATE (LOAN) COLLECTION.

The numbers placed after the description of the photograph refer to
the list of names and addresses given at the end. The first refers to the
photographer, who is also the donor in most cases. When he is not, the
donor is indicated by a second number.

Full localities and descriptions are given in present and previous lists
under the numbers. «

This collection is arranged geologically, and from time to time the less
perfect and less typical photographs will be removed and better ones sub-
stituted as they are given. Those laid aside can always be seen, sent, or
returned by request.

* Indicates that prints and slides may be bought from the photographer.
P. indicates prints. §. indicates slices.

Rock-Structures.

Bedding.
Reed.
No.
4664 Bedding and Jointing in Carbo- Muckros ‘ Market House, Kilcar, Donegal.
niferous Limestone. “leks

Evidences of Earth-movement.

Elevation and Subsidence.

4887 [aised Beach on Pilton Beds . Saunton Down End, Larnstaple Bay.
a 49 8.

Folding.
2425 Anticlinc in Culm-measures . Cockington Beach, near Bideford. 40 P.S.
2426 Anticline in Culm-measures . Cockington Beach, near Bideford. 40 P.
ZO Folded CarboniferousLimestone Draughton, near Skipton. 215,15.

2378 Contorted Lewisian Gneiss . West of Port Luinge, near Sandaig,
Glenelg. 40 P.5.

Surface Agencies ; Denudation and Deposit.
Weathering.

6270 Honeycomb-weathering in Keu- Budleigh Salterton. 49%,

per Sandstone. 4
2437 Outstanding Rock . : . TheAgeglestone, near Studland, Dorset. 598.
2438 9 9 ». 92 ”

Volcanic and Plutonic Rocks.

Volcanoes.
¥.26 OraterLake . . «. « Pulvermaar, Hifel,Germany. 40 P,

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 5369

Rock-masses and their Relations,

Regd,
No.
F.14 Alternations of Basalt lava and ‘Cascade Section,’ Mont Dore, Auvergne,
tuff. France. 405.
2374 Weathered-ont Lamprophyre North of Beinn Mhialairidh, near Glenelg,
dyke, 40 §.

Characteristic Rocks and Landscapes,
Paleozoic.

2377 Actinolite in Lewisian Gneiss . Half a mile south of Sandaig Burn, near
Glenelg. 405.
438 Coal-measures above Beeston Longley’s Brickyard, Leeds. 58 P,

Bed.
439 Coal-measuresincluding Beeston Grosvenor Brickyard, Leeds. 48 P.
Bed Coal
440 Coal-measures above the Crow Boyle’s Quarry, Leeds. 58 P.
Coal.
4141 Coal-measures including Crow a re -
Coal.
442 ‘Black Bed’ CoalSeam . . Dolly Lane Brickyard, Leeds. 58 P.
143 ‘Better Bed’ CoalSeam . . Benson Street Brickyard, Leeds. 58 P.
Mesozoic.
990 Paramoudras in Chalk ¢ . Soldierstown, Moira, Antrim. 56 P.

Names and Addresses of Donors and Photographers.

9. R. Welch, Lonsdale Street, Belfast.
15. A. S. Reid, Trinity College, Glenalmond, Perth.
21. Professor E. Waymouth Reid, University College, Dundee,
40. A. K. Coomara-Swamy, Walden, Worplesdon, ‘ruildford.
49. Miss H. M. Partridge, 75 High Street, Barnstaple,
56. W. Gray, Glenburn Park, Belfast.
658. F. W. Branson, 14 Commercial Street, Leeds.
59. H. W. Monckton, 10 King’s Bench Walk, Temple, E.C,

On the Geological Age of the Earth. By Professor J. JOLY, D.Sc., F.R.S.
[Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso.]

On account of a certain small amount of arithmetical complexity involved
in the statement of the method of estimating the age of the earth by
solvent denudation, I have had a brief summary of it put into print, all
the quantities involved being calculated into the metrical system of units
(see Appendix). With this in your hands I may be permitted to leave
figures aside in the few remarks I have to make.

In this method, as the President of the Geological Section has already
stated, the sodium contained in the sea is assumed to be a measure of the
total amount of solvent denudation since the oceans were formed, and
the amount of sodium annually supplied by the rivers is taken as a
measure of the rate at which this denudation has been effected. Why
attention is restricted to the sodiwm need not be enlarged upon further
than to say that every other element supplied by solution of the rocks is
again rejected by the sea to an extent which renders it unavailable.

Tt will be found on reference to the summary that allowance is made
for a effects of the probable amount of active acid primevally wncom-

1900, BH

370 REvOR'T-—1900.

bined, on the basis that sensibly the whole of the chlorine now in the
ocean was then existent in the form of HCl. This amounts to a sub-
tractive correction of under 6 per cent. on geological time. After con-
sideration of all the facts, I do not think any further concession to the
popular assertion, that ‘the sea was salt from the first,’ can be made.

A deduction is also suggested for direct solvent denudation by the sea.
The correction is taken as between 3 and 6 per cent., the basis of correc-
tion being the ratio of the tide-swept area to the total rainy land area,
and some experiments which appear to show that over the same area of
rock surface the rate of marine solution cannot be more than twenty times
the rate of atmospheric denudation These experiments are communicated
to this Section. They are somewhat incomplete, but their rough indica-
tion may be accepted as sufficient for the present purpose.

Allowance is also made for the transport of sodiwm from the sea to the
rivers through the atmosphere. Data are required in order to define this
allowance more precisely.

The brief review of the method before you also refers to the rock-salt
deposits. These appear to be quite negligible compared with the enormous
mass of chloride of sodium row in the ocean—sufficient to cover the entire
land area to a depth of 122 metres—unless deposits of this substance, far
greater than anything at present dreamt of, are discovered.

Some other possible sources of error are considered, but these will more
fitly be referred to further on.

It is a confirmation of the general validity of the method that accept-
ing—with slight modifications—Mr. Mellard Reade’s estimate of the total
mass of detrital sediments, and a mean soda content of these sediments,
based on a very considerable number of analyses, we find that the resulting
total mass of contained sodium added to the soda equivalent of the sodium
now in the ocean suffices to restore to the adequate mass of parent
igneous rock a soda percentage approximately equal to that of the mean
igneous crust-rock of the earth. In other words what sodium is con-
tained in the ocean is approximately equal to the amount which would
have been wasted from such a mean igneous rock upon its degradation
into the probable mass of detrital sediments.

Finally we find the method affords on the basis of the best data
available a duration since subaérial denudation began of between ninety
and one hundred millions of years.

Professor Sollas has really referred to the weakest point in this estimate
when he questions the sufficiency of the data affording the annual river
supply of sodium. However, there is much reason to believe that the
nineteen rivers—a fair admixture of great and small ones—afford an
approximation to the nature of what the world’s rivers yield in the form
of dissolved matter to the ocean. The want emphasises Professor Sollas’s
demand for more experiment, and Sir Archibald Geikie’s for geological
co-operation. The data required are really of the easiest to obtain.

The method is, of course, based on the principle of uniformity, but the
generalised nature of the measure of uniformity actually required is worthy
of attention. The claim is restricted to the association of atmospheric
water and of rock over a surface of land approximately equal to the
present rainy area of the globe, the climatic conditions doubtless differing
in each geographical region from age to age, but on the whole preserving
an approximate uniformity in denudative effect, as measured, say, by the
solvent denudative work accomplished per million of years.

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF THE EARTH. 371

How far will this measure of uniformity be conceded? Whether
erystalline or sedimentary rocks prevail does not appear seriously involved
in the long run, for we find soils derived from the latter actually exposing
larger amounts of alkaline silicates : the higher resistance to disintegra-
tion offered by the crystalline rocks often conferring upon their soils the
réle of an exhausted and protective covering. Again, it is only within
fairly wide limits a question of climate, for the rate of solution of the
silicates is so slow that the amount of the solvent present is of less import-
ance than its persistent operation even in minute quantities. The rate of
solution would certainly not increase proportionately to the amount of the
solvent, a very wet climate being very possibly, even probably, less
effective than a warm and damp climate more rarely visited by rains.

As regards the rainy area exposed to subaérial denudation during past
geological periods, considerable latitude with respect to the effects of up-
heaval or depression is suggested by the fact that the supply of water
evaporated by the ocean is to-day insufficient to ensure drainage from
more than four-fifths the total land area. If to-day 10 per cent. of
the land subsided beneath the ocean, probably but a small change in the
river discharge of dissolved matter would result. The disappearance of
this 10 per cent. of the land would increase the oceanic area but 4 per
cent., and the ‘rainless’ areas of the continents would diminish to one-
tenth the total land surface. In short, the rainy margins would—
roughly speaking—move inwards. In the opposite case, that of upheaval,
the rainy margin will move outwards. Thus the deposition or upheaval
of our greatest sedimentary masses was not necessarily accompanied by
any notable variation in the supply of dissolved matter to the sea.

Tn short, it would appear that changes of a quite abnormal or cata-
strophic natwre must be looked for to seriously affect the average rate of
the operations at work. I must refer to the evidence for and against such
effects.

As regards hydrothermal actions, due to lingering heat in the primitive
oceans, on Lord Kelvin’s figures for the rate of cooling this action must be
negligible. If his figures were multiplied even tenfold, the error could
hardly at most amount to 1 per cent. I may also now refer to the
objection urged by Professor Sollas, that underground temperature may for
long have given rise to a geyser-like action of springs which would have
enriched the sodium supply of the early rivers. If of a serious character
this objection should be supported by more evidence of such solvent actions
than our most ancient sediments reveal. Thus it isremarkable that so far
from the earliest sediments or their probable metamorphosed remains
being the most washed-out of the rocks they are often those possessing the
largest percentages of alkalies. The oldest Cambrian and Silurian sedi-
ments and gneissic rocks of archzean age and probable sedimentary origin
show percentages of alkalies almost comparable to those of the mean
igneous earth-crust and exceeding the average of later sediments and of
sediments at present being deposited. I therefore cannot think that any
exceptional solvent actions applied to these sediments when being deposited
or when buried or subsequently when uplifted and exposed to atmo-
spheric denudation can be generally assumed. Geyser actions or circula-
tion of underground waters among unfaulted primitive igneous rocks, on
the other hand, would arise only under exceptional conditions. And,
again, we may ask, where in the earlier igneous rock-masses have we
evidence of exceptional geyser-like actions ?

BB2

372 REPORT—1900.

I may point out here that Daubrée’s experiments by no means support
the view that crystalline rocks are rapidly attacked by superheated water,
but rather demonstrate the contrary. At a pressure which Daubrée esti-
mated at more than 1,000 atmospheres, and at a red heat, water failed to
appreciably attack, after many weeks, sanidine, oligoclase, pyroxene, or
potash mica. The contrary is generally inferred from the general atten-
tion which has been paid to his experiments on glass and obsidian, The
early igneous rock crust from the general prevalence of conditions of slow
cooling would almost certainly have been highly crystalline.

The notion that exceptional vulcanism prevailed in the earliest times
appears unproved. The traps and dykes of archean rocks are not always
evidence of subaérial outbursts—the Lewisian and Torridonian rocks of
Scotland may be quoted as examples, where, although there is much injec-
tion of igneous matter, there is no evidence of corresponding volcanic action.
And, again, it may be well questioned, granting even excessive volcanic
action, how far it would affect the methodical supply to the ocean of dis-
solved alkalies by the rivers.

Early tides of gigantic height have been rather discredited. Any one
reading Professor G. Darwin’s delightful book on ‘Tides’ will be struck
with the caution and moderation of the writer. He maintains ‘the pos-
sibility that a considerable part of the changes due to tidal friction may
have occurred within geological history,’ yet thinks it ‘probable that the
greater part of the changes due to tidal friction must be referred back to
pre-geological times when the planet was partially or entirely molten.’
This involves, of course, that the epoch of most violent activity prevailed
in pre-geological times before the work of denudation had begun. And
here, again, even admitting higher tides, it may be seriously asked on
what grounds we assume such higher tides to effect solvent denudation
positively rather than negatively. If the tides of to-day rose so as to
encroach five miles further on the coasts, would the loss of soil area re-
sulting compensate for the gain of bare superficial rock swept by the sea ?
A soil but 10 cms. deep may expose an area 50,000 times its superficial area
to the solvent actions of hygroscopic water and rain, CO., organic acids, &e.

Professor Perry, writing in ‘ Nature,’ has suggested the possibility of
diminished sun-heat at a period as recent as some 50 x 10° years ago. But
so far as I know, Professor Perry has not gone further than to suggest
the possibility of this external interference with the orderly succession of
events in the earth.

But finally in regard to all these surmises, interesting and valuable as
they undoubtedly are, can I do better than torefer to Sir A. Geikie’s reading
of rock-testimony on this point? Sir A. Geikie seeks one hundred million
years as sufficient for the sedimentary history of the earth. His words are
recent—dating from his address to the Geological Section last year. The
evidence of the sedimentary rocks, he affirms, shows no more stupendous
mountain upheavals, volcanic eruptions, or greater violence in the sur-
rounding envelopes of atmosphere and ocean than occurred in more recent
periods or than we are acquainted with to-day. ‘Even in the most
ancient of the sedimentary registers of the world’s history not only is
there no evidence of colossal floods, tides, and denudation, but there is
incontestable proof of continuous orderly deposition such as may be
witnessed to-day in any quarter of the globe. The same tale with endless
additional detail is told all through the stratified formations down to those
which are in course of accumulation at the present day.’

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF THE EARTH. 373

Tf now the sodium-method affords a correct key to the age of the earth,
it remains to criticise methods yielding discordant results. And first, as
regards the method by rate of deposition, we find Sir A. Geikie claiming
a period, as we have seen, in perfect accord with that shown by solvent
denudation. Professor Sollas, however, considers the actual record indicates
ashorter period. I think, however, he has very fully and fairly shown
that much difficulty attends the actual measurements as well as the
application of the measurements.

In the first place it may be observed that the data have been obtained
from an inadequate number of rivers. Again, the detrital matter discharged
by rivers is most difficult to estimate, owing to the rapid variation of
transporting power with current-velocity, and also owing to the fact that
a very large amount of sediment is transported by creeping along the river
bed. Both these facts render measurement so difficult that only the most
painstaking observations could be relied on for an approximate estimate.
And suppose we possessed the required estimate of detrital material, how
are we to dispose of it so as to represent what we may call the average
mode of maximum deposition? Some rivers form deltas which creep out-
ward year by year. Here the rate of deposition is evidently not balanced
by subsidence. There is in fact no one law of deposition, nor can there
be. Once more, can we ever know the total maximum thickness of the
sediments? It must be that the sediments of one period supply in great
part those of the next. The very quantity we estimate in the rivers in
order to find our denominator has been robbed, perchance, from our
numerator. Have we, in fact, when all care is taken, measured the true
maximum thickness, or would sediments long ago removed afford vastly
greater maxima ? Now observe the method is exposed, here at its weakest
point, mainly to errors of deficiency : and the method in its latest develop-
ment, in the able hands of Professor Sollas, affords but some twenty-six
millions of years, and according to Mr. Wallace twenty-eight millions of
years.

There is another method based on Jological progress which seems
to go to the opposite extreme and claims immense periods of time.
Lyell claimed on biological grounds 240 millions of years since the
Cambrian ; Haughton, 200 millions ; Darwin speaks of a pre-Cambrian
period as long as the sum of the subsequent geological ages. Professor
Sollas has, with justifiable authority, dealt with this matter. And indeed
we may well ask if the argument does not assume an unwarranted
proportionality in the rates of evolution throughout successive ages.
Surely the organism of Jater date owes something of its stability to
heredity ?

Can we assume that when trial was less likely to be attended with
error, owing to a less severe competition, species and genera were not
struck off more rapidly than later under more restricted conditions, and
when ages of increasing restraints had impressed upon the germ-plasm a
more stereotyped heredity? It appears difficult to imagine that the
organism as we see it to-day so willing to take advantage of every loop-
hole and fill up every vacancy should have dropped its opportunist
character in early times and failed to profit by the more generous
environment. If this is so, can we accept with Huxley the period
required for the development of the horse as an indication of the length
of the history of ungulates? But this argument has been taken up
already by Mr. Adam Sedgwick, who has urged that in the evolution

374 REPORT—1900.

of heredity a veconciliation of the demands of biologists and the restric-
tions placed by the physicist on geological time may be found. His
address to the Zoological Section last year will be fresh in the minds of
all, and I need not further press the point.

Turning to physical methods we have Professor Darwin’s age of the
moon, suggesting a minimum of fifty-seven millions of years, to which
Professor Sollas has referred. Lord Keivin’s method, based on the rate of
cooling of the globe and the observed fall of temperature in the terrestrial
crust, depends for the accuracy of its indication on data regarding the
physical properties of the deeper-lying materials of the earth which we do
not as yet possess. This has been fully discussed lately by Professor
Perry. The distinguished author of the method has at no time denied
the restrictions placed by our present ignorance on the indications of the
method. The effect is not to deprive the method of value, but to restrict
its present functions to the delimitation of certain bounds to our
speculations, which bounds may on the minor estimate be taken as some
twenty millions of years, but which may, according to the density, specific
heat, and conductivity of the deeper-lying materials at elevated tempera-
tures, allow of a much more extended estimate.

It must be admitted that no one method of approaching the delicate
question of the age of the earth can claim to have reached that con-
ststentior status which we look for in scientific results. So much may
possibly have happened during the long past vista which it is hoped to
penetrate that more than a considerable degree of probability may never
be attained by our results. Admitting this, I have to appear perhaps in
the light of an advocate when I state my belief that the method by solvent
denudation is not discredited by the conclusions arrived at by other
methods, in so far as these assign major or minor limits to the age of the
earth, and that none other approaches the question so directly or on such
easily obtained data,

APPENDIX.
The Geological Age of the Larth.

[Read before the Congrés Géologique International, 1900.]

The method of determining the age of the earth summarised in this
paper is based on the assumption that the ocean has retained substantially
the whole of the sodium committed to it by the solvent denudation of
geological time, and that the supply of the element sodium by the rivers
has on the whole been uniform in rate.!

Hence we derive as a numerator a number expressing the mass of
sodium at present in the ocean, and a denominator expressing in the same
units the amount of this element annually discharged into the ocean by
the rivers of the world.

The quotient is the geological age of the earth.

Corrections are applied to both numerator and denominator for any
certain or very probable source of error. These corrections are approxi-
mate only, upper and lower limits of their values being suggested.”

1 No other dissolved substance in the ocean conforms to the first of these con-
ditions.

2? A more amplified account of what follows will be found in a paper by the
author, ‘An Estimate of the Geological Age of the Earth, Z7ans. Royal Dublin

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF THE EARTH. 370

First Approximation to a Numerator.

According to Professor Dittmar,! if the ocean has a total mass of
1-343 x 10!8 tonnes, the sodium chloride in it amounts to 36,566 x10!"
tonnes, However, on Professor Wagner’s” estimate of the area of the
land surface of the globe as 14,456 x 10! square kilometres, and the ratio
of the areas of water and land as 2°54: 1, and on Sir John Murray’s
estimate * of the mean depth as 3°851 kilometres, the total mass is more
correctly 1-458 x 10'8 tonnes. On these data we can readjust Professor
Dittmar’s estimate of the mass of NaCl in the ocean, finding it to be
39,703 x 10! tonnes, and from this finally arrive at the result that the
mass of sodium in the ocean is 15,611 x 10!? tonnes.

First Approximation to a Denominator.

On Sir John Murray’s estimate ‘ the river water annually discharged
into the ocean amounts to a volume of 27,191 cubic kilometres, and from
his table of the mean dissolved constituents of nineteen rivers—many of
them principal rivers of the world—we find that a cubic kilometre of
average river water contains as sodium salts 7753 tonnes of Na,SO,, 6534
tonnes of NaNO;, and 4061 tonnes of NaCl. Calculating from these the
masses of sodium in each case, and multiplying by the total number of
cubic kilometres, we arrive at 15,976 x10! tonnes as the total mass of
sodium carried annually into the sea by the rivers.

The quotient is a first approximation to the age of the earth, and is
97°6 millions of years.

Correction on the Denonunator.

It is convenient to consider this first.

The mass of sodium chloride carried by the rivers is in part derived
from the ocean by means of the atmospheric transportation of this sub-
stance from the ocean and its precipitation in rain water. Ten per cent.
is allowed as a sufficient deduction for this circulation of the chloride of
sodium. The allowance is thus restricted for the reason that while near
the coasts a very considerable portion, and even sensibly the whole, of the
chloride of sodium may be so derived, in inland areas the amounts of the
salt which fall in rain become very minute.? It is just in these inland
areas that the chief rivers of the world derive their supplies.

Applying this correction to the NaCl of the rivers, the corrected river
discharge of sodium is left at 15,542 x 10! tonnes.

Corrections on the Numerator.

(a) For the Original State of the Ocean.—We assume that the sodium
as well as most of the metals was silicated in the original crust of the
earth. The chlorine, with great probability, was gaseous and combined

Society, vol, vii. (ser. ii.), 1899, p. 23 et seg. See also Geological Magazine, 4, 1900,
vol. vii. et seq.

‘ «Challenger’ Report, Physics and Chemistry, vol. i.

Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1895, p. 185. The measurements throughout

have been converted from the British system of units.

® Loe. cit., 1888, p. 1 et seq. 4 Loe. cit., 1887, p. 76.

5 On the west and east coasts of Scotland 1:19 and 1:26 per 100,000 respectively.
co valleys 0:25 to 0°76 per 100,000, and in Ootacamund, India, 0:04 per

376 REPORT—1900.

with hydrogen. The resulting acid we assume as probably contained in
the original atmosphere and hydrosphere. A primitive accelerated
denudation can be computed on the basis of the probable mass of chloride
of hydrogen and the nature of the lithosphere exposed to attack. The
effects concern the present method only so far as they result in supplying
sodium to the ocean.

The maximum amount of chlorine available as an acid basis may be
derived from. the chlorine now in the ocean less what was supplied during
geological time by solution of the rocks.

Referring to Sir John Murray’s table,' we deduce from the amounts
of chlorides supplied annually by river discharge? (applying the deduction
of 10 per cent. before mentioned to the sodium chloride) that the rivers
contribute annually 75°5 x 10° tonnes of chlorine. If now our final esti-
mate of the earth’s age is 95 x 10° years, the total supply by denudation
has been 7169 x 10? tonnes of chlorine.

The total mass of chlorine now in the ocean, calculated on Professor
Dittmar’s table and the more recent estimate of the mass of the ocean
(ante) less the amount calculated as above as supplied by the rivers sub-
sequently, is 21,123 x 10!? tonnes.? This amount we assume free to act
as a primeval denuding agent.

According to Mr. F. W. Clarke‘ the older crust of the earth contained
the following atomic percentages, which would be converted to chlorides
by a primeval denudation such as we assume :—

Percentage. | Percentage,
Aluminium ; ; . 813 Magnesium . . 264
Jron . : : : Peat Potassium - * 213b
Calcium . ‘ ; . 343 ; Sodium . : : . 2°68

Dividing among these the mass of chlorine already estimated, we find that
the chlorine taken up by the sodium would be 6-7 per cent. of the whole.
This would amount to 1415 x 10? tonnes, bringing 916°7 x 10°? tonnes of
sodium into the primeval ocean.

Deducting this amount from the mass of sodium now in the ocean
leaves 14,694 x 10'!? tonnes to be accounted for by subsequent denuda-
tion.

Of the other acid-forming substances possibly present in the primeval
atmosphere and ocean, sulphur and carbonic anhydride need alone be
referred to. The sulphur was, however, probably only free in small
amount, if at all, being present in the average igneous crust” to the
extent of 0:06 per cent., and being to-day supplied by denudation in
quantities more than suflicient to account for all in the ocean. Con-
sidering that subdivision of its effects among the metals must also occur,
an allowance is not called for.

Carbonic acid is a relatively feeble and slow rock solvent. Even if

Loe; crt.
? As follows in tonnes per cubic kilometre :—
NaCl : ; . 3 . 4061
NELCI ag ‘ : ; : web
Licl 3 é : : - 600
3 The chlorides now in the ocean are :—
NaCl 4 6 , 39,703 x 10'* tonnes
MgCl, 5642 x 10? tonnes

* Bulletin, US. Geological Survey, 148, p. 13. ® Clarke, Joe, cit.

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF THE EARTH. 377

present in the abundance thought by some, its early effects were probably
compensated by the more active effects of organic acids of later times.
Vegetation, too, has been a source of carbonic acid in the soils during
subsequent periods. Jt may be observed that the fixation of free CO, by
vegetation so abundantly in the later Paleozoic and the increase in the
deposits of limestone rather point to a gradual fixation of this substance
than to any special activity as a solvent in earlier times. On _ these
accounts we make no correction for the possible presence of this substance
in primeval times.

Rock solution in heated waters persisted for periods relatively so short
as to cause negligible error only. According to Lord Kelvin’s calculation
as to the rate of cooling of the solidifying crust, a period of a century
would have been adequate to cool the crust from its melting-point down
to about 8° Centigrade above what it would be without any under-
ground heat. Hence, if the mean rate of solvent denudation was as
much as a thousand times what it is to-day, the result would have been
the accomplishment of 100,000 years’ denudation in the first hundred years.
If now we even lengthened the period of this excessive denudation, ten
times the correction would be no more than about | per cent.

(b) Lor Direct Marine Denudation.—So far as the sea has directly
acted on the coasts, and on the sediments deposited in it, an error is in-
troduced calling for a subtractive correction on our estimate of geological
time ; in other words, upon our numerator, which is that part of the sodium
in the ocean supplied by sub-aérial denudation only.

The total tide-swept area of the ocean is calculated by Sir J. Murray
and Professor Renard (‘Challenger’ Report) as 162 x10? square kilo-
metres. The ‘rainy ’area of the land is about 113 x 10° square kilometres.
The ratio of areas is 1 : 700. Hence, the assumption of a marine solvent
denudation having an intensity twenty times that progressing over an
equal area exposed to normal sub-aérial denudation would involve a sub-
tractive correction of rather under 3 per cent. on geological time.! The
solvent effects on sediments falling into the nearly, or quite, quiescent
waters beyond this zone are assumed to be small on the grounds of the
rapid flocculation and consolidation of marine sediments, as well as from
the fact that the very minute mineral particles of oceanic sediments show
little of such effects as would arise under conditions of sub-aérial denuda-
tion. They preserve, in fact, their soda in substantial excess of their
potash. There is in marine sediments generally almost complete absence
of the more active acid and oxidising effects progressing in the soils. Nor
will the state of consolidation of marine sediments allow us to assume
anything like the enormous surface area, as much as 500 square metres
per litre, exposed within the soils.

On these grounds it is assumed that the correction should not exceed
6 per cent., nor be less than 3 per cert.

Our numerator was left at 14,694 x 10!2 tonnes, and our denominator
at 15,542 x10‘ tonnes. The resulting age of the earth would be 94 x 10°
years. A subtractive correction of 4 per cent. for marine denudation
leaves the geological age at 90x10° years. Future extension of our
knowledge on the many points raised will, however, modify this number.
Thus, according to Professor De Lapparent’s ? more recent estimation of

‘ See abstract of a paper read by the author before Section C, ‘Some Experi-

ments on Denudation in Fresh and Salt Water,’
* Traité de Géologic, tome i. p. 60. '

378 REPORT—1900,

the volume of the ocean, its mass is 1:539 x10" tonnes. This would raise
our result by nearly 6 per cent.

We sum up the results of our inquiry, then, in the statement that the
probable age of the earth, estimated from solvent denudation, is between
ninety and one hundred millions of years.

Rock-salt Deposits from the Ocean negligible.

The amount of chloride of sodium in the ocean is sufficient to cover
the entire land area with a layer of solid salt 122 metres deep. Compared
with so great a mass the rock-salt deposits on the land are negligible.
They are, moreover, only in part derived from the ocean, the circumstances
leading to abstraction of salt from the ocean and its retention upon the
land being exceptional. Likeness in chemical composition is no proof
that bedded salts were derived from the ocean. Thus the proportions of
salts in the Great Salt Lake are much the same as in the sea.!

So far as these deposits are derived from the denudation of ‘rainless’
regions, and are being gradually conveyed by rivers to the ocean, they
constitute part of the normal supply of sodium to the sea.

Uniformity of sub-aérial Denudation.

The uniformitarianism involved in the present mode of calculating the
age of the earth is broadly restricted to the approximate persistence
throughout the past of the present sub-aérial association of water and
rock.

The rate of solution of the rock-forming silicates is so slow that the
abundance of the solvent or its rate of renewal is a relatively unimportant
factor compared with the surface area exposed. Thus within certain
limits climate will not seriously affect the question.

The existence of a rainless area, amounting to one-fifth the land
surface, subject to extreme conditions of dryness secures that subsidence
or elevation of land does not necessarily involve corresponding changes in
the area of active solvent denudation, In the first case the more active
margin moves inwards, in the second case it moves outwards.

The argument that the surface materials of the land areas must have
been growing poorer in alkalies throughout geological time is met by the
fact of the less resistent nature of sedimentary rocks, involving soils richer
in soluble constituents. These are, in fact, more rapidly formed and
removed. Observation shows that on comparing soils from the most
diverse kinds of rocks the rapidly concentrated soils of limestones, or
those derived from sandstones, very generally exceed in percentage of
alkalies soils derived from igneous rocks.” It is within the soils that the
chief work of solvent denudation is accomplished.

Confirmation in the Soda-content of the Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks.

We assume in our present argument necessarily that the sedimentary
rocks were derived from the igneous in the process of denudation, a certain
loss, representing matter gone into solution, occurring. Taking this loss
into account, we may recover from the estimated mass of the siliceous
detrital sedimentaries on the earth’s surface the approximate total mass
of the parent igneous rock, This represents a certain mass of soda

1 Nature, December 28, 1899, p. 204.
* E. G. Merrill, Rocks, Rock-weathering, and Soils (Macmillan), 1897, pp. 305,
306, 358, and 359,

ON THE GEOLOGICAL AGE OF THE EARTH. 379

(deducible from our knowledge of the mean igneous rock-crust) which is
to be accounted for between what is now represented in the ocean by the
chlorides and what remains over in the detrital sedimentaries. Upon
making the calculations, we find that the sum of the soda in the ocean
and in the sedimentaries would nearly suftice to effect the full restoration
of this constituent to the original rock. There is not quite enough.

The bulk of the siliceous sedimentaries is assumed to be represented
by a layer 1:77 kilometres deep spread over the land area. This on a
specific gravity of 2-5 affords a mass of 64 x 10'° tonnes, which we assume
to be 67 per cent. of the mass of the parent rock.? Hence the parent rock
possessed a mass of 95:5x10!® tonnes. We restore to this the soda
equivalent of the sodium now in the ocean, 210 x 1015 tonnes. The
mean soda-content of these sedimentaries determined on the analyses of
over one hundred typical siliceous sedimentary rocks given in Professor
H. Rosenbusch’s Elemente der Gesteinslehre (Stuttgart, 1890) is found to
be 1:47 per cent. This affords 9:4 10! tonnes in the layer 1°77 kilo-
metres thick. Restoring this also, the parent mass of igneous rock is
found to have possessed 3°20 per cent. of Na,O. According to Mr.
F. W. Clarke (loc. cit.), the mean igneous rock contains 3°61 per cent. of
soda.

This approximate agreement between the amount of sodium in the
ocean and that missing from the sedimentary rocks is a confirmation of
the validity of the present mode of deducing the age of the earth. It is
directly opposed to the assumption of an ocean primevally charged with
sodium salts. The negation is the more emphatic, seeing that the loss
revealed by the sedimentary rocks of geological time appears to be
more than sufficient to account for what sodium is to-day in the sea,

Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel.—Second
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Ray LaNKESTER
(Chairman), Professor W. A. Herpman, Mr. H. N. Dickson, and
M.. W. Garstang (Secretary), appointed to make Periodic Investi-
gations of the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the Englhsh
Channel during 1899.

Tue series of periodic surveys for which provision was made at the Bristol
and Dover Meetings has been completed by Mr. Garstang, under the same
conditions as were described in the First Report of the Committee. Since
the Dover Meeting two surveys were carried out, viz., in November 1899,
and in the first week of March 1900, thus making five quarterly surveys
altogether.

It has been found impossible to finish the examination of the large
quantity of material collected in time for report at the Bradford Meeting.
The Committee therefore desire to be reappointed (without a grant) in
order that they may present their final report at the Glasgow Meeting.

1 Merrill, doc. cit. pp. 209-225.

380 REPOkT—1900.

Ozcupation of a Table at the Zoologicat Station at Naples.—Report of
the Committee, consisting of Professor W. A. HERDMAN (Chairman),
Professor E. Ray LanKester, Professor W. F. R. Wetpon,
Professor S$. J. Hickson, Mr. A. Sepawick, Professor W. C.
McIntosu, and Professor G. B. Howes (Secretary).

APPENDIX, PAGE
I. Note by the Chairman of the British Association Committee ; : . 381
Il. Leports on the Occupation of the Table " ‘ : é 383

a. The Anatomy of the Flatfishes (Heterosomata). By H. M. Kyun,
M.A., B.Sc. . ; ‘ ; , : ; : : ‘ c . B83
b. The Structure of Certain Polychate Worms. By E.8.Goopricu, M.A. 384
c. Observations on Compound Ascidians. By Professor W. A. Herp-
MAN, D.Sc., F.R.S8. : ‘ : E : / F ? :
d. The Anatomy of Phyllirhot, the Calenterate Plankton, and certain
Celenterata. By R.T. GUNTHER, M.A. . 3 i , 2 eOOO
e. The Lertilisation Process in Echinoidea. By A. H. REGINALD

384

BULLER, Ph.D. . ; , , ; : : Rit ae : . B87

J. The Methods of Preservation of Specimens used at the Zoological
Station. By Professor R. RAMSAY WRIGHT : ; . 388

IIL. List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from +

July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1900 ‘ : : 3 : ; ; - 389

IV. List of Papers published in 1899 by Naturalists who have occupied Lables
in the Zoological Station d ; : 5 - : 2 . 9390

V. List of the Publications of the Zoological Station during the Year ending
June 30, 1900 ; ‘ : A , ‘ 2 ; 392

ON entering upon the year’s occupancy of the Naples Table the advis-
ability suggested itself of sending a circular letter to teachers and others
likely to recommend workers ; and as the result a greater number of
applications were received than it was possible to grant. Among those
which were entertained no fewer than three ultimately overlapped during
spring, and the best thanks of the Committee are hereby tendered to Dr.
Dohrn for his magnanimity, exceeding all precedent, in having arranged
for the accommodation of all workers recommended, this notwithstanding.
The indebtedness of the Committee is further increased by his having, on
their behalf, granted Professor Ramsay Wright, of the University of
Toronto, permission to spend the leisure of two months’ residence in Naples
in the study of the methods of capture and preservation in vogue in the
bay, with a view to their application at the New Canadian Marine
Station, the project for which received the support of the British Asso-
ciation. And this has been further increased by his having allowed Miss
A. Vickers to collect seaweeds between October and January, on the
recommendation of the Committee.

The list of British workers at the Naples Station which accompanies
this Report exceeds, as regards numbers, all previous records, while that
of naturalists of other countries reaches for the year seventy-four in all,
bringing the total of those who have profited by the resources of the
establishment since 1873-74, when Professor Waldeyer and the late
Francis Maitland Balfour began work there, to nearly 1,200 persons.

The recent addition to the laboratory of a filter, by which half the
sea-water in circulation in the tanks is filtered and separated from

— ae

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 581

the rest, has materially increased the facilities for experimental work
now greatly in vogue ; and the fishing capacity is now sufficient to provide
from fifty to sixty workers at a time with all requisite material. In every
department of the establishment, laboratory and library alike, thorough
efficiency and complete success have to be recorded.

Your Committee hereby apply for a renewal of the grant of 1002. to
enable Mr. H. H. Stewart, M.A., to work at the Annelids, and to aid him
and other competent researchers whom it is hoped to secure to study these
and other organisms they may desire to investigate.

Appended to the Report is a note by the Chairman of the Committee
d propos of a visit to the Station and his own Report on the Occupancy
of the Table. ;

APPENDIX I.

Note by the CuatrMan of the British Association Committee.

As it is about ten years since a Chairman of this Committee visited
the Naples Zoological Station, and reported on the condition of the insti-
tution,! it may serve a useful purpose to draw attention here to the facili-
ties for work at this world-renowned laboratory, and to the additions and
improvements effected during the last decade. I am indebted to Dr.
Dohrn, the Director, and to the Secretary, Mr. Linden, for much informa-
tion given me during my recent visit.

Since Dr. Sclater’s visit in 1890 additional accommodation has been
obtained by a re-arrangement of the roof of the main building. This
gives space for a second laboratory, a supplementary library, and various
smaller rooms used as chemical and physiological laboratories, for photo-
graphy and bacteriology. A good deal of the research in recent years,
both on the part of those occupying tables and of the permanent staff,
has been in the direction of comparative physiology, experimental embryo-
logy, and the bacteriology of sea-water, and all necessary facilities for
such work are now provided.

The number of work-places, in some cases separate rooms, known
technically as ‘ tables,’ is about fifty-five, and of these about thirty-four
are rented annually by States, Universities, or Associations. Germany
takes about ten of these, and Italy seven. There are three American
tables, and three English (rented by the Universities of Cambridge and
Oxford and the British Association respectively) ; consequently there are
generally about half a.dozen English and American biologists at work in
the station ; but Dr. Dohrn interprets in a most liberal spirit the rulesas
to the occupancy of a table, and, as a matter of fact, during my recent
visit there were, for a short time, no less than three of us occupying
simultaneously the British Association ‘table,’ and provided with separate
rooms.

A work-table is really a small laboratory fitted up with all that
is necessary for ordinary biological research, and additional apparatus and
reagents can be obtained as required. The investigator is supposed to
bring his own microscope and dissecting instruments, but is supplied with
alcohol, acids, stains, and other chemicals, glass dishes, and bottles of
various kinds and sizes, drawing materials, and mounting reagents,

1 Nature, February 1891, p. 392,

382 REPORT— 1900.

Requisition forms are placed beside the worker on which to notify his
wishes in regard to material or reagents, he is visited at frequent inter-
vals by members of the staff, and all wants are supplied in the most perfect
manner.

The Staff of the station consists of :—

1. Dr. Anton Dohrn, the founder and director.

2. Seven scientific assistants—viz. Dr. Eisig, Administrator of the
Laboratories ; Dr. Paul Mayer, Editor of the Publications; Dr. Gies-
brecht, assistant editor and supervisor of plates; Dr. Gast, assistant
editor and supervisor of microscopic drawings ; Dr. Schobel, Librarian ;
Dr. Lo Bianco, administrator of fisheries and préparateur ; Dr, Hollands,
temporarily in charge of the microscopic sections department—all of them
well-known men, each eminent in his own line of investigation. The
post of assistant in the Physiological Department, formerly held by the
late Dr. Schoenlein, is now vacant ; and in addition to the foregoing
there are :—Secretary, Mr. Linden ; two painters, and the engineer ;
with attendants, collectors, and others employed in the laboratories, in
the collecting and preserving departments, Aquarium, and elsewhere.

This seems at the first thought a very large staff, but the activities of
the institution are most varied and far-reaching, and everything that is
undertaken is carried to a high standard of perfection. Whether it be in
the exposition of living animals to the public in the wonderful tanks of
the ‘ Acquario,’ in the collection and preparation of choice specimens for
Museums, in the supply of laboratory material and mounted microscopic
objects to Universities, in the facilities afforded for research, or in the
educational influence and inspiration which all young workers in the
laboratory feel in each and all of these directions, the Naples station has
a world-wide renown. And the best proof of this reputation for excel-
lence is seen in the long list of biologists from all civilised countries who
year after year obtain material from the station or enrol as workers in the
laboratory. Close on 1,200 naturalists have now, since the opening of the
Zoological Station in 1873, occupied work-tables, and as these men have come
from and gone back to practically all the important laboratories of Europe
and America, from St. Petersburg to Madrid, and from California to
Japan, Naples may fairly claim to have been for the last quarter-century
a great international meeting-ground of biologists, and to have exercised
a stimulating and co-ordinating influence upon biological research which
it would be difficult to over-estimate.

The opportunities for taking part in collecting expeditions at sea are
most valuable to the young naturalist. Dredging, plankton-collection,
and fishing are carried on daily in the Bay of Naples by means of the two
little steamers belonging to the station, and a flotilla of fishing and other
smaller boats. Many of the Neapolitan fishermen are more or less in the
employ of the station, or bring in such specimens as they find in their
work.

But although the work of the Naples Zoological Station is thus many-
sided, the leading idea is certainly original research. An investigator
goes to Naples to make some particular discovery, and he goes thither
because he knows he will find material, facilities, and environment such
as exist nowhere else in the same favourable combination. The British
Association Committee consider it most important that these opportunities
for research should be open to British biologists in the future as they have

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 383

been in the past, and it is on this ground that they confidently recom-
mend the policy of sending selected investigators to Naples each year—
a practice which has led to such satisfactory results in the past and is full
of promise for the future.

APPENDIX I.
REPORTS ON THE OCCUPATION OF THE TABLE.

Report on the Occupation of the British Association Table at Naples,
Jrom October to December 1899-1900.

a. The Anatomy of the Flatfishes (Heterosomata). By H. M. Kyi, M.A., B.Sc.

During the period, from October to the third week in December, 1899,
when I had the privilege of occupying the British Association Table at
Naples, the special research which engaged my attention was the Anatomy
of the Flatfishes (Heterosomata). The species examined there were the
following :—

Citharus linguatula, L. | Solea lascaris, Risso.
Rhomboidichthys mancus, Risso. | (Solea Kleinit),

Arnoglossus Grohmanni, Bon. | Solea ocellata, L.
Arnoglossus laterna, Walb. | Microchirus variegata, Don.
Lepidorhombus Boscii, Gtr. | Microchirus minuta, Parn.
Scophthalmus unimaculatus, Risso. | Monochirus hispida, Cos.
Rhombus maximus, Kl. | Ammopleurops lacteus, Gtr.
Solea vulgaris, Quens.

7

In addition to the above, through the courtesy of the Naples staff,
I was able to examine several species of other families of the Teleosts, as
well as the eggs, larvee, and young of fishes to be found at that season.

The main conclusions arrived at have been embodied in a paper
entitled : ‘On the Classification of the Flatfishes (Heterosomata),’ which
is in process of publication in the Scottish Fishery Board’s Report for
1899. In this paper it is shown that Citharus linguatula, a species very
common in the Mediterranean, is a transitional form between the Halibut
and Turbot groups of Flatfishes. The characters employed as tests of
relationship are chiefly the position and structure of the ventral or
pelvic fins, the position and structure of the olfactory organs, and the
position of the eyes. Further, although C7tharus is the only form in
European waters which marks the transition between these two main
groups, the American fauna possesses many similar forms, and the
classification has therefore been altered in order to include these within
one group or subfamily. It is also shown how the various subfamilies of
the Flattishes are restricted to fairly well-marked zones of distribution.

In conclusion, I wish to offer my best thanks to the Committee of the
British Association for the opportunity granted me of pursuing my studies
at Naples, and also to the authorities of the station for their kindness
and courtesy.

9
(oe)
te

REPORT—1900.

Report on the Occupation of the Table in the Zoological Station
at Naples, during part of December 1900.

b. The Structure of certain Polychete Worms.
By E. 8. Goopricu, M.A. O.von.

During a short visit to Naples last winter, I occupied the Table of the
British Association at the Zoological station. I have to thank the
Committee for this opportunity of continuing my researches on the
structure of Polychxete worms.

My observations were restricted almost entirely to the study of living
specimens of Alciopids, Phyllodocids, Polygordius, and Saccocirrus, A
considerable amount of material was also preserved for future use.

The nephridia of the Alciopids were found to closely resemble those
of the Phyllodocids, having no internal ccelomic opening, and being pro-
vided with bunches of flagellated cells, the solenocytes. The genital
products are carried to the exterior by ciliated genital funnels, which at
maturity open into the nephridial ducts. A detailed description of these
organs is about to be published in the ‘Quart. Journ. of Micr. Science.’

Some details were also added to our knowledge of the nephridia of
Polygordius ; and the structure of the interesting, but little known,
Saccocirvus was carefully investigated. The results of this study, which
is not yet completed, will, I hope, shortly be ready for publication.

Report on the Occupation of the British Association Table
at Naples during March and April 1900.

c, Observations on Compound Ascidians. By W. A. Herpman, D.Sc., F.R.S.

I occupied the British Association Table for a little over three weeks
in March and April, 1900, with the object of examining in the living
condition certain Mediterranean Compound Ascidians. Probably the
first thought that occurs to any one who has worked at the Naples
Zoological Station, on recalling the time he spent at that celebrated
laboratory, is one of gratitude to Dr. Dohrn and his excellent assistants
for their personal kindness and help, and of admiration for their highly
efficient administration. I feel that if other workers desire to express
their gratitude, I especially should do so, for it is probable that I gave
unusual trouble at a busy period, and it seemed to me that I was treated
with exceptional kindness. In addition to Dr. Dohrn, I desire to thank
especially Dr. Eisig and Dr. Lo Bianco. With the latter I was brought
largely into contact by the nature of my work.

During the recent short visit, my intention was mainly to see and
examine as many species and specimens of Compound Ascidians as possible
in the living condition, and then have them killed and preserved for
histological work later. I was given excellent facilities for collecting in
the small steamer Johannes Miiller, belonging to the station, and twice
—sometimes three times—every day fresh supplies of material, brought in
by the fishermen, were placed in my aquaria. ;

The Compound Ascidians of the Bay of Naples have not yet been
monographed. Some species were described by Delle Chiaje and others
long ago, when the genera were iitiperfectly known and anatomical
characters were not recorded. Other species have been briefly diagnosed
more recently (but without any figures) by Della Valle. It is now almost
impossible in many cases to tell from these descriptions alone which of

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 385

the Mediterranean species agree with those of the French coast described
by H. Milne-Edwards, Giard, and Lahille, and with our British species.

I_ wished, therefore, to compare these published, but sometimes in-
sufficient, descriptions with living specimens from the original localities
in order to determine, if possible, the systematic positions of the species
and provide myself with figures and anatomical details for comparison
with British species. Fortunately, also, I found that Dr. Lo Bianco had
in his stores a few of Della Valle’s type specimens, or at least specimens
of these species identified and labelled by Della Valle himself. These I
was permitted to draw and examine. In regard to the other species, of
which there were no authenticated specimens, I soon found that from the
large number of examples they laid before me L was able in most cases
to determine what form the original describer had before him. I then
made coloured drawings of that form and examined its anatomy to settle
to which modern genus it belonged, and samples of every species I
examined and drew were preserved for histological purposes. In this way
I hope I have secured the material necessary for an accurate comparison
of a number of the Mediterranean and British species. I have brought
back over thirty sheets of coloured figures, and Dr. Lo Bianco is sending
a collection of bottles to Liverpool.

The following is a list of the species ' I examined and determined when
at Naples :—

ASCIDL4 COMPOSIT A.

I.—MEROSOMATA.

Fam. 1.—DisToMIp™. | Leptoclinum maculatwm, M.-Edw.
Distomum coste, Della Valle coccineum, V.
erystallinum, Ren. Drasche 4
pancerii, Della Valle perforatum, Giard
Cystodytes della-chiajie, Della dentatum, Della
Valle Valle
Distaplia magnilarva, Della Valle Sulgens, M.-Edw.
rosea, Della Valle candidum, Della
Valle
Fam. 2.—POLYCLINID&. conumune, Della
Valle

Circinalium concrescens, Giard
Amaroucium rosewm, Della Valle
erystallinum, Ren.
Aplidium gibbulosum, Sav.
Fragarium areolatum, D.Ch.

gelatinosum, Giard
exaratum, Grube

Fam. 4.—DIpPLosoMID&.

Fam. 3.—DIDEMNID#. Diplosoma crystallinum, Giard
Didemnum bicolor, V. Drasche Pseudodidemnum listerianum,
gelatinosum, Giard M.-Edw.
cereum, Giard Astelliwm spongiforme, Giard

IT.—Ho.osomata,
Fam. 1.—BorryLiip”. Polycyclus renieri, Lamk.

Botryllus tapetum, Della Valle | Botrylloides luteum, V. Drasche
| rubrum, M.-Edw.

morio, Giard : :
aurolineatus, Giard gascot, Della Valle

' To complete the record the few simple Ascidians which were brought to me
with the compound, and which I examined, have been included.
cc

386 REPORT— 1900,

ASCIDIA) SIMPLICES.

Fam. 1.—CLavVELINID&. | Ciona intestinalis, L.
; ‘ J | Phallusia mammillata, Cuv.
Clavelina lepadiformis, O.F.M. |
Diazona violacea, Sav. | Fam. 3.—Cynrup2.

Rhopalea neapolitana, Phil. | Cynthia dura, Heller

Microcosmus vulgaris, Heller
| Styela canopoides, Heller
| Polycarpa glomerata, Alder
| Forbesella tessellata, Forbes

Fam. 2.—ASscIDIIDA.

Ascidia mentula, L.

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples
during March and April 1900.

d. The Anatomy of Phyllirhoé, the Celenterate Plankton, and certain
Celenterata. By R. T. Ginter, M.A., Maydalen College, Oxford.

The Committee of the British Association permitted me to use the
Table hired by the British Association during the summer months of the
present year, for the prosecution of certain researches on pelagic organisms
in which I have been for some time and am at present engaged. Since
it was inconvenient for me to work at Naples during the months of May
and June, I was, by the generous courtesy of the Director of the Zoological
Station, permitted to commence the occupation of the Table during my
Easter vacation at a time when the resources of the station are very
severely taxed by the great concourse of zoologists who annually assemble
there at that season. For this especial act of kindness, in addition to
so many others I have been shown by Dr. Dohrn, I desire to offer my
hearty thanks.

The Table of the British Association was occupied by me for about a
month—between March 24 and April 25, 1900.

My attention was principally devoted to a detailed study of the
anatomy of Phyllirhoé and to a daily examination of the Ccelenterate
portion of the plankton of the bay. The general character of the latter
was very similar to what it was on a former occasion when I had the
good fortune to examine it, but owing to the prevalence of westerly winds
during parts of March and April, an unusual quantity of Velella and
Physalia appeared in the bay. All along the sandy foreshore of Cuma,
which is open to the west, sea and beach were remarkably delimited by

Velelle extending as a blue band about a foot or so broad and many miles
in length. In consequence, too, of the same prevailing winds Physalia,
which is extremely rare at Naples, and which has not been taken for
twelve years, as I am informed by my friend Cay. Lo Bianco, appeared in
great numbers, and was probably drifted in from the Atlantic as a con-
sequence of the exceptional meteorological conditions.

I availed myself of the opportunity of verifying the statement that the
characteristic blue colouring-matter of Velella (zoocyanin) may be very
conveniently extracted from the tissues by maceration in a saturated
solution of potassium acetate. A solution prepared on March 26, which
has been kept in the dark, still retains its blue colour, and will be sub-
mitted to spectroscopic examination on my return to England. As the
result of the action of the potassium acetate, the ‘yellow cells’ or sym-
biotic alge, which are yellow in the tissues of the Velella, turn green. In
several of the species examined the arrangement of these yellow cells was
in groups of 2, 4, 8, or other multiples of 2.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 387

Among other observations upon Celenterata, I have observed the
-existence of a continuous longitudinal strip of cells with granular proto-
plasm situated in the ectoderm and extending along one side ot the
tentacles of certain Hydrozoa. I have demonstrated the existence of this
band of cells in the tentacles of the medusz of Carmarina and in those
of the hydropolyps of Obelia, Hudendriwm, and Aglaophenia, and I have
no doubt that it can be demonstrated in other genera also. This band
-of specialised cells can be made obvious by keeping the living animals for
some time in sea-water tinted by methylene blue in the proportion recom-
mended by Zoja.!_ It was found that certain cells along one side of the
tentacles became stained, thus demonstrating the existence of the above-
mentioned band of differentiated histological elements.

I was enabled to make very considerable progress with my work on
the anatomy of Phyllirhoé, and to make several observations on the living
animal, which I hope to publish before the close of the present year.

Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Staxione Zoologica, Naples,
during March and April 1500.

e. The Fertilisation Process in Echinoidea,
By A. Ti. Reetnarp BuxiEr, PA. D.

I occupied the table of the British Association from March 15 until
April 21.

The research work undertaken was an endeavour to determine whether
‘the eggs of the Echinoidea excrete a fluid which attracts the spermatozoa
chemotactically. Bergh? states that attraction by a special substance is
probable. According to Strasburger * the eggs of the /ucacee (which are
also fertilised after being set free in sea-water) excrete a substance which
attracts the spermatozoa from a distance equal to about two diameters of
an egg,

The material consisted of the following animals :—Arbacia pustulosa
Gray, Echinus microtuberculatus Blv., and Spherechinus granularis Ag.

No attraction could be observed during artificial fertilisation experi-
ments. Coliections of spermatozoa, however, take place in the outer
gelatinous coat of the eggs. Observations were made tending to show
that this is a physical and not a chemotactic phenomenon.

Experiments were then made in which it was sought to collect in sea-
water the supposed fluid excreted from the eggs. The eggs were left very
thickly placed together for 2-12 hours in a very shallow layer of sea-water,
and the latter, after filtration, introduced by means of an air-pump into
capillary glass tubes. These were then placed in a drop containing motile
spermatozoa. No gathering of the spermatozoa into the tubes could be
observed. One precaution taken was to prove that just before filtration
the eggs could be fertilised.

In the case of Arbacia it was discovered that when spermatozoa are
introduced into a drop containing freshly extruded eggs they collect into
small balls, often composed of 100 or more individuals. The balls were
also formed after the water had received four successive filtrations. A
tactile stimulus appears to play a part in the phenomenon.

' In his experiments on Hydra, Rend. Inst. Lomb. xxv.
2 Vorlesungen iiber allgemeine Embryalogie, 1895, p. 43.
* Das botanische Practicum, 2te Aufl. 1887, p. 402.
ecz2

388 REPORT—1900.

When a suflicient number of spermatozoa have penetrated the gela-
tinous coat of an egg and have become attached by their heads to the
layer which is subsequently raised and forms the vitelline membrane,
rotation of the egg takes place. During the rotation, which may be in
any direction, the gelatinous coat does not also rotate.

By means of the capillary tube method an attempt was made to find
some substance which attracts the spermatozoa. Various substances,
known to give a chemical stimulus to other organisms, were tested : meat
extract, peptone, cane-sugar, glycerine, asparagine, alcohol, oxalic acid,
nitric acid, potassium nitrate, sodium chloride, potassium malate diastase,
and distilled water. No definite chemotactic attraction could be observed
in any case.

The chief results arrived at were :—

1. The spermatozoa of the Hchinoidea are not attracted to the eggs by
means of any special substance excreted by the latter. The vast number
of spermatozoa and the large size of the eggs are sufticient to ensure the
necessary contact taking place. ‘

2. It is not improbable that the spermatozoa are unable to respond to
chemical stimuli by change in the direction of movement.

It gives me much pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness to the
staff of the Stazione Zoologica for supplying me with material and
apparatus during the research.

feport on the Occupation of a Table at Naples.

?. The Methods of Preservation of Specimens used at the Zoological Station.
By Professor R. Ramsay WRricHt.

In answer to my request that I might be permitted to avail myself of
the arrangement existing between the British Association Committee and
the Naples Zoological Station, the Secretary of the Committee was good
enough to recommend me to the kind offices of the Director, Dr. A.
Dohrn.

Although the British Association Table was already occupied, I found
Dr. Dohrn anxious to make special arrangements for my accommodation,
and I accordingly took advantage of these from December 20 till the end
of February.

My object being to familiarise myself with the methods in use at the
station, as well as with the Naples fauna in a living condition, I was
installed in a room adjacent to that of Dr. Lo Bianco. Thanks to his
intimate and extensive faunistic knowledge and to his untiring willingness
to impart the results of his long experience in the conservation of marine
animals, I felt at the close of my ten weeks’ stay more than satisfied with
the results I attained. As Dr. Lo Bianco was engaged at the time in
giving instruction in methods to a medical officer of the German Navy, I
was enabled to share these demonstrations and to acquire some expertness
in dealing with those forms which, like the Siphonophora, had long proved
refractory to attempts at preservation until Dr. Lo Bianco succeeded in
elaborating the methods at present in use.

I hope to be able in the near future to utilise the technical experience
gained at the New Canadian Marine Laboratory which has recently been
brought to the notice of the British Association.

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.

389

While expressing my thanks to your Committee, as well as to
Dr. Dohrn and the various members of the staff of the Zoological Station,
for the many courtesies shown me, I desire to record my opinion of the
high efficiency of the station and of the convenience to British naturalists
incident to the partial support thereof by the British Association.

APPENDIX III.

A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Zoological Station from
July 1, 1899, to June 30, 1900.

j
i
Num-

State or University
ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List was made use of
1109 | Dr. F. Capobianco Italy
1110 | Prof. F. 8. Monticelli = a
1111 | Dr. Paul Juge . Switzerland
1112 | Prof. G. Corrado Italy
1113 | Dr. Sabussow . Russia
1114 | Prof. F. Sanfelice Zoolog. Station
1115 | Dr. E. Germano
1116 | Prof. A. Russo . Italy
1117 | Dr. F. Mazza . 3
1118 | Dr. E. Crisafulli oe j :
| 1119 | Dr. G. Bottaro . Zoolog. Station
1120 | D. A. De Simoni - s
1121 | Dr. J. Sobotta . Prussia
1122 | Dr. F. Bottazzi. Italy
1123 | Dr. P. Enriquez
1124 | Dr. K. Reuter . Prussia :
1125 | Mr. F. B. Sumner University Table
1126 | Dr. H. Driesch . Hambure
1127 | Dr. C. Herbst Prussia
1128 | Mr. KE. Gurney . Oxford
1129 | Miss A. Vickers British Assoc iation .
1130 | Dr. F. Nissl Baden
1131 | Prof. A. Biedl . Austria
1132 | Mr.H. Kyle. British Association .
1133 | Miss S. Nichols American Women’s
Table
1134 | Dr. H. Waldow . Zoolog. Station
1135 | Prof. Taschenberg Prussia .
1136 | Dr. v. Lingelsheim ” : . .
1187 | Miss E. Gregory American Women’s
Table
1138 | Prof. F. Cavara Italy
1139 | Dr. Rina Monti ”
1140 | Dr. M. Pierantoni ” :
1141 | Mr. W. Cooper Cambridge :
1142 | Mr. E. Goodrich British Association
and Oxford
1143 | Prof. Ramsay Wright | British Association.
1144 | Dr.G. Jatta Zoolog. Station
1145| Dr. G. Vastarini Italy
Cresi
1146 | Dr. V. Diamare ”
| 1147 | Dr. G. Tagliani 3
1148 | Prof. T. D’Evant

Dee ation of Occupancy

Apel

Denies e

July 1, 1899

” 2, ”
” 14, ”
” 22, ”
” 23, ”
9 24, »
Aug. 4, ,,
” 10, ”
” 11, ”
” 15, ”
” 15, ”
” 24, ”
Sept. iF ”
” 6, ”
” 8, ”
” 20, ”
» 25, 55
Ochriienes
” 7; ”
” 9, ”
» 13, 45
” 23, ”
» 24, 5,
” 25, ”
” 27, ’
NOVA 2
” WG ”
” 22, ”
” 29, ”
Deca lt 5
” 4, ”
” 14, ”
” 17, ”
” 18, ”
» 19,
Jan. 1, 1900
” 1, ”
” 1, ”
” 1, ”
1

Nov. 15, 1899
Aug. 21, ,,

” 21, ”
Nov. 4; ° 4;
”» 1 ’ ”
Sept.14,

Nov. 4, ,, |
Oct. 22, , |
» 29, »
” 29, ”
” 28,
Nov. 3,
May 24,

” ’ ”

Jan. 14, ,,
” 6, ‘)
Dec. 19, 1899
” 17, ”
June 8, 1900

Mars. <5
Dec. 1, 1899
Mar. 1,1900
June 8, ,,

Syu0)

REPORT—1900.

A List oF NATURALISTS—continued.

ee: "

| Num- State or University
| ber on Naturalist’s Name whose Table
List | was made use of
1149 | Dr. A. Romano Italy
1150 | Dr. G. Rossi
1151 | Dr. H. Redeke . Holland . 4
1152 | Dr. V. Heiser Smithsonian Table ;
1163 | Dr. H. Przibram Austria
| 1154 | Dr. O. v. Fiirth. Strassburg
1155 | Miss H. Snowden American Women’s
Table
1156 | Dr. B. M. Duggar Smithsonian Table .
1157 | Dr. G. Senn Switzerland
1158 | Cand. T. Bergmann . Prussia
| 1159 | Dr. H. Winkler Wiirtemberg
1160 | Dr. O. zur Strassen . | Saxony
1161 | Dr. A. Buller British Assoviation .
1162 | Dr. R. Hoffmann Prussia 5
1163 | Dr. R. Woltereck Saxony . 5
1164 | Mr. C. F. Hottes . | University Table
1165 | Prof. Zimmermann . | Switzerland
1166 | Prof. Herdman British Association .
1167 | Dr. J. Sobotta . Bavaria
1168 | Mr. R. Giinther British Assoc iation .
1169 | Dr. W. Magnus Hesse
1170 | Signa. C. Losito Italy
1171 | Dr. M. Bedot Switzerland
1172 | Prof. Ballowitz. . | Prussia
1173 | Dr. T. H. Ashworth . | Cambridge a
1174 | Sir Ch. Eliot! . British Association .
1175 | Prof. D. Carazzi Italy
1176 | Dr. P. Cerfontaine | Belgium .
1177 | Herr H. Fischer | Wiirtemberg
1178 | Dr. 8. Mollier . Bavaria . :
1179 | Prof. T. H. Morgan . | Smithsonian Table .
1180 | F. B.Sumner . University Table
1181 | Stud. C. de Dawydoff Russia
1182

Dr. J. Boeke

| Holland .

|
|
|

Duration of Occupancy

Arrival Departure
Jan. 1, 1900 —
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» 21, 5 » 19, 55
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” 24, ” ” 3, ”
” 24, »” ” 27, ”
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Apr 4, ” Pe le icy
” 4, ” June 16, ”
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APPENDIX IV.

A List of Papers published in 1899 by Naturalists who have

A. Fischel

G. Jatta

H. Driesch

occupied Tables in the Zoological Station.

Ueber vitale Fiirbung von Echinodermeneiern wahre nd

ihrer Entwickelung. Anat. Hefte, Abth. 1, Bd. 11, 1899.

Sopra alcuni Cefalopodi della Vettor Pisani.

Nat. Napoli,’ vol. 12, 1899.

1 Cf. last year’s Report.

Die Localisation morphogenetischer Vorginge.
Entw.-Mech. Bd. 8, 1899.

‘Boll. Soc.

Arch. fiir

tle

H. Driesch
J. Ognetf

R. Hesse
8. Garten

H. L. Jameson
S. Metalnikoff
B. Solger

L. Schultze
Th. Pintner

G. Mazzarelli.

J. von Uexkiill

Th. Beer .
A. Bethe

F. Schiitt P
E. Albrecht
G. Bitter

”

YV. Diamare

”

F. Bancroft
G. Schneider .
M. Nordhausen

H. M. Vernon

THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 391

. Quantitative Regulationen bei der Reparation der Tubu-
laria. Ibid. Bd. 9, 1899.

Notizen tiber die Auflésung und Wiederbildung des
Skelets von Echinodermenlarven. did.

. Prof. Gilson’s Cellules musculo-glandulaires. Biol. Cen-

tralblatt, Bd. 19, 1899.

Untersuchungen iiber die Organe der Lichtempfindung
bei niederen Thieren. V. Die Augen der polychaeten
Anneliden. Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie. Bd. 65, 1899.

Beitriige zur Physiologie des electrischen Organs der
Zitterrochen. Centralbl. f. Physiologie, Bd. 13, 1899,
and Abh. Sichs. Ges. Wiss., Bd. 25, 1899.

Thalassema papillosum, a forgotten Echiuroid Gephyrean.
‘ Mitth. Zool. Station, Neapel,’ Bd. 13, 1899.

Das Blut und die Excretionsorgane von Sipunculus nudus.
Lbid.

Mauthner’sche Fasern bei Chimaera. Morphol. Jahrbuch,
Bd. 27, 1899.

Zur Kenntnis des Gehérorgans von Pterotrachea. Schr.
Naturf. Gesellsch., Danzig, Bd. 10, 1899.

Die Regeneration des Ganglions von Ciona intestinalis.
Jen. Zeitschr., Bd. 33, 1899.

. Nectonema agile Verrill. Akad. Anzeiger, No. 10, Akad.

Wiss. Wien, 1899.

Intorno al tubo digerente ed al ‘centro stomato-gastrico ’
delle Aplisie. Zool. Anz., Bd. 22, 1899.

Die Physiologie der Pedicellarien. Zeitschr. fiir Biologie,
Bd, 37, 1899.

Die Physiologie des Seeigelstachels. bid. Bd. 39, 1899.

Vergleichende physiologische Studien zur Statocysten-
function. II. Versuche an Crustaceen. Archiv f. d.
ges. Physiologie, Bd. 74, 1899.

Die Locomotion des Haifisches (Scyllium) und ihre Bezie-
hungen zu den einzelnen Gehirntheilen und zum Laby-
rinth. Jbid. Bd. 76, 1899.

Centrifugales Dickenwachsthum der Membran und extra-
membrandses Plasma. Jahrb. Wiss. Botanik. Bd. 33, 1899.

. Untersuchungen zur Structur des Seeigeleies. Sitz. Ber.
Ges. Morph. Phys. Miinchen, Bd. 14, 1899.

Zur Anatomie und Physiologie von Padina pavonia.
Berichte D. Botan. Ges., Bd. 17, 1899.

Zur Morphologie und Physiologie von Microdictyon umbili-
catum. Jahrb. Wiss. Botanik, Bd. 34, 1899.

Studii comparativi sulle isole di Langerhans del Pancreas.
Internat. Monatschrift f. Anat. und Physiol., Bd. 16,
1899.

Sul valore anatomico e morfologico delle isole di Langer-
hans. Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. 16, 1899.

A new function of the vascular ampullz in the Botryllide.
Zool. Anzeiger, Bd. 22, 1899.

. Ueber Phagocytose und Excretion bei Anneliden. Zeit-

schr. Wiss. Zool., Bd. 66, 1899.
. Zur Anatomie und Physiologie einiger rankentragender
Meeresalgen. Jahrb. Wiss. Botanik, Bd. 34, 1899.

The death temperature of certain marine organisms. Jour-
nal of Physiology, vol. 25, 1899.

The effect of staleness of the sexual cells on the develop-
ment of Echinoids. Prec. Royal Soc., vol. 65, 1899.

342 REPORT—1900.

A. Beck. , ’ . Ueber die bei Belichtung der Netzhaut von Eledone mos-
chata entstehenden Actionsstréme. Archiv f. d. ges.
Physiologie, Bd. 78, 1899.

C, Herbst : 4 . Ueber die Regeneration von antennendhnlichen Organen
an Stelle von Augen. JIJ. and IV. Archiv f. Entw.
Mech., Bd. 19, 1899.

W.Stempell . ; . Zur Anatomie von Solemya togata Poli. . Zool. Jahrb.
Spengel, Abth. Anat. u. Ontog., Bd. 13.

W. Lindemann 4 . Ueber einige Eigenschaften der Holothurienhaut. Zeit-
schr. f. Biologie, Bd. 39, 1899.

F. ROhmann . ‘ . Ejinige Beobachtungen tiber die Verdauung der Kohlen-
hydrate bei Aplysien. Centralblatt f. Physiol., 1899.

EB. Kiister : : . Gewebespannungen und passive Wachsthum bei Meeres-
algen. Sitz. Ber. Akad Wiss. Berlin, 1899.

F. Bottazzi . - . Ricerche fisiologiche sul sistema nervoso viscerale delle

Aplisie e di alcuni Cefalopodi. Rivista Scienze Bio-
logiche. Vol. 1, 1899.

APPENDIX V.

A List of the Publications of the Zoological Station during the year
ending June 30, 1900.

1. Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel.’ Asterocheriden, by W. Giesbrecht.
216 pp., 11 plates.

2. ‘ Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel.’ Vol. xiv. parts 1 and 2,
with 10 plates.

3. ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ for 1898.

4. ‘Guide to the Aquarium.’ A new German edition has been published.

Index Animalium.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. HENRY
Woopwarp (Chairman), Mr. W. E. Hoy.e, Mr. R. McLacauan,
Dr. P. L. Scuater, Rev. T. R. R. STeppina, and Mr. F. A. BATHER
(Secretary).

THE Committee has the honour to report that this work has made very
satisfactory progress in the hands of Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, and that
the literature down to the year 1800 has now been sought out and indexed.
The manuscript of this portion will be ready for the printer in a few
weeks, and the Committee is considering the best form of publication and
estimating the cost. Meanwhile the indexing of literature after 1800 is
being continued. At this stage the Committee would be glad to receive
suggestions or offers of help for the publication of this great work, since
the sums hitherto so generously awarded to it are only sufficient for the
necessary current expenses, which continue as before. The Committee
therefore earnestly requests its reappointment, with a grant of 100/.

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY|OF MALAY PENINSULA. 393

Natural History and Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula. Report of
the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. H. REap (Chairman), Mr. W.
CROOKE (Secretary), Professor A. MAcaLIsTerR, and Professor W.
RIDGEWAY.

THE Geaimitice have received the following report from Mr. W. W.
Skeat, the leader of the expedition :—

Report on Cambridge Exploring Expedition to the Malay Provinces of
Lower Siam. Drawn up by W. W. Skat.

This expedition was organised to carry out a scientific survey, in which
Ethnology, Zoology, Botany, and Geology should all have a share, of the
little-known Malay provinces of Lower Siam, and especially to extend
the scope of the ethnographical collections and observations referred to in
the Fourteenth Annual Report of the Antiquarian Committee to the Senate
(June 6, 1899).

The party comprised Messrs. R. Evans, of Jesus College, Oxford ; F. F.
Laidlaw, of Trinity College, Cambridge; D. T. Gwynne-Vaughan, of
Christ’s College, Cambridge ; R. H. Yapp, of St. John’s College, Cambridge ;
N. Annandale, of Balliol College, Oxford, and myself.

The inhabitants of these provinces are, for the most part, Malay, but
Siamese influence becomes gradually predominant to the northward, and
the process of fusion between these two antagonistic elements presents
‘some curious racial problems. But the most interesting subject for
investigation in these provinces is perhaps presented by the very primitive
jungle tribes of the interior, about whom much valuable information was
obtained.

Yet another interesting tribe, of whom no account seems to have yet
been published, is the sacred tribe of the Prams, who claim to have come
over from India, and to have established themselves in the country
anterior to the coming of the Siamese or Malays. What truth there may
be in their statements will (it may be hoped) now be ascertainable, as a
copy of their sacred book, containing an account of their origin, was
obtained by the expedition.

But the special interest of the territories traversed centres, perhaps, in
‘the fact that they have hitherto formed a species of ethnical backwater,
but little, if at all, affected by the ideas of a higher civilisation. These
ideas, however, are already taking root, and many of the manners and
customs witnessed by the expedition are becoming obsolescent or are
already obsolete.

Tt is hoped that when the results are known the present expedition
will be found to have achieved results to some extent comparable with
those obtained by the important expedition sent by the Dutch Government
to Mid-Sumatra in 1877-9. The results obtained should also be of value,
for purposes of comparison, with the results of the very successful
Cambridge Anthropological Expedition of Dr. Haddon to the Torres
Straits, Sarawak, and New Guinea.

Owing to the uncertainty as to the probable reception which the
expedition would experience at the hands of the inhabitants, the good
offices of the Siamese Government were bespoken by the Foreign Office ;

394, REPORT—1900.

and I have much pleasure in recording the extreme hospitality and
enlightened help which the expedition consequently received from the local
authorities, in some cases, perhaps, under rather difficult circumstances.
The warmest thanks of those interested in the expedition are due to-
H. EK. Phya Sukhum, the High Commissioner for the Ligor Circle of the:
Siamese-Malay States ; to Luang Phrom and Kun Rat, the special com-
missioners attached to the expedition as escort ; to the Commissioners and
Rajas of Patalung, Singora, Patani, Raman, Jala, Jering, Nawng Chik,
Ligeh, Teluban, and Kelantan, the Sultan of Kelantan, the Sultan of
Trengganu, and the Sultan and Raja Muda of Kedah.

We reached Singora on March 27, 1899, and were most hospitably
entertained in his own house by the High Commissioner, H. E. Phya
Sukhum. Next day we proceeded up the Inland Sea. This is a very
shallow lake, or, perhaps, rather chain of lakes, part of which is salt and
part fresh water. It measures, roughly speaking, some sixty miles in
length, and in the broadest part is not less than twenty miles wide. Some:
dredging was done here by Messrs. Evans and Annandale, and the Bird’s
Nest Islands were visited, observations made, and photographs taken of
the curious cave-dwellings of the island guards.

At Lampam (Lumpumm) a short stay was made by Messrs. Evans
and 7aughan, Mr. Annandale and myself proceeding into the interior to
try to meet with a small Sakei (jungle) tribe of Pangans who were
reported to have been seen in the vicinity, and to photograph some of the
Siamese tree-graves, which method of burial, in accordance with instruc-
tions from Bankok, is fast becoming obsolete. A forced march by
night on elephants brought us to the spot too late to overtake the
wild men, who had moved away, no one could say whither, the night
before our arrival. Mr. Annandale was able, however, to photograph
their late dwelling-place, which consisted of a cave under a projecting
rock, near the summit of a lofty hill. He also took photographs of the
tree-graves. These are usually cigar-shaped wrappers, or rather ‘ shells’
made of laths, and suspended horizontally at a height of 6 to 8 feet
from the ground between two tree-trunks, branches, or posts. The corpse
is exposed in one of these shells (the heels being generally left higher than
the head), and allowed to decay till the bones are clean, after which the
bones should be collected and burnt. Box-like receptacles on posts
(as among the Madangs of Borneo) are occasionally substituted for the
wrappers. On this journey some strange articles of diet were served up
to us, among them being red ants, toads, bee-grubs, and a species of
cicada. The manner in which the latter are caught is peculiar. ‘Two or
three natives gather at night round a brightly burning wood fire, one of
them holding a lighted torch. The others clap their hands at regular
intervals, and the cicadz, attracted by the noise and guided by the light,
fly down and settle upon the people as they stand by the fire. In the
‘wat’ (Siamese temple) at Ban Nah Mr. Annandale noticed that one of the
small figures of Buddha which had been deposited in the temple as an
offering, contained a fossil shell, and this clue, carefully followed up, led
to the discovery of the quarry from which the fossil had been taken. The
formation is of the Cretaceous age, and a number of specimens showing
fossiliferous traces were secured here , well-authenticated finds of fossils
in the Malay Peninsula have been of the rarest possible occurrence.

On this same journey a couple of young leopard- or panther-cubs were
picked out of their nest in a hollow tree by the roadside, and it being

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY PENINSULA. 395

found difficult to feed them they were, on reaching Lampam, suckled by
a Siamese woman, who claimed to have previously suckled a bear. On
reaching Lampam we found that Messrs. Evans and Vaughan had pro-
ceeded to the ‘Talé Noi,’ or ‘ Little Lake, at the end of the Inland Sea,
and followed them accordingly. We did not overtake them, but our visit
to the ‘ Little Lake’ was of great interest. In one of the local ‘wats’ or
temples a human embryo was found among the offerings. We also came
upon a small isolated tribe called ‘Pram’ (? Brahm) people, who claimed to
be a sacred tribe of Indian origin, and appear to have been hitherto
undescribed. They retained several peculiar customs, notably that of
burying their dead in a sitting posture, with the top-knot tied to the top
of the coffin. A copy of a sacred book, describing the origin of the tribe
and the story of their migration, was obtained with difficulty. It is said
to be written in an Indian language, which they themselves no longer
understand. Their dress consisted of a white robe, a white shoulder-
cloth, and a peculiar white two-peaked turban or cap. Their chiefs
claimed that they were the oldest inhabitants of the country, and that
they were not constrained to make obeisance even to the sovereign.

After a few days’ further stay in Singora, where we rejoined Messrs.
Evans and Vaughan, we proceeded to Patani in the commissioner’s yacht,
arriving after a good passage just in time to witness part of the gorgeous
pageantry of a Malay ‘royal’ wedding, between the Raja of Patani’s
sister and the ‘ Raja Muda’ of Kelantan.

At Patani we were lodged in a big brick building ordinarily used as a
school. An unfortunate accident here greatly handicapped the photo-
graphic work. A big iron-bound shutter fell from its fastenings with a
crash inside the building, and striking our best camera, so injured it
that it had to be sent to Europe for repairs, a matter of months, and an
irreparable loss so far as photographic work was concerned. It had just
been used for taking a photograph of the Raja of Patani, who had most
fortunately just returned to his house. Mr. Evans also had a narrow
escape.

On the 28th we left for Bukit Besar, or Negiri (Indragiri), an isolated
mountain about 3,000 feet high, on which several days were spent. This
was known to the natives as a haunted mountain possessing a pond near
the summit, on which are said to grow certain magical shrubs, one of
which is believed to be the means of conferring perennial youth on its
finder, and another to be one of the most powerful love-charms in the
world. These treasures are guarded by a host of demons, and the natives
expressed great fear of them until the ascent to our camp (at a height of
about 2,000 feet) had been successfully accomplished, after which their
fears rapidly subsided. Mr. Evans got his first specimen of Peripatus
here, and Mr. Vaughan also did well with the mountain flora.

On our return to Patani Messrs. Vaughan, Annandale, and Evans
proceeded up the Patani to Biserat in Jalor (Jala), which proved an
excellent collecting-ground. I stayed: at Patani for some days longer,
and visited the very extensive saltpans near the river mouth, the Patani
potteries, and the grave and shrine of the celebrated local saint of Cape
Patani, about all of which much information was gained. Of the latter
many miracles are told, and his grave-posts (at the head and foot) are
still believed to make prophetic movements, one instance of which I was
enabled to test on the spot. Two very curious rods, such as are used in
divination, were here obtained.

396 REPORT—1900.

On the 26th I rejoined the rest of the party at Biserat, and then
visited the magnificent limestone caves, a very complete collection of
whose fauna was made by Mr. Annandale. These caves included the fine
Gia Gambar, or Statue Cave, which contains a recumbent figure of Buddha,
nearly 100 feet long, as well as a number of other statues in a sitting
posture. Extensive zoological and botanical collections were also made at
Biserat by Messrs. Evans and Vaughan. An exhibition of devil dancing
was here witnessed.

Smallpox having now set in badly and two deaths occurring in the
village, collecting became more difficult, and presently the Raja and his
household retired to the hills, and many houses were closed by means of a
rattan, carried round outside the fence of the compound, whilst slipknots
of jungle-grass (lalang) were hung across the gate, and a couple of stems
of a bitter-tasting tree, called the Bedara Pahit, buried crosswise on the
threshold.

One of the annual ceremonies for the purification of a village was
here witnessed, and many ethnological specimens and much information
obtained. On June 6 Mr. Evans fell ill, and as he took long to recover,
Messrs. Annandale and Vaughan proceeded to Kota Bharu, in Raman,
whilst Mr. Evans and I went down to the coast.

After spending a few days at Patani, we went to Jambu in Jering.
Here, too, I witnessed the annual ceremony for the purification of the
village, at which the launching of a spirit-boat, about a yard and a half
long, formed the chief feature. Before leaving Jambu I paid a flying
visit to Teluban. On returning to Patani we were rejoined by Messrs.
Vaughan and Annandale, and proceeded by the overland route through
Raman Ligeh and Ulu Kelantan, and up the Lebih, a tributary of which
stream, the Aring, takes its rise in the neighbourhood of the Tahan
Mountain, which it was one of the objects of the expedition, if practi-
cable, to ascend. The expedition therefore started from Biserat on July 6,
and proceeded to Kota Bharu, the chief town of Raman.

Halts of some days’ duration for transport purposes were made at Kota
Bharu, Tremangan, Belimbing, and Aur Gading (a village below the
rapids on the Lebih river), but on August 10 the expedition reached the
village of Kuala Aring, having covered in thirty-five days (only about half
of which were spent in travelling) a distance of about 200 miles. The
first eighty or ninety miles were performed on elephant back, the remainder
by means of boats or bamboo rafts. Mr. Vaughan, who had only joined
the expedition for the first six months, left us at Belimbing.

At Kuala Aring I found the local authorities so opposed to giving
information about the route to the mountain that it appeared to me safer
to try to find the way for myself than to put the expedition at the
mercy of local guides. I therefore left Messrs. Evans and Annandale at
the village, and set out to scout with two of the Malays belonging to the
expeditionary staff I decided to attempt the mountain from the Pahang
side, and ascending the Lebih to its headwater crossed the watershed by
way of Bukit Batu Atap, and descending the tributaries of the Tembeling
eventually reached a village called Kampong Pagi, where I spent four or
five days in fruitless attempts to obtain guides from the wild tribes in the
neighbourhood. They were afraid to go, but I obtained the services of
six of the local Malays as carriers (two of whom absconded at the end of
the first day’s march), and proceeded up the banks of the Tahan river
until the foot of the mountain was reached. My original plan was to

ON NATURAL HISTORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY OF MALAY ‘PENINSULA. 397

ascend some of the high crags in the vicinity of the mountain, and thus
ascertain its locality, but at the end of the first week’s march, finding that
we were on what appeared to be a spur of the main range, I decided to
go forward and ascend it as far as circumstances would permit. We
therefore climbed the range peak by peak, but were at length stopped by
a formidable subsidence or break, which forced us to return on our tracks
for a day’s march before we could circumvent it. Eventually, after a
march of about eleven days since our entry into the river, we reached the
highest point that we could compass, about 200 feet to 300 feet below the
peak, when we were stopped by an overhanging wall of rock which, after
several attempts, we found ourselves unable to scale or circumvent. We
got sight, however, here of a hitherto unrecorded companion peak to the
Tahan Peak, which was identified as Gunong Larong, or ‘Coffin Moun-
tain. At this time we had barely enough rice even on short rations to
last three days, and the descent, till we reached the nearest human habita-
tion, took five. Our difficulties were further increased by fog, rain, and
fever.

' The rains were exceptionally heavy, the Tahan river being three times
in flood during our ascent of the mountain, and as they had set in earlier
than usual, it appeared, under the circumstances, unadvisable and unsafe
to commit the rest of the expedition to the ascent of the mountain.

Mr. Annandale therefore, who had been waiting at Kuala Aring with
a view to participating in the ascent of the mountain, if practicable,
returned to Europe, and Mr. Evans remained in camp with Mr. Yapp, who
had arrived during my absence. Mr. Laidlaw accompanied me up the Aring
river, and there took photographs and full measurements of several persons
belonging to the wild tribes, while a good deal of information about their
manners and customs, as well as a vocabulary of nearly 600 words, was
collected by myself.

On our return, we all descended the Lebih on rafts, as far as its
juncture with the Kelantan river, and thence descended the latter as far
as Kota Bharu, the capital of the important East Coast State of Kelantan,
and the seat of its Raja.

On the way down the river we measured and photographed several
more Sakeis. At Kota Bharu Messrs. Laidlaw and I stayed for about a
month, Messrs. Yapp and Evans proceeding to Trengganu, in order to pay
a short visit to the coral islands off that coast.

Much important ethnological work was done at Kota Bharu. Investi-
gations were conducted into Malay methods of industry, and a devil-
dancing performance was witnessed by Mr. Laidlaw and myself, at which
the name of the winning bull at a coming bull-fight was correctly pro-
phesied. Full anthropological measurements were taken by Mr. Laidlaw
of ten or twelve Kelantan Malays, notes made of the colour of their skin,
eyes, hair, &c., and experiments made as to their colour vision.

On leaving Kota Bharu we proceeded to Trengganu, where we met
Messrs. Evans and Yapp, who reported having had a narrow escape from
drowning off the Redangs through the swamping of their boat. Mr.
Evans was unable to swim, but I am thankful to say that both he and
Mr. Yapp succeeded in holding on to the boat until they were picked up
by some Malays, who went to their assistance. They were about half a
mile from shore at the time.

At Trengganu my investigation of Malay industries was continued,
and much useful information obtained. The most interesting was perhaps

398 REPORT—1900.

the method of manufacturing damasked krisses—the details of which were
carefully studied. Measurements were also taken of at least ten of the
Trengganu Malays, and full observations recorded.

On leaving Trengganu, we proceeded to Singapore, where a few days
were spent, and a visit paid to one of the villages of the ‘ Orang Laut’ (the
old piratical stock of sea-gipsies, who were once the terror of the Straits,
and who were found by Sir Stamford Raffles living in their boats round
about the island of Singapore, when it was proclaimed a British Colony).

By the first available steamer we proceeded to Penang, whence Mr.
Evans proceeded to Pulau Bidan, an island off the Kedah coast, to collect
marine zoological specimens, and Messrs. Yapp and Laidlaw made the
ascent of Gunong Inas (a hill, upwards of 5,800 feet high), in Perak, a
difficult trip, the successful accomplishment of which reflects credit on
Mr. Yapp, who, as the senior member of the staff after Mr. Evans’s
departure, took charge of the remainder of the party in my absence.
They both brought back with them extensive collections (zoological and
botanical). Mr. Evans returned to Penang on Christmas Eve, having
used up the remainder of his outfit, and returned to Europe a few days
later, having completed his year’s work.

As soon as I was able to go up country, I proceeded to Kedah,
and there, after a short excursion up the coast to Satal and Perlis,
made two expeditions into the Sakei country, near the headwaters of
the Muda. Here I had the good fortune to find a tribe of from
twenty to thirty individuals living in a long barrack-like shelter of palm-
leaves. From them, and from a neighbouring tribe, I obtained much
valuable information as to their manners, customs, and language, as well
as full measurements of a few individuals, and some probably unique
phonographic records of their songs, which are of an extremely simple
«nd primitive character. IJ also, with difficulty, procured the skeleton of
an adult male. In all the States visited by me, investigations were made
into the leading Malay industries, and much valuable material bearing on
this subject was collected. Wherever possible, statistics were obtained
showing the extent and nature of the development of trade and the stage
of civilisation which had been reached by the people. Many of the leading
Malay industries, such as that of weaving, are being rapidly modified
by the introduction of European methods and appliances, and it is now
the rarest and most difficult thing to obtain cloth actually made of home-
spun thread, the use of Singapore silk and aniline dyes being already
almost everywhere the fashion.

In addition to the above, the departments of ethnology studied
included religious and medical ceremonies, children’s games, legends,
languages and dialects, under each of which headings a mass of material
was collected.

The Zoology of the Sandwich Islands ——Tenth Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor NEwron (Chairman), Dr. W. T. BLAN-
FORD, Professor S. J. Hickson, Mr. F. Du Cane Gopman, Mr.
P. L. Scuater, Mr. E. A. Smita, and Mr. D. Suarp (Secretary).

THis Committee was appointed in 1890, and has been annually re-
appointed.

ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS. 399

In accordance with the intention announced in the last report, Mr,
R. C. L. Perkins has again been sent to the islands by the Committee.
His departure from this country was delayed for some months by the out-
break of plague at Honolulu ; but this difficulty having disappeared, he
is now at work in the island of Kauai.

Four parts of the second volume of the ‘ Fauna Hawaiiensis’ have been
published since the last report. They comprise 441 pages and 14 plates,
‘the subjects and authors being as follows : ‘Orthoptera and Neuroptera,’
by R. C. L. Perkins ; ‘Coleoptera,’ pt. 1, by D. Sharp and R. C. L.
Perkins ; ‘ Mollusca,’ by E. R. Sykes ; ‘ Earthworms,’ by F. E. Beddard ;
‘ Entozoa,’ by A. E. Shipley.

Mr. Perkins finds that great changes have taken place in the islands
during his absence, and that the forests are being extensively destroyed
and replaced by sugar-cane, this industry being at present extremely
remunerative there.

The Committee ask for reappointment.

Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory, Plymouth. —
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. C. BourNE (Chair-
man), Professor E. Ray LANKESTER (Secretary), Professor SYDNEY
H. Vines, Mr. A. Sep@wick, Professor W. F. R. WELDON, and
Mr. W. GarstTana.

Messrs, Woopwarp, Scott, and Brebner were prevented from visiting
Plymouth during the past year. Several other naturalists, however,
applied for the use of the British Association’s table, and it was accord-
ingly allotted to Mr. A. D. Darbishire, of Balliol College, Oxford, for
investigations on the development and natural history of Pinnotheres ;
and to Mr, W. M. Aders for the collection and preparation of material
for studying the spermatogenesis of ccelenterates. Mr. Darbishire oceu-
pied the table for six weeks, and Mr. Aders for three weeks, during the
past summer. Mr. Darbishire’s report to the Committee is given below.

An application for the use of the table during the month of September
has been received from Mr. R. C. Punnett, B.A., in order that he may
continue some investigations on which he is at present engaged on the
pelvic plexus of elasmobranch fishes.

Mr. Darbishire’s Report.

My original intention was to study the life-history and habits of the
crab Pinnotheres, which is a well-known inhabitant of mantle-cavities of
certain lamellibranchiate molluscs; but during my visit to Plymouth
no breeding females could be found, and my observations were limited to
the determination of some new points in the habits and structure of the
male of Pinnotheres pisum. A specimen of this was dredged in company
with some Cardiwm norvegicum, from which it presumably came. The
habits of the male were very interesting to observe in view of the seden-
tary habits of the female. Tt could swim forwards for a long time and at
® good speed, and with an accurate sense of direction. It swam ina
manner hitherto undescribed in crabs by rowing with its last two pairs of
thoracic legs, each of which has a double row of hairs on its posterior

4.00 REPORT—1900.

edge. As the female is said to be blind I made many experiments to
determine the sensitiveness of the male to light. It was conclusively
shown that the male is not only not blind, but is extremely sensitive to-
light in that it avoids extremes both of light and darkness, and in an
avea offering various degrees of illumination invariably takes up a
moderately illuminated position.

As more specimens of Pinnotheres could not be found, I decided to
study the myology of Calanus. It would be out of place to give here the
details of the musculature of this copepod, but it is interesting to note
that the arrangement and comparative size of the muscles tend to support
Prof. MacBride’s recent statements as to the movements of Calanus and
other copepods, viz., by means of their second antennex and pleopods, and
not by means of their first antenne. I tried numerous methods for demon-
strating the muscles by using various stains, fixing agents, and mounting
media. The most successful was to cut the animal in half sagittally, after
fixation with corrosive sublimate, stain in borax carmine, and mount in
glycerine jelly (Brady’s solution). This shows the muscles of the trunk
clearly.

I take this opportunity of thanking the British Association for the
use of their table at the Plymouth Laboratory, and Mr. Garstang and Dr.
Allen for their ever-ready help and suggestions.

Coral Reefs of the Indian Regions.—Intervm Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. A. SEDGwicK (Chairman), Mr. J. GRAHAM KERR,
Professor J. W. Jupp, Mr. J. J. Lister, and Mr. S. F. Harmer,
appointed to investigate the Structure, Formation, and Growth of
the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.

Tue Committee have received the following report from Mr. J. Stanley
Gardiner :—

The expedition under my charge has been carrying out work during
the last eighteen months in the Laccadives, Maldives, and Ceylon.

During the month of May 1899 I toured through the raised coral-
reef areas of Ceylon and round the coast. In the north of the island
these form a succession of higher and higher raised reefs down to Dam-
bula, broken only by isolated flat-topped peaks of older rocks, on the sides
of which the successive elevations are sometimes clearly visible in hori-
zontal lines of wave action. It is only in the topography of the older,
often much dolomitised country that the previous existence of either
barrier or isolated reefs is indicated. The greater part is formed of a
mixed reef sand, and appears before elevation to have borne a consider-
able resemblance to the large mudflats round the islands of Viti Levu
and Vanua Levu, in the Fiji group. *

Round the coast of Ceylon, especially to the south, a recent elevation
of five to twenty feet was found in broad flats by the sea. These are
now invariably being washed away down to the low-tide level, at which
they persist, to a certain extent, as fringing reefs of varying breadth.
The greater part of the west and south coasts is devoid, however, of any
reef-growths, the shore being rocky or formed of fine siliceous sand. In
May 1899 the rocky shore near Bentota was seen to be covered with

ON CORAL REEFS OF THE INDIAN REGIONS. 401

small coral colonies, which were evidently a growth of the previous
north-east monsoon. In September these had completely disappeared,
having been washed away in the south-west monsoon. At Galle, Talpe,
and Weligama numerous recently living colonies of corals, particularly
of the genera Porites and Pocillopora, of four to eight months’ growth,
were found completely silted up with sand and dirt of all sorts.

A noticeable point about the reefs immediately round Ceylon is the
comparative absence of reef-building nullipores, which are a marked
feature of all isolated oceanic reefs. In connection with this an attempt
was made to examine the shoals two to six miles off the south and south-
west coasts of the island, which indicate with the soundings the possible
upgrowth of a barrier reef. The weather, however, at that season was
so unfavourable that I was unable to dredge, land, or anchor on any.

Subsequent visits to south India and north Ceylon indicated clearly a
former land connection between the two. The so-called Adam’s Bridge
and the islands of Manaar and Ramasserim, which the former joins,
appeared indubitably to be the remains of a formerly elevated limestone
flat, which has been more or less cut down by the sea to the low-tide
level. The coast lines, too, of Ramasserim and to the north of the Jaffna
peninsula were also probably at one time continuous.

The months of June, July, and August 1899 were spent in Minikoi,
an isolated atoll, the most southern of the Laccadive group. Here I
was accompanied by Mr. L. A. Borrodaile, who proposed to study various
points connected with the Crustacea and Chetopoda. Unfortunately Mr.
Borrodaile, who had been collecting these forms in Ceylon, almost at
once succumbed to the climate, and after five weeks returned to Ceylon,
whence he was at once ordered home. Every part of the island was
visited : a survey was made and numerous cross-sections were run.
From these it was clear that there had been an elevation of the original
reefs to a height of at least twenty-five feet above low-tide level.
Numerous observations were made on the currents at different depths
within the lagoon in reference to its shoals, &c. Work on this point
could seldom be carried on outside the reefs, as originally intended,
owing to the heavy north-westerly winds which prevailed. The lagoon
was dredged to ascertain the distribution of its corals, and a few water
samples and temperature observations were taken.

Considerable attention was paid at Minikoi to the sand-feeding organ-
isms, especially Holothurie, Enteropneusta, and Sipunculida. These forms
appear to be largely instrumental in finely triturating the sand, the small
particles being subsequently carried out of the lagoon in astate of suspen-
sion. The boring organisms, too, are very important in causing the decay
of dead coral and rock, especially in the lagoon. These, accordingly,
do not form points of attachment for fresh reef-growths to arise, and
owing to the larger surface exposed are the more readily dissolved by the
water. Indeed all evidence collected showed that the lagoons of atolls
may be, and are, very generally formed by the solution of the central
rock of originally more or less flat reefs.

Tn October 1899 I left for the Maldive group, to which I was accom-
panied by Mr. Forster Cooper, who assisted me in all the work and very
largely took charge of the dredging. The Sultan lent us a schooner of
about eighteen tons, which we at once fitted out in Male, subsequently
cruising through the northern atolls during the months of November,
meet and part of January. About a hundred islands in the atolls

. DD

4.02 REPORT—1900

of Goifurfehendu (Horsburgh), S. Mahlos, N. Mahlos, N. Miladummadulu,
S. Miladummadulu, Fadiffolu, and Male were visited. Numerous sound-
ings were made and dredgings everywhere taken. Horsburgh Atoll and
the two atolls of Mahlos Madulu in particular were thoroughly worked
over.

Parts of January and February 1900 were spent at Hulule, a small
island at the south-east corner of Male Atoll, this being the month of
Ramazan. A thorough survey of this island and its reefs was made, the
whole forming an atoll of the second order, an atollon on the rim of an
atoll. Large collections were obtained of the fauna of this atollon from all
depths, together with observations on many special points. A set of
corals of known period of growth was collected from an artificial passage
through the reef to the landing-place of the island.

In February Mr. Forster Cooper took the schooner off for a short
dredging cruise in Male Atoll, while I remained in Male making special
observations on the water temperature, currents, food, &c.

Tn March I was unfortunately obliged, owing to illness, to return to
Ceylon, where I spent some time in hospital. Mr. Forster Cooper mean-
time continued the work, taking the schooner and dredging the atolls of
S. Male, Felidu, Mulaku, Kolumadulu, and Haddumati.

In April I returned with the s.s. Zleaface, a vessel of about 350 tons,
which I had chartered. Mr. Forster Cooper was relieved in Haddumati
Atoll and joined the steamer, the schooner being sent back to Male. We
then proceeded to Huvadu (Suvadiva) Atoll, which we entered by a
northern passage. The lagoon to the east was dredged and sounded, the
positions of islands and reefs observed, and four islands visited. A move
was then made to Addu Atoll, the outer slopes of which and also the
lagoon were dredged and sounded. The islands were charted in with the
assistance of Captain Molony, and the majority were visited by some
member of the party. On returning to Suvadiva the south and west sides
of that atoll were dredged. On account of the heavy weather we were
prevented from seeing Mulaku, which we had especially desired to visit.

Proceeding north to Male we skirted Haddumati Atoll and crossed
Kolumadulu, then visited and dredged 8S. and N. Nilandu Atolls, sub-
sequently anchoring in Felidu and Ari. The passages were sounded
between the following atolls: Kolumadulu and 8. Nilandu, S. and N.
Nilandu, Mulaku and Wattaru, Wattaru and Felidu, N. Nilandu and
Ari, S. and N. Male. Three further lines of soundings were run across
the central basin between the east and west lines of atolls.

More than tiree hundred dredgings were taken, and in addition large
and, we believe, very complete collections were made of the reef-fauna at
Minikoi and Hulule, four natives at least always accompanying and
assisting us in this work. The collections of land-fauna we believe to
be equally complete from these islands. Collections of the plants of
five separate Maldivan islands are now in the hands of Mr. J. C. Willis,
Peradeniya Gardens, Ceylon.

A large number of anthropological measurements and considerable
ethnological collections were procured, of which we hope to give the Asso-
ciation an account at some subsequent meeting.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 4.03

Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.—Third Interim Report
of the Committee, consisting of Professor NEwron (Chairman),
Rev. EH. P. Knusiey (Secretary), Mr. Joan A. Harvie-Brown,
Mr. R. M. Barrineton, Dr. H. O. Fores, and Mr. A. H. Evans,
appointed to work out the details of the Observations of Migration
of Birds at Lighthouses and Inghtships, 1880-87.

REFERRING to its Interim Report of last year your Committee has the
satisfaction of stating that Mr. William Eagle Clarke, of the Museum of
Science and Art in Edinburgh, has been diligently continuing the
laborious task he undertook of working out the details of the collected
observations in accordance with the scheme indicated in the Report made
at Bristol in 1898, and has furnished your Committee with the following
Statement, together with a Summary of the observations as regards
(I.) the Song-Thrush (Zwrdus musicus) and (I1.) the White Wagtail
(Motacilla alba), which throws such a light on the Natural History and
especially the movements of those two species as has never been possessed
before.

Your Committee feels that a great debt of gratitude is due to Mr.
Clarke for the courage and perseverance which he has shown in grappling
with the enormous mass of statistics necessary to afford the results so
lucidly and concisely summed up by him. Your Committee trusts that
its feeling may be shared by the Association generally, and that as a
consequence a grant of money may be renewed, if only to defray the
outlay which is involved by the prosecution of Mr. Clarke’s labours.
Remuneration for his invaluable services, which the Association will
remark he is willing to continue, is unfortunately not to be thought of.

In its Report last year your Committee mentioned that one of its
-members (Mr. R. M. Barrington) was printing the results obtained from
the Irish Lights, continued on his own account since 1887. That gentle-
man has since prepared for publication, at the cost of a stupendous amount
of labour, an Analysis of these results, which he hopes will appear before
the end of the year, and your Committee desires to call early attention to
what cannot fail to be one of the most important contributions to the
study of Bird Migration ever made.

Your Committee respectfully requests reappointment.

Statement furnished to the Committee.
By Wm. EsaGie CLARKE.

The extraction of the records of occurr(nces of birds in Great Britain
and Ireland, culled from the voluminous periodical and other literature
published during the period covered by the inquiry, 1880-1887 inclusive,
has at length been completed, and has resulted in many thousands of
useful and important observations relating to the movements and occur-
rences of birds in both maritime and inland localities being added to the
data amassed by the Committee.

This additional information includes not only a set of valuable records
for the inland counties of Great Britain and Ireland, which was a great

desideratum, but also comprises data relating to the occurrence of a con-
DD2

4.04. REPORT—1900.

siderable number of rare and critical species made by ornithologists—data,
in fact, that it was impossible to obtain from the light-keepers, whose
knowledge of birds is, naturally, limited.

Since the year 1891 Mr. Harvie-Brown and myself, with the valued
assistance of Mr. Lionel W. Hinxman and Mr. T. G. Laidlaw, have
prosecuted an inquiry into the movements of birds in Scotland, and the
investigations are still proceeding.! In addition to the observers at the
light-stations, we have enlisted the services of a number of ornithologists.
This again has resulted in the acquisition of much useful supplemen-
tary information.

Now that the data have been made as complete as possible, the time
has arrived when, for the first time in the annals of British Ornithology,
it is possible to write an authoritative history of the migrations of each
British bird, for few indeed among our native species are entirely
sedentary.

This is the task I now propose, with the approval of the Committee
and of the British Association, to undertake.

I submit herewith a Summary of Details of the various migratory
movements of two species—(I.) the Song-Thrush (Z'urdus musicus) and
(II.) the White Wagtail (Motacilla alba)—as examples of my method of

treatment.

Summary of Details.
I. Song-Thrush (Turdus musicus).

Introductory.—The Song-Thrush furnishes us with a most excellent
example of the complex nature of the phenomena of bird migration as
observed in Great Britain and Ireland.

The various movements of this species cover a period of nearly ten
months of the year, June indeed being the only month in which the Thrush
does not figure as a migrant in the records amassed by the Committee.

During this period it plays a varied réle as a migratory bird, being a
summer visitant, a bird of passage in spring and autumn, a winter
visitant, a winter emigrant, and lastly, it is chiefly to be regarded as a
rare casual visitor tothe most northerly of the British Isles, namely, the
Shetlands.

Tn addition, the Thrush is a permanent resident in certain districts,
more especially in the gardens and immediate neighbourhood of cities and
towns, where even in Scotland a number remain throughout the year.
Such residents, however, probably form the minority of our British
Thrushes.

Autumn Emigration of Summer Visitors.— At the end of summer? and
in the early autumn a considerable number of the Thrushes which have
reared their broods with us, especially those which inhabit the elevated
districts, emigrate towards the south.?

1 The Reports appeared in the Annals of Scottish Natural History for 1893,
pp. 147-164; 1894, pp. 146-153; 1895, pp. 207-220; 1896, pp. 137-148; 1897,
pp. 187-151; 1898, pp. 200-217; 1899, pp. 140-158; 1900, pp. 70-87.

2 On July 8, 1882, five Thrushes struck the lantern at Slyne Head Lighthouse
(west coast of Ireland), one of which was killed. In 1885, on July 3 and 11, several
Thrushes are recorded at the Inner Farne. On all these occasions the weather was
very unsettled, and thunder prevailed.

.3 Mr. T. G. Laidlaw, whose home in Peeblesshire lies 900 feet above the sea,
informs me that the Thrushes leave that district ‘to a bird’ in the autumn, and
return during the early months of the year.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 4.05

Some of these may not proceed at once beyond our southern counties,
where the length of their sojourn is determined by the climatic con-
ditions of the season ; others depart forthwith for more southern regions
beyond our limits.

Throughout August, but chiefly towards the end of the month, there
are clear indications at the light-stations that Thrushes are quietly
slipping away from Britain. There are no marked movemenis recorded
for this month, but there is unmistakable evidence that a gradual and
steady emigration is in progress on all the coasts of Britain. From the
Trish coasts, however, this happens only rarely during August, the birds
usually departing later in the season. These earliest emigrants are gene-.
rally observed in small numbers, and either alone or occasionally in
company with ‘ Warblers ;’ sometimes a few are killed at the lanterns.!

In September and October the emigratory movements are more
general and more pronounced in their nature; but it is not until the
weather breaks up in the latter month that any ‘rush’ is recorded.
During these months, especially in September, the Thrush departs im
company with various species of summer birds, and its emigrations are
recorded from all sections of the British and the east and southern coasts
of Ireland. The Thrush is, however, emigratory to a lesser degree in the
Sister Isle than in Britain.

In October the migratory movements of the Thrush are often of a very
complex nature, and are difficult to interpret. The most complicated
movements are those during which emigration, immigration, and passage
are in progress simultaneously, 2 phenomenon which sometimes happens
under peculiar weather conditions.”

Later in the year the emigratory movements, which doubtless include
many of the recently arrived immigrants from the north of Europe, are
dependent on and synchronous with more or less severe weather con-
ditions, and these will be duly treated of in the proper place.

Autumn Immigration and Passage.—There is no evidence whatever of
the appearance of the Thrush upon our shores, as an immigrant from
North-western Europe, until the end of the third or the beginning of the
fourth week of September, when it arrives with great regularity? in
company with the first Redwings (Z’urdus iliacus) ; occasionally Red-
breasts (Hrithacws rubecula), Golderests (Regulus cristatus), Woodcock
(Scolopaa rusticula), Jack Snipe (Gallinago gallinula), and Short-eared
Owls (Asio accipitrinus) are observed at the same time.‘

The immigrations continue during October, during which month there
are lulls, followed usually by two very pronounced ‘ rushes’ to our shores,
when for several successive nights Thrushes pour in upon our eastern sea-
board in vast numbers. These ‘rushes’ occur as a rule (1) about the
middle of the month, and (2) again during its fourth week.

These immigratory movements are confined to the east coast of
Britain, from the Orkneys to Norfolk. North Ronaldshay, the most

' As early as August 1, 1884, six Thrushes struck the lantern of Dhuheartach
Rock Lighthouse, two being killed.

* See ‘ Digest of Observations,’ Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1896, p. 471.

* On September 21 in 1881, 1882, 1883, and 1887.

* Professor Collett, Oversigt af Christiania Omegns ornithologiske Fauna, p- 27,
says that the Thrush departs from the Christiania district during September, and
continues to do so until the first days of November. Statistics for S.W. N orway
would be preferable, as being more intimately associated with those for Great Britain,

but unfortunately they do not appear to be available.

4.06 REPORT— 1900.

north-easterly of the Orkneys, and the extreme southern portion of the
main island of Shetland are annually visited, but these stations mark the
northern limit of the Thrush’s regular distribution during migration in
Britain, for the bird is recorded very rarely further north, and is practi-
cally unknown in Unst. The Thrush’s travelling companions are chiefly
its congeners the Redwing (Z’wrdus iliacus), Fieldfare (7. pilaris), Ring
Ousel (7. torquatus), and Blackbird (7. merula) ; and also the Brambling
(Fringilla montifringilla), Golderest (Regulus cristatus), Redbreast
(Erithacus rubecula), Woodcock (Scolopax rusticula), &e.'

Along with these species many Thrushes perish at the lanterns of the
lighthouses and light-vessels, especially when the night is hazy, with light
rain.

Unlike its congeners just named, it is somewhat remarkable that the
Thrush does not occur as an immigrant in numbers in November. The
immigration of the Thrush practically ceases with the great arrivals which
characterise the latter half of October, though stragglers do arrive up to
the middie of November. After this the autumn immigration of the
Thrush entirely ceases. Many of the immigrants upon arrival proceed:
south, as birds of passage, along our eastern and southern coasts, and
finally quit our shores, the majority to seek more southern lands, others
to cut across St. George’s Channel +o winter in Ireland. Others, again,
remain as winter visitors, and work their way to Western Britain? and
Ireland after an overland passage. Many of the birds, however, quit our
islands, after a longer or shorter sojourn, under the pressure of severe:
weather conditions.*

Winter Movements.—The great emigratory movements of the winter
commence in October, and are continued during November, December,
January, and February.? They are synchronous with outbursts of cold,
snow, or of extremely unsettled weather. Such untoward conditions
may prevail generally over our islands, or they may be circumscribed ;
and their influence on the emigrations of the Thrush is in more or less
direct consonance with their distribution.

In genial months little or nothing is recorded. In others the few
local movements are traceable to topical weather conditions. But sooner
or later during each season great outpourings take place, often extending
over several successive days and nights and affecting all our coasts. The
Thrushes affected are not merely our would-be resident birds, but a very

1 For the weather conditions controlling the movements of the British autumn
immigrants, see the ‘ Digest of Observations,’ Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1896, pp. 469-471.

2 The Thrush isa winter visitor only to certain isles off our western coasts, among
others Tiree in the Inner Hebrides. From careful observations made on that island
by Mr. Peter Anderson, we learn that this bird makes its first appearance there for
the winter on dates varying from October 4 to 30, some considerable time after its
first arrival on our shores.

3 Tt has been stated that a small dark race of the Thrush occurs on passage on
the east coast of England. These birds are supposed to be of Hebridean origin.
I have never seen specimens of such a race, and I do not believe that they can have
found their way to our eastern coast from the Hebrides. I have examined a number
of Thrushes from Barra in the Outer Hebrides, where the bird is a resident, and do
not find them to differ either in size or colour from the ordinary mainland form.

4 In 1886, as early as October 4 and 6, there were great emigratory movements on
all our coasts, due to extremely unsettled weather, with thunder in the N. and N.W.,
accompanied on the 5th by a great fall of temperature—a fall of fifteen degrees below
that of the previous day.

° There are also movements during March in some years; but they are of a local
nature, and are not to be regarded as emigratory.

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 407

large proportion of them are no doubt the immigrants lately arrived from
the north, which, as winter visitors to our islands, remain until compelled
to move further south or west.

The first move on these occasions is to the coast, where some tarry,
and even remain to perish ; while others pass down both the east and
west coasts of Great Britain, many of those following the former route,
sweeping along the south coast westward, and crossing the Channel for
the Continent. Many again seek Ireland, from which, however, emigra-
tions are also recorded.

Should the cold spell be of great severity, or be unduly prolonged and
widespread, then a still further exodus takes place (observed chiefly on
the west coast of Great Britain and east coast of Ireland), and many
perish even in such usually safe retreats as the Scilly Isles, and at
Valentia, or other isles off the west coast of Ireland, which are largely
sought on such occasions. No doubt, too, many of these emigrants perish
in their continental haunts, for after winters of almost arctic severity,
such as that of 1880-81,' the Thrush was conspicuous by its absence, or by
its rarity, in most districts in our islands.”

Spring Immigration.—Among the voluminous records relating to the
movements of this species during February, there are many which clearly
indicate that the Thrushes which left us in the early autumn to winter in
countries to the south of us commence their return to our islands for the
spring and summer.

These immigrations are performed by small parties during mild periods
of the month, and are chiefly observed on the southern coasts of England
and Ireland.

Such return movements are continued during the first half of March,
when immigrant Thrushes, in company with Blackbirds (Turdus merula),
Larks (Alauda arvensis), Pipits (Anthus pratensis), Starlings (Sturnus vul-
garis), Lapwings ( Vanellus vulgaris), and Curlews (Wumenius arquata), are
recorded from the south coast of England northwards to the Western
Isles of Scotland, and from the south and south-east coast of Ireland.

The arrivals on the south coast of England take place during the night
or early morning. In Ireland they are recorded for both the hours of
darkness and during the daytime, and the birds are noted as proceeding
in a north-westerly direction at the south-east stations.

In most instances the return is a gradual one, performed by small
companies, and at intervals, but occasionally in March in ‘rushes’ with
the other species already mentioned.

Spring Emigration.—Towards the end of March the Thrushes which
have wintered in Tiree and other western islands off the coasts of Scot-
land and in Ireland are recorded as taking their departure.

It is not, however, until April that the spring emigratory movements
from the mainland of Britain set in. Then the birds which have
wintered in our islands leave our shores to return to their summer
haunts in Northern Europe.*

Throughout April, but chiefly during the first three weeks of the

‘ During this winter twenty days of hard frost and sixteen days of deep snow
prevailed on the west coast of Ireland. It was much more severe elsewhere.

* Other severe seasons covered by the inquiry, during which great move-
ments and much mortality among our Thrushes are recorded, are those of 1885-6 and
1887. The first half of March, 1886, was remarkably severe, and many Thrushes
perished even in our southern counties.

* In 1885, on March 28 and 29, a few Thrushes in company with Blackbirds ap-
peared at North Ronaldshay, the most north-easterly island of the Orkneys.

4.08 REPORT—1900.

month, the emigratory movements of the Thrush are pronounced, and are
almost entirely confined to the north-east coast of England and to the
eastern and northern stations of Scotland. Some movements are also in
evidence on the west coast of Britain, where the birds departing from
Ireland and the Hebridean Islands are observed.!

On these occasions the Thrush is noted as emigrating in company with
Blackbirds (7’urdus merula), Fieldfares (7. pilaris), Redwings (7. ilacus),
and Redbreasts (Hrithacus rubecula).

During April the British emigratory movements doubtless become
merged with those of the Thrushes which are on passage along our coast-
line, proceeding from their more southern winter to their more northern
summer quarters.

Spring Birds of Passage.—The first undoubted appearance of the Thrush
as a bird of passage takes place at the end of March, when the birds which
have wintered in South-western Europe, and are en route for breeding
quarters to the north of our isles, arrive on the south coast of England in
company with Blackbirds (Zwrdus merula), Fieldfares(7’. pilaris), Redwings
(7. cliacus), Wheatears (Saaicola cenanthe), ‘Warblers’ (Sylviide), Larks
(Alauda arvensis), Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), and, occasionally, Wood-
cocks (Scolopax rusticula).

These early arrivals do not appear to proceed to North-Western Europe
instanter,” for, as we have stated, there are no March emigrations. The
passage continues throughout April, when the voyagewrs pass northwards
along our eastern seaboard, where they are joined by many of our British
emigrants of the same species ; and it is often a matter of difficulty to
distinguish between these classes of migrants during certain movements
in April.

In the years 1881, 1883, and 1885 there were a few movements which
carry the date of passage into May, the 10th of that month being the
latest date on which the northern migration of the Thrush is recorded.’

Such is the history of the Song-Thrush as a British migratory bird,
when the tangled skein of its various movements has been reduced to order
through careful study.

The main facts elicited are :

1. That many Thrushes leave us at the end of summer and during the
autumn, indicating that a very considerable number are summer visitors
to our islands ;

2. That the first immigrant Thrushes—winter visitors and birds of
passage—appear on our shores from the N.E. during the latter days of
September ;

' Professor Collett, Oversigt af Christiania Omegns ornithologiske Fauna, p. 26,
gives from the early to the last days of April as the period for the Thrush’s arrival
in spring in the Christiania district.

2 From March 19 to 26, 1898, the Rev. O. Pickard-Cambridge, F.R.S., records an
increasing number of Thrushes around his rectory at Wareham, on the coast of Dorset.
On the 25th the land was fairly covered with them, and there must have been 200 or
more in one field. Onthe 26th there were even more. On the 27th there were fewer,
and by the evening of the 28th all had departed. Zo0/., 1898, p. 264.

3 1881, May 2, Inner Farne, Thrushes at lantern with blackbirds (Zurdus merula)
and Ring Ousels (7. torquatus). 1883, May 8 and 10, at same station, in company
with the same species ; May 7, Flamborough Head, four killed. 1885, May 2, 3, 5, and 6,
Pentland Skerries, with Ring Ousels (7. torquatus), Fieldfares (7. pilavis), and Red-
breasts (Lrithacus rubecula); 5th and 8th, Isle of May, several with ‘ Warblers’
( Sylwiide), Red-backed Shrike (Zamius collurio), and Rufi (Machetes pugnax).

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 409

3. That the great autumn immigrations from the Continent cease with
the month of October, or considerably earlier than those of the Thrush’s
migratory congeners ;

4, That winter emigratory movements, due to climatic pressure, set in
with the first severe weather and recur with each outburst, but in gradu-
ally diminishing volume ;

5. That the return spring immigratory movement of British and Irish
Thrushes—summer visitors—from Southern Europe, commences in
February and continues until the middle of March ;

6. That the spring emigratory movements—the departures of winter
visitors from Britain—for Northern Europe set in and are continued
throughout April ;

7. That the spring birds of passage arrive upon our shores from
Southern Europe late in March, and that the passage proceeds during
April, and, in some years, extends to the early days of May ;

8. That the Thrush occurs annually on the British shores from
Southern Shetland and North Ronaldshay southwards, and that these
stations mark the northern limit of the bird’s regular distribution as a
migrant in Britain ;

9. That migrants to and from North- western Europe arrive on, and
depart from, our north-eastern and northern coasts, and that many birds
of passage among them traverse our eastern and southern coasts on
proceeding to their winter quarters (Continental*and Irish) in the
autumn and on their return in the spring ;

10. That the autumn immigrants which winter with us reach Western
Britain and, to a certain extent, Ireland after an overland passage ;

11. That the west coast of Britain and the eastern and southern coasts
of Ireland are those chiefly visited during the great migratory movements
due to severe weather ;

12. That Ireland is largely sought during the colder months, both by
ordinary winter visitors and also by Thrushes driven out of Britain by
severe climatic conditions ;

13. That the Thrush does not participate in the east to west autumn,
and west to east spring, movements across the southern waters of the
North Sea.

Il. White Wagtail (Motacilla alba).

The White Wagtail as a British migrant presents several points of
interest.

As a summer visitor it is somewhat rare, and has only been recorded
to breed occasionally in some of the more southerly counties of England.

It is chiefly as a bird of passage that it visits our islands, and is then
en route to and from northern breeding haunts which lie both to the N.E.
and N.W. of us, namely, in Scandinavia, Faroe, and Iceland. It occasion-
ally reaches Southern Greenland.

As a migrant it is one of those species, few in number, which are more
abundantly and generally observed on our western seaboard and its
vicinity than on the east coast.

Spring Immigration.—The White Wagtail arrives on the south coast of
England in small parties during March, sometimes during the early days
of that month.!

' The earliest date with which I am acquainted relates to this bird’s occurrence
near Plymouth on March 3, 1872.

410 REPORT—1900.

The immigrants continue to arrive on the English shores of the
Channel until late in April, and in certain seasons have been observed in
numbers on the west coast of Cornwall as late as the first half of May.

On arrival on our southern seaboard the birds, which are most
abundant on the western section of that coastline, usually tarry for some
little time before resuming their journeys. In due course, however, they
pass inland or northwards along both the east and west coasts, especially
the latter.

Spring Passage.—During March there are few records of the White
Wagtail’s appearance on either the east or west coast of Great Britain.
With April, however, the regular passage northwards sets in, and continues
until about the middle of May '—not beyond, so far as regular passage is
concerned,

On the west coast we are able to trace the birds from Cornwall along
the Welsh coast to the Solway and Clyde areas, and occasionally north-
wards to West Ross. .‘ Wagtails’ are, however, observed regularly on
passage at Cape Wrath, the N.W. limit of the mainland of Scotland,
down to the middle of May. I have little doubt that these records
relate to this species. Passing thence to the western islands, we pick up
the lines of flight first at the important rock station of Skerryvore, and
then at the Hebrides, in whose outer and inner islands, or certain of them,
it is a bird of double passage. Here it has been observed at Barra,
Monach, Lewis, Tiree, and Coll. At Barra (a southern island of the outer
group) and at Tiree (one of the inner isles) it is quite common on passage
in both spring and autumn ; and from these stations we have during late
years been furnished with a valuable set of observations, and have
examined many Hebridean specimens obtained on both islands at each of
the seasons.”

At the Monach Isle, with the exception of St. Kilda, the most western
of the Hebrides, the White Wagtail is recorded as occurring not unfre-
quently during April and early May.

Intimately connected, no doubt, with these far western British move-
ments are those observed in Ireland. Here, however, our present know-
ledge is only of a fragmentary nature, for the few observations made in
the sister isle all relate to the coast and isles of a single county, namely,
Mayo, where the White Wagtail has been occasionally seen on passage
during April and early May.*

It is strange that there is not a single instance on record of the White
Wagtail’s occurrence on the east coast of Ireland, though I can scarcely
bring myself to believe that the bird does not occur there on its migratory
journeys.

Passing to the east coast of Great Britain, we find little or no infor-
mation for its southern section, not even for that county which has
always been remarkable for ornithological research and for its able
ornithologists, namely, Norfolk. Hereit appears to have occurred merely
on two or three occasions, and in the springtime only.

1 At the island of Tiree, Inner Hebrides, it has been observed passing north in
considerable numbers as late as May 15.

* The following are the spring records for Tiree kindly furnished to Mr. Harvie-
brown and myself by Mr. Peter Anderson: 1893, April 7 and May 1; 1894, April 7,
12, and 30; 1895, May 3 and 5; 1896, April 22 and 24; 1897, April 28 and 30 and
May 1 and 4 to 8; 1898, April 19 and 26; 1899, May 3 and 15 (many).

8 The most important of these Irish movements was witnessed passing along the
shores of Killala Bay early in May, 1898 (Saunders, Bull. Brit. Orn. Club, vii. p. 58).

ON BIRD MIGRATION. Al}

In Lincolnshire and Yorkshire, so far as actual records are concerned,
the White Wagtail is decidedly uncommon on passage in the spring.

It is not until we reach the coast of Haddingtonshire that we have
any adequate information regarding the passage of the present species
along the east coast. Here, thanks to information privately supplied to
me by my friend Mr. Wm. Evans, it is possible to find the bird in
numbers, sometimes in considerable numbers, by looking for i, in April
and at the beginning of May. I have myself seen the bird in both
spring and autumn on the southern shores of the Firth of Forth.

North of this the only definite record for the eastern mainland known
to me refers to its occurrence at Inverness during April.

In the northern isles of Orkney and Shetland there are a considerable
number of records of Pied Wagtails (IZ. /ugubris) during the late days
of April and early May, for the Pentland Skerries in Orkney and for
Whalsey Skerries and Dunrossness in Shetland, which, I have little doubt,
from the lateness of the dates, refer to the passage of the White Wagtail.’

Saxby 2 records the bird from Unst on two occasions in spring, namely,
for June 1854 and May 1867. I am, however, not a little dubious as to
the identity of certain migratory flocks of Pied Wagtails which that
observer mentions as appearing in the spring on their way north, ana
again in September on their way south, for that bird is an uncommon

“species in Scandinavia.*

Autumn Passage.—The return movement from the north is initiated by
the appearance of the White Wagtail upon our coasts from mid-August
onwards. The earliest date I have is for August 15, 1894, at Barra. From
this date until the middle of September it occurs in parties proceeding
south at the Hebridean stations of Barra and Tiree’ with great regu-
larity.

The autumn passage, however, is not a prolonged one, and the latest
record for the bird’s occurrence in Britain, known to me, refers to a pair
of adults observed in Oxfordshire on September 27, 1885.’

The return movement probably affects both the east and west coasts
of the mainland, as the data faintly indicate. It is remarkable, however,
that outside the Hebrides and the Forth area our information is of a very
meagre nature, and the bird does not appear to have been observed on
the east coast of England, or anywhere in Ireland in the autumn.®

1 During a visit to the southern portion of Shetland in the latter half of September,
1900, I found the White Wagtail abundant on passage; not a single example of the
Pied Wagtail was observed.

2 Birds of Shetland, p. 81.

3 At Heligoland the spring passage of the White Wagtail commences at mid-
March, and continues until the early days of May.

4 The Hebridean records (1892-1899) for the autumn migration of this species
are as follows :—1892, September 1; 1893, August 24, 25, and 29; 1894, August 15;
1896, August 24; 1897, August 17 and September 2 and 3; 1898, August 24, Septem-
ber 7 and 15; 1899, August 18.

5 Since the above was written, a single bird was noted in Southern Shetland on
October 3, 1900.

6 On the west shores of the Continent the autumn passage is regularly observed.
At Heligoland it commences at mid-August, and continues until mid-October.

During our ill-fated visit to the island of Ushant, which lies immediately to
the south of our extreme south-west coast, in early September 1898, Mr. Laidlaw
and I saw many White Wagtails on migration. On some days as many as two
hundred came under our notice, and parties of from twenty to thirty were not
uncommon.

412 REPORT—1900.

The White Wagtail is frequently noted in company with its Pied and
Yellow congeners (7. dugubris and M. raii). It sometimes occurs at the
lanterns of the lighthouses along with other species ; thus at Skerryvore,
on September 8, 1897, several were killed during a rush of ‘small birds,’
Wheatears (Saxicola enanthe), and Pipits (Anthus pratensis), and their
vings sent to me for identification.

It appears to me that the White Wagtails which traverse our western
shores and isles are probably en route to and from their western summer
haunts in the Feroes and Iceland. That such is the case is rendered likely
not only by the routes followed in Britain, but by the dates of arrival
and departure as recorded for Iceland.}

On the other hand, the comparatively late date on which this bird is
observed in the autumn in Southern Scandinavia,? and the fact that its
numbers are so few on our eastern seaboard, seem to indicate that the
main route to north-western continental Europe does not lie on the
British coasts.

There can be little doubt that the White Wagtail is still much over-
looked as a British bird, or confounded with the Pied Wagtail, a species
from which it was not differentiated for many years. We have thus even
yet much to learn concerning its distribution in most districts of Great
Britain and Ireland.

In certain areas, notably in the Hebrides, our knowledge has been
considerably advanced during recent years, thanks to the excellent
observations made by Dr. MacRury and Mr. Peter Anderson.

The main facts connected with the migration of the White Wagtail
are :—

1. It appears on the southern coast of England during March and
April, sometimes in early May.

2. During April and May—as late as the middle of the latter month
—it occurs on passage on the east and west coast of Great Britain, and
has been at that time occasionally observed on the north-west coast of
Treland.

3. The return passage commences with mid-August, and is over by
mid-September.

4. The west coasts of Britain, and especially those of the Hebridean
Islands, form the main route followed by the migrants.

5. The bird has not been observed on the east coast of Ireland at any
season, nor has it been observed anywhere in Ireland during the autumn
passage.

‘ In 1886 the species was first observed at Reykjanes on April 24, next on the
29th, and abundantly on May 9. Lastly, on August|3 (Gunnlaugsson, Ornis, 1895,
p. 344). Gr6dndal says it is the first summer visitor, and comes in April to the
Reykavik district, where one was shot as late as September 7, 1879 (Ornis, 1886,
p. 358). The bird evidently leaves Iceland early in the autumn. Along with
Mr. Backhouse, I spent the month of September 1884 in the south-east portion of the
island, and we only observed this species on one occasion, namely, a family party
seen on the coast on the 10th.

* Professor Collett (Oversigt af Christiania Omegns ornithologiske Fauna, p. 84)
states that it arrives during the first half of April, and leaves at the end of Septem-
ber and first days of October. Itis occasionally observed in October, and exception-
ally as late as November 15.

ee

— ee eas

ON BIRD MIGRATION. 413

6. It has not been observed on the east coast of England during the
autumn passage.

7. Much has yet to be learned concerning the White Wagtail as a bird
of passage in districts in which it is presumed to be rare or unknown.

The Climatology of Africa.—Ninth Report of a Committee consisting

of Mr. E. G. RaveNsTEIN (Chairman), Sir Joun Kirk, (the late)
Mr. G. J. Symons, Dr. H. R. Mim, and Mr. H. N. Dickson
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Chairman.)

METEOROLOGICAL returns have reached your Committee, in the course of
last year, from thirty stations in Africa.

WNigeria.—We are able to publish a full year’s record for Old Calabar.
The observations, since September last, are being made thrice daily in
accordance with our programme. We look forward with interest to the
receipt of meteorological reports from Northern Nigeria, which have been
promised by General F. D. Lugard, C.B., and which we hope to be able to
publish in next year’s report.

British Central Africa.We regret that full reports have been
received only for two stations, namely, Zomba, which is in the immediate
charge of Mr. J. McClounie, the director of the scientific department, and
Lauderdale, the residence of our esteemed correspondent, Mr. John W.
Moir. Noreports from Fort Johnston have been received, and those from
thirteen other stations are more or less incomplete, owing to the occa-
sional absence or the illness of the observers. Dr. James E. Mackay, of
the London Missionary Society, whose valuable report for Kambola we
published last year, has, we regret to say, given up his meteorological work,
owing to ill health and the impossibility of finding a trustworthy native
assistant. He writes: ‘I see no way to get regular observations, and
have, with great regret, resolved to give it up rather than provide unre-
liable and worthless reports.’

British East Africa.—Returns from ten stations have been received,
including three months’ observations from Nairobi, to the north of
Machako’s. The returns from Fort Smith, in Kikuyu, and from the
neighbouring Scottish missionary station being incomplete, we defer their
publication until next year, as we hope shortly to receive the returns for
the missing months. No report has been received from Golbanti, on the
Tana River. As an instance of the extent to which an injudicious exposure
of the thermometers may affect the returns we refer to the ‘ Notes’ on those
received from Machako’s. We record with regret the death of Mr. C. H.
Craufurd, one of H.M.’s Sub-Commissioners, who has at all times taken a
lively interest in the work of your Committee.

Uganda.—The observations on the level of Victoria N yanza having
been received only up till October, the publication of the results a
deferred till next year.

Your Committee cannot conclude this report without expressing their
sincere regret at the death of their late colleague, Mr. G. J. Symons,
F.R.S., whose valuable counsel they have enjoyed ever since their for-
mation in 1891.

Your Committee propose that they be reappointed for another year,
to enable them to make a final report. They do not ask for a grant.

1900.

REPORT

414

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REPORT—1900.

ZOMBA.

All observations have been corrected for instru-
mental errors, with the exception of the readings of the
barometer, the Kew certificate for which does not extend
beyond 27°5 in., the correction for 28-00 in. and 27°5 in.
amounting to 0:006 in. This amount might fairly be
deducted from the entries in the table.

Mr. McClounie has reduced the barometrical readings
to 32° F., to mean gravity at lat. 45° and to sea-level, on
the assumption that the cistern is 2,948 feet above sea-
level. This assumed altitude yields a mean pressure of
29°763 in. (January, 29°639 in.; July, 30°311 in. for 1898
and1899.) The corresponding values, according to Buchan’s
Chart in Bartholomew’s ‘ Physical Atlas,’ are 29°96, 29°80,

and 30°10 in. k
Force of Wind.

The total wind force was 711 (mean 0°69) as compared
with 1,058 (mean 98) in 1898. The number of calms was
732 (in 1898 667). Out of 300 winds recorded, as many as
296 came from the E., N.E., and S.E. (total force 568 ;
mean force 2°51), as compared with 65 from the W., 5.W.,
and N.W. (total force 132 ; mean 2°03).

LAUDERDALE.

_ The observations are published as recorded, but there
is no reason to believe that the instruments now in use

are out of order.
Force of Wind.

The total wind force was 1,767, as compared with 695
in 1895 ; but whilst in the latter year ‘ calms’ were entered
531 times, there were only 51 such entries in 1899.

Out of 799 ‘winds’ recorded, as many as 344 came
from the S.B. (total force 940, mean 2°7), and 227 from
the N. (total force 404, mean 18). Of all winds that
from the S.E., which enters through the gap of the
Kilimani road, is the strongest and also the coolest. See
Report for 1897, Kilimani.

Wind and Temperature.

A ‘combination of the two elements yields the follow-
ing results :—

The greater calmness of the atmosphere, the increased
| cloudiness, and the decrease in the hours of sunshine are Year Rainy Season") Dry Season *
accountable for the greater humidity in 1899, which twas Directi
81 p.ce, as compared with 75 p.c. in 1898. of wind SPiN be Sea Ss Rl naan
Wind and Temperature. — ; 1899 | No. Of | Mean | iieot| Mean |N°°f | Mean
pete. ps 2 | =| on
A combination of these two elements yields the fol ational Temp ational Temp. vations| “emp.
lowing results :— |
2 sak: | — — = ——
Year Rainy Season*|} Dry Season ° 9° °
minestion See N. 227 Gye e105: | 7 aes 63 |
4 | NE. 35 67 20 69 15 64
Ca ae Mean Roo Afean ones Mean || a¢ | 7 | 60 | 69 | 36 | 7
: emp.| 4: emp. | oti emp. S.E. 344 66 14 71 204 62
jvations Rearione vations : Ss. 43 69 28 68 15 70
mae » S.W. 5 7 4 75 1 85 '
| ° 2 W. 17 71 10 73 7 68 |
Mocehinns VLR ARE NigRe uly per tees t oT N.W. a A a a 7g
North-east ees 51 72 41 72 10 |
Westand | 60 | 71 49 | 73 11 | 64 oily 68
South-west a zi y
Calms A | 718 66 358 70 360 63 ‘Rainy Season: Noy., Dec., Jan. to April. Dry
Season : May to October.
2 Rainy season: November to April. Dry season : May
to October. The N.E. descends from Mount Zomba. ee ee
a io . | Chiromo, Lat. 16°52°, Long. 35:17°, Alt. 125 feet.||
Port Herald, Lat. 16:67°, aie eee. , Alt. || Observer: Lewis C. Way. ‘
t. Observer: H. J. Morris. ai Ss
100 feet 0 ~- = ='i\' Mean Temp. Rain
Mean Temp. Rain ~ eg
j | Month = 8 loa
Month and No. es sy Iles | (|| os Wa = 2 a i= ‘2 ll
of Days || 9] ¢ Bl | tees AM)P.M/P.M| 2) g | & ae ita
AM,| P.M. [PM] § |A| Se < is5|
ss jax —_
1899 3 pelle s\n In. | No.| In. |Hrs,j|
1899 ‘ o|o|.o | In. |No.| In. || January + |79°3 |98°4 |79°8 843 | 1-70) 6 | +45 | 332]
January (24 days) |85-2 | 100°5 |85°4|89'1| 2°73) 6 | 1°05 || February + |77°3 |89°1 |77-4 |80°3 | 15°83) 22 15-97] 821)
February (14) . |77-4| 92:0 |10°0|82°3] 17°72) 13 | 7°60 March + \77°9 |94°7 |76°7 (815 | 3:24) 13 | +83 | 2937)
March (20). - |80°5 | 921 |80°1 |83°2 3°80; 6 | 1:70 April . 75°2 |95-7 |75°4 |80'4| 162) 8 | 48/196]
April (25) . 77-9| 89:0 |71:0|77-2 3°60| 7 | 2°50 May + |68°2 |86°1 |166°2 |71°7 *59| 6 | 19/175)
May (14) - (60°9} 78:2 713 |71'9 150; 5 *b0 June . - \64°6 |84°3 |63°1 |68°8| 1:30] 10 | -40} 126]
June (27) . (60°2] 71:3 |64°1|649| 150} 7] 50 || July. . 65:1 |88-1\66-3 73-9} 31] 5 | -11| 293))
July(22) . . |67-4/ 818]71:4|73:0| -50| 2] -30 : f
August (14) . |681] 85:0 [74:0 |75:3; — | — | — The temperature in the shade rose to 100° on 18 days
" in January, 5in February, and 5 in March.
Mangoche, 14:5° S., 35°7° B., 4,975 feet. Ob- 3 ae Fragmentary Rainfall Observations, |
server: CO. Percival. Sk Nyasaland, 1899. a
a2 5 - es ane ae ey seca 8°82 in.
M 7 ; Rain o5.5 ‘ort Anderson (Mlanje). January, 6°11 in. ; |
OR ae } ae 3S | February, 20°87 in.; March, 19°84 in. ; June, |
Month 7 2 9 aS le 3:47 in. ; July, 8:32 in. il
ote ai p.m, |Amount) Days 3 Be z a por Lister (Mlanje). April, 25 in.; May,
Sad aa : ]
E o>PS Liwonde (Upper Shiré). January, 4°55 in. ; |
1899 ° ° ° Tn. B98 February, 19:74 in. ; March, 6:72 in. ; Decem- |
May s 54:4 611 559 — — eS eee ber, 6:01 in. }
June 525 60°0 54°9 017 3 bs Hos Deep Bay. Jan.1:99 in. ; February, 2°22 in,
July . 53:7 62°5 586 “00 0 2eok Mkoma, Angoni Land (11°6° §,, 346° E.), |
September 62°5 74:4 67:0 ? 1 2 ag = 3,700 feet. February, 11°40 in. 4
November 64-2 757 70°2 3°06 22 Sea Kambola, Tanganyika. January, 9°61 in.; |
December 64:9 721 65'1 11:73 Ne eters cts | February, 5°34 in. ‘

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So cero

418 REPORT—1900.

Mombasa. 4:07° S., 39°7° E., 60 feet.
Observer: the late C. R. Craufurd.

Temperature

Mean Temperatures STON Humidity, 9 a.m. Rain

Pressure! ae 4 ‘.

Month |%Atmo- FL oe oa 12 | ott a) eam

a here Dry | Wet |Mean|Mean|Mean|] & 2 Henge se] 38s aS 3 ele | a
M. i 5 ee aoe em

9A.M.|9A.M.| Max.| Min. /9a.m.| S agc\|ss|Ski-8 |S lgsc

EBs Pa | ea} < shar}

1899 In. o ° ° o 5 3 5 z a In P.c. | In. |No.| In.

January . | 29°851 | 82°9 | 79°7 | 86:4 | 80:3 | 83-4 88 78 61 | 78:2 962 | 85 003 | 1] *03
February . *838 | 84:0 | 79°6 | 87-2 | 80:4 | 83:8 89 78 68 “4 961 82 00]; Oo; —
March . "847 | 83°9 | 81°2 | 87:5 | 81°7 | 84°6 89 77 5°8 | 80°3 | 1:033 89 3°45 8 87
April 5 "844 | 85:4 | 82°9 | 887 | 83:1 | 85:7 90 845] 56 | 821 | 1:096 90 1°65 4] 111
May. . *891 | 78°9 | 77°4 | 83:8 | 75°5 | 79°6 89 74 83 | 76°7 917 92 |14°86 | 15 | 2:78
June. © *986 | 79°0 | 77:2 | 83°4 | 75:2 | 79:3 84 74 82 | 76°5 912 92 *82 4 71
July . - | 30010 | 771 | 75:1 | 83°0 | 73°3 | 78-1 83'°5| 73 97 | 744 847 91 4:92 | 14 | 1°55
August . 004 | 77°8 | 76°7 | 83:0 | 73°5 | 78:2 83 73 95 | 76:3 905 | 95 3°11 | 11 | 1-01
September “012 | 79°9 | 786 | 85:4 | 768 | 83:1 86 76 86 | 78:2 962 94 1:48 | 10 61
October . | 29°938 | 82°5 | 80°1 | 86:4 | 78:0 | 82:2 88 77 84 | 79:3 999 90 33 7 15
November "881 | 84°7 | 83°0 | 87:2 | 82°5 | 84:9 88 81 47 | 82:5 |1°108 92 2°01 | 10 69
December . "837 | 84°8 | 82°5 | 88:5 | 82-4 | 854 89 81 61 | 78:8 984 88 2:50 | 10 | 1:05
Year 1899 | 29:911 | 81°7 | 79°4 | 85°9 | 786 | 82:3 90:0} 73°0| 73 | 785 | :974 90 |35°16 | 94 | 2:78
» 1898 906 | 80°3 | 75°6 | 82°9 | 75°38 | 79:3 890) 70:0} 71 | 73°8 -| -832 81 | 63°24 | 94/41

All readings have been corrected for instrumental error, excepting those of the barometer (see Report
for 1898).

The barometrical observations have been reduced to 32° F. and to standard gravity in Lat. 45°, but not to the
sea-level.

The mean temperature is assumed to be the mean of all max. and min., and is therefore too high.

The rainfall in 1899 was the highest experienced since 1895, The average, 1891-99, has been 47°36in. The
relative humidity in 1899 would appear to have been about 9 p.c. in excess of that of previous years, if the wet bulb
readings can be trusted.

Shimoni (Wanga). Lat. 463° S., Long. 39°35° LZ.
Observers: M. G. Carvatho, A. C. Hollis, and E. J. H. Russell.

Humidity,

: Rain Prevailing Wind at 9 A.M.
Atmospheric he 2AM
Mon |e ees ho aoe: al BE 23) 2 |» Bae
a Lalo} S BP oboe
E 23| 22 |B 8 | 2 /es8| N.|NB/ Bs.) s. |s.w.| w. |N.w.|Cal.
] Ay Ee Os A os
9 A.M.) 3 P.M. Dry| Wet A | ava
1899 Tn ain | to lo | o 1 ame | Pes] ne No:|eene
January . |29°849 |29:801 | 83:8) 80°8) 79°8] 1016] 88 | 0°32} 3] 0:22} 3|16)12)—};—}; —}|—j —}]—
February . *830 | °777 | 84:1) 81-6] 80°8| 1:050| 89 “00 Oo; — 2;20; 6;—;—/] —}|—]}] —|]—
March . *861] *800 | 83°5| 81:5] 80°9) 1°051| 92 | 1°52 | 10 35 | 2)}—)]14}—)]14] — it —|—
April 5 *903 | *850 | 80°8| 79°1] 78°5| °973| 92 | 7:53 | 14 | 3:00 | —| —|—]—] 30} —]—] —]|—
May. ° *912| °872| 76°9| 75°2| 74:5) °852) 92 | 27:05 | 19 | 4°60 | — | — | — | — | 29 2;—{| —|]—
June. - |80°031 | °923 | 76°0| 74°1| 73°4) °820] 92 | 2:44 8 64/—})]—}]—]}—]; 30; —|—]}] —]—
July . » 028 | °995 | 75:0} 74:0] 73:6] °827| 95 | 7:71 | 13 | 1:50 | — | — | — } —] 31 —}|—|] —}]—
August . *014| °971| 76°0| 75:0) 746} *855] 95 | 1:48 a 40) — | = 1) 807) fa
September *029| °969| 76°7| 75:1] 74°5| 852] 93 “41 3 21);—}—|—] 35 _ —|-- —|—
October . “005 | °878 | 77°7| 76:2] 75°7| *886| 94 “99 3 50 | —|— | — | 28 3 —|—}] —|]—
November |29°959| °875| 81:0) 78'7| 77:9} *954| 91 “75 3 3} —|—| 7] 17 1 —| 4) —j—
December. | *896} *835 | 83:2) 81:1] 80°3) 1°03 3] 91 | 2°31 8 50/—] 3/18] 3 3 —|} 4] —{[—
Year 1899 |29:943 |29°879 | 79°6| 77°7| 77:0] °927| 92 | 52°51 | 91 | 460] 7 | 39 | 57 | 79 |171 2 9}; —}J—
>, 1898 901} — | 80°7|79°1) 785) °974] 93 | 27°30 | 85 | 2°80 | 10 | 12 | 69 © 25 | 72) 138 | 27 12 | —

Al! readings, excepting those of the ‘dry ’ bulb, have been corrected for instrumental error (see Report for 1898,
p. 606). It seems there is now a second ‘dry bulb’ thermometer, in addition to that attached to the barometer. The
readings of the two are in most instances identical, the mean for the year of the attached thermometer being the
same as that of the ‘dry’ bulb inserted in the table, viz., 77°7° F.

Nairobi, 1:3° S., 36-95° E., Alt. 5,460 feet.

Rainfall in 1899 :—October, 4°62 in., on 5 days.
November, 2°30 in., on 10 days.
December, 2°34 in., on 4 days.

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420 . REPORT—1900.

Takaungu. Lat. 37° 8.,.
Long. 39°87° E#. Ob-
servers: G. H. L. Murray

Malindi. Lat. 322° S., Long. 40°12° L.
Observer : James Weaver.

+ aoe and others.
en, Si Humidity, 9 a.m. Rain
Rain
Month | 28 =| 3
Dew | Vapour) 32 a 5 ie Month
Bry. Wet | Point Lemon 2 I = a ze / zg
atest < a3) zg
a <4
1899 o e 2 In. Bio \|eeckne No. In.‘ ee —
January .| 83°0 770 748 860 76 =| 0-02 1 002 | | 1899 In. |No.| In.
February .| 842 767 73°9 835 71 =| 0:00 0 —_ January . - | 000] O}F —
March .| 84:8 781 757 “887 72 | 0-80 4 O60 | | February . | 000| O07; —
April 4 84°4 785 764 “908 77 =| «3°84 10 1:25 | March . 110] 5 | 0°46
May. .| 786 751 73-7 “831 | 85 | 17°63 20 5:30 | April. 2°62 | 12] 0°50
June. F KE 73°6 72°0 “782 83 =| 1:29 18 O21 | May - 12°89 | 24] 1°70
July. .| 768 73°0 714 768 83 | «(587 21 083 | June ‘ ; 3°07 | 16 | 1°43
August . 771 72°9 (fils: t 761 82 2°84 18 0°48 July * . 5°43 | 23 | 0°80
September 79°2 729 70°3 739 74 | 022 3 O12 | August . . 460 | 20} 0°85
October 81:8 751 724 795 73 =| +=0°02 1 002 | Septembe: . 0-12 | 2] 0:08
November 83°7 73:8 71 928 81 | O71 4 0-46 | October . . 0-06 | 1] 0-06
December. | 85°0 78:8 76°6 914 76 «| «(Orl4 2 010 | November . 2:08} 6 | 2°08
P “J } | December . 118 | 7] 054
Year, 1899 | 81:4 75°9 73°8 | "833 78 | 33:38 | 102 BO ma | |
» 1898) 817 | ded: 754 "882 81 14°44 53 1°65 1899 33°15 |116 | 2°08

Old Calabar. Lat. 497° N., Long. 8°28° £. Observers: Dr. E. G. Fenton and R. Allman.

Extremes <
Mucanecniage | te ite Betntall z 2 g
Month FI | = eB s 2 : ‘3
3 pol ae <0 aoc Eee E | 2
ee eee eee Mee

a 5 | < = a
1899 Es = a 3 In. No. In. No. No.
January . . 87°4 73°4 92 65 0:00 0 — N.W 22 =_
February . . ° 92°4 77-3 96 70 1°48 5 0-91 N.W. 3 3
March ° ° 5 916 76:9 95 71 344 14 1°01 S.W. — 8
April . . . . 91:0 761 97 69 9°87 17 2:12 5.W. = 6
May . S . . 9071 741 95 69 13°32 20 2°10 S.W. — 6
DNC ees: oy ow 883 72:9 91 70 9°33 21 1:85 S.W. - 6
July . . . < 86°1 734 92 70 12°17 22 277 S.W. — 3
August . > 85°3 722 88 70 20°72 20 5°45 S.W. — 2
September . 2 . 80-4 72-0 90 70 10°94 20 2°45 S.W. — af
October . 5 . 850 73°9 90 7 6°28 15 1°32 S.W. 1 —
November . . ° 86:0 747 89 70 971 ll 2°83 N.W. 2 4
December . : 5 85°9 765 89 72 0°34 4 08 N.W. 7 =
Year . . ‘ . 87-5 74:4 97 65 98°60 169 5°45 N.W. 35 39

The observations are published as recorded.

REVISION OF PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CONSTANTS OF SEA-WATER. 4.21

The Revision of the Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea-Water.—
Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir JoHn Murray (Chair-
man), Mr. J. Y. Bucuanan, F.R.S., Dr. H. R. Miu, Mr. H. N.
Dickson (Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Tue Committee was appointed to co-operate in the investigations under-
taken by Dr. Martin Knudsen at Copenhagen, at the instance of the
Committee appointed by the International Conference held at Stockholm
last year, with the view of making authoritative determinations of the
constants used in reducing observations of the physical and chemical
conditions of sea-water in different parts of the globe.

The grant placed at the disposal of the Committee has been expended
in defraying part of the cost of Dr. Knudsen’s researches.

Dr. Knudsen reports that the work of obtaining samples of water from
different regions has been completed, except with regard to those from the
East Greenland polar current, the northern part of the Baltic, and the
Indian Ocean, which it is hoped will be received in about a month’s time.
The samples have been collected in six-litre bottles, prepared by standing
full of hot water for a month before use. Dr. Knusden and his assistants
began preliminary work in September last, and since May the regular
analyses of samples have been carried on by himself, two chemists, and three
physicists. The results obtained so far indicate that the methods em-
ployed are adequate in scope and precision, and sufficient progress has been
made to justify the expectation that the. work will be completed and pub-
lished within the time arranged by the Stockholm Committee.

The Committee do not ask to be reappointed.

Future Dealings in Raw Produce.—Report of Committee, consisting
of Mr. L. Li. Prick (Chairman), Professor A. W. FLux (Secretary),
Major P. G. Craiciz, Professor W. CunninGHAM, Professor F. Y.
EDGEWoRTH, Professor E. C. K. Gonner, Mr. R. H. Hooker,
and Mr. H. R. RaTHeone, appointed to report on Future Dealings
in Raw Produce. (Drawn up by the Secretary, with the assistance
of Mr. Hooker.)

.

[PLATE IV.]

TABLE PAGE
Il. Farm Prices in December of each year, and Prices at Chicago of (a) Wheat,

(6) Maize; also Average Export Prices and Prices at New York . . 433
II, Average Price of Wheat at Cincinnati, 1844-97 . . f . 484

Ill. Standard Deviation and Mean Weekly Movement of the Gazette Average
Price of Wheat, 1850-99. . : 3 F : : ;
IV. Average Price of Middling Uplands Cotton at Live
1801-1899 . : d cule 5 :

" : - 435
rpool in each year,
° 3 . A : . 435
THE markets in which organised dealings for future delivery are carried
on are concerned with many kinds of raw produce. It appears to the
Committee that the circumstances of the markets which are concerned
with such products as wheat, maize, cotton, and the like are so different
from those in which the metals are dealt in, that no advantage would
result from presenting an investigation of the two groups on common

4.22 REPORT—1900.

lines. The one group of commodities manifests the general characteristic
that the supply is not continuously produced, but that, speaking broadly,
the supply for a year depends upon the results of a harvest which falls
within a limited part of the year ; the demand for consumption is, how-
ever, one which exists throughout the year, being roughly continuous.
The work of dealers in these commodities is, therefore, to arrange
relations between a spasmodic supply and a continuous consumption.
With products of which metals may be taken as the type, there does not
exist the same dependence of supply on the round of the seasons.
Demand fluctuates ; but supply can, if necessary, be organised so as to
provide a continuous output calculated to meet a steady demand of large or
of small dimensions. It seems reasonable to suppose that the influence of
the market organisation for future dealings on price and supply will not
follow identical lines in cases so widely contrasted. As, further, the
interest in the subject referred to the Committee is, in the main, derived
from the questions raised in reference to farm products (and particularly
in reference to grain), the Committee propose to confine their report to
this section of the material which the reference to them might be con-
sidered to cover. Should the questions connected with future dealings in
metals appear of sufficient interest, a separate investigation may be
directed into that subject by a committee suitably constituted.

The problems which arise in connection with future dealings in produce
are in some respects not unlike some of those which are discussed in Sir
Robert Gitfen’s .essay on Stock Exchange Securities! but differences
fundamental in their nature distinguish the cases of stock and produce
dealings. If no other difference existed, the fact that the existing
supply of raw cotton (for example) will be, in the main, used up in the
course of a year, while at the end of a year the bulk of the existing Stock
Exchange securities will still be found in existence, would differentiate
the two problems sufficiently. The influences which determine the level
of ‘values are certainly not identical in the two cases, so that the points
which are of greatest importance in the discussion of the Stock Exchange
will not necessarily need to be equally fully considered here, nor will the
conclusion in regard to what Sir R. Giffen designates ‘ fictitious securities ’
be capable of simple application to what is sometimes called ‘fictitious
grain.’

It may be not superfluous to sketch the leading features of the market
organisation, the influence of which we seek to trace. In so doing, it will
be necessary to remember that we have not simply to consider bargains,
the fulfilment of which is contracted to take place at some future date.
Tt need not be argued that such bargains are regularly made in every
department of life, and that no very special interest attaches to the
investigation of the influence of the custom of making contracts which,
from the nature of the case, are incapable of instant fulfilment. More-
over, such contracts are, in many cases, eminently speculative, though
greater speculation may occur in cases where no such contract is made.
The builder who undertakes to build a Town Hall at a definite price is
making a contract for future delivery of goods ; but it is the builder who
erects houses with the expectation of disposing of them when finished—
who makes, in respect of them, no contract for delivery at a definite price
and time—who is commonly referred to as the ‘speculative’ builder. Itis

1 Stock Exchange Securities: An Essay onthe General Causes of Fluctuations in.
their Price. By Robert Giffen. 1877.

——

I

ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN RAW PRODUCE. 423

not unnecessary to recall such facts, inasmuch as some confusion frequently
arises in reference to the relation of ‘futures’ and ‘speculation.’

As stated, then, the problem which needs investigation is not the
influence on price movements of forward contracts, such as the purchase
and sale of a cargo of wheat actually on passage which may be sold in
anticipation of its arrival, but of an entirely different class of contracts.
In these contracts one leading feature is that the goods bought and sold
are not dealt in by sample, but their quality is determined by reference to
certain standards established by some responsible organisation. In wheat
the standard may be, for example, as in London (for American wheat),
No. 1, Northern, or, as is usual in Liverpool, Vo. 2, Winter (or Spring) ;
in cotton, it may be what is known as middling uplands when American
cotton is in question, fully good fair for Egyptian, and similarly in re-
gard to other commodities. The buyer need not be able to discriminate
between good and bad wheat, he may conceivably not be capable of dis-
tinguishing wheat from barley, but the quality of the wheat to which he
becomes entitled is nevertheless determinate. Rules are laid down by the
Associations of Grain Dealers in leading centres such as Chicago, Duluth,
New York, Liverpool, &c., for maintaining the standard according to
which any actual parcel of wheat is determined to be of standard giade or
not, the American centres further grading into several classes, under
Government supervision. One distinction between dealing by sample
and dealing in standard grades is that in the former case slight difier-
ences would be likely to exist between the qualities to which any two
bargains had reference ; in the latter case all bargains in a standard
grade are on the same level in the matter of the quality of the produce
which is capable of being used for their fulfilment. Further, by custom
or by rule, the quantity dealt in on any contract is, if not the same,
always a multiple of a standard quantity, ¢.g. 4,800 or 5,000 centals of
wheat in London and Liverpool respectively.

Tf, then, the date named for delivery be the same for any two con-
tracts (and the custom of naming, not a day, but a month, or two
months even, within which delivery may be made, helps to produce ready
coincidence in this matter), the only point of difference remaining is the
price. Different contracts for the delivery in one and the same month of
the same number of units (of wheat or cotton or other produce) of the
usual standard grade will, except in the matter of price, be as nearly
identical and as interchangeable for all practical purposes as two bonds of
a municipality for equal amounts, if not as much so as two Bank of England
notes of the same denomination. To the man who has bought and sold
equal amounts of the same grade for the same period of delivery there
remains no concern in the actual goods ; he is concerned merely in the
relation of the prices of the sale and purchase.

But a further development of the organisation of markets where this
class of business is largely transacted is also of importance, as affecting
the facilities for carrying on such dealings, namely, the establishment of
Clearing Houses, and the introdiction of a system of periodical settle-
ments. These are effected daily in some cases, weekly in others, while in
some markets no settlement takes place before the term of the bargain
has expired.

To indicate the purpose and operation of clearing-houses and short settle-
ments, reference to a hypothetical example may be made. Suppose that
in January A sells 50,000 centals (or, say,10,000 quarters) of wheat to B,

424, REPORT— 1900.

(The standard grade need not be here specified, provided that the fact that
the bargain is one in wheat of a named standard grade be remembered.)
The wheat is to be delivered in May, and the price to be paid is, say, 6s.
per cental. Suppose the term to run out and that B has not found a
convenient opportunity of reselling at a profit—in fact, that he expected
that the price would rise, while it falls steadily and persistently. When
May comes B must either take charge of the wheat and pay for it in full,
or, if he has no facilities for doing so, will be forced to sell ; in fact, the
latter may be his only means of providing the funds with which to pay
for his purchase. If the price has fallen to 5s. 6d., he realises 1,250/.
less than he needs to make this payment. Should this be not a solitary
contract, but one of a score, averaging equally bad results, the dealer, if
not a wealthy man, may find it difficult to provide the means of paying
for his purchases, and his bankruptcy may prevent such payment being
made.

The holder of the wheat, A, may find that such a failure of B leaves
him to sell the wheat as best he can, and face the loss the risk of which
his sale to B ought to have removed from his shoulders. The short-settle-
ment system aims at reducing the risk of loss due to the assumption by
weak dealers of risks greater than the funds at their‘disposal enable them
to cover, and thus at rendering business more secure, and, being more se-
cure, capable of being carried on with narrower profits. The parties to the
contract may (or in some cases must) deposit a sum of money sufficient to
cover any probable loss due to variation of price for a short time, and,
if prices vary beyond what the deposit can make good, must increase the
deposit. Thus, in the above case, the deposit may have been, say, 5 per
cent. of the contract price, or 7507. Should the price fall so as to indicate
to one party the loss of the whole of this margin in case of realisation at
the price of the day, he may decide that it is better to acceptso much of
loss than to risk a greater, and he is helped to this decision by the need of
providing the means of meeting a greater loss, should it occur. The man
who would be most likely to fail to meet his obligations on their maturity
being, in general, the man most likely to find it difficult to spare the
deposit money from his business capital, is precisely the man who is, so to
speak, warned off by the pressure of the need to maintain the deposit.
In the case assumed, were the official price to fall to 5s. 11d. on some
day shortly following the conclusion of the contract, the buyer would be
required to find 50,000 pence, or 208/. 6s. 8d., and to pay it, together
with a further margin. Should a further fall occur he would need to pay
a corresponding sum, while, in case of a recovery, he would be entitled to
receive part of his deposit again. This necessity to face losses as they
occur may be a hardship to a man whose ultimate forecast of profit is
realised, should the market go against him steadily and heavily for a con-
siderable part of the period between the contract and the due date of its
fulfilment. Yet, on the whole, the short-settlement system and the putting
up of margins do certainly tend to prevent men from assuming risks
beyond the power of their means to cover. The fact that, to persons who
would have no desire to make a contract for future delivery of goods and
to accept delivery in due course, a facility is afforded to operate on the
market and to attempt to snatch profits fron day-to-day fluctuations in
prices, the daily (or weekly) settlement enabling them to make their
attempt and be very shortly free of all responsibility in regard to it, not
needing even to wait for the distant delivery month for the realisation of

o
j
_

ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN RAW PRODUCE. 425

the profit (if any) they may make, has been used to cast odium on the
system of short intermediate settlements. It is true that the system does
offer facilities for speculation in mere price-movements as distinct froin
dealing in commodities, but the other fact must also be borne in mind
that it serves to check wild speculation by weak dealers unable to meet
the losses which they were nevertheless very ready to face before the
system was introduced.

The example of direct dealing between two persons, which has been
used, will not serve to give an accurate idea of the situation. It is
common to have a large number of persons involved in such transactions.
Not only have we A selling to B, but B to C, C to D, and so on for a
score of links perhaps. The liquidation of such a transaction is greatly
facilitated by bringing the first seller and the last buyer into direct relations
with each other, since the intermediate dealers are concerned (unless in
case of a failure to fulfil contracts) only with the differences between
the prices at which they have bought and sold respectively. The
unravelling of the complex series of payments and passing of delivery
orders, &c., which, in a long series, involved delay and difficulty when
no organisation for the purpose existed, is, in many leading markets,
accomplished through the medium of a clearing-house. It is unnecessary
to describe the organisation in any detail,' though the existence of these
facilities must be borne in mind, inasmuch as purely speculative transac-
tions, as well as the process of dealing in which actual delivery of goods
takes place, appear to profit by them. In particular, one feature has
attracted some attention and provoked adverse criticism, namely, that
where the necessities of business bring about a state of things in
which the original seller becomes in turn a buyer of the same delivery,
the series of dealers, A, B, C, D, &c., ends as well as begins with A, and
the passing of any warehouse receipt or other form of claim to a specific
lot of goods becomes a mere form. The interests of all parties in such
a closed ring are confined to price differences. The settlement of such
transactions by the process of ‘ ringing out,’ when an invoice and a formal
tender are passed round the ring, appears to some to indicate an objection-
able facility afforded to those who practically bet on price-changes, and
it is apparently desired in some quarters to suppress these facilities in
order to suppress the transactions thus described.

The result of the elaborate organisation of markets for dealing in
futures in commodities is that it has become possible to buy or sell for
future delivery without difficulty, and at prices publicly and regularly
quoted. Those who desire to ensure supplies of any commodity for
which a market so organised exists can do so without difficulty, while
those who desire to secure themselves against future fluctuations in the
price of raw produce, whether as buyers or sellers, are provided with
the means of doing so.

Attention must be particularly given to the use of dealings in
futures in providing insurance against price-changes, for no small
amount of importance attaches both directly and indirectly to this.
It accounts, in part, for the fact, so troublesome to some critics, that far
larger amounts of produce are sold for future delivery than could possibly
be delivered. The tenderable quality is determinate, and though there

' For details as to cotton dealings in Liverpool, ef. Ellison’s Cotton Trade of Great
Britain, chap. iv.

426 REPORT—1900.

may ke enormous quantities of produce of inferior quality, it cannot
be tendered in fulfilment of an ordinary future contract ; or, if tenders
below the standard quality are, as in some cases, permitted, the limits
of such deficiency in quality which are acceptable are narrow, and a
pecuniary allowance must be made for the deficiency.

The purchase or sale of regular futures-contracts is made, however,
to serve as a hedge against too great loss from the variation in price
of classes of produce not actually deliverable on such contracts, and,
indeed, for some dealings in goods produced from the raw material to
which contracts refer. This use of the futures-contract depends on the
fairly close accord between the movements in price of different quali-
ties of the same commodity. The accord is not exact, but it generally
suffices to render the hedge effective in some degree. To illustrate, we
take the spot prices of middling American cotton and good fair Per-
nambuco at Liverpool on March 29 and May 17 of the current year.
The former stood at 5,%,d. at the earlier date, 5.4,d. at the later. The
Pernambuco quotations were 6d. and 53d. Of the variation of 1d. shown
in the latter price, ;,d. were shared by the former. Hence, in a great
degree, futures in American would have served as a hedge against
variations in price of Pernambuco almost as well as against variations
in price of American itself. As a direct insurance in dealings in the same
commodity as that named in the futures-contract, that contract is
obviously serviceable. An importer who purchases a shipload of wheat,
anticipating to sell it on arrival at a certain price, will sell futures
to an amount corresponding to the quantity of actual wheat he has
bought. Ifthe price has fallen when the goods arrive, the amount received
from their sale will be reduced, but, on the other hand, the cost of
repurchase of the futures-contract will have also fallen, and to an
amount which will cover the bulk, if not the whole, of the loss on the
sale of the actual grain. So, also, in case of a forward sale, the risk of
loss through price-variation may be effectively insured against by a
purchase and subsequent resale of a futures-contract.

The facility of dealing in these contracts, then, affords a means of
reducing risk of financial loss in the handling of the actual produce,
both that which is of such quality as to be tenderable on the contracts,
and that which is not of such quality. Its use in covering the latter class
of dealings leads to a considerable excess of dealings in futures over actual
deliveries of tenderable grades. Now, in considering the influence on
prices of the modern system of dealings in futures, the reduction of the
risk assumed by various sections of dealers must be given a prominent
place. The margin of profit which is sufficient to support dealings of
a comparatively safe character is much smaller than that necessary
when risk is considerable. Even though the goods pass through the
hands of more numerous dealers than formerly, the cost of handling
may be reduced through the reduction of the risks of the dealers. We
have been unable to obtain any satisfactory means of determining to what
extent the cost of handling (apart from elevator charges and freight
charges) has been reduced, but we have seen no reason for supposing that
it has been increased, as seems to be suggested by some who direct atten-
tion to the large number of hands through which a futures-contract may
pass, and the accumulation of commissions which is suggested in conse-
quence. The fact that dealings in wheat futures in Liverpool, for
example, amount to from twelve to twenty or thirty times the amount of

F
4
i

ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN RAW PRODUCE. 4.27

the wheat actually tendered against these dealings, does not necessarily
imply that every quarter of imported wheat has to bear the weight of a
score of commissions to brokers for handling futures-contracts.

It seems hardly necessary to repeat at length what has been sufficiently
often made clear, that the futures-contract entered into by a dealer who
actually proposes to demand delivery of, or make a tender of, the produce
represented by it, cannot be distinguished from the contract entered into
by a dealer who does not propose to handle either the goods named in the
contract or any other goods in respect of the price-variations of which
the said contract may be used as a hedge. The point may be made clear
by giving an example of the actual form used, selecting for that purpose

the following :—

No. 26—FUTURE DELIVERY CONTRACT—AMERICAN RED WHEAT.

THE LIVERPOOL CORN TRADE ASSOCIATION,

LIMITED.
VOW LA NEM AXON OD Cope spent se aSe O00 Se IIe GeO 1S heeepsock
Wievhavetnisnday, SOLD NGO... .ccs....cccc oes sccaaresrebeacerseccoasnees saeedaac on the
terms of the Printed Rules of the Liverpool Corn Trade Association, Limited,
snensgnmhandontsnacbendanSnenens SAY... .csecesceseescceeeeeeseess-Centals American Red Wheat

(grown Hast of the Rocky Mountains in the United States of North America
and Canada), of quality not lower than the Standards of No. 2 Winter or
No. 2 Spring, as adopted by the Liverpool Corn Trade Association, Limited,
and in force for the specified time of delivery, at............scseeeeeeees per 100 lb.
BOWDEVGCIIVETEO GUPING Ts ,ccatessescrciiascveacouaddsasacnd ex store, in Liverpool, or, at
Sellers’ option, in Birkenhead at.an allowance to the Buyers of One Farthing
per cental. The Wheat to be in fair merchantable condition; a slight dry
warmth not to be objected to.
Payment—as per Rule 8, allowing interest equal to three months from date of
being ready for delivery.

This Contract is made between yourselves and ourselves, and not by or with
any person, whether disclosed or not, on whose instructions or for whose benefit
the same may have been entered into.

Amended 18th October, 1897.
In force on and after lst January, 1898.

This Contract was made on the date specified, and within the business
hours fixed by the Liverpool Corn Trade Association, Limited.

Entered at Stationers’ Hall and sold only at the
Clearing House of the Association.

The examination of this form will suffice to show that it would be a
practical impossibility to distinguish the simple gambling from the (so-
called) legitimate dealings for the purpose of suppressing the former.

Apart from objections to gambling as gambling, the allegations as to the
effect of modern dealings in futures appear to attribute to them influences
of two kinds : (a) that they tend to depress prices, and are in fact respon-
sible for much of the fall in price of such commodities as wheat and cotton
which has taken place in the last twenty-fiye years ; (b) that they cause
market-prices to be much less steady than they would be if left to be

428 REPORT—1900.

determined by the transactions of dealers handling the actual goods alone.
It will be convenient to consider these views separately, and to make such
comparisons of the actual course of market-prices as seem most likely to
throw light on the subject.

First is the influence on the general price-level. The reason for
asserting that this has been depressed by dealings in futures appears to
be, when the statements of the advocates of this view are considered,
chiefly that other causes are inadequate to produce the result actually
experienced. We do not think it is necessary to support our dissent from
this view by indications of the influences to which the fall in some prices,
especially those of wheat, maize, and other grain, should be attributed.
To do so would be to travel far outside the matter referred to us. It will
suffice to say that we hold it to be necessary to show how the operation
of the futures-market can depress the general price-level of the goods dealt
in. In only one way can we admit a real depressing influence, and that
is through reducing the cost of handling : 7.¢., the price may be reduced to
the consumer without a reduction of price to the producer of the raw com-
modity by cheapening the marketing (as well as the freight) charges.
Such a reduction of price would reduce the return to all those producers
between whom and the consuming regions but little expense of carriage
intervened. It is an important point to examine, therefore, whether the
return received by the American farmer in the great wheat-producing
areas has been reduced largely—whether it has been reduced as much pro-
portionately as have prices generally. This is a point not very easy to
determine. The U.S. Department of Agriculture compiles a figure
which is given as the average farm-price of wheat at the beginning of
December. Comparing this with the average export-price of wheat from
the U.S., we have (see for extended table Appendix) :—

Ve Average farm price. Years ending Average export price.
Cents per bushel June 30 Cents per bushel
1869-78 a : . 104-7 1870-79 5 27°6
1889-98 ‘ 9 . 665 1890-99 4 : “pela

These figures indicate a fall of not very different proportions in the
two prices. The freight-rates from Chicago to New York,’ compiled by
Mr. J. C. Brown, of the New York Produce Exchange, show a reduction
of the all-rail rate of over 12 cents per bushel, of the lake-and-rail rate
of 11 cents, and of the lake-and-canal rate of over 9 cents, comparing the
same two periods.

Average Rates. Cents per Bushel.

Years ~ Lake and Canal Lake and Rail All Rail
1870-79 . : 148. ‘ ; S760. 5 : 25°6
LS90=99 ae. r F Divion im ‘ Mest. . Z 13-0

The reduced cost of transportation seems, in the light of these figures,
capable of accounting for all, and maybe more than all, the difference
between the fall in the farm and export prices. If these figures were
really representative, the conclusion would be that charges other than
freight have possibly increased, since the fall in price falls short of the
fall in freight, by the all-rail routes, between Chicago and New York.

NOE Statistical Abstract of the United States.

*
ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN RAW PRODUCE. 4,29

It is not, however, satisfactory to compare the fall of price at a parti-
cular date in the year on the farm with the average fall registered in a
year. A distinctly useful corrective to the idea that the prices of recent
years at places near the great producing regions are without precedent, is
afforded by the record of monthly averages of prices of wheat at Cin-
cinnati which are given in the ‘Cincinnati Price-Current’ (for table see
Appendix). The range of prices of the ten years 1844-53 would compare
quite closely with those of the past fifteen years. The lowest figures, those of
1894, do not touch the level reached in the course of 1846. It is true that
for long periods —for example in the dozen years ending 1882—the fluctua-
tions of price centred about a level some 50 per cent. above that about which
the fluctuations of 1844-53, or those of the years since 1885, have centred.
But it does not seem necessary to invoke the aid of the modern market
organisation to account for a return to the level of half a century ago.

It is further of importance to recall the fact that in another great
staple, cotton, the lowest prices of recent years hardly fell below those
registered early in the century. The table of average prices of middling
American cotton, which is given in the Appendix (¢/. p. 435), shows that,
whatever may be the influences which have depressed the prices of cotton
of late years, the level reached is practically that of the period before the
American Civil War. Any suggestion of the need of an influence from
the futures-market to produce the actual result would appear unnecessary.

It may be granted that absolute certainty cannot, on this point, be
reached from the examination of statistical compilations. A considera-
tion of the matter from the point of view of the probable influence of an
active futures-market, however, shows no point where a permanent de-
pressing influence can arise. The facilities for short-selling are, it is
true, considerable, but the ‘bear’ must cover his sales, and hence he
must, in the end, support the market by buying. And, it may be added,
the organisation affords as great facilities to the ‘bull’ as to the ‘bear,’ so
that, whatever the effect on the fluctuations of price, the increase of both
buying and selling would hardly produce a strong pressure which, in the
long run, is all in one direction. The depressing effect of sales of wind-
wheat is hardly the same as in the stock markets is produced by the in-
troduction of fictitious securities. The sales, as stated, must be covered
by purchases, and that within a limited time. Hence the nature of the
commodities ‘fictitious wheat’ and ‘fictitious securities’ is not the
same.

A not uninstructive illustration is afforded by the recent experience
of the Berlin market. As a result of the Bourse Law of 1896, the active
dealings in that market have been restricted within very much narrower
limits than formerly. The form of contract which is no longer legal there
is still legal in Liverpool, London, Amsterdam, and elsewhere, and to these-
centres much of the business formerly transacted in Berlin is practically
transferred. Berlin is cut off from that close contact with the world-
market which was maintained so long as the methods of transacting busi--
ness there were similar to those in use elsewhere. The result is shown in
the annexed table (p. 430), showing the average level of price in Liverpool,
Amsterdam, and Berlin in each of the last eight years, from which it will
be seen that the check on futures business in that market has certainly
not raised the price there relatively to that on the great markets of the
world. Berlin prices have shown, indeed, a smaller excess over those
representing the free markets of Europe since than before the Bourse

430 REPORT—1900.

Law. It should be added that there has been no change in the customs
duty on wheat or rye to nullify the comparison.

Wheat, per 100 lb, Rye, per 100 lb.

Year Li 1 ;

Berlin (c alifc asia Berlin Amsterdam

Bees a. *d. a Sd: Sd:
1892 7 8% . ieee 7 82 5 93
1893 6 73 5 104 5 10% 4 72
1894 5 er 4 114 5 12 3 74
1895 6 2 5 22 Db op 3 74
1896 6 10 5 103 5 24 3 83
1897 7 Tz cal 5 84 4-3
1898 8 13 7 64 6 43 5 23
1899 6 92 603 6 42 b 32

Refarence may also be made to the fact that the active operation of a
market in futures has not in every case been accompanied by a declining
level of price. A conspicuous example to the contrary is coffee.

The second, and in some sense alternative, suggestion as to the effect
of dealings in futures, is that they result in greater unsteadiness of price
than would exist without them. Here what may be called the theoretical
presumption is rather of an opposite tendency. In the weeks following
harvest, the pressure of abundant supply is likely to depress prices less,
when, on the demand side, the provision for the whole season is regularly
influencing buyers through the operation of a well-organised machinery ;
while a secured provision for future needs through the same means seems
likely to modify the pressure of buying in a market which for some reason
is temporarily short of supplies. An active market will show more
numerous small fluctuations, but the greater movements will, in the
majority of cases, be reduced in intensity as the natural result of active
dealings in futures. Corners are not excluded, but the growing magni-
tude of operations is, as experience sufficiently shows, rendering successful
manipulation of corners more and more difficult. An active market is
frequently a sensitive market and subject to scares, but it is able to
recover from these scares more completely and rapidly than an inactive
market. The world-wide range of operations is a constant influence in
restraint of manipulations contrary to the general movements which the
actual state of supply and of demand tends to set up. The dealers who
sell short in anticipation of a fall, or attempt to control supplies in order
to profit by a rise, must either possess such large resources as to be able
to force the market to move as they wish (and this, as stated, is becoming
increasingly difficult on any extensive scale), or they must gauge correctly
the movements before they set in. If dealers persistently opposed the
trend of prices as resulting from actual supply and demand, they would
as persistently lose, which would, in the long run, mean their disappear-
ance from the market. In anticipating a movement which would in any
case be realised, the force of the movement is likely to be modified.

The attention of the Committee has been given to the possibility of
measuring the comparative degree of stability of prices before and since
the creation of the great trading in futures. For the purpose of gauging
the relative degrees of fluctuation, in different markets and at different
times, two indices have been worked out. One is the well-known Stan-

ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN RAW PRODUCE. 431

dard Deviation, or, as it is sometimes called, the Probabie Error, of a
series of quotations as compared with the mean of the whole series em-
ployed. It seemed possible, however, that some serious fluctuations
would escape notice in this measure, in cases where rapid but only
moderately violent movements, now upwards, now downwards, charac-
terised the market quotations. A few very large variations seemed
capable of outweighing numerous smaller but quite serious movements.
To avoid possibility of a misleading result, therefore, the mean actual
difference between each quotation and that immediately following it has
also been calculated, and forms a second measure of the degree of varia-
bility of the price. In these comparisons the movements of wheat prices
have been deemed sufticient.

The available series of daily quotations did not extend over a
sufficiently long period to make their use for our purpose quite satisfac-
tory. To test in some degree how far less frequent quotations might be
used without greatly disturbing the index obtained, some calculations
were made of the Standard Deviation for certain daily quotations and
other weekly quotations. The results indicate that the relative intensity
of fluctuations may be fairly well measured by weekly prices.

Tt may be added that the S.D. of a series of weekly prices coincided
with remarkable closeness to that of a monthly series derived from them
over a period of half a century. The percentage of standard deviation to
average price is not widely different in the two cases. We have, there-
fore, considered that the relative steadiness of prices may be sufficiently
indicated from the weekly prices afforded in the Gazette Average Price of
English Wheat. Has the English farmer been subject to a less or greater
degree of fluctuation in the price of his wheat since futures-markets have
dominated those prices ?

In the diagram annexed (see Appendix, Plate IV.), and in the tables
which accompany it, the comparison over fifty years is shown. Calendar
years have been used because the use of a tixed date from which to reckon
the cereal year introduced the difficulty that it sometimes threw price-
movements of two harvests into one so-called cereal year. Were the
cereal year able to be taken, the fluctuation shown might be somewhat
reduced. The computation of the S.D. for these years, making each
year begin with September, has been made, and no great difference would
be shown had those results been plotted on the diagram in place of
those for calendar years. The summary of the tables in the Appendix
is as follows :—

Gazette Average of English Wheat.

Period . é - . 4 A | 1850-59 | 1860-69 | 1870-79 | 1880-89 | 1890-99

8.) GIN Mgs ROM eseebeds Hse “ae lise Sate

Average Price s.d. per quarter ./ 53 4 |51 9 |51 5 |37 0 | 98 9
Standard Deviation . . i) Ade ae 3102) 1112) 2 68
Mean Weekly Movement 0105 | 0 8% 0 73 0 52 | 0 52

The gradual narrowing of the range of variation is a noteworthy
feature of the table. The fact that, considered as a percentage of the
price, the variability has hardly been reduced, is equally noteworthy ; but
it is a disputable point whether the actual money amount of the
variability is not rather to be taken into account than the percentage

432 REPORT—1900.

variability. Attention may be especially called to the fact that, except
for the disturbance due to the Leiter corner, the period of comparative
stability in the Gazette Average Price, stability in the sense of freedom
from violent fluctuations, sets in precisely at the time when the organisa-
tion of the futures-markets had reached that stage to which their op-
ponents attribute malign results.

A comparison of the relative variability of prices in different centres
is also not without interest. In the following table the movements in
Berlin, New York, Chicago, and Liverpool are compared in each of the
last four years, in shillings and pence per cental of 100 lb.

B. | 1896 | 1897 1898 | 1899

Biya Sid, Sia ades Be

Berlin: §.D. . 53 63 114 3
M.D.M. = = 2 8
Average Price 6.192 (sue 8 53 6 102

Winter Wheat/Spring Wheat |Winter Wheat Winter Wheat

New York: §.D. | 78 1 pee | 3
M.D.M. 3 z es f
Average Price 5 5t 6 3g 6 7 bY Ge
Chicago (Spring): 8.D. . | 62 63 1 8 24
M.D.M. ; g z 1 4
Average Price . 4 53 6 oat Pade 4111
Liverpool: 8.D. . el + 98 1 53 1i
M.D.M. é — 4 g 2
Average Price | _ 6 98 7 58 6 Of

8.D. = Standard Deviation, M.D.M. = Mean Daily Movement.

The restrictions imposed on Berlin’ business have not, apparently,
increased the steadiness of prices, which isa feature in which an influence
was anticipated by the advocates of the restriction.

We have failed to find any conclusive evidence in favour of the theory
that prices have been depressed as a consequence of the development of
markets for future delivery business, and have found reason for believing
that in point of steadiness some change for the better is traceable since
the influence of these markets became great. These conclusions are in
accord with the deductions which a theoretic examination of the question

ields.

f In what precedes the word ‘futures’ has been uniformly used to
indicate the kind of business contemplated. The distinction between the
contract for delivery within a definite future period of time and the
contract which confers the right to demand that such a bargain shall be
entered upon at a definite price seemed to be conveniently made by
reserving the name ‘option’ to the latter class of contract, although
actual practice in this matter is not quite definite and consistent. To
make a distinction not always made in practice seemed calculated to avoid
confusion.

ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN’ RAW PRODUCE. 435

APPENDIX.

Taste I,—Wheat and Maize: Average Farm Price, Average Price at Chicago
and New York, and Average Export Price in Cents per bushel.

Wheat Maize
Average | | | Average | Average Average
Farm | Chicago New York) Export | Farm | Chicago|New York | Export
Price Price Price Price
-- J 1033 95 -— 433 57 —
~~ 46 113 95 — 31 60 —
— — 113 112 — 27 61 |) —
— 47 943 85 — 29 532 —
— 55 96 90 —_ 4i 50 —_
— 52 974 86 — 36 503 —_
— 40 1033 104 — 25 65 —
—r | 53 135 13 ==» ih 2ien| #845 =
ea ie ae 131 =} | 33m) | | 63 -—
— 59 =| 104 Ils |) = |, 405 | 7 62 =
ay | Gere |f LOGye | 106 — | 34 | 61g =
Oy tee 95% | 100 | — 33 63 —
— | 41 1034 Gis, ye SS 374 66 id
ete eae 1303 he | 47 71 —
= 9% | 184 1650 46 (os a
— 134 | 210 166 — 582 94 —
= 118 159 W85 |. —=- | 425 69 te A=
— 93 1483 13 | — 46 3 =~
—— 62 105 102 -—— 41 684 —
as 77 123 95 = = 852 _
— (3 124 98 — a 73 ——
— 714 111 123 = -H 59 64:1
93°7 734 1183 114 348 -- 59 55
114 97 1263 129 699 — 833 65°8
183-1 1403 1834 133 99°5 — 144 81:8
146°3 LY, 17534 194 46 o= 1234 130
219°6 | 1153 181 141. 68°2 = 88 81:9
SS LOS 228 127 795 — 1174 =| —-:100
142-4 176 213 190 62°8 — 120 1175
D2 elit) 14ax 139 75:3 — 100 | 96:8
104-2 | 92 118 129 54:9 = 995 | §92'5
1258 | 121 | 148 132 48:2 493 77 | 759
124 1203 1564 147 398 39 70 69°5
151 | 1142 1463 131 48°5 33 63 | 61:8
941 | 113 1423 143 64-7 64 85 Ven
100 ~—s-:101 TPA = 4| ela te 42 645 | Sle | 848
: 103-7 | 1023 123 124 37 454 623 67:2
1877 108-2 | 127 149 117 35'8 432 | 58 587
1878 acv | coos | 1212 134 318 39) j8 bs2 | 9562

' Average farm prices frcm Reports of U.S. Department of Agriculture. Prices
_ at Chicago and New York (spring wheat) from the U.S. Senate Report of 1893 on
_ Wholesale Prices, Wages, and Transportation from 1840 to 1891; and for later years,
_ for New York (winter wheat), from the U.S. Statistical Abstract, and for Chicago
_ from Messrs. Howard, Bartels, & Co.’s Record of Statistical Information.

1900. FF

434 REPORT—1900,

Table I, (continued)— Wheat and Maize: Average Farm Price, Average Price
Chicago and New York, and Average Export Price in Cents per bushel.

Wheat Maize
‘Average | | | Average | Average Average
Year Farm | Chicago New York Export | Farm !|Chicago!| New York! Export
|; (Price 4 | Price | Price | Price
1879) |) gOS 96 LG eel | 375 352 47 471
1880 | 95:1 | 1063 1230) 2b es esse 2G rs OT 55 | 54:3
1881 , 1192 | 1123 125 iil 63°6 | 49 613 55:2
1882 | 88 2 1223 | 129 ~ 4° 9 48-4 | 66 \ ya 66°8
88h a) | Ags 993 106 | its} 42:4 | 502 | 64 68:4
1884 64:5 85 | 95% 107 B57" | «54 61 611
1885 Targa 82 903 86 32°8 41 52 | 54:0 |
1886. | -68°7 77 87 87 366 | 36 47 | 4958
| 1887 68-1 75 87 89 444 | 38% 483 47-9
1888 | 92:6 | 842 923 85> | 84: 48 582° | «= 55'0
1889 |} 698 | 902 95 90 28°38 34 43 | 47:4
1890 | 83:8 85 91 83 50°6 35 | 433 | 41:8
1891 | 383'9 954 106 93 40:6 Dinu = on | 57-4
1892 | 624 (Cl ae sl 108 B93)" |) 46" | 54 5b]
18935 9|)\smpsre OB + ve 80 365) a) 39) || 250 534
1894 49:1 5 | 6ile 4) S6e 45°7 304 S61 | 46:2
| 1895 50:9 | 624 6% 4.2 358 25:3 40 473 52°9
HIG | 42:6)” | Gbe 78 65; 215 26 34 378
1897 80°8 86 | 955 75 26:3 253 32 30°6
ISGSee soerer | FQ | | Ober, |) 9398 28:7 314 375 || | 8bb
1899 | 584 713 | 793 75 303 334 41
Taste Il.—Price of Wheat at Cincinnati. Cents per bushel.
Year ' Price | Year Price Year Price
1844 69 1863 | 79 | 1882 117
1845 70 | 1864 82 1883 107
1846 60 1865 115 1884 91
1847 83 1866 180 . 1885 93
1848 78 | 1867 192 | 1886 82
1849 78 1868 156 ) 1887 79
1850 86 1869 101 1888 92
1851 66 1870 100 | 1889 84
1852 62 | 1871 121 1890 89
1853 85 | 1872 141 \| 1891 99
1854 134 1873 132 | 1892 81
1855 156 1874 108 | 1898 64
{ 1856 114 1875 100 1894 54
1857 107 1876 | 89 1895 66
1858 838 1877 | 131 1896 72
1859 117 1878 | 96 1897 89
1860 115 1879 104 | 1898 -—
1861 89 1880 Gh 1899 —
1862 B1 1881 12 | J

Se oe ae

if

pe ee
pat
a ar ;

[Prare Ty.

70th Report Brit, Assoo., 1960.

L Standard De wand Mean Weekly Movement of ‘Gazotto' Price of English Wheat. Shillings a

fly,

-
% = t I
a2 SEH
S76 At |
S Het
g? Tt
eo 1
Le
a +t
4 Wii i
4 Heit
tt
36 1
y is +
¥ =
3 t
Kd “5 10 17 *T2 75

Price of Middling American Cotton at Liverpo

i isssasssecees |

IT 35373535 G0 8 GE OS OF ES 85H
|

Tllustrating the Report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce,

- ; ON FUTURE DEALINGS IN RAW PRODUCE. 435

T ‘A s Ill.—Average Gazette Price of English Wheat, Standard Deviation and
ie Mean Weekly Movement. Shillings and Pence per Quarter.

Average Standard Weekly lage Average | Standard ne ‘oki
Price Deviation MWaveanent Price Deviation Mov al t
ao d. Be the d. 8. dd. as (des d.

40 3 1114 6 1875 45 2 3 3h 83
Bie ef 2 02 52 1876 46 3 2 O88 53
40 10 1 8 1s 1877 56 10 5 102 123
bo I 10 72 13 1878 46 5 4 % 62
72 5 8 6 202 '| 1879 43 11 4 13 63 ~
74 9 4 43 122 | 1880 44. 4 1 112 8
69 2 4 10 153 1881 45)5 2 10¢ 8t
565 3 98 105 || 1882 45 1 3 12 7
44. 3 YW | 72 {| 1883 41 7 1 32 35
43 10 3 7S 9 || 1884 3a9 2 7 $3
53° 3 6 O¢ | 102 || 1885 32 10 1 102 Ga
55 4 3 Of 82 1886 los 1 238 dy
55 6 4 73 Tz | 1887 32 6 2 12 5
44 9 2 73 54 || 1888 3111 b 102 53
40 3 eye 5 1889 29 10 0 7 3t
41 10 2 104 62 || 1890 ob 1 1 112 44
50 O 4 11} 102 | 1891 37.0 2 112 12
64 6 3 22 92 || 1892 80. 4 2 6 43
63 9 9 12 103 | 1893 26 4 0 104 23
48 3 2 104 82 || 1894 22 11 2 7% a2
46 11 4 22 92 || 1895 Zell 2 3 43
56 8 2 2 5S || 1896 263 2 104 5
HT V1 1 92 5 1897 3 3 Pe 53
58 8 2 10% 53 || 1898 34 0 6 12 102
55 10 7 (3 (Ke | 1899 25: 29 0 104 34

Pasty 1V.—Average Price of Middling American Cotton at Liverpool. In pence
per pound. From Tattersall’s Cotton Trade Circular, 1899,

'

Year | d. || Year d. Year d.
1826 62 1851 52 1876 62
1827 64 1852 5 1877 65,
1828 68 1853 53 1878 GE
1829 53 1854 53 1879 65
| 1830 62 1855 5a 1880 618
| 1831 6 1856 65, 1881 62
| 1832 62 1857 73 1882 62°
1833 gi 1858 62 1883 58
1834 ge 1859 63 1884 6
1835 104 1860 6+ || 1885 53
1836 94 1861 gee 1886 BL
1837 7 1862 172 1887 5h
1838 7 1863 234 1888 52
1839 Ti || 1864 272 || +1889 pis
1840 6 1865 19 1890 6*
1841 6i || 1866 152 1891 4u
1842 53 =| Ss: 1867 102 1892 45.
1843 42 || 1868 102 || 1893 43°
1844 4a 1869 +12! 1894 3:3
1845 4+ 1870 gis 1895 get
1846 4 1871 82 1896 gil
1847 62 1872 102, 1897 338
1848 42 1873 9 1898 ows
1849 BL 1874 8 1899 Be.
1850 7 1875 | 78 ad

A36 REPORT—1 900.

State Monopolies in other Countries—Interim Report of the Committee,
consisting of the late Professor HENRy Sipewick (Chairman),
Mr. H. Hiaas (Secretary), Mr, W. M. Ackwortu, the Right Hon.
L. H. Courtney, and Professor H. 8. Foxwet..

Tur Committee have collected the materials for a report the lines
of which were under discussion at the time of the Chairman’s last illness.
It was hoped that he would be able to agree to a report by the end
of June ; but as he was unable to sign a draft, the Committee have
not proceeded further in the matter. They recommend that the Com-
mittee be reconstituted under a new Chairman for the purpose of
reporting at an early date, and be allowed to retain the unexpended
balance of ihe grant.

Small Serew Gauge-—Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir
W. H. Preece (Chairman), Lord KEtvin, Sir F. J. BRAMWELL,
Sir H. Trueman Woop, Major-Gen. WEBBER, Col. WarkIN, Messrs.
R. E. Crompton, A. Strow, A. Le NEveE Foster, C. J.
Hewitt, G. K. B. Evpninstone, E. Riee, C. V. Boys, J.
MarsHaLL GorHaM, and W. A. PRICE (Secretary), appointed
for the purpose of considering whether the British Association form
of Thread for Small Serews should be modified, and, if so, in what
direction. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX.—Report of Laperiments on Serew Threads made by J. MARSHALL
GorHAM and W. A. PRICE . ° : : 5 : . : p. 444

Tris Committee was appointed at the Ipswich Meeting of the British

Association in 1895, to consider repeated complaints that screws of the

British Association thread, proposed by the Committee of 1882, obtained

commercially, were not satisfactorily interchangeable. It was evident

that the difficulty arose from the want of proper gauges, or other ready
means of testing screw threads, and the Committee at once took steps to
find out how these could be obtained. In a report presented at the Dover

Meeting of the Association last year (1899) were described the efforts we

had made to secure the production of these gauges, and to make them -

generally available in a commercial way. We reported that a high degree

of accuracy in dimensions, though not in form, had been attained in a

small number of specimens submitted to us by the Pratt and Whitney

Company ; that these were the product of exceptional skill and care ; and

that they were only obtained after long delay. These gauges were sufh-

ciently good for all practical requirements, and had gauges of the same
character been generally available some years before, it is probable that
the complaints which led to the appointment of this Committee would
never have been made. Taking into consideration the difficulty that had

been met in obtaining these gauges ; the representations made by the .

manufacturers of the difficulty in producing them, and of the comparative

ease with which a flat-topped thread can be accurately formed ; and the
fact that such screws are used in foreign countries for the best class of
engineering work, we reported that the form of the British Association
thread was unsatisfactory, and recommended that the Committee should
be reappointed to consider its modification.

A proposal to alter the form of an established and generally satisfac-

een 4

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 437

tory system of screw threads may cause some apprehension among users
of them, and the Committee, many members of which are intimately
acquainted with the trouble and inconvenience incidental to a change of
the kind, recognise that very substantial reasons are required to justify it.
They think it desirable that the considerations which have led them to
make this proposal should be fully stated.

Consideration of the exact cause of the difficulty found in the con-
struction of gauges for the British Association thread showed immediately
that it was due to the rounded top and bottom of the thread. There is
no difficulty in making any given angle between the straight portions or
sides of the generating tool or chaser, but to arrange that these straight
lines shal], at definite points, turn smoothly into circular ares of a given
radius is a matter of some difficulty. The difticulty has been met with a
good deal of success. The original threads, cut by Mr. Lehmann, and
those produced recently by the Pratt and Whitney Company, are admirable
specimens of workmanship, especially when the small size of the pieces
is considered ; and to the careful work done by Mr. Lehmann in the years
following 1882, when originating the threads, the success they have
achieved is largely due. The production, however, of chasers, even if it
can be repeated indefinitely, does not end the difficulty. The hardening
of the screws produced by these tools introduces some inaccuracy. They
are no longer perfectly straight, perfectly cylindrical, or of perfectly
accurate pitch, and the only way to correct them is by grinding. The
inaccuracies produced by hardening are not of sufficient importance to
affect the use of taps, and in the case of die-plates the errors produced in
the diameters are corrected by opening or closing the die ; but for gauges
corresponding to modern ideas of mechanical accuracy the errors pro-
duced by hardening are considerable, and much greater than those found
in screws whose forms can be finally obtained by grinding. With the
British Association thread this process does not seem to be practicable
except perhaps in single specimens, and in this lies the inherent defect of
the thread.

A way out of the difficulty is offered by the adoption of a flat-topped
thread, but before this can be discussed it is necessary to consider what
are the peculiar advantages of the rounded thread, which have brought it
into general use, and led to its adoption by the original Committee. The
British Association thread was taken with a slight modification directly
from Professor Thury’s Swiss system, which had been constructed by
finding a formula to represent the average existing practice among Swiss
clockmakers. Sir Joseph Whitworth formed his system of screws in a
similar way by averaging the English engineering practice of his time. It
appears that the object in view in both these cayes was to regularise exist-
ing practice, not to effect a reform ; and that an alteration in the form of
thread in common use was not contemplated. The same was done in
America for the United States thread, so far as the pitches and diameters
were concerned, but the form of the thread was determined by Dr. Sellers
on general considerations. The origin of the round thread in the British
Association system was in the common practice of the Swiss workshops
when the rule was constructed. Now, whatever may be the prescribed shape
of the thread, it is certain that small screws, produced on screw machines,
will have rounded tops, and if a new rule for American threads were con-
structed from the shapes of ordinary small screws found in the United
States, the form obtained would have a rounded top, notwithstanding that
they are ali supposed to represent the flat-topped Sellers thread. Since

438 REPORT—1900.

a screw machine tends to produce rounded threads, and the natural course
of trade conditions tends to the reproduction of current forms, the common
use in Switzerland of screws with rounded threads does not necessarily
show that such a form has especial merit, or had originally been delibe-
rately designed. It may be only the result of working conditions.
Professor Thury, in defining his thread, chose a form which could be easily
produced with fair accuracy, is perfectly eflicient, and can be conformed

Fie. 1.

to in practice, but we venture to think it fails to meet other important
conditions

To ascertain the conditions which should determine the form of a
screw thread, consider the mode of action of a screw holding two pieces
together. In fig. 1 the screw serves to hold the plate a to the solid —
part B, and a small part of the thread is drawn on a larger scale below.
The action of the screw depends on the tensile strain due to the pressure

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE, 4.39

produced over the surfaces aa, aa,..., and the compression produced
there by the act of screwing up relieves any pressure over the surfaces

bb, 6b,.... Contact and pressure at the pointsccc... depend on
the relative diameters of the screw and the tapped hole. The spaces
shown in the figure along the surfaces } b, bb, . . . are of course greater

than would occur in a well-fitted screw. Nowif the thread may be looked
upon merely as a means of supporting the tensional strain on the bolt,
without offering much frictional resistance to screwing up, it is clear that
this will be most efficiently done if the pressure is evenly supported over
the whole of the working surface of the thread a a, aa, . . ., and within
the assigned dimensions of the thread this surface should be as large as
possible. Contact and pressure at the points c, c, . . . depending on the
respective diameters of the screw and the tapped hole may interfere with
the fair contact of the working surfaces, involve extra resistance to screw-
ing up, and, so far as the support of the tensional strain is concerned, serve
no useful purpose. The best design for the thread, in view of its function
of supporting the tension, is that which secures most perfectly a continuous
working contact over the surface a a,a.a, . . ., and freedom from pressure
atother points. These conditions are met best by a thread having straight
sides, a flat top, and a clearance space at the top and bottom of the thread
‘such as is shown in fig. 2 (p. 441). The provision of straight sides gives
a form to the originating tool which can be produced with more ease and
accuracy than one of a curved form, and assists to secure correspondence
between the surfaces of the screw and nut: the provision of a flat top gives
the largest possible area to the working surface within the given limits of
the thread : the provision of a clearance space at top and bottom removes
the possibility of any interference with the fit of the working surface by
irregularities of form at those points, and avoids unnecessary friction.
Screws with straight sides and flat tops are perfectly satisfactory im in-
strument practice, are employed in France and Germany for the most
important engineering work, and are universal in America for work of all
kinds, for instrument work as well as heavy engineering work. We
understand that the provision of clearance is well recognised in the practice
of American and French engineers, who use the Sellers thread, and Mr.
Hewitt, at Prescot, gives a very liberal clearance in the screws manu-
factured by him. The ease with which such threads are originated is a
point in their favour, though it would be of small importance if it were
shown that the thread is practically defective in other ways.

As regards the reduction of the sectional area of the core by the pro-
posed deepening of the thread, the figures obtained by Messrs. Gorham and
Price, corroborated by common experience, show that screws give way
under tension by breaking across the core rather than by strippmg their
threads or those of the nuts ; and it has been urged against the proposal to
deepen the thread that it weakens the screw in its already weakest part.
The reply to this is that the strength of the screw is really determined by
the strength of the core, and that the British Association series is so
closely spaced that a screw can always’ be found whose core is of the
required size. Moreover, in well-designed work, screws have so large a
factor of safety that a reduction of the section of the core by an amount
varying from 8 per cent. in large screws to 12 per cent. in small screws
will not generally be a matter of great importance, though it will be
remembered that the resistance to torsional fracture varies inversely as
the square of the sectional area.

4.4.0 REPORT—1900.

The adoption of a flat-topped thread with a clearance would, we
believe, completely obviate the difficulty of producing satisfactory gauges,
the question to which the attention of this Committee was originally
directed. The construction of these is referred to later in the report.
Other elements of the screw have received the attention of the Committee
as follows.

Mr. George M. Bond, of the Pratt and Whitney Company, has
expressed to the Committee a strong opinion that the angle of 60°
employed in the Sellers thread is most suitable for screws because of the
ease with which it is formed. Tools can be ground without difficulty,
and with great accuracy, to any desired angle, and Mr. Bond’s reason
appears to the Committee insutticient of itself to justify a change in
practice. Considering, however, the extent to which screws of the
Sellers form are employed in foreign engineering work, the Committee
desired to obtain some evidence of the exact value of the particular angle
of 60°, since, if this angle were found to possess a great advantage over
the angle of 473°, the adoption of the Sellers thread would have the
additional recommendation of bringing the small screw practice into line
with an already extensive engineering practice, while giving effect to the
conclusions already reached by the Committee of the desirability of clear-
ance and a flat-topped thread. Some experiments on lines suggested by
Mr. Crompton have been carried out by Messrs. J. Marshall Gorham
and W. A. Price, and their results are printed as an appendix to this
report. They concluded that an angle of 471° is better for screws than
an angle of 60°, on the ground that it offers much less frictional resistance
to screwing and unscrewing on a given tensional load, and the general
tendency of this observation is corroborated by the practice of using a
thread for the leading screws of lathes, the serews of carpenters’ clamps,
and of screw jacks, in which the working surface is perpendicular to the
axis of the screw. Another consideration leads us to think it undesirable
to adopt an angle of 60°. The advantage of bringing small screw-practice
into line with that of foreign engineers will only be fully gained if their
rule for the size of the flat top of the thread is also adopted. This rule
gives a maximum possible clearance of +108 pitch when the thread is cut
to a perfectly sharp y at the bottom. This clearance would be sufficient
but tools with perfectly sharp points are maintained with difficulty, and
it would not generally obtain. A tool of 474°, ground to give a clearance
of +1 of the pitch, has a flat at the point one-seventh of the pitch wide.
For small screws Professor Thury’s angle of 474° had the same sanction
of practice among clockmakers as a larger angle had among engineers
when it was adopted by Dr. Sellers ; and though it is often difficult to
assign exact reasons for the particular practice of practical men, yet it
cannot be disregarded unless the reasons for its use are quite clear, and
are shown to be insufficient. We see no suflicient reason to change the
present angle of 475°, especially as a change of angle would make existing
stocks and tools altogether useless in conjunction with the existing form.

The existing series of pitches and diameters, with their designating
numbers, is generally approved, and the Committee have received no sug-
gestion that it is otherwise than satisfactory.

Thus far it has been assumed that, given the necessary tools, all forms
of thread can be produced with the same ease. This, however, does not
apply to the small screws used in watches, which are produced by turning
the blanks into a hard die without cutting edges. In such a process

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 441

great force would be required either to squeeze the metal into sharp
re-entrant angles, or to make it flow past sharp corners. On this point
Mr. GC. J. Hewitt writes to the Committee respecting the proposed altera-
tion of the British Association thread : ‘A die of this operating character
for screws flatted top and bottom soon loses its contour, and needs con-
stant replacement ; and in addition my experience leads me to believe
that it requires more force than a rounded thread ; therefore it sets up
more torsional strain of the metal, a factor of great moment where such

Fig. 2.

TABLE OF DIMENSIONS.

em =pitch. EH’ ='6 pitch. AA='149 pitch,
CO! =1'14 pitch. BOA'="655,, BE ='238)) ..;
DD/='8 *: KODY = 415-- yr ='182

small diameters are being produced, breakage in the dies being a con-
stant source of trouble even at the best.’ In the same letter Mr. Hewitt
explicitly approves the proposals of the Committee for the larger
threads, both as regards the flat top and the provision of clearance.
Mr. Hewitt’s experience at the Prescot watch factory is so large, and
his knowledge of the manufacture of watchmakers’ screws is so intimate,
that the other members of the Committee have no hesitation in accepting
his suggestion to divide the present series into two sections. The large
section, consisting of what may be called instrument-makers’ screws, from
No. 0 to No. 11, includes screws from 6 mm. to 1:5 mm., or in English

_ measure from } inch to ‘059 inch. The small section, from Mo. 12 down-

wards, consisting of watchmakers’ screws, includes screws below 1:5 mm.,
f=] ?

44.2 REPORT—-1900.

or in English measure below ‘059 inch. The Committee propose to
modify the form of thread of the screw of the large section only.

The above considerations lead the Committee to propose to replace
the present form of thread of screws from No. 0 to No. 11 inclusive by
the form shown in fig. 2.

Here the line A’ A A... . represents the outline of the nut, B) BB...
of the screw ; andde/. . . is the outline of the present British Association
thread. It will be observed that the flat part of the side, or the working
surface, is increased by nearly 60 per cent. Accurately formed screws
of this pattern for special purposes can be cut on the lathe with much
greater ease than those with a rounded thread. The screw is cut with
a single-point tool from a cylinder, and in the larger sizes the nut can be
cut with a single-point tool from a cylindrical hole. The difficulty of
forming chasers of a complicated form is entirely avoided. These observa-
tions apply equally to the construction of taps and plates, and of gauge-
pieces. Given that the pitch of the screw and the angle of the thread
are accurate, and the sides straight, the fit of the screw in a correct gauge
is determined by the length of the diametral line terminated by the in-
clined sides of the thread, and this dimension is called the effective diameter
of the screw. If this dimension is the same in the screw and the nut, they
will fit without shake independently of the exact values of the external
and internal diameters, or of the exact form of the ends ; and the lengths
of the effective diameters of screws and nuts are definite numerical
measures of their fits one with another. The point which it is important
should be right is the straight between A’ and B in both nut and screw.
The nut must not pass A’, nor the screw pass B ; but so long as the nut
is cut as far as B or farther the shape of the excess does not matter. The
same thing holds with the screw at A’, but here excessive clearance is
objectionable because it weakens the core of the screw.

In constructing plug-gauges for testing nuts the straight sides of the
thread can be corrected after hardening by grinding with a lap, and
this process corrects at once the irregularities of pitch and angle, and is
continued till the effective diameter is reduced to the desired value. The
top of the thread, being cylindrical, presents no difficulty. The form of
the bottom of the thread is immaterial, since the clear hole in the nut is
most conveniently tested with a cylinder plug-gauge. In the specimens
submitted to us last year by the Pratt and Whitney Company this
cylinder was constructed in one piece with the screwed plug.

In ring or nut gauges for testing screws a slit is cut through the
tapped hole, and closed with a screw. The hole can be polished by a
corresponding screwed piece, but could only be corrected by grinding by
the use of very refined appliances. After polishing the slit is closed to
fit a prepared screwed plug, and the clear hole brought to its correct value
with a lap. The process is not so satisfactory as with a plug-gauge, but
the pieces which the ring is designed to test can be satisfactorily measured
in other ways, so that the gauge is of less importance.

The effective diameter of a screw is readily measured in a micrometer
gauge between a conical point and a y-notch, both having an angle of
473°. An instrument of this kind constructed for 60° is figured in tool-
makers’ catalogues. ‘

Ordinary taps for nuts or for the working holes in larger pieces will
be different in form from the screws, and different from the taps employed
to make dies or screw-plates. The ordinary dies or plates in a workshop

Regi

SS

‘

a i a i i a is |

cael

ea a 8g

oe a) & =

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE, 443

used for making screws will not be suitable for making taps. In small

workshops this may sometimes cause mistakes, but in shops having a
separate tool-room this extra specialisation should present no difficulty.

Objections have been raised to the above proposal on three grounds.

It has been represented to us that in finely fitted work the screws
should fit their holes perfectly and all over, and that the existence of a
clearance gap all round the edge of the thread is inconsistent with a high
standard of workmanship. This objection is evidently to some extent a
matter of opinion, and it is always possible to use taps of the same form
as the screws, so that the screws will fit the taps all over as in a non-
clearance system.

It has been objected that the introduction of the proposed system will
seriously interfere with existing stocks of screws and the repairs of existing
instruments. In fig. 2 it is'shown that the new thread differs from the
old one by the addition of the small corners, y bh, h Bk, to the .screw,
and d A’e, e A’f, to the nut. In making screws and nuts with dies and
taps, these corners will always be rounded off to some extent, though the
re-entrant angles at A L’ will be as sharp as the tool which makes them.
In some screws and nuts prepared experimentally to test this point, the
outer edges of the thread were fairly rounded, and they were perfectly
interchangeable with the B.A. screws of an existing manufacturer’s stock.
The Committee believe that screws made to the proposed new thread will,
owing to the inevitable rounding, be interchangeable with existing stocks
in a great majority of cases, and that only in cases where great care has
been taken to work closely to the old standard will any difference be
noticed.

It has been objected that the proposed thread is unsuitable for such
work as bicycles and small arms which are subject to violent concussion
and vibration, whereby the screws are liable to be shaken loose and to
drop out ; and the case of alternating current arc lamps has been men-
tioned to the Committee as one in which the same thing is liable to occur.
Mr. O. P. Clements of the Birmingham Small Arms Company contri-
butes a paper to the Mechanical Section on the practice of his firm in the
manufacture of screws for bicycle parts, for which it is found necessary
to use rounded threads fitting very closely all over. It is clear that no
one form of thread can be suitable for all purposes, and we have direct
evidence that the form of thread we propose does not fail in instrument
work in the way Mr. Clements anticipates that it would doin bicycle work.

We beg to report that the system of screw threads recommended by
the British Association for the use of instrument makers, and known as
the British Association screw threads, should be modified in the following
way for all screws from No. 0 to No. 11 inclusive.

For screws.—That the designating numbers, pitches, outside diameters,
and the common angle of 474° remain unchanged ; but that the top and
bottom of the thread shail be cylindrical, showing flats in section, and
that the depth of the thread shall be increased by one-tenth of the pitch,
the diameter of the solid core being, in consequence, diminished by one-
fifth of the pitch.

for nuts.—That the designating numbers, the pitches, the diameters
of the clear holes, and the common angle of 474° remain unchanged ; but
that the top and bottom of the thread shall be cylindrical, showing flats
in section, and that the depth of the thread shall be increased by one-
tenth of the pitch.

4 AA, REPORT-—1900.

The appended table gives the pitches and diameters of the different
threads modified in accordance with this recommendation.

Table of the pitches and diameters of the British Association thread under the
rule proposed above.

| Pitch | Screw Nut
Outside Inside Outside Inside
No. | diameter diameter diameter | diameter
| | |

IVE] | IVI T= 6 9S ee el) Mai Mite | e.g | Milligs| ae

metres Mils | metres Mils metres Mils | metres | Mils metres Mils

0 | 10 394 | 60 236°2 | 4:6 181°1 | 6:2 | 244-1 | 4°8 | 189:0
UT es eel eis faye: I 5:8 208°7 | 4:04 159°1 | 5:48 210°8 | 4°22 ' 166-2 |

Zoe acS)) 31°79 | 47 | 185:0 | 3566 140°4 | 4862 | 191°4.| 3°728 | 146°8
| 3 “73 | 28°7 | 4:1 | 161-4 | 3:°078 |-121:2 | 4:246 | 167-2 | 3-224 | 126-9
| 4 66 260 | 3:6 | 141-7 | 2°676 | 105-4 | 3-732 | 146-9 | 2°808 110°6 |
| oy “59 23°2 | 32 126°0 | 2:374 93:5 | 3°318 | 130-6 | 2°492 | 98-1 |
6 | e653) 11 20:9 2°8 110°2 | 2°058 81:0 | 2906 } 114-4 | 2°164 | 85:2 |

Rept |eeatS 18°9 2-5 | 98:4 | 1:828 72:0 | 2°596')' 102:2) | 1°924 757

Ce cee esi al 69 nore 86°6 | 1°598 62:9 | 2-286 | 90:0 | 1:684 | 66:3

9 "39 | 15-4 19 74:8 1:°354 53°3 | 1-978 179 | 1432 | 66:4

10 35; 13°8 IG ( 66°9 | 1:210 ATO" iO OT 21 L280) 1) 604

| 1195) 59°71 | 1:066 | 42:0 | 1:562)) GI:5 | 1-128 | 44-4

11 31 12-2 )

In order to give practical effect to our recommendations we desire to
obtain a set of the proposed screws, with tools and gauges, for comparison
with the present ones. We shall thus be able to exhibit in a concrete
form the character of the thread, and also to show how far screws made
with the new tools are interchangeable with the existing stocks. We
recommend that the Committee shall be reappointed for this purpose with
a grant of 50/.

APPENDIX.

Report of Experimenis on Screw Threads made by J. MARSHALL
Goruam and W, A. Price.

The object of these experiments was to determine the relative advan-
tages of different angles for the threads of small screws, and two questions
were proposed for trial.

1. Which angle gives the greatest frictional torque to resist unscrew-
ing ?

2. Which angle gives the greatest resistance to the tearing of a steel
serew out of a brass plate or nut ?

To answer these questions, six pieces, of the forin of fig. 3, were made
of steel. On one end, a, of each a thread was cut which was the same in
every case, and was used only for the purpose of connecting the pieces in
the testing-machine. The threads to be compared were cut on the ends 6.
Three kinds of thread were tried, two pieces being made of each kind of
thread.

The mode of trial is shown in fig. 4. A pair of these steel pieces,
A A, having threads of the same kind at the ends / }, were tightly screwed

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 44.5

by the ends wa into a sleeve F, so that they could not be unscrewed by the
forces employed in the test. On the ends 66 were placed brass nuts BB,
supported on steel collars C C, which rested in spherical seats in the brass
pieces D D. ‘These last pieces D D were screwed into E E, the cast-iron
terminal blocks of the testing-machine.

Two experiments were made in each case.

Eig. 3.

a=
posilior of rout:

1. With a steady pull on the specimens the torque required to turn
both screws simultaneously in their nuts was measured. This was ascer-
tained by means of a small spring balance acting by a lever on the hexa-
gonal sleeve F.

2. The pull of the testing-machine was then steadily increased until
one of the screws was pulled through the nut.

Fie. 4.

The screwed pieces A A were turned out of tool steel, bright drawn
rods of clockmakers’ silver steel, 4/’ diameter. The main object of the
experiments being to find the force required to shear the thread out of the
nuts B B by screws of given form, any deformation of the screw itself had
to be avoided. The } ends of the steel pieces were accordingly water-
hardened and let down to a spring temper. In the course of testing, one
out of each pair of steel screws broke at the point where it entered the

AAG REPORT—1900.

brass nut, at a strain much below the calculated breaking strain. The
form of the fracture was in every case that of the dotted line c, shown in
fig. 3. Professor Unwin, to whom this point was submitted, supposes
that this has no bearing on the strength or weakness of the particular
forms of thread used, but was due to internal strains in the steel produced
by the water-hardening, and to a slight bending force acting with maxi-
mum effect at the point where the screw enters the nut. The spherical
seats of the collars C C will not, he points out, wholly prevent the occur-
rence of this force. He suggests that had the screws been hardened in
oil this probably would not have happened. The sectional area of the
cores of the screws was ‘095 square inch, and the breaking strain was
expected to be about 13,500 1b. Those that broke where they entered
the nut broke at 5,600 1b. (60° screw), 5,860 Ib. (50° screw), and 5,330 Ib.
(40° screw) respectively. In a subsequent test one of them broke along
the line d (fig. 3) at 10,280 lb. Fortunately, in every case a sufficient
length of the screw was left after the accident to put on another nut, and
in each case a satisfactory result was obtained in a subsequent trial, the
screws being drawn through the nuts without being themselves broken.
The forms of the screws tested are shown in figs. 5 and 6. The

Fig. 5.

| Ie "3478" ae: |
"3575,

‘4378
rT a ra ae -4475"
diameters, both at the top and the bottom of the thread, were the same in
all the screws, and also in all the nuts. The screw threads were in all
cases flat-topped, with slightly rounded, but nearly flat, bottoms. The
pitch of the screw was the same in every case, 16 to the inch. The three
threads had angles respectively of 40°, 50°, and 60°. Each screw was cut
with a single point tool, ground to the correct angle from a cylinder pre-
viously turned to the correct diameter. The nuts were cut with single
point inside turning tools, also accurately ground, in a cylindrical hole
previously bored to the correct diameter.

The outside diameter of each screw was ;/; inch (4375) ; and the inside
diameter of each nut was ‘3575 inch. <A clearance of ‘005 inch was
given at the top and bottom of the thread in every case.

Fig. 5 shows the form of the screw and nut, having an angle of 40°,
and the dimensions which are figured are the same in each of the other
two cases.

Fig. 6 gives the outline of the contact surfaces of the screw and nut
in each of the three cases. In this figure the dimensions are figured in
thousandths of an inch,

The dimensions employed for these serews were chosen as sizes, which,

ON THE SMALL SCREW GAUGE. 44.7

while not extravagantly outside those of the screws to which the data are
to be applied, provide quantities convenient for measurement with a
micrometer gauge, and for the testing-machine.

The following results were obtained :—

A.—Torque required to turn a pair of the screws in two nuts, each
‘226 inch thick (3-6 threads) drawn apart with a strain of 1 ton.

Angle of thread. Torque required,
40° 11 foot pounds 11 x cos 20°= 10°34
50° ears < 13 x cos 25°=11°7
60° ES " 18 x cos 80° =15'6

It will be observed that frictional resistance to unscrewing increases
with the angle of the thread much more rapidly than in proportion to the

Fig. 6.

A
S-91

=
<
~
~
ov [ ~ fo AR
> $ >
o, °, - @" saa
- e's
«< <, a

increased surface pressures due to the oblique thrust. The above figures,

| from specimens black from the hardening process, are higher than one

___ obtained from a screw with a bright surface in a preliminary experiment,
by about 90 per cent.

E B.— Pull on the screw required to shear the thread out of a brass nut

_ 226 inch thick (3:6 threads) cut from flat drawn strip.

Angle of thread. Force required to Area of thread Shearing force per
shear thread. sheared. square inch,
40° 5,500 1b. 2275 sq. in. 24,160 Ib.
50° ‘ 6,220 lb. "200 seanss 24,880 lb.
60° ; 6,590 lb. PAK ee 25,200 Ib.

In this table the area of the thread sheared is obtained from a measure-
ment of the space left for the thread of the nut between the successive
sip ti of the screw, so that this area is less as the screw thread has a
wider top.

C.—Pull requiretl to shear the thread away from 4 cast brass nut
‘250 inch thiel (4 threads), y from 4 cast bras nu

448 REPORT—1900.

Angle of thread. Force required to Area of thread Shearing force per
shear thread. sheared. square inch,
40° (1) 4,890 Ib. 253 sq. in,
(2) 4,760 lb. ‘3 *
mean 4,825 lb. 19,080 lb.
50° (1) 5,400 1b. "2D Mes
(2) 5,130 Tb. # rf
mean 5,265 lb. 18,969 1b.
60° (1) 5,500 lb. 300 ~—s,
(2) 5,600 Ib. ” ys
mean 5,550 lb. 18,500 lb.

In these experiments only one screw and one nut were used in each
pull, the connection to the other side of the hexagonal sleeve being made
with a 4’ steel bolt. Two nuts of each size were sheared. In this case
no measurements were taken of twisting torque.

D.—The screw of 60° was tested on a brass nut *250 inch thick
(4 threads) made from hard drawn rod.

1. Screw broke at 10,280 lb. along line d, fig. 3.

9, Another similar screw sheared the nut at 10,820 lb. Area sheared
‘300 square inch. Shearing force per square inch 36,070 lb.

In all cases the nut was sheared along the outside surface of the screw,
not at the bottom of its own thread, so that the hole left was a tight fit
for the screw which had been pulled through.

These figures suggest the following conclusions :—

1. That the angle of a flat-ended thread has little effect on the resist-
ance of the nut to shearing, except so far as it affects the area of the
surface to be sheared ; and the advantage possessed by the 60° thread
over the others is only due to the fact that its flat top is narrower than
theirs, and the base of the nut thread correspondingly wider. From
analogy with the relative behaviour of sharp and blunted dies used in
stamping, it seems that a flat-topped thread with sharp edges should shear
a nut more easily than a rounded thread.

2. That the strength of the thread of the nut, compared with that of
the core of the screw, is such that generally in practice nuts are stronger
than their screws.

For example, a flat-ended thread of the dimensions of No. 0 B.A. of
40-ton steel will break before it strips the thread from a hard drawn brass
nut + inch thick. So a similar screw of the dimensions of No. 6 B.A. of
the same steel will break sooner than strip a brass nut 4'; inch thick.

With steel nuts the nut will generally be very much stronger than the
screw.

3. Considering (a) that the holding strength of a screw bolt is generally
determined (and that especially in small screws) by the resistance of the
bolt under tensile stress ; and (5) that, as ascertained by Professor Martens,
the resistance of a screw bolt to fracture is very largely diminished by
simultaneous torsional stress ; it is desirable that such resistance as may
be desired to tightening or loosening a bolt should be obtained by means
of the friction of the under surface of the nut.or screw head, and that the
friction of the threaded surface of the screw itself should be as small as
possible. From this point of view experiments A indicate that an angle
of thread of 40° or 50° is to be preferred to an angle of 60°, and that
especially so in the case of small screws.

The authors of this Report are under a great obligation to Professor T.
Hudson Beare for his kind assistance in ascertaining the breaking strains

of the specimens.

ON THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF CELLS. 4A9

The Micro-chenistry of Cells—Report of the Convmittee, consisting
of Professor HE. A. ScCHAFER (Chairman), Professor HE. Ray
LANKESTER, Professor W. D. Hatursurton, Mr. G. C. Bourne,
and Professor A. B. Macauuium (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary)

Tue work of the Committee was directed along the following lines :—

1. Lhe Localisation of Phosphorus in the Cell.—In this investigation
a wide range of animal and vegetable forms was employed as material,
and solutions of molybdate of ammonia in nitric acid were used to localise
the phosphorus as a phospho-molybdate compound, the distribution of the
latter being revealed after the preparations were treated with solutions of
phenylhydrazine hydrochloride. The results show that the element exists
in ceils in at least five states of combination : (a) As a nuclein or nucleo-
proteid in which the phosphorus is firmly combined in both cytoplasm
and nucleus. (5) As a derivative (nucleinoid) of nuclein or nucleo-
proteid, in which the phosphorus is much less firmly combined. Examples
of this are found in smooth muscle fibre in the dim bands of striated

muscle fibre, in the substance constituting the zymogen granules in

secreting glands, and in the outer limbs of the retinal rods and cones.
(c) As an inorganic metaphosphate dissolved in the cytoplasm of some
cells, and apparently derived from a and b. (d) As lecithin, which is
present in every cell, and markedly in nerve tissue. (e) As an inorganic
orthophosphate in the tissues of various organs, e.g. liver, spleen, kidney,
intestinal mucosa, placenta, &c. In the demonstration of the occurrence
of these compounds of phosphorus, the length of time required to demen-
strate their presence 1s an important factor ; and, further, the metaphosphate
and orthophosphate may be removed from a preparation in a couple of
hours by the action of dilute nitric acid, while lecithin may be extracted
by repeated treatment with hot alcohol. By making preparations of cells
and tissues with the molybdate method, both before and after the action
of dilute nitric acid, as well as before and after extraction with alcohol,
it wus found possible in every case to ascertain the occurrence of one or
all of these five classes of compounds in a cellular element.

This investigation has given a very large number of results which are
of too detailed a character to be referred to specially here, and references
to which are now being incorporated in a special paper for publication.
One generalisation from these observations may, however, be in place
here. The organic, usually iron-free, compounds of phosphorus, which are
almost universally present in the cytoplasm of nucleated cells, bear a
derivative relation to those which are in the nucleus, and which contain
‘masked’ iron, while in non-nucleated organisms the compounds of iron
and phosphorus are found in the cytoplasm in all cases in a diffused form,
but in some also as granules (Cyanophycee and the Yeasts). From the
chemical point of view the nucleus is therefore an organ for containing
the iron-holding nucleo-proteids, and it is therefore an organ of secondary
and later origin in the development of the primal cell organism. f

2. The Relation of the Iron to the other Elements in the Chromatin ov
Nuclein Molecule.—In this the point to be determined was whether the

iron atom is directly united to a carbon atom, as it presumably is in
1900, eae GG.

450 REPORT-—1900.

hemoglobin, which is derived from chromatin, or, as Ascoli! claims, to the
phosphorus as a polymetaphosphate of iron. For this purpose quantities
of iron holding nuclein, prepared from lamb’s testicles, were subjected to
the action of water at 160° to 170° C., under pressure for four to eight
hours. This brings about a decomposition of the nuclein, setting free the
metaphosphorie acid as the ortho acid. It was found that in the first
four to six hours nearly all the phosphorus of the compound appears in
solution as ortho-phosphoric acid, with traces of iron, the rest of the iron
appearing to be still in organic combination in other decomposition
products either in solution or undissolved. If the iron were combined
with the meta-phosphoric acid it ought to appear as ferric phosphate,
which is soluble in the presence of ortho-phosphoric acid. In the absence
of this result it must, therefore, be held that the iron is directly associated
in the nuclein molecule with some other element, probably carbon.

3. On the Localisation of Oxidising Enzymes in the Cell.—For this pur-
pose unicellular alge, and more particularly Spirogyra, were used. The
tests for these enzymes are not sufficiently delicate to enable one to de-
tect their distribution micro-chemically, but it was found that on subject-
ng masses of the living Spirogyra threads washed with distilled water
to various degrees of pressure in a specially made hydraulic press one
obtained solutions of the various ferments the position of each of which
in the cell is approximately determinable by the pressure used. For ex-
ample, with an initial low pressure the fluid or solution expressed was
largely, if not wholly, from the spaces in the cell surrounding the chro-
matophore and the stellate cytoplasmic mass which contains the nucleus,
while with a considerably greater pressure one obtains cytoplasmic and
nuclear fluids in a second solution, and with the maximum pressure the
cytoplasmic and nuclear structures, but not the chromatophore, are disin-
tegrated to a certain extent and pass into the fluid expressed as suspended
material, which, if kept in this condition for three or four days, partially
dissolves. This forms the third solution. In testing for the occurrence
of oxidising enzymes in these solutions various readily oxidisable reagents
were used as indicators, but the one which gave results most to be relied
upon was guaiacum in absolute alcohol, a drop of which added to a solu-
tion of an oxidising enzyme results in the production of a blue solution in
from a few minutes to half an hour. It was found that an oxidase is
present in solution No. 1 in considerable quantities, but sparingly in No.
2, and it is not demonstrable in No. 3. In the first solution an aéro-
oxidase occurs in small quantities, that is, an oxidase which is active
only in contact with air. Traces of an aéro-oxidase were found in the
second solution, but not in that obtained with the maximum pressure.
In the last, however, was found abundant evidence of the presence of a
peroxidase, that is, of an oxidase which renders guaiacum solutions
(emulsions) blue only in the presence of hydrogen peroxide. This same
solution also was found to contain a catalase (Loew), that is, a ferment
which liberates oxygen from hydrogen peroxide, but which does not
oxidise guaiacum emulsions. From such experiments it would appear
that the peroxidase and catalase are very intimately associated with the
protoplasmic and nuclear structures of the cell while the oxidase ‘and
aéro-oxidase are in media external to the protoplasm. It is important
to note that the chromatophore does not yield an oxidising ferment or

catalase.
1 Zeits fiir Physiol. Chemie, vol. xxviii. p. 426.

ON THE MICRO-CHEMISTRY OF CELLS. 45]

4. On the Micro-chemistry of Oxyphile Granules, by Dr. J. J. Mac-
kenzie.—Observations on the eosinophilous cells of the bone marrow of
the cat and frog and on the same variety of cells from the ccelomic cavity
of the frog show that although there is obtained in the granules a distinct
iron reaction with ammonium sulphide when the preparation is kept in a
mixture of this reagent and glycerine at a temperature of 55-60° C. for
7 to 10 days the reaction is not nearly so marked as in the nuclear chromatin
of the same cells and is less readily demonstrated. The method in which
acid alcohol is used to liberate the iron from its ‘masked’ condition, and
hematoxylin to demonstrate the liberated iron, does not reveal the iron
in these granules ; at most with this method one finds a slight reaction in
the perigranular protoplasm, but not in the granules themselves. These
granules give a reaction for phosphorus when they are treated with a
nitric acid solution of ammonium molybdate for some hours, and sub-
sequently with a solution of phenylhydrazine hydrochloride, The reaction
is much more marked than that in the nuclear chromatin. It is evident
from these observations that the substance forming the eosinophilous
granules is a nucleo-proteid containing traces of iron, and that it is
probably a derivative of nuclear chromatin.

5. On the Micro-chemistry of the Nucleus, by Dr. F. H. Scott.—It
was found that the non-chromatin and non-nucleolar portions of the
nuclei in gland cells which constitute the /anthanin of Heidenhain and
the edematin of Reinke, though soluble in gastric juice, give evidence of
the presences of ‘masked’ iron and organic phosphorus in small propor-
tions. Similar evidence was obtained in the case of the non-nucleolar and
non-chromatin portions of the nuclei of nerve-cells. It is probable that
lanthanin or cedematin, while unlike a nucleo-proteid in some respects, is a
closely related compound.

During the past year the following papers, including observations on
the micro-chemistry of cells made during the last two years, were
published :—

1. On the Structure, Micro-chemistry, and Development of Nerve Cells, with
Special Reference to their Nuclein Compounds. By Dr. F. H. Scott, ‘Trans.
Can. Inst.,’ vol. vi. p. 405, and University of Toronto Studies, Physiological
Series, No. 1.

2. On the Cytology of Non-nucleated Organisms. By Professor A. B, Macal-
lum, ‘Trans. Can. Inst.,’ vol. vi. p. 439, and University of Toronto Studies,
Physiological Series, No. 2.

Summary of Dir Scott's Paper.

The Nissl granules were found to contain ‘masked’ iron and organic
phosphorus and to be unaffected by treatment with artificial gastric juice.
They are therefore constituted of a nucleo-proteid in many respects allied
to chromatin. It differs, however, from the nuclear chromatin which is
basophile and from the substance forming the oxyphile centre of the
nucleoli and the material diffused through the nuclear cavity in fully
developed nerve-cells. The latter substance also contains organic phos-
phorus and ‘masked’ iron, and is digestible in artificial gastric juice.
These three nucleo-proteids are derived from the original kinetic chromatin
of the neuroblast, and the substance forming the Nissl granules is the only
nucleo-proteid of the three that diffuses from the nucleus. In some forms
this diffusion does not take place in tho fully developed cell, or does so

Ge

A452 REPORT —1900.

only to a very slight extent. In this case few or no Nissl grantles are
found ; a condition which is very much like that observed in the not fully
developed nerve-cell, and therefore embryonic. This condition is markedly
illustrated in the nerve-cells in Caudate Amphibia.

Summary of Professor Macallum’s Observations.

In the Cyanophycez the cell, which is non-nucleated, contains two
zones, a central anda peripheral. The latter contains the colouring matter,
and in its vesiculated cytoplasm there is a compound which gives evidence
of containing traces of organic phosphorus and ‘ masked’ iron. On the
other hand, the central body gives marked reactions for these two elements
which are united in a compound diffused throughout its structure. This
compound stains with hematoxylin like chromatin, and as it resists diges-
tion it is probably chromatin. An iron-holding nucleo-proteid constitutes
the red granules of Biitschli, but it differs from chromatin in that it is
digestible with artificial gastric juice. Another variety of granules,
called ‘cyanophycin’ granules, found only in the peripheral layer, are
formed of proteid free from iron and phosphorus. The only substance
in the Cyanophycex which resembles fully the chromatin of the cells of
higher organisms is that holding iron and phosphorus and diffused in the
central body.

In the yeast all the iron and phosphorus, in addition to being diffused
throughout the cytoplasm, are also localised in small granules and cor-
puscles which have been held to be nuclei and nucleoli by various observers.
The substance which constitutes these and that in which are combined the
iron and phosphorus diffused through the cytoplasm are different from the
chromatin of higher organisms, in that they are soluble in artificial gastric
juice ; but they are the only chromatin-like substances present in the
yeast-cell.

In Beggiatow the compounds containing ‘masked’ iron and organic
phosphorus are uniformly diffused throughout the cytoplasm, and when
granules which stain with hematoxylin occur they also are found to con-
tain iron and phosphorus in a corresponding form of combination.

The Committee ask to be reappointed, with the addition of Professor
J. J. Mackenzie, of Toronto.

Comparative Histology of Suprarenal Capsules.—Report of the Com~
mittee, consisting of Professor KE. A. ScHAFER (Chairman), Mr.
SwaLE VINCENT (Secretary), and Mr. Vicror Horstry.

Durine the past year several points in connection with the comparative
histology of the suprarenal capsules have been reinvestigated, and during
the investigation several subsidiary inquiries have arisen, such as the
histology of the pituitary body and some points in its physiology, the
physiological actions of extracts of nervous tissues, &c. The results of
these investigations are given at length in paper's published during the
year in the ‘Journ. of Physiol.’ and in the ‘ Brit. Med. Journ.’ See also
‘ Anat. Anz.,’ Bd. xviii. 8. 69, 1900.

nh

ON THE COMPARATIVE HISTOLOGY OF CEREBRAL CORTEX. 453

The Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cortex.—IReport of the Com-
mittee, consisting of Professor F. Gorcu (Chairman), Dr. G. Mann
(Secretary), and Professor BH. H. Staruine. (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

SincE the last report three complete series of sections have been made of
the central nervous system of the bonnet monkey—viz., (1) transverse
sections from the thalamus to and including the second dorsal nerve, from
material fixed in Mann’s picro-corrosive formaldehyde ; (2) a coronal
series through the lower part of the medulla and up to and including the
eighth cervical segment (fixed in picro-corrosive formaldehyde) ; (3) a
Weigert series extending from the fillet decussation to the dorsal cord.

The reason for investigating these regions was to ascertain whether
so-called motor-cells differed from ‘sensory ’ ones in any definite structural
characteristics. Nothing was discovered by which one kind of cell could
be distinguished from the other, and it has become evident that Nissl’s
classification is a purely artificial one. All cells show a distinct fibrilla-
tion, and the basophil ‘ Nissl-substance’ lying between the bundles of
fibrils.

Motor cells, as a rule, have a greater development of the dendra, and,
in consequence, the fibrils coming from these processes in coursing through
the cell break up the available space in a regular, uniform manner, and
hence there results a more regular arrangement of the basophil granules.
In sensory cells, on the other hand, because of the special development of
one or two dendritic processes one frequently notices on that side of the
nucleus looking towards the biggest dendron a pyramidal (in section tri-
angular) area, occupied by non-differentiated plasm, and formed by the
divergence of the fibrils coming from the big dendron and sweeping round
the nucleus. In these cells, as seen most characteristically in the Locus
ceruleus, Substantia nigra, lateral horns of the spinal cord and the antero-
mesial visceral group of cells, Nissl’s granules form relatively coarse aggre-
gations towards one side of the cell. At one time it was thought that a
certain appearance first described by Mann in 1894! in the occipital lobe
of the rabbit, since then rediscovered by Roncorini and discredited by
Levi—viz., the presence of crescentic bodies on one side of the nucleus—
would allow of a ready distinction between nerve-cells in the cerebrum
and those found in the lower centres. This, however, was found not to
be the case, for the same appearance is seen throughout the whole length
of the spinal cord right down to the coccygeal portion. The examination
of the dorsal and lower regions of the cord was made possible through the
kindness of Miss M. Purefoy FitzGerald, who placed at our disposal the
complete series of sections she is tabulating at Oxford.

As to the real existence of these crescents there cannot be the slightest
doubt, for Levi’s suggestion that we are dealing with a folding of the
nuclear membrane is readily disproved by making transverse sections of
the cells in the Cornu Ammonis at right angles to their long axis, and
staining them by Mann’s eosin-toluidin-blue method, when these crescents
in question appear one in each nucleus as distinct swellings in the nuclear
membrane, while the latter is not stained at all. In addition to the com-
mon crescentic type one may frequently see in surface views branches

} Joyrn, Anat. and Physiol. October 1894,

ADA REPORT—1900.

running outwards from the main central portion. The significance of
these figures is probably as follows: F. H. Scott! has shown that the
Nissl’s substance is a nucleo-proteid, which amongst reptiles remains
throughout life intranuclear, but which in other vertebrates is found out-
side the nucleus. Taking these facts into consideration, we are led to con-
clude that the crescent is a specially modified part of the nuclear membrane
through which normally the nucleo-proteid is passed out into the body of
the nerve-cell. That similar nucleo-proteids do pass out in ordinary
epithelial cells has been ascertained in inflammatory conditions of the
epidermis,” and in gland-cells generally.*

On comparing epithelial with nerve cells we find in both a system of
fibrils which runs right through the cell ; secondly, material secreted by the
nucleus and occupying a position between the fibrils, and lastly a system of
intracellular lymph channels(Holmgren). During the last year the existence
of these channels in the nerve-cells of the spinal, sympathetic, and central
nervous systems of the rabbit, cat, and monkey has been confirmed by using
erythrosin instead of eosin in conjunction with toluidin-blue. Holmgren
holds that these canals serve to carry a free supply of lymph to the nerve-
cell, while Mann suggests that they are tubes which carry away from the
cells and towards the fields of conjunction ensymes for the elaboration of
the lymph, so as to make the latter directly assimilable by the cell
processes. Nissl’s bodies, then, are zymogen granules secreted by the
nucleus, stored up during rest, and discharged during activity.‘

Golgi’s intracellular network in spinal ganglia and the anterior horn
cells of the spinal cord may be demonstrated by fixing tissue in 25 per
cent. potassium iodide saturated with iodine, and then taking them through
aceton into paraffin. The network seems in the spinal ganglia to form a
framework on which Nissl’s substance is deposited. The latter is removed
by the potassium iodide, while the framework remains.

Other points which the serial sections have brought out are :—

1. The mesencephalic (so-called descending) root of the fifth nerve
arises from cells which are quite distinct from the cells of the Locas
ceruleus. Their axis cylinders have very distinct nodes of Ranvier.

2. The sensory decussation, as shown in the fillet, is only a more pro-
nounced condition of a general arrangement, holding good for the whole
length of the cord, the decussating fibres being derived from a small-
celled nucleus situated on a level with, and lateral to, the central canal.
The afferent fibres to it correspond to Pal’s dorsal bundle. The two nuclei
are connected by a commissure of very fine medullated nerve-fibres run-
ning dorsally to the well-known anterior white commissure.

3. Stilling’s sacral and cervical nuclei, Clarke’s dorsal column, Blu-
menawu’s nucleus, Deiter’s nucleus, and the cells of the mesencephalic root
of the fifth nerve seem to belong to the same system, which lies dorso-
laterally, and is characterised by large cells. The nucleus above referred
to under No. 2, the gracile and cuneate nuclei proper, the mesial trian-
gular nucleus of the eighth nerve, and the Locus ceruleus form a dorso-
mesial system containing small cells,

1 Trans. Canadian Institute, 1898-99.

2? Mann, Histology of Vaccinia, L.G.R., 1899. 3 Trambusti, Galeotti, Huie.

* The intracellular lymph channels are well shown in the electrical nerve-cell of
Malapterurus. ‘The structure of this cell was displayed at the Liverpool meeting of
the British Association by Mann’s charts, &c, (1895).

a ———

or

ON ELECTRICAL CHANGES IN MAMMALIAN NERVE. 45

Electrical Changes in Mammalian Nerve-—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Professor F. Gotca (Chairman), Professor E. H.
Sraruina, Dr. J. S. Macponatp (Secretary). (Drawn up by the
Secretary.)

Tue experiments performed with the assistance of grant from the Asso-
ciation have been directed towards the acquisition of information as to
the effect upon the demarcation current of mammalian nerve of
alterations in resistance, such as are found in mammalian nerve accom-
panying changes of volume and of blood-pressure in the vesseis supplying
the nerve. The nature of the changes of resistance is easily determined
but the effect of such a change in presumably causing not oniy an altera
tion in the magnitude, but also in the distribution of current and dit-
ferences of potential in the nerve, is not easy to calculate.

Not only this, but it is impossible even to decide the direction of
change (addition or subtraction) in the demarcation current which would
be produced by any alteration of the internal resistance of the nerve.

Knowledge of an exact character is required for this purpose, defining
the limits of the demarcation source and the extent to which the source is
short-circuited in the tissues of the nerve itself. It was felt that such
knowledge must be based entirely upon experiments upon nerve, and as
far as possible upon the particular nerve for which the information was
desired.

With this object a large number of experiments have been performed
upon excised mammalian nerve. The nerves after removal were placed
upon a number of non-polarisable electrodes (four to seven), the potential
differences between each pair of electrodes determined, as also the resist-
ances of the whole nerve and the sections into which it was divided by
the electrodes. The electrode upon which the cross-section lay was then
permanently connected by a wire or through a known resistance to one of
the other electrodes, and the differences of potential between each possible
pair of electrodes determined again after the formation of this circuit.

An analysis of the data gained by determination of the various resist-
ances divides the facts of experiments into the following groups :—

(a) The resistance per centimetre determined from the measurement
of resistance of any given length of the nerve varies with that length,
being smaller for the greater length.

(b) The resistance of the whole nerve directly determined is a smaller
value than its resistance calculated from a summation of the resistances
of the several sections between pairs of electrodes.

(c) The resistance of that section of the nerve bounded by the cross-
section gives a smaller value for the resistance per centimetre of the nerve
than any other section.

An observation of these facts has led to a routine method for calcu-
lating the resistance of any short length of nerve when the resistance
required is not that to a current entering and,leaving at the extremities
of the short length, but the gross longitudinal resistance to a current
travelling in paths parallel to the long axis of the nerve. The resistance
obtained from the longest available stretch of nerve proyided with a cross-

A566 REPORT—1900,

section at either end and calculated into resistance per centimetre is the
standard of gross longitudinal resistance, and multiplied by the length of
short piece of nerve gives the value required.

The determination of the differences of potential, or, as it is preferred
to call them, the available E.M.F.’s between pairs of points on nerve, and
calculations based upon these and upon the known resistances, have given
interesting information.

(«) When the cross-section is connected to a point on the longitudinal
surface, the current found in the outer circuit passing from longitudinal
surface to cross-section can be found traversing the nerve from cross-
section to longitudinal surface, by the new differences of potential acquired
by intervening points on longi-
tudinal surface of nerve. <A gal-
vanometer circuit between two
such intervening points shows a
current reverse in direction to
that in the outer circuit, and
the difference of potential be- A & C D
tween two such points is exactly
that which would be the case if they are considered simply as points upon
a circuit, the only source of E.M.F. in which is the P.D. between the
extreme points, and with a certain fraction of the total resistance between
them ; which fraction is that given by the relation of the portion of the
gross longitudinal resistance of the nerve between the points to the
resistance of the primary external circuit and the resistance of the nerve
subtended by its points of application.

If there is a pre-existing difference of potential between the two
intervening points (longitudinal current) before the primary external
circuit is formed, this difference remains and subtracts from the difference
of potential caused by the closure of this circuit. It is concluded from
this that the sources giving rise to the two phenomena are separate, and
capable of existing simultaneously with an opposition of effects.

Further, by tracing the differences of potentials round the circuit
formed by permanently joining the cross-section to a point on the longi-
tudinal surface it is possible to define the limits of the demarcation
source.

In consequence of the behaviour of points possessing a difference
of potential, the cause of longitudinal currents, an examination has
been made of electrotonic currents, and it is found that quite simi-
larly the closure of a circuit placed for the observation of an electrotonic
current creates differences of potentials in intervening points of nerve due
to a passage in the nerve of a current in the reverse direction, which
reverse current may be observed by connecting up the intervening points
through a galvanometer ; and that in this case also the differences of
potential in intervening points can be calculated from a knowledge of that
portion of the gross longitudinal resistance which lies between them.

In al] these cases the currents observed—demarcation current, longi-
tudinal current, electrotonic current—can be demonstrated in this exact
manner to be new creations, the result of the connecting up of the observa-
tion circuit. The institution of the external circuit not only provides for
the first time a current through this external circuit, but also the traverse

of the same current in a return, and therefore reverse, direction through
the nerve,

EE a ee Se ee ae ——— ae se

ON ELECTRICAL CHANGES IN MAMMALIAN NERVE. A457

(b) Experiments have also been performed with reference to the
question of the dependence of the E.M.F. of demarcation source upon the
sectional area of the nerve and number of individual fibres contained in it.
Tt has been found that the laying of two nerves side by side with their
cross-sections upon the same electrode does not increase the available
E.M.F., whilst adding to the current by a diminution of resistance ; but
that if one of the nerves is drawn along the other and away from this
electrode, so that the cross-section of one remains upon the electrode, but
that of the other is removed from it, but lies in contact with the longi-
tudinal surface of the first nerve, then there is an increase of the available
E.M.F. This summation of the E.M.F.’s, due to either singly, increases
with the distance between the two cross-sections up to a certain limiting
distance when the maximum summation is reached. It is believed that
from the details of such experiments interesting evidence can be obtained
of the position and limits sf the demarcation source and current within
the nerve.

The experiments also provide a considerable amount of evidence as to
the dependence of the available E.M.F. between cross-section and longi-
tudinal surface upon the distance of point on longitudinal surface from
the cross-section. It is believed that the E.M.F. increases up to a certain
point when a maximum is reached, and that this maximal value is obtained
until the second cross-section at other end of nerve is approached.

It is also believed that a similar law is true for longitudinal currents,
as also for electrotonic currents, namely, that with the proximal electrode
upon a fixed point the removal of the distal electrode further and further
from this point produces the same kind of variation.

In addition itis reported that in reference to the further error to which
it was conceived the variations.of blood-pressure in the blood-vessels of a
mammalian nerve might give rise—namely, to electromotive phenomena
similar to those recorded in case of the carotid and femoral arteries—a
number of experiments have been conducted to decide the causation of
this phenomenon. It was considered for purposes of further experiment
that its causation might be due to (1) changes in the muscular walls of
arteries ; (2) variations in a conceivable current due to frictional flow
through the peripheral vessels.

Experiments carried out upon these two lines have produced some
evidence in support of (1), but none in support of (2). In case of the
latter supposition the perfusion of saline solution through excised organs
under varying pressure was not found to be productive of any current
changes other than such as might be explained by changes of resistance
&e., which were also measured.

The Physiological Effects of Peptone and ils Precursors when introduced
into the Circulation. Report of « Committee, consisting of Professor
H. A. Scuirer, B.S. (Chairman), Professor C. S. SHERRING-
TON, F’.R.S., Professor R. Boyce, and Professor W. H. THompson
(Secretary). (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

Durine the year, control work arising out of the research was in the
first place brought to a completion and will shortly be published. This
deals with the influence which the solvent employed in the peptone

458 REPORT—1900,

experiments—viz., physiological solution of sodium chloride—when
injected in small quantities, produces upon the functions of the kidney.

In the next place, attention was directed to the effects which certain
constituents of antipeptone—viz., arginin and lysin—exert upon meta-
bolism.

Two methods were adopted for this purpose.

In one form of experiment, a solution of the substance under con-
sideration was injected into the circulation, urine being collected for
definite periods before and after the injection. This showed, inter alia,
that neither of the substances reappeared as such, in any appreciable
quantity, in the urine. The full results are not, however, ready for
publication. »

In the second class of experiment, an animal was brought into nitro-
genous equilibrium and the substance administered, either by addition to
the diet or by subcutaneous injection.

These latter experiments are of necessity very laborious, and slow in
yielding results. They are, moreover, only in their commencement.
Nevertheless, very interesting facts promise to arise out of them. For
example, a pronounced form of glycosuria seems to be caused by the
subcutaneous injection of arginin. The work has, however, not yet been
controlled, and it would obviously be premature to go further into the
facts.

Hitherto, the necessary arginin and lysin have been generously placed
at my disposal by Professor A. Kossel, of Marburg. These substances
are, however, very expensive to produce, and it can hardly be hoped that
a sufficient supply will in future be available from this source. The
experiments are also in themselves more costly than those of former
years. For these reasons, as well as on account of the important results
which they promise to yield, it is deemed necessary to apply for an
increased grant, viz., of 40/.

The secretary has been responsible for the carrying out of the work,

Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands.—Report of the Committee, con-
sisting of Professor E. H. Sraruinc (Chairman), Dr. J. L,
BuncnH (Secretary), and Dr. L. E. SHore, on the Hffeet of
Chorda Stimulation on the Volume of the Submawillary Gland.
(Drawn up by the Secretary.)

CHANGES in volume of the submaxillary gland may be brought about
both by variations in the flow of blood to the gland and of secretion from
the gland. Not so long ago it was believed that a distinct causal relation-
ship existed between vascular supply and secretion ; that fluid was
secreted from the gland as a result of increased intracapillary pressure,
and the discovery by Claude Bernard of the vaso dilator action of the
chorda tympani—the chief secretory nerve then known—lent additional
weight to this theory. But the theory was disproved by Ludwig, who
showed that the dog’s submaxillary could be made to secrete by stimulation
of the cervical sympathetic nerve, though such stimulation caused vaso-
constriction and not vaso-dilatation, and that the pressure in the gland-
duct could exceed the pressure even in the carotid artery. Other facts
were discovered, such as the paralysis of the secretory fibres of the

ON THE VASCULAR SUPPLY OF SECRETING GLANDS. 459

chorda by atropine, although the vaso-dilator fibres of the nerve remained

unaffected, and the secretion which can be obtained as a result of chorda
stimulation unaccompanied by vaso-motor changes after degeneration of
the nerve for two or three days.

It cannot, however, be said that the problem of secretion has lost its
complexity even now, for we know that secretion may be accompanied by
yaso-constriction or by vaso-dilatation ; that it may in some cases be
paralysed by quinine or atropine, in others not; and that in the same
gland stimulation of one nerve may give rise to a secretion having quite
different characteristics from that brought about by excitation of another
nerve.

Tn order to investigate the action of the chorda on the volume of the
submaxillary gland I have employed a plethysmograph of very simple
construction, devised by Professor Schiifer, which consists of a gutta-
percha box with one side of glass, thus enabling the gland to be kept
directly under observation, and any flushing or pallor of the superficial
vessels to be accurately noted. The vessels and gland-duct enter the box
on one side through an opening sufficiently large to prevent any pressure
being exerted upon them, and the rest of the aperture is closed by cotton-
wool and thick vaseline. Only a very small portion of the duct where it
emerges from the hilum is contained within the plethysmograph, and the
box is so supported by means of a clamp that the portion of duct outside
it is quite loose, and no contraction of the longitudinal fibres of the duct
can pull upon or otherwise affect the volume of the contents of the box.
The box is connected with a tambour or piston-recorder, which writes on
a smoked paper, by an indiarubber tube attached to a glass tube which
passes through one side of the box, the whole apparatus being filled with
air. A lateral tube leads from this connecting tube, and is closed with a
spring clip, so that the pressure within this air-tight system can be raised
or lowered at any moment. The tracings obtained in many cases show
most distinctly both heart-beats and respiratory curves.

The chorda was exposed after division of the digastric muscle, ligatured,
and cut, and the peripheral end stimulated by means of Ludwig’s elec-
trodes, which were left in situ. In some cases, the chordo-lingual nerve
was divided centrally and the peripheral end stimulated ; any injury to
_ the more slender chorda through manipulation was thus avoided. The
nerve was excited by currents of different strengths, and with varying rates
of repetition of this stimulus, and the anesthetic was varied in different
experiments, With a moderately weak stimulus excitation of the chorda pro-
duced considerable diminution in volume of the gland and a fall of the lever
of the piston-recorder. The fall was preceded by a short latent period when
the gland was secreting freely, and rapidly reached its maximum when
the stimulation was a short one. When the current was shut off the
lever still remained at its lowest point for a short time, which varied in
duration according to the length of passage of the current. The gland
then very gradually again increased in volume, and the lever rose until it
once more reached the base-line. This recovery in volume was succeeded
_ by dilatation of the gland and further rise of the lever to a point well
above the base-line, after which it again gradually fell. The extent of
this dilatation varied according to the previous diminution in volume of
the gland, being greater and more prolonged when the diminution of
gland volume had been well marked, but the after-rise of the lever did
not equal in extent or duration its previous fall. This diminution in

4.60 REPORT—1900.

gland volume was accompanied by a free flow of secretion from the duct,
the amount of which was measured, and by marked dilatation of the
vessels of the gland.

With a stronger stimulus the latent period was shorter, the flow of
saliva greater, and the diminution in volume of the gland more abrupt
and of greater range. The recovery of volume was also slower, and the
after dilatation more marked. When the excitation was a long one, more
especially with a strong current, the recovery of the gland was consider-
ably prolonged, and the rise of tie lever a very gradual one. As long as
both gland and nerve remained in good condition successive stimulations
of the chorda repeated as soon as the gland had returned to its original
volume still continued to produce the same effect, with but little difference
in diminution of volume in response to stimuli of the same strength and
duration. I1f, however, the nerve was stimulated a second time, either
immediately after the first excitation or while the lever was still rising,
the resulting diminution in volume of the gland was less than that pre-
ceding it, this difference being greater the more quickly the second
excitation succeeded the first. When the secretion produced by chorda
stimulation was scanty and viscid, in spite of the accompanying active
vaso-dilatation, stimulation of the nerve caused either a very small fall
of the lever or a preliminary fall succeeded by a rise. In some cases,
more especially when there was some obstruction to the free escape of
blood through the veins, and also scanty secretion, chorda excitation gave
rise to increase of volume of the gland, owing to the increased flow of
blood to the gland more than compensating for the small amount of
secretion leaving it. After the administration of small doses of atropine
intravenously, sufficient to paralyse the secretory fibres of the chorda
(8-12 mg. for a dog of 7 kilos.), stimulation of the peripheral end of the
divided chorda caused no flow of secretion from the duct, but an active
dilatation of the gland and a rise of the piston-recorder lever to an extent
about equal to the previous fall of the same lever brought about by a
stimulus of the same strength and duration before any atropine had been
administered.

The absolute increase or diminution in the volume of the gland under
various conditions was estimated by calibration of the piston-recorder,
the rise or fall of the lever for fractional parts of a cubic centimetre
being marked out on a scale. The volume of the gland in cubic centi-
metres was determined from the difference between its weight in air and
in water, and the amount of secretion produced by nerve stimulation or
otherwise was also determined by connecting the cannula in the duct with
a glass tube graduated in fractional parts of a c.c. In order to determine
the total diminution in volume of the gland, due to chorda stimulation,
the diminution in volume of the gland was first determined in an etherised
dog before the administration of atropine, and then the increase in
volume of the same gland after the administration of a dose of atropine
sufficient to paralyse the secretory fibres of the chorda. By adding the
two amounts together the total loss of gland contents due to chorda
stimulation was obtained. On comparing this with the amount of secre-
tion poured out in the same time we found that at least ,%, of the
secretion was derived from the extra-vascular portions of the gland.
Since there is no diminution in the lymph flow from the gland, but rather
a slight increase during the period of stimulation (Bainbridge), we must
conclude that the effect of the secretory nerves is simply and solely upon the

ON THE VASCULAR SUPPLY OF SECRETING GLANDS. 461

secretory cells, the increased exudation from the blood-vessels which must
in the last instance supply the fluid for the secretion being a secondary
phenomenon determined entirely by the metabolic thanges of the cells, and

agging behind these to a very considerable extent.

°

Age of Stone Circles —Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. G.
Garson (Chairman), Mr. H. Batrour (Secretary), Sir JOHN
Evans, Mr. 0. H. Reap, Professor R. Metpoua, Mr. A. J. Evans,
Dr. R. Munro, and Professor W. Boyp Dawkins.

Tue Committee have to report that various possible sites have been dis-
cussed and the necessary inquiries have been made during the past year,
and negotiations are now in progress which it is hoped will enable the Com-
mittee to begin the actual work of section cutting during the ensuing year
at Arbor Low Stone Circle in Derbyshire, permission for which has been
kindly granted by his Grace the Duke of Rutland.

The Committee request to be reappointed with the disposal of the
unexpended balance of the grant, with which it is proposed to make one
or two trial sections of the ditch and rampart of the circle.

Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among Children in
Public Elementary and other Schools.—Report of the Committee,
consisting of Mr. E. W. Brazroox (Chairman), Dr. FRANCIS
Warner (Secretary), Mr. H. Wuire Wauiis, Dr. J. G. Garson,
and Dr. Rivers. (Drawn up by the Secretary.)

APPENDIX.—Three tables showing, for the 50,000 children examined 1892-94,

all cases presenting one or more abnormal nerve-signs, arranged
in three age-groups. These cases are classed in primary groups
presenting nerve-signs in the parts indicated only, viz.: (1) the
face ; (2) the hand; (3) eye-movements; (4) im other parts of
the body. The cases are further distributed in primary groups
under the main classes of defect. : - : : . p. 464

Tue Committee, acting in conjunction with the Childhood Society for
the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of Children,
have, through the assistance of that society, been able to use the cards
recording the ‘cases with any abnormal nerve-sign,’ as seen 1892-94;
that is, 2,851 boys, 2,003 girls, as found among 26,287 boys, 23,713 girls
examined.

As.a new method of research these cases are arranged in primary
groups containing the children who presented nerve-signs in (1) the face
only ; (2) the hand only ; (3) eye-movements defective only ; and (4) a
group showing nerve-signs in other parts of the body only.

In making a rapid examination and report on children examined in
schools, it may be convenient to classify nerve-cases in four groups as
presenting signs in (1) face (defect of expression, overaction of the frontal
muscles, knitting the eyebrows, muscular relaxation about the lower
eyelid) ; (2) in balance of the hand or finger twitches; (3) irregular
movements of the eyes ; (4) in general balance of the head and other parts

462 REPORT—1900.

.
of the body. Twenty-one nerve-signs have been observed and defined ; 1
the cases presenting these signs are here grouped in classes under the
headings named according to the parts of the body in which they are seen.

The tables given in the appendix may now be described.

The total number of children with any class of nerve-signs is obtain-
able by adding the eight primary groups presenting that class, thus:
Among the children 7 years and under, adding the eight lines enumerating
signs in the face gives a total of 343 boys, 179 girls. Again, addition
of the three lines enumerating signs in face and cyc-movements gives a
total of 21 boys, 20 girls, with the two classes of nerve-signs.

The numbers in each primary group of nerve-cases are given in the
last column of the table, and are distributed again as primary groups
according to the main classes of defect observed associated with the
nerve-signus. Thus:

Column headed B gives cases with nerve-signs only.

AB=Nerve-signs associated with development defect only.

BC=Nerve-signs associated with delicacy only ; children pale or thin.

BD=Nerve-signs with mental dulness only.

ABC=Nerve-cases with developmental defect and delicate only, 2.¢.
not dull or backward.

From these tables the compound groups can be formed by addition of
the primary groups composing them, and from these the correlations of
the classes of nerve-signs with the main classes of defect can be obtained
after the method explained m Dr, Warner’s paper, published in the
‘ Journal of the Royal Statistical Society,’ March 1896.

Among the nerve-cases here reported on, the relative frequency of
nerve-signs in the face, the hand, and in eye-movements is shown to be
as follows :—

fey | EYE-MOVE- ‘
2 Total No. of Face } MENTS Hann
Age-groups Citak |
Total No. of | Total No. of | Total No. of
Cases | Cases | Cases |
oe tH — — - |— = ——— — — ~ | = i vines — 1
! { i}
Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls | Boys Girls
| 7 years and under. = | 742) | ASO eae emer S o4 74 | 300 © 209
| 8-10 years. 3 . |1,229 | 878 | 473) 250) 153 | 127 | 690 508
| 11 years and over . «| 880) 636] 317) 141 104 58 | 530 426
At all ages. ‘ « | 2,851 | 2,003 | 1.188 | 570 | 351 | 259 |1,520 1,138

Other researches were made, but when they did not appear to supply
useful information the results were not included in the tables. It was
thought that there might be a definite association between irregular
movements of the eyes and twitchings of the fingers ; the facts given
below do not support the premiss. Again, the association between
irregular eye-movements and overaction of the frontai muscles (frowning)
is not very marked, though more frequent than in the last case.

' See Report on the Scientific Study of the Mental and Physical Conditions of
Children, based on the examination of 100,000 children, p. 76. Published at the
Parkes Museum.

——

ON MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN. 463

| Age Groups
Primary Groups :
| 7 and under | 8-10 11 and over |
| 7 j . | ————|
| Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls Boys | Girls |
flye-movertients and finger twitches | |
only . 5 . A . . — | — = = th —
Hye-movements und finger twitches | | | |
and other nerve-signs ; lhe 22 I slpeee Bf = 2) = |
Eye-movements and frontals over- | ) |
meoronly “a 5 ew | Pa he ie 3 | — |
Eye-movements and frontals and other |
Merve-siens « . . ey a 2 | 1e =) 2 9 | 2

This Committee, first appointed in 1892, have reported each year, and
information thus supplied concerning the mental and physical conditions
of childhood has afforded evidence in a wide field of research. Among
other problems advanced it has been shown that, with certain constitu-
tional conditions of congenital deficiency and acquired defects as found
among boys and girls respectively, the status varies in the age-groups.
It appears highly probable that the heavy mortality under five years of
age, which falls principally on the boys, is largely due to developmental
defects, while children with such congenital defect who survive add largely
tothe proportion of the dull and delicate pupils in schools, and to the
number of neurotic persons who often fail in health at adult age.

The main classes of defect among children are more frequent with
boys, while the girls with defective constitution tend in larger proportion
than the boys to ill-health and brain disorderliness.

To summarise problems previously demonstrated, development-defect
eases are very frequently delicate and dull. Children with (motor) brain
disorderliness are often dull ; so are the children who are naturally deli-
cate. Dull pupils often present defect in development as well as delicacy
and (motor) brain disorderliness needing special care and training.

Departures from the normal are more frequent among males ; but the
females with developmental defect or brain disorderliness are more apt to
_ receive harm and to receive less good from their environment than males.
This indicates the care required, and is illustrated by the more hopeless
condition of female lunatics and criminals.

It has been shown that good effects follow the employment of physical

training at school in diminishing the number of children with signs of

brain disorderliness and the proportion of dull pupils.

Children in poor-law and industrial schools are below the average in

bodily development and mental ability. It appears that home life and

day school training are more advantageous than institution training.

__ The investigations that have been carried out and study of the distri-
ution of cases of developmental defect in various localities have

gested that sanitation and the practical application of hygienic prin-

$ to school life may lessen the frequency of developmental defects and

proportion of mental and physical weakness and mortality co-

endant.

In conclusion, it has been shown by many examples that detailed

amination and report on the children in selected schools have proven

my points of social and scientific value.

_ The Committee desire to be reappointed to continue research in conjunc-

lon with the Childhood Society, and ask a grant of 57. in aid of this work.

1900.

REPORT

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46

ON MENTAL AND PHYSICAL DEFECTS OF CHILDREN.

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466 REPORT—1900.

Note.—Since this report was drawn up an important mathematical
paper ‘On Association of Attributes in Statistics, with Ilustrations from
the Material of the Childhood Society &c.,’ by Mr.G. Udny Yule, has been
published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.’ The
suggestions there made as to statistical methods of presenting correlations
are likely to prove most useful in future research.

Charts have been prepared from these Reports by Mr. C. 8. Loch and
exhibited at the Paris Congress by the Charity Organisation Society.

Silchester Excavation.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr.
ArtHur J. Evans (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres (Secretary),
and Mr. EK. W. BraBroox, appointed to co-operate with the Sil-
chester Hacavation Fund Comittee in their Hacavations.

Tue Committee has to report that the excavations at Silchester in 1899
were begun on May 5, and continued, with the usual break durin the
harvest, until November 16.

The examination of the south-west quarter of the town having been

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completed in 1898, it was resolved to continue the excavation of the
northern half of the site. To suit the convenience of the tenant, the
operations of 1899 were restricted to the inswla (XXI) east of insula I

2

ON SILCHESTER EXCAVATION. 467

(which was excavated in 1890-1), and to another insula (XXIT) north of
XXI, extending nearly as far as the town wall. The total area examined
was about 53 acres. The block plan shows the parts already excavated in
shaded tint.

Insula XXTJ appears to have been enclosed by walls on all four sides.
In addition to two houses occupying the northern corners, it had on its
eastern side a large house of the courtyard type, with another small house
to the south of it. At the south-east angle of the insula was situated an
oblong chamber with an apsidal end, perhaps the meeting room of some
trade guild. Other traces of buildings were found along the south side.
The south-west angle unfortunately underlies the modern roadway through
the city, and could only partly be examined. The western side contained
two small square structures. With regard to the houses, that at the
north-west corner was discovered in 1864 by the Rev. J. G. Joyce, who
communicated an account of it to Archeologia. It was, however, only
partly excavated by him, and additional chambers have now been found
on the south and east. The north-east house is one of the corridor type
that has become a courtyard house by later additions. In one of the
added rooms was a hypocaust of peculiar plan. The large house on the
east side is of interest from the several changes it has undergone, as well
as on account of the traces of a series of mosaic pavements of simple
character. The small house to the south is remarkable for the number of
pits and wells found beneath it. From these were extracted several whole
vases, some of an early type and excellent design.

Insula XXII, though equal in size to the other, contained a large
amount of open ground in the centre and north-west. As there were no
signs of a street on its eastern side, the portion excavated may form part
of a larger insula. Near the south-west angle was a good-sized house of
the corridor type, with a large chamber at one end terminating in an apse,
which had a hypocaust beneath it. A square chamber of some size which
had been added on one side has foundations of huge blocks of ironstone,
and the same material has been used in what appears to have been a re-
construction of the western part of the house. Besides this house, por-
tions of three others were found. Two of these were of very little interest.
The remains of the third include a square block subdivided into two
chambers of unequal size, with an apse attached to one side All these
had been warmed by hypocausts.

As usual, a number of wells were met with, lined with wooden framing
towards the bottom. No architectural remains of any importance were
met with, save a piece of coping, part of a fluted Purbeck marble pilaster,
and a fragment of a white marble slab. The finds in bronze, iron, glass,
and bone were as numerous as usual, but do not call for special notice.
From the pits examined an exceptionally large number of entire vessels of
pottery were recovered, the total being about eighty. They include several
pseudo-Samian vases of unusual quality, an inscribed drinking cup of
Castor ware, some large vessels of the coarse ware which is so seldom
found entire, &c., &c. The coins found were not very numerous.

A detailed account of all the discoveries was laid before the Society of
Antiquaries on May 3, 1900, and will be published in Archwologia, LVII.
A special exhibition of the antiquities, &c., found, was held, as in former
years, at Burlington House.

The statement of accounts for the year 1899 shows a total expendi-
ture of 515/. Os. 7d.

HH2

468 REPORT—1900.

It is proposed, during the current year, to excavate the large area
north of insule I and IX, which extends up to the north gate. The
Committee therefore asks to be reappointed, with a further grant.

Ethnological Survey of Canada.—LReport cf the Convnittee, consistiny
of Professor D. P. PENHALLow (Chairman), Dr. GEorGE M. Daw-
son (Secretary), Mr. E. W. Brasroox, Professor A. C. Happon,
Mr. HE. S. Harruanp, Sir J. G. Bourtnot, Abbé Cuog, Mr. B.
Su.Lte, Abbé Tancuay, Mr. C. Hiti-Tour, Mr. Davin Boyte,
Rev. Dr. Scappinc, Rev. Dr. J. Mactran, Dr. MEREE BEAUv-
CHEMIN, Mr. C. N. BELL, Professor E. B. TyLtor, Hon. G. W.
Ross, Professor J. Mavor, Mr. A. F. Hunter, and Dr. W. F.
GANONG.

APPENDIX Pach

I. Early French Settlers in Canada. By B. SULTE : ; : : . 470
Il. Notes on the Sk-qo'mic of British Columbia, a Branch of the great Salish

Stock of North America. By C. H1LL-Tour. ; : - . 472

VII. Whe Hurons of Lorette. By LEON GERIN . 3 : : : 3 . 549

THE work of the past year has furnished conspicuous evidence of the
great importance of securing ethnological data with as little delay as
possible. While this is eminently true with respect to the white popula-
tion, which is experiencing new and marked changes almost every year, in
consequence of the introduction of foreign elements, often in large
numbers, it is more particularly true with respect to the native Indian
population. In many localities the original blood has become so diluted
by intermarriage with whites that it is often a matter of great difficulty
to find an Indian of pure blood. Proximity to settlements of white
people has resulted in a more or less profound impress upon the social
life and tribal customs, which are fast becoming obsolete and forgotten.
The old chiefs who have served as the repertories of traditionary know-
ledge are rapidly passing away, and with their death there disappears
the last possibility of securing reliable data of the greatest value. Con-
spicuous instances of this kind have been brought to notice during the
past year, especially in the case of the British Columbia Indians, whose
ethnology is of the greatest interest and importance in consequence of
their possible connection with the people of Eastern Asia. At present
the great difficulty of securing competent and willing investigators is one
of the most serious obstacles to be contended with, and it is believed that
the often considerable expense involved in the prosecution of such work
is largely accountable for this condition of affairs.

Tt is gratifying to note that the Department of Education for Ontario
has lately taken a very practical and active interest in ethnological studies
in that province, and that it provides for the publication of the results of
research in its annual reports. During the past year Mr. A. F. Hunter,
of Barrie—a member of this committee—has thus published the results of
important studies relating to the archeology of the township of Tay. A
résumé of this work shows that much light has been thrown upon the
extent, characteristics, and condition of the Indian population in prehistoric
times. Evidence has latterly been accumulating to indicate the presence
at one time of numerous aboriginal settlements in localities which were

a ae

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 469

very sparsely inhabited when first visited by the white explorers. One of
the most fruitful fields in Ontario for the archeologist is afforded by the
sites of the numerous Indian villages which abound in the northern
portions of Simcoe County, more especially in the townships of Tiny and
Tay. A very interesting report on the subject was issued last year by
Mr. Andrew F. Hunter, M.A., relating to the Huron Indian relics found
in the former township, which has just been supplemented by a similar
publication in regard to the discoveries in the adjoining municipality of
Tay, both being issued as appendices to the Educational Report. A
special interest attaches to the investigations made in Tiny, as it includes

‘the spot where Champlain and the early missionaries landed on their

arrival in the Huron country, the researches of Mr. Hunter being carried
on with a view to the identification of those villages described by these
pioneers of civilisation and Christianity. In the territory identified as
occupied by the Bear nation, belonging to the Huron confederacy, which
embraces Tiny and a portion of Tay township, there were no fewer than
forty-nine villages, and twenty-four bone-pits or aboriginal burying-
places, have been unearthed. The villages, however, were not all occu-
pied at the same time. Thirty-nine of the number bear evidences that
the inhabitants had had some contact with Europeans. A detailed
description is given of the various village sites and bone-pits, and the
more interesting and valuable of the relics discovered, with numerous
illustrations. A site to which particular importance attaches is the ruins
of the second fortified Jesuit mission of St. Marie, on Christian Island,
with the remains of an extensive Huron village surrounding it. The
population is estimated to have been from 6,000 to 8,000 in the winter of
1649-50, when it was decimated by famine and disease.

‘Considerable difference of opinion has prevailed as to the spot where
the early missionaries Brebeuf and Lallemant were tortured and burned
by the Iroquois during the war which almost exterminated the Hurons,
and those interested will find many facts bearing upon the controversy in
the report dealing with the township of Tay. Mr. Hunter’s own view,
after a painstaking survey of all the evidence obtainable, is that the site
of St. Louis II., where the missionaries were captured when the village
was burned, is on the farm of John McDermitt, lot 15, concession IV.,
where extensive ash-beds have been found mixed with relics. The identity
of the village appears to be established by its size, as indicated by the
ground, and its location as described by the old writers. Mr. Hunter is
inclined to regard the site on the farm of Charles E. Newton, lot 11,

concession VI., as that of St. Ignace II., the village to which the captured

priests were taken, and where their martyrdom, so powerfully described
by Parkman, took place. It has been known locally as the “ Jesuits’
Field” for many years, and there are the usual traditions of buried
treasure which gain currency wherever relics of the past are brought to
light. Much interesting information with regard to less notable sites and
the frequent discoveries of Indian remains throughout the township are
also embodied in this work.’

In Appendix I. Mr. B. Sulte continues his study of the early
French settlers in Canada, covering the period 1632-66. He traces the
origin of these immigrants from different parts of France, and it thus
becomes possible to establish with great accuracy the relative importance
of the various stocks from which the present large French population of
Canada is derived, These studies will form an important basis for mors

470 REPORT—1900,

detailed investigations respecting the effect of environment upon succeed-
ing generations.

In Appendix IT, Mr. Hill-Tout follows up his very careful study of
the N’tlaka’pamug, appended to last year’s report, with a similar close
investigation of another and markedly different division of the Salish
stock in British Columbia, the Sk:gid’mic. These people previously in-
habited Howe Sound and Burrard Inlet in large numbers, but they are
now much reduced, and appear to be rapidly passing away. Over ninety
villages at one time inhabited are enumerated. Much attention has been
given to the language, which had not heretofore been seriously investi-
gated, and which shows numerous grammatical and other peculiarities,
Mr. Hill-Tout’s work, in fact, constitutes a very important local contribu-
tion to the ethnology of the native races of the west coast.

This report is accompanied by nineteen photographs of Indians, taken
by Mr. Hill-Tout, partly of the Sk-go’mic and partly of neighbouring
tribes, in which he is now further pursuing his investigations.

The ancient settlement of Huron Indians at Lorette, near Quebec,
has always been an object of great interest to the ethnologist, although
prolonged and intimate contact with the whites of the neighbourhood
has resulted in marked alterations of a physical and social character.
These alterations have progressed so far as to make trustworthy studies
an exceptionally difficult matter, but the Committee felt that no oppor-
tunity to secure such data as might yet be available should be lost, and
in Appendix III. Mr. L. Gérin presents the results of a very careful
investigation into the actual social condition of these Indians. He
brings this into comparison with their original condition, tracing out
the influences which have produced great changes among them during
their prolonged residence in the province of Quebec, subsequent to the
abandonment of their old home. The condition of this community of
Hurons offers a marked contrast to that of the originally similar Iroquois
community near Montreal, their evolution in modern times having been
almost in opposite directions ; a circumstance explained by their environ-
ment in the two cases. The report is accompanied by photographs
showing the present conditions of village life, which will be kept on file
for future reference.

APPENDIX I.
Early French Setilers in Canada. By B. Sure.

Following my statement of last year, I beg to submit, first, the result
of my observations respecting the number of actual settlers in 1632-66.

In 1632 there were twenty-nine men! in the colony, who were either
married or who married soon after, and became heads of families. These
are the roots of the Canadian tree. A few Frenchmen engaged in the fur
trade formed a distinct group outside of the scope of this paper.

In 1640 the ‘ habitants’ numbered 375,! distributed as follows :

Married men, 64 ; married women (three born in Canada), 64 ; widower,
1 ; widows, 4; unmarried men, 35 ; boys (80 born in Canada), 58 ; girls
(24 born in Canada), 48 ; nuns, 6 ; Jesuits, 29 ; other Frenchmen, 66 ;
total, 375.

' T have published a biographical sketch of each of them.

ON THE BTHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 471

According to my calculations, the ‘ habitants’ did not exceed 600 in
1650, besides 40 Jesuits, 40 Jesuits’ servants, and 20 other Frenchmen.

The population in 1653 appears to have been distributed in three
groups : Quebec, 400 ; Three Rivers, 175 ; Montreal, 100 ; total, 675.

We must add the usual contingent of French traders, which was very
small at that time on account of the war of the Iroquois.

It is mentioned in letters dated from Canada, 1661-63, that the entire
population (inhabitants, Jesuits, and others) did not exceed 2,500. This
embraces the large immigrations of 1662, 1663, which mark a new de-
parture in the whole affairs of Canada.

The reader is referred to the statement in the last Report, covering the
period of 1608-1645, with regard to the origin of the 122 men wha first
settled in the colony. I will now show the origin of 475 more during
1646-1666. These are men who came from France, were already married
or married in Canada, and founded families in the colony :—

North-west of France.—Bretagne, 20 ; Maine, 22; Normandie, 136 ;
Picardie, 10 ; Ile-de-France, 25 ; Touraine, 8 ; Anjou, 18 ; total, 239.

South-west of France.—Poitou, 60; Rochelle, 138 ; Bordeaux, 14 ;
total, 212.

East of France.—Champagne, 6 ; Nivernais, 2 ; Berry, 3; Dauphiné,
4; Auvergne, 5; Lyonnais, 4 ; total, 24.

During the same period, 1646-1666, I find 100 marriages without any
mention of the origin of the contracting parties ; but we may safely infer,
from the synopsis just given, that they must be added to the 475 whose
origins are known, and distributed according to the relative proportions
of that statistic.

Therefore from 1608 to 1666 we have examined 697 mon who came
from France with their wives, or marrying once settled in the colony.

Until about 1645 the greatest number of them came from the north of
river Loire ; after that the south-western provinces gradually balanced
the emigration from the north—

1646-1666. North of Loire, 231 ; south of Loire, 220,

Immigrants from Touraine, Poitou, Rochelle, Aunis, Saintonge, An-
goumois, Bordeaux, found their way to Canada after 1650, so that the
Normandy influence was absolute until about 1660, when Poitou and
Rochelle came in for a large share.

The first official census was taken in 1666, and considered imperfect at
that time. It gives 3,215 souls for all the New France.

The census (nominal) of 1667 says 3,918 souls. These last figures
represent the 697 heads of families above mentioned. The following
statement is a 7éswmé of that valuable document :—

Families, 668 ; males, 2,406 ; females, 1,512 ; married (625), 1,250 ;
widowers, 20 ; widows, 26; boys, 1,762; girls, 860.

Ages of the People.

Years | No. | Years | No. || Years | No. Years | No. /
0-1 993 | 5.6 | 122 | 11-15 | o41 || seo | 186 |
1-2 16,|) “6-7 100 || 16-20 | 250 || 61-70 | 78

2-3 154). 7-8 104 || 21-30 | 995 || 71-80 |° 9 |
3-4 143 || 8-9 84 | 31-40 Peo. i 81-90. Raed. 4
4-5 | 148 | 9-10 103 | 41-50 | 281 || Not given | 20 |

pepe oe

472 REPORT—1900.

Ages in Relation to Conjugal Condition.

No, Years No.

|

Years | No | Years | I Years No. |
| || |
a3 | rs - z z 7 F mari > Ts |
0-10 O}F | SIE SOF rea 0 See lo0 96 || 81- 90 4
11-15 | 2 | 381-40 | 409 61-70 49 | 91-100
BO=20. | oG | 41-50 215 71-80 6 }

The number of arpents under cultivation was 11,448, with cattle 3,107,
and sheep 85. No horses yet in the colony. All the sheep were run on
at River St. Charles, near Quebec.

The land under cultivation shows an average of seventeen arpents per
family. The census of 1681 has the same small proportion.

APPENDIX II.

Notes on the Sk-qo'mic of British Columbia, a Branch of the great
Salish Stock of North America. By C. H1uw-Tovr.

The following notes on the Sk:q6'mic, a division of the Salish stock of
British Columbia, are a summary of the writer’s studies of this tribe. While
he has sought to make them as comprehensive and complete as possible, he
is fully conscious that they are far from being exhaustive. There are,
indeed, insuperable difficulties in the way of making really exhaustive
reports on any of our tribes at the present time. There are, in the first
place, many invincible prejudices to be overcome. Then there is the
dithiculty of communic:.tion, and when these have been partially overcome
there yet remains the difficulty of finding natives who possess the know-
ledge you are seeking. Not every Indian is an Jagoo, a story-teller ; and
only the older men or women remember the old practices, customs,
manners, and beliefs of the tribe, and even these have forgotten much that
is important to know. These and other difficulties stand in the way of
complete and exhaustive investigation ; and I cannot better illustrate the
need of pushing on our work among these interesting peoples without
further delay than by stating that since my last report was sent in my
principal informant among the N’tlaka’pamua, Chief Mischelle, from whom
I secured so much valuable information a year or so ago, has passed
away, and can render us no further aid. In a few years, all those who
lived under the old conditions in pr-missionary days, and who now alone
possess the knowledge we desire to gather, will have passed away, and our
chances of obtaining any further reliable information of the past will have
gone with them.

In my work among the Sk’qd’mic I have been more than usually for-
tunate, and have been able to bring together much interesting matter not
previously known or recorded.

Ethnography.

The Sk‘q0’mic constitute a distinct division of the Salish of British
Columbia and both in language and customs differ considerably from the
coast tribes on the one hand, and the interior tribes on the other. The
structural differences of their speech are so great as to shut them off from
free intercourse with the contiguous Salish tribes. The tribe to-day numbers
less than two hundred souls, I believe, Formerly they were a

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 473

strong and populous tribe, numbering, when white men first came into
contact with them, many thousands. Some of their larger o’kwumiq, or
villages, contained as many as seven hundred people, and that less than
fifty years ago. We gather this from the early white settlers themselves,

The original home and territory of the Sk-qo’'mic seems to have been
on the banks of the river which gives them their tribal name, and
along the shores of Howe Sound, into which the Skuamish runs. Their
settlements on the river extended for upwards of thirty miles along the
banks. ‘Their northern neighbours were the Lillooets or StlatlumuH tribe
and the Tcilkotin division of the Déné stock. Their southern neighbours
were the Lower Fraser tribes. According to one of my informants the
Indian villages that used to exist on English Bay, Burrard Inlet, and
False Creek were not originally true Sk-qd’mic. They were said to be
allied by speech and blood to the Lower Fraser tribes. How far this is
correct seems impossible now to say. Sk’qd/mic is everywhere spoken
throughout this territory, and has been as far back as our knowledge of it
goes ; and the Sk-q0/mic villages, according to my informants, extend to
and include Mali, at the mouth of the Fraser, which place Dr. Boas was
informed by the River Indians belonged to them, and which he has
accordingly included in their territory. It was probably the dividing
line, and, like Spuzzum, farther up the river, was composed partly of the
one division and partly of the other.

Our first knowledge of the Sk-qo’mic dates back to rather less than a
century ago. The first white man to sail into English Bay and Howe
Sound and come into contact with them was Captain Vancouver. He
recorded briefly his impressions of them in the diary of his voyage to this
coast, a short extract from which may be of interest in this first formal
account of the tribe. He writes thus :—

Friday, June 15, 1792.!

‘ But for this cireumstance we might too hastily have concluded that
this part of the Gulf was uninhabited. In the morning we were visited
by nearly forty of the natives, on whose approach from the very material
alteration that had now taken place in the face of the country we
expected to find some difference in their general character. This conjec-
ture was, however, premature, as they varied in no respect whatever, but
in possessing a more ardent desire for commercial transactions, into the
spirit of which they entered with infinitely more avidity than any of our
former acquaintances, not only bartering amongst themselves the different
valuables they had obtained from us, but when that trade became slack
in exchanging those articles again with our people, in which traffic they
always took care to gain some advantage, and would frequently exult on
this occasion. Some fish, their garments, spears, bows and arrows, to
which these people wisely added their copper garments, comprised their
general stock-in-trade. Jron inall forms they judiciously preferred to any
other article we had to offer.’

They have not altered much in these points of their character since
Vancouver’s visit, and many of them have to-day, I am told, snug little
sums judiciously invested by their good friend and spiritual director, the
late Bishop Durieu, in safe paying concerns. It is only fair to say, how-
ever, that they deserve to be prosperous. They are probably the most

! Vol. i, p. 805,

474. REPORT—1900,
industrious and orderly band of Indians in the whole province, and reflect
great credit upon the Roman Mission established in their midst.

I obtained the following list of old village sites, not 10 per cent. of
which are now inhabited. The list is not perfectly complete. There
were a few more villages at the upper end of Burrard Inlet which have
been long abandoned, and whose names my informants could not recall.
My enumeration contains in all some ninety-three villages, each of
which, according to Chief Thomas of Qé’qids and others, was formerly a
genuine Sk:qd'mic o/kwumiiq, containing from fifty to several hundred

inhabitants.

ON Sk:QO0/MIc RIVER.

Riaht Bank.
Co’ tais.
N’cai'te.
T’k-takai’ = vine-maple.
SQaqai’Ek.
Kwana'ken = hollow in mountain,
Yu'kuts.
Sto’toii =Jeaning over (a cliff).
Kémps.
Slokoi.
N’k-u'kapenatc= canoes transformed to
stone (see story of Qais).
K-wo'lan = ear.
Kau’ten.
Qé’qids.
Sié/tekm = sandy.
N’pok-wis.
Ek-iks.
Tcia/kamic (on creek of that name).
Tokta’kamai = place of thimble-berries.

Hower

West Side.
Tcé’ was.
Swi/at.
Cé'tuksEm.
Ceé'tisum.
Kwi'tctenEm.
Ké’kelun.
K-68’ koi.
Stcink: (Gibson’s Landing).
East Side.
K-akutwo'm = waterfall,
Cé’'tsakrEn.

Spapa’k.
Etlé’uq.
*Skaui’can.
Poia'm.

Loft Bank.

S'k'lau’ = beaver.

Sta/mis.

Smok:.

Qa’k-siné (on Ma’mukum Creek).
Kiake’n.

Ikwo'psum.

QEk-wai'akin.

Itli/oq.

Po'kaio’sum = slide.
Sk-timi’n = keekwilee-house.
Cémps.

Tcimai’.

Toeuk'teuk’ts.

SouND.

Cicai’dQoi

Qx'IkEt6s = painted.

Sk-u‘tuksEn = promontory,

Ku 'latsEn.

N’pa’puk-.

Tumtls = paint.

Teakqai.

St’o'ktoks.

Stcilks = sling.

Ké’tlals’m=nipping grass, so called be-
cause deer come here in spring to eat
the fresh grass.

Ské’awatsut (Point Atkinson).

ISLANDS IN SOUND.

TJa’qom (Anvil Island).
Tca'lkunts (Gambier Island).
Qolé’lagom (Bowen Island),

Sau’qtite (Hat Island).
Mi'tlmetle’ltc (Passage Island),

ENGLISH Bay, THE NARROWS, BURRARD INLET, AND FALSE CREEK,

From Coal Harbour to Mouth of North
Arm of the Fraser.

Tcetcé’lmen.
TceEkO'alte.

Papiak: (lighthouse),
Qoigoi = masks.
Suntz.

Sk’é/akunts.

.

re

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 475

Teants. : " ; North Side from Point Atkinson, through
Bye ee standing up (‘Siwash rock ’). the aes up the Inlet
Stetiqk.

Hélcen=sandy beach; verbatim, soft to ’St’k-qé'l.

the foot. SmeEla/koa.

Snauq (False Creek). K’tea'm.

Sk oateai’s = deep hole in water. Swai’wi.

Sk wai'us. Homuw'ltcison (Capilano Creek) (former
-Ta'Imuq (Jericho). headquarters of supreme chief of the
Qapgapétlp = place of cedar (Point Grey). Sk-q0/mic).

U'lk's’n = point (ef. radical for nose). Tlastlumanq = Saltwater Creek.

Tle’atlum Stlau’n.

Tcitcile’Ek. Qotlskaim = serpent pond.

Kru’ laqEn. Qoa'Itca (Linn Creek).

HumeElsom. Teétcilgok (Seymour Creek).

— Mili. K-iaken = palisade, a fenced village,

Social Organisation,

The social organisation of the Skqd/mic has been so much broken up
and modified by missionary and white influence that it is difficult now
to learn any details about it. The tribe appears to have been divided,
like the N’tlaka/pamug, into a number of d'kwwmiig, or village communi-
ties, each of which was governed by its own local chief. I could gather
nothing of their beliefs with regard to the origin of their different villages :
they seem to have none or else to have lost or forgotten them. Of the
origin of the tribe as a whole and some of the chief events of their
existence I gathered an account a few years ago from an ancient member
of the tribe, who was born a year or so after Captain Vancouver's visit
to them in 1792. This was published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Canada,’ 1897-98. Briefly it tells how the first Sk-qo’mie man
came into existence ; how later the tribe was overwhelmed by a flood,
and only one man and his wife escaped in their canoe, which landed on
the mountains contiguous to the present Sk-q0’mic territory ; and how
later again a severe and prolonged snowstorm caused, by cold and famine,
the death of the whole tribe save one man and his daughter. From these
two the Sk-qd’mic trace their tribal descent.

The people were divided into the usual threefold division of chiefs,

nobles, and common people. The lines, however, between these classes

were not absolutely rigid. According to my informants a member of the
lower class, if a woman, could rise to the class above her by marriage
with a member of that class, the wife usually taking the rank of her
husband if not a slave. But a man of the lower rank, even if he suc-
ceeded in marrying a woman of the middle class, could only become a
member of that class by undergoing a long and severe training, in which
daily washings and scrubbings of the body played an important part.
This was evidently a form of initiation the further particulars of which
T could not learn. As a rule the chiefs and their families and immediate
relatives formed a class or caste apart, the title of chief or headman
descending from father to son, patriarchate prevailing among the
Sk-qo’mic. Consequently a chief usually married a chief's daughter or
daughters. But this rule was sometimes broken, and a woman of a lower
class was taken to wife. In these cases the chieftainship would properly
descend to one of the chief’s brothers or his son, and not to his own son.
This was the rule. But it was possible to break this also and transmit
the headship of the tribe to his own son by giving many ‘ potlatch’ feasts,

A476 ° REPORT—1900.

and thus securing the goodwill of the tribe in his son’s favour, The son,
too, upon his father’s death, would also give a feast and make handsome
presents to all the influential men of the tribe, the result of which would
be that he would be elected to the rank of chief, and be allowed to succeed
his father in the chieftaincy of the tribe. From this it would seem that
children took their social rank from their mother rather than from their
father, which looks like a trace of matriarchate, or mother-right. It is
clear from their folk-tales, however, that these class divisions were not
hard and fast, but that members of a lower caste could by the per-
formance of certain acts pass into that above it. Of secret societies I
was unable to obtain any information whatever, and whether such
formerly existed among the Sk-qo/mic—of which I am extremely doubtful—
it seems impossible now to say. Among the chiefs there were some of
higher rank than the others, as among the N’tlaka/pamug. The supreme
sia'm of the tribe was known by the title Zz Kiapila’nda, and had his
headquarters at the mouth of the Hom/ultcison Creek, now called Capilano
by the whites. He was local chief also of the Hému'Itcison sept. Next
in rank to him came one of the Skuamish River chiefs. He likewise had
a proper title, being known as 7's Qatsila/noa.! I was unable to learn
what special signification these titles had. It is possible we may see in
them the special names of two powerful gentes. The gentile system of
the Sk-q0’mic, if such existed, is not at all clear. The distinction between
what might be regarded as a gens, or a sept, or a mere tribal division is
very difficult to determine.

I could gather nothing satisfactory from any of my informants on this
head. Heraldic and totemic symbols, according to some of them, were
never used in the old days ; but yet I was informed by others that some
of the old houses had carved posts or columns, and that the figure of a
bird or some other animal would sometimes be placed on a pole in front
of the house or fastened to one of the gable ends. They also, sometimes
at least, used masks in certain of their dances, if we may rely upon the
information on these points in their folk-tales. The tribe, as my ethno-
graphical notes show, was formerly divided into a number of subdivisions,
or o'Jwumig. Whether each of these should be regarded simply as a
tribal subdivision, as among the N’tlaka/pamua, or as a gens, as among
the northern tribes, is doubtful. Each division had its own proper name—
in every instance, I think, a geographical one—derived from some local
physical peculiarity, exactly as among the N’tlaka’‘pamug. In every
okwumiug there existed the same threefold division of the people into
three classes, and in some instances the total number of souls in each
village would amount to several hundreds. Generally speaking, each
community would be made up of several families or clans. ‘The members
of these clans were not bound together, as the gentes of the northern

‘ The distinctive part of this title bears a remarkable resemblance to the esoteric
term by which one of the Nootka deities was invoked by the chiefs of that tribe.
Dr. Boas has recorded the name of this being under the form Ka'tse. The two forms
so clearly resemble each other as to suggest some connection between them; and
in this connection I may remark that the more I extend my studies of the Salish
and Kwakiutl-Nootka, the stronger is the conviction forced upon me that between
these two stocks there is a deeper underlying racial connection than the structural
differences of their language would seem to indicate. Morphologically speaking,
they seem to have little in common ; but that little steadily increases with our larger
analytical knowledge of their languages, and their vocabulary resemblances are
jnany and far-reaching,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 477

tribes, by common totems or crests. They comprised the blood relatives
of any given family on both sides of the house for six generations.
After the sixth generation the kinship ceases to hold good and the
clanship is broken. Under this arrangement an individual’s relatives
were legion, and he would often have family connection in a score or

more different d'kwwmig. Among the present Sk:q0/mic almost all of
them are related in this way to one another, and their cousinships are
endless and.even perplexing to themselves. Marriage within the family
or clan as thus constituted was prohibited, but members of different clans
in the same village could intermarry with each other. If each village
community is to be regarded as a separate gens having a common origin
- from some common ancestor—which I think is extremely doubtful—then
‘marriage among the Sk’q0/mic was not forbidden to members of the same
gens. For my own part I am disposed to regard these separate communi-
ties as mere subdivisions of the tribe which were effected at different
periods in their tribal existence, and generally, probably, from the same
causes which have all over the world led to the founding of new homes
- and new settlements, viz., increase and stress of population. The evidence
in favour of regarding these divisions as distinct gentes having each a
separate origin and springing from a separate ancestor, as among the
northern tribes, is scanty and doubtful. This view is strengthened by
the traditional origin of the tribe, which makes them all spring from a
common pair. I do not desire to be understood as asserting that totemic
gentes did not formerly exist among the Sk-qo'mic, as Dr. Boas seems to
hold. All I say is that after diligent inquiry from several of the chiefs
and others I could myself find no evidence of it. I could not learn that
any particular group or family bore names peculiar to that group or
family, or possessed privileges not shared by the others other than the
right to certain dances and their accompanying songs the origin and
source of which was some personal dream, or vision, or experience of their
own or their parents. But the ownership of these dances differed in no
way from the ownership of a canoe or any other piece of property, and
constituted no kind of bond or union between the owner of them and
others of the tribe or d’kwumigq.

The only peculiar name that I could learn other than those of the
supreme chiefs was that borne by the offspring of female slaves by their
masters. This was the term s’t@/cem, and was a word of reproach.

Polygamy was commonly practised among the Sk-qo/mic, the number
of a man’s wives being limited only by his rank and wealth. <A chief
would frequently have four or five wives. Each wife had her own
quarters in the house, which included a fire and a bed of her own. A
favourite wife would rank first. She would be regarded in consequence
with jealousy and hatred by the others. The husband would sometimes
eat with one, sometimes with another. Infidelity in wives was punished
by cutting the soles of their feet, or, in some instances, by stoning them
to death.

Mortuary Customs.

The burial custonis of the modern Sk-qd’mic are now commonly con-
ducted in the same way as our own, few, if any, of the older ceremonies,
which are discountenanced by the priests, being observed. In former
days the following customs were universally practised :—When life had
left the body the corpse was taken out of the house and washed by some

4.78 REPORT—1900.

elderly friends of the family. It was then doubled up and placed in a
box coffin before it had grown rigid. In the case of chiefs the body was
sometimes placed in a canoe instead of a box. It was then taken to the
burial-ground whether it were day or night. If it were night-time
torches would be used. The box containing the corpse was then placed
in a roughly constructed cedar-slab shed, after which everybody returned
home. The immediate relatives of the deceased followed the corpse,
accompanied by the other members of the family or clan, together with
all their friends, and a band of special mourners, who are engaged for the
occasion. All those who followed the corpse to the graveyard must
paint the breasts of their garments with red paint. If this were not
done a scarcity of fish would be the result at the next salmon run. The
mourners are of both sexes, and all cry aloud. The period of mourning
lasted generally about a month. If, however, the deceased were very
dear to the survivors, the mourning would be kept up longer. When a
chief died the whole community turned out to mourn, and almost every-
body followed the corpse. The hired mourners are paid for their services
with blankets or skins. If the friends of the deceased are wealthy a
feast is held immediately after the disposal of the body, and the mourners
are then paid. If, however, the relatives of the deceased are poor, then
no feast is given at the time, and the payment of the mourners is also
deferred until such occasion as a sufficient number of blankets and skins
has been collected, and they are in a position to hold the feast. It was
customary to choose the occasion of some big ‘ potlatch’ gathering, when
everybody would be present.

When the relatives of the deceased have returned from the grave-
yard they burn cedar (Zhwya gigantea) and salal-berry (Gaultheria Shallon)
branches and whip the whole dwelling with boughs, particularly that part
where the body lay, to drive away the presence of death, sickness, and
ghosts, all of which are supposed to linger there.

Some three or four days after the burial it was not unusual for the
witches and wizards of the tribe to declare that the ghost of the dead had
returned from the land of spirits for something to eat. The relatives of
the deceased are informed, and they immediately gather all the best food
they can procure, and take it, sometimes to the burial-ground and
sometimes into the woods, and spread it out on a big blanket made from
the wool of the mountain sheep or goat. The witches and medicine-men
now invite the shade of the dead to eat. Presently they assure the
relatives that the spirit is satisfied. The food is then either distributed
to the poor and old, or else it is consumed in a fire built for the occasion.

The customs to be observed by the immediate survivors of the
deceased differ somewhat according to sex. If a woman had lost her
husband she must fast for one whole day. At the close of the day a
neighbour would bring in a large piece of dried fish. The widow must

now bite four mouthfuls from this piece of fish, while it is held in the —

neighbour's hands, without touching it herself except with her mouth.
After she had eaten her four mouthfuls of fish she might partake of other
food, but must be careful to abstain from eating it before her children.
Should the food be eaten in the presence of the children it was believed
that they would all shortly die, the act being regarded as equivalent to
‘eating up their life.’ This rule must be strictly observed for the space
of a month. For the same period she must bathe the first thing every
morning and scrub her body with boughs, after which she must blow on

ee

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 479

the tips of her fingers four times successively if she desired to get stout or
fat, and if she wanted to become thin she must suck in the air from the
tips of her fingers the same number of times. Another practice sne must
observe was to place tswtzétcai'é (spruce-boughs) under her bed, and also
hang some at the head of it.! She must also eat her food off these boughs
for at least a month. The widow always accompanied the corpse of her
husband to the burial-place. Her blanket is painted for the occasion with
streaks of red paint, as is also the crown of her head. Excessive weeping
sometimes made her so weak that she had to support herself with a staff
(ftcdtc) while walking to and from the graveyard. The customs to be
observed by the widower were simpler. He must likewise bathe every
morning at daybreak, and must also abstain from eating before his
children for the space of a month ; but his head was not painted, only his
blanket ; and he puts the tswtzztcai'é only at the head of his bed, and not
under it. Some three or four days after the burial all the relatives of the
deceased, except the widow or the widower, must cut their hair. The
severed hair is always carefully collected and buried. After the ceremony
of hair-cutting is over all those who have attended the funeral go in a
line to the river or the inlet, according to the locality, and walk down
into the water till it is up to their breasts ; then at a word they all dip
together once and come out again. If they are wearing blankets at the
time they cast these aside, but otherwise do not trouble to disrobe.
It was customary for widows and orphans some time during the
mortuary rites to take a small white pebble and roll it in their mouths
four times. This was supposed to prevent the teeth from decaying.

Birth Customs.

It was customary among the Sk-q0/mic women to retire to the woods
when they were about to give birth to their children. Usually a woman
went quite alone or accompanied only by her husband. Midwives were
called in for the first child, but afterwards only in cases of difficulty or
when the labour was unduly prolonged. Usually the woman would fulfil
her daily duties to within an hour of the child’s birth, and be ready to
take them up again a few hours afterwards. In the case of first children
parents of standing would engage three or four midwives or experienced
women for the occasion. Each had her own special duties to perform.
These were prescribed by long-established custom. It was the office of
one to sever the umbilical cord and dispose of the after-birth ; of another
to watch and care for the baby ; and of another to ‘ cook the milk’ and
generally look after the mother. They were paid for their services im-
mediately after the event by the husband with gifts of blankets. This
honorarium was also prescribed by usage, the number of blankets given on
the occasion depending on the husband’s social position. Immediately
after the birth of the child it is washed all over in cold water and then
wrapped in the softest s/o’i (inner bark of the cedar—Thuya gigantea—
beaten till soft and fine) and placed in a cradle of cedar-wood. This
cradle was constructed in the following manner :—A piece of cedar-wood
about thirty inches long and ten or twelve inches wide, was first taken ;
a second, and shorter, but considerably broader, piece was then bent over
this in the form of an arch, and fastened in this position to the longitudi-
nal edges of the other, thus forming a kind of pocket. The lower piece,

' The object of this was to preserve her from her husband’s sickness.

A480 REPORT—1900,

or bed of the cradle, extended about four inches beyond the other at the
foot, and about six inches at the head. The extension at the foot was
bent upwards till it reached an angle of thirty or forty degrees, and
fastened in this position to the upper piece by lacing.’ This formeda kind
of foot-board the object of which was to keep the baby from slipping
down out of the cradle and allow at the same time the liquids to escape.
The head of the cradle was left open. The child passed the first year of
its life in this receptacle, never leaving it except to be washed twice daily.
Tt was both fed and dandled in its cradle. If the mother had outside
work to do, the cradle was usually slung to her shoulder or to a swing-pole.
Yn carrying it the weight was borne on the hip. It was during this
cradle existence of the child that the cranial deformation formerly practised
by this tribe took place. This was effected by frontal pressure, pads or
bands of s/0/wi being tied across the anterior part of the cranium and held
there by thongs fastened to the bottom of the cradle. A pad was also tied
across the top of the head about the line of the coronal suture to prevent
the head from rising to a ridge here, as was common among the Siciatl
tribe, the Sk-qd/mic regarding this as ugly and unsightly. The immediate
effect of this pressure was threefold. It caused a flattening of the occi-
pital region by contact with the cradle-board ; it gave a peculiarly receding
sweep to the frontal bone, a line of beauty in Sk-qo'mic eyes ; and it pro-
duced a compensatory bulge of the head laterally ; the general effect of
all which was to make the head appear abnormally short and the face
unusually broad. This practice of cranial deformation has now, I believe,
been wholly given up by the Sk-q6’mic, though the infant still passes the
greater part of the first year of its existence in a cradle as formerly, On
one of my visits to the Sk-qo’mic I observed an Indian mother nursing
her baby in a rush-made cradle with open top. This, I was informed,
was the style now commonly used. Should the birth take place in the
winter, or when it was not convenient for the mother to retire to the
woods, a temporary screen of reed mats would be put up in the general
dwelling, behind which the woman would give birth to her child. A very
peculiar custom obtained among the Sk-qo’mic in the case of first-born
children. The mother might not feed the child from the breast for
four days. Her breasts must first be steamed with a decoction of the rind
of the elderberry (Sambucus racemosa), and then covered with poultices
of the same material. This was kept up for four days, its object being to
‘cook’ the mother’s milk. The process, called in the Sk-q0/mic ww/tlhwar
miukwum=‘ cooking the breast,’ was sometimes repeated at the birth of
the.second child, only on this occasion the infant was not deprived of the
breast. It was thought that the mother’s milk was harmful to the child
before the fourth day and before it had been ‘cooked.’ This strange
custom amongst others may perhaps have had something to do with the
high death-rate among the old-time children. In earlier days, before
contact with the whites, it was not at all uncommon for a mother to give
birth to a dozen children ; but there were few households which contained
a family of children of more than half of that number. It is true female
children were commonly strangled at birth if there were too many girls
in the family. This unnatural practice was effected by the parents them-
selves—usually by the mother—by stopping the nostrils and placing a gag
of s/o’wi in the child’s mouth. My informant was herself doomed to this
fate at her birth, and was only spared at the earnest solicitations of an
elder sister.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 841

After the birth of the child, when the woman had passed the after-
birth, she was taken or went down to the river or inlet and bathed in the
icy-cold water, no matter what time of year or what kind of weather it
was. My informant stated that she had been thus taken to the river and
washed all over after the birth of her first child in the month of January,
when the water was covered with ice and the ground with snow. Ablu-
tive ceremonies played a very important part in the lives of the old-time
Sk-qo’mic, as we may easily gather from their old customs. Men, women,
and children bathed constantly. Among the young men it formed an
important feature in their training. Lach sex had its own special bathing
place, men and women, or boys and girls, after childhood never bathing
together.

The birth of twins was a very special event, twins always possessing,
it was believed, supernormal powers, the commonest of which was control
- of the wind. It would seem that the birth of twins was usually presaged
_ by dreams on the part of both parents. In these dreams minute instruc-
tions would be given to the parents as to the course they must pursue in
the care and up-bringing of the children. These they must follow im-
plicitly in every particular. If they were neglected it was thought and
believed that the twins would die. If the event took place in winter a
fire must be built in the woods, but the husband must on no account
touch or have anything to do with it.' Immediately after the birth
both husband and wife must bathe in cold water, using the tips of spruce,
fir, and cedar branches to scrub themselves with. After this they must
remain in seclusion, apart from the rest of the tribe, fora month. Any
breach of this rule was regarded as a grave offence, which was bound to
bring severe punishment upon the offenders. The hair of twins was sup-
posed never to be cut. If for any reason this rule was departed from,
great care had to be taken to bury all that had been cut off. Neglect of
this, it was believed, would bring about a severe winter. Throughout the
whole childhood of the twins the greatest care had to be taken of them.
If at any time wind was desired for sailing, the bodies of the twins would
be rubbed with oil or grease, after which, it is said, the wind would im-
mediately rise. The tsad’anik, a kind of small fish which I was unable to
identify, and which periodically visits the Sk-qo’mic River in large
numbers, are said to be descended from a pair of twins (see the story
of the origin of the tsac/anik below, under ‘ Folk-lore’).

When a woman desired to give birth to a son she would place during
her pregnancy a bow and arrows under her bed. If a daughter were
desired a needle and some of the utensils used in weaving would take the
place of the bow and arrows. Another custom to ensure the same end was
for the woman to chew, in the early days of her pregnancy, the leaves of
certain kinds of willow and other shrubs. These leaves were distinguished
as ‘male’ and ‘ female’ leaves.

Customs practised to prevent Pregnancy.

When a woman desired to bear no more children she adopted one or
more of the following practices. She would get out of bed immediately
after giving birth to her child and stand for some time up to her arm-
pits in the icy cold water of the inlet, or river, or sound, according to her
locality ; or she would bury the after-birth on the beach at ebb-tide just

‘ If the husband built the fire a very cold period would follow.

’

qt

482 REPORT—1900.

the line of land and water. Another practice was to hang the after-
birth on the branch of a tree and keep it there for a twelvemonth. Still
another was to turn round three times and kick the after-birth before it
was disposed of. Usually the mode of disposing of the after-birth was
by burying it secretly in the ground. Among the Sk*qd’mic it was never
burned, as among some tribes. It was believed that the mother would
‘swell up’ and die if the after-birth were burned. It is said that a
wowan once destroyed the after-birth in this manner with this melan-
choly result ; hence its disposal in this way was ever afterwards most
carefully avoided.

Marriage Customs.

Formerly, when a young man took a fancy to a girl and desired to
make her his wife, the custom was for him to go to the house of the girl’s
parents and squat down with his blanket wrapped about him just inside
the door. Here he was supposed to remain for four days and nights
without eating or drinking. During this period no one of the girl’s
family takes the slightest notice of him. The only difference his presence
makes in the house is to cause the parents to keep a bright fire burning
all night. This is done that they may readily perceive that he takes no
advantage of his proximity to the girl to make love to her or otherwise
molest her during the night. On the fourth day, if the suitor is accept-
able to the parents, the mother of the girl asks some neighbour to
acquaint the youth that they are willing to accept him as their son-in-
law, and give him the girl. To himself they still say nothing, nor in any
way take the slightest notice of him ; and as no communication of any
kind can take place between the girl’s people and the young man at this
stage of the proceedings, this neighbour now cooks a meal for the fasting
lover and informs him at the same time that his suit is acceptable to the
family, and that the girl will be given to him in the usual way.

After the young man’s acceptance by the girl’s parents in the manner
described the youth would then return home, and in a few days come
back for his bride, accompanied by all his friends and relatives. IEf
he were just an ordinary young man of the tribe, of no particular
standing, he would bring with him one canoe-load of blankets ; but if he
were a person of rank, such as a chief’s son, he would bring two canoe-
loads of blankets with him. These he would distribute to the bride’s
relatives. He and his friends are now entertained for the rest of the day
by his prospective father-in-law, and accommodation is afforded them for
the night, the inmates of the house sleeping on one side of the building
and the visitors on the other. On the following morning, after a good
meal has been indulged in, all go down to the beach to where the bride-
groom’s canoe is moored, the parents of the bride taking with them a
number of blankets, which they put in the canoe. If the bride is a person
of rank the whole course from the house to the beach is covered with a
line of blankets for her to waik upon, and two old women, as maids-of-
honour, Jead her down to the canoe. The bride is dressed for the occasion
in all the bravery of bright-coloured blankets and what other ornaments
she may possess. Over her head, completely enveloping her, a blanket
is thrown as a kind of bridal veil. Behind her come the female slaves of
her father’s household, carrying all her personal belongings, such as mats,
baskets, blankets, wooden platters, spoons, &c. The bridesmaids now
place the bride in the bow of the canoe, after which etiquette demands

—

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 483

that the bridegroom shall reward them for their services by a gift of one
or more blankets each. When this has been done the parties separate,
the girl’s family and friends going back to the village, and the youth with
his bride and friends returning home. If the girl were the daughter of
ordinary parents she would have to dispense with some of these cere-
monies, such as the walking on blankets, sc. Some days later the bride
and bridegroom and his friends return to the bride’s old home, where a
feast is held. After the feast is over they separate again, and some time
later the girl’s parents and friends pay a return visit to her husband’s
home, bringing with them blankets and other presents equal in number
and value to those bestowed upon themseives. These are distributed to the
son-in-law and his friends, after which all partake of a second feast, which
closes the marriage ceremonies, and thereafter the girl and youth are
regarded by all as man and wife.

Sometimes the suitor is not acceptable to the girl’s parents, and after
a family council has been held he is rejected. A friendly neighbour is
ealled in as before to act as intermediary and convey to him the decision
of the parents, only on this occasion she provides no meal for him. If
the youth has set his heart on the girl he will now try and induce her to
elope with him. If she refuses to do this, he has perforce to give her up
and seek a wife elsewhere. If, however, she consents, he seizes the first
opportunity that offers and carries her off to the woods with him, where
they remain together for several days. If the objection to the young man on
the part of the girl’s parents is not deep-rooted, he is now permitted to keep
the girl as his wife on payment to them of a certain number of blankets.
Tf, however, they object even now to have him as a son-in-law, they take
the girl from him, and it is understood on both sides that he is to trouble
her or them no further.

With regard to the suitor’s fast of four days and nights I questioned
my informant whether the old-time youths of the tribe really and truly
abstained from food and drink on these occasions. He assured me they
undoubtedly did, and that it was a matter of honour with them to eat or
drink nothing during the whole period, the significance of their absti-
nence being that they were now men, and could readily endure the hard-
ships and privations incident to manhood. Apropos of this custom he
related to me an instance of what befell a certain luckless youth who
sought surreptitiously to break his fast. The family of the girl whom
he sought to take as wife had all gone out on the third day, leaving him
squatting in his place by the door. They had gone across the inlet to
pay a visit to a village on the other side. The absence of the whole
family tempted the famishing youth to take advantage of his temporary
opportunities to satisfy the cravings of his stomach. So he left his post
and ran down to the beach and hastily dug up some clams. As he was
in the act of eating these a little girl told him that the family was
returning on the water. In his haste to eat the clams he had prepared
he swallowed one whole, and it stuck in his throat and choked him so
that he died. His melancholy end was regarded by everybody as richly
deserved, aad his fate was held up thereafter as a warning to succeeding
generations of young men.

These customs are no longer kept up among the great body of the
Sk-qo’mic. Marriages among them are now conducted very much after
the manner of the whites and solemnised by the priest. A few of the

heathen Sk-qd’mie, who still hold by their old tribal customs, continue to
tia

A484 REPORT-—1900.

marry their daughters in this way ; but these are few in number, and,
generally speaking, the marriage customs as here described are only a
tradition in the tribe.

Naming.

A child usually received no name in babyhood, but when about three
years old the elders of the child’s family or clan would choose a name for
it from among those of its ancestors. This name it would bear through
life if a girl, but if a boy, and the son of some person of rank and wealth,
some years later his parents would give a ‘potlatch,’ and then he would
receive anew name. This was quite commonly that of his own father or
of his paternal grandfather, whether they were alive or dead.

The names of dead people were tabooed. That is to say, it wasa
breach of custom and good manners to mention the name of a dead person
in the presence of the deceased’s relatives or connections. This custom
gave rise to inconvenience at times. It was quite common for men to be
called by the name of some implement or utensil. -An individual once
bore the name of Sk-u’mel = ‘paddle.’ When he died, as they might
not use this term before his relatives, they had to make use of the term
qautliwus when they wished to say ‘ paddle.’ I did not get the significa-
tion of this new term. Another person bore the name S/wk-cen=‘ moccasin.’
When he died a new word had to be coined, and to-day both terms are
in common use for moccasin.

‘The stories give us examples of the names used formerly. I append a
few specimens of these here :—

Tcia/tmugq = owl. Cauk: = skull.
Qoitcita’l. SQéils = copper.
A'tsaian. Cukeuklaklo’s.
Sia/tlm £Q = rain-man. Tetke’tsEn,
Tcula.

Puberty Customs.

When a girl arrived at puberty she would call her mother’s attention
to her condition. The mother at once informed the father, who calls the
family and relatives together. They discuss the matter and arrange
what course the girl is to follow.! First of all they take two strands of
the wool of the mountain sheep or goat and tie them to her hair, one on
each side of her forehead. This is a public notification of the girl’s con-
dition, which everybody understands. She is now set to ‘pull’ wool or
hair without food or drink for the space of four days. She was kept
without water during this period, because it was believed that if she
drank water when in this condition she would spoil her teeth. She must
abstain from washing or bathing, and must never go near the fire during
the four days.*, When in this condition her mother, or grandmother, or
some other woman would pull out all the irregular hairs from the edges
of her eyebrows so as to make them fine and even. The denuded parts
were always rubbed with the girl’s saliva to prevent the hairs growing
again. When the four days were up some old women would take her in
hand, and bathe her head and body in hot water, and scrub her with

1} From this statement it would seem that no two girls necessarily followed the
same procedure.

* It was believed that if she sat near the fire during her menses her skin would
hecome red, and ever after remain in that condition,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. A485

branches till her skin was almost torn off and her body was sore and
covered from head to foot with scratches from the severe treatment she
had received. The prickly brambles of the trailing blackberry (Rubus sp.)
were often employed for this purpose, and my informant told me that it
was no uncommon thing for a girl to toss and turn in agony the night
following this bath, unable to close her eyes in sleep for the pain and
_ smarting of her body.

If she were the daughter of a chief or a noble she would be bathed by
the sad'm’trn or siti (medicine man or woman). These would be paid for
their services with gifts of blankets or skins.

The object of these heroic measures was to make the girl ‘bright and
smart.’ After the bath she was given food and drink and permitted to
come to the fire. Sometimes a friend of the family would mark the
occasion by putting a nice new blanket over the girl’s shoulders. After
_ her meal her face would be painted with streaks of red paint, and the
girl would then go to the forest and pull down the branches of all the
cedar and spruce trees she passed and rub her face and body with their
tips, and then let them spring up again. The object of this practice was
to make her charming and attractive in the eyes of men. She would also
take a quantity of fern-roots of the edible kind (Pteris aquilina) and
offer them to the biggest trees she could find. This was supposed to give
her a generous nature and keep her from becoming stingy and mean.
After a girl had arrived at puberty she was never allowed to play or
_ mingle with the boys. She was kept indoors at work all day long. The
lot of a girl among the Sk-q6’mic in the olden days does not appear to
have been an enviable one.

A girl or woman during her monthly periods was ‘bad medicine ;’
that is, she was supposed to carry ill-luck with her. If she entered a
sick-room the invalid was sure to get worse ; and if she crossed the path
of a hunter or a fisher he would get no luck that trip.

When people were sick they were rubbed with dog-fish oil.

When the screech-owl (cai’w) was heard hooting around a house it
was regarded as a sure sign that some of the inmates would shortly die.
Cai'w signifies ‘ghost,’ or ‘shade.’

Dwellings.

The dwellings of the old Sk-qd’mic were of the communal kind,
whether they were the ordinary slab and cedar-board structure or whether
they were the winter keekwilee-house. As far as I have been able to
gather, only the upper tribes on the Sk‘q0’mic River used the sk-wmi'n, or
keekwilee-house. That this structure was known to them is clear from
the name of one of their villages, which signifies in English ‘keekwilee-
house.’ The lower tribes commonly used the cedar structure all the year
round. Hach village contained one and sometimes two of these placed at
right angles to one another, or in parallel lines according to the local
peculiarities of the village site. Some of them, in the more populous
villages, were of enormous length, extending in an unbroken line for
upwards of 600 feet. Houses of two or three hundred feet in
length were very ordinary dwellings. In width they varied from 20
to 40 feet. The walls, too, were of variable height, ranging from 8 to
15 feet when the roofs were gabled. If the roof contained but one slope,
then the higher side would rise to 25 or even 30 feet. Both sides and
roof were built of cedar boards or slabs split with hammer and wedges

486 REPORT-—-1900.

from the cedar trunk. The cedar (Zhuya gigantea) of British Columbia
lends itself readily to operations of this kind, and the task is not as
difficult as might be imagined. The white settlers almost everywhere
build their houses, stables, fences, and barns of cedar split by themselves
in this way. I have seen boards split out as smooth and uniform as if
they had been cut out with a saw and planed. In the native dwellings
the boards were held in place by withes or ropes made from young cedars
or from the branches of older ones. There were no windows in these
buildings ; sunlight and air came in through the doors or by the roof, a
part of which was pulled down a few feet to let the smoke out and the
air and light in during the day in fine weather. These structures are
open from end to end without partitions or divisions of any kind. The
chief quite commonly occupied the centre of the dwelling. Next to him,
on either side, came his brothers and other notabilities, and beyond these
the baser folk. Each family had its own allotted space at the side of the
dwelling and its own fire. This space was commonly just ample enough
to allow of the beds of the family being arranged around three sides of a
square with an open front towards the fire and centre of the room

thus . The bed was raised by a kind of platform or bed-stand about

two feet from the ground. In the space beneath were stored roots
and such-like commodities. Above and over the beds shelves were hung.
On these were stored the dried fish and utensils of the family. If the
family were one of position and wealth, several large cedar boxes would
be found lying about. These would contain the blankets and skins and
other valuables of the owners. To separate the beds of one family from
another, hanging curtains of grass and reeds were suspended on either
side, but the front was left open. The beds of the Sk-qo’/mic consisted of
reed mats and s/o'wi, i.e., the inner bark of the cedar beaten till fine and
soft. Rolls of the same material formed their pillows. Their coverings
were, for the poorer class, mats of the same materials. For the wealthy
these were supplemented by mountain-goat blankets and dressed deer-
skins. The Sk-qo/mic husband and wife did not sleep side by side, but
feet to feet. If the bed space was confined the feet of one would reach
to the head of the other; but usually this was not the case, plenty of
room being allowed.

In winter it was customary to keep the fires burning all night, large
logs being placed upon them for the purpose. On the occasion of feasts
and dances the hanging mats about the beds would all be taken down,
the beds themselves serving for seats or platforms for the drummers and
spectators.

Household Utensils.

The Skqo’mic housekeeper possessed cooking pots of both cedar and
basketry. Food was served in large shallow cedar troughs or dishes.
Smaller platters of the same material were also in use, likewise spoons,
though these were also made of horn. When eating they sat on mats or
squatted on their haunches. Of baskets they had a great variety. Some
ot these were made from the split roots of young cedar, spruce, or fir trees,
others from the bark of the alder and birch.

Dress,

The dress of the Sk-q6/mic in pre-trading days did not differ materially
from that of other tribes of this region. The men commonly wore high

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 487

leggings and waist-cloth. Over their shoulders, when they were not
actively engaged, they wore, toga-fashion, a native blanket. The women
of the nobler class wore a dressed deer-skin shroud or smock, which
reached from the shoulders to below their knees ; inferior women wore
only short petticoats of woven s/o/wi. Moccasins were worn at times by
_ both sexes. The women sometimes covered their heads with a plaited
conical hat with broad sloping brim. This served also as a receptacle for
berries and other small things if no basket were at hand. The exterior of
these hats was commonly figured in red and black paints or dyes. Some
of the older women may still be occasionally seen wearing them, but they
have gone out of use generally.

Tattooing and Painting.

In earlier days the men used to paint themselves for dancing and other
ceremonies. I could not learn that the men ever tattooed their bodies.
A favourite decoration was that effected by sprinkling particles of mica
over their faces and bodies upon a groundwork of grease. This gave

Markings on right arm above back of the hand.

See

Colour blue.

Markings on left arm above back of the hand.

—

Colour blue.

their bodies a glistening appearance. They obtained the mica for this
purpose from disintegrated granite. The women commonly employed a
kind of red clay for facial decoration. This they smeared over their
cheeks, chins, and foreheads. When confined only to the cheeks and not
too lavishly put on the effect was not displeasing to the eye. It gave
them a ruddy, comely appearance. The old women of pagan habits still
decorate themselves in this way. The women were accustomed to tattoo
themselves on the arm or wrist and lower leg. The markings were
always simple and generally crude, bearing no resemblance whatever to
the elaborate and fanciful designs of the Haida and other northern
Indians. A copy of the markings on the arms of one of my informants.
is given above.
Games.

The Sk-q0/mic had a variety of games. I obtained some, information
on some of these. The commonest and most popular were the ball games

488 REPORT—1900,

Of these they had two called fé’k-qua and tcqui'la. The former was a
kind of Jacrosse, and the ball was caught and thrown with an instrument
similar to the lacrosse stick. The other was a kind of football. They
played also a game called ¢ckwie’. This was a kind of shuttlecock and
nattledore, and a favourite pastime of the girls. They were acquainted
also with ‘gawi'lts, or the ‘cat’s-cradle’ game. But dancing and
dramatic impersonations of animals were their favourite pastimes, and
these played an important part in the tribal festivities in earlier days.

Dances.

The Sk-qd’mic had three kinds of dances, called respectively mé‘éla,
ko'aok's, and skaip. . The first was the common dance, which any one
could perform ; the second was characterised by spasmodic shakings of
the head on the part of the dancer ; the third had for its distinguishing
feature a shaking or violent trembling of the hand, which was held aloft
in the air during the dance. In this dance the dancer spits inuch biood,
or something which has the appearance of blood. JI have not myself
seen a dance of this kind, so cannot say whether it is really blood or not.
As they appear to be none the worse after the dancing is over they pro-
bably do not spit blood. When dancing they invariably sing. These
dance-songs are private property. No one can use another person’s song
unless permission has been given, or unless it belongs jointly to more
than one person. These dance-songs are acquired by inheritance or they
are learnt in dreams. Dreams or visions are the original source of all
their dances. A person dreams of a certain dance, and on the next
occasion introduces it. Not every one is a dancer ; only those who are
by mental temperament fitted for the part ever become noted dancers,
The reason of this is simple. A dancer during the performance of his
dance is not in a normal condition of mind. He or she is practically in a
hypnotic trance state. On the occasion of a dance the dancers come
forward as they are moved or prompted by self-suggestion or the mental
suggestion of the waiting audience. They sit passive waiting for the
‘psychological moment,’ just precisely as do the sitters in a ‘ mediumistic
circle. The monotonous beating of cedar boards on all sides, which is
their dance music, has the effect of sending some of them into hypnotic
trances. First one and then another heaves a deep sigh, or utters sounds
indicative of mental disorder ; some swoon outright, and have to be
brought to a dancing condition by the dashing of cold water over them ;
and some start off in a kind of frenzy, and dance from fire to fire all
round the building till they fall exhausted from their exertions.

Dancers had to undergo a certain training. When young men or women
desired to become dancers they bad first to subject themselves to a four
days’ fast. In this condition it was easy for them to pass into the
hypnotic state. In the case of the girls in particular they would in-
variably swoon away on the fourth night, when the dance would be held,
and the sqdm’tan and the si# would work upon them to restore them to
consciousness. Presently a girl would come out of her swoon with a
deep sigh and begin singing, and then start off dancing for half an hour,
This dance she is supposed to have learnt in her trance. When she has
finished her performance she is driven out into the forest among the
trees. The purpose of this is that she may learn a new dance from the
bushes and trees, which they think are able to hold communication with
the neophyte in her present state and impart to her some of their know-

oe

-_—<_S *

ee

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 489

Jedge. After a while she returns to the building again and performs a
new dance. When a novice performs his or her first dance it is called
their hausa'Tktl. Nearly all the spectators of the dances beat time with
sticks on loose cedar boards placed on the beds. The movements of the
dancers are various, agility and endurance being more aimed at than
what we should call grace. Prancing like a high-stepping horse is a
noted feature in some of the men’s dances. An old resident of the dis-
trict, Mr. Jonathan Miller, now postmaster of Vancouver City, but who
formerly had much to do with the Indians in his capacity of provincial
constable, informed me that at the close of one of their dances, which
took place about thirty-eight years ago at the village of Qoiqoi (=masks),
in Stanley Park, which then had a population of 700, and now contains
but one family, a noted medicine-man, or sqdm’trn, gave a performance.
He came into the circle with a small living dog in his teeth. As he
danced he devoured the creature piecemeal. He bit the skin from its
nose and tore it backwards with his teeth till he reached the throat.
He then tore off piece after piece of the flesh and danced round the
building, devouring it as he went. This dance was known as the ‘ dog-
dance.’ This is no longer practised even by the pagan bands, as far as I
can learn.

There was a custom among the Sk-q0’mic of ‘ bringing out’ a girl, not
altogether unlike the custom among ourselves. In the case of a girl who
had lost her mother when she had reached the age of puberty she was
publicly ‘brought out’ at the next dance, and sang and danced her
mother’s song and dance before the whole community. She was attired
for the occasion in a special garment or head-dress. When the people
were assembled for the dancing an elderly man of the girl’s family would
proclaim aloud that So-and-so was going to dance and sing her mother’s
song. Her brothers or her cousins would now prepare and robe her.
This ceremeny was called s0’yiimait/, and consisted in placing upon her
head a kind of veil composed of tails made from the wool of the moun-
tain-goat, which hung down all round her person, and bobbed and
swayed as she moved. The garment was called so’yamrn. If the girl
were a good industrious sister the brothers would show their esteem and
regard for her by seating her on a pile of blankets, afterwards to be
given away to mark the occasion. Usually the ceremony took place in
the house, but sometimes a platform would be erected on several canoes
joined together on the water, and the dance would take place there.
When the announcement would be made of the dance all the people
would show their pleasure by clapping their hands much as a white
audience does. In earlier times the girl danced on a blanket, which
was afterwards sad/s, or scrambled for by the onlookers, each wildly
endeavouring to get a piece of it. Every one who secured a grip of the
blanket was entitled to cut off all he held in his hand. These pieces of
blanket were not prized as mere souvenirs of the occasion, as might be
thought, but rather as precious material to be rewoven into another
blanket. That is the reason why blankets at potlatches and other feasts
were cut into pieces if there were not enough whole ones to go round
among the guests. Mountain-goat wool was a valuable commodity,
and not easy to secure ; hence the value of even a small piece of blanket.
This sad/s, or scrambling, was always an exciting scene, and because of
an accident that happened on one of these occasions to the débutante by
the over-eagerness of the crowd to get at the blanket, it was afterwards

4.90, REPORT—1900,

always suspended over the girl’s head while she danced, and when she
had finished it was taken down and thrown to the audience, who
literally cut and tore it to pieces. In later times, after the intro-
duction of Hudson’s Bay blankets, the pieces secured from the sadls of
these were sewn together to make baby blankets of.

Potlatches.

The Sk‘q6/mic in common with other tribes of this region were given
to holding ‘ potlatches.’ These have been so often described that it is un-
necessary to give an account of them here. They were the occasion of
great gatherings. Whole tribes from long distances would be invited
sometimes. Representatives from Lytton and Kamloops in the interior,
and from the upper coast and Vancouver’s Island, were present on one
occasion at Qoigoi. Over 2,000 in all sat down to the feast. An immense
quantity of property was distributed on this occasion, estimated by Mr.
J. Miller, who was present, to be worth over $5,000. On another and
later occasion chief Semela’‘no, the head of one of the confederated bands
at the mouth of the Fraser, gave away $3,000 in silver and 2,000
blankets.

Wars.

The Sk'qd’mic would sometimes wage war with their northern neigh-
bours the Stlatlumu or Lillooets. They had also to defend themselves
from marauding bands of Chilcotins, but their most dreaded enemies were
the U’keltaws, a band of the Kwakiutl tribe. These latter were long the
scourge of the coast from the northern end of Vancouver’s Island to the
Columbia, and from the mouth of the Fraser up to Yale. There is not a
tribe on the Fraser that has not memories of evil times and bitter losses
caused by the visits of this band. Only on one occasion is it recorded
that the Sk-qo’mic got the better of their foes, and that since the white
man’s time and the advent of firearms. It is told that the Sk-qo’mic
scouts brought timely warning of the approach of two war canoes of
U'keltaws. The Sk-qo’mic at that time had a courageous and resourceful
leader in their head chief Kiapila/nog. He assembled a number of the
bravest men and best shots of the tribe and hid them in a log hut built
for the purpose at the mouth of the narrows leading into Burrard Inlet.
On the flats immediately in front of the hut he placed some of the women
and children, who were to pretend to be gathering drift wood. When
the U’keltaws came into the narrows they at once perceived the women
and children, and, thinking to secure these for slaves in the apparent
absence of the men, they landed. The women and children now fled
towards the woods, drawing their pursuers after them close to the hut.
The hidden Sk-qo/mic now opened fire upon the U’keltaws and killed
every one without harm to themselves. The very name of this band was
a terror to the other tribes, and the mothers would frighten their children
into silence and quiet by saying the U’keltaws were coming for them.
In most of the villages they had palisaded enclosures to retire into when
hard pressed by this enemy.

‘ood.

The principal and staple food of the Sk‘d/mic was salmon. These,
fresh in season and dried out of season, were to them what bread is to the
European and rice to the Oriental, and great was the distress and famine

oe
bora

—s

- el

——E———————————

fan ial
¥

desired.

OO

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 491

if the salmon catch was poor. Their traditions tell of troubles of this
kind occasionally. They also hunted the deer with dogs, and occasionally
secured a mountain-goat or two. In hunting the deer they did not shoot
or trap them. The dogs were trained to drive them into the water, where
they were easily despatched by men in canoes. Some of the men were
skilful with the bow and arrow, and secured by this means many duck,
&c., but it was in fishing the tribe excelled. Fruits and roots of various
kinds were also eaten by them. This we may gather for ourselves from
their folk-tales. I-was unable to secure the native names of many of
these. Such of those as I did get will be found in my vocabulary of
Sk-q0’/mic terms below, with their botanical equivalents. I could not
learn that any family or village had exclusive rights over fishing, hunting,
or berry and root grounds. These seemed to be common to all alike.
Neither could I hear anything of ‘ First Fruits’ ceremonies as among the
N’tlaka/pamug and River Indians. The chiefs used formerly to pray for
the tribe or village to Tx tcit] sia’m, the upper chief, but I could learn no
particulars of these prayers. They have been in contact, more or less
close, with white men for over two generations, and this intercourse, with
the influence of the missionaries, has broken down and thrust aside many
of their old pagan beliefs and practices, many of which are not known at
all by the younger men and women, and almost forgotten by the older
ones. Like the other tribes of this region they were fond of fish-oils, and
particularly salmon-oil. They extracted oil from the sturgeon, the seal,
the salmon, and the dog-fish. They stored these oils away in bottles made
from the sounds, or air-bladders, of certain fish. They used this oil for a
variety of purposes besides food. One of these was the anointing of
the bodies of sick persons and also the bodies of twins when wind was

Physical Characteristics,

With the exception of about a score of photographs of men and boys
of the Sk-q0/mic I regret to say that I can add no new material to our
knowledge of the physical characteristics of this tribe. Dr. Boas’s earlier
work along these lines among them so prejudiced their minds against
anything of the kind that I found it impossible to do anything with them,
more particularly after the death of the late Bishop Durieu, who had a
great influence over them. The good Bishop had made an appointment
with me just before his death sickness, and had promised to exercise his
influence in my behalf, and I was sorely disappointed to learn of his
death. He told me himself that on the occasion of Dr. Boas’s visit many
of the Indians ran away and hid themselves in the woods rather than sub-
mit to the examinations. I made an effort, however, and chief George
‘rounded ’.me up a score or so of children of all ages, but the mothers of
them came upon us before I had measured the first boy’s head and dragged
them all off. After this I gave up the attempt to do anything with them
in this way. I may say, however, that, like the N’tlaka’pamug, they are
clearly a mixed race. We find two distinct facial types among them, one
of which is distinctly and markedly Mongolic. I regret being unable to
secure a good specimen of this type among my photographs.

Archeology.

Archeological investigation carried on within the territory of the
Sk-qo’mic has resulted in revealing to us, among other things, one fact of

492 REPORT—1900,

special importance. This is that the shores and bays of Burrard Inlet
and English Bay have been occupied by rude communities of people for.a
very considerable period of time. The midden heaps here—the chief monu-
ments of the past in this region—are of two kinds or classes, and clearly
belong to two distinct periods. There is the class represented by the
refuse heaps seen in the vicinity of every camp site on the coast, and

which, generally speaking, are composed almost wholly of the shells of
various bivalves, mostly of the clam and mussel kind, and which are

clearly of modern or comparatively modern date ; and there is the class

composed of fewer shells, which are mostly fractured and partially decom-

posed, numbers of calcined stones and large quantities of ashes and other

earthy matter. The latter accumulations bear every characteristic of age,

and are undoubtedly of ancient date. I believe these two classes of

middens are to be found everywhere on this coast. Wherever I have

gone I have always met with them ; and Dr. G. M. Dawson has also

mentioned them as occurring on the Queen Charlotte Islands in his

paper on the Haidas. At all events they are particularly characteristic of

this region, and are perhaps the most interesting feature of its archeology.

Evidence of an anatomical kind has been secured from the middens of

this older class in the neighbouring district of the Fraser, which leads us

to believe that a pre-Salishan race once occupied these shores and bays

and formed these heaps. Crania, of a type wholly different from those

recovered from the burial-grounds of the modern tribes, have been dug

up in some of these older heaps. The Sk-qd’mic territory is particularly

rich in these evidences of a distant past. On both shores of Burrard

Inlet, on English Bay, and around False Creek, the remains of many of

these ancient middens are to be found. In some instances they have

been partially washed away by the tides, owing to a subsidence in the

land since the heaps were formed. In some places the decaying stumps °
of old cedar and fir trees of immense size are seen embedded in the midden

mass. There can be no doubt that many of these stumps are over half a

millennium old. They are the remains of what is locally known as the

first forest. In numerous instances I have found them and the middens

overlying the glacial gravels and clays with no intervening mould or soil

between them, while all around in the same vicinity the vegetable mould

covers both the gravel and the middens themselves to a depth of from

six to twelve inches. Indeed the presence of these old camp sites can

often only be discovered by examining the strata of the banks facing the

tides.

There is a second reason which leads me to regard these older heaps
as pre-Salishan formations. They are not included by the Sk-qd/mic
among their old camp sites in the enumeration of their ancient 6’k-wumiiq,
or villages. There is nothing in the Sk‘qo’mic traditions which indicates
that they were ever occupied by members of the Sk-q6’mic tribe. In my
own mind there is no doubt whatever that they are centuries older than
the oldest known Skq6’mic refuse heaps or camp sites, and were formed
by a preceding race. The relics recovered from these aucient middens
are not, however, distinguished in any marked manner from those found
elsewhere on more modern sites. They represent the usual specimens
of bone and stone weapons and utensils, rough and crude specimens being
found side by side with finely wrought and polished ones. But if they
do not differ in any special manner from known Sk’qd/mic specimens
neither do they, for the matter of that, except in the kind of stone

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 4.93

employed, from the remains of ancient peoples elsewhere. Many stone
arrow and spear points have been picked up on the beach adjacent to the
heaps, from which they have been obviously washed by the action of the
tides, which have at some points almost demolished the midden piles.
Jade or nephrite adzes, axes, and chisels have also been picked up in the
same vicinity ; and large numbers of spear and arrow heads ‘in the
rough’ are unearthed from time to time. These latter were apparently
hoards or magazines. They can be picked up on the northern shore of
Stanley Park at low tide by the score. They are not to be confounded
with the waste chips of the arrow maker’s workshop so characteristic of
some prehistoric camp sites. They are clearly the raw material of the
spear and arrow point maker, all showing evidence of having been skilfully
broken for the purpose from water-worn boulders of dark basalt. No
one could mistake their purpose—their outlines are too obvious. In
form, material, and colour they differ radically from the ordinary pebbles
and stones of the beach.

As these old middens in the Sk'q6’mic territory resemble in most of
their features, except extent and mass, the great middens of the Lower
Fraser, I would refer those who desire to learn more of them to my
paper on ‘ Prehistoric Man in British Columbia,’ published in the ‘ Trans-
actions’ of the Royal Society of Canada for 1896, in which I have treated
of these middens at some length.

Since the Sk-q’mic have come under the influence of the missionaries
they have not only buried their dead in proper graveyards, but have
also gathered up and interred in the same place such remains of their
dead as could be recovered from their former burial-places. It is difficult,
therefore, to secure anatomical material from this region. Some ten or
twelve years ago, when the Vancouver City authorities were making the
road which now runs round the edge of the penisula which constitutes

Staniey Park, they opened one of the larger of the later or Salish
middens, utilising the material for the road bed. A considerable number
of skeletons was disinterred from the midden mass during the operation,
the larger bones and crania of which were gathered up and placed in
boxes which were afterwards hidden in the forest where I discovered
them a few years later. The crania had then fallen to pieces. A boxful
of these bones I shipped later to the Dom. Geol. Survey Museum
at Ottawa. From the fact of these bones being found thus inhumated
as well as from the recovery of a skeleton in a fair state of
preservation in the same heap by myself, it would seem to appear that
burial by inhumation sometimes took place in former times even by the
Sk'q0’mic themselves, though this was not the prevailing custom when
we first came into contact with them. There is, however, no record of
burials of this kind in the tribal recollection that I could learn, the
traditional method of burial being that already described in my mortuary
notes, and it is quite possible these burials in the midden mass were
due to the presence of some pestilence or epidemic such as their traditions
speak of, and such as we know on good testimony caused the’ inhumation
of a large number of corpses in the Hammond midden on the Fraser
a few generations ago. The tribe inhabiting this district was almost
decimated by small-pox. So terrible was the scourge that they abandoned
their village site after burying all their dead in a big hole. In digging
the foundations of his house, the rancher who now owns this spot came
upon this pit of bones, and in consequence chose another site for his

4.94, REPORT—1900.

dwelling. In the traditional history of the Sk-qo’mic we learn of some
terrible sickness which killed off whole villages and caused the abandon-
ment of many d/kwumiigs. The presence of these human remains in the
midden in the park may be due to this or some similar cause. No
relics, as far as I could learn from the man who had charge of the road
making, were found with the bodies ; which fact would seem to indicate
that they had not been buried in the usual way. I have never discovered
or heard of any mounds or tumuli within the territories of the
Sk-qd’mic such as are found on the banks of the Lower Fraser and
elsewhere. It is extremely doubtful if any such exist among them. Of
the old weapons or utensils the stone pestle-hammer is the only one now
found among them. I have frequently seen the older men using this
tool ; indeed they prefer it to our hammers. I once showed some of the
younger men some stone arrow and spear points. They did not know
what they were or what they had been used for. They had a very
ingenious way of keeping their wedges from splitting under the repeated
blows of the hammer when splitting cedar boards, &c. They bound the
head of the wedge in a most skilful manner with a ring of twisted
fibres or split cedar-root which answered the same purpose and almost
as effectively as the iron ring on our mallets and chisels. Besides
wooden wedges they also used horn ones. Several of their modern tools
are fashioned after the pattern of the ancient ones, notably the steel
adze they employ in canoe-making and the women’s salmon knife.
The latter is of the half-moon shape, and generally formed from a piece
of a saw, and corresponds in everything but material to the prehistoric
slate knives of the middens.

There is a point in canoe-making which the Sk-qd’mic share in common
with the other coast tribes of this region to which I cannot recall that
any previous writer has drawn attention, but which very aptly illustrates
the skill and judgment displayed by our British Columbia Indians in
their adaptation of means to ends, and upon which a few remarks
will not be out of place here. In shaping the canoe from the solid log
the outlines marked out by the builder are very different from those
the canoe takes when finished. When looked at from the side just before
the steaming process preparatory to spreading the beam has been
effected it is seen to have distinctly convex gunwales which rise
gradually in the centre six or eight inches above the line of the bow and
stern, while the bottom of the canoe is correspondingly concave. The
object of this is to insure the gunwales having the proper sweep and
curve from bow to stern after the spreading process has taken place,
and to prevent the bottom bellying out in the centre, from the same
cause. The greater the beam is spread the higher must the gunwales
rise at the centre, and the greater must be the concavity of the
bottom. In large canoes where the beam is six or seven feet, and
the log originally perhaps less than five feet through, to allow of
this spread of two feet or so, a very considerable convexity in the
gunwales and a proportionate concavity in the bottom of the vessel are
necessary. This spreading of the canoe is in itself a very nice task,
calling for much judgment and care. It is effected by partially filling
it with water and then dropping in heated stones till the water is at
boiling heat. On the outside of the canoe, and in close proximity to its
sides, fires are also kept up, care being exercised that the sides of the
canoe are not burnt in the process: The heat of the fires and the

f,

=,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 4.95

steaming and soaking give a certain degree of elasticity to the cedar,
and prevent the thin sides of the canoe from splitting or cracking under
the strain of the spreading. The sides are kept apart and in the proper
position by fixed narrow thwarts. The native canoe-builder knows to a
nicety just what convexity and concavity to allow respectively to the
sides and bottom in every instance, and rarely errs in his calculations.
Not every Indian is a canoe-builder of the first order, the art requiring
nice judgment and an experienced eye, and our admiration may well
be excited by the ingenious method the canoe-builders adopt in over-
coming the difficulties imposed upon them by the narrowness of the
log. In the hollowing out of the log the canoe-builder again shows his
skill and nice judgment. The thickness of the sides and bottom of a
canoe is generally under an inch. To the onlooker nothing seems easier
than to miscalculate this thickness, and pare off too much or too little

in places. Yet the native canoe-builder never does this, but chips out

his canoe as uniformly as if it had been turned out of a mould, his only
aid being his finger-tips. He /ee/s the sides and bottom from time to
time as he goes along by the tips of his fingers, placing a hand on each
side of his work. By this means he can tell to a nicety the exact thick-
ness of the shell. The Sk-q0’mic have five different canoes, each called
by a special term. One at least of these, the Chinook canoe, is a
borrowed form. I cannot say if the others originated with themselves.
They have of late years added a sixth to their number. This new one is
a racing canoe, built on the lines of our four-oared outrigger. I saw
one of these at the Mission across Burrard Inlet, the beautiful, graceful
lines of which would do no discredit to a first-class yacht-builder. It
was hollowed from a cedar log in the usual way, and outrigged

like a regular shell, and was altogether a splendid piece of native

workmanship.

LINGUISTICS.

The following notes on the languages of the Sk-q0’mic will be the more welcome
inasmuch as they constitute the first serious attempt, as far as the writer has been
able to learn, to give the peculiarities of the structure of this dialect. While the
Sk-qo’mic possesses many of the characteristics common to the Salish tongue, its
dialectal differences are so many and great as to mark it off into a distinct class of
its own. It shows resemblance to both the Alkomé/lEm dialects of the Lower Fraser
on the one hand and to the dialects of the tribes of the interior on the other, but is
quite distinct from any of these, and possesses a grammatical formation, character,
and vocabulary wholly its own, which renders it impossible for its speakers to hold
extended converse with the neighbouring tribes without the aid of the trade jargon.
Though my studies of this tongue have extended more or less over the whole period
of my residence in these parts, it is only during the past year that I have given any-
thing like connected thought to the work. Having found an intelligent helper this
spring in my studies in the person of a half-breed named Annie Carrasco, I have
taken advantage of her assistance to gather a fairly extensive list of phrases and
sentences illustrative of the laws and structure of the language. From these and
from the story of the Smailrtl, which I have written in the original Sk-q6’mic, a fair
knowledge of this dialect may now, with the aid of my notes, be obtained.

My method of working was to supplement the services of Mrs. Carrasco with
those of one or more full-blooded Sk-qo’mic. These were generally a woman named
Annie Rivers and Chief Thomas of Kuk:aio’s. My notes, therefore, will, I trust, be
free from those errors which sometimes creep into our studies of the native tongues
when only the services of half-breeds, with limited and imperfect knowledge of the
language, are employed. Thete are many ways of expressing the same thoughts
and ideas in 8k-qo'mic as in other tongues, I have, however, in my grammar notes

Bought to record at all times the correct or ‘classic’ forms, Colloquialisme and

496 REPORT—1900.

‘ slangey’ phrases are quite common, and these are active factors of change in the
Sk-q0’mic language as in others. Chief Thomas and others of the older men informed
me that the language had changed considerably during the past fifty years, and that
every generation of speakers brought in new phrases and expressions, some of which
die out and are forgotten, while others are perpetuated and in time become ‘classic’
or correct forms of speech. It is clear, therefore, that precisely the same laws
prevail in the speech of barbarous, unlettered peoples like the Sk-qo’mic as in the
language of cultivated and literary stocks.

PHONETICS.
VOWELS.
@ as in English hat 7 as in English pique
a re $3 father rn) fe = pond
nec oe call 0 > 73) SORE
e ” ” pen U ” ” but
@ ” ” 1 hey W ay is boot
E ” 9 flower a sy * aisle
a ” ” pin au ” 3 cow

OBE” ss 3 boil

The vowel sounds in Skqd/mic are even more indeterminate than in the
N’tlaka’pamug. The long vowels are in this respect more at fault than the short
‘nes: @and ai final I found particularly troublesome, and at first I was constantly
changing from the one to the other, no two Indians uttering them exactly alike. A
similar trouble is found in dealing with au and 0. So marked is this characteristic
of the Sk-qo'mic vowel that the vocabularies of different collectors would be found to
agree but rarely, no matter how carefully they might work.

CONSONANTS.

tas in English. Throughout my studies of the Sk-qo’mic tongue I have been
unable to detect the corresponding sonant d. Indeed, I am inclined to think that
sonants, as distinct from surds, are altogether wanting in Sk-qo’mic. In looking
through my collection of terms I find but one single example of g*, and that the
harsh form, which at best is only a surd-sonant; no 6 at all and no true z, though I
have sometimes written this sonant; and in looking over the short vocabulary of the
Sk-qo'mic tongue given in the Comparative Vocabulary in the Sixth Report on the
N.W. Tribes of Canada, by Dr. Boas, I find that it does not contain a single term
with a sonant in it.

k, as in English.

k:, approximately like the final % in the word hick, uttered forcibly.

ge, rare. In sound it differs little from z:.

q, as in the German ch in Bach.

Q, approximately like our wh, but with more force.

i, as in German ch in ich.

h, y, w, m, n, 1, s, asin English; p sometimes as in English, sometimes with a
suspicion of the corresponding sonant about it; a quality of sound impossible to
render by any written symbol; c as in English sh; te asin English ch in the word
church; ts, tz, as uttered in English; tl an explosive 1 approximately like the Welsh
11; sl somewhat as in English, but easily mistaken for tl as uttered by some natives;
kl as in English; ¢ as in English th, as in the word thin. In uttering s some of the
natives show a tendency to convert it into ¢s, these two sounds being practically
interchangeable in Sk-qo'/mic. The character of the consonants is not nearly so
indeterminate as the vowels. The commonest interchanyes are:—k, k; k*,q; q, Q;
Q, H; H,h. To mark the hiatus which occurs in certain words I have employed the
apostrophic sign ; as ts’qamts = sap

ACCENT AND TONE.

Accentuation is a marked feature of the Sk:qd’mic. Every word that contains
more than one syllable has, according to its length, one or more accented syllables.
The importance of the accent is seen in such words as have a common form or sound
but different meaning, For example, the word sk’d’mai with the accent on the first

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 497

syllable signifies ‘ hair,’ but with the accent on the final syllable, sa sk-umai’, it means
‘dog.’ It seems impossible to lay down any general rule for the position of the
accent. In words of two syllables the accent is perhaps oftener placed upon the
former than upon the latter syllable; but the exceptions to this usage are so many
that it hardly constitutes a rule. Speaking generally, the place of the accent may be
said to depend upon the composition of the word. If the word be composed of
different radicals having special or independent signification, then the accent will be
found on the most important element or radical in the synthesis; as stlentlanaio’tl =
girls, where the accented syllable signifies ‘youth, the idea to be brought out in the
compound. If we want to say ‘women’ instead of ‘girls’ this final syllable is
wanting, and the accent falls on the second syllable; as stlentla’nai. But there
are many exceptions to this rule also, for in the compounds siia-tci’ca = step-mother
and stia-ma'n = step-father we have the accent on ‘mother’ and ‘father’ respectively,
and not, as by the rule we should expect to find it, on the first syllable si#a-= step, as
in English. An analysis of the 550 words, more or less, of my vocabulary of the
Sk-qo’mic seems to show also that syllables containing a long vowel oftener take the
accent than syllables containing a short vowel; but whether this isa mere coincidence
or due to the superior importance of the syllable in question I am unable to
determine. ?

TONE.

In monosyllabic terms a tonic accent is at times plainly discernible. It resembles
one of the rising tones in Chinese. Father Morice has pointed out the same
peculiarity in several of the dialects of the Déné. There, however, the function of
tone is the same as in Chinese and marks a difference of meaning in words of the
same form and sound; but in Sk-qd'mic this is not so. What purpose this tonic
accent subseryes in the Sk-qo’mic dialect is not at present clear to me.

NUMBER.

The Sk‘qdmic contains no true plural : its place is supplied bya distributive formed
as in N’tlaka’pamug by amplification of the stem, either by reduplication, epenthesis,
or diresis. Reduplication in the Sk:qo'mic is not so strong a feature as in
N’tlaka’pamua, epenthesis and dizresis occurring oftener. The plurals of both nouns
and adjectives are formed in this way ; as—

horse st’kai't. horses st’ktEkai’a,
house lam. houses lela’m.
dog sk'umai. dogs sktumkumai’,
mountain sma’nét, mountains smEma‘nét.
hill stcé’tlos. hills stcetltcé’tlos.
grandparent séla. grandparents silsé’l.
grandchild é’muts, grandchildren umé’niuts,
old man stlmot. old men stltlmot,
youngest (sing.) saut. youngest (plur.) sEsaut,
bad (sing.) kai. bad (plur.) kai’ak‘ai.
beautiful (sing.) nEtcé’m. beautiful (plur.) nEtcnatcé’m,
term of relationship term of relation-

(sing.) kiié’ was. ship (plur.) skiikiéwas,
her or him meEnitl. them mEnEni'tl.

It is observable that the vowel in the reduplicated syllable is invariably shortened
iflong in the singular form. This is a very constant rule in Sk-qo/mic. We find
the verb stem is also sometimes amplified by reduplication, though not in any
Instance with which I am familiar, for the purpose of expressing number, the re-
duplicated forms being found in the singular as well as in the plural, thus sgai/aqai,
to laugh; teétcxm, to swim; k-dk-dt, to strike; tlxtlum, to rain; ptpia'totl, to hunt;
tas-tas, to do, to make. Here the function of the reduplication is clearly to mark
repetition of the action expressed by the verbal stem, and in this respect it agrees
with the N’tlaka'pamuq.

But besides the above functions it has also an augmentativeuse ; thus, tsa'tlum =
cold, but tsdtsd'tlum =very cold; sta'eais =a cliff, but stata'gais=a very high cliff.
_I find that the numerals two and ten undergo modification in certain phrases.
For example in the sentence ‘I haye ten horses,’ dpen=ten is thus modified d'’dpxn;

1900. KK

4.98 REPORT—1900,

but in the sentence ‘I have ten houses,’ the numeral takes the common form d’pxn.
It is the same with two=d'nds, which is amplified in the same way by the reduplica-
tion of the initial vowel. I could not learn that this modification took place with
other than the word horses, though it is possible my informant’s memory may have

been at fault. It is quite clear, however, that these modified forms are not commonly
used,

INSTRUMENTAL NOUNS.

We find the same suffix -tzn employed in the Sk-qo'mic to mark instrumentality

as in the N’tlaka’pamuqQ, though not always applicd to corresponding expressions ;
thus—

tla'te-txn, knife, i.e., cutting thing. tlekqai’ts-tzn, platter,
pa'tc-tzn, needle, z.e., piercing thing. sé’-ten, basket.
tli’te-ten, saw. nuqyi’m-tzn, belt.
Qé'itc-txn, salmon-knife. n’ku'p-ten, door.
tea’msu-tzn, matting needle. tsétsipé’tl-ten, nest,
Qok'd'ls-tzn, herb or root basket, k-we'rk’-tun, fur.
tsé'is-ten, horn. ciipa'lH-ten, iron.
nukwiyé’utl-ten, ashes. nukné’tcim-tzn, voice,
hu’m-tzn, a covering. tzu'mk’-ten, scissors.
sqo’m’-tzn, medicine-man. taqu’n-tz, arm.

These terms are very interesting and instructive, throwing much light upon the
method of noun formation which is extremely simple in Sk’q6’mic.

AGENT NOUNS.

These nouns are differently formed from the corresponding class in the N’tlaka’-

pamug, which takes a suffix in -wt/. Here we find the particle prefixed and quite
different in form ; as—

nuqskdi'lkc, a shooter, from kdéilac, to shoot
nugspipi’atotl, a hunter, » pia/totl or pipia’tétl, to hunt
nuqstEkw'un’p, a digger, », t&kwu'n’p, to dig
niqtzé'tzap, a worker, », tze'tzap, to work
nuqté'tcEm, a swimmer, , te'tcEm, to swim
nugqsk:a'tzut, a runner, » sk atzut, tc run

nigqslu’'ld, a singer, », slu’ld, to sing

nuqsqai/aqai, a laugher, » sqai’aqai, to laugh

nuqea’m, a crier, » ham, to cry

nuqsmé’tla, a dancer, >» mé’tla, to dance

COMPOUND NOUNS.

While there are numerous instances of compound terms in the Sk'q6/mic vocabu-
lary, the composite connotive noun is not a distinguishing feature of the language.
An analysis of my collection of words shows that a preponderating number of them
are of the simple, denotive class of monosyllabic or dissyllabic form. Incorporation
or polysyntheticism scarcely finds a place in Sk-q0’mic, the compound forms partak-
ing rather of the character of the Greek and Latin compound terms in English than
the ponderous syntheses of the Déné and Algonkin. The new compound term
employed by the Sk-q6’mic to express the idea of a garden is a fair example of the
formation of their composite terms. Formerly they had no gardens of their own,
and so had to coin a word when they took up horticulture. ‘This term is nz-pxn-
ma'i, which is formed by the juxtaposition of these independent monosyllabic
radicals which signify respectively ‘where’ ‘ get,’ ‘fruit’ or ‘ vegetables,’ and the
whole thus means ‘ the place where one gets fruit or vegetables.’

Other examples may be seen in the terms employed to express the seasons of the
year, where we have the same simple juxtaposition of independent radicals. The
analysis of the composite terms in Sk-qo'mic is, therefore, relatively an easy task. For
example, the word séntigdyote, meaning ‘thumb,’ is thus resolved: séntl = first or
oldest; qo = finger; yatc = the composite form for ‘hand.’ This last element is
necessary in the synthesis to distinguish the word from ‘big-toe,’ which would be thus
written, szntl-qo-cin, cin signifying ‘foot.’ And so with the word for ‘little finger,’
saut-qo-yate, where saut = ‘youngest’ or ‘last.’ Again, the word expressive of the

EE

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 499

noise made by people talking, which is sna'-nswt, is thus resolved into two inde-
pendent radicals: snd’ = ‘name’ or ‘word, and nsut = ‘noise’ or ‘sound.’ Compare
with this the word ¢cé’ansut, which means ‘noise’ as made by children playing
together. Numerous other examples may be found in the vocabulary.

GENDER,

Grammatical gender is not entirely wanting in the Sk‘q6’mic as amongst the

N’tlaka’pamug. The article and the personal pronoun of the third person singular

(which, strictly speaking, is rather a demonstrative than a true pronoun) and the
possessive pronoun of the first person singular have distinct masculine and feminine
forms. Thus ¢z, ‘a’ or ‘the’ (masc.), tix, ‘a’ or ‘the’ (fem.); tai or té, ‘he;’ a’tli,
‘she;’ ten, ‘my’ (masc.); tlen, ‘my’ (fem.). These possessives, monosyllabic
though they be, are compound forms derived from the articles rz and tle and n, the
characteristic element of the first personal pronoun. It isthe same ’n or xn = ‘ my,’
as we find in N’tlaka’pamuqQ, and which appears so constantly in the irregular'verbal
forms of the first person singular in all our Salish dialects. The usage of these
pronouns is interesting. The function of gender is peculiar. As gender is wanting
to the Sk-qo’mic substantive, there can be no agreement between the possessive and
the thing possessed, as in the classic tongues. The gender of the pronoun in any
given sentence depends entirely upon the sex of the speaker. A woman must
always say ¢t/en, anda man ten. Thus, tlen lam, ‘my house,’ by the woman, and
ten lam by the man. This is the general usage of the two forms. Even in such
instances as when the speaker uses terms which are applied exclusively to males or
females, such as ‘ husband,’ ‘ wife,’ ‘father,’ ‘ mother,’ ‘ brother,’ ‘ sister,’ &c., where
the distinct form gives a kind of gender to the word, the possessive does not agree
in gender with the substantive, as might, on the analogy of classic usage, be ex-
pected. It would be impossible for a man to say ‘ilen tciiwa'c,’ ‘my wife,’ or a
woman to say ‘ten sko’,’ ‘my husband ;’ the combination would be ridiculous. There
is, however, an interesting exception to this general rule. Whenever a general term
expressive alike of ‘male’ and ‘female’ is employed, then both men and women
piace t/mn before the word when they are speaking of a female, and tzm when they
are referring to a male, thus: ¢lzn men, ‘my daughter,’ and ten mezn, ‘my son,’
the function of the possessive here being to give the gender to the noun.

The function of the article is quite different from that of the pronoun, the form
employed in any given expression depending in no way upon the sex of the speaker.
It conforms rather to classic usage, and its gender is ‘governed’ by the gender of
the noun it is qualifying. But, as I have already stated, as there is no grammatical
gender of the noun in Sk’qo’mic, the division into masculine and feminine terms is
rather a mental than a formal process. Of neuter forms there are none, the distinc-
tion being impossible to the Indian mind. In his conception every object in nature,
animate and inanimate, is a sentient being, possessing a character and individuality
of its own, and has therefore male or female attributes. The Sk:qo’/mic child learns
to distinguish in his mind masculine ‘ideas’ from feminine ones just in the same
unconscious way as he learns his mother’s tongue, and in ordinary discourse has no
more trouble over his article than a French child has over his. Indeed, in the
matter of concord the use of the article in the Sk'qo’mic and French closely agrees,
but in $k-q0'mic the article has usages peculiar to the language, being used in a
variety of ways unfamiliar to us in the French. For example we find it in such
sentences as the following: ‘nétl th Harry,’ ‘it is Harry;’ ‘nétl tle Mary,’ ‘it is
Mary.’ It is also employed with the personal pronouns in certain expressions where
it seems to have a prepositional force, thus: ‘hauq mékauq haua ¢lz uns?’ (or tx
uns, according as the ‘me’ is male or female), ‘ Will you not come with me?’ and
also with the personal and possessive pronouns generally (see under ‘ Pronouns’). It
is also invariably placed before proper and tribal names, closely resembling in this
respect in form and function the usage of the article in Polynesian. Besides these
grammatical distinctions of pronominal and demonstrative gender we find the
ile ed distinctions of separate words to denote male and female objects,
thus :—

sué’ka, man; stla‘nai, woman;
suékao’tl, boy ; stlanaio’tl, girl;
sue’wold’s, youth ; k-a/mai, maiden;
mama, father ; tci’ca, mother ;
se’saé, uncle ; tza'ata, aunt,

500 REPoRT—1900,

In animal terms I could not find this distinction. When speaking of animals, if
it is necessary to distingnish sex, it is done by placing moditied forms of the terms
for ‘man’ and ‘ woman’ before or after the class word, thus :—

suéawé'ka sk'umai’, dog stla/tlenai sk‘umai’, bitch.
sgécen suéawe'ka, deer sgécen stla’rlenai, doe.

In this respect the Skqo’mic agrees closely with the N’tlaka’pamug. In both
dialects it is observable that the modification of the qualifying word, though an
dmplitication of it, differs from taat which marks the plural. The reason of the redu-
plication here is not clear. There are a few terms used of male and female alike
without distinction of form in the use of which, if there is a possibility of ambiguity,
the pronominal forms tai and a@’tli are added, thus :—

stao’tl, child. wa'nim, orphan,
sia/atEn, widow (a’tli). si/ya, lover.
a widower (tai).

CASE.

The Sk-qd'mic noun agrees here with the N’tlaka’pamuq, and ordinarily under-
goes no modification for case. In certain expressions modified forms of the
inflectional personal pronouns are added to a word to mark possession or ownership,

as in the N’tlaka’pamuq, thus :—

tEn, tlen, or ’n-lim, my house; ]am-tcit, our house ;
t-lam or E-lam, thy house ; lam-yap, your house ;
(tE) lam-s, his house ; (tE) lam-s-wet, their house.

There is a very close resemblance here to the N’tlaka’pamugq, though some of the
pronominal elements differ and the ‘ present’ and ‘absent’ forms of the pronoun are
wanting in the Sk-qo'mic.

The object noun when not the name of a part of the body is invariably distinct
from the verb, and undergoes no modification whatever, and commonly follows the
verb as in English, thus :—

nE-q0i'-niiq-ias ten sk-umai’, ‘he killed my dog ;’
no'wet yi/itl, ‘they are making a fire ;’

mé’ska tin ya’siauk’, ‘ give me my hat;’
nE-hdi-niiq-ias tEn lam, ‘he has completed my house.’

When, however, the object affected by the verbal action is a personal pronoun
other than the third persons, or is a noun descriptive of a part of the speaker's body,
then the object suffers modification, and is incorporated in the verbal synthesis.
But this incorporation is of a much looser character than in the typical incorporative
tongues or even in the kindred dialect of the N’tlaka’pamug. In the latter the
incorporated object, both noun and pronoun, is placed between the stem of the verb
and the personal inflection. In Sk:qo’mic the verb stem and subject pronoun are
always found together, and the object, whether noun or pronoun, is added to these

terminally as a suftix, thus :—

Noun OBJECT.

tcin-sa’k'- wiyan, I hurt my ear ; tein-sa'k'exn, I hurt my foot
tein-sa’k:-ds, , race tein-sa'k'-hdtlha ,, ,, neck (side)
tcin-sa’k gate 5 band tcin-sa/k'-Aéues 4, 4, Chest
tcin-sa'k' Zks », nose tein-sa’k--sai ee elon
tcin-sa'k'-atcd - ,, forehead tcin-sa’k'-wk head
tcin-sa'k'-dts i », mouth tein-sa'k'-gd-yate ,, ,, finger
tein-sa/k'ak'en ,, ms arm

PRONOUN OBJECT.

tcin-tié-sto'mi, I love thee. tcit-tlé-s2’wit, we love you.
tcin-tlé-sé'wit, I love you. tcit-tlé’s-wét, we love them.

n-tlés tai or tE mEni'tl, I love him. tcit-tlés tai or tE mEni'tl, we love him.
’n-tlés a’tli or a’tli mEni’tl, I love her. teit-tlés a'tli or a’tli mEni’tl, we love her.
’n-tlés itsi mEnHni’tl, I love them. (nB-)tlé-stsa’s, he loves me.

tcit-tlé-std’mi, we love thee, tetig-tlé's-tum, he loves thee,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 501

teap-tia-tlé's-tum, he loves you. tcap-tlé-sts, yowlove me
(nE-)é’uq-tlés, he loves them all. tcap-tlé-stdmutl, you love us,
(nE-)tlé’sés (tai), he loves him. tlé-sts-as-é'tsi-wét, they love me,
teiiq-tlé’-sts, thou lovest me. tea'p-ua-tlé’stum, they love you.

teiiq-tlé-std’mut?, thou lovest us.

The Sk-qomic, in common with most of our native tongues, is rich in synonyms
and synonymous expressions. Nearly every one of the above pronominal expressions
can be otherwise rendered. I append a few of these :- ~

‘n-tlés-tcap, I love you; or, again, tcin-tletcap, I love you;
wit-tlésas, he loves me; tctiq-ia-tlé stum tE étsi-wét, they love thee
tlé-std’/mi-tcan-wit, I love you; tlés-tcan-wét, I love thee.
tum-tlé-étsi-tlE-némuti, they love us.

It will be observed that when the object is in the third person no incorporation
takes place. This is the same as in the N’tlaka’pamugQ and other dialects. This is
due to the fact that the personal pronouns for this person are yet scarcely differen-
tiated from the demonstratives from which they are derived. This is plainly seen
in the absence of a distinct and independent subject pronoun for the third person in
the pronominal inflections of the verbs. The Salish dialects are just at that stage
of development when the formation of distinct pronominal forms for the third person
takes place. The N’tlaka’pamuq has a partially developed subject-pronoun for its
transitive verbs, and is thus a stage in advance of the Sk qd’mic, but neither has
distinct forms forthe third person for theverbum substantivum or for intransitive verbs.

It will be seen in the above incorporative nouns that the synthetic forms differ
less from the independent forms in the Sk‘qd’/mic than in N’tlaka’pamua, and this
holds good of all the nouns. A few are derived from different roots, which it is
interesting to note are often those which belong to independent forms in others of
the Salish dialects. The Sk-q6’mic incorporative noun is generally an attenuated
form of the independent noun. It is interesting to note that in the ‘face’ synthesis
we have the root as it appears in the N’tlaka’pamuQ compound. It is only in com-
pounds that this radical appears in Sk‘qd'mic, and the same may be said of many
others. As I observed in my remarks on N’tlaka’pamuq, this preference for one
synonymous form over another in the various divisions is one of the chief causes of
the lexicographical dissimilarity in the Salish dialects. Ifwe compare, for example,
the words for ‘ house’ in Sk‘qd'/mic and N’tlaka’pamuq, we find the vocabulary form
in the former is Jam, and in the latter ¢c2'tie, of which the essential root is tue. I
cannot say if 7am appears in any form in N’tlaka’pamuq, but tie certainly does in
various compounds in Sk'q0/mic, thus making it perfectly clear that this is one of
the primitive Salish roots expressive of ‘house.’ Thus, we have it as the suffix in
the class numerals when counting houses: samp-tiie, ‘two houses’; tcanau-tia,
‘three houses,’ &c.; also in the compound signifying ‘ potlatch-house,’ tla’anukauti’e.
Again, a house with carving in or upon it is called stcu’tie. It is seen also in the
compound for window and other words. I havedwelt upon this point rather because
it confirms my contention that the only way to institute comparisons in American
tongues is by the resolution of compound terms into their constituent primitive
radicals. Till this is done we can never know what tongues are really related and
what are not,

PRONOUNS.
The independent personal pronouns are:
uns, I; né’mutl, we.
tE nd, thou. ni'yap, you.
tai, he. tsi or é’-tsi, they.

a’tli, she.

All of these may be used objectively as well as subjectively. There is another
form for the third persons. I have found it only as an objective, thus :—

TE meni'tl, he; 4’tli meni‘tl, she; étsi mEnwni’tl, them. Besides these there is
an ‘absent’ form, thus :—

___ Kua, he; Q’tla, she. These latter forms appear in such sentences as the follow-
ing ; @’tld nog zsko't nate qdau'tiie, ‘She is il] at the hospital, orsick-house.’ This

502 REPORT— 1900,

is not a common form, and the regular method of marking the absence of the third
person is by prefixing the particle nz (see below).

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

tH-n (masc.), tie-n (fem.), my. tE .. . -tcit, our.
Singular , tz, thy. f piel tE... -yap, your.
tE . .. <8, his or hers. lth... -swét, their.

The distinction in the possessive, marking the absence or presence of the object
seen in N’tlaka’pamugq, is wanting in the Skqd’mic. In the latter dialect there is but
the one common form, but it possesses a masculine and a feminine for the first person
singular, which is unknown in N’tlaka’pamuq. The function of this gender I have
already dealt with on p. 499. Besides trn and tlin we find for this person two
other forms used alike by males andfemales, These are sen and kozxn. According
to my informants they can be used almost in any expression in the place of the regu-
lar tEn and tlen forms. I found them in such expressions as nu-qdi-nug-Uds sEn
sk'umai’', ‘he killed my dog ;’ ké2n menmen, ‘my sons,’

In conjunction with the verbum substantivum and a demonstrative, they are thus
expressed :—

nétl ’n lamti, this is my house; nétlso’otl lam ti, this is our house.
», u-laim ti, o5 thy ,, » tilam-yap, this is your house.
» lam-s ti, 35 nis 9a » », 1am s-wét, this is their house.

SUBSTANTIVE POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS,
These forms are used in answer to such questions as ‘ Whose is this?’

nétl ’n-swa, it is mine; nétl so’otl, it is ours.
», u-swa, ‘ + thine ; 4, U-Swayap, ,, yours.
» SWwa-s (tai) Pri oie) oes

a’ tli -s-wet theirs.
» Swa-s(a'tli) ,, noe » Swa-s-wel, ,, the

INFLECTIONAL SUBJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

tcin-, I. tcit-, we.
P teiq-, tauq-, auq-, thou. Plural } tcap-, you.
READE | he, she (present). (yes étsi, they (present).
nE », (absent). nEwét, » (absent).

In the perfect and future tenses and in certain other constructions the tcin and
tcit of the first person singular and plural undergo a modification and change to
tcan and teat respectively.

There are modifications of all the pronominal forms in the conditional, dubita-
tive, desiderative, and other moods of the verb. |For these irregular forms see
under ‘ Verbs.’

CONSTRUCTION OF PRONOUNS WITH VERBS.

The transitive verb forms are not in Sk‘qo’mic distinct from the intransitive and
verbum substantivum forms as in N’tlaka'pamug. The only difference between the
two forms is in the third person, which takes the characteristic terminal -s or -xs in
both numbers, and this only in the past and future tenses, thus: nB-k-d’kot-xs, he
struck (it); nE-k‘0’k'dt-zs-é't, they struck (it).

It will be observed that the pronoun in Sk-qo’mic precedes the verb in regular
constructions ; in N’tlaka'’pamugqit follows it. In certain constructions the pronoun is
placed after the verb in Sk-qo'‘mic. When so placed a different sense is given to the
expression, thus : ‘N4m-tcin tla town’ means ‘I am going to town,’ but ‘ tein-ném tla
town ’ means, on the contrary, ‘ I have been to town, or, I am going back from town.’
Again, in answering a question, it is usually suffixed ; thusin answer to the question,
‘ otcuq Esk’di?’ ¢ are yousick ?’ the answer would bew'd-tcan xsh'di, or shortly w'd-tean.
In such instances the vowel is always changed toa. This applies equally to the
plural form.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN.

: my saat kié nB-tas ti? who made or did that ?
(Singular) Saat? who? Leuat ti? or sat kué’tsi ? who is that?

or
oO
[os

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.
(Plural) Sowat? who? sowat kiié’tsi? who are those?
stam? what? Stam k-ié’-t14-Qoistauq ? what are you eating?
which? u’ntca? nEtl u/ntca koéé' lam? which is your house ?

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS,

nomot, self.
tcin-k:ok'ndmdt, I struck myself.
nE-k‘dk'-ndmdat, he ,, himself,
tcit-k'ok'-ndmdt, we ,, ourselves;

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

tE (masc.), the, tle (fem,), the.
ti, this, that. tsi or é’tsi, these, those.

In Sk'qo'mic there is no difference between ‘this’ and ‘that,’ these’ and ‘those,’
as in N’tlaka/pamua.

hatl ti lam, that or this house is good.
ti ta lam hatl, this or that is a good house.
haha’tl é’tsi siwé’Eka, these or those men are good.

Dr. Boas has recorded the form nz¢/ as ‘ this,’ nitl or nétl, as I write it, is a com-
pound term, and signifies ‘it is’ or ‘this is,’ or ‘that is,’ né being a form of the
verbum substantivum. He has also recorded in his short vocabulary of the Sk-q6/mic
in the Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1890, masculine and
feminine forms for ‘that,’ ¢6'nztd (masc.), ¢d'nttl (fem.), I have been unable to dis-
cover these myself in the Sk-qd’/mic.

NUMERALS.

CARDINALS.

Of these there are several classes as in N’tlaka’pamugq, but they are differently
formed. The common cardinal numbers are:—

1. ’ntco The ‘teens’ follow regularly.
2. anos 20. Qotltc
3. tea’nit ONG 5 ikwi ’ntco
4. qau/EtsEn The others follow regularly.
5. tsé/atcis 30. sau’quaca, tlo‘qca
6. t’a’qatc 40. qau’EtsEnca
7. t’a'qosatc 50. suk‘tca’ca, tlu’kca
8. t’qate 60. taqmu’tlea
9. tssEs 70. tsuko’lea
10. 6’pEn 80. t’ku’tcica
11. 6’pEn ikwi ’ntco 90. tssaw/ite
2, ne aLOS 100. natcawitc
ORDINALS.

With the exception of ‘first’ and ‘last’ the ordinals do not in Sk-q6'mic differ in
form from the cardinals. For ‘first’ they say ydmww'n, and for ‘last’ they use the
term daut or aut.

CLAss NUMERALS.

The following forms are employed when counting houses though not exclusively
80; and it would appear that the younger people use the independent forms as often
as the composite.

1 house na’tcatua.

2 houses samptuQ (a shortened form of sampautua).
3 » tcanautua. :

4 ,, qaukEtsenautug.

504 REPORT—1900.

For counting trees they use the following :—

1 tree ’ntcé’wa.
2 trees anosé’wa.
8 ,, tcanEté'wa.

When counting canoes the following may be employed :—

1 canoe natcakoitl.
2 canoes Samakoitl.
3 », tcanakoitl.

It will be observed that the method of forming the class numerals in the
Sk:qo’mic differs considerably from that employed in N’tlaka’pamug. I find no
instance of reduplication of the stem.

It will also be observed that ‘two,’ &c., is sometimes expressed by a’nos and
sometimes by sama’ or tsama’. The former of these terms is peculiar to the
Sk:qo/mic and their northern neighbours the Stlatlumu, according to Dr. Boas’s
Salish Comparative Vocabulary. The latter is found in the SEQua’pmuq of the
interior, and also among the Coast Salish. I could find no trace of either in
N’tlaka’pamugQ, where cai'a is uniformly employed to express ‘ two’ &c.

NUMERAL ADVERBS.

These are not so regularly formed as in the N’tlaka’pamna, though we find the
same characteristic suffix ‘-atZ’ in both, thus :—

once natcauq. 9 times tssEsa’tl.
twice tsama’. 10. ,, 6’pEnatl.
thrice tcEnauq. 11. ,, | Slama/til:
4 times gauEtsna’tl. 12 ,, a/nds tEslEms.
5 ,, tsi/étca’tl. 13 =, ~=-tcanit tr slkms.
6 ,, t/a’qatca’tl. 14 ,, qauktsEn tE slEms,
7 ,, t’a'qdsa’tcatl, 20. ,, «ot ltcatl.

8 ,, t’qa’tcatl.

‘Eleven’ appears under a strange form here.

ADJECTIVES.

The regular position of the adjective is before the word it qualifies, thus: tataw
tE tlk-aitc, ‘ bright the moon;’ haha’tl é’tsi siwé’Eka ‘ good are those men,’ baha'tl
siwé’Eka é'tse, good are these men. In such phrases as ‘this house is good’ and
‘this is a good house,’ they mark the difference thus: hatl ti 14 1am =‘ this house is
good ;’ ti ua lam hatl=‘ this is a good house.’

The adjective invariably agrees in number with the qualified word, as in the
examples above. Comparison of the adjective is effected in the following manner :—

Positive Comparative Superlative
{ yawo’n hati,

matlepod or asa’te hatl,

\ more good nao’n hatl, best
The superlative is also expressed by tone, the speaker drawing out the positive
forms on a rising note much as little children do with us in English.

Of the two forms in the comparative the former is clearly the same term as
‘ first’ in the ordinals; the latter is a preposition signifying ‘ above,’ ‘ over,’ &c.

ADVERBS.

The function and position of the adverb are much the same as in N’tlaka’pamua.
When t expresse ‘time’ it is invariably placed before the verb, thus:—

Tct'atl i'mé tceé'Ek tz tlk‘aite, ‘the moon will rise soon;’ ¢cz'atl tcin-i-ndm, ‘ I
must go soon;’ natcaug kiish’s mé tEn lam, ‘he came to my hopse once ;” ¢lz'akt
tcejy-t-t1'a-ndm, ‘often I used to go,’

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. D095

VERBS.

The inflexion of the verb in Sk'q0'mic is effected partly by affixing particles and
partly by auxiliary verbs. These, in such sentences as we form in English with the
verbum substantivum and a noun or adjective, are: present tense, 7’a@; past indefinite,
t-u'a; perfect, ¢-7-tid ; future, eh.

VERBUM SUBSTANTIVUM.

The Sk-qo’mic employ the regular verb of being characteristic of the Salish
dialects, the simplest and most constant form of which is @'a@ (see below under the
yerbal inflections); but besides this rezular form we find three others, @, né or nétl,
and #- (this latter is also seen in the Kwakiutl). Thus: @-tcin-rsk‘d'i, ‘I am sick ;’
@-xsh-o'i, ‘he is sick;’ nétl te Harry, ‘it is Harry ;’ nétl ’n lam ti, ‘this is my
house’; ens-i, ‘it is I, in answer to question ‘ Who is that?’ ens-i nz tas, or simply
ens-i, ‘I did,’ or more literally, ‘it is I,’ in answer to question ‘ Who did it?

INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

sick = xsh'd'i, or sk‘0'i.

PRESENT TENSE.

é-tcin-i14-Esk‘d'i, I am sick.
é-tciiq-ia-Esk‘d'i, thou art sick.
Singular 6-ia-Esk’6'i (tai), he is sick (present).

é-t1a-Esk’6'i (a’tli), she is sick (present).
nB-é-tia-Esk‘6'i, he is sick (absent).

(&-teit-4-Bsk’0'i, or sk'ték’0’i, we are sick.
é-teap-tia-Esk-6'i, or sk'iék’d/1, you are sick.

Plural] é-wét-iia-Esk’6'i, or sk'ték-o'i, they are sick (present).

reg ope or sk'iék’6'i, they are sick (absent).

or nE-é-wét-tia-Esk-0'i, or sk iék'6'i, they are sick (absent).

In ordinary speech the adjective or noun is not usually reduplicated for the plural.
In formal speech, however, the plural forms must never be omitted.

These forms may be called the regular orclassic forms. It isquite common, how-
ever, in ordinary speech to omit one or other or both of the auxiliary verbs @ and
a'd, placing the pronoun and adjective in simple juxtaposition, thus: tcin-usk-0'i,
teiiq-Esk:‘0'i, &c.

In the third person of both numbers the form no’a or nau’a is quite commonly
used, thus: no’a Esk’d/i, ‘he or she is sick;’ no’a yé’yuk’, ‘it is snowing;’ no’a
satsauq-wet, ‘they are happy’ (see other examples below).

PAST INDEFINITE TENSE. I.

é-tcin-t-iia-Esk’d'i, I was sick.
é-tetiq-t-1a-Esk‘0'i, thou wast sick.

Singular é-t-iia-Esk’0'i (tai), he was sick (present).
é-t-ii4-Esk’0'i (a'tli), she was sick (present).
nE-é-t-i1a-Esk‘6'i (tai), he was sick (absent).
nE-é-t-i14-Esk’6'i (a'tli), she was sick (absent).
é-tcit-t-i14-Esk’0'/i, or sk'wék‘o'i, we were sick.

Plural 6-teap-t-0a-Esk‘0'i, or sk-wek-0'i, you were sick.
6-t-wét-ii4-Esk'6'i, or sk-wék-0'i, they were sick (present).
A nE-wét-t-tia-Esk’0i, or sk'wék‘6'i, they were sick (absent).

PAST INDEFINITE TENSE. II.
nE-tcin-t-ia-Esk6'i, I was sick, nE-tcit-t-ita-Esk‘6'i, we were sick.

The other persons follow regularly.

The difference between these two tenses is that the former merely makes astate- *
ment of a past sickness without implying anything of the present condition of the
“iy patient, while the latter signifies that the person was sick but has since recovered,

‘ and is now well, :

506 REPORT—1900.

PERFECT TENSE.

tcin-t-i-ia Esko ‘i, I have been sick.
é-tciiq-t-1-0a Esk’d'i, thou hast been sick.
petals é-t-1-14 Esk-0'i (tai), he has been sick.
é-t-1-14 Esk-0'i (a’tli), she has been sick.
(€-tcit-t-1-04 Esk:d’ i, or sk'1ék'6 ‘i, we have been sick.
é-tcap-t-1-tia Esk’ 0’ i, or sk'iék*d 6 ‘i, you have been sick.
e-t-

Plural i
wéet-1-04 Esk’0'i, or sk'ték‘d/i, they have been sick.

It is not clear to me wherein this form differs in signification from the ‘tia
forms. It is the regular perfect of transitive verbs.
FUTURE TENSE.
Esk’6'i-tcan-Ek-’, or tean-Ek’-Esk‘6/i, I shall be sick.
Esk:6'i-tcat-Ek’, or tcat-nk’-Hsk’d'i, we shall be sick.
The other persons follow regularly in like manner.
PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE.
ens-ko'lian Esk’d/i-En-Ek’, I think I am going to be sick.
tcin-épa'Qotl Esk‘6/i-En-Ek’, I am afraid I shall be sick.
DUBITATIVE FORMS.

éwai'Eti Ek: ’sk‘o/i-En, I may or perhaps I may be sick.
+ » ’sk-0'i-aug, thou mayest be sick, &c.

* » ‘Sk‘0'i-Es, he may be sick, &c.
45 » ‘sk‘0'i-at, we may be sick.
a » ‘sk‘0/i-ap, you may be sick, &c.

r », ‘Sk-0/i-Es-wét, they may be sick, &c.

CONDITIONAL FORMS.

HEn-ta-Usk'd'i, if I am or should be sick.
Hat-014-Esk’6'i, or sk'ték'6'i, if we are or should be sick.
KUEns é-014-Esk’6'i, when I am sick.

KUEs @-14-Esk’0/i, when thou art sick.

INTERROGATIVE FORMS AND REPLIES.

6-tctiq-Esk-0'i? are you sick? (singular).
tcean-tan-Esk'6/i, or simply tcan-iian, I am.
0-teiq-t-4-Esk‘d'i? have you been sick ?
tcean-t-04-Esk’6'i, or simply nE-tcan, I have.

NEGATIVE FORMS.

hauq Enslé’as kiEns Esk'6/i, I don’t want to be sick.
hauq Enslé’as kiEns ném, I don’t want to go.

hauq oq-ném, don’t go.

haug 6q-nam sk6 tai, don’t go with him.

MISCELLANEOUS FORMS.

nétl ens-néim, I am going (in answer to question ‘are you going?’ it would be
ndm-tcan).

haua mEn nim-tcan, I shall (determination) go.
nam tcan Ek, I shall go (future).

namEtl, go on.

ndm tumi’, go away.

tcin-t-nim, I went.

nE-t-néim, he went.

tcan-tQ-nim, or tcan-th-nam, I have gone.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 507

tean-tékH-ndim, I had gone.

éwai’Eti Ek: ndm-En, perhaps I shall go.

’n slé kiEns n4m, I should like to go.

n4m-tcin haua tla n6, I will go with you.

hauok: méauq haua tla uns, will you not come with me?
n#-tsot kins néims-é’uk, he said he was going with me.
tcin-tsot kirns nim-é’uk, I said I was going,

nE-tsot kiEns k-aikz sué’Eka, he said I was a bad man.
nE-tsot kauq mEn nim, he said you (sing.) ought to go.

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

The principal tense signs of the transitive verb are: past indefinite, nz; perfect,
7; future, Ek’.

TRANSITIVE VERB.
to strike (it) k'0/k6tEs.
tein-k‘d’k-it, I strike (it). tcit-k'd’k-dt, we strike (it).
Pee cular tetq-k’d’k-dt, thou strikest (it). Plural j teap-kd’/k'6t, you ,,
8 (tai)k-d'k-ot, he strikes (it) k-o'k-ot-é'tsi, they ,, 55
(a'tli) k6’k-ot, she ,, *
This tense is quite frequently employed to express a past action, the context
marking the time quite clearly.

PAST INDEFINITE TENSE.
nE tean-k:d’k'dt, I struck (it).
nE tctiq-k‘d’k-dt, thou struck (it).
nE k‘6’k-dtHs, he (present) struck (it).
nE k-dk-Entiqiids, he (absent) struck (it).
nE tcat-k-d'k ‘dt, we struck (it).
Plural J 22 teap-kd’k-dt, you struck (it).
nE k:d/k-dtEswét, they (present) struck (it).
nE k-6k'Bniqidswét, they (absent) struck (it).

Singular

PERFECT TENSE.

tean-1-k‘d'k'dt, I have struck (it).
tcat-1-k'd'k'dt, we have struck (it),

The other persons follow regularly.

FUTURE TENSE.

k‘6/k‘6t-tcan-Ek’, I shall strike (it).
Singular | Ravkacsosrk thou wilt strike (it),
Ek:-k'6'k‘OtEs, he will strike (it).
k‘0/k‘dt-tcat-Ek’, we shall strike (it).
Plural k-6'k6t-tcap-Ek’, you will strike (it).
k-0'k-dtEs-wét-Ek’, they will strike (it).

IMPERATIVE Moop.
k'6k:6’tka, strike it (singular) k-dk‘dtka’wit, strike it (plural).
- m&n-k’d’k‘6t-tcan-Ek’, I must strike (it).
mEn-k‘dk6'tka, you must strike (it).
mEn-k-‘d'k-dt-tcat-Ek, we must strike (it).
kok‘otska, strike me. k-6k*dt-tomEtlka, strike us.

PRESENT VONTINUOUS ACTION.
é-tcin-014-k‘6k'dt, I am striking (it).
é-tctiq-i1a-k-dk’dt, thou art striking (it).
é-014-k'dkot, he (present) is striking (it).
no’a-k‘ok'dtEs, he _,, ” ”
nE-ta-k'dk‘dt, he (absent) ,,

The plural follows regularly.

”

58 REPORT—1900,

Past CONTINUOUS ACTION

tean-t-i14-k-0’k-6t, I was striking (it).
tcat-t-14-k'd'k-6t, we were striking (it),

The other persons follow regularly.

PERFECT CONTINUOUS ACTION.
nE-tcan-t-i14-k'0k ‘Ot, I have been striking (it.)
nE-tcat-t-0a-k-Okdt, we have been striking (it).

The other persons follow regularly.

NEGATIVE Forms.
hauq Hunk‘dk-ot, I did not strike (it).
hau-Ek: Hunk:dk‘dt, I will not strike (it).
hau-it Hat-k-Ok-6t, we did not strike (it).
hauq auq-k-ok-dt, don't strike (it).
hanq anq-kok-6ts (ens), don’t strike me.

PASSIVE Forms.
tein-k'd’k’, I am struck. tcit-k'd’k’, we are struck.
The other persons follow regularly,

éwai’Eti Ek: k-dk'-tin, I may be struck.
a » kdk'-iat, we may be struck,

The other persons follow regularly,
tcin-t-k'6k-, I have been struck. tcit-t-k:6k*, we have been struck,
The other persons follow regularly.

k 6k '-n6m6t-tean-Ek’, I shall be struck.
k-6k:-ndm6t-tcat-Ek’, we shall be struck.

The other persons follow regularly.

CONDITIONAL ACTION,

Hun-k‘dk-ot, if I strike (it). Hat-k‘6k'ot, if we strike (it).
k‘auq-k-ok-ot, if you strike (it). Hun-k'6k‘0'tEm, if I am struck,

REFLEXIVE Forms.

tcin-k'dk:-n6’mot, I struck myself. tcit-k'6k-nd’/m6t, we struck ourselves,
The other persons follow regularly.
k-Ok*-nd’mot-tcauq-Ek’, you will strike yourself.

ADDITIONAL FORMS.

mEn-k’ok’dt-tcan-Ek’, I must strike (it).
Hat] kis éuq tcat-k‘dk-dt, let us all strike (it).
némutl-ka-k-6k-ot, let us strike (it).
uns-ka-k‘dk-6t, let me strike (it).
nE-k-6k:-dtsis, he struck me with a stick (purposely),
nE-k‘Ok'-numcis, he struck me with a stick (accidentally).
k0'k-6t-d-tcin? can I strike it?
éwai'Eti Ek: kOk‘6't-En, I may strike it.

To bring out further the grammatical structure and peculiarities of the Sk-qo'mic

I append a list of general expressions :—
Enslé-i kwé stauq, I should like some water.

En-slé-i kwé é’tlen, I should like some food.
En-slé kiEns pEnaquan kwé st’kai't, I should like to have a horse,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 509

tcin-kdas-niiq, I burnt it; tein-yéutl-nigq, I burnt it up, é.e., consumed it entirely
by fire.
i tcin-kéas-atc, I burnt my hand ; tcin-kdaskoas, I am burnt.
telat] i/-mé tcébk t& tlk-aitc, the moon will rise soon.
tei/atl 1’-tlémk, he will come soon.
tei’atl tcin-i-niim, I must go soon.
ens-ku']a@an unki Esk’6'i, I think I am sick.
ens-ku’lian Esk:6/i-En-Ek’, I think I am going to be sick.
tcin-maqtl, I am hurt; tcin-ti-maqtl, I have been hurt.
nétl Esta st’kai’d, this or that is your horse.
hau'dq or hau’dk: teétcEm-auq? can youswim?
stat kué nk tas ti? who made that ?
ensi’ nE tas, I made it, or shortly, ensi’, or mEn uns, or nétl uns, I did.
tein-tsa-niq tEn k‘OmodqkcrEn, I hurt my ankle (done by self).
*n-tsa tEn k‘OmodqkcEn, I hurt my ankle (done by some one else).
NE 1-qdi-ntiq-tas, he has killed it.
DE qOi-niiq-a-s sEn sk‘umai’, he has killed my dog.
nE hoi-ntq-ia-s, he has finished it.
nE-hoi-ntiq-iia-s-wét-Ek’, they will finish it.
nétl-si nao’n hatl, this is the best one.
hauq E’stia sE st’kai’t, this is not your horse.
tein-qo'i-niq te mEni’tl, I killed him (a’tli mEni'tl=her).
tein-q6'i-niq é’tsi mEnEni'tl, I killed them.
*ntcauq kiHsEs mé tEn lam, once he came to my house.
ntcaug kizs nE mé tEn lam, once you came to my house.
tle’Ek’t i’a-tlé’Ek tEn lam, he often used to come to my house.
tle’Ekt tcin-t-ia nam, or tle’Ek't kiEns i'a nim, I often used to go.
no’a or nau’a qéaqaiEm, he or she is laughing.
no’a qEm, he or she is crying.
no’a 10/lmm or yiiwé’nEm, he or she is singing.
pHnaq-ia-s tE 4 sktia’lEwan, she is sad; verbatim, she has a sore heart.
tein-pEna-niiq tE a skiia/lEwan, Iam sad; verbatim, I have just got a sore heart.
tcin-é’-apis tE 4 sktia’‘lEwan, I am always sad; verbatim, I am holding a sore
heart.
é-tci’t-t-a 10’lEm, we have been singing.
no’a satsauq-wét, they are happy.
nétl tle Mary, it is Mary.
nétl t@ Harry, it is Harry.
mé’ska tlEn ya’siauk’, give me my hat.
no’wét yu'itl, they are making a fire.
yu itlkaa’, make up the fire.
haug mek-auq hau’a tle uns? will you come with me? (woman speaking).
nE-t-ua tlutlEm6q, it bas been raining.
0-tetiq-0a-ktilic tH sQgécen? did you shoot a deer?
nuk'tlek’ kwé, it is dark.
no’a té’k&k, or té’kiiaigk, it is cold.
nuk-qk’qEn or Esqb/qun, it is frosty.
yé yEk, it is snowing.
NE mEn tla’tlum kui tci'laqtl, it rained all yesterday, (In speaking the first
syllable of tla’tlum is drawn out to mark continuity of action.)
stam k'ié’-tia Qoistauq ? or stam kia Qoistaug ? what are you eating?
tein-kiate-niq kwikwokwent, or kékwentl unkiate-niiq-iia-n, I saw him a long
time ago.
nE watca koEt] nd’a na’ or nana’? where do you live?
QElétEn tai, he is a white man.
pEk stlanai, she is a white woman.
yutl-ka, light a fire.
yakurtcp-ka, make up the fire.
hau’Ek hauq som-niiq? can you smell it ?

(N.B.—It will be noticed in all these questions that the Sk-qd'mic invariably use
the negative forms ‘can you nut,’ kc.)
+ tcin-stctiat kié 15’lEm, I know how to sing.
F keq tEn slél, I have some blankets; verbatim, plenty my blankets,

510 REPORT—1900

a'anos tEn st’kai'i, I have two horses, verbatim, two my horses.

hauq Ensuas ’n snukii’tl, this is not my canoe.

toitmntsdt-teuq kims 6-i4-sk'd'i, or hatl kims tditmEntsdt kins é@’ia-sk-d'i, when
you are sick you should take medicine, or it is good to take medicine when you are
sick.

6-teiiq-Esk'6'1? are you sick?

ua-tcan, I am,

6-Esk’6'i ? is he sick?

6-tctiq koa’si? are you warm !

k-Qatles kins kiail Ek ‘kiiailxs ném-tcit-uk-pi'atttl, or pipia’titl, if it is fine
to-morrow we will go out hunting.

k-auq-tleénk satcit-tomi-tcin, if you come I will give it to you.

Esk'0/i-tcan-k' HEnhOis ti, if I eat this I shall be sick,

ok hauq kiatl tH nina’ ? is your father dead ? verbatim, is not he-who-cared-for-you

one by ?

F ok: hauq k’sitl a’tlinina’? is your mother dead? verbatim, is not she-who-loved-
you gone by?

ta-stiat lam ti? whose house is that? (N.B.—If house be distant from speaker, he
adds éna = yonder.)

ok 0Emé’ or otlé’tlEk? is he coming ?

é-0k’ tlétlem-uq? art thou coming?

tlé’Ek-t tcin-iia Esk:d’i, I am often sick.

dis-ka (from preposition Ols=in), go in.

kiimns-e-dis nE Esqai'ts tH sué/ka na tE slaué’n, when I came in the man was
lying on the bed.

kins nE-ném 6tsk: é’kué tcinkiate-niiq nB tai, when I went out I saw him there,

’nslé kis nam, I want to go.

mé'rka, come along.

tcin-iia sk6 tEn etltatc, I live or stay with my parents.

tcin-ia é tlBn (or tHn) tsa’/ata, I stay here with my aunt.

tcin-ia nB tlEn tsaata, I stay there with my aunt.

hauq nétlHs Ensua ’n skapité’tiq, this is not my knife (carving).

tsé tlEn sok‘di na ten lam, I have some fish in the house.

tsé tlen (fem.) sméts, I have some meat.

6'pEn te lam n# tant’k-ia-n, I have built ten houses,

Hoiska tceatti’tl, let us make a canoe.

Hoiska naimnan, let us go.

Hoi kétl, all right.

Hoi-ka Hois tsi, let us eat it.

Hoi-sk-it-étlek-cEn, let us make moccasins,

totau tE tlk-aitc, the moon is bright.

tcin-Btlskais tE stElmigq, I know that person,

mé-ka tE st’kai'i, give me the horse,

6'tctiq tso'tleEm? are you cold?

o'-tcuq k-di or kdak'6i? are you hungry ?

tcin-Htlskais kié sk‘d’tut, I know how to run.

QeEn- or HEn-Dtlskais kEs u’ntca tcin-k:-sa'tcit-tdmi, if I knew where it was I
would give it to you.

QEs or HEs tla’tlumQ hauq iia-n-ndm, if it rains I shall not go,

HO'iska tE so’k-0i, eat some fish.

mé'kati, come here.

méauka, come.

stat teiq? who are you?

nE-tcan-kwoits or nE tcan-kwétlgn, I have eaten my dinner.

tEmi’, go away.

mé’ka 6'is, come in,

am0’etka, sit down.

m/’éka 6’is, thn lim, come into the house.

tcin-kwatc-niq tE sk umai’, I saw the dog.

mé’ka tca’tla 0’is tenlim, come into the house for a little while-

hauod’q nam, don’t go.

haud'qmé, don’t come.

tcein-k6'kdt na tE smés, I struck him on the head.

kok‘uén EtlEn kwatc-niqian a’tli, I saw her a long time ago.

=; — >

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 511

’n slé kikns nim, I want to go.

hauq kunslé’as kiEns ném, I don’t want to go.
nEtl untca koée’ st’kai’i? which is your horse?
tcin-tEm-cEn, I cut my foot (with axe).
tein-tlate-cEn, I cut my foot (with glass, &c.)
teina'tli, I hurt myself.

tcein-maqtl, I am hurt.

tcin-i-é'tlEns, I made him eat it,

tcin-i-kwi'at, I made him stop§
tcin-mEn-tcisEn, I made him go,

tcin-1-em kiEns nE wéuk'tmn, I made him tell me.

PARTICLES.

Of the various particles which enter into verbal syntheses, there are two in
particular which deserve special mention. These are nz and niig. The former has
an independent existence as an adverb of place, meaning ‘there.’ The latter I have
not found apart from the verb. The functions of nz are various, and at the outset
of my studies I found it very perplexing. It marks, like ¢2wm in the N’tlaka’pamuq,
the absence of the thing spoken of ; it marks absence in the third persons when they
are the subjects of conversation, and it marks absence in time also, both past and
future. As may be seen from the paradigms of the verbs, it is the regular sign of
the past indefinite. It occurs also in such phrases as ‘next morning’ =7n«-h dd'il.
Nugq was also a source of trouble to me at first. In writing down phrases to bring
out the inflections of the transitive verb, I found that the verb ‘to strike’ (kok: otzs)
was sometimes given to me as 'k-dt, and sometimes as kd'k'eniig. The explanation
given me by one of my informants only misled me, She did not understand it
herself. After further study and comparison it became perfectly clear. I found
that nug could be affixed to every transitive verb. Its functions are exceedingly
interesting. Primarily it is employed by the speaker to inform you that the action
spoken of took place without his knowledge or observation if done by yourself, and
if done by some one or something else without your knowledge or observation as
well. For example, I may desire to tell you that I have hurt my face when doing
something. If you are present at the time and observed the accident I should use
the form é-tcin-magtlos, but if you had not observed it or were not present when it
happened and I wished to tell you of it, I must then say, 2-tcin-nig-magtl-os. Again
if I desired to tell you that I killed ten deer yesterday when you were absent, I
must say tcin-hdi-niig te dpun, kc. Or, again, I have just been told, it may be, that
some one dear to me is dead of whose sickness or condition I was unaware. I am
sad in consequence. If I am questioned as to my sad looks I must reply tcin-pena-
nig te & skia' lean, which literally rendered means, ‘I have just become possessed
of a sore heart.’ If my sadness had been of long standing, the cause of which was
known, I should answer tcin-é-apis tr 4 skiia’lEwan, which signifies that ‘I am
holding all the while a sore heart.’ Other interesting examples may be seen in the
story of the Smai'lEtl, given below, page 512, in the Sk‘qd’/mic text. In the
paragraph where we are told that the girl saw the following morning that the slave
bore the imprints of her painted hands upon his shoulders, the nE-kwatc-niq-iia-s
form is employed to express the surprise of the girl in learning that it was the
slave’s back she had painted. She had placed her hands knowingly on her ravisher’s
shoulders in the dark without knowing who he was, hence nig was necessary here
to mark her surprise. Another good instance is seen in the paragraph which tells
of the chief's perception of his daughter’s condition, nag bei g necessary here to
show that up to this time he had been unaware of what had taken place. A somewhat
different function is given to it in the concluding paragraph of the story, where the
descendants of the pair are said tu be very keen-scented, the term nigq-é'éuks-wét
here literally meaning that they are able to smell things before they can see them
or otherwise know of their presence. One of my informants gave me to understand
that the ‘k-ok-ot’ form signified an accidental striking, and that ‘k-dk Eniq’ implied
intentional or purposive action. I doubt much if this is correct, as the language
contains regular purposive and accidental particles. For example, if I desire to
say that I have been purposely struck by some one, I must use the following form of
expression: “ntsa-dnsis, ‘he struck me with intention.’ If accidentally struck then
Isay ’ntsa-numcis, ‘he accidentally struck me.’ Again, ‘ he struck me witha stick in-
tentionally’ is rendered by nz k-0k'dtsis ; but ‘he struck me with a stick by accident ’

512 RrEPORT—1900.

by nE k-‘dk-numcis. Another interesting distinction between accidental hurt to
myself by my own action and intentional hurt by the action of some one else is thus
marked. If I want to say I have accidentally struck my eye and hurt it, I say
tcin-tsa ten k‘ulom, but if I want to say some one else has purposely struck my eye I
must use the expression “ntsa ten kuldm. The difference of action is here brought
out by the use of different pronouns. men appended to a verb stem signifies duty or
necessity =our ‘must’ or ‘ought.’ Before leaving the particles it will be of interest
to point out that fo’i, the regular sign of the future in the N’tlaka’pamng, is seen in
the Sk:q6'mic dialect only in exhortative forms, while the Sk:qo’mic future zh: is, as
far as I am aware, wholly absent in the N’tlaka’pamuq.

PREPOSITIONS AND PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES,

On the beach, xa@ tE ai’utlk:.

Near the house, ¢cét tz lam.

In bed, na tE slauwén.

On a stone, na tE smant.

Put him to bed, ndm-ka agé’ts; verbatim, send him to lie down.
Put it in the box, niEnka tE kiia’ktia

Under a stone, Zus'?wét/ te smant.

Across the water, tE é'tlaka tE stauq.

On the other side of the waier, tH 2’tlaka mins tH stauq,
Far over the water, nE-quta tsa tE stauq.

Up in the sky, tE teétl skwai'yil.

I found it near the house, tcin-ya’kEntq ¢cZt tH lim.
Sit on the ground, amo’etka na tE th’muq.

Come to me, mé’ka tla uns.

Go in the house, oiska tk lam.

Go in, 0/is-ka.

CONJUNCTIONS AND CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS.
and, 7; tkv7, and, plus; Zkwina, then; ydtlsis, so, therefore ; nzt/mutl, therefore
samen, So then ; kuEsE’s, when,
Tr Smai'letl Sdqwia'm.
(The wild-people story.)

‘ntco sia/m nk a'tll-mEns nana’ te skwid’ts. TE skwid’/ts nda-Esqai’ts
One chief once daughter-his lived (and)aslave. The slave he is lying
usta/t’k- na te watchns a@’tli-ka’mai. Tr skwid’ts no/a-nim — ekqé'ts. Ném

crosswise at the foot-hers maiden. The slave he-is-going to-ravish-her. He goes to

a'tli ka’mai. Nzd-pmna’q-ia-s tE sé/agotl. Hauq-wetl sk-é’stEs kis te skwio’ts
maiden. She-conceived a child. Not yet she-knows that the slave
é'-714-tlé’Ek'unt. Ne-kwa’te-niq-i/a-s th sia’m kiésh’s Esk‘0/1 a’tli-mEns.

had-been-coming-to-her. He perceived it the chief when sick daughter-his.

Ki/kwina pEna/q-ia-s tes — @'aqi. Stlés kins t&l-nek-iiad-s-Ek- stia'tEs

Then he-gets-it the-his shame. She-desires that she-will-find-out | who-it-is
kia-hEménit. Vatlsis qp'l-tas tE naqtc tH spb’tltEn.
that-may-have-been-coming-to-her. So she-makes-paint-on the hands the paint.
Né'tlmutl kiesn’s kivatlé’Ek ¢é'kwina ka‘atctcantEs nok-qb’'l tE
Therefore, when he-may-come then she-puts-her-arms-about-him marking the

staites. | Nu-k‘da/il nE-kwa/te-ntig-0'4-s kiEs nétl te skwid’/ts nE-sqoqE’l
back-his. Next-morning — she-perceived that itis the slave she had marked

tr staites. Kwtrsh’s trln’Ek-ia-stm tcétct é’kwina d'iyutlstus tE snukui’tl
on the back-his. When he-fincls-out the father then he-takes-into the canoe
tla mEns ite skwio’ts. é/kwina é'son-wét. SmEn-tsé/auq tE
the daughter-his and the slave. Then they paddle-off. So-then-they-arrive-at a

~~

——

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 515
stata’gais. é’kwina k:om-stum-wét. SmEn-to/EntEm. Haug siat Eskai's
very-lofty-cliff. Then he-landed-them. So-then he-left-them. Not anyone knows
Qaswitca’nEm é/kwina wét-k-qai. Smuzrn-n4m-wét é’mac. SmeEn-
in-what-manner then they-got-up. So-then-they-went-on walking. So-then-
tsé/auq-wet tE qa'tcd. SmEn-tastas-wét te lam-swét. é mé koqa/i
they-arrived-at a lake. So-then-they-made a house-their. Here came many
tE MEMB’n-s-wét. Mé'coi. é/kwina mEn-pétwai’-wét. é’kwina EsmE/nwét.

the children-their. They-grow-up. Then they intermarry. Then they-have-children.
@kwina kqai’-wet o’/k-wumta. Hskoai’ kizs Qés tE sné’tcEm-s-wét. Sk:qd/mic

Then they-become a village. Never is lost the language-their. Sk-qd'mish
kis ia-sné’tcEm. Hiyé’siwé’Eka. niiq-éé’Ekswet. @auq nok-wé'ak‘ten
itisthey-spoke. Very tall men. Very-keen-scented-are-they. They-wear undressed-fur
tE yEkwai-s-wét. Téma-wetlsia’dtE sna-s-wét Smai’lntl.

the garments-their. Hence thus the name-their wild-people.
VOCABULARY.
man sué’ka grandchildren umé’muts.
men siwé’EkaorséwéEka aunt tza'ata (if mother or
woman stla'nai father be dead then
women stlintla’nai [kad’tl the aunt is termed
boy suékao tl ov skué- sai’'iiq or wotl-
youth sué’wolds sai/agatl,but when
maiden k-a’mai both parents and
girl stlanaio’tl aunt are dead then
little boy 4am’ the aunt is spoken
» girl aa’mco’n of again by the
term tza'ata; the
infant sk-a'k'El same applies to
child stao’tl (sé’agotl pre- uncle also).
natal term) uncle se/saé.
children stutad’tl step-father stia-ma’n.
middle-aged person nuk é/yE step-son stla-mE’n (tEn).
old man (tai) sEiIOqwa, stlmét step-daughter sia-mEn (tlEn).
(plu stltlmot) son-in-law saq.
» woman (a’tli) sEuidqwa, father-in-law saq.
j stlmot (plu. stltl- son-in-law-elect stuta’tl.
mot) daughter-in-law saq.
very old man ka‘élen, kaié"Imiiq. mother-in-law Pe
mother tci’ca, ke’la, ta’a. N.B.—This term saq is changed to
father ma ma, tcétct. sléak*wai'tl if relationship be broken by
son mEn (tEn = my). death of son or daughter.
sons mEnMEn (tEn= my). 2
daughter mEn (tlEn = my). uncle’s wife sta-teica (=step-
daughters mEnmeEn (tlEn=my). mother),
sons and daughters mEmMEn. aunt’s husband sia-man (=step-
(collectively) father),
husband kwoto’mps,sk6’, when elder brother ko’ pits.
: ‘ called by wife no‘a. elder sister A
wife teiwa'c. elder cousin ¥f
several wives of one tciitcii’wac. younger brother skak:,
husband 1, sister »
wife when called by » cousins és
= 2
ogee is termed oe N oe aunt and oe a rise than
af aa tosh ;), Parents, then cousins are termed kd'pits; if
Pe ae oe a a He Peta they are younger than parents, sk-ak-.
grandparents silsé’l. brother's or sister’s stai’atl, changed to
grandson é’muts. child sonimai'tl if mother
granddaughter » or father be dead.
1900.

LL

514 REPORT—1900.
brother-in-law tcima’c (plu. teimtci- eldest child ov first- séntl.
ma’c). born
sister-in-law tcima’c (plu. teimtci- second child u’/ndntite.
ma’c). third Ss unwi'tl.
youngest or last saut.

N.B.—This term is applied alike to
wife’s or husband’s brothers, sisters, and N.B arate "
cousins, but when the connection is broken |.4) -—The term wni'tl is applied gene-
by death they are no longer called tcima'e a fate the middle children, the plural

orm being ununwi'tl. The younger ones

but teai’é (plu. tcitcdi'é). 1 3 ,
The relatives of sisters-in-law, brothers- 2° 948° spoken of collectively as sz saut.

in-law and cousins-in-law are termed darling
hié'was (plu. skiikiié'was), but when con-
nection is broken by death of intermediate
relative they are then called kuintliagam,
which signifies that both sides are crying

s’kd’nuk: (term of en-
dearment used by
mothersin address-
ing their children
‘tlun s'ho'nuk’ =

or grieving. my pet or darling).
widow sia/atEn (4’tli). s’ta’cEm (term borne
widower seve): by children of a
orphan wa'nim (a'tli or tai, female slave by her

according to sex). master; also a term
lover siya. of reproach).

Children of one father by different mothers are known by term sinéco’ztl. One
half brother or sister would say of another, in speaking of him, he is my sintco'7t7.

Children of first cousins are all regarded as nephews and nieces, and first cousins’
children’s children are consequently regarded as grandchildren. Relational ties
extend with the Sk-qo’mic to six generations on both sides of the family. These are

known under the following terms :—

mEn child. jaw, chin sk'wawa’ctck:.
man father. top of the head nukaii/tsiék-.
tci’ca mother. side ,, FA nukmiyé’wakn.
tséEl grandfather or back ,, ” staia’psum.
grandmother. tooth yena’s.
stca/méuk: great-grandfatheror nose wu'ksEn.
great-grandmother. bridge of nose nukau’kits,n’cauk's,
tsi/piyuk: great - great- grand- ear kwo'lun.
father or great- tongue meEka‘luceltl.
great-grandmother. eye k-uld’m.
hau’/qkwiéuk: great - great - great- mouth tsdtsin.
grandfather or gums smé’tsans,
great-great-great- upper-lip stcélts.
grandmother. lower-lip slusts or tlusts.
smrEna’tl princess (a title com- eye-brow so’mun.
monly given to eye-lashes tsé’Eptlen.
chief’s daughters skin (human) k-uolau’.
and also applied ,, (ofanimals) kwé’kEn,
to other girls as a throat qomntl.
term of honour neck ku’/nauq.
and praise if they back of the neck suka’psum.
were good and back staite.
industrious). chest sé/lenus.
Indian stE/lmuq. breast sk‘em.
person ss teat saiks (= point).
people tH tstn/Imiq. bosom stelkwam,
chief sia’m. stomach koel.
village tE o/k'wumigq. navel m0o’qwia.
head s’mos. body sla‘lau.
face tsa’tsus. liver tluk‘tHa.
hair (of head) sk‘o/mai, marrow nEkwo’cin.
3 (on body) ske’nus. arm taguntin, naqtc.
» (of animals) ta’min. hand tcié’ pute, naqte.
beard sk'té’intz. elbow tsai'ksai.
forehead stoktcus. shoulder citlia’ met,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.

finger

finger-nail
thumb

first finger

second ,,

third ,,
little ,,

thigh

leg

knee

ankle

foot

sole of foot

heel

toe

toe-nail

skull

fat, oil

guts

grease

heart

heart (as seat of the
affections)

blood

mind

breath

dream

canoe

paddle

house

*potlatch-house’

a house with carving
upon it

fire

cinders

ashes

smoke

flame

soot

fire-making imple-
ments

sky

sun

moon

full-moon

half-moon

star

clouds

light (of day)
»» (of moon)
» (of stars)
” (of torch, &e.)
» (opposite of
dark

dark

néaqo’Etc or néaqo-
yate.

qoiqoi’Btc.

séntlqoyate
(=eldest finger).

tauqo’stEn (=‘the
pointer’).

su/nawitlo’la = (one

before the middle
one).
unawi'tl (= ‘ the

middle one’).
saut-ko/la, or saut-
qo’yatc (= young-
est finger).
smti’kwalup.
stcié’psen.
kwiné’ukcin.
kwo’mok‘cin.
sqEn.
nukw’acin.
sai’k-cin.
stciépktio’cin.
quo’quocin.
cauk’,
sQus,
k-aiya’q.
Qus.
tsa/li, sk-um.
skua’lawan.

stsa’tsiEn.
skwa'lawan.
tla’k'om.
sElu'li.
snzE’kiuitl.
sk'um’],

lam.
tlaanukautu’Q,
stcu’ tug.

yéutl.

pe’tcit.
nukwiye’utl-tEn.
spo’tlam.
slé’itzum.
kwai'tcup.
stci/tcup.

skwai’yil.

snu’/k'um,

tlk:ai'te.

nu’gkutc tE tlkai'te.

nu’qsetkute tE
tlk‘ai’te.

k6d’/sen.

sk‘atl.

koa'kél.

astlkai’te.

askO’sen.

aswatcit.

to/tau.

tlk,

dawn

morning
evening
day
night
sunset
twilight
noon
rain
snow
hail

ice

frost
water
sea
river

lake
stream
earth, land
wind
mountain
hill

stone, rock
wood, tree
fire-wood
trees

leaf

sap
branch

bark

root

grass
berry

meat

flesh

horn

bow

arrow

salt

axe (stone)
now
to-day
yesterday
next day
to-morrow
next month
last year
next year
good-bye
lightning
thunder
name
medicine
medicine-man.

blanket (native)

» (white)
a covering
fog
current
rapids
sand

515

ma/tciEk ( = light
coming).
natl.
na/net.
sko’éil or skwai’yil.
nat.
kunp.
tla’tci.
tuk skwai’yil.
stlumdoH.
ma’k-a,
qoqo’s.
sHO/kEn,
Hu’qun.
stak: or stauk:.
kotlkq, squn.
hi’yé stauk: (=big
water).
qa'tct,
swalt.
temé’q.
aan
sma’nét.
cé'tlos or stcé’tlos.
smant.
tsuk:.
ya'utl.
tsuk:tsuk:.
stco’ltla.
ts’qamts.
st’ka’tcu,
QéQola’tcoq.
slai, ’puli.
t’kwa’mianq.
saqwai.
sk-wola’m.
sméts.
slé/uk:,
tsé'istEn.
td’qoate.
s’maal.
tlas’tlbm.
tlak-a.
tE watsomtl.
tE sis or tsis.
tE tei'lagtl.
nE koa il.
tsk-k:64'lus.
k6i ’ntcd’ tlk-aitc,
koit pa’nd.
koi ’ntcd’ sela/num,
hoim#tla’tl.
t’qai’is.
éninya’qEn.
sna.
to'it.
sQom’tEn.
sok‘oetl, slél.
pEk'u’lwit.
hu’mtEn.
sk'wo’tcum,
sqom.,

k'wEpé’tcin,
LL2

516 REPORT—1900.

hunger aha/nom. ghost cai’u (=screech-owl,
shame é’aqi. see under ‘ Beliefs.”)
love instlé. life ai/nuq.

shadow kénkénHu’na. soul, spirit tagatlai’‘nuq.

wisdom nEkaié’lEs. God tcitl sia’m( = upper or
help teauEltEn. above chief).

work sitsa’p. noise (made by chil- tcé’ansut.

swamp ma’kwom. dren)

spoon teau’ai. noise (of talking) sna’-nsut.

soup stlom. scissors tzu’/mk‘tEn.

sorrow sB’sulkq. needle (weaving) tca’msutEn.

joy tsa'tsauq. alder-bark basket pia’ k0.

rope . ge'lEm. net sHOkwétcin.

platter tlekqai’tstEn. tent (of mats) stlwamts.

potato (native) skaué’setl. witch sii or syt.

» (cultivated) skauts. fruit of the elder tsé’unk-.
spear (salmon) sEna’m. sound kd/min.
snow-shoe k-la’Icin. fish-rake tli’tamEn
strawberry , s’tcé’1. promontory (ef. ra- sk‘u'tuksEn.
wing ye'larn. dical for nose)
valley niklesa’m. clam-digger skulq.
tears nEkw0’és. chisel Qohai't.
sweat ya'kwom. cedar kettle scum.
tail skwo’kuts. cedar-platters Qapiyoitl,
voice nikné’tcimtEn. barbed spear-point miate.
staff (walking) t’teate. salmon-trap teéa’k- or tciak*.
a whistle sk'wo’kElEm. feast klaa’cEn
maple-tree k-u'meElai. knife tlatctEn.
willow-tree qai’yai. needle patctEn.
cedar-tree Qapaiyai. ‘saw tlitetEn.
cedar Qapai. salmon-knife Qeitcthn.
cedar-platter Qapiyo'itl. nest tsétsipé’'tltEn.
alder-tree k16’lai. moss kwiya’m.)
elderberry bush tsé’wok:ai. mud tsék’.
salmonberry bush _yittwa'nai. log kweEltlai.
basket (general term) sé’tEn. milk stilkwe’m.
basket (big, for Qok‘o’lstmn. moccasin slu’k:cin (also mi-

gathering herbs, kocin).
&e.) friend siai’.
bag tlapa’t. fur k-wé’Ek‘tEn.
bay sa’tsEnutc. gall mE’sEn.
dew stlEmtlem. iron cipa’lEtEn.
drum meEna’ tsi. east tilu’tsnite.
belt nuqyi/mtEn. west tilte’wit.
eges augos. north s0’tic.
bed slauwé’n. south tEmtca’uq.
box koa’ koa. round ce’citc.
beach ai’utlk’. raw toé’n.
spring of the year koa’koEsi (=grow- happy tsa’stauq.
ing warm). poor Estsa's.
summer time tim koa'skoa/s,temié’s lam poor tcintsa’s.
(=hot season). slow o'yom.
autumn tetakwi (getting sharp é'yots.
cold). long tlak’it.
winter tim téq (=cold sea- short atlé’m.
son). strong ié’m.
time o7' season tEm. sweet ka'tEm.
down né/ak'o'/mai (=soft broad tleka’t.
hair, ef. hair). thin, narrow Ek‘das.
feathers sl’pa’lkEn. lean tEti’'ts.
door n’ku’ptEn. new qaus.
window kwotcdsenau'tq. white pEk’.
garden nE-pEnmai’. black k Eqkai’q.
fern sQotluk:. red kwo’mkem,

yellow
green
large, big
small, little
strong
weak
sore

dead

sick

dry

good

bad
beautiful

cold

warm, hot

all

some
much, many
yes

no

not
never
rotten
above
below
far

near
this
that
these
those
the

any body
who
which
then
thus, so
therefore
at, on
when
where
to cry

», dance
» eat

sy point at
», Whistle

», Whisper
» vomit

I am sick

tltc.
tlestlés.
hiyé’, eya’.
utse’m,
éye'm.
kulé’m.

a.

k’0/i.
Esk’"’0'i.
tceQ.
hati.

k-ai (plu. kai/akai).
nEtce’m (plu. nEtc-

natcé’m.
teq.
koas.
eq
k6én.
k-aq, k'eq.
é, éh.
hau.
hauq.
hau'tein.
ts'tiq.
tcitl.
kiielus,
qu'ta.
tcet.
ti.

é’tsi.

tH (masc.), tlE (fem.)

swat.
swat.
u'ntcakoéé.
é’/kwina.

kiésb’s.

nE.

ham.

mé’tla.

kw0’its,
é’tlEn, Hois.

mékat, tlé’Ek, mé.

g-a'o-Eltq.

kaiEtEn, 0’étka.

tEkwon’p.

ya'kEn.

pi’atotl.

kwila'c.

zetza’p or 'sitsap.

tce/tcEm.

ska'tzut.

slu'lo,
we/nEm.

qai’hEm, sqai’aqai.

tau’qos.

co’pEn.

tla’kEm.

yia't.

teinyia’t.

kwe’tlEn,

lolem, yi-

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA.

to strike

» gO

5, talk

» boil

,», Spoil, waste

» fight

», fight in battle
» See, perceive
5, bruise

», want, desire
Paice!

5 love, like
», build

», Know

” give

», smell

», get, have, hold
;, finish

» make

», think

), lie down
,, find out

», paint

», paddle

5, arrive

;, land

4, walk

,, Speak

,, leave, quit
», lose

',, agree to, corsent
animals (as a class)

frog

duck (generic)
eagle

wren
humming-bird
rat

mouse

Hea

louse

nit

house-fly

mosquito
dog

horse

bear (black)
» (brown)
» (grizzly)
deer

wolf

beaver

elk

moose
woodpecker
screech-owl
loon

goose

k-6'k-Gt.
nim.
sne’tcEm,
wotlkEm.
kElkElé’1.
kwé'ltEn.
kai’Ek‘entwai.
koate or kwate.
sauq, pet.
koas.
yé'utl.
tsa, maqtl.
amo’et.
tlate, tEm.
slé.
k0'i, q0’i.
tlé, stlé.
ta/nik-.
Btlskai’s, Eskai’s.
sa'tcit.
som.
pE’naq.
ho‘i.
tas, ta’stas,
ku'lEwan.,
msqa’its.
tn’ InEk.
qe’, qz'ltas.
son.
tseauq.
kom.
é’mac.
sné/1cEm.
to’/EntEm.
Qeés.
ano’tl.
sdqoqgée’muq.
wa’qus.
qélé’Ek,
yage'la.
Qit.
titc-titcEnis.
hauwait.
Qoa'tEn,
to’tlum.
me’tcin.
Qusta’n.
a’qiai (plu.
oqa/qiai).
k:wané’ mate.
sk‘umai’.
stkai'a.
mi/aqutl,
ktlalum.
tlatla/lEm.
sQé’cen.
t’k-ai’a or tEkaiya.
sk'Eld’, or sk‘Elau’.
kia’te.
kwa'ta.
’skénks,
cai’u.
swa’kwil.
Bqa, tlaukqun,

517

518 REPORT—1900.
gull k-waié’tEk. salmon (‘steel-head’) ské’uq.
fish s0'k6é, 6tsd’k-Gi. salmon-trout siu/tiqk6/l6.
crow kla/ka. brook ,, tln’tléuk6ai’.
owl tci/atmuq. codfish (black) ai’Et.
squirrel sSmEmE]O’tsin. » (rock) tsAcilé’uk.
snipe SpEpEla’tc. »» _ (red) tuk'to’q.
seal aska. ‘tommie-cod’ tsu'mkoa.
robin ’skwEka’k, sturgeon ska’ wate.
rabbit so’hopét. oolican o7 candle-fish siiwas.
porcupine kwo’/kwosEm. whiting kué'iatsun,
pigeon insaqa/qEm. flounder po/ai.
partridge mo/mtEm. herrings slaut.
mink tcitcé’Ek-En. smelts s'tca’k-um.
grasshopper insatsatsetqun. oyster tlauqtlaug (ef. tlaug
kingfisher ts’tch’'l. = hard).
spider sHOHOkwé6’tcin= mussel tlau’akum.
net - maker, cf. crab qai’Eq.
sHOkwé'tcin = net. eel (conger) n’satctcauEm.
swan ’*swo'ken, ‘bull-head’ SE’nai.
worm tsuk’Q. clam (generic) tsa’qiia.
bee sisamai’. » (arge kind) sQam.
ant tsitsamé'tcin (name ,, (small ,, ) sk unts.
has reference to cockle stld’um.
its slender waist). sea-eges skoe’tsai.
bat kapkapsai'tl (= star-fish to’muktl.
the smotherer, so sea-cucumber Ela's.

Marine Terms.
salmon (‘spring’)

called because the ‘devil-fish’ (octopus) stloqts, ské’amuq.

Indians believed

it would settle

upon the mouth

and nostrils of a

sleeping person

and smother him),
kos.

whale

kwini's.

Canoes.

big canoes, common- k-Qd'ntl.

ly called Chinook

canoe

medium-sized canoe sni’tc’l’p.

» (‘sockeye’) tsu’k:ai. small pela’tcem.
» (‘cohoe’) tsa’win, common snukii’tl.
» (humpback’) tlau’étcin. old sk-aio'iuitl,
» (‘dog-salmon’) k6a’k-Enis. new -k-dquti'tl.

FOLK-LORE.
Qais.

Once there were four brothers! named Qais who went about the
country doing wonderful things. It was very long ago, when the animals
were human beings.?- They usually travelled on the water in a canoe.
This canoe was not an ordinary vessel. It was the youngest of the
brothers transformed to this shape for the accommodation of the others.
One day they came upon Deer, who was filing a bone to make an arrow
point. They watch him at work for some time without speaking.
Presently they ask him why he is filing the bone. Deer replies : ‘I am
making a sharp arrow point to kill a chief that lives some little way off.’
From this answer the brothers perceive that he is a wicked person and
deserving of punishment. So they straightway seize him and pull at his

’ The name Qais in the story seems sometimes to be applied to the four brothers
collectively and sometimes to the eldest only.

* According to the traditions of the Sk’qd'mic the earliest beings were animals
with human or semi-human characteristics. In course of time the ‘Great Spirit’
brought the first true man into being, from whom are descended through many
generations all the Sk-qo’mic people (see the writer’s paper on ‘The Cosmogony
and History of the Skuamish, Zrans. Roy. Soc. Can., Section 11. 1897-98).

a

—— eS

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 519

ears till they become long and pointed, and at his arms till they equal his
legs in length. They then take the pointed bone he had been at work
upon and thrust it into one of his feet, in consequence of which this bone
(smumk-sen) is found in the feet of all his bestial descendants to this day.
After this they clap their hands and make a noise like a deer, and he in-
stantly loses his original form and becomes a deer, with antlers springing
from his forehead. Thus did Qais create the deer for the Sk-qo’mic. The
creature starts off in fear and runs from them with the swiftness of the
wind. When he had gone some distance he stopped and looked back,
whereupon Qais beckoned to him to return. Suid the eldest : ‘He runs
too fast ; the people who come after us will never be able to catch him.
We must make him go slower.’ When the deer comes back to them they
take him by the hind legs and knock his hoofs together several times.
They then clap their hands again and send him off a second time. On
this occasion he does not run so fast. ‘ That will do,’ said they ; ‘ he is all
right now.’ From here they paddle on till they come to an old man who
appears to be fishing for salmon with a long double-pronged fish-spear.
He carries also a big basket with him. The Qais stop and watch his
proceedings. They find that he does not spear the salmon, but merely
feels for them and rubs his spear against them, bringing away each time
a little of the slime from their bodies. This he wipes off with some moss
into the basket. When they see what he is doing they go up to him and
take his spear away from him. From their pockets they then produce a
mivdtc (a barbed spear-point) and put it on the spear, saying as they do
so: ‘See, grandfather, this is the proper way to fish.’ And as they speak
Qais feels in the water with the blunt end of the spear for the salmon,
and when he touches one he turns the spear quickly about and plunges it
into the salmon. They then return the old man his spear and tell him to
catch his salmon as they had shown him. The old man gets angry and
says : ‘I don’t want you to tell me what I ought todo. I like my own
method best, and I prefer the slime to the fish.’ When he makes this
strange statement they are convinced that he must be a person of a very
undesirable character, who ought to be checked in his evil ways. They
therefore take his spear from him and break it in two. The two halves
they set against his legs one on each side. The point of the spear they
push up his nose. They then pull at his head till his neck is much
elongated, after which they clap their hands and utter the cries of a crane,
and the old man is immediately turned into a bird of that species and
flies away. Thus did Qais bring the crane into being.

They continue their journeyings till they come to a high bluff on the
sea shore. Here they land, and the youngest resumes his own form.
They now build a house for themselves and propose to stay a while there.
When the house was completed the eldest suggests the making of a trap
to catch the Sun. Said he: ‘I will make a trap and snare the Sun. I
want to have a talk with him.’ He then transforms his youngest brother
into a salmon, and secures him to the shore by a line ; the salmon sports
about in the water and looks a very fine fish. Presently Snu’k-um (sun)
perceives the bait set for him, and descending in the form of an eagle
pounces upon it and carries it off, breaking the line which held the salmon
to the shore as he did so. The three brothers were unconscious of what
was occurring, having been cast by Snu‘k-um into a deep trance. When
they awakened from their trance their youngest brother had disappeared.
Qais was not to be beaten by Snu’k-um in this way, so he now transforms

520 REPORT—1900.

the third brother into a whale and secures him in the same manner as the
salmon had been fastened, only with a stouter line. No very long time
after this Snu’k‘um seeing the whale in the water came down and seized
it as he had the salmon. Again the two remaining brothers are cast into
a deep sleep. When the Sun had got up as far as the line permitted he
was jerked back again to the water screaming. This continued till the
brothers presently awoke. The eagle could not get away from the whale
now because his claws had become entangled in the skin. So the two
brothers pull on the line and bring the whale to the shore. Qais now said
to the Sun : ‘ Don’t try to get away, I want to have a talk with you ; that
is why I set those traps for you.’ When the Sun perceived that he had
been outwitted by Qais he consents to stay a little while and talk with
them. Qais now questions him concerning the place where the salmon
come from. Snu’k-um points across the water and tells them the home of
the salmon is a long, long way off in that direction. Qais tells him that
he wants to go to the salmon country, and asks what he must take with
him on the journey. The Sun instructs him to gather a great quantity of
‘medicine,’ and take that with him and all would be well. Qais now
releases the Sun, who flies off into the clouds. Qais then set about
gathering herbs for the ‘medicine’ which Snu’k-um had said was
necessary for him to take, after which he and many of his people set out
in their canoes for the salmon'country. For many days they paddle in
the direction pointed out by Snu’k‘um and finally come to an island.
This they are prevented from approaching by enormous quantities of
floating charcoal which block the progress of the canoes. One of the
young men, thinking the charcoal is compact enough to sustain him,
jumps out of the canoe upon it, but instantly sinks through and is
drowned. After much trouble they get away from the obstruction and
paddle round to the other side of the island. Here they perceive what
looks like a settlement. They see smoke of all the colours of the rainbow
rising into the clouds. This is the country they are seeking, the home of
the salmon people. They draw into the beach, which is very broad and
smooth, and leaving their canoe go forward towards the settlement, Qais
taking with him his medicine. When they arrived at the village Qais
presented the chief, whose name was Kos (spring salmon), with some of
the medicine. Now at the back of the village was a creek in which Kés
kept a tcéa’k: (salmon trap), and just before Qais and his followers landed
Kos had bidden four of his young people, two youths and two maidens,
to go into the water and swim round and enter the salmon trap. Obey-
ing, they walked into the sea with their blankets drawn up over their
heads, and as soon as the water reached their faces they became salmon
and leaped and sported together just as the salmon do in the running
season, making their way in their frolics towards the trap in the creek.
When, therefore, Qais and his followers had landed and met the salmon
chief, he ordered some more of his people to go to the trap and take out
the salmon and cook them for his guests. This they did, cutting them open
and spreading them ona kind of wooden gridiron to roast.! When the fish

' This gridiron was formed as follows: A shallow trench was dug about twenty
inches wide, the length varying with the number of fish tio be roasted, in which a
fire of dry wood was kindled. On either side of the trench stakes were driven in at
intervals. These were about three feet high. On the top of these, and parallel
with the trench, were then fastened slender poles, and across these again directly

over the flames other transverse ones. On these latter the split salmon were laid
and roasted,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 521

were ready Kos invited his guests to partake of them, begging them at the
same time to set the bones carefully aside and not lose or destroy any.
The visitors accepted the invitation and soon disposed of the cooked
salmon. After they had finished their meal some of Kos’s people came
and carefully gathered the salmon bones together, which each of those
who had eaten of the fish had piled in a little heap by his side, and took
them down and threw them into the'sea ; whereupon the bones were
immediately transformed back into the four young people again, who
presently came up out of the water and joined the others. The salmon
chief entertained his visitors with salmon-feasts for four successive days.
Now the care which Kos took over the salmon bones excited the curiosity
of one of Qais’s followers, who, on the second day, stealthily hid and kept
back some of the head bones of the salmon he was eating. After the
meal was over the bones were gathered up as before and cast into the
water, but when the four young people came out of the water this time it
was observed that one of the youths was covering his face with his hands.
This youth went up to Kés and told him that all the bones had not been
thrown into the water, and that he was in consequence lacking the bones
of his cheek and nose. When Kos heard this he inquired among his
guests if they had thrown away any of the fish bones while eating, and
pointed out to them the condition of his young man’s face. The youth
who had kept back the bones, alarmed at the consequence of his act, now
brought them forward, pretending to have just picked them up from the
ground. The day following the seagulls were seen to be gathering in
great numbers about some object that was floating on the water a little
distance from the land. Kdos sends some of his young men to see what
the attraction is. They presently discover it to be the corpse of a young
man. When Kos is informed of the nature of the floating object he asks
Qais if any of his party had been drowned ; Qais answers that one of
his young men had fallen into the water on the other side of the island
and been drowned. Upon hearing this, Kos bids his young men bring
the floating corpse ashore with ropes. This they do, and Qais discovers
that the seagulls have pecked out its eyes. Now although Qais had
power to restore the corpse to life, he had no power to replace the lost
eyeballs. So when he observes their absence, he asks the salmon chief
if he could supply him with new ones. Kos answers that he can, and
offers him a pair of 7"swk-ai-salmon eyes. Qais tries these and finds them
too small. Kos then offers him a pair of 7'sdéwin-salmon eyes. But these
also are too small. The chief then hands him a pair of Koa'k-enis-
salmon eyes, and these are found to be just the right size. Qais now
sprinkles the corpse with some of his medicine, and the young man is
immediately restored to life. On the fourth day Kos makes a great
Klda'acen (feast), and gives to every one of his people a little of the
medicine which Qais had presented to him. They were overjoyed to
receive it, having seen its virtue exercised upon the corpse of the drowned
man. During the feast Qais spoke thus with Kos: ‘I have come to visit
you for the purpose of asking you to let some of your people come to
mine. They are very poor and wretched, and have scarcely anything to
eat.’ ‘Very good,’ replied Kas, ‘I will do as you request, only you must
take care of them and be careful not to allow any of their bones to come
near a corpse.’ Qais promised compliance with this request, and next
day set out with his followers on his return. To Qais the time spent
with the salmon people seemed only four days, but it was really a whole

522 REPORT—1900,

year. As he was leaving Kos said, ‘I and my tribe will visit you first
in the season.’ ‘After Kos,’ said the tswkai (popularly known as the
sockeye), ‘I will come.’ ‘And after the t¢swk-ai I will arrive,’ said the
tsdwin (cohoe). ‘I will follow next,’ said the koak-enis (dog-salmon).
‘TI will come last of all,’ cried the élau'étcin (humpback), ‘and I shall not
come regularly like the others, but just now and again.’

Hence, according to Indian belief, the irregularity of the runs of the
last-named species.

When Qais got back he assembled a great concourse of people and
told them that for the future they would have plenty to eat; that the
Salmon had promised to come to them every year. After this he recalls
that his youngest brother had been carried off by Snu’k‘um and seeks to
learn from those present if any of them could climb up beyond the clouds
to Snu’k‘um’s house. They all reply that no one could climb so far.
But among them was one cleverer and smarter than the rest, named
Tu'mtum (Wren ?). He possessed a fine bow and many arrows. He
now comes forward and says to Qais, ‘I can shoot up there and make a
chain of my arrows.’ Qais was delighted with the plan, and bade him
begin at once. 7'u’mtwm thereupon shoots an arrow into the clouds, and
they hear it strike against the sky where it remained. He shoots again,
and the second arrow lodges in the notch of the first. He continues
shooting in this way, each arrow striking and fixing itself in the last until
the chain thus formed reached to the ground. Qais now takes some of
his ‘medicine’ and sprinkles it on the line of arrows, and the whole
becomes rigid and stout and strong.!

Kod’ten, the mouse-man, now comes forward, and offers to climb up
first. Qais consents, and he swarms up followed by 7Z'’tlwm, the flea,
after whom come J/e’tcin, the louse, ’Skée’zks, the woodpecker, and the
rest of the company. When they reached the summit of the ladder they
perceive a big house. This was Snu’/k-um’s dwelling. They seek to
enter, but find it securely fastened and too strong to break into by main
force.

After some consultation it is decided to leave the matter of forcing
an entrance to Koa/trn, To’tlum, and Me’tcin. Koa/trn sets to work
and soon gnaws himself a hole to enter by, and the other two force
themselves through a small crack in the boards. When they get inside
Snu’k-‘um is just getting into bed. The fleas get into his blankets and
worry him, the lice into his head and do the same, and the mice
make such a disturbance that he is unable to get to sleep. They keep
him awake tossing and turning till after midnight, and then being very
weary he falls into a deep sleep in spite of them. They bite him again
and again, but cannot wake him. K0oa/tEn then opens the door to Qais
and the others. Qais discovers the head and bones of his brother, and
returns to the ground with them. He now sprinkles some of his
‘medicine’ upon them, and his brother comes to life again.

When he had done this he pulled down the ladder, and many of those
who were still upon it fell down and were killed. The Qais having come
together again, the youngest resumes the form of a canoe, and they
paddle away to another part of the country. On their way they come

1 Tt is worthy of remark that in one of the Haida folk-tales access to the upper
regions is gained by an arrow rope constructed, as here, by shooting one arrow into
the notch of another (see Second Report of the Committee under the writer’s notes
on the Haida Beliefs, &c.).

EEE

et i ti

¢

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 523

upon a couple of men paddling about in a canoe. One, whose name was
Tz'ltcapsum (duck), sat in the bow, and the other who was called
£la’'s (sea-cucumber) in the stern, he being the captain. Said Qais to
them: ‘Where are you going?’ Tr'ltcapsum replies, ‘We are out
trapping,’ and becomes so frightened that he immediately dives into the
sea. Qais now takes the bait the pair were using, and when Tr'ltcapsum
comes to the surface some little way off throws it at him and strikes him
on the head with it. Where it struck a white spot immediately appeared.
Te'ltcapsum looked round to see what had happened, and Qais throws
a second piece at him, and hits him this time on the nose. Again a
white spot appeared. The duck now takes to flight, crying out in fear
as he goes ‘anin, nin, nin, nin.’ Ela’s observing Qais’s action now also
takes to the water and dives down to the bottom and remains there.
Qais seeing this calls out to him, ‘ Very well, my friend, if you want to
stay down there do,’ and therewith he transforms him into a sea-
cucumber (Holothurian). Thus originated the white-headed duck and
the sea-cucumber.,

After these events they went up towards the head of the Sk-qo’mic
River. On their way they perceive a village and three Fort Douglas
men (members of the Stlatlumu tribe, whose territory is contiguous to
that of the Upper Sk-q0’mic), who are ‘packing’ something on their
backs. Qais transforms these men and their packs into three big
boulders which are to be seen at this village to this day. Going on
from thence they come to a mountain, down the slope of which they
perceive Skoda’ wate (sturgeon) coming. Him also they change into stone.
A little after, as they still journeyed on, they come upon A-wini’s (whale),
and he too is transformed by them into a rock. In course of time
they arrived at the spot where the village of ’nku’/k'zpenate now stands.
There they saw two men in their canoes. These, both men and canoes.
they turn into stone ; hence the name n’ku'k'zpenatc, which signifies the
place of the stone canoes. Some time after this they meet a man
carrying a spear. They request him to give them his weapon, but he
refuses to do so, and him they likewise turn into stone, where he may be
seen to this day with his spear in his hand. At this point my informant’s
memory gave out, and he could tell me no more of the doings and trans-
formations of the Qais.

Tsat'anik.

There was once a man who was the father of twins. One night he
dreamt a strange dream. In his dream he was bidden to collect the
bones of all the fish that frequented the Sk-qd’mic River. He was to
place them in a box divided by partitions, a pattern of which was
shown him in his dream. The bones of each kind of fish were to be kept
separate in the divisions of the box. On awaking he set about his task.
When the box was ready he filled each division of it with the bones of
different kinds of fish, and then placed the box in a large hole of a living
tree, whose trunk he had hollowed out for the purpose. He then
covered up the aperture so that the box could not be seen. Shortly after
this he died, and from that time onward no fish came into the river.
Many years later a man chanced to pass by the tree in which the box
of fish-bones was hidden. When he approached the tree, his senses were
taken from him, and he wandered round and round the place in a kind
of trance. In this state he was shown the box hidden in the tree, and

P

524 REPORT—1900.

instructed what to do with it and its contents. When he came out of
his trance, he cut away the bark which had grown over the hole
completely and took out the box and opened it. The various divisions of
the box no longer contained bones, but only a little dust. Some of this
dust got on his hands and fingers, and he took some moss and went down
to the river and washed his hands in the water with the moss. As he
washed a gale of wind arose, and little fish darted out from the moss in
hundreds. He now put the box back into the hole in the tree again and
went home. It was evening when he arrived, and his wife, who had been
alarmed at his long absence, asked him where he had been all day. Not
desiring to tell her yet of his strange adventure he said that he had gone
to the river and had fallen asleep on the bank. Early next morning he
goes down to the river where he had left the moss, and where the little
fish had so suddenly appeared, and found to his great joy that the waters
were teeming with fish, amongst which was a new kind afterwards
called tsai’anuk. It would seem that the people had been aware of the
reason of the disappearance of the fish from the river, and had a tradition
among them that they would return again some day when the dust of
the bones, which had been hidden away by the father of the twins,
should be found and placed in the water. The man now saw from the
quantity of the fish in the river that he had truly brought back the
fish, and ran home and told his wife. From that time on the people of
this village had plenty of fish, which aroused the jealousy of the other
villagers, and one day the box containing the bone dust was stolen by
some one and taken to another village. This brought about the death of
the man who had first found the box, for on its being taken from the
tree a gale arose which overwhelmed his canoe and drowned him.
From that time the people on the river every year put a little of the bone
dust in the water and never lacked fish again.

Iwas unable to identify the tsai/anuk. They are a kind of small
fish like smelts or oolicans, but differ from these in that they are never
found floating dead on the water, and they come and go in a mysterious
manner. The Sk-qd’mic always regarded them as the descendants of the
twins. ‘Twins, according to the beliefs of the Sk-qo’mic, had power over
the wind; hence the rising of the wind when the bone dust was disturbed.
If any one ate tsai’anik and swiwas (oolicans) at the same meal he
would drop dead, the Sk-q0/mic believed.

Te Men-tle-Saé’lem.
(The Son of the Bright Day.)

Long time ago a shaman named Teculg had two daughters. One fine
day the two girls got in their canoe and went out on the water. When
they were some distance from the shore they ceased paddling and lay
down in the canoe one at each end. They then began to sing. Their
song was addressed to a certain mysterious youth who was supposed to
live at the bottom of the water. The words of the song which they
repeated many times were as follows :—

Atcina’! Atcini’! Atcina’! Kwi'na yatesi its tem
Kwina’-si-a/li - - - i,
which, freely translated, may be rendered as follows :—‘O dear! O my!
We have been told that a handsome young man lies below! Oh that he
would come up !’
When they had been singing a little while they saw a form rising

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, DLO

through the water. It was young Aixt (black cod). Said the girls to
him when he came to the surface : ‘ We don’t want a man like you with
big bulging eyes. You can go back again.’ They sang again, and
presently Tsacilé’uk (rock-cod) came up. As soon as they perceived him
they derided him, saying : ‘ Do you think we want a man like you? Go
down again, you big-mouthed creature.’ Rock-cod, much mortified at
their treatment of him, sank slowly to the bottom again as they continued
their song. Presently they perceived a bright and fiery form rising to
the surface. The waters glowed as if a great fire burnt beneath. ‘This
must be he,’ said one to the other. But when this glowing body rose to
the surface they saw it was only Tuk-to’q (red cod). The girls are angry
and disappointed as he appears, and revile poor Tuk-to’q bitterly. ‘You
big-eyed, gaping-mouthed, short-waisted, ugly creature, get out of our
sight and don’t come here deceiving us again.’ Tuk-to’q sank slowly to
the bottom again.

And thus it was with one fish after the other that came to the surface
at their singing : each and every one the girls dismissed with scornful,
abusive words. At last came Kos, the prince of fishes (spring salmon),
but he fared no better than the rest. When they saw his graceful silvery
form come shooting through the water they cried out to each other :
‘This must be he. How bright and shining he is!’ But when he got
close to the canoe they perceived that they had been mistaken. ‘We
don’t want you, Kos,’ cried they. ‘You have a black mouth. We don’t
like black-mouthed men. Go away and hide your black mouth.’ They
continue their singing as Kos disappears. Presently they see an arrow
(s’m@al) come shooting up out of the water. As it falls back they paddle
towards it, each eager to seize it first. The younger of the sisters grasps
it first. They now sing again, and a little later a second arrow shoots up
as before. This time the elder sister is the first to get it. Then a third
appears in the same manner, and after that a fourth. Each sister
succeeds in getting one of these, so that they now have two arrows apiece.
They sing their song again, and presently a bow (t0’gdatc) and quiver
(éctaw'g) ave thrust up. These the younger of the two manages to secure
first. Once again they repeat their song, and a few moments later they
behold a golden form, bright and shining like the sun, coming up from
the lowerdepths. This at last is he whom they desired. He is Men-tlr-
Saié'lnm (Son of the Bright Day). They paddle towards him, and when
the canoe has approached near enough he springs into the centre of it.
He looks from one sister to the other to see which possesses most of his
property. Perceiving that the younger sister had most, he goes to her end
of the canoe and sits down by her side, and the girls then paddle back to
their landing. When they arrive the elder sister, who is greatly disap-
pointed and jealous of the other, springs out first and runs to her father
complaining that her sister has taken her si/ya (lover) from her. Teulq
smiled and told her not to distress herself, that neither of them would
have him long. It would appear that Tculg used his two daughters as
decoys to attract young men to his house, where he wickedly destroyed
them in various ways by his shamanistic powers. The younger daughter
being well aware of this takes advantage of her sister’s absence to warn
her lover of what awaited him at her father’s hands. Said she to him as
they were approaching her father’s dwelling: ‘Take care of yourself
when you pass through the door. My father has a magic door that closes
with a spring upon people as they enter, and cuts them in two if they are

526 REPORT—1900.

not wary. He has killed a great many of our lovers that way. When
we get to the door watch how I get through, and follow in the same
manner. If you succeed in getting through safely you must not, how-
ever, think you are free from danger. Another danger awaits you. My
father will spread a fine handsome bear skin rug on the ground for you
to sit upon. In the hair of this skin are fixed many sharp claws of the
grisly bear (tlatla/lem) so skilfully hidden that no one would suspect
their presence. Should any one, however, be unwary enough to throw
himself down on the skin, these claws will tear and rip him to pieces. Be
careful of yourself, therefore, when my father invites you to sit down on
this rug and avoid the claws.’ Men-tlu-Saié’lzem thanks the maiden for
her warning, but tells her not to fear for him ; that his medicine is stronger
than her father’s. Before entering the house Men-tlz-Saié/lem filled his
clothes with pieces of rock and stones. When they got to the door the
girl gave a sudden leap and passed safely through. Men-tlz Saié/lzm,
observing her action, did the same, and passed through without harm to
himself ; but the door springing to after him caught the end of his quiver as
it trailed in the air and cut off the end of it. The shaman looked up and
accosted the youth thus : ‘Ah! stita'tl (prospective son-in-law), you have
arrived, have you? Come and sit down on this rug.’ And with that he
shakes out a fine bearskin and spreads it on the floor. Mern-tln-Saié/lem
throws himself on the skin, as if he had no suspicion of its hidden dangers,
and rolls about upon it as if he sought to find the most comfortable
position, breaking off as he did so all the points of the sharp claws with
the stones he had placed inside his garments. He was thus able to lie
upon the rug without harm. They talk together for a while, and then,
as night had come on, they retire to rest, Mrn-tln-Saié/lem and his bride
occupying the same bed. Before they rose next morning she warns him
that a third trial awaits him. ‘In the yard yonder,’ said she, ‘my father
has a big canoe he is in the course of making (écatwi’tl). It is of rock
and not of wood. In itis a deep crevice or fissure, down which my father
will purposely drep his Qohav’t (chisel) to-morrow morning and request
you to dive in and bring it out. When any one does this the crevice
closes over him and he is buried alive in the rock. I am greatly alarmed
for your safety. Hitherto no one has escaped this trap of my father’s.’
The young wife is very sad and cries as she tells her husband of the danger
ahead of him. Men-tle-Saié/Izm bids her be of good cheer and not to be
anxious for him. ‘I shall do as your father desires me,’ said he; ‘his
medicine cannot hurt me.’ Presently the shaman calls out to the young
man : ‘Saq (son-in-law), I want you to come and get my chisel for me ;
it has dropped down a deep crack in my tcatwi'tl. He got up at once,
but before leaving his wife he requests from her some staw’dk: (pipeclay)!
which he hides upon his person. He now goes out to the old man, who
points out to him the deep crevice into which his chisel has, as he declares,
fallen. The young man takes a leap into the fissure, and as he enters he
throws the staw’/ok: back over his shoulder, and the next moment the cleft
closes over him. The shaman perceiving the staw'ok- come from the rock
imagines it to be his son-in-law’s brains, which have been squeezed out by
the pressure of the rocks upon his head as they closed upon him, and goes
off laughing, saying as he went : ‘I got him that time, sure.’ Meanwhile

1 Dr. G. M. Dawson obtained a specimen of this substance from the Sk-qo’mic on
Burrard Inlet in 1875, and found it to be a diatomaceous earth, and not true pipe-
clay. :

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF GANADA. a Pari

the youth finds himself in a kind of hollow or cave in the rock, on the
floor of which he perceives a great number of human bones, the remains
of the shaman’s former victims.

Picking up the chisel he goes to the end of the cave, which opens to
him, and he passed out with the tool in his hand. He hurries after the
old man and overtakes him before he has reached the house. ‘Saq’
(father-in-law), said he, ‘here is the chisel you lost.’ The shaman takes
the chisel, laughs, and says: ‘You beat me that time, son-in-law.’ The
night following this when the others had gone to rest the shaman, who
possesses a little dog, calls the creature to him and holds converse with it
in this wise: ‘I am going to transform you into a swa/kwil (loon) and
put you out on the water in the morning for my son-in-law to shoot at.
You must take care to dive when you see his arrows coming, and each
time you rise to the surface again come up farther off.’ Mzrn-tle-Saié/lzm’s
wife was still anxious and troubled for her husband’s safety. Said she to
him : ‘ None of our young men ever escaped from the rock-trap before, so
T do not know what mischief my father is plotting against you now. I
feel sure he will not desist from his attempts to kill you, and I am fearful
of what may befall you.’ Men-tlz-Saié/lem comforts her by assuring her
that her father cannot really harm him, do what he will. Early next
morning the shaman takes the dog to the beach and, muttering magic
words over it, transforms (sizwén) it into a loon, which enters the water
near the shore and begins to swim and dive about just in front of the old
man’s landing. He now returns to the house and bids his daughter wake
her husband and ask him to go to the beach and shoot a loon which is
sporting about there close to the shore. Men-tle-Saiélum gets up and
goes to the beach, taking his bow and arrows with him. His arrows have
the faculty of striking and killing whatever he shoots them at. He takes
aim at the loon and shoots. The seeming bird dives as the arrow reaches
it. Tothe young man’s surprise the loon is not killed, only wounded, the
arrow merely breaking its flesh and passing on beyond. The youth asks
his wife to get him a second arrow. The loon having come to the surface
again, though farther off, he shoots the second arrow at it, but meets with
no better success than before, merely wounding the bird without killing
it. He asks for a third and yet a fourth arrow, but the loon is still alive
and passing out of sight. Perceiving now that his father-in-law was
working his medicine against him, and having shot away all his arrows, °
he adopts another plan. Said he to his wife: ‘Has your father got a
scum 1’ (big cedar pot or kettle). ‘Yes,’ replied she. ‘Fetch it for me
and bring it down here to the beach. I will go after the loon init,’ She
did as he bade her, and he set out after the wounded loon in the tub.
He took his bow with him, and as he passed his arrows which were float-
ing on the surface he picked them up. He now shot them at the loon
again, but with the same result as before. He could only wound the loon,
which swam farther out at each shot. The old shaman had watched the
proceedings thus far without saying a word or doing anything. As the
loon and his son-in-law pass from their gaze he stands up and takes his
bearskin garment, shakes it, and turns it several times and then puts it
on again. Consequent upon this action there arose forthwith a great
storm, and the wind caused the waves to rise mountain high. The young
wife is greatly distressed thereat, and believes that she will never see her
husband again. She continues for a while to gaze seaward, but nothing
but the mountainous billows meets her eyes, and presently she seeks the

28 REPORT—1900.

or

shelter of the house, believing Men-tle-Saié’lem to have been over-
whelmed by the waves. In the meantime the latter pursues and presently
comes up with the loon. This time he succeeds in killing it. As it ex-
pired it barked like a dog. ‘Ah!’ said Men-tle-Saié/lem, ‘now I under-
stand why I could not kill you before. Very well, you shall serve my
purpose now.’ By this time the storm has reached him, but he is in no wise
alarmed at it. He commences to sing, and the tempest at once subsides
immediately about him. Within a certain radius the water is as calm as
a sheltered pond. As soon as he had secured the dog-loon he makes for
home again. On his way he kills a great number of ducks which the
storm had driven shorewards. He shoots so many that they overfill his
boat. He utters st#wé’n words over them and they shrink at once toa
small compass. He then fills the canoe again, after which he makes
directly for the shaman’s landing-place. The tempest is still raging all
about him on every hand as before. When he reaches the shore he finds
it deserted. Everybody is indoors, having given him up for lost. He
enters the house, and when his wife perceives him she is overjoyed at his
return. He tells her he has killed the loon her father wanted and bids her
go to the scum and bring it up and cook it for her father. She goes down
to the landing and takes up from the bottom of the tub what appeared to
her to be a single bird. But when she held it in her hand another
appeared in its place. She picks up this also only to find the same thing
occur again and again. Presently her arms are full, and yet a bird re-
mained in the bottom of the tub. She goes to the house and tells her
husband. ‘Take your big basket,’ said he, ‘and pack them up on your
back.’ She does so, and when at last she has exhausted the supply the
house is half full of ducks. Men-tlu-Saie’lem now utters sviweén words
over them again, and they are reduced to apparently a few only. These
he takes and plucks and afterwards roasts them. In plucking the loon
he said toit : ‘ When your master takes you up to eat you I want you to
bark like a dog.’ When the birds were cooked Men-tlz-Saié/lem made a
cedar dish and placed them upon it and Jaid it before the shaman, who
began at once to partake of them. When he commenced he thought he
could easily clear the dish, but as soon as he has eaten one, another
appears in its place. Presently he takes up the loon, and as he was
eating it, it barked like a dog, and the old man knew at once that his son-
in-law had outwitted him again. Said he to Mrn-tlz-Saie’lem : ‘ You
have beaten me again, son-in-law.’ In his greediness the shaman had
overeaten himself and now became very ill. Early next morning he calls
out to his daughter to come to him. ‘I am very sick,’ said he, ‘and 1
want your husband to go into the woods and gather some yit-twa'n
(salmon-berries, Rubus sp.) for me.’ Now it was winter time, and not
even a green leaf could be found, much less fruit. The daughter tells
her husband what her father had requested him to do, At first he would
not get up, but lay and thought out a plan of action. This time his
patience was exhausted, and he determined to punish his wicked, selfish
father-in-law. When he had thought out his plan he got up and requested
his wife to get him some s/0/wi (finely beaten inner bark of the cedar,
Thuya gigantea). She gives him some. As he leaves her he tells her
not to be alarmed. ‘I am likely to be delayed in my quest,’ said he.
‘What your father desires is not easy of accomplishment at this season of
the year.’ He directs his steps towards the forest and pushes his way
through the thick underbush till he arrives at the foot of a mountain.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 529

Here he comes to an open glade (swd/wek) where many yit-twda’nai (sal-
mon-berry bushes) are growing. He halts here, procures some bark of
the Alo'laz or alder tree (Alnus rubra), and chewing this blows the juice
from his mouth upon his wad of s/0’w2, thus dyeing it red. But only the
outer bark is stained red, the inner remaining yellow. He now proceeds
to tie little tufts of it to the salmon-berry bushes, some of the tufts
being red and some yellow. Next he transforms these tufts of s/o'ei into
salmon-berries, some of which are red and some yellow. This originated
the salmon-berry, and thus it is that the fruit of one bush is red and that
of another yellow. But the fruit was not yet ripe. To ripen it he needs
some assistance. So he next proceeds to call upon some of his ancestors
to help him. He invokes them in the following terms: ‘Come to me,
my grandparents, and help me ripen this fruit!’ The grandparents
whom he calls upon for this purpose are the titc-titcznis,. or humming-
bird (Zrochilus sp.), the Sk-ukumkum, or humble-bee (Bombus sp.), and
the Q2t,' or wren (Z'roglodytes hiemalis ?). The two former were males,
the latter a female. The bumble-bee is the first to respond to the
invocation. He buzzes round and round in the air in lessening circles
until he alights upon the salmon-berry bushes, He is followed by the
humming-bird, and he again by the wren. They all three set to work at
once to ripen the berries. He begs them not to loiter over their work,
as he wants the berries in four days at the latest. When the fourth
day arrived all the berries were ripe and ready for picking. He had
brought a small woven basket (léaléuk:) with him. This he soon filled,
putting into it only red berries. When it was full he uttered stiwe'n
words over it, and the berries immediately sank down, leaving room for
more to be added. When it was full the second time he put it aside and
makes another little receptacle from alder-bark (pia’ko). This he fills
in the same way with the yellow berries. When full he sprinkles over
the fruit some of the needles of the hemlock-spruce. As he does so
he converses with the needles and instructs them in this wise: ‘Some of
you must stick to the berries, and when my father-in-law eats them you
must stay in his throat and not let him swallow you or spit you out.
You must then begin to grow, and go on growing till you come out
through the top of his head.’ On the red berries he sprinkles no leaves,
intending these for his wife and sister-in-law.

He now starts homeward after thanking his grandparents for the
help they had givenhim. He has not picked all the berries that were
ripened, and as he leaves he bids them enjoy what is left themselves. On
the afternoon of the fifth day he arrives home with his two baskets of
berries. He calls to his wife and says: ‘Has your father any cedar-
plates (Qapiyoitl) ?’ The wife answers that he has, and brings him one.
On this he now pours out the yellow berries, some of which have the
little needles of the spruce still sticking to them. The basket of red
berries he gave to his wife and sister-in-law. He then presents the dish
of yellow berries to his father-in-law, saying as he does so, ‘Here, Saq,
are the berries you desired : they have cost me some trouble to procure
for you.’ ' The old shaman grumbled when he saw how few, they seemed.

' Tt is interesting to note that a myth of the Haida (Queen Charlotte Islanders)
makes the wren, called also by them @it or Whit, the ripener of the wild berries.
She is invoked among them in a song the words of which I have given in the original
with a free translation in my notes on Haida Stories and Belicfs (see Second Report
of the ooo Survey of Canada, 1898).

), M M

530 REPORT—1900.

‘I could eat twice that quantity,’ said he. But to his surprise he finds
the fruit more than he can consume. Eat as many as he will, some still
remain on the platter. Presently he begins to cough and spit. Some of
the spruce needles have got into his throat and he cannot dislodge them.
Between his spasms of coughing he cries out: ‘Ah! son-in-law, you
have beaten me this time.’ Saying this his eye (for it seems he possessed
but one) begins to start from his head, and presently a young hemlock-
spruce burst through his crown and speedily grew into a big tree.
Men-tle-Saié’/lem then called his wife and sister-in-law, and said to them:
‘We will go away and leave your wicked father’ now.’ They forthwith
pack up their belongings and start off. When they get outside of the
house Men-tle-Saié’lem gives a great kick to the back of it, and the
whole structure falls in and is transformed into a big rock with the tree
that grew from the old shaman’s head still standing up, and apparently
growing out of it.

This boulder, which the Indians used to Jook upon as an enchanted
rock, is said to be situated near Nanaimo. Even now the older Indians
believe that the shaman is still shut up in it. They declare they can
sometimes hear him saying, ‘ You have beaten me this time, son-in-law,’
and if any one passing by on the water were to revile it, or call it
opprobrious names, such as ‘old one-eye,’ they believe a tempest similar
to that the old shaman brought upon Men-tlu-Saié’lem when he went
after the loon would immediately arise and drown all in the canoe.

From the fact that this rock is situated within the borders of the
Snamaimug, as well as from the hero’s name being doubtful Sk:qd’/mic,
it is pretty certain this story has been borrowed from the Snamaimua.

TE Qoitcita'l, the Serpent-slayer.

A long time ago many people lived at Stamis, a village at the mouth
of the Sk‘qo’mic River. The son of the chief had just been married.
The night following the marriage, just before daybreak, the old people
heard the ery of Zz Sino'tlkaz (a huge double-headed water-serpent) as he
passed from one side of the mountain to the other. The old people woke
up the young couple who were sleeping together by throwing cold water
over them, and told the young man that he ought to get up and go after
the Sino’tlkai. The youth was deeply offended at this treatment on his
wedding night, and would not at first stir ; but presently he said to his
wife, ‘I will do what they wish. I will follow the Sino’tlkai and kill it.
Don’t be alarmed during my absence. I shall be away only four days.’
He was really absent four years, though the years seemed to him as
days. So he got up and took his bow and arrows and blanket and went
after the serpent. When he came upon the creature’s trail the stench
which it had left behind it in its passage was so terrible, and the buzzing
of the flies which the smell had attracted so annoying, that he was
obliged to keep some distance off. From time to time as he went along
. he bathed himself. After a while he came upon the serpent, which was
lying lengthwise across a small lake. Its heads rose up on one side, and
its tail on the other. Qoitcita’l would not bathe in this lake where the
serpent lay, but sought out another spot a little way off. The serpent
stayed here testing the lake’s capacity for the space of two whole days
as it seemed to Qoitcita’l. In reality a whole year thus passed away.
It then went on again followed by Qoitcita’l as before, who bathed

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. dbl

himself frequently as he went along. They came to several other small
lakes, all of which the serpent tried as before, but none of them was
big enough for its purpose. Thus the third year passed, which to
Qoitcita’l seemed as another day. At last the serpent came to a lake
large enough for it to swim about in. Into this the Sino’tlkai dived. On
the edge of the lake Qoitcita’l built himself a house and watched the
serpent which from time to time came to the surface of the water to
disport itself. One night Qoitcita’l dreamt that he killed the serpent
with a big heavy spear made of resinous pine-wood. In his dream he
seemed to be in a large canoe, and he possessed two of these heavy
spears. So when he awoke he built himself a canoe, and made a couple
of spears after the fashion of those he had seen in his dream. When he
had finished his canoe he launched it on the lake. The serpent was not

_ visible at the time, so he allowed the canoe to drift about as it would.

By-and-by the serpent came to the surface again at some little distance
from Qoitcita’l. He at once paddled quietly towards it. The serpent’s
two large heads were now raised in the air with its great mouths agape.
When it opened its mouths it was like the opening of two fiery ovens ;
and the cries it. made on these occasions were exceedingly terrifying.
Qoitcita’l paddled towards the nearest of the heads and struck it. just
at the junction of the neck with one of his spears which remained sticking
init. He then hastily paddled towards the other and did the same with
it, and the serpent sank to the bottom of the lake. Qoitcita’l there-
upon went into a trance and remained in that condition for some time.
While he was in this state the water of the lake rose up and carried him
to the top of a high mountain. When he came out of his trance, in
which he had learnt many secrets and much strange knowledge, he
looked intently at the water which immediately began to sink, and in
a little while the whole lake was dry. He now descended the mountain
and got down to the bed of the lake across which he perceived, stretching
from side to side, the trail of the serpent’s bones. These were now clean
and free from flesh, and some of them were curiously shaped. Some
had the form of swords, and some of blanket-pins or brooches. He took
possession of two of these—one of the sword kind and one of the brooch
kind—and returned to his house on the edge of the lake. Having now
accomplished his task he determined to return home. He accordingly
sets his face homewards. To get home he had first to pass over many
mountains and rivers. One day he perceived a flock of mountain-sheep
on a ridge before him. Thereupon he takes his new sword, which
possessed magic properties, and waves it in the air, and all the sheep
straightway fall down dead. He now skins them all, and dries their
hides. When they are dried he packs them up and takes them with
him. There are many hundreds of them, but his magic enables him to
carry them all easily. As he journeyed on he came to a certain mountain
which it was necessary for him to cross. But his passage over this was
hindered by the presence of a huge snail which barred his way whenever
he sought to cross it. He tried every means to pass this creature, but
always failed. At last it occurred to him to use the Sino’tlkai-bone
brooch, which like the sword possessed magic properties. He now points
this at the snail, and it immediately shrivels up like a green leaf in the
fire, and dies. At last after much travelling he comes to the head of

_ the Sk'q0’mic River, at the mouth of which his own village is situated.

Between the head and the mouth of the river there are many d/kwumizg,
MM 2

532 REPORT—1900,

or villages, which he has to pass on his way. The first village was on the
side of the river opposite to his own. When he got over against it
he covered himself with a white blanket and sat down to rest and
await events. The people of the village soon perceive him and cry out
to one another wondering what the strange white object is. Said one to
the other, ‘ Let us go and see what this white thing is on the other side
of the river.’ They all come down to the river’s edge. Qoitcita’l now
stands up and waves his magic sword in the air, and all the people
shrivel up as the snail had done, and fall down dead. He now crossed
over the river and took a Qok:d'lsten, or large basket used for gathering
herbs, and filled this with the leaves of certain plants and herbs. He
then broke these up and bruised them, and made therefrom some
powerful medicine the magic properties of which he had learned in his
trance. With this he sprinkles all the dead, and they are immediately
restored to life again. After this the people take a number of canoes
and construct from them a large raft. On this they place Qoitcita’l and
present him with a great number of blankets. They also give him one of
the girls of the village for a wife. Qoitcita’l accompanied by some of the
people of the village now goes down the river. At every village they
come to Qoitcita'l kills all the inhabitants by waving his sword as he
had done at the first place, and afterwards restores them to life. At
each stopping-place he is presented with many gifts, and a girl for wife,
and some of the people accompany him ; so that by the time he has
reached his own village the raft is loaded with people and presents, and
he possesses nearly two score wives.! When he arrived at Sta’mis he
does the same there as at all the other places and kills everybody, his
own parents and first wife included. Then he brings them all back again
to life except his wife. He does this to impress the people with his
power. His wife had taken another husband, and so to punish her for
her want of trust in him he would not restore her to life. He now takes
all his new wives and presents into his father’s big house. A great
feast is then held and all the visitors are generously entertained for
many days. There was no scarcity of food or game, for Qoitcita/] had
only to go into the woods and wave his magic sword before him and
everything immediately fell dead at his feet. From this time on Qoitcita’l
became a great man and the chief of his o’hwumuq.

TE Seédqwa'otl, or the Deserted Youth.

A youth was once undergoing his /-waiyd'sot, or training for medicine-
man. He had led an isolated life in the forest, according to the custom
of novices, for some time, and had eaten no food for several days. Now
it happened that just at this time there was a scarcity of food in the
village to which he belonged, and a party of girls had gone into the
woods to dig Saotluk: (Pteris aquilina) for food for themselves. They
had secured some roots and had roasted and eaten them in the woods,
throwing aside the hard cores.?

As the youth was wandering round in the woods he came upon the

1 Wives acquired in this way are called by a special name to distinguish them
from those obtained in the ordinary manner. This term is 4mitld'’ntzm, and means
‘presented ’ or ‘ freely given.’

* The edible part of this root when roasted, my informant stated, is very like in
substance and appearance the flesh or meat of the cocda-nut. The outer part only
is eaten, the inner part being a hard core, which is thrown aside. In times of

s+

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ee | a) eS

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ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 538
spot where the girls had roasted their fern-roots. All around him lay
the discarded cores. The sight of these was too much for the young
man’s hungry stomach, and he sought to appease his cravings for food by
gnawing at some of them. This occurred towards the end of his training.
When he had completed his k:waiyd'sot he returned to the village. Now
when the elders of the village learnt that the girls had been in the woods
roasting Sqo’tluk: near where the youth was undergoing his training it
entered their minds that he might break his fast upon the remains of
their meal. So when he returned home his parents undertook to test
him. They did this by drawing scarifying knives all over his body. In
the process one of the fern-root cores was drawn out of his flesh, at sight
of which his father was shocked and scandalised. He informs the people
of his discovery, telling them he is greatly ashamed and grieved at his
son’s wicked deception. It is decided that he must go back to the woods
and go through the whole procedure from beginning to end over again.
So he returns to the training-ground and enters upon a second course of
fasting and exercise. No one expresses any sorrow for the youth except
his old grandmother, who cries when she learns that he is sent back in
disgrace to repeat his trying ordeal once more. Among the personal
belongings of the young man was a little dog which was much attached
to him. This dog the old grandmother called to her side one day, and
told it that the people had determined to go away from the village and
abandon her grandson, who had disgraced them by breaking his fast
during his k-waiya’sot. ‘When your master returns,’ said she to the dog,
‘he will find the village deserted and all the fires out. I am very sorry
for him and want to help him all I can. I intend to keep all the cores of
my SQo'tluk and make them into charcoal and bury it in a big clam-shell,
and when my grandson returns you can tell him where to find it, so that
he will not be without fire! You must stay behind when the people go,
and wait for your master and do as I instruct you. When I have buried
it I will show you the spot.’

It was as the old woman had told the dog. The whole village felt
that they could not harbour a youth who had brought such shame upon
them, and so, at the suggestion of Sk-auk:, the Raven, they determined to
go away to another camp and leave the youth to his own resources. To
make their desertion of him the more complete and exemplary, when they
are ready to start they take water and pour it upon all the fires and so
put them dead out. Just before they did this the old grandmother, unob-

served by any one, converted her fern-root cores into charcoal and buried

it in a clam-shell near one of the posts of the dwelling, and bade the dog,
which was observing her, remember where to bid his master look for it.
They all now go away, taking their belongings with them, the little dog
alone remaining behind. Some time afterwards the youth, having com-
pleted his course of training, returns once more to his home. When he
perceives the abandoned state of the village he quickly comprehends what
has happened, and walks up and down, crying, feeling heart-broken at
their desertion of him. His little dog tried again and again to attract his

scarcity and famine the Indians had frequent recourse to these roots, and dug up
and ate large quantities of them, the old people and children having little else
indeed to subsist upon.

* It would appear from the precaution here taken by the old grandmother that
the preservation of fire was a matter of supreme importance in the early days of the
tribe, and the procuring of it afresh a task of much difficulty and trouble.

534 REPORT—1900.

attention and lead him to the spot where the buried cores were smoulder-
ing in the clam-shell ; but for a long time his master would take no notice
of him. Presently, when his grief had somewhat subsided, the importunity
of the dog and its unusual behaviour aroused his attention. For the dog,
on perceiving that it had at length attracted its master’s notice, had run
to the foot of the post where the fire was secreted and begun vigorously
scratching there, looking up at its master the while and barking excitedly.
Said the youth to himself : ‘I believe my grandmother has buried some-
thing there for me.’ He then went to the spot and speedily discovered
the hidden charcoal, with which he soon made himself a big fire. He
now made a bow and some arrows for himself, and shot many small birds
and chipmunks (Z’amias striatus), and from the skin of these, when dry,
he made himself a garment to cover his nakedness.! After this he makes
a big box in front of the house, in which he sits and looks about him.
One morning just about sunrise he is sitting with his gay robe wrapped
about him, when he perceives the Sun coming down to him. When his
visitor got near he said to Sqdqwa/otl : ‘That’s a fine coat you have on.
I would like to make an exchange with you. My garment has magic
qualities, and whoever wears it need never want for food.’ ‘All right,’
said the youth, ‘I'll exchange with you. I am badly in want of a coat
of that kind just now.’ The exchange is forthwith made, and each puts
on the other’s garment. Then, said the Sun to the youth, ‘If you dip
one corner of my cloak in the water when you want something to eat, you
will always be able to obtain any amount of slaw'it (herrings). Be
careful not to dip too much of the garment in, or the fish will choke the
stream.’ After this the Sun returned to his own country, carrying with
him the youth’s cloak. On the morrow SQdqwa’otl goes down to the
water to try the ‘medicine’ of his new garment. He dips one corner in
as the Sun had instructed him, and immediately the water swarmed with
fine fat herrings. He straightway makes a ¢/z'/tamen—a kind of rake, on
the spikes of which the fish are impaled as it is drawn through the water.
With this he catches great quantities of the fish, after which he threads
them on strings and hangs them up to dry. He continues at his task till
he has filled his father’s house with them. In like manner he then pro-
ceeds to fill the houses of all the others in the village except Sk-awk: the
Raven’s. He had become aware by some means that the proposition to
desert him originated with the Raven, so he would not give him any
herrings. On the contrary, he filled his house with the stinking, rotting
entrails of the fish he had cleaned, by way of taking his revenge upon
him. When be had stocked all the houses with dried herrings, A:la@k-a,
the Crow, paid a visit to the village one day, and, being hungry, soon dis-
covered the entrails of the herrings and began eating them. When
Sqoqwa‘otl perceived the Crow, he asked him if he knew where the people
of his village had settled, and whether he had seen his grandmother.
, Yes,’ answered the Crow, ‘I know where your people went. They are
living on the other side of the water, and every day I hear your grand-
mother crying for you.’ ‘ Ah !’said the youth, ‘I am sorry for my grand-
mother, and I want you to take these four herrings and give them to her,
when she is outside and nobody is looking, and tell her to come over here,
where there is now plenty of food. I know they haven’t much over

' During his k-waiya'sot the novice must wear no clothes. He must go entirely
naked the whole time.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 535

there.’ The Crow undertook to do as the youth requested, and started off
on his mission. He finds the old woman sitting in the bow of a canoe
crying to herself. He alights on the edge of the canoe and cries out to
her in the following words : ‘ K'dgq, k-aq, tz tcatczld'titen te um-mun-mats,
kag’ \—‘ Plenty, plenty food where your grandson is, plenty.’ He then

disgorges the four herrings which he had carried in his gullet. The old
- woman quickly comprehends the message her grandson had sent by the
Crow, secretes the fish on her person, and goes home. At night, when ali
were abed and, as she supposed, asleep, the old woman approached the
fire and in the shadow of the big night log? produced the herrings and
began to roast them over the embers. She thought that no one would
observe her at this time; but it so happened that one of the children
woke up and saw her. The child lay near the father’s head, which was
raised some little distance from the bed by the head-rest, thus leaving a
_ space between his neck and the bed. Looking through this space, the
child observed the grandmother cooking and eating her herrings. She
presently roused her father and told him what the old woman was doing.
_ The savoury smell had by this time filled the whole building and aroused
everybody. The father demands from the old woman how she came by
_ the herrings she had been stealthily cooking. At first she made no reply,
and he had to ask her the same question three times before she would
respond. She then told him that the fish came from her deserted grand-
son, and that the Crow had brought them to her that afternoon with the
message that there were plenty more at the old village. On the following
_ morning the chief calls all the people together and tells them of the herring
incident, and that his son whom they had deserted was living at the old
village in plenty. He proposes that they shall all return thither, as food
is scarce in their present quarters. It was agreed that they all return.
So they started off for their old o’kwumig in their canoes and in due time
_ arrived at the landing-places. They came in single file, one canoe behind
another. As they drew near the shore, the youth donned his wonder-
working cloak. To those approaching he now had the glorious, resplen-
dent appearance of the noonday sun. They could not look upon him as
he sat in front of his dwelling for the dazzling splendour of his garment.
Before they landed, those who had kemka’maz (daughters) dressed them
in their best and gayest blankets, for the purpose of presenting them to
the youth as wives. Among these was Raven, who had two daughters.
These he not only dressed in their best blankets, but also painted their
foreheads. Presently, when all were ready, they landed, and the chief led
forward his daughter and offered her to the young Shaman as his wife.
The others in turn did likewise, Raven among the rest. He accepts all
but Raven’s daughters. These he scornfully rejects, and tells Raven to
keep them, that he doesn’t want them, and will have nothing to do with
them. He then bade the people go to their old dwellings and they would
find plenty of food awaiting them there. His many wives he takes to his
own house. When Raven and his rejected daughters arrive at their home

1 This is not good Sk'qd’mic. The crow is supposed to have mangled it some-
what. In correct Sk-qd’mic the expression would be thus rendered: K-dq, k'dq, tx
stcaié'tlen tx tles-nz tr mats, k:dg. It is possible that this story is not of Sk-q0’mic
origin, hence the difference in the form of the expression. I called my informant’s
attention to this, but his explanation was that this was the crow’s way of talking.

* The old Indians always banked up their fires, before retiring for the night, with
one or more big logs. These kept the fire smouldering till morning.

536 REPORT—1900.

they find it full of the stinking entrails of the fish with which Sqéqwa/otl
had filled their neighbours’ dwellings. They are so hungry that they are
fain to appease the cravings of their stomach by eating the fetid mass.
Thus did Sqoqwa’otl revenge himself upon Raven for his part in the
people’s desertion of him.

When everybody had once more assembled about his dwelling
Sqoqwa/otl invites them to come down to the water's edge with him.
Upon their arrival there he turns his cloak about and dips one corner of
it into the water, and immediately the spot teems with fish. At first the
people are too astonished to seize the fish, but presently they fill their
canoes with them. From that time onward the people of this village
never lacked for food, and Sqoqwa/otl’s cloak brought him much honour
and renown, and he became a great man among them.

SmeEnda'tl, or the Story of the Chief's Daughter.

The chief of a certain large village once possessed a big dog. This
dog was not a common dog. He was really a wizard, who had assumed
this form for evil purposes of his own, though no one in the village was
aware of the fact. One night he stole to the bed of the chief’s daughter
and ravished her in her sleep. When some little time had passed the
girl found herself with child without any knowledge of the person who
had brought this shame upon her. Suspecting that her ravisher would
visit her again, she takes some red paint and mountain-sheep’s tallow, and,
mixing the two into a paste, smears the palms of her hands with it.
Before she has discovered the author of her trouble her father perceives
her condition and questions her concerning it. She is unable to give him
any satisfactory explanation, and he is much grieved and ashamed. The
following night the dog-wizard visits her again, but before he leaves her
on this occasion she presses her paint-smeared hand upon his shoulders.
In the morning, when all the young men of the tribe are engaged in their
exercise on the village ground, she scrutinises their backs and shoulders
to see if any of them bear the imprint of her hands in red paint. She
passes them all in review before her, but cannot perceive the sign she is
looking for on any of them. The evening of that same day the dog is
lying before the fire, and the girl, wishing to occupy the dog’s place, takes
a stick and tries to drive it away. At first the dog will not stir, but
eventually it consents to get up and move off. Asit does so, she is greatly
surprised to see marked upon its shoulders the imprint of a pair of hands
in red paint. In her astonishment she cries out, ‘Oh ! my father, I have
discovered my ravisher. Look at the dog’s shoulders ; it must be he.’
The father looks at the dog and perceives the paint-marks upon his back.
‘Very well, daughter,’ said he ; ‘if that is the father of your child you
cannot live with me any longer.’ Thereupon the chief goes some little dis-
tance from the village and builds his daughter a house apart by itself. When
it is ready he sends her to live there. The chief is greatly ashamed ; and
when later his daughter gives birth to twelve puppies he is so deeply
mortified by the whole circumstance that he calls his people together and
tells them that he wishes to go away out of sight and sound of his dis-
graced daughter and her unnatural offspring, and proposes a change of
settlement. They agree to his plan, and presently all pack up their
belongings, take their canoes, and paddle away to’a near village. Near
their old settlement is a point of! land or promontory (Sk-/wtuks-en, cf,
radical for nose) stretching out some way into the water and hiding the

‘en

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 537

view beyond. They determine to settle beyond this point, where they
will be out of sight of their old camp. In the meantime the poor deserted
girl does the best she can in her lonely state for her strange family. Of
the twelve puppies two only are females, all the rest are males. When
they are old enough to run about the mother returns with them to her
father’s house in the abandoned village. One evening she split some
pitch-wood for torches, and, lighting one of these, she went down to the
beach to dig for clams. She had not long been engaged at her task when
she heard sounds of singing and dancing coming from the village. She
rushes back to see what it all means, and as she nears her own dwelling

perceives the sounds to come from it. At the door one of the two young
bitches is standing. When the latter sees her mother approaching she
warns the others within the house, and the sounds at once cease. The
mother’s suspicions are, however, roused, and when she enters the house
she asks them who had been singing. She gets no response to her question
from the puppies, who are now speechless. She is sure, however, she
had heard the sound of human voices, which indeed she had, for her
progeny partook of the wizard-nature of their father, and had the power
to throw off their dog-natures at will. This they had done in their
mother’s absence, and had sung and danced to the following words: ‘ Our
mother thinks we are dogs, but we know better.’ This they repeated
many times. As soon as the sister who was watching informed them
that their mother was returning they stopped their singing and dancing,
put on their dog-skin coverings, which they had thrown aside for the
occasion, and resumed the form and character of puppies once more.
Hence when their mother questioned them they made no response. After
looking round the place she returned to her work on the beach. This
time she took a mat with her. When she got to the beach she
stuck the torch in the mud and made to go on with her digging as
before. Her intention was, however, to return to the house unobserved,
and learn if possible the meaning of the dancing and singing she had
heard before, and which now began again as soon as she had got to the
beach. To this end she took her skulqg (clam-digger) and, planting it
firmly in the ground behind the flaming torch, hung upon it the mat she
had brought for the purpose, thus shutting off the light from the village,
and causing a line of shadow to appear between the beach and the house.
Under cover of this she stealthily makes her way back to her dwelling.
She sees one of the bitches standing in the doorway as before, but, being
in the deep shadow of the mat, she herself is not seen by the watcher.
She is thus able to get close to the building. She steals round behind it
and peeps in through some chink in the wall, and is greatly astonished to
see all her children, except the watcher at the door, in human guise, with
their dog-raiment thrown aside. She enters suddenly from the rear,' and
before they are aware of her presence, pounces upon their dog-garments
and casts them into the fire, where they are quickly consumed. Thus she
breaks the wizard’s charm and overcomes his ‘ medicine,’ and her children
retain thereafter their human form. She now reproaches them for the
deception they had practised upon her. ‘It is entirely due to you and
your dog disguises,’ said she, ‘that I have been deserted by all my people
and left in my present forlorn condition.’ They all listen in silence for

1 As the old houses had but one door or means of ingress and egress, this entrance
on the part of the mother from behind is not clear. My narrator was himself aware
of this discrepancy, but was unable to explain it.

538 REPORT—1900.

some time, and then the eldest boy says they are sorry for her and will
now help her and make her happy and comfortable. ‘O mother !’ said he,
‘I know what I will do for you: I will become a great hunter and kill
lots of mountain-goats for you.’ The second then chimes in ‘O mother !
I know what I will do: I will build you a nice house with carved posts’
(Stutig). The third then says, ‘O mother! Iwill become a great fisher
and catch lots of whales and seals, &c.’ In like manner each declares in
turn what he intends to do for her. The fourth would be a canoe-builder
and build them all canoes. The fifth a bear-hunter and bring them many
bear-skins, The sixth a song-maker and dancer and make songs and
dances. The seventh a bird-hunter and bring home many birds. The
eighth a transformer (stiiwé’n) and wonder-worker. The ninth would be
a great chief and look after everything belonging to the village. The
tenth would do a little of everything—in short, would become a ‘ Jack-of-
all-trades.’ The mother listened to them all without making any remark.
The two girls now chimed in, and the elder declared that she would be a
great basket-maker and make all kinds of baskets for her mother ; and
the younger, that she would be a berry and root gatherer and keep
the house supplied with berries and roots. The day following they
undertook the special task they had allotted themselves. The hunters
brought home their different kinds of games and presented it to their
mother, while each of the others presented her with some specimen of
their craft or handiwork. From this time onward they lived in comfort and
happiness. One day the mother, fearing they might on some occasion go
round the point of land and come in contact with her former associates
and friends, with whom she now desired to have no dealings, warned
them never to go in that direction or they would get into trouble and
danger. This caution served but to awaken their curiosity, and one day,
when they were out on the water in their canoes, one of them remarked to
the others, ‘I believe that village round the point belongs to our mother’s
people ; let us go round and see.’ The others agreeing, they make for
their grandfather’s settlement. It was then early in the day, and in
their canoes they had many seal which the fisher brother had caught that
morning. When they had got round the point they perceived an old man
sitting on the beach, They direct their canoes towards him and land
close by. The old man observed their movements, but did not speak to
them. Presently one of them accosts him in these words: ‘We think
our grandfather lives here and we have come over to see ; can you tell
us?’ The old man then asks them where they come from. They tell
him, from behind the point, where they live alone with their mother. The
old man, who is really the chief, their grandfather, perceived at once that
they must be his daughter's children who were born as puppies, and
declares himself to them, telling them he is their grandfather whom they
are seeking. They are glad to learn this, and present him with all the
seals they had brought in their canoes. The old chief now calls some of
his people and instructs them to unload the visitors’ canoes and bring the
seals up to his house. He is feeling very joyful and happy (tsa’stauq).
‘Come into my house, grandchildren,’ said he to his grandsons, ‘and let
me tell my people of your arrival.’ They follow him into his big house,
where the rest of the people soon assemble. The old man presently
informs them that the strangers are his grandsons, the children of his
deserted daughter, and proposes that they shall all go back to the old
settlement. The idea is accepted, and he tells his grandsons that they

—_— ae

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 539

will return to the old village, and will arrive there with all their belong-
ings early next morning. The young men then bid him good-bye, and set
out to return to their mother to tell her the news. It is late in the day
when they arrive, and their long and unusual absence has caused her
much worry and anxiety. She has almost given them up for lost when
they are seen approaching the landing. She questions them concerning
their delay, and learns that they have visited her father and given him
all their seals (a@’swq), and that he and all the rest are coming back to
occupy their old quarters on the morrow. Next morning, while they are
busy preparing to receive them, the son, who was a sviwé’n, said to his
mother : ‘What will you do to the people to-morrow, mother? I know
what I shall do to make them feel my power.’ His mother made no reply,
but, knowing her son’s wonder-working abilities, she was curious to see
what he would do. Presently the canoes were seen approaching the chief

_landing-place. When they were almost near enough to land, the sidéiwe/n

began to exercise his magic power, and caused a strong out-flowing
current to take the canoes and carry them far out into the gulf and then
bring them back again. This he did four times before he would allow them
to land, and it was evening when they left their canoes. The sons now
make their mother sit down in the foreground of the village on an elevated
seat and pile up heaps of blankets by herside. The sixth son then opened
the reception ceremonies with special songs and dances. In the first
dance two bears appear—-one a cinnamon (A*tlalam) and the other a black
bear (mzaqutl). This was a bear dance. These are followed by mountain-
goats, after which all the brothers dance and sing together. The second
brother, who was skilled in carving, danced in a mask of his own carving.!
The visitors, who had remained in their canoes, looked on, and pronounced
the entertainment a great success and the character-dancing very fine.
After these performances are over the people land, bring up their belong-
ings, and occupy their old quarters in the village. From this time
onward they live together in amity, and the ten brothers are accorded
by general consent the rank of chiefs.”

Story of Saéils, the Copper-man.

Once there were two brothers named A/tsaian and Cukeuklako’s.
Each one had six sons. All the sons were fine tall men except one.
The youngest son of Cukcukiako’s was somewhat deformed, having a
large protuberance on one side of his stomach. One day ali twelve of
the youths started off into the mountains. They climbed three successive

1 The Sk‘qomic used formerly, according to Chief James of Stamis, to indulge in
dramatic entertainments of the kind described in this story, which has apparently
been evolved from the tribal consciousness to account for the origin of these particu-
lar masqueradings in which the participants appear under the guise of bears, moun-
tain-goats, &c. I was not able to learn that the right to participate in these
character-dances belonged to any particular family or gens.

2 The bestowal of the rank of chiefs as a mark of honour and esteem upon the
ten sons of the chief’s daughter, as here related, bears out the statements of my
informants on social customs—viz. that children of a chief’s daughter take the rank
of their father. Although their mother was a smend’tl or ‘princess,’ they could not
take her rank, as their father was of inferior birth. The conferring of this special
privilege upon the wizard’s sons shows us also, however, that men of inferior class,
by possession and exercise of superior natural gifts, or by the performance of public
services, could upon occasion be elevated by tribal consent to the rank of chiefs, as
in the case of TE SQoqwa/otl, the hero of the story of that name.

fr

540 REPORT—1900,

mountains, and after they had passed the third they saw in the distance
before them, on the brow of the opposite slope, a strange d/kwumuq
(village). As they stood regarding it and wondering what people lived
there, they presently observed a man rolling a big copper ring down the
mountain-slope opposite them, and, as soon as it had reached the bottom,
drawing it back again with his breath. When they saw this beautiful
ring, which glinted and shone in the sunlight, they determined to possess
themselves of it. To this end they adopted the following plan: The
eldest of A’tsaian’s sons was to go down into the valley to the spot
where the ring stopped, and seize it when next it came down. The
brother next to him was to follow after, but was not to go so far. All
the rest were to do likewise, each being some little distance from the
other, the deformed youth being last and consequently nearest home.
They adopted this plan to make sure of securing the ring, being all
quite well aware that its owner would not lightly part with it, and
that the attempt might end disastrously for some of them. A little
while after each had taken his place the ring came rolling down the
hill again. As soon as it reached the bottom, the youth stationed there
sprang out of his hiding-place and caught it up and immediately ran
towards his next brother with it. As he ran he found himself impeded
in his movements by the breath of the man who was pulling the ring
back again, and he had great difficulty in getting along. The owner of
the ring perceived that something had gone amiss with it, and came
down to see what was the matter. He soon discovered the youth
struggling off with his ring, and straightway made after him to recover
his treasure. By this time the young man had reached the spot where
his second brother was hiding, and just as the wizard was about to seize
him he threw it to this brother, who immediately ran with it towards the
next. Being fresh, this one made a good start, the more so as the wizard
stopped to punish his brother by cutting out his heart. This he ate as
the youth fell dead at his feet. He then started after the other, and
came up to him just as he got to the next brother and passed the ring
on to him. This one met the same fate as his elder brother, and like-
wise had his heart cut out and eaten. And thus it was with all of them
except the last, who, as soon as he obtained possession of the ring, took
the lump which caused his deformity from his side and threw it at the
wizard. Thereupon a dense fog arose, and while his pursuer tried in vain
to find him he hastened homewards, recrossed the three intervening
mountains safely, and presently got near the village. As he approached,
he called out to his father Cukcuklako’s and to his uncle A’tsaian that
all his brothers and cousins were killed. His father and uncle were in
the house at the time, and when they heard him shouting they climbed
up through the smoke-hole! to the roof to hear what it was he was
saying. As soon as they understood the full import of his terrible news
they threw themselves down into the fire to mark their deep grief,?
whereupon their eyes shot out like fiery sparks and went, the right ones
northwards, and the left ones southwards. Immediately upon this the

' This description seems to suggest a ‘ keekwilee-house’ rather than the ordinary
lam of the Sk'q6’mic. Some of the upper Sk'qd’mic appear to have made use of
the keekwilee-house, one of their villages being known by the term Sk-wmi'n,
which in $k-qd’mic signifies a keekwilee-house.

® This practice would appear to have been unusual. I cannot recall that it has
been recorded of any of our B.C, Indians before.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 54AL

day became clear and fine. The youth now enters the house and relates
his own and his brothers’ and cousins’ adventures, and displays the
wonderful copper ring. A’tsaian takes the ring from the lad, and says:
‘T know what we will do with this hoop. I will hammer it down thin
into a copper cloth for armour.’ He therewith takes the ring and
hammers it down till it is as thin as a piece of cloth. They now
determine to go over the mountains to the strange village and have
their revenge upon the wizard. A’tsaian wraps the copper cloth! about
his body and fastens upon his head a pair of mountain-sheep horns, and
thus equipped they all three start out. They make for a cliff opposite
the wizard’s village. When they have reached this spot Cukguklako’s
and his son hide themselves, while A’tsaian walks to and fro on the
edge of the cliff on all-fours as if he were a mountain-sheep grazing on
the herbage. He is soon discovered by the wizard, who, taking him for
a sheep, fires his arrows at him. The copper covering A’tsaian has on
prevents the arrows from piercing or injuring him. After the wizard
had shot all his arrows he climbed the cliff to see why the sheep had not
fallen. He walks backwards and forwards upon the brow of the cliff
picking up his arrows. As he does this, A’tsaian runs at him and prods
him with his horns, and finally pushes him over the cliff so that he falls
down and is killed. Cukcuklako’s and his son now come out of their
hiding-place, and the three descend the cliff to where the wizard’s body is
lying. They now proceed to cut him open, and inside they find the
eleven hearts of their dead children. These they take and convey to
their original places in the bodies of their sons. They then make some
powerful medicine and restore the youths to life again, after which they
all proceed home. When they reach their own village, A’tsaian converts
the copper cloth into the figure of a boy, whom by the utterance of
magic words he presently brings to life. This boy grows into a powerful
man and becomes a great and famous hunter. Being made from copper
gives him a decided advantage over other men, for, however much he
falls or is knocked about, he is never hurt or injured. He is known by
the name Saéils.

Te Skauk, the Raven.

Once upon a time Raven lived by himself in a village of his own.
Near by his dwelling was a stream in which he had set his salmon-trap.
One day, on going to the trap, he found a fine salmon in it. When he
took it home, and was cutting it open, he perceived that it contained two
Ukor (milt, or soft roe). He is delighted, and dances about with joy and
eries Ka! Ka! Says he now to himself, ‘They shall be my wives.’ He
hangs the tlk6i upon the beams of his house, but cooks and eats the
salmon, leaving only the tail end of it. Having eaten so heartily, he feels
dull and sleepy, and throws himself down by the fire, with his back
towards it, and goes to sleep. While he sleeps he calls to the tlkdi to
come down from the beam on which they are hung. They come down
and are changed into two comely young women with very white soft skins.
They laugh at Raven, and make fun of his scorching back and feet, which
are cracking from the effects of the heat. They presently look about for

_\ In the Diary of Captain Vancouver, in his remarks on the Sk‘g6’mic, he makes
brief mention of their ‘copper garments.’ The allusion receives some light from
this story. These ‘garments’ were probably of this kind.

542 REPORT—1900.

something to eat, but can discover nothing but the scanty remains of
Raven’s meal, the salmon tail. This they quickly dispose of, Raven
continuing to sleep heavily all the while. Said one to the other, ‘I wish
I could find Skauk-’s comb ; I should like to comb my hair.’ The other
expressed the same wish, and they both look round for Raven’s comb.
Presently they discover a little basket containing what they sought, as
well as other of Skauk’’s belongings, such as needles, paint, &e. This
they appropriate. They comb their hair and paint their faces, laughing
all the time at the slumbering Raven, who is snoring heavily. Said one,
‘What is the good of a husband with cracked feet and back? Let us go
away and leave him.’ The other agrees, and they start off, carrying
Raven’s little basket and its contents with them. The day is very hot.
They walk along the beach at the edge of the water towards a distant
promontory. As they proceed they shake out some of the paint which
the basket contains, and which, being fine, is scattered all about the beach.
Since that time the beach always shines and glistens in the sunlight.
Just about the time that they were nearing the distant point of land
Raven wakes up. The first thing he did was to look up and see if his
tlkoi were in their place. He finds them gone. He then looks for the
salmon-tail he had left over from his dinner, but cannot find it either.
Then he searches for his paint-basket, but it, too, is missing. Says he to
himself, ‘I think the tlkoi must have taken them. TI’ll go and see if they
are outside.’ With that he leaves the house and goes down to the water
and looks up and down the beach. He perceived the two young women
just approaching the distant promontory. ‘Ah,’ said he, ‘they are
leaving me. I must go after them and bring them back.’ Thereupon he
set out to overtake the fugitives and bring them back. But as the fire
had burnt and cracked his feet badly while he lay in his heavy stupor, he
finds he cannot walk fast. He is obliged to stop frequently and bathe
them in the cold water. Ina short time the young women pass from his
sight beyond the point, and he realises that he has lost them. ‘I cannot
overtake them,’ says he ; ‘ my feet are too sore.’ And with that he hobbles
back to his dwelling again, crying and groaning as he went. In the
meantime, when the young women had rounded the promontory they hear
a peculiar noise. This noise resembled the sounds which a Fort Douglas
(StlatlumH) woman is said to make with her lips when she wishes to
amuse her child or keep it from crying. They look about them, but at
first can perceive no one. Presently, however, they discover two old
women who are trying to stop the crying of a baby they have in charge,
the mother of whom is away in the woods picking berries. Said one of
the girls to the old women, who are both blind, ‘ You don’t seem able to
stop the child from crying. Here, give it to me.’ The old women gave
up the child, thinking the girl was the mother returned from her berry-
gathering. The two girls carry off the child. Some little time after the
mother returns and demands her baby from the old women. Not seeing
her child, she cries out, ‘What have you done with my baby?’ Replied
one of the old women, ‘ Why, we gave it to you just now.’ This state-
ment makes the mother angry, and she takes a big stick and beats the
old women, crying out that she had been robbed of her child. As she
strikes them, one of the pair turns into a s/é’me (some kind of bird which
I was unable to identify), and flies away making the sound peculiar to its
kind ; the other is transformed into a Cawk: (skull). This the angry
mother throws into the waods, saying as she does so, ‘You can’t stay

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. D438

here.’ The mother searches all round for some trace of her child. She
walks all night, and early next morning comes upon the girls’ tracks.
Presently she finds the dead body of her child on the ground, but the two
tlkoi women who had taken it had entirely disappeared.

Story of SmEmetsé’n and Kaiq, the Skunk and the Mink.

Near by the village of Stapas (Gambier Island, Howe Sound) stands
a large isolated boulder. This rock a very long time ago, the old
Indians believe, was a big ¢/d’anukauti’a or potlatch-house, owned by
Mink (Putorius (Lutreola) vison) and his sister Skunk (Mephitis mephitica).
It was transformed into a huge boulder after the occurrence of the
events in the following story. One day Kaiq (Mink) called his sister
SmeEmeEtsé’n (Skunk) to him and bade her store up all her ¢tsi’som ? in a
number of boxes. SmeEmetsé’n did as she was instructed, and filled
several boxes with the pungent fluid. These Kaiq fastened down in an
air-tight manner and stored them in a pile in one corner of the house.
After this he sent out invitations to all the animals and birds and fish of
the district to come to a big potlatch he was going to hold. On the day
appointed the guests gathered in Kaiq’s td’anukautu’/a. The building
was big enough to hold them all easily, but unfortunately for the Whale
the doorway was too narrow for him to get through. Kaiq, prepared for
this dilemma, requested him to put his head and shoulders in and remain
in that position. With some difficulty the Whale complied with Kaiq’s
request, and jammed himself in so tight that later, when he wished to
retire, he was unable to do so. Now the Mink was on very bad terms
with his neighbours the Wolves—indeed, he mortally hated the whole Wolf
family, and had actually killed one of them a few days before the feast.
He now takes the tail of the dead Wolf and winds it round his head like a
wreath and opens the proceedings with a dance. The song which Kaiq
sings as he dances is all about the tsii’som of his sister, Skunk. The visitors
presently remark to one another, ‘ What a dreadful song Kaiq is singing !’
Kaigq, however, continues to dance and sing, making his way gradually
round the building towards the corner where the boxes of tsii'som were
stocked. When he is close to the boxes Skunk quickly opens them, as
she had been previously instructed by Kaiq, and lets the tsi’som escape.
No one suspects the vile purpose the two have in view. They think they
are unpacking their blankets and other presents to give them. But
presently the pungent, suffocating effluvium fills the whole building, and
they realise, too late, what has been done. Unable to get out because of
the huge form of the whale blocking the doorway, after many frantic
struggles they nearly all succumb to the terrible choking stench, four of
them only escaping alive. These are little Louse (Metcin), who crawled
into a crack in the building and thus avoided the effects of the effluvium ;
little Wren (Qit), who escaped through a knot-hole in the side of the
building ; Cod (Ai’zt), who also managed to save his life by throwing
himself into the water, and who has had in consequence to live ever since
at the bottom of the sea ; and Mallard, the duck, who flew up to the roof,
and thence out through the smoke-hole, in consequence of which all

; ' Hence, say the Indians, arose the custom among them of picking up and
_ throwing away any bones they found lying in their path.

_* The offensive yellow fluid which the skunk secretes for its defence against its
enemies.

54 bk REPORT—1900.

Mallard-ducks since that time always fly skyward when they first rise on
the wing.

After this trick of Kaiq and his sister, his ¢/a@/anuwkautii’a with all its
contents was transformed into a big boulder, and the tail of the whale
may be seen, as the old Indians think, to this day stretching out as a
lateral projection beyond the centre of the rock,

Tr Sia’timna, the Rain-Man.

Sia'tlmee lived in a big house apart by itself. The inmates consisted of
himself, his son, and two old women, the name of one of whom was Cauk-
(skull). Notvery far away inaneighbouring village lived Skauk’, the Raven.
For some time past Skauk- had been trying to find some way to induce
Sia’tImEg to make some rain. The season had been extremely hot, and
the sun had dried and scorched up everything. Everybody had suffered
greatly from lack of water, all the streams in the neighbourhood having
been dried up for some time past. But nothing he had done hitherto had
induced Sia/tlmEg to take any notice of him or open his door. It was the
opening of the door of Sia/tlmxQ’s dwelling that caused the rain. If the
door stood ajar it rained softly ; when it was half open it rained heavily ;
and when it was wide open it came down in torrents. Skauk- sat in the
sweltering heat, parched like the whole land with thirst, revolving in his
mind how to get the rain-maker to open his door, and so save the people
from perishing. Said he to himself, ‘I must try and steal his son and
then I can make terms with him, so that we shall not be subject to these
terrible periods of drought.’ But Sia’tlmuq’s house was very strongly
built, and for a long time Skauk: does not see how he can manage to
effect an entrance. At length heformsaplan. He calls to him Zo'tlum,
the flea, JZz'tein, the louse, and Qéd/tzn, the mouse, and reveals to them
his intention and asks for their aid and co-operation. They promise to
assist him and do what he desires of them. One evening they all set out
together in a big canoe, To’tlum, Me'tcin, and Qéda’ten bringing with them
all their relations, so that the canoe was full. They presently arrive at
Sia/tlmE@’s house, which contains no opening save the door, which is
fastened very securely from the inside. It was dusk when they arrived,
and Sia/tlmzg and his household had just gone to bed. ‘ Now,’ said
Skauk: to the others, ‘you must manage to get in and keep Sia‘tlmEq
and his household from going to sleep till towards morning. They will
then sleep the heavier, and we shall be able to do what we want without
waking any of them. I will wait outside, and when you have wearied
them out and at last permit them to go to sleep Qda’ten must open the
door and let me in and I will carry off the boy, and then we can make
our own terms with his father.’ Responded they, ‘Oh, we'll get in all
right. Strong as Sia/tlmeg has made his house, he cannot keep us out.’
Thus saying, To’tlum sought and found a crack in the boards and,
creeping through this, was soon in, followed by all his people. Me’tcin
and his people did the same, while Qoa’trn and his friends found a knot-
hole, through which they forced their way. When they were all inside
they proceeded without delay to make things uncomfortable for the
inmates. The fleas got into their blankets and bit their bodies, the lice
into their hair and did the same there, and the mice kept up such a
scratching and gnawing that from the three causes together it was im-
possible for any of them to gotosleep. They tossed and turned, scratched

is

ON THk ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. BAD

their bodies and héads, and shook their blankets again and again, but all
to no purpose ; and not until late in the night, when the mice ceased their
noise, and the fleas and lice left them, did they get any sleep. Then, worn

‘out and heavy with sleep, all sank into deep slumber. Qoa’trn now

opened the door and let in the waiting Skauk’, who quietly takes the rain-
maker’s sleeping son in his arms and carries him down to the canoe. In
leaving Sia’tlmEQ’s dwelling Skauk: sets the door ajar, and the rain at
once begins to fall lightly. As soon as the child is placed in the canoe
they leave the place and return to Skauk”’s house. When they arrive
Skauk: takes the still sleeping boy to his house and lays him on his bed.
About the time that Skauk: and his friends got home Sia’tlmEQ woke up
and found his door ajar. He soon discovers that his son is missing. He
is much grieved and goes out and looks about. As he does so he opens
the door wide and leaves it in that position, thus causing the rain to
descend in torrents. Suspecting who had robbed him of his child, he
presently takes his canoe and makes for Skauk’s landing. When he
arrives he anchors his canoe, but does not get out of it. The rain does
not incommode Sia’tlmEq in the least. Although he has come some
distance in his canoe, and it has been pouring all the while, not a drop has
fallen upon him or in his canoe. Wherever he is no rain falls within
a certain radius of him. The creeks and streams are now full of
water, and the whole land is drinking in the long-desired rain. When
Sia/tlmn@ reached the landing he asked the people if they had seen or
knew anything of his son. ‘ Yes,’ they reply, ‘he is here. Skauk: has
him.’ ‘Tell Skauk: to come to me,’ said the rain-maker, who still sat in
his canoe. Skauk: comes down to the water’s edge. Said Sia’tlmEQ to
him : ‘ You have my son here, I learn. Why did you steal him away ?’
‘Yes,’ replied Skauk-, ‘ your son is here, but [ did not steal him. I only
brought him here because we were badly in want of water, and I did not
know how otherwise to get you to give us rain. I do not wish to rob you
of your child,’ continued he. All the people were dying for want of
water. You would not open your dwelling to me, and so I got some of
my friends to help me, and together we found a way to open your door,
and while you slept I brought away your son. But I am willing to
restore him to you if you will be friends with us and give us rain whenever
we want any. I cannot bear to see all the people die and al] the berries
and roots fail us for want of water.’ Sia/tlmxgq replied: ‘ Very well, I will
be good friends and do as you request, only give me back my son.’ Skauk:
gives the rain-maker back his child, and the two return to their own house.
Before Sia/tlmxg left he promised to open his door every now and again
from that time on. Said he: ‘I will keep my door shut for five or ten or
perhaps twenty days, then I will open it again for a little while and you
shall have plenty of rain.’ As soon as he got home he closed his dwelling
and the rain ceased at once. About a week after he opened it again for
some time and the rain again fell. This he did from time to time, and
has ever since continued to do so ; and thus it is that the rain falls on
some days and not on others, and we have periods of wet alternating with
periods of dry weather.

Skauk: and K-waié'tek, or the Origin of Daylight.

Very long ago, in the early days, it was always dark, the daylight being
then shut up in a box and carefully stored away in the dwelling of
K-waié'tek, the Seagull, who alone possessed it. This condition of

1900. NN

546 REPORT—1900.

things had gone 6n for a long time when Skauk, the Raven, determined
to make his brother K-waié’tek share his precious treasure with the
rest of the world. So one day he made some torches, and lighting some
went down to the beach when the tide was out and sought for sh-dé’tsai
(Echini). Having found as many as he required, he took them home and,
after eating their contents, placed the empty shells, with their spines still
attached to them, on a platter. These he stealthily takes to his brother
K-waié’tek’s house and spreads them over his doorstep so that he cannot
come out without treading upon them and running the spines into his
feet. Next morning when K-waiée'tek came out of his dwelling he trod
upon the sk-de’tsai shells and ran several of the sharp spines into his
naked feet, which made them so sore that he was obliged to keep indoors
and nurse them. Later in the day Skauk: came along ostensibly to pay
his brother a friendly visit, but really to see how far his stratagem for
procuring the Skoai/, or Daylight, had been successful. He finds K-waié'tek
laid up unable to walk, with his feet very painful and much swollen.
‘What is the matter, brother K-waié/tek?’ said the Raven. ‘Oh,’
responded he, ‘I think some of your children must have been playing on
my doorstep last evening and left some sk-de'tsai there ; for this morning
I trod upon some as I was leaving the house and the shells must have
pierced my feet, and they are so sore and swollen in consequence that I
can’t put them to the ground without pain.’ ‘Let me look at them,’ said
Skauk: ; ‘perhaps I can find the spines and take them out for you.’ So
saying, he took hold of one of his brother’s feet and pretended to take out
the sea-urchins’ spines, which had embedded themselves in the flesh, with
his knife. He dug the instrument in so roughly, and gave his brother so
much pain, that the latter cried out in his agony. ‘Am I hurting you ?’
questioned Skauk:. ‘It is so dark I can’t properly see what I am doing.
Open your Skéail-box a little and I shall be able to see better.’ _K-waie’tek
did as his brother suggested, and opened the lid of the box in which he
kept the Daylight a little way. Skauk- continued, however, to hack
away at his foot under pretence of taking the spines out, and presently
K-waié'tek cried out again. Said the Raven, ‘If I hurt you it is your
own fault. Why don’t you give me more light? Here, let me have the
‘box.’ His brother gave him the box, cautioning him the while to be
careful and not open the lid too wide. ‘All right,’ said Skauk’, and he
opened the lid about halfway. Then he made as if to continue his
operation on his brother’s feet, but as soon as he turned round he swiftly
threw the lid of the box wide open, and all the Daylight rushed out at
once and spread itself all over the world, and could never be gathered
again. When K-waié'tek perceived what his brother had done, and that
his precious Skéail was gone from him, he was much distressed, and cried
and wept bitterly and would not be comforted.

Thus it is that the Seagulls to this day never cease to utter their
plaintive ery of k’n-ni - - - i, k’n-ni - - - 1.

Tle Kak’ laitl, the Witch- Giantess.

Once upon a time a number of children were swimming and playing
about in the shallow water on the beach. The children were of all ages—
some quite young, others older. One of the oldest of them, a big boy
named Tétké’tsen, was sitting on the beach watching the others, and
making some arrows for himself. He was sitting with his back to the

ee a ee ee
. ,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 547

forest, so did not observe that a Ka/k’laitl, or huge witch, was stealing
upon them out of the woods. When she got to him she caught him up
and threw him over her shoulder into her big tso’maicin (basket made
from woven snakes). The lad retained his hold of his knife when she
dropped him into the basket. She next proceeded to where the other
children were huddled together in a terrified group and threw them also,
one by one, over her shoulder into the tso’maicin, and carried them oft
into the forest. She had not proceeded far, however, when Tétké’tsEn,
making use of his knife, cut a hole in the bottom of the tso’maicin, and
dropped the smaller children one at a time through the opening on to the
ground. They made some little noise as they dropped, thus attracting
the Ka/k’laitl’s attention. She called out to Tétké’tsen to know what it
meant. Said she, ‘What is that sound (kdmin) I constantly hear ?’

-‘Tetké’tsun replies quickly, ‘It is only the noise of your heels as you

walk,’ and continues dropping the little ones through the hole, bidding
them run home as fast as they could as he did so. By the time the
Ka’k’laitl reached her dwelling in the forest none but the bigger children,
who were too stout to pass through the aperture, remained in the basket.
These she takes into her house ; after which she builds an enormous fire,
putting into it a great number of big stones. These soon got red hot
from the fierce heat. Next she takes some pitch and smears it over the
eyes of the children, so that they cannot raise their eyelids or see what
is going on. While she was busy over the fire Tétké’'tsen had warned his
companions against this trick of the Ka’k’laitl, and had instructed them
to screw up their eyes very tight (Ya-Ya’) when she attempted to pitch
them. Some of them were careful to regard his injunctions, but others
were heedless and closed their eyelids but slightly (mukm'wk). When
Teétke’'tsrn’s turn came he screwed his eyelids together so closely that
but little of the pitch got on the lashes, and, on trying a moment after if
he could open them, found to his great satisfaction that he could without
much difficulty. He then tells the others to open their eyes. Some of
the others are able to do so a little ; others are not able to separate their
lids or see at all. The Ka’/k’laitl now places them in a ring round the
fire at some little distance from it. In the space between it and them
she then commences to dance and sing, arranging at the same time the
heated stones as she circles round the fire. The words of her song are
“ntsagals te sta/okwitl.1 Teétke’tsen replies, ‘Come opposite me, grand-
mother, but keep your eyes closed or the heat of the tire will burn them.’
She continues dancing and singing till she gets between him and the fire.
Then he opens his eyes, and, springing forward, gives her a great shove
and pushes her into the fire, and she falls on the burning stones. ‘Open
your eyes,’ said Tétké’tsen to the others, ‘and come and help me keep
her down.’ They respond to his call, and taking up the spare firewood
heap it upon her, covering her up entirely with it. She screams out,
Tal camps Tetké'tsen ! Tlal camps Tetkéltsen /’? ‘Take me out, Tétké’t-
sen! Take me out, Tetké’tsen!’ Replied he, ‘ We are trying to, grand-
mother, but you are so heavy.’ They continue to pile on more wood,
which, presently blazing up, consumes the Ka/k’laitl. But even when her
body is consumed her bones still ery out ‘ Zlal camps Tetké'tsEn /’ for she
cannot die. They watch the fire burn down and then collect the ashes.
These Teétké’tsen blows upon and scatters abroad, and they are turned

* In good Sk-qd'mic this word is s¢Z0'tl or stauo'tl, not sta'dkwitl.
NN2

548 REPORT—1900.

into little birds (¢e2tcd’c) known locally as ‘snow-birds.’ Those who could
not open their eyes for the pitch now cried out to Tékté/tszn to help them.
At first he could do nothing for them, but on looking round the Ka/k’laitl’s
dwelling he discovers some oil and grease. He rubs their eyelids with
some of this, and thus dissolves the pitch, so that they can again open
them and see. After this he takes them all home to their parents, who
had given them up for lost.

Te Si’lau, the Beaver.

Once upon a time, long ago, Sk’lau had a large family of boys. Not
far off from Sk’lau’s dwelling there lived all alone a woman named
Qume'lowit (Frog). It was winter time and the weather was very cold,
snow covering all the land and thick ice all the water. Sk’lau called his
sons to him and bade them go and gamble (g:a'‘g‘zltq) with the Ice.
‘ Play hard,’ said he, ‘and don’t give up till you have won.’ So the boys
gamble with the Ice and play continuously without break for two days
and nights. On the second night Sk’lau goes to the dwelling of Qame’ -
lowit and tells her he wants her for his wife. Qume’lowit gets angry and
reviles him bitterly. She strikes him and sends him away. Sk’lau is
very sad and cries, saying ‘c’a’/h! c’a/h!’ As he goes home he hears his
boys singing over their gambling. ‘ Hani tia kaitl-kaitl maiyu! Hani
tia kartl-kaitl maiyu !’—‘Ice crack open ! Ice crack open !’—repeat they.
Presently the ice began to groan and crack, and by morning the water
is open and the ice gone. When Sk’lau perceives the open water he
plunges in, frisking and leaping like a Salmon. Presently the rain begins
to fall, increasing in violence as Sk’lau leaps and sings. In a short time
the water rises and overwhelms the house of Qamz’lowit, who becomes
greatly alarmed for her safety, and calls out to the Beaver in her fright.
‘And'tltcin, Sk'lau! And'tltcin, Sklaw/ Andotl, ano - - - tl’—‘I con-
sent, Beaver! I consent, Beaver ! Consent, consen - - - nt’—screamed
she. The only notice Sk’lau takes of her now is to call back : ‘Co! co!
I am not such a bad fellow, after all, eh? Like to marry me now, would
you?’ Qume’/lowit’s house is now full of water, and she struggles with
difficulty on to the roof of it. Sk’lau continues his plunging and leaping,
and when the water is about to wash her off the roof-top she seizes a log
that is floating by and jumps on to it and is carried away. After she
had floated about for some time the log is stranded in a strange country.
Not far off she sees a large house. She goes forward and peeps in.
Within, reclining on his bed, she perceives a man with a very round head
and big face. It was the Moon-man. She enters the building and seats
herself on the side of the fire farthest from the Moon. Said he now to
her, ‘Come and sit at the foot of my bed.’ ‘Do you think I came here,’
responded she, ‘to sit at the foot of your bed?’ ‘Come and sit on my
lap, then,’ returned he. ‘Did I come here for that purpose, do you think 4”
washerreply. ‘Comeand sit on my breast, then,’ said he again ; ‘perhaps
that will please you.’ ‘I did not come here for that purpose either,’
was her response to this invitation. ‘ Well, come and sit on my forehead
then?’ To this she consents, and thereupon jumps up on his face, where
she has remained ever since.!

1 This story in part strongly recalls that of ‘Sniya and the Frog,’ which I
collected from the N’tlakapamua, and which was published in the last Report of the
Committee. Whether we are to regard this as the original and the other as a
variant form is not perfectly clear. I am myself inclined to regard the N’tlakapamuQ

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 549

Te Smai‘letl, or Wildmen Story.

Once there was a chief who had an only daughter. He possessed also
amale slave. Now this slave was accustomed to sleep at the foot of the
daughter’s bed, his bed lying crosswise at the foot of hers. One night he
crept to her side and ravished her while she slept. Some little while later
she found herself with child, but was wholly ignorant of the person who
had brought this shame upon her, not knowing that the slave had lain
with her in her sleep. When she once realises her condition she is
anxious to find out who had visited her, and suspecting that the intruder
would pay her another visit some night, she takes some paint and smears
it all over the palms of her hands. Shortly after the slave pays her a
second visit. As it is dark she cannot discover who he is, but before he
leaves her this time she presses her paint-smeared hands upon his shoulders
and leaves thereon an impression of them without his knowledge. In the
morning she is greatly surprised to find that it was the slave who had
visited her and whom she had painted on the shoulders. When the chief
became conscious of his daughter’s condition he was overwhelmed with
shame. And, on learning who it was who had caused this disgrace to fall
upon him, he took both the guilty slave and his hapless daughter away in
his canoe, and, arriving at a certain lofty cliff which overhung the water,
he landed them at its base and left them there to perish together. But,
although the cliff ! was always regarded as inaccessible, in some mysterious
way the pair managed to climb it. After they had reached the top they
travelled inland amongst the mountains till they came toa lake. Here
they stopped and built themselves a house, and here the girl gave birth
to her child. In course of time many other children were born to them,
and when these had come to maturity, as there were no others with whom
they could mate, they took each other to husband and wife, and in time a
large community grew up around the lake. Though living in a wild state,
without proper tools or other utensils, they never forgot their mother’s
speech, but always conversed together in Sk-qo’mic. The men were ex-
ceedingly tall and very keen of scent and great hunters. They always
dressed in garments made from the untanned skins of the animals they
had slain. From this habit they were called by the Sk-q6’mic, Smaz/lzt/,
or wild people.

APPENDIX III,
The Hurons of Lorette. By Lion GErin.

Two distinct races of aborigines were found by the French explorers
at the opening of the seventeenth century occupying the basin of the
St. Lawrence :

1. The Algonquins, nomadic hunters, roving over the lower valley and
the northern highlands. :

2. The Huron-Iroquois, more sedentary, having some development of

version as a borrowed form which has crept up the river. It is doubtful if the frog
is much known within the limits of the ‘ Dry Belt’ in which the N’tlakapamua, for
the most part, reside. It will be remembered that the events in the N’tlakapamuq
version took place near Spuzzum, the lower boundary-line of the tribe which is
immediately contiguous to the upper divisions of the ‘ Stalo,’ or lower Fraser tribes.

1 The cliff, at whose base the girl and the slave are said to have been left by the
irate father, is on the right-hand side of the North Arm of Burrard Inlet. Some
way back in the mountains there is a beautiful little lake, now well known to trout-

050 REPORT—1900.

agriculture and a better defined organisation, settled in the region of the
three great lakes, Ontario, Erie, Huron ; the Hurons, to the north of
Lake Ontario; the Iroquois, to the south of it; the Neutrals, to the
north of Lake Erie ; the Eries (or Cats), to the south of the same lake.

The Hurons (otherwise called Wvyandots) alone numbered some
25,000, and their villages were spread from Toronto to the Bay of
Quinte, and from Lake Ontario to Georgian Bay.! From the north-
westerly projection of that territory to which they had been driven by
degrees, the Hurons, after their overthrow by the Iroquois about 1650,
were dispersed in all directions. Broken fragments of the nation became
the foundation stock of the small Wyandot communities still extant in the
Indian Territory of the United States,? in Essex (Ontario), and at Lorette,
near Quebec.

This paper is the result of an inquiry carried on during the summer of
1899 into the social conditions of the Hurons of Lorette. The object was
specially to ascertain the present status of the race, the degree of its
variation from the primitive type, and the influences which brought about
such variation. The method followed was that of social observation as
initiated by Frederick Le Play, perfected by Mr. Henri de Tourville, and

ropounded by /’Hcole de la Science Sociale of Paris, and its leader, Mr.
dmond Demolins.

The facts descriptive of the present social conditions have for the most
part been collected by the writer in the course of two short visits to
Lorette. As for the historical and general scientific data which supple-
ment and explain the former, they were obtained from original sources,
reference to which is made.

Physical Features.

Lorette (also called Indian Lorette, or Jeune Lorette, to distinguish it
from |’Ancienne Lorette) lies 46° 51’ N. lat. by 71° 21’ W. long., on the
north side of the river St. Lawrence, eight or nine miles inland N.W. of
Quebec.

At this point three natural zones are observable in close succession :

1. Lorette itself stands on the brow of an elevated terrace which
marks the southerly limit of the Laurentian formation, and from which
the river St. Charles descends through a steep and narrow gorge.? That
terrace, which extends some eight or ten miles towards the north, has a
flat and almost horizontal surface ; but its soil, though generally deep, is
sandy and rather poor. The land has been partly cleared of woods, but
agriculture has not developed over it to any great extent. Along the
upper course of the river St. Charles, back of Lorette, no farms are to be

fishers, which answers to the lake of the story. ‘The Sk'qd’mic firmly believed in
the existence of these Smai’letl. The old Indians say they sometimes saw them
when out hunting. Whether such a community once really existed it is impossible
now to say. But, at any rate, no such tribe or people has ever dwelt in the moun-
tains in the memory of the oldest settlers here.

1 A. F, Hunter, Zransactions of Canadian Institute, Toronto, 1889, 1892. G, E.
Laidlaw, Ontario Archeological Report, 1899, p. 46. Compare Champlain (Québec,
1870), vol. iv. p. 36, vol. v. p. 25 6.

2 United States Census, 1890, Indians, p. 248.

5 The water supply of the city of Quebec is taken from this river, a very short
distance back of Lorette. The ‘Chateau d’Eau’ is said to stand at an altitude
130 feet greater than the citadel built on the rock which overlooks Quebec,

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. bol

seen, but instead, an after-growth of scrubby spruces and the summer
villas of some professional men of Quebec.

2. To the south of Lorette, and overlooked by it, there stretches a belt
of land eight miles wide; a low plain through which the river St.
Charles slowly winds its way to its estuary ; a valley scooped out between
the sandy terrace just described and a narrow ridge which forms the
north bank of the St. Lawrence. The soil of that second zone is generally
deep, fertile, and particularly well adapted for agricultural pursuits. As
evidence of that, fine expanses of cultivated fields interspersed with
comfortable farmhouses, cosy villages, and glittering church steeples
are to be seen along the lower course of the St. Charles, over its rich bottom
lands or loamy hillsides.

3. Towards the north the sandy terrace of Lorette merges into a vast
mountainous tract which extends to Hudson Bay and the Atlantic
Ocean, interrupted only by the valley of Saguenay and Lake St. John.
These North Laurentian highlands present a succession of rocky, rounded
summits cut by narrow valleys, with sparse, limited areas of shallow soil.
A land well adapted for the production of timber, especially for the
growth of the Conifere, and originally a tract abounding in fur-
bearing animals, but over the greater part of its extent offering little
inducement to agricultural settlers, who of late years only have taken a
foothold within its borders.

In other words, Lorette lies at the meeting point of two great regions
widely different in their productions and capabilities : the Champaign
region bordering on the St. Lawrence, and the North Laurentian high-
lands ; the former restricted and narrowing, the latter, on the contrary,
expanding at this point of the valley. Lorette is still within the Champaign
region, not, however, on its inner fertile zone, but on its outer sandy
zone ; and adjoining it, or in close proximity to it, there are, on the one
hand, a fine agricultural country, on the other a rugged wilderness.'

The geographical position of the Hurons of Lorette is very similar to
that which was occupied by their ancestors, in the vicinity of Lake
Simcoe, during the first half of the seventeenth century. Though some
400 miles to the west of Lorette, and 150 miles nearer to the equator,
the old Huron country was situated alike on the border of that
great Laurentian formation, betwixt mountain and plain, with to one
side a vast natural hunting ground, and to the other deep soils invit-
ing tillage.

However, as regards soil and climate, the habitat of the ancient
Hurons was more favoured than the sandy terrace of Lorette. Cham-
plain and the early explorers who ascended the river Ottawa and its
tributary, the Mattawa, and by way of lake Nipissing, French River and
the shores of Georgian Bay, reached the Wyandot settlements adjoining
Lake Simcoe, were much impressed by the pleasantness and fertility of
that country compared with the rocky solitude they had just traversed.
They write in glowing terms of Huronia, its extensive clearings, its fields
of maize, sunflowers, and pumpkins, its fruit trees, in the midst of gentle
hills and verdant plains watered by many a stream. The soil, though

In the mapping of the natural zones surrounding Lorette the publications of
the Geological Survey of Canada have been very helpful. The map showing the
superficial deposits between Lake Superior and Gaspé (Atlas, 1863) and the map of
geological formations inthe province of Quebec attached to Dr. Ells’s report for
1887, are here specially referred to. J

552 REPORT—1900.

somewhat sandy in places, they say, is on the whole well. suited to the
growth of Indian corn.!

To-day the counties of East and North Simcoe, which comprise the
greater portion of the later settlements of the Hurons, support a farming
and trading population of over 65,000 whites. They are thriving sections
of a highly prosperous province.” In contrast the sandy terrace back of
Lorette, even up to this time, is sparsely settled, and, like the Laurentian
highlands to the north, remains almost untouched by agricultural
enterprise,

Labour.

Sixty-two families, or about 300 men, women, and children, make
up the resident population of Indian Lorette.? The forms of labour
through which these people support themselves are as follows, in the
order of decreasing importance : (1) Hide-dressing ; (2) moccasin-making ;
(3) snowshoe- and canoe-making ; (4) basket-making and fancy wares ;
(5) hiring out as guides ; (6) hunting and fishing ; (7) farming.

Hide-dressing.—From 10,000 to 15,000 hides are dressed yearly at
Lorette. These hides are for the most part imported, East India elk
and antelope making the bulk ; caribou (Zarandus rangifer) and cow, the
produce of the region, are used in certain quantities, as also a few moose
pelts.

The dressing processes are very simple. The green skins are first
steeped in water, mere barrels sunk in the ground in an open field
serving the purpose. Once thoroughly soaked the skins are scraped ; the
inner (meat) layer and the first outer (hair) layer of the hide are thereby
removed. (The scrapings are sold to manufacturers of glue.) Then
other labourers take the skins and wash them in soap emulsions, and
afterwards sprinkle them with oil. Codfish oil is used for this. The
skins are then rubbed with sand-paper, and finally passed through a
smoke-house, similar to that used in the curing of hams. At various
stages of preparation the skins are put up to dry on scaffolds made of
poles connected by rails to which hooks are attached. These scaffolds, or
‘chantiers de peaux,’ are a characteristic feature of Lorette. Not only
do they cover two or three large fields adjoining the village, but, as well,
smaller patches within the village plot. With the smoke-house and the
hide-wringer they constitute practically the whole plant required for the
dressing of hides,

The hide-dressing industry at Lorette is centred in three or four fairly
large establishments managed by private enterprise, and in connection
with which the manufacturing of moccasins and snowshoes is carried on.
The head of each concern owns or rents the grounds and buildings, owns
the plant, purchases the green hides and accessories from importers in
Quebec, and pays his help wages by the day or month. The hides thus
dressed are not sold, but utilised on the same premises, principally in the
manufacture of moccasins.

‘ Champlain, zbid., vol. iv. pp. 27, 30, 31; Brébeuf, Jesuit Relations (Thwaites’s
edition), vol. viii. p. 115.

* Census of Canada, 1891, vol. i. p. 66, ii. pp. 66, 174.

’ The writer is indebted to Mr. A. O. Bastien, Government agent at the Huron
Reservation, for much of the information contained in the following pages. Mr.
Cloutier, the owner of a hide-dressing and moccasin-making establishment at Lorette,
kindly supplied many facts relative to the various industries, as did also Mr, Maurice
Bastien, who controls a, large cqncern in the locality.

Tass

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 553

Moccasin-making.—The output at Lorette in 1898 was about 140,000
pairs. The first operation is the cutting of thehide. It is done, in work-
shops connected with the dressing-grounds, by the boss himself or by
specially skilled workmen under his supervision. These workmen are
paid by the day or piece. The work is performed by means of a sharp
knife and various wooden forms. It requires some skill to make the most
of a hide, to cut out of each skin the greatest possible number of bottoms,
tops, and uppers with the smallest possible proportion of useless cuttings.
This is the main operation in the hide-dressing and moccasin-making
business, that which is left to the boss, or head of the industry, whenever
he takes a hand in the work. The three processes which follow, viz. (1)
embroidering of the top piece, (2) turning up of the bottom piece and
sewing-on of the top, and (3) sewing-on of the upper piece, are not accom-
plished by men at the workshop, but in the village homes by women
making a speciality of one of the above operations. They are paid by the
piece.

Moose-hair, dyed in bright colours, serves for embroidering the top
piece. Twenty-five to thirty cents per dozen pairs are the wages paid
for that work, and a woman, besides attending to her daily house-work,
may find time to embroider from one to two dozen pairs a day. The
second and third processes above mentioned are each paid for at about
the same rate as the first, and an equal amount of work may be accom-
plished by hand at each one of them by one person in a day. By means
of a sewing-machine three dozen pairs of moccasins may be sewed in a
day’s work. To increase their earnings in that way, some of the Lorette
women have provided themselves with sewing-machines. When shoe-
maker’s thread is used instead of the ordinary, the wages paid run as high
as one dollar a dozen pairs. The moccasins are then returned to the

_ central workshop, where, by means of three simple apparatus, holes are

punched through the uppers, eyelets fastened on to one side, and hooks to
the other. Laces are made of strips from the edgings of the hide.
Finally the moccasins are packed and shipped to distant points. They
are sold wholesale to large dealers in towns and cities throughout Canada
and the United States; in late years large quantities have been for-
warded to the Klondike.

Snowshoe-making.—Seven thousand pairs of snowshoes were turned out
at Lorette in 1898 ; but the demand was larger than usual that year
consequent on the opening up of the Klondike. That same year as many
as 20,000 hides were dressed in the locality and 12,000 dozen pairs of
moccasins manufactured. The following year there was a marked falling
off in the demand, especially of snowshoes, the Lorette snowshoe not
having been found of as suitable a shape as other makes for use in the
Klondike. Cow-skin is largely used for the netting of the snowshoe, and
ash wood for the frame.

It should be noted that in the various industries carried on at Lorette
there are not only Hurons engaged, but a number, quite as large, of
French Canadians residing at St. Ambroise, across the river. This is
particularly the case with the moccasin-making industry, in which many
French Canadian women take a hand. Snowshoe-making is an exception
to the rule: it is still a distinctive Huron industry, only two French
Canadians being trained in the art.

7 See Dominion Government Blue-book, Indian Affairs, 1898, Bastien’s Report,
Pp, 45, 4

554 REPORT—1900.

About twenty-five canoes are made and sold every year. Fine birch
bark suitable for canoe-making is not very easily found within reasonable
distance, and most of the canoes turned out at Lorette are made of
canvas purchased from Quebec dealers, :

Some years ago lacrosses were manufactured in certain quantities ;
but very few are made now. © Toboggan-making is also an industry of
the past here. Competition has killed it, toboggans manufactured at
Montreal and elsewhere being considered of better quality.

Basket-making and Fancy Wares.—With ash wood and sweet hay the
Huron women manufacture baskets of ornamental designs and various
small wares : fans, boxes, reticules, toys, &c. The men occasionally lend
a hand in preparing strips of ash and discs of various woods, but the
women and girls practically have the industry to themselves. Contrary
to the preceding, this industry is not a traditional one of Lorette : it was
introduced here from the Abenakis Reservation of St. Francis (on the
south shore of the St. Lawrence) some fifteen years ago. It has not
developed to the same extent as hide-dressing and moccasin-making, and
is still essentially a home industry. Several families have large displays
of these Indian wares in their houses. Part of the output is disposed of,
as in the case of moccasins and snowshoes, to dealers in large cities ; the
bulk is sold by the Hurons themselves to visitors in their village, or taken
by them to summer resorts and centres of population, and there retailed.

Of late a severe blow was dealt to this businesss through the with-
drawal by the United States Government of the privilege exempting Indians
from paying duty on their wares when entering that country.

Guiding.—Several of the Lorette Hurons hire out periodically to
parties of sport seekers on hunting or fishing excursions into the interior.
This is a favourite occupation of many of the men. While thus engaged
they earn one dollar and twenty-five cents per day, besides their living
expenses.

Hunting and Fishing.—Like the preceding a favourite occupation of
the Hurons, though (except for a very few) it is not any longer an
important means of livelihood. In 1898, the revenue derived from
hunting by the Lorette community was estimated at 800 dollars, and that
from fishing at 100 dollars.!

Beaver, otter, marten, mink, and caribou are still found in fairly large
numbers over the vast unsettled tract which extends towards the north.
The upper courses of the rivers St. Charles, Jacques-Cartier, Ste. Anne,
&c., which lead into that wilderness, are much interrupted by rapids, and
canoes cannot be much used as means of conveyance. The hunters
proceed on foot, sometimes right across the streams. Otter and beaver
are the most valuable of the fur-bearing animals. The furs are generally
sold undressed to large dealers in Quebec. Caribou are found in
abundance, and they provide good meat, but their skin is of little value.
The skin of the moose is worth three or four times as much ; but’ moose
is scarce now in this part of the country. To find it hunters have to
cross the St. Lawrence and reach the plateaus of Northern New Brunswick
and of Maine. They do so by railway.

The Hurons of Lorette bitterly complain of interference with their
hunting privileges on the part of the whites through governmental
regulations, leases to clubs, and the creating of a national park north of

1 Indian Affairs, 1898, p. 468.

————— CO

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. tata,

Quebec. Forest rangers are on the look out, and frequently confiscate the
pelts and destroy the traps of the Indian hunters.

Farming.—the Huron villagers do not seek any appreciable part of
their income from agriculture, nor even from those more simple opportuni-
ties afforded by country life. Only three or four families keep a cow
each, and some hens ; only a few have a small kitchen garden ; the others
purchase from French Canadian farmers the very milk, eggs, and vege-
tables they consume. Only one of the villagers keeps horses.

Two miles to the west of Lorette village there is a reserve 1,600
arpents (1,350 acres) in area, on which six or seven Huron families are
supposed to be farming. Although they may occasionally turn out a few
pairs of snowshoes, they do not resort to industries in at all the same
measure as do the Lorette villagers. At the same time they can hardly
be considered farmers. Much the greater part of the reserve is still bush.
Each farm comprises a few arpents (at most ten or twelve) of cleared
land, on which the only growth to be observed, apart from a small
garden and potato patch, is a miserable field of very thin hay overrun by
the ox-eye daisy. In rare instances a crop of a few bushels of oats may
be added. When any farm animals are kept, the stock comprises one
cow (exceptionally two), one horse (if any), one or two porkers, and about
as many hens. Attracted to one of these homesteads by the rather better
appearance of the house and the barn compared with the hovels on most
of the other clearings, we were disappointed to find that the husbandry
there carried on was of the same general undeveloped type. We did not
see any stock, but were met by the fierce barking of three or four dogs
coming out in succession from under the doorsteps. ‘They are very good
hunting dogs,’ the people told us by way of apology.

For the Hurons of the reserve a more congenial means of living than
agriculture is hunting. We had an hour’s chat with Thomas Tsioui, a
typical old Huron. Three of his sons still living are hunters as much as
conditions permit ; he himself spent the greater part of his early life in
the woods. At one time he was a noted long-distance runner at the
Quebec and Montreal fairs.

In 1898, the revenue derived from farming by the whole Huron com-
munity was estimated at 870 dollars.' The revenue obtained from their
farms and from the chase are insufticient for the support of these Hurons
of the reserve, and they would be in utter misery were it not for some
additional revenue from various sources: drawing firewood from the
reserve to the Lorette villagers, day labour performed on the railway and
elsewhere in the vicinity, and oftentimes the very material help provided
by their women folk.

With all that, a large proportion of the Lorette Indians have been
forced to seek elsewhere their means of livelihood. The Huron com-
munity reckons 142 absentees against a resident population of 300. That
is to say about one-third of the total number has left for other parts of
Canada or for the United States. Now and then some of these effect
their return to their old abode, while others start out in their turn.

The means of living of our modern Hurons as just described do not at

1 That same year the revenue derived from the various manufacturing industries
amounted to 27,500 dollars, and wages earned to 9,000 dollars, giving tor the Hurons
of Lorette a total income from all sources of 38,000 dollars. The following year
(1899) the returns were as follows: Manufacturing industries, 18,000 dollars ; wages,
5,000 dollars ; hunting and fishing, 1,050 dollars ; farming, 1,200 dollars,

er

506 REPORT—1900.

first sight appear to have any connection either with the previous social
status of the race, or with the physical features of its present habitat.
In a general way, with the ancient Hurons, agriculture and hunting were
the principal means of living ; to-day at Lorette, labour in both these
forms has been almost entirely given up. In their stead manufacturing
industries have grown—industries, besides, which do not depend for their
raw material on the resources of the locality, and which find in the
vicinity a market for only a very small portion of their output.

However, from a perusal of the documentary evidence available, old
and new, and from what could be gathered in conversation with men and
women at Lorette, I obtained some insight into the process of evolution
from which the labour system of the Hurons has resulted.

Their ancestors in Western Ontario supported themselves chiefly by
hunting, fishing, and agriculture. The young men were hunters and
warriors ; the older male members of the tribe, fishermen ; the women,
tillers of the soil, growers of maize, beans, pumpkins, sunflowers, and
tobacco. Besides, the Hurons were trained in the practice of a number
of home industries. The men built huts made of saplings, and which in
the words of Parkman ‘were much like an arbor overarching a garden
walk.’! The men, as well, made their own bows and arrows, fishing
nets, stone axes, bark canoes, toboggans, snowshoes, and lacrosses. The
Huron women ground the corn, smoked the fish, spun the wild hemp for
the fishing-nets, dressed deer skins, and from them made moccasins, which
they embroidered handsomely, and out of the furs of the beaver, the
porcupine, &c., prepared various articles of clothing.? In some of these
industries the Hurons were not found as expert as their neighbours of
Algonquin stock, but they surpassed these in commercial aptitudes, having
from time immemorial acted as middlemen between the tribes to the
north and those to the south in the exchange of various commodities, and,
after the advent of the French, becoming the purveyors and carriers of
their fur trade.*

After taking up their abode in the vicinity of Quebec, the Hurons
were subjected to new conditions, the result of the close neighbourhood
and competition of the French colonists, combined with the physical
features of the country. These conditions in the first place tended to
keep them away from agriculture.

The traditional mode of farming of the Hurons was very imperfect.
It consisted in the production through female labour of supplies of
vegetables and maize for family needs. No live stock, no beasts of
burden, were kept. Thus, being without the means of manuring the land
or drawing fuel long distances, they had to change their location as soon
as the fertility of the soil and the supply of firewood within a limited
area were exhausted. Such had been the practice in the old Huron
country ; such it continued to be with the Huron refugees about Quebec.
But here, while the Indians were always free to desert their village site
for a new one farther inland, they were no longer at liberty to retrace
their steps. The influx of white settlers at their back prevented them
from moving in any but one direction. In that way the Hurons, who
after their arrival amongst the French colonists had been located on the
lowlands bordering the river St. Lawrence, receded gradually from the

1 Jesuits in North America, Little Brown, Boston, Int. XXVI,
2 Champlain, vol. iv. pp. 79-82, 101.
§ Champlain, ibid.

ee

ee

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 557

front, until in 1697 they found themselves evicted from the fertile belt,
relegated to the sandy terrace close on the mountain tract. Under such
conditions they could not be expected to make any great advance in
agriculture.!

While both the social and the physical environment about Quebec
tended to check the agricultural progress of the Hurons, these same con-
ditions at first favoured their propensity for the chase and for warlike
occupations. At their doors that great Laurentian mountain tract
extended, abounding in fish, game, fur-bearing animals; and for all these
natural productions Quebec offered a near-by and ready market. Besides,
their close association with the white settlers enabled them to obtain
assistance and employment in various forms. As long as the French
régime lasted, and for half a century more under the British rule, the
Hurons appear to have supported themselves chiefly through the sales of
furs and allowances for military service. References to them in the
documents of that period (the writings of the missionaries excepted) are
mostly all in connection with the fur trade or with war parties.? In
1730, a church was built for their use, and their contributions were paid
in furs, apparently their most valuable and abundant commodity.’ A
conspicuous feature of Lorette to the present day is a large, low, massive
stone structure, which is said to have been originally a post of one of the
fur-trading companies, and which subsequently, became the property
of a noted Huron chief, Picard, himself a trader in furs.

During the whole of the eighteenth century the traditional industries
of the Hurons do not appear to have been developed beyond the measure
of the family needs. It is not until the early part of the nineteenth
century that we notice a change in this respect. The facts adduced
before a committee of the legislative assembly of Lower Canada in 1819
and 1824 show that for some years previous the Hurons of Lorette had
been sustaining themselves to some extent through the manufacture and
sale of moccasins, snowshoes, toboggans, fur articles of dress, and various
fancy wares.4. This new feature had been brought about as a result of
the constant decline of their agriculture, and more especially, at a
subsequent date, by the decline of the chase itself, as also by the
reduction of the war allowances. It should be noted, moreover, that as
the Hurons, under the influence of environment, were slowly improving
their mode of living, larger and more regular returns than those ensured
by hunting were necessary to keep them in comfort. By manufacturing
they enhanced the value of the furs, and thus made up in part for their
greater scarcity and for the deficiency in the returns from other sources.
For many years these industries were carried on by the Huron families
in a very small way, at first exclusively by the women, and then by both
men and women, but on a small scale. Both hunting and plot farming
were prosecuted in conjunction, but the latter especially remained at a
very low stage, or even decreased, while the manufacturing industries all
the time were growing.”

1 Titres Seigneuriaux, Quebec, vol. i. p. 428; Charlevoix, Journal, p. 83; Peter
Kalm, Société Historique de Montréal, 1880, p. 124.

? Documents de la Nouvelle-France, vol. iii. pp. 23, 58, 87, 108, vol. iv. p. 112.

° Franquet, Journal de Voyage (MSS. Parliament Library, Ottawa), p. 141.

* Journals of the Assembly of Lower Canada; .Bouchette, Zopographical
Dictionary, verbo ‘ Indians.’
ane hoist Assembly, Lower Canada, 1835; Assembly, United Canada, 1844-5,

, 1856,

598 REPORT—1900,

Some twenty-five or thirty years ago there took place an important
social phenomenon which completed the transformation of the labour

system of the Hurons—the spreading throughout Canada of the world-

wide commercial and industrial evolution, the introduction of machinery,
the building of railways, the extension of great transportation agencies.
Man’s power of production was thereby increased a hundredfold, and
distance suppressed, so to speak. While some of the minor industries of
Lorette, such as toboggan-making and lacrosse-making, received their
death-blow from the new order of things, it instilled a new life into some
others—hide-dressing, moccasin and snowshoe making. No longer
dependent on local conditions, no longer restricted by the short supply of
raw material at hand or by the limited demand from near-by markets,
these industries attained the high degree of development which we have
seen. A new industry, fancy basket-making, was introduced. The
development of manufacturing industries thus brought about, with the
opportunities for constant earning of wages at generally pleasant tasks,
in turn became a further cause of desertion of agriculture. Even hunting
is no longer considered a regular means of livelihood, and is largely
replaced by the more profitable occupation of guiding through the woods
sportsmen from the cities.

A Huron woman, ninety years of age, with whom I conversed at
Lorette, had witnessed many phases of that evolution of labour. She
remembered the time when patches of Indian corn, pumpkins, beans, and
potatoes were grown in connection with almost every home in the village.
The women did most of the garden and field work, while the men did
very little but hunt and play lacrosse. She saw agriculture given up
gradually, while the Hurons were taking more and more to manufacturing.

Notwithstanding the evolution through which their labour system has
been made to pass, the Huron community as a whole exhibit traits
retained from the previous social status. The men are less industrious
than the women : they still entertain a dislike for agriculture and steady
work ; they abstain from working in factories.

Property.

The property held in trust for the Hurons of Lorette comprises :
(1) the village site, about 20 arpents in extent ; (2) adjoining the latter,
a common covering, 9 arpents; (3) two miles from the village, the
reserve proper, 1,600 arpents (1,350 acres) in extent ; and (4) some thirty
miles back of Lorette, the Rocmont Reserve, in the county of Portneuf,
9,600 acres in area.

1. The village plot is subdivided into small lots, each family being
entitled to an area sufficient for a house, besides a width of 30 feet in
front and 3 feet at the back of that house.

2. The common was originally, as indicated by its French name, ‘Clos
des Cochons,’a pasture for hogs. It still continues to be owned in common
by the Huron community, but is now used almost solely as a hide-dressing
ground by Mr. Maurice Bastien, who has erected thereon sheds and drying
scaffolds.

3. The 1,600 arpents reserve also remains undivided. It was granted
to the Hurons for their supply of fuel. The greater part is still bush.
Six or seven families, as we have seen, have taken up their abode there as
farmers ; but the farming carried on is of such a primitive character

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 559

that it has not been found necessary to trace any boundaries between the
various farms.

The above three areas were allotted to the Hurons about the end of
the seventeenth century, or the beginning of the eighteenth, by the Jesuits,
under whose charge they were placed. The deed confirming the grant
was not passed till 1742 (for the last) and 1794 (for the two others). It
is all that is left to the Hurons of the seigniory of Sillery.}

4. The Rocmont Reserve is wholly a mountainous forest tract set apart
by the Canadian Government in recent times for the support of the
Hurons of Lorette, but neither occupied nor worked by them. However,
they derive some revenue from it, the cut of pine and spruce over its
area being leased out every year to lumbermen, and the proceeds usually
paid to the ‘band’ in the form of allowances.

It is a remarkable fact that all this property is still held in common.
With the Hurons of Lorette private ownership of land does not exist.
Neither have they any desire, as far as I could ascertain, to individually
own land. To my knowledge only one Huron to-day holds privately
some land—not in the reserve, but adjoining it. In the past, as well,
such cases of private ownership have been exceedingly rare.

On the other hand, at Lorette almost every family owns the house in
which it lives, at any rate so long as it continues to occupy it. Mov-
ables, wearing apparel, &c., are, of course, also recognised private property,
as are wages and earnings from various sources.

This system of property of the Hurons of Lorette does not differ
materially from that of their forefathers. The ancient Hurons, as we
have seen, did not put much labour on the soil, and correspondingly their
hold on the soil was of a weak and limited sort. From Champlain and
Brébeuf we learn that they had no permanent tenure of land, as evidenced

_ by their change of abode at frequent intervals. At the same time, with

them all movables—as, for instance, the produce of the chase, the
earnings from trade—were subject to family or individual appropriation.
Inequalities of wealth from this source were quite apparent in the Huron
villages of old. Even monopolies were recognised by the ancient Hurons,
inasmuch as individuals who had opened a trade or discovered a market
were granted for themselves and their kindred the exclusive right of
carrying on that trade or supplying that market, or were permitted to
levy tribute on those desirous of taking advantage of the new opening.
A difference, however, from the conditions of things in existence to-day
at Lorette was the prevalence of theft in the Huron villages of old and
its lax repression.”

After their removal to the vicinity of Quebec, the Hurons, as we have
seen, did not take more energetically to the cultivation of the soil ; on the
contrary, under the new conditions they gave up little by little the practice
of agriculture. Similarly they did not develop any greater aptness to hold
land either privately or collectively.

In 1651, the King of France bestowed on the Christian Indians settled
in the vicinity of Quebec (of whom the Hurons were the nucleus) a grant
of land covering three miles in width on the river St. Lawrence by twelve
miles in depth, the seigniory of Sillery. Of course, the Hurons were

' The originals of the deeds are in the archives of the Department of Indian
Affairs, Ottawa. Ihave to thank Mr. Samuel Stewart and Mr. D. C. Scott for their
kindness in facilitating my inquiry.

_* Jesuit Relations (Thwaites), x. pp. 223, 225.

560 REPORT—1900.

quite unptepaied to take advantage or retain possession of sich aii extent
of territory, especially in a region where arable land was rather scarce
and greatly in demand. They allowed themselves to be dispossessed
piecemeal of the land itself, and of the seigniorial dues attached to it as
well, and were left with holdings totally inadequate for their support and
advancement.

In short, the system of property of the Hurons of Lorette is character-
ised by the absence of private holdings and the limitation of the collective
holdings. These conditions are the direct outcome of the forms of labour
which they retained or adopted under the combined influence of their own
traditions, of the physical features of the country around Quebec, and of
social environment and competition.

These property conditions, in their turn, have had far-reaching effects
on the further social evolution of the Huron community. They permitted
its being closely surrounded and permeated in its home life by outside
(principally French Canadian) notions and manners. The village of
Lorette is inextensive, and so penetrated by the adjoining settlements,
that on its outskirts, at many points, Huron homes almost join those of
white neighbours, and it is often a difficult matter to say where the line
of demarcation passes. The consequences of this close neighbourhood will
appear presently.

Family.

The family group at Lorette is quite restricted. Each household, as a
rule, consists of a single family, comprising only a few persons ; for
instance, the husband, the wife, and two or three young children ; in other
cases an aged couple alone, or possibly assisted by a grown-up daughter or
son. When barely eight or ten years old the Huron boy or girl takes to
manufacturing fancy wares at home, and soon acquires a training in the
various arts. At twenty or twenty-two they marry, and take up house
separately from the parents. If they have decided to remain at Lorette,
and are not already provided with a lodging there, they apply for a lot
from the village council, and build a house for themselves. In recent
years the development of industry has induced several newly married
couples to take up their home in their native village ; a new street, or
rather lane, had to be opened, and still another will be opened soon.

The restricted family group of the Hurons of Lorette is very unlike
the patriarchal household of their ancestors, wherein eight or ten, or even
as many as twenty-four, families lived under one roof.!_ Apart from that
close material grouping into large households, there existed, among the
ancient Hurons, social groups much more comprehensive—clans founded
on consanguinity. At one time there were as many as twelve clans,
among which the Huron families were distributed.

‘The unit of the Wyandot social and political systems,’ writes Mr.
W. E. Connelly, whose knowledge of the Wyandots settled in the Indian
Territory of the United States is most thorough, ‘was not the family nor
the individual, but the clan. The child belonged to its clan first, to its
parents afterwards.’ ?

The clans were not mere local organisations ; they were ramified
throughout the whole territory, throughout the whole nation ; so that
while the people, for purposes of livelihood, were dispersed in distant

1 Champlain, vol. iv. p. 74.
2 Ontario Archeological Report, 1899, p. 107.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA, 561

villages, and for purposes of government were divided into five or six
tribes or sub-nations, still they held fast together by the strong bond of
the clan founded on family relationship.

A peculiar feature of the Huron-Iroquois clanship was that it existed
and was transmitted, not through the men, but through the women of the
tribe or family. The Huron child did not belong to the clan of his
father, but to that of his mother. In the same way the possessions of a
deceased Huron warrior did not go to his sons, but to his brothers, or to
the sons of his sisters ; that is, to members of his own clan.

At Lorette to-day no trace is to be found of the old Huron clanship
in the social institutions ; even the memory of it is almost effaced. The
members of the band whom I questioned on the subject were not totally
ignorant of the clan system, but they invariably connected it with male
descent. One Huron, ninety years of age, and another seventy-six years
of age, told me they belonged to the clan or ‘compagnie’ of the Deer,
their reason for saying so being that their father had belonged to it.
Another claimed to be of the ‘compagnie’ of the Tortoise, also because
his father had been of that clan; and to remove my doubts he added:
‘How could [ belong to a Huron clan through my mother, who was a
French Canadian ?’

Old Thomas Tsioui (whose name has been mentioned previously)
expressed somewhat similar views to me. His contention is that the
Tsiouis are the only genuine Hurons at Lorette ; that all the others are
descendants of French Canadians who stole their way into the Huron
community. AsI objected that the Tsiouis themselves could not claim
pure Huron extraction, their mothers and grandmothers in most cases
being French Canadian women, the old man argued with great warmth
that man, and not woman, the husband, not the wife, made the race.
He was seemingly unaware that this was the very opposite of the Huron
doctrine, and that his use of such an argument was good proof to me that
he was no longer a Huron in respect to some of the fundamental traditions
of the race.

A simple phenomenon which marks the evolution of our Hurons from
the patriarchal community and clanship of their ancestors to the reduced
family group of to-day is the adoption of distinct family names, trans-
mitted from father to son. With the old Hurons there did not really
exist any permanent family names other than the general designation of
each clan. Each individual was given a name distinctive of himself and
of his clan as well, but which, as in the case of the first name with us, he
did not transmit to his progeny. ‘Each clan,’ writes Mr. Connelly, ‘had
its list of proper names, and this list was its exclusive property, which no
other clan could appropriate or use. . . . The customs and usages govern-
ing the formation of clan proper names demanded that they should be
derived from some part, habit, action, or some peculiarity of the animal
from which the clan was descended. . . . Thus a proper name was alwaysa
distinctive badge of the clan bestowing it. When death left unused any
of the original clan proper names, the next child born into the clan, if of
the sex to which the temporarily obsolete name belonged, had this name
bestowed upon it.’ !

After the missionaries had converted the Hurons to the faith they
introduced Christian names, which for many generations were used

1 Connelly, Ontario Archeological Report, 1899, p. 107.
1900, 00

562 REPORT—1900,

concurrently with clan designations, but in the end superseded them.
Most of the family names at Lorette are Christian names which have
become permanently attached to the various households : Romain, Vincent,
Gros-Louis, Bastien (for Sebastien). It was in the early years of the
present nineteenth century that family names became permanent at
Lorette, and transmissible from father to son. There are to-day 21
families of Tsiouis, 13 Picard, 12 Gros Louis, 6 Vincent, 4 Bastien, 2
Romain, besides 3 de Gonzague (of Abenakis extraction), and 1 Paul (of
Malecite extraction).

From the organisation of the family group, if we turn to its internal
management, we find, in the first place, that the parents’ authority over the
children is of limited extent. Very little restraint is put on the children.
Constant intercourse between the various households in that crowded
village tends to lessen the action of each separate group over its children.
These, at an early age, as we have seen, acquire a training in handicraft
and become important factors in the welfare of the family, or at any rate
independent of it for their livelihood. In that respect the Hurons of
‘Lorette still resemble to a certain extent their primitive ancestors, who
allowed their children great freedom, and never chastised them.! Among
the ancient Hurons the laxity of parental rule was the natural result of
the development of hunting and of warlike pursuits, in all of which the
young men had necessarily a superiority over the older members of the
family. With the Hurons of Lorette the same lax family government
continued to prevail, owing to the long maintenance of the chase as their
principal means of living, only to be displaced in recent times by industries
which afford to the young great facilities for the establishment of separate
independent homes.

Nevertheless morals are not bad. They are certainly greatly in
advance on what they were in olden times. But the result is due almost
wholly to outside influences—religious action and social environment. The
morals of the ancient Hurons were of a very low order : debauchery was
rampant in their villages.2 When, after their overthrow by the Iroquois,
they fell under the rule of the Jesuit missionaries, a strict code of monastic
morality was enforced upon them.? The greater number submitted to it,
not, however, through any strong personal sense of duty and self-respect, but
impelled by fear of exclusion from the reserve or of the infliction of some
public penance. Accordingly, under the British régime, as soon as the
strong hand of the Jesuit was withdrawn, the Huron morals relaxed, and,
under the influence of the corrupt elements from the near-by city, fell to
a very low plane. In the course of the nineteenth century Lorette
became ‘ the constant resort of the dissipated youth of Quebec, and the
scene of midnight orgies and profligacy of the worst description, until the
extent of the evil attracted the attention of the police authorities, who
took measures to repress the mischief.’4 Since, under the combined
influence of religious preaching and of better social environment, they
have gradually improved in self-restraint and self-respect. Illegitimate
births are now of rare occurrence. Many, however, are still addicted to
liquor.

* Champlain, iv. p. 85. 2 Tbid., iv. pp. 82-5.
* Jesuit Relations, passim ; Charlevoix, Journal, p. 82; Documents Nouvelle- France,
p. 24; Franquet, Journal de Voyage, p. 143,
_ * Journals Assembly, 1844-5, Appendix ; tbid., 1847, Evidence of Rey, L. Fortier,
missionary. ;

7

a

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 563

_ Very little, indeed, remains of the old Huron traditions. The tenets
of the Catholic faith have stamped out the pagan myths and superstitions
of primitive times. While these Hurons have not attained a very
high degree of religious development, they have drifted far away from
the beliefs of their ancestors. The only trace—and a doubttul one
at that—I could find of their past faith was the vain boasting of one of
their old men, who wished to impress me with his medical skill: he had
the power, he told me, of stopping or quickening at will the flow of the
blood through the sick man’s body. Was this a faint recollection of the
old-time medicine man and sorcerer ?

The Huron tongue is no longer spoken at Lorette. French has
replaced it. ven the older members of the tribe, in answer to my
inquiries, had the greatest difliculty in recalling a few disconnected
words. Some of them could barely tell the meaning of their own Huron
name which on exceptional occasions they affix to their every-day French
name. ven the few Huron words thus preserved in their family
nomenclature do not appear to be rightly pronounced by them ; in many
names the letter ‘L’ has been introduced, and this their ancestors did not
make use of. For instance, hahn-yohn-yeh, the old Wyandot word for
bear,' has been changed at Lorette to hahn-yohn-len ; Owawandaronhé,
Odiaradheité, and Téachéandahé? have become respectively Wawendarolen,
Ondiaralété, and Téachendalé. As far back as fifty years ago, the Huron
tongue was already out of general use at Lorette.? From Franquet we
learn that about the middle of the cighteenth century a number of the
Hurons could speak French.*

The Huron boys and girls show marked aptitudes for commerce,

industrial arts, and even the fine arts; but they seldom develop these

talents to any degree, though opportunities are sometimes offered them of
doing so. They nearly all have fine voices and a good ear for music ;
some of them have shown taste as draughtsmen or painters. The greater
number, however, lack the steadiness of purpose which would be neces-
sary to make the most of their talents.

Mode of Living.

As regards food, shelter, clothing, hygiene, recreations, the people of
Lorette may be considered to-day as having the same habits as the French
Canadians of corresponding classes.

The greater quantity of the food consumed by them is obtained from
itinerant traders or from dealers who supply the French Canadians of St.
Ambroise as well. I happened to take a meal at the home of one of the
poorest Huron families settled on the reserve, and still remember how I
enjoyed that simple lunch of milk, butter and bread, cream and preserved
fruit, which was daintily served in clean china or glass and on neat linen.
From the accounts left by Kalm (1749) and Franquet (1752) we may
safely draw the conclusion that, about the middle of the eighteenth
century, after one hundred years’ intercourse with the French, the Hurons,
as regards the food consumed and its preparation, retained much of the
tastes and coarseness of their primitive ancestors.”

The houses at Lorette are generally small, low-roofed, wooden build-

1 Connelly, op. cit., p. 103. 2 Journals Assembly, 1819,
8 Report of Special Commissioners, 1856, p. 30. * Franquet, p. 143,
® Kalm, p. 124; Franquet, p. 141.

002

564 REPORT—1900:

ings whitewashed. They are disposed in double rows, alorig nai‘row lanes,
and most of them devoid of yard, garden, or outbuildings. Sometimes
these houses are too close to one another for the comfort of their
occupants. On the other hand there is an air of cleanliness about them,
and with few exceptions, they appear to be as well kept as the tidiest
French Canadian farmer’s or mechanic’s home. The Hurons gave up
their old style of long narrow huts made of bark and saplings, and took
to building, after the manner of the early French settlers, log and board
houses, shortly after their removal (the last in the series) to Jeune Lorette,
that is between the years 1700 and 1720.1 Kalm, in 1749, found them
living in houses comprising each two rooms (kitchen and bedroom), but
very scantily furnished, so much so that the beds were left without sheets
or covering. The Hurons at night were content with wrapping them-
selves up in the blankets they had worn all day. They were provided with
stoves, says Franquet, but the heat they supplied only served to render
unbearable to all but Indians the filthiness of the surroundings.”

The clothing in use by the Hurons of Lorette is the same as that
of the French Canadian working classes. The old Huron style of
dress, even that of the later period, has been abandoned. I was able to
discover one member only of the band, a Huron lady in the nineties,
who still retained the traditional costume of the last century : the short
skirt, with the ‘mitasses’ (leggings) and the moccasins. The costumes
in which the ‘ warriors’ and chiefs parade on exceptionally solemn occa-
sions, are almost wholly artificial in their make-up. Ordinary cloth and
printed calicoes are used for the purpose, and in the ornamentation of the
various parts no trace is seen of the mythical and symbolic forms charac-
teristic of the primitive art of the Huron-Iroquois. Kalm and Franquet,
about the middle of the last century, found the Huron women of
Lorette still clinging to the old Huron form of dress; but the men,
though usually wearing the blanket, at times would don articles of dress
borrowed from the French.*

Notwithstanding the close grouping of the houses in the village,
the hygienic conditions at Lorette are fairly good ; a result due in great
part to the measures taken by the village council and the people themselves
for the sanitation of the surroundings. There has been much admixture
of foreign blood. For several generations past the Hurons have inter-
married with the whites, principally with the French Canadians. The
Huron physical type has been greatly altered, but not entirely blotted
out. The massive build and high stature which, we are told, were preva-
lent features among the old Hurons, are not now common at Lorette ;
neither are the cheek bones and nose unduly prominent, as a rule; but
the rather dark olive complexion, the almond-shaped eyes, and the stiff
flat hair are often observed, and perhaps more so in very young children
than in the grown-up people.

The amusements indulged in are largely the same as those of the
French Canadians in the neighbourhood. A typical initiative on the part
of the young men of Lorette was the organising among themselves and
equipping of a brass band. The numerous dances which were still gone
through on all great occasions, about the middle of the last century,* have
long since been forgotten. Shooting the arrow was a favourite sport with

1 Charlevoix, op. cit., p. 83. ® Kalm, p. 123; Franquet, p. 144.
8 Franquet, pp. 140, 141, 144; Kalm, p. 123. * Franquet, p. 143.

ON THE ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 565 _

the Huron boys, even up to the early years of the nineteenth century. No
more is seen of it now. Even lacrosse, the Huron national game, which
has become the favourite sport of so many Canadians, is no longer played
at Lorette,

illage and State.

Lorette is not well provided with the elements which give variety and
activity to village life, and help to build up the framework of municipal
government. The employers of labour are very few, and nearly all out-
siders, French or Scotch Canadians. In the same way the bulk of the
trade which is done at Lorette in connection both with the provisioning
of the families and the output of their industries (the smaller class of
Indian fancy wares excepted) is carried on by their white neighbours of
St. Ambroise.

There is, however, a very notable departure from this condition of
things in the enterprise shown by Mr. Maurice Bastien, of Huron descent,
who operates the largest hide-dressing and moccasin and snowshoe-
making establishment in and about Lorette, and at times gives employ-
ment to some fifty people. In other respects also does Mr. Bastien set a
good example for his kinsmen to follow. He is almost a total abstainer
from alcoholic beverages. He has bought and partly cleared and improved
some fifty arpents of land adjoining the village plot, on which he now cuts
every year about 20 tons of hay, reaps about 150 bushels of oats and
buckwheat, pastures nine cows and some horses. An interesting
experiment which he is carrying on for the firm of Renfrew, fur dealers,
of Quebec, is the breeding of buffaloes from stock obtained in the State of
New York. Mr. Bastien proposes to have one or two of his sons to take
up agriculture as a means of livelihood. A further proof of his spirit of
enterprise and progress is the building, at his own expense, of a system
of waterworks whereby each family in the Huron village is enabled to
secure in its own house, at the low rate of four dollars per annum, an
abundant supply of pure water.

Education does not provide more leaders than do industry and com-
merce. The school for girls and that for boys are each under the care of
a female teacher paid by the Canadian Government. The school house
is built on the site, and partly out of the material of the priest’s house
erected by the Jesuits in the early years of the eighteenth century. The
progress at school of the girls is said to be satisfactory, that of the
boys not so. There are very few persons of culture, or even ordinary
education, at Lorette. The professional men whose services may be
required all reside in neighbouring villages. Mr. Paul Picard, a retired
Civil Service employé of the Quebec Government, and the son of a noted
Huron chief, resides here. He was employed as a draughtsman, and at
one time was a public notary. He is particularly well informed on the
history of the Huron community, and a staunch defender of the rights of
his kinsmen.

A feature of Lorette is its quaint little church, the greater part of which
dates back to 1730.! There is no resident missionary, but the parish priest
of St. Ambroise, near by, ministers to the religious welfare of the Huron
community. An early morning service is held every Sunday and a
sermon preached. The singing and preaching are done in French, The

1 L, St. G, Lindsay, Revue Canadienne, 1900, p, 122.

566 REPORT—1900.

priest receives an allowance of 225 dollars from the Canadian Govern-
ment for his services in this connection.

Five chiefs (one head chief and four second or sub-chiefs) manage the
public affairs of the Huron community under the supervision of the
Department of Indian Affairs. These chiefs in council frame regulations
for the maintenance of order, the repression of intemperance and pro-
fligacy, the care of public health, the construction and repairs of school
houses and other public buildings, the locating of land on the reserve,
ce. They are elective, and their term of office is for three years.

The above system of government is not the traditional one of the
Hurons. It was introduced in recent years by the Canadian Government
under the provisions of the Indian Act.! In former years the Hurons
elected six chiefs or more; one grand chief, one second chief, two council
chiefs, and two chiefs of the warriors. These chiefs were elected for life.
If we go still further back, to the seventeenth century, we see that the
ancient Hurons had mary chiefs ; war chiefs and chiefs entrusted with
various administrative functions; and all were to a certain extent
hereditary and to a certain extent elective.?

At the present time the head chief of the Hurons of Lorette (elected
quite recently) is Frangois Gros-Louis. Maurice Bastien, Gaspard Picard,
Maurice Tsioui are three of the sub-chiefs.

The Hurons of Lorette are under the tutelage of the State. Their
landed property is held in trust for them by the Department of Indian
Affairs. The latter also has the management of the revenue derived
from part of these lands, and out of which expenses of a public character
are to be paid. The Department is kept informed, and generally acts
through an agent, who resides on the reservation—Mr. A. O. Bastien, an
intelligent and educated Huron.

There has been of late years much dissatisfaction and strife in the
Huron community over the management of public affairs. A party, con-
sisting chiefly of a large number of the Tsiouis, think they have not had
their proper share of the funds. They find fault with the chiefs, the
agent, and the Department as well. They refuse to attend meetings,
to take part in elections, and are intent on electing chiefs of their own.

A remarkable fact is that the Hurons as a whole show no desire of
being enfranchised. Even the malcontents scorn the idea. Under
present conditions the Government meets all expenses in connection with
church and school and other matters. Practically they have no taxes to
pay, not even roads to maintain, the way-leave over the reserve being
granted to residents of neighbouring parishes on condition that. they
take charge of the road. Enfranchisement, they say, would only add to
their burdens and render them more liable to be swindled out of their
property by the more unscrupulous of their white neighbours.

Before concluding, it will be of interest to make a rapid review of the
influences which, acting on the primitive Huron type, brought it to its
present stage of social transformation. These influences may be classed
under three heads: (1) Early trade relations with the French and
preaching of the Gospel ; (2) physical features of the country about and
back of Quebec ; (3) close neighbourhood and competition of the white
settlers.

’ Revised Statutes of Canada, cap. 43, sects. 75 and 76.
* Brébeuf, Jesuit Relations, Thwaites’s edition, vol, x. pp. 231, 233; Parkman,
Jesuits in North America, Introduction, p. lil.

oe

ON THE £TANOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CANADA. 567

1. The first series of influences (commercial intercourse and religious
preaching) exerted themselves over the ancient Hurons previous to their
leaving their old abode in Western Ontario. Commerce introduced into
the Huron villages by the early French discoverers, or, at least, greatly
developed by them, upset the balance of the traditional system of 'labour
of the Hurons, by reducing the relative importance of agriculture as a
means of livelihood for them. Thereby the Hurons were rendered less
sedentary, more nomadic, less apt to fortify their villages and to hold
the country against invaders. The young and able-bodied men were kept
much away from home by their hunting and trading expeditions, leaving
the towns insufticienuly protected against attack, while themselves heavily
Jaden with furs or other goods, but scantily equipped with arms and
ammunition, fell an easy prey to Iroquois war parties.

Again, commerce, by reducing the importance of agriculture in the
labour system of the Hurons, weakened the clan organisation, on which
the whole Wyandot social fabric rested. Female clanship was dependent
for its strength on the social prestige of the women ; and this in turn was
largely dependent on the development of agriculture, which was left to
their charge.! The preaching of the new religious dogmas by the Recollet
and Jesuit missionaries and the conversion to the faith of a number of
the Hurons also tended to undo the binding action of clanship. For
clanship in its origin was blended with the religious beliefs of these
primitive people ; each clan was under the special protection of a pagan
myth, and the preaching of the Gospel released the hold which these
myths had on the minds of the Hurons. In that way were the strong
family ties which bound together the scattered parts of the Wyandot
confederacy loosened, and the Hurons rendered less capable of strong
united action. In that way were the Iroquois enabled to defeat one after
the other the disconnected groups and bring about the utter dispersal of
the Huron nation. Such is the social significance of the facts set forth in
the early accounts.”

Of the five or six tribes, or subordinate nations, which made up the
Wyandot confederacy, only three (the nation of the Bear, that of the
Rock, and that of the Rope) repaired towards Quebec. A few years later
two of these tribes were forced by the Mohawks and the Onondagas to
join their respective nations ; and the nation of the Rope was finally the
only one to remain with the French.? From this sole tribe, very much
disorganised and reduced in numbers, and still further reduced by sub-
sequent wars, did the present Lorette community spring.

2. The physical features of the country about and back cf Quebec,
characterised by the restricted area of the arable belt and the development
of the mountain and forest tract, had the effect of keeping the small
Huron group away from agriculture, of turning it more completely towards
the chase and those industries dependent on the chase and the forest for
their raw material. Thereby the Hurons were prevented from acquiring
any greater fitness for heavy and steady labour, and from developing any
greater ability or desire to hold land.

3. The close neighbourhood and competition of the white settlers had
two quite distinct effects on the Hurons. On the one hand, their influence

‘ P, de Rousiers, Zz Science Suciale, 1890, vol. x. p. 141.

* Champlain, iv. pp. 43, 44, 101; Jesuit Relations, Quebec edition, 1642, pp. 55,
56; Charlevoix, vol. i. p. 201.

3 Jesuit Relations, 1657, pp. 20 and 23,

568 REPORT—1900,

wnited with that of physical environment in checking the agricultural
development of the Hurons and retaining them in the lower forms of
labour and property. On the other hand these conditions of close inter-
course with the white settlers—brought about by the reduced area of the
Lorette holdings—transformed the home-life, and in the end materially
improved the entire mode of living, of the Hurons.

The Iroquois community, settled at Caughnawaga, in the vicinity of
Montreal, provides an interesting subject of comparison ; for, though origi-
nally of the same social type as the Hurons, their evolution in recent times
has been in quite the opposite direction.

In conclusion, the greatest weakness in the social organisation of the
Hurons, and the one which should be remedied first, is that resulting from
their property conditions. An ever-recurring theme of conversation
among young and old at Lorette is the endless series of their grievances,
all more or less connected with property rights: grievances against the
Jesuits for having dispossessed them, or allowed them to be dispossessed,
of their seigniory of Sillery ; grievances against the British Government
for not having restored them to their rights after the conquest ; grievances
against some of their deceased chieftains, for having laid hands, so they
declared, on parts of the common land ; grievances also against some of
the present chiefs for using the common property for private ends ;
grievances against the Provincial Government for invading their hunting
grounds ; and, finally, grievances against the Federal Government and its
agent for alleged maladministration of the reserves and the revenues
therefrom. The limited extent and collective ownership of the holdings
have had the effect, not only of helping to keep the Hurons away from
agriculture and bringing about over-density of population in the village,
but also of concentrating the minds and energies of individuals on petty
common rights and privileges (to the detriment of initiative in more
fruitful pursuits) and of breeding a harmful spirit of discontent.

It seems that much would be done for the betterment of the condition
and the more normal development of these Hurons were it found possible
to carry out the plan suggested by Sir James Kempt as far back as 1830,
and further recommended by the Government Commissioners in 1847 ;
that is, if land in the vicinity of Lorette and suitable for agriculture were,
on proper terms, put at the disposal of the Hurons, on which some of them
at least, under intelligent and kindly supervision, might be made to acquire
proficiency in farming and aptness for the management of property. Thus

would they become a less dependent, a more contented and prosperous
community.

Anthropological Photographs.—Interim Report of the Coinmittee, con-
sisting of Mr. C. H. Reap (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Myres
(Secretary), Mr. H. BaLrour, Professor LINDERS PETRIE, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Mr. E. S. Harrianp, and Mr. H. Line Rots,
appointed for the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registra-
tion of Photographs of Anthropological Interest.

Tue Committee report that a considerable number of photographs have
been collected and registered ; but that it has been found advisable to
postpone till next year the publication of a reference list, The Committee
ask to be reappointed.

ee

.—-

|

ON FERTILISATION IN THE PHEOPHYCEA, 569

Fertilisation in the Pheeophycee.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor J. B. Farmer (Chairman), Professor R. W. PHILLIPS
(Secretary), Professor F. O. Bower, and Professor Harvey
GIBSON.

Tue Committee learn from Mr. J. Lloyd Williams, to whose assistance
they have again devoted the whole of the grant of 20/. placed at their
disposal, that during the past year he has investigated the following
subjects :—

1. The germination of the zoospores has been studied in Laminaria,
Alaria, and Chorda. Some interesting additions have been made to
our knowledge of reproduction in the Laminariacezx, and particularly of
the cytology of the process. Incidentally the medullary tissues of the
above and of other genera of the family have been studied.

2. The life-history and cytology of Dictyota have been further studied.
Additional notes will be presented to the meeting of the Association, and
the full results will be published during the winter. TYaonia, Padina,
and Haliseris are being studied for comparison.

3. The study of the life-history and cytology of Halidrys has been
completed, and the results are awaiting publication. The cytology of
the reproductive process in Himanthalia and Cystoseira is being investi-
gated.

j 4, The natural history of the Fucacee has been further studied, and
it is hoped to publish the observations before the end of the year,

5. The study of the nuclei of the reproductive cells of the Ecto-
carpaceze has been commenced, with a view of ascertaining whether there
is reduction of chromosomes at any stage.

6. Cultures of nearly all of the above are carried on in the laboratory,
and careful record kept of their relation to light, heat, air, and pressure.

Your Committee are of opinion that Mr. Williams is doing excellent
work, and that the grant has been wisely used.

Mr. Williams hopes to bring some of his observations on the germi-
nation of the zoospores of Laminariacee before the notice of the Section
at Bradford.

Assimilation in Plants.—Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F.
Darwin (Chairman), Professor J. REYNOLDS GREEN (Secretary),
and Professor MARSHALL WARD, appointed to conduct an Hxperi-
mental Investigation of Assimilation in Plants.

Tue Committee beg leave to report that the remainder of the grant
of 20/. made at Bristol in 1898 has now heen practically expended on

570 REPORT—1900.

apparatus for aiding Mr. Blackman in the continuation of his researches
on Vegetable Assimilation and Respiration. :

Enough progress has been made in various directions to allow of the
results being brought forward, and the author is engaged in preparing
them for publication. The first to appear will be those treating of (1)
the influence of the available amount of plastic substances on respiration ;
(2) the exact relation of respiration to temperature ; and (3) the relation
ketween water-content and assimilation.

Corresponding Societies Committee.—Report of the Committee, consisting
of Professor R. Mrtpona (Chairman), Mr. T. V. Hoimes (Secre-
tary), Mr. Francis Gatron, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Jonn Evans,
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Mr. W. Wuiraker, the late Mr. G. J. Symons,
Professor T. G. Bonney, Sir Curnpert Peek, Dr. Horace T.
Brown, Rev. J. O. Bevan, Professor W. W. Warts, and Rev.
T. R. R. STEBBING.

Tus being the last year of the century, the Corresponding Societies
Committee of the British Association think it a suitable occasion for a
brief review of the proceedings which have taken place at the Conferences
of Delegates of the Corresponding Societies since they were reconstituted in
the year 1883. The Report of the ‘ Local Scientific Societies Committee,’
stating that ‘the delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall
constitute a Conference,’ &c., appears in the Report of the British Asso-
ciation for 1884 ; the first Conference of Delegates officially recognised as
a department of the Association was held at Aberdeen in 1885, and a
report of its proceedings is given in the Birmingham volume (1886).!
Thence to, and including, the year 1893 the Reports of the Conferences
are one year behind. Thus the discussions at the Edinburgh meeting in
1892 are given in the Nottingham volume of 1893, But in the Oxferd
volume (1894) appear Reports of the Conferences held both at Nottingham
and at Oxford ; and since 1894 the Reports of the Conferences of Dele-
gates may be found in the Report of the British Association for the year
in which they occurred. The chief subjects considered at the Conferences
are here given, ordinary sectional discussions being noticed when they
were the only discussions of the Conference.

No. of
Year and Place Delegates Chief subjects discussed
nominated

1885. Aberdeen . 24 Methods of procedure, and on the nature of the
work which admitted of being taken up by local

societies
1886. Birmingham 32 On the objects of the Conference, and the ways
| in which the local societies could most usefully
co-operate with British Association Committees

' The first report of the Corresponding Societies Committee was presented at
Aberdeen and is given in the Report for 1885, pp. 708-722.

a

ee

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. oul

TABLE—continued,

No. of
Year and Place | Delegates Chief subjects discussed
nominated

1887. Manchester 32 On the recommendations received from the various
Sections. It was announced that a Resolu-
tion passed in 1887 by Sections B and C—
‘That the Conference of Delegates of Corre-
sponding Societies be empowered to send
recommendations to the Committee of Re-
commendations for their consideration and for |
report to the General Committee ’—had been
accepted by the General Committee, and had
become a rule of the British Association
1888, Bath . 38 The Ancient Monuments Act
1889. Newcastle- 35 On the placing of Delegates on Sectional Com-
on-Tyne mittees. The following Resolntion was passed :—
‘That the relations of delegates to the Sec-
tional Committees as at present existing are un-
satisfactory, and that the matter be referred to
the Corresponding Societies Committee for their
consideration.’
The Committee reported that ‘after giving the
matter careful consideration they have come
to the conclusion that they possess no power
under the present rules of the Association
of attaching delegates to the Sectional Com-
mittees’
1890. Leeds : 36 On the desirability of bringing the smaller
non-publishing local societies into relationship
with the British Association. The Corre-
sponding Societies Committee authorised its
| Secretary ‘to supply any local society which
may apply for them with copies of the reports
of the Conferences, the lists of Committees,
and other information likely to be of use in
furthering local scientific investigation ’
1891. Cardiff . 36 Various subjects connected with Sections A, B, C,
D, E, G, and H
1892, Edinburgh . 42 The destruction of native plants and of the eggs
; of wild birds
1893. Nottingham 39 Subjects considered in Sections A, C, D, E, G, H
1894. Oxford : 41 The organisation of local museums
1895. Ipswich . oF Meteorological observations and records
1896. Liverpool . 49 District unions of natural history societies.
; On a federal staff for local museums
1897. Toronto . 24 The federation of local societies. The life-
histeries of animals. Principal museums in
Canada and New foundland
1898. Bristol : 46 Coast erosion. ‘The desirability of uniformity of
size in the pages of the publications of
i scientific societies
| 1899. Dover ; 37 The living subterranean fauna of Great Britain
and Ireland. The objects of the ‘ National
Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural
Beauty.’ And as to the best means of making
the Conferences of Delegates more useful

— i

_ As stated in the Report of the Dover Conference, it was decided that
with regard to the best ways of making the Conferences more useful the

572 REFORT—1900.

Delegates should forward their views on the subject to the Corresponding
Societies Committee for consideration at their meeting in November ;
and as some Delegates were not present during the discussion, copies of
the following letter were sent to every Delegate nominated to the Dover
Conference ;—

British Association, Burlington House, London, W,,
October 5, 1899.

Dear Srr,—At the second meeting of the Conference of Delegates at
Dover, September 19, a discussion took place as to the best means of
improving the proceedings at these meetings, It was ultimately decided
that any recommendations from the Delegates on that matter, if sent in
not later than November 7, would be considered by the Corresponding
Societies Committee at their meeting later in that month.

I am, dear Sir,
Yours truly,
T. V. Homes,
Sec. Cor. Soc. Com. Brit. Assoc.

When the Corresponding Societies Committee met on November 24,
1899, twelve replies to the above letter had been received from the
representatives of fourteen societies; and in March 1900 some addi-
tional recommendations were received from the Yorkshire Naturalists
Union.

The various suggestions mostly deal either with proposed alterations
in the times of meeting, with the desirability of a room in which Delegates
might hold informal discussions between the meetings of the Conference,
or with improvements in the proceedings at the Conference.

As regards the days and hours on which the Conferences have hitherto
been held, the Committee found it so difficult to suggest any others which
might not prove to be accompanied by still greater disadvantages that
they have refrained from proposing any alteration in them.

The Committee considered it not desirable to propose to alter the rule
of the British Association that only members, not associates, can become
Delegates.

The Committee agreed that it is desirable when possible that a room
shall be provided at the Bradford and other future meetings of the
Association, in which Delegates may meet, become acquainted with each
other, and hold informal discussions between the meetings of the Con-
ference.

As regards a suggestion that an agenda paper should be sent to the
Corresponding Societies some time before the British Association meeting
in order that Delegates might come better prepared to the Conference,
it was decided that although the circular issued in July is inter alia an
agenda paper, it would be well to add a clause to it asking that the
Secretary of each Corresponding Society receiving it should bring the
subjects for discussion at the Conference before the notice of the Delegate
of the Society.

It was also decided by the Committee that the circular drawn up
some years ago by Dr. Garson stating the rules respecting the Corre-
sponding Societies and the advantages granted to them should be reprinted
and sent to the Corresponding Societies in March; and that at the
same time a, notice should be sent inviting the Socjeties to consider what

57d

Bibjccts they wish to have discussed at the next Conference of Delegates,
and fixing a date by which suggestions must be sent.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

The following Societies have been added to the list of Corresponding
Societies :—

1. The Birmingham and Midland Institute Scientific Society.

2. The Eastbourne Natural History Society.

3. The Natural History Society of Northumberland, Durham, atid
Neweastle-on-Tyne.

4, The Hull Scientific Society and Field Naturalists’ Club.

Report of the Pr fashestinag of the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies held at Bradford.

The Council nominated Professor E. B. Poulton, Chairman, Mr. W.
Whitaker, Vice-Chairman, and Mr. T. V. Holmes, Secretary, to the
Bradford Conference. These nominations were confirmed by the General
Committee at a meeting held at Bradford on Wednesday, September 5.
The meetings of the Conference were held in a room in the Grammar
School, adjoining the Reception Room, on Thursday, September 6, and
Tuesday, September 11, at 3 p.m. The following Corresponding Societies
nominated as delegates to represent them at the “Bradford meeting—

Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club. ‘

Belfast Natural History and Philosophical
Society

Berwickshire Naturalists’ Club .

Birmingham and Midland Institute Scien-
tific Society

Birmingham Natural History and Philo-
sophical Society

William Gray, M.R.I.A.
John Brown.

G. P. Hughes.
W. Bayley Marshall, M.Inst.0.E,

Chas. Pumphrey.

Buchan Field Club . é . ° John Gray, B.Sc.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society ‘ . Walter Cook.
Croydon Microscopical and Natural W. Whitaker, F.R.S.

History Club

Dorset Natural History and Antiquarian
Field Club

Essex Field Club ‘ .

Glasgow Geological Society 3 .

Glasgow Natural History Society

Glasgow Philosophical Society . :

Hertfordshire Naturai History Society

Hull Geological Society .

Hull Scientific and Field
Club

Institution of Mining Engineers.

Isle of Man Natural History and Anti-
quarian Society

Leeds Geological Association

Liverpool Geographical Society ‘

Malton Field Naturalists’ and Scientific
Society

Manchester Geographical Society . .

Manchester Geological Society .

Manchester Microscopical Society

Midland Institute of Mining, Civil, and
Mechanical Engineers

Naturalists’

Vaughan Cornish, M.Sc., F.R.G.S.

Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.
J. Barclay Murdoch.

J. F. Gemmill, M.D.

Prof. A. Barr, D.Sc.

J. Hopkinson, F.L.S.

J. W. Stather, F.G.S,

T. Sheppard, F.G.8.

Professor Henry Louis, M.A.
J. Lomas, F.G.S.

D. Forsyth, M.A., D.Sc.
Staff-Com. Dubois Phillips, R. N.
M. B. Slater, F.L.S.

Eli Sowerbutts, F.R.G.S.
Wm. Watts, F.G.8.

F. W. Hembry, F.R.M.5.
John Gerrard

cr
“I
=

REPORT—1900.

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society Clement Reid, F.R.S.

North of England Institute of Mining and M. Walton Brown.
Mechanical Engineers

Northumberland, Durham, and Newcastle- Professor M. C. Potter, F.L.S.
upon-l'yne Natural History Society

Nottingham Naturalists’ Society . . Professor J. W. Carr, F.L.S.

North staffordshire Field Club. 5 . R. Hornby, M.A., F.C.S8.

Perthshire Society of Natural Science . A. M. Rodger.

Rochdale Literary and Scientific Society. J. R. Ashworth, B.Sc.

Rochester Naturalists’ Club. é . Dr. G. Abbott.
Scotland, Mining Institute of . : James Barrowman.
South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, F.R.S.
Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club. . Rev. J. O. Bevan, M.A.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Wm. Gregson, F.G.S.

Society

Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union . : . Harold Wager, F.L.S.

First Conference, Bradford, September 6, 1900.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Prof.
E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Dr. Garson, Mr. J. Hopkin-
son, and Mr, T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

The Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee, a copy of which
was in the hands of every Delegate present, was taken as read.

The Chairman remarked that all present must have received the
agenda paper, and have noted that the subject for discussion that day
consisted of two resolutions which had been brought forward by the
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. In the Report then circulated there were
comments bearing on the subjects of these resolutions which the
Committee wished should be discussed thoroughly on that occasion.

The resolutions were :—

1. That the Conference of Delegates be allowed to meet on the first
day of the British Association Meeting, and make their own arrangements
for subsequent meetings and order of business.

2. That it is desirable, in order to make the discussions of the
Conference of Delegates more useful to the local Societies, that they
should have the power of deciding the subjects for discussion at the
mectings of the Conference, and it is suggested, therefore, that a circular
be sent by the Committee every year to each of the Corresponding
Societies, asking them to send a list of subjects for discussion (not more
than two or three) at the forthcoming meetings. The Committee then
to send to the Corresponding Societies a schedule containing the titles of
all the subjects proposed for discussion, asking each Society to mark such
of these subjects as it deems most desirable to discuss at the Conference
meetings. On receipt of this information the Committee will then
arrange the list of subjects in order of precedence as indicated by the
support given to each subject by the Societies ; and a copy of this should
be sent to the Delegates or Societies as an agenda paper before the first
meeting of the Delegates,

Mr. Harold Wager, Pdlbectn ting the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union,
which comprises a large number of local Societies, said that the Union
had called together a ~ committee consisting of a number of their more
prominent member's, and they had formulated the two resolutions copies
of which had been distributed. It was considered most important that
the representatives of the local Societies should, if possible, themselves

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 575

suggest the subjects for discussion. Much good work had been done at
these Conferences, but those whom he represented thought that if direct
| suggestions from the local Societies were invited, the wants of the Societies
would be more advantageously considered than they had been in the past,
and that they would come into closer touch with each other.
Staff-Commander Dubois Phillips, R.N., thought that the resolutions
somewhat contradicted each other. According to the first resolution, the
_ Delegates were to meet on the first day of the meeting of the British
Association, and make their own arrangements for subsequent meetings ;
and the second resolution laid down hard and fast lines with regard to
the subjects for discussion and their order. The opinion of the Council
of the Society he represented was that Delegates should not come there to
discuss subjects such as could be discussed in the various Sections, but
that the Conferences should rather be business meetings to consider
questions such as that of copyright. It would be a very good thing to
ascertain the views of the various Societies as to the best subjects for
discussion. He thought that if the first Conference took place on the
first day of the British Association meeting very few Delegates would be
present at it.

Mr. J. Hopkinson said that many of the proposals contained in the
resolutions had already been carried out. Last March a circular was sent
to each Corresponding Society asking it to send to the Corresponding
Societies Committee a list of subjects for discussion at the Bradford Con-
ference. Why, therefore, should there be a resolution stating that this
should be done? Only one Society had responded to this invitation by
suggesting a subject for discussion. And Mr. T. V. Holmes added that
the one subject sent in (Dew-ponds) would be discussed at the second
Conference.

Mr. Hopkinson remarked that the first day of the British Associa-
tion meeting would be an exceedingly awkward time for the first
Conference on account of the meeting of the General Committee, and of
the delivery of the President’s Address on that day. And not only was
that day impracticable for the first Conference, but it would also be impos-
sible to arrange then what should be done subsequently. Arrangements of
this kind must be made months beforehand. In his opinion the first resolu-
sion was impracticable, while, as regards the second, the most important
parts of it had already been carried out by the Corresponding Societies
Committee.

Dr. Garson said that practically Thursday was the first day of the
British Association meeting, and that very few Delegates were ever likely
to be present at a meeting on Wednesday. The Corresponding Societies
Committee were always glad to get assistance from the Delegates in the
choice of subjects for discussion, and the complaint of the Committee
had long been that the local Societies did not take a sufiiciently active part
in such matters,

Mr. G. P. Hughes could not agree with the first resolution, as members
often arrived late on Wednesday. He thought some of the stipulations
in the second resolution should be adopted.

Mr. William Gray said that the main object of these Conferences was
to encourage local Societies so as to make their local arrangements to
promote the chief object of the British Association, the advancement of
science. The British Association should point out what matters they
wished the local Societies to investigate. At the first meeting of the

576 REPORT—1900.

Conference the British Association Committee should receive a report
from each of the Societies, and at the next meeting the Delegates should
have an opportunity of making suggestions. At the opening Conference
the British Association Committee should learn how far the local
organisations were competent to conduct the investigations put before
them by the Association. At the second the Delegates should consult
among themselves as to the best way in which any deficiencies pointed
out at the first meeting might be remedied.

Mr. Eli Sowerbutts remarked that the Delegates had not hitherto had
sufficient opportunities of becoming acquainted with each other. He had
been a Delegate about fifteen years, and knew, perhaps, four of the other
Delegates. It was seldom that the same Delegate came year after year.
He thought the simplest thing would be to pass the first resolution and to
omit the second, though somewhat doubtful whether the result of passing
the first resolution would be of any importance. But he wished a room
to be recognised during the meetings of the Association as one in which
the Delegates might meet informally, sit, chat, or write their letters
between the formal Conferences. The Societies they represented might
then combine for mutual assistance, and they, the Delegates, might also
more efficiently aid the work of the Association.

Mr. T. V. Holmes wished to call attention to the paragraph at the
bottom of the third page of the Report in their hands: ‘The Committee
agree that it is desirable, when possible, that a room shall be provided
at the Bradford and other future meetings of the Association in which
Delegates may meet, become acquainted with each other, and hold
informal] discussions between the meetings of the Conference.’ He had
to add that the room in which they were then assembled was that in
which the Delegates might meet at any time.

Mr. Wager proposed a vote of thanks to the local Committee for
providing the room. The motion was seconded by Staff-Commander
Phillips and carried unanimously.

Mr. W. Bayley Marshall formally moved that the meetings of the
Conference be held as heretofore on Thursday and Tuesday. There
would then be fixed days of meeting, and the Delegates could arrange to
attend accordingly.

Mr. Hembry seconded the motion. He thought it might be possible
for the Corresponding Societies Committee to arrange with other Com-
mittees that no important business should be transacted elsewhere during
the meetings of the Conference.

The Chairman remarked that they would do their best.

Mr. Hembry added that Delegates did not always receive communica-
tions intended for them which were sent to the Secretaries of local
Societies. He thought it would be a good plan to send to the Delegate of
this year notices referring to next year, because in all probability the
Delegate of this year would be selected next year. If not, he could hand
on to his successor the papers he had reeeived. He considered that an
addition might be made to the second resolution to the effect that a
circular be sent every year to each of the Corresponding Societies and to
the Delegate of the present year.

A Delegate who had been instructed by his Society to support the
resolutions of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, supposed that the mover
of the resolutions did not mind whether their first meeting was on
Wednesday or Thursday. An amendment which he desired to move was

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. by

that the first meeting should be on Thursday, and that the Conference of
Delegates should then decide themselves the dates of the subsequent
meetings.

Professor Henry Louis seconded the amendment.

Mr. Vaughan Cornish thought that business discussions rather than
_ scientific papers were required. Not two, but three, bodies were trying
to do business together—the Corresponding Societies Committee, the
Corresponding Societies, and the Delegates. His opinion was that it
would be well for the Committee to recognise the Delegates rather than
the Societies.

Dr. Abbott said that it occurred to him that the Delegates might meet
on Thursday morning at a breakfast. There was little probability that
any other social function could be arranged. The Committee should
encourage the formation of Unions of Local Societies.

Mr. Barrowman favoured the proposition that the Conference at its
first meeting should arrange the following meetings.

The Chairman remarked that it was evident that the Conference did
not wish to listen to papers such as might be brought before the Sections
of the Association. They desired rather to discuss the methods of pro-
cedure which would make local Societies successful. The Committee were
in general agreement with the spirit of the two resolutions. He gathered
from certain remarks which had been made that the local Societies were
often to blame for not giving Delegates copies of circulars sent by the
_ Committee to the Secretaries of the Societies long before the British
Association meetings took place. The present days for the Conference
seemed to be the best that could be chosen, and they had the advantage
of being known beforehand. The debate had been most useful in showing
the nature of the questions which the Delegates desired to discuss at these
Conferences.

Mr. W. Gray said that the local Societies did not do their duties
adequately because those duties were not clearly defined by the British
Association Committee. He thought that the Committee should ascertain
at the first Conference each year how far each Society had acted in
accordance with the requirements of the Committee. The proceedings at
the second Conference might be settled by the Delegates themselves.

The Chairman remarked that the new questions which had been raised

_ should have been sent in months ago when the resolutions of the Yorkshire

Naturalists’ Union were received by the Committee. A discussion on
them might be initiated under a heading such as ‘ What are the aims and
scope of a local Society ?’

Mr. W. Gray thought that the grant of a room in which Delegates
might meet at any time was an immense advantage, which might remove
altogether the necessity for a second meeting.

_ Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary) stated that in consequence of the discussion
at Dover as to the best ways of improving the proceedings at the Con-
ferences of Delegates, he wrote to the thirty-seven Delegates inviting
suggestions which could be placed before the Committee a month later,
but received answers only from twelve.

The Chairman said that, as he believed, the British Association did
not intend that local Societies should work on any special or peculiar
lines in relation to itself. The Association wished that local Societies
should do local work, and endeavoured to assist them by means of these
aE: by the exchange of its Report for their Proceedings, and

; PP

kr

578 REPORT— 1900.

by publishing in its Report the titles of papers read before and published
by the Societies.

Mr. H. Wager, after briefly reviewing the discussion, remarked thav
though the resolutions had secured a considerable amount of general
acceptance, he did not think it desirable to put them formally to the
meeting.

The Chairman agreed to this course, which he considered to be the
best under the circumstances. He thought that the discussion would prove
to be very useful.

Mr. W. Gray proposed, and Staff-Commander Phillips seconded, a vote
of thanks to the Corresponding Societies Committee for providing the
room in which they were assembled for informal intercourse between the
Delegates. It was carried unanimously. The motion proposed by Mr.
Bayley Marshall, and seconded by Mr. Hembry, ‘That the meetings of
the Conference be held as heretofore on Thursday and Tuesday,’ was also
carried.

Copyright.

Mr. Walton Brown brought forward tke question of copyright. Lord
Monksweill had introduced into Parliament a Bill dealing with the
subject, and, so far as scientific Societies were concerned, the Bill ignored
some important points. In the first place there was no provision that
a Society should have any copyright in the publication of its own Trans-
actions, though he believed Societies might obtain copyright if they paid
their contributors. He had offered to give evidence before the Com-
mittee considering this Bill, but the Committee replied that they accepted
his evidence, and did not think it necessary to examine him. Then the
Bill proposed to make the insertion of abstracts of foreign scientific
papers a breach of copyright ; an innovation that would weigh heavily on
several scientific Societies which made a special point of publishing
abstracts.

Mr. Sowerbutts thought that this was one of the most important
matters that had ever been discussed at a Conference. Copyright ques-
tions were extremely involved, and difficult to understand ; but there
could be no doubt of the injustice of the present state of things, and that
it would be confirmed by the Bill then before Parliament. The expense
of printing papers was by no means a slight one.

Professor Henry Louis pointed out that the British Association dis-
claimed copyright for itself. It was, however, a matter of vital import-
ance to each Society represented at that Conference.

After some remarks from the Rev. J. O. Bevan and the Chairman,
the following resolution, moved by Mr. M. Walton Brown and seconded
by Mr. Sowerbutts, was carried unanimously :—

‘That the matter of the proposed Copyright Bill be referred, through
the Committee of Recommendations, to the General Committee, so far as
it affects (1) the copyright of scientific Societies in their Transactions ;
and (2) the publication of abstracts of scientific papers ; and that they
be requested to take such action as will protect scientitic Societies.’ !

The Conference then adjourned.

1 The resolution was by anaccident not sent to the Committee of Recommendations,
but it has been arranged that it shall be brought before the Council for consideration,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 579

Second Meeting of the Conference, September 11.

The Corresponding Societies Committee were represented by Mr. W.
Whitaker (Vice-Chairman), Rev. J. O. Bevan, Dr Horace T. Brown, Dr.

' Garson, Mr. J. Hopkinson, and Mr. T. V. Holmes (Secretary).

The Chairman briefly introduced Professor L. C. Miall, who read the
following Address :—

Dew-ponds. By Professor L. C. Mian, FAS.

T lately undertook a new edition (the 83rd or 84th) of White’s ‘ Natural
History of Selborne,’ and found it necessary to consider the account of
the Hampshire dew-ponds which is to be found in Letter XXIX. to
Barrington. ‘We have,’ he says, ‘many such little round ponds in this
district, and one in particular on our sheep-down, three hundred feet
above my house, which, though never above three feet deep in the middle,
and not more than thirty feet in diameter, and containing perhaps not
more than two or three hundred hogsheads of water, yet is never known
to fail, though it affords drink for three hundred or four hundred sheep,
and for at least twenty head of large cattle beside.’ . This account, of
which I quote one sentence only, led me to inquire a little into this
curious subject by correspondence, by reference to the rather scanty
literature which already exists, and by personal visits. My inquiries
are, I must admit, very imperfect, but they may be the means of inducing
people whose opportunities are better than mine to collect fuller informa-
tion.

White’s account of the dew-ponds of Hampshire is largely confirmed
by more recent observation. A good description of such ponds is to be
found in a prize essay on ‘ Water Supply,’ by the Rev. J. C. Clutterbuck.
He says that the tops of chalk hills, where no surface-water or springs
can furnish a supply, are often chosen as the sites of dew-ponds.
They ‘are constructed by persons of experience and skill. At the spot
selected an excavation is made in the surface of the chalk, either round or
rectangular, from thirty to forty feet or more in diameter, from four to six
feet deep. The bottom, of a basin shape, is covered in portions with clay
carefully tempered,! mixed with a considerable quantity of lime to prevent
the working of the earthworms.? As the portions are finished they are
protected from the action of the sun and atmosphere by a covering of
straw. When the whole bottom of the pond is so covered with an efficient
and impermeable coating or puddle a layer of broken chalk is placed upon
it to prevent its injury by cattle or other means. Their cost varies from
30/. to 507. When all is finished water is introduced by artificial means.
If there is a fall of snow this is collected and piled up in the pond as the
readiest and least expensive method of accomplishing the object... . Ponds
so constructed and filled have been known for periods of twenty or thirty
years never to become dry. The summer of 1864 was a notable exception.’

Dew-ponds are often dug on the very ridge of a down, or else by
choice on the northern slope, which is the inland slope in most of the

" Chalk-puddle is occasionally used instead, but is believed to be less efficient
and less durable.

* It may be doubted whether the purpose of the lime is to prevent the working
of earthworms, which cannot live beneath a pond. It is an old practice to spread
wet clay with lime in the belief that it prevents slipping.

PP2

580 REPORT—1900.

south-eastern counties. It is generally held that moist winds throw down
their water most abundantly just beyond the summit of the first range of
hills which they meet. In the case of the downs of Hampshire and
Sussex the inland slope has the further advantage of being sheltered from
the sun and all the warmer winds, so that it is the fitter for the con-
densation of water-vapour.

Mr. Clutterbuck believes that dew-ponds are ‘ not easily accounted for
by recognised physical causes.’ It is plain that the water which collects
on the summit of a chalk-down is not drawn from springs, for the
saturation-level is hundreds of feet below. Nor is it due in any important
measure to surface-drainage. A small collecting area is furnished by the
margin of the pond, but this rarely equals the water-surface. A dew-
pond may occupy the summit of the ridge so precisely that there can be no
collecting ground worth speaking of.

Hales’s view (quoted by White) that more than twice as much dew is
deposited upon water as upon an ‘equal surface of moist earth cannot be
accepted as it stands. He does not take into account circumstances
which may greatly affect the rate of cooling, and consequently the amount
of condensation, such as the depth of the water. It may often be observed,
for instance, that when a copious dew has been deposited upon the seats
of an open boat none is to be seen on the bottom. Contact with a large
body of insufficiently cooled water (as of a deep lake) has kept the bottom
of the boat at a temperature above the dew-point.

Water is so bad a conductor of heat that some difficulty may be found
in understanding how a pond can cool sufficiently during a summer night
to act as an efficient condenser. But though water conducts heat very
badly, every surface layer, as it cools by radiation, becomes denser, and
sinks. Continual replacement of the surface layer by convection-currents
may thus cool down the water as effectually as if the heat were freely
conducted away. A shallow pond on a hill-top may in the course of a
few hours become cold enough to act as an efficient condenser.

Water vapour, liquid water, and ice are all good absorbents of dark
heat-rays ; it may be inferred that they are good radiators of dark heat-
rays. This perhaps does not admit of experimental proof. The radiation
from water in a pond is complicated by so many circumstances, such as
the absorption of heat by the water vapour which the pond gives off, and
the sinking of the water as it cools, that no determination by direct
methods is possible.

There is a good deal of testimony to the effect that a dew-pond
prospers best with a depth of about 4 feet. If it is deeper it shrinks to
such depth as will cool down during a short summer night, ae. about
4 feet ; if it is much shallower it dries up altogether in a drought. This
account, though probable in itself, needs to be scrutinised further. I
know as yet of no facts to the contrary, and several in its favour.

Dew-ponds abound in Sussex and Hampshire, and are not uncommon
on the chalk hills of Berkshire and Wiltshire. But on the chalk hills of
Hertfordshire, Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire few or none are
to be found. This may be connected with the distance from the sea in a
N.E.-S.W. line. The S8.W. winds, which bring the chief part of our
atmospheric moisture, can reach the South Downs almost direct from the
sea, while they can only reach the chalk hills of the Midlands and the
North of England after traversing a great extent of country and crossing
many ranges of hills.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 581

The few that have been mentioned to me as occurring in the Midland
counties all turned out on inquiry to depend obviously on surface
drainage, usually from a hollow in a neighbouring hard road. It is thus
with the ‘meres’ of Derbyshire, which appear, from such information as I
have been able to procure, to be always fed from adjacent collecting
grounds. If any one can furnish an unexceptionable example of a true dew-
pond on achalk-down, or other hill, which is distant a hundred or even
fifty miles from the south coast, the news would be welcome.

Those who believe that dew-ponds in all cases owe their existence to
rainfall alone (and among these was that eminent meteorologist, the late
G. J. Symons, F.R.S.) hold that, owing to elevation, the temperature of
the water in such ponds is very nearly coincident with the dew-point, so
that evaporation and condensation balance each other. Whether such a
temperature of the water is regularly maintained day and night through-
out a season of drought cannot, I believe, be established by existing
thermometric observations. I doubt whether it can be established by
general reasoning. Before we can accept the view that dew-ponds are
replenished by rain alone, we must refute or explain two facts, both of
which are supported by strong testimony :

1. That dew-ponds do not dry up when the low-level ponds of the
same district are evaporated. Not only do the dew-ponds replace in some
way the loss due to evaporation, but they supply large flocks of sheep.
If it is contended that during summer droughts the hill-tops are regularly
visited by local clouds which are precipitated as rain, the frequency and
substantial yield of- such clouds need to be better established than at
present.

2. That dew-ponds cannot in the first instance be filled by rain (see
Mr. Clutterbuck’s prize essay). This statement, if it can stand inquiry,
seems to be decisive against the sufficiency of rainfall.

On the other hand the restriction of dew-ponds to an area quickly
and directly reached by south-west winds blowing from the sea, supports,
it would seem, the view that what we call dew-ponds are really rain-
ponds. Moisture-laden winds favour cloud-formation and rain, while we
have no reason to suppose that they favour dew-formation, but rather
the contrary.

Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., of the Geological Survey, sums up his
wide experience of dew-ponds in these words :—

‘The conditions that are required for a permanent dew-pond do not
seem generally to be understood, failure or success appearing to be the
result of chance rather than of any clear comprehension of the principle
on which the dew-pond acts. On comparing, at the end of a long
drought, the dried-up ponds with those that still contain water, we find
that, other things being equal, the best dew-pond has the following
characteristics : ,

‘Tt is sheltered on the south-west side by an overhanging tree, often
only a stunted ivy-covered thorn or oak, or by a bush of holly. Or else
the hollow is sufficiently deep for the south bank to cut off much of the
sun. The depth or shallowness of the water does not appear to make so
great a difference as would be expected.

‘The open downs, even in the middle of summer, receive much heavier
dews than would be expected, or than are met with on the lowlands.

§2 : REPORT—1900,

Cxr

Thick sea-mists often cling to their tops for several hours after sunrise,
while the plains below are already dry and sunny. It is only by noticing
the large amount of moisture intercepted and dripping from the over-
hanging boughs as the sea-mist drifts slowly past that one can realise
how prolific a source this must be. The amount condensed in this way
might be tested by a rain-gauge of wide aperture.

‘When one of these ponds is examined in the middle of a hot summer
day it would appear that the few inches of water in it could only last
a week. But in early morning or towards evening, or whenever a sea-
mist drifts in, there is a continuous drip from the smooth leaves of the
overhanging tree. There appears also to be a considerable amount of
condensation on the surface of the water itself, though roads adjoining
may be quite dry and dusty. In fact, whenever dew is on the grass, the
dew-pond is receiving moisture ; and this moisture, owing to the shade of
the overhanging tree, is partly preserved throughout the day; so that
sheep or cattle may drink daily from a small shallow pond which receives
no rain, and yet the pond be not exhausted unless the nights are excep-
tionally dry.’

We now want observations by the thermometer. We should be glad
to know the temperature of the water of the pond at various depths, as
taken hourly through a summer night ; the temperature of the surface
of the ground (free from grass) a few feet away from the pond ; the tem-
perature of the air at various small heights above the hill-top, as well as
in a neighbouring valley ; and also the relative humidity of the air as
determined by wet and dry bulbs. If a small party would make such
observations during a few clear still nights in hot summer weather, some
blanks in our knowledge would be filled up at once. We should be glad
to know how the level of a dew-pond varies during a spell of sultry
weather. Observations on the clouds and mists of the summits of the
downs are also much to be desired. Day observations would have their
use too, and should not be omitted.

Is it too much to ask that residents in the south-eastern counties will
investigate these matters for us? A party of a dozen meteorologists
who would choose a time of settled hot weather, and give a week to the
inquiry, would throw much light upon a question of considerable scientific
and practical importance.

While so many data are wanting, it would be unwise to express a
confident opinion as to the relative importance of rain and dew in the
supply of water to the ponds of the chalk downs. No scientific man will
willingly decide any question on indirect evidence if direct evidence can
be got.

In making inquiries about dew-ponds I have been helped by many
friends and correspondents, among others by Mr. W. Whitaker, F.R.S.,
Mr. Clement Reid, F.R.S., Mr. John Hopkinson, Mr. T. W Shore,
Mr. F. J. Bennett, Mr. John Brigg, M.P., Professor G. S. Brady, F R.S.,
and the Rey. Henry Green.

Bibliography of Dew-ponds.

Hales. Stephen : . ‘Statical Essays,’ vol. i. Experiment XIX. pp. 52-57.
Second edition, London, 8vo. 1731.
White, Gilbert : . ‘The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne,’ Letter

XXIX. (to Barrington). London, 4to. 1789.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 583

Wells, W.C. . , . ‘An Essay on Dew,’ edited, with Annotations, by L. P.
Casella, and an Appendix by R. Strachan. London,
8vo. 1866. The original edition was published in 1818
and reprinted in 1821.

Clutterbuck, Rev. J.C. . ‘Prize Essay on Water Supply,’ Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc.,
2nd ser. vol. i. pp. 271-87. 1865.

Field and Symons . . ‘Hvaporation from the Surface of Water,’ Brit. Assoc.
Rep., 1869, Sect., pp. 25 and 26. 1869.

Lucas, J “ ; . ‘Hydrogeology: one of the Developments of Modern

Practical Geology,’ Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol. ix. pp.
153-232. 1877.

Slade, H. P. . . ‘A Short Practical Treatise on Dew-ponds,’ London, 8vo.
32 pp. numbered to 31; 3 folding plates. 1877.

Reid, Clement . . ‘The Natural History of Isolated Ponds,’ Trans. Norfolk
and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, vol. v. pp. 272-286.
1892.

Brady, Professor G. 8. . ‘On the Nature and Origin of Freshwater Faunas,’ 8vo.

12 pp. No date or place. [1899.]

The Chairman remarked that they would all unite’ in thanking
Professor Miall for bringing before them the subject of dew-ponds in so
complete a form. He should like to have a little further information as
to the habit of sprinkling with lime with the object of keeping out earth-
worms. He wished also to know on what grounds Professor Miall said that
evaporation from the surface of dew-ponds was slight. His own impres-
sion was that evaporation would be somewhat rapid. Professor Miall
had spoken of the limited area within which dew-ponds existed. It was
singular that this limited area was one of low rainfall. Dew-ponds were
numerous in Berkshire, where they were made in the way described by
Professor Miall. While the Hertfordshire chalk was largely covered by
clay with flints, the Berkshire chalk was not.

Mr. Clement Reid said that the question of the water supply in dew-
ponds was, like many other questions of water supply, much mixed up
with curious ancient superstitious observances analogous to the use of the
divining rod. He did not think that dew-ponds were formed in anything
like the scientific manner pretended by their makers. He had been
working during the last few years in a country where dew-ponds were
particularly abundant, and there had been several successive years of
severe drought. Nearly al] the more recently made dew-ponds were dried
up, but a number of the older ones had not dried up. He did not think
that the older ponds were better made than the newer ones, but that a
process leading to the survival of the fittest was always going on. When
a dew-pond dried up a new one became necessary. The farmers were
constantly making new ones, and sometimes, by accident, they got a satis-
factory site. It was an unfortunate thing that they were almost entirely
without meteorological observations on the high ground, where dew-ponds
abounded, our rainfall stations being almost invariably at a low level.
As to the question of dew or mist he did not feel qualified to speak. He
wondered whether it was possible that the film of scum constantly seen
on the surface of dew-ponds had any influence in protecting the water
from evaporation. Dew-ponds, being entirely isolated from running
water, were very important from a biological point of view. They could
watch the population of a pond becoming more numerous and varied, and
note how the higher animals and plants took the place of the lower which
first appeared. Dew-ponds and other isolated ponds would give much
yaluable information as to the rate of dispersal of the aquatic fauna and

584 REPORT—1900.

flora of a district, and theirZobservation with this object was a matter
which might well be recommended to all local scientific Societies.

Mr. Vaughan Cornish said that in Berkshire the dew-ponds were
frequently in open situations and not under trees. He would bring the
matter before the notice of the Dorsetshire Field Club, and he hoped they
might be able to make some systematic observations on dew-ponds.

Mr. John Hopkinson noticed that Professor Miall held that the margin
of the pond had very little effect in increasing the amount of rain col-
lected, but he believed that, as a rule, the area of the margin was at least
equal to that of the surface of the pond. There was thus twice the
area for rainfall that would be given if the water-covered surface alone
were reckoned. It was difficult to form an idea as to how water was
contributed to these ponds by dew, as dew would require a surface cooler
than the air on which to condense, whilst the water in the pond would
usually cool more slowly than the air above it. The water being also
warmer than the surface of the ground surrounding it, dew would not
so readily condense on it. He believed that observations had been
made, but he was not aware that any one had actually seen the dew
accumulating on the side of a pond and trickling down into it. The
margin had certainly very little, if any, effect as regards the amount of
dew received. <A distinction must be drawn between dew and mist :
the latter would probably increase the amount of water in a pond. As
to the level of these ponds, he believed that it varied considerably from
time to time. Where there were trees overhanging the pond there would
be a considerable deposition of dew, but he thought that the majority of
these ponds were not surrounded by trees. As to evaporation from
the ponds, mist was to be seen at times rising from their surface. He
believed that the average rainfall where dew-ponds were situated was
between twenty-five and thirty inches per annum. But there were
scarcely any rain-gauges on the high ground where dew-ponds existed,
and there was probably more rain on the hills than in the valleys. He
did not know of any dew-ponds in Hertfordshire, though there was a
considerable area around Royston and Hitchin where there was bare
chalk. He thought the subject extremely interesting, and one which
might be profitably studied by the local Societies. Among other results
their investigations might some day enable farmers to fix upon the best
possible sites for their dew-ponds, and so prevent the waste of a consider-
able amount of money.

Mr. Clement Reid remarked that the ponds which had stood the severe
drought had generally trees on their margin.

Mr. J. Brown said that in order to form an accurate estimate of what
was going on it would be necessary to consider the amount of water con-
sumed by the animals drinking at the pond. There were no dew-ponds
in Treland.

The Chairman remarked that dew-ponds were only made in a country
like that of the higher chalk districts, where the rocks were absolutely dry.

Mr. W. Gray said that there was a great deal of superstition about
water, and some of the accounts of dew-ponds which never failed, &c.,
probably owed much to that source. There were wells in Ireland the
water of which it was said would not boil, and the people never used
it for cooking, betause they thought that it would be useless for that
purpose. This notion evidently arose from the fact that the water froma
deep-seated source is of the same temperature in summer and winter, and

j
:

=

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 585

the inference of some people was that it would be of no use to attempt to
change the temperature artificially.

Mr. W. M. Watts said that with regard to the mixture of lime with
clay in the sides of a dew-pond, he did not think that was necessary to
make them impervious; but lime was frequently mixed with sandy
material to prevent it from slipping in the slope of a reservoir embank-
ment. With regard to the amount of dew, that could hardly exceed one
inch and a half per annum.

Mr. James Barrowman was not aware that there were any dew-ponds
in Scotland. One point to be considered was whether the superficial area
of the pond had anything to do with its success.

Mr. Hopkinson thought that it was of considerable importance in the
‘construction of these ponds that in the summer the receiving area was
usually more than double the evaporating area.

Mr. G. P. Hughes said that dew-ponds were unknown in his district.
It occurred to him that they might prove useful in the future both in Aus-
tralia and in South Africa—dry countries where the dews were very heavy.

The Rev. E. P. Knubley remarked that Wiltshire was a country of
dew-ponds. He suggested that all the Delegates should be supplied with
a list of questions, which they might attempt to answer by the date of the
next meeting.

Professor Louis remarked that the exact composition of the water in
these dew-ponds was one of the essential points to be examined.

Professor Potter said that in Warwickshire there were many ponds
which it was almost impossible to suppose could be fed by surface
drainage. In Suffolk there were a great number of small ponds which
formed the water-supply of villages, and were covered over and not
supplied by rain. In the south of Portugal there was a well-defined
wet season of short duration and a prolonged summer, in which no rain
fell at all. In that country there were many rock pools, and from the
scarcity of the rainfall and the excessive heat it was impossible to suppose
that these pools had been fed entirely by the rain.

Professor Miall replied, and expressed the hope that the Corresponding
Societies would take up the subject and furnish additional information on
dew-ponds.

The Chairman requested the Delegates to bring the subject before
their Societies. Mr. Vaughan Cornish remarked that he would see what
eould be done in Hampshire and Berkshire to induce people to take the
matter up. The Rev. E. P. Knubley added that he would try to interest
some residents in Sussex.

Section C.,

Mr. Monckton, representing Section C, drew attention to the labours
of two Committees who wished to obtain the co-operation of the Cor-
responding Societies in their work, the Geological Photographs Committee
and the Erratic Blocks Committee. As regards geological photographs,
the county of Yorkshire and the scientific Societies of Yorkshire were
pre-eminently first in the work up to the present time. The number of
geological photographs in the British Association’s collection was 2,655,
the number received during the past year being 309. In this list he did
not include a certain number of duplicates and lantern slides. It was so
obvious that the taking of geological photographs was a work which could
be most usefully done by members of the Societies that he need say
nothing more on that head. Then the Committee for the Investigation of

586 REPORT—1900.

the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles wished for the active co-operation
of the members of the Corresponding Societies. Individual workers could
greatly aid this investigation, but the most effective assistance would be
given by the organisation of local Boulder Committees. He would there-
fore suggest that the Delegates should impress their respective Societies
with the importance of organising local Boulder Committees, and of com-
municating the results attained to the Erratic Blocks Committee. It
might be useful to add that the Secretary of the Geological Photographs
Committee is Professor W. W. Watts, and the Secretary of the Erratic
Blocks Committee Professor P. F. Kendall.

Secrion D.

The Rev. E. P. Knubley said that Section D was anxious to encourage
the Corresponding Societies to go on observing birds, and especially the
migration of birds. A new light had been thrown on the migration of
birds by the observations of lighthouse and lightship keepers. Until
recently it was thought that all birds had the same lines of flight, but
now it was known that there were several. It was now known that the
common thrush went backwards and forwards from our islands during
about ten months of the year. It was found that the wagtail came
regularly along the western coast, but was unknown on the east. It was
desirable that they should learn how long the commonest English birds
sat upon their eggs before hatching them. No one at present could
answer that question. Then the subject of the food supply of birds was
one which might well be studied. The life histories of insects was also a
most interesting subject to work at.

Section E.

Mr. Sowerbutts said that he had some suggestions to make, though he
could not precisely say that he made them on behalf of Section E. He
thought that the Corresponding Societies should be placed permanently
on the list so long as they conformed to the rules of the Association, and
not be elected for a year only as at present. Secondly, the Delegate
should be held responsible for the carrying out of anything required by
the Association, and should be the correspondent with the Secretary of
the Corresponding Societies Committee. It should also be his duty to
report to the Society he represented on the subjects in which the British
Association desired the co-operation of the Corresponding Societies.
Before the end of the year he should forward to the Corresponding
Societies Committee a copy of his report. And he should forward to the
Secretary of the Corresponding Societies Committee before March in each
year the name of any subject that his Society might wish should be con-
sidered by the Corresponding Societies Committee. He also proposed
that a Delegate about to resign his post might introduce a new Delegate
on sending his name to the Secretary of the Corresponding Societies
Committee, the new Delegate not having the power of voting, and not
becoming a member of the General Committee. Other questions also
needed consideration. How long, for example, should a Corresponding
Society remain on the list which did nothing asked for by the British
Association ? He thought that any Society which did not send a Delegate
year after year should cease to be connected with the Association. And
he would strongly urge also the enforcement of the Delegate’s duty of
reporting to his own Society and sending a copy of the report to the
Secretary of the Corresponding Societies Committee.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 587

The Chairman remarked that he was afraid they would be told that
by regulations of this kind they were interfering with the internal
management of the Societies.

Mr. Sowerbutts said that had always been a difficulty, but if the
difficulty were not overcome the work of the Corresponding Societies
Committee could hardly be carried to a profitable issue.

Section H.

Mr. E. Sidney Hartland, representing Section H, brought before the
notice of the Conference the work of the Anthropological Photographs
Committee, whose object was to collect photographs of objects of anthro-
pological interest. At present the collection was to be placed in the
rooms of the Anthropological Institute. The Committee thought that
there must be in all parts of the country a considerable number of photo-
graphs of this kind of interest to students, but not at present available.
They wanted photographs of prehistoric stone monuments, stone im-
plements, primitive pottery, and of objects connected with local supersti-
tions, &c. Objects of this kind were frequently to be met with in local
museums. Sometimes they belonged to the locality, sometimes not. But
at present their existence there was known only to the local men, and the
Committee wished to make them available for all students of anthropology.
‘The Secretary of the Committee was Mr. J. L. Myres.
_ The Rev. J. O. Bevan said that though the hour was late he wished
to bring forward a proposition. It was ‘that the Committees of the
Corresponding Societies be invited to lay before their members the
necessity of carrying on a systematic survey of their counties in respect
to ethnography. and ethnology, botany, meteorology, ornithology,
archeology, folklore, &c.’ This kind of work was being done in part at
various places, but at present little was known of it by any central body,
and thence probably there was some confusion and overlapping. The
‘Society of Antiquaries were prepared to assist any local Society willing to
ake up the archeological survey of a county. The Committee of the
British Association which was concerned with the ethnography and
ethnology of the country was dissolved at the Dover meeting. He hoped
that the Committees of the various local Societies would appoint members
according to their several aptitudes to take up specific work, and that the
Corresponding Societies Committee should be in a position to know what
‘was being done, so as to regulate and co-ordinate the work and give it
direction. He wished that some record might be kept of the resolution by
placing it on the minutes.
The Chairman said that the only difficulty of putting the resolution
vas that the meeting was then so small that it would be hardly fair to
take a vote. He suggested that the resolution should be referred to the
ommittee to deal with.

It was resolved that all the matters touched upon by Mr. Sowerbutts
and Mr. Bevan should be referred to the Committee.
Mr. Hembry suggested that at future meetings matters connected with
he different Sections should be taken before the reading of a paper on any
special subject.
The Chairman said that this question might also be referred to the
Jommittee.

1900.

REPORT

088

AsungUNy WIEqSEg-TyNOS ,

“ATTenuUe ‘suoljoRsURAT,
“ATV
-nuue ‘sduipeaorg jo
jeumnor pues stooesuea.y,
“ATpenuae ‘410doyy
SATYQUOUT ,“4STTBINIVN SMT ,

‘ATpenuUe ‘ssurpeso1rg
“ATpentue ‘su0r,

-OVSUBIT, PUB SSUTpId00I
“<TTenuue

‘suooBsuBLy, pues 4todeyy

*ATLeNUUL ‘suOTZOVsSUBLy,
“AT qgWOUL
‘sroonrsuq «=Sulmiy =o
UOTINIYSUT JO SMOTZONSUB.L,
“<[penuae
‘sBurpaeo01g pue 41zodexy

*<TpenuuUe ‘suorovsuBLy,
“ATTENUER *sqOVT a1Vg,

JO plooay PUB SMOTOVSUBAT,
*A][BMOISBOD0 SUOTY

-OUsUBI, “q1odey jenuay

*A[enuae ‘smomovsuvty,
*A[ponuure ‘ssurpeddo01g

*AyyenuTe 410dayy

+ spenuue ‘ssurpesoo1rg

*Aypenuue ‘sao01yearosqg
[BOLSTOIONZOPY + JO Sp.1L0d0ayy
“A|TeNUUe “Qn O,SISITVIN7w NT
aALYS YPOUMaIeg ayy Jo A10qStAL
*ATTenUUB
‘sdurpsso01g »=pue 4aodoyy
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SmoTZBoTTGN JO onssy
jo Aouonbaiy pus apyty,

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COUMULLOTAL
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urqnq ‘Amaepeoy ystay pedo “CW
1aqqged "P'O pure “GW “OOOTW “HN

yquoursa MA ‘Ta.1axoryD

‘OoplLAIUOW, ‘UOSPIBIONY “WL TOSTaN

pue

| -UMOJ, "eg ‘uopforp ‘Tee oTaNd
| Ysla10p *g uyor
‘ssurplimg ond

“20UBZUdg
‘Mnesny, oeqL
aULOG UTED ‘WBATa

“Wed “SO “W'D ‘seuIOy, WeITITM

90049
‘Te [eMouey, uwosteydeyg

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Aqaaqy

qtoqry ‘sIMeT = paayLy

preeqdoys "fT" PUB ULL

‘a'p

*IoysoYyO ‘TUNESNPT LOUBASOL4)
HIPIVO

yoarqyg ABW “9S 86 ‘HOOD ABA

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oaryg oTsvQ ze 4seMog ‘MX “H

quoary-u0

-uoJING 49149 UST OF TOASO "LA

peay.toqog

‘saer9g jedvyo ¢ “O'T' “ToYOOL, “WI “LC

[oystag ‘asaT[op

Aqistoatug “WT ‘sploudey “H ‘s

‘qernqyued “V “OL

UOPTSUg ‘yoar1g Wo1nyH ‘ummesnyy

Seip "Ty ‘d pues [[Bysieyy

‘I'M “Uleysutumarg ‘400149 aA01s

-109)

‘saoqmieyO UoOluUQ YoOIM.Oy
Wey Sag,

‘gaaaqyg asipereg “oynqyysuy pur]
-PUN pure wey suuig ‘sMepy ‘O ‘H

‘aN

‘osTeM “TIMMONS “WW “aang “9 *Aeu
uvanog ‘d ‘AM ‘qd pave Avi
WLM ‘atenbg eseT[op ‘umosnyy

‘WU

‘v'g ‘sunox
‘arenbg esaTjog ‘unesnyy

TBE WOLNATSUT OTyWEIOg pure

Aueroqvy yekoy SUIQIVPL “A “AA “AOI

Uva ‘YW PUL ouojsuyor youre.

UY

*MOSSBLD)

‘qa0199 981000) F0Z

f£1ejo100g JO ssorppy

puv oweN 10 sioqrenb-peoy

"009 "HN euanogyseq

‘00S °V ‘HN ‘189 ‘und
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* "0 ‘dV HN 90820
‘ ‘O°H ‘NW uopsoip
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008
‘TOS *4SUl “PUN 2 “OMT

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OR RECON CLUCIE
‘009 "IM “HN ISBILed
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‘209 ‘JUN UeIuosIopuy

OKL paywraerqay

‘Kya100g £10481 yemge Nt eumogyseg

ZO8T ‘Aqo100g
uviienbyuy pus ArojsIyT [Bing
ey ABMOTIBH PUL dsITYSSOTTyoIN

S88 ‘ANID PION SISHBINGEN ATqGNG
Q/8T QUID Pld werend

“uy pue AL0ISTET [BINYBN 4OS10(T
OL8T ‘QniD Art0q8TH

[vmyqe yy pus peotdoosororpy WopA0.Z)
PIBI ‘JO

Agatoog pworsopoey [eAoy ‘Trea. a10F)
GEST ‘Jo oynqT4SUT

puUB UOTjBIOOSSY SULUT “[[PAUIOD

TLS ‘stooulsugy Jo WoTyNgTysUy
SoYUNOD PULIDIT PUB pley1eyseyO
LAST ‘omuqusoqry poe
aouatog [BINYBNT JO AqoTo0g 10989719

* LOST ‘Aqotoog ,S4stTBANIVN BIPLVH
S681 ‘aNIO

PrenT Ae[vA Wleasg puBe oopBlEHy
QI8T ‘Aqo100g [Boldo[owypo1y puB

AIOSIAA TRANGVN Jue. y-UoO-UWoOpAN

* * * 288T ‘ANIO PPL Ueyong

* ZOST ‘AqoToog sqstTeInzeN [09S
FORT ‘Aqor00g jworydosoyiyg pus

A£LOSIF{ [RANYSN SAO PUB TOPS,

SggT ‘Ayoroog Tworydosoryd
puv A10}stH [eANgVN WeysuaLrg

698T ‘AqoTOOg oyTyUEIOS
a{N44sUy PUL[PIT pus Weqsarantg

[EST ANID SISMBANGBN OTIISHOT AAO

E98 “ANID PIONT SISHVINGVN ysvsod
TZ8T ‘Aqoto0g [wordos

-O[d pus AroqstA 1PINQVN 4SUILO
eo8T ‘ANIO PIM werrendb

“uy pus AroystH |TeIngeN W4ed
S881

‘Kyoro0g SISI[VINIBN Wermosrepay

uolyepunog jo eyed PUY OTILL Tot

“LOGT-O06L “of woymroossy ysiiug ay, fo sayawog burpuodsessop oy],

589

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

“AT qAUOUL
‘sreoulsug SuIUI_, yo
WOIgNGI4SUT JO sUOTJOVSUELY,

*AyTenuue ‘420dayy
“ATTRuUU ‘sMOTJOVSURL,
*ATpenuTe
‘qzodey pue suolovsuezy,
“sTYAUOU ‘smoTORSUeA,
“ATUquouw ‘Aydeis
-004), :Azeqaenb ‘;euanor

“ATTeTTMUET
reory =ux

‘ATTenuue “10day

‘yseurmueyy

“AyTentue ‘ssurpssoo1g
*ATTeNTUB ‘ssurpes01g

“ATTeNUuUue
‘q10dey .pue suoloRsuery,
*AyTenuue ‘suorovsuvay,
*Ay1aq.1enb ‘suoovsuvay,
*A|[BUOTSBI00 ‘suOTOVSURL,
*ATTBMOTSVODO ‘sUOTJONSURIT,
“ATTeuUUe “peuINnoL
*AT[BMOTSvO0O ‘sMOTJOVSURI,
“ATQAUOU ‘SMOT}OVSIB.A,
*ATTeNUUe ‘stoloRsUELy,
*AT[BNUUe ‘suOTORsUAT,

*"savak d0rt[}
IO 0M9 AtoAa ‘sBurposoo1g
*A[107.1eNd ‘suorovsuvry,
“A]TenUUs ‘s8urpesoo1rg

*STQUOME Og
AIOAS ,“ASITVINJeN XVjrpyEH,

*ATpenuus ‘s8uipss001g
“Ayyenuue ‘ssur
pus suoousuely,

‘SOL ‘21
“sg pur ‘sg
*P9 “SOL
“89

wa
"P9'SOT SoqeIoossy
SL 7T staquiayy
“sg S}UApIsoy
-UON pus sorpeyT
"P98, WouleyyUay)
"PO ‘SZ pu ‘sg
*‘P9 “SOT
SOIPET § ST 71
“STS
“‘P9'SOL SOPBIOOSSY
“ST “77 Sioquya Ty
*P9 “SOT Squepnyg
pue ‘soy-uoN
‘ST ‘11 JuUapISEy
*p9'sSOT SoyeIoossy
ST "7[Saaqmoyy

s9

wa
“s9
auoN

SZ PUR "sp
“sg

“S01
‘SOT
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*P9°8G
Shae

"sg SoqvloOssy
“Pg “SL SIOQUIE TT

autO NT
“PO 'ST
P9 ‘SOT
“se
auoN

auoN

"PISS
auoON
alo NT
auON

auoN

auoN
auo0N
ouoON
auoN
auON
duo N
aTtO NT

auoN
auoN

“SOT
‘SOT
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auoN
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aulo NT

og

60S
Seye1oossy =p
“SqmoTL O€€
OST

OL

80T

"949
‘O088V I
“quo PIE

Aaisureg ‘400149 yuesey
‘SOOWO SUNT ‘TSH “A AM

* yous "GH ‘asaT[OD YSsnoz0qpaey,
ALOSaIH “J, pue [Tesplvag “WW

"A ‘I ‘Logsoqouryy “Qoo1q9 UMOIg 29
JoysoouRyy ‘Optg ssoyy

‘qoag qioqieH gt ‘dung ‘9 ‘a
‘unt ‘asuog, *¢ pue qureg *

“laqseqouryy ‘400139 uoyeq uTOr ¢
Joqsoqouryy ‘aseuosieg s,A1vyy

[99 9f “SOWA ‘siUqiemog 1g

UBT JO 9[ST
‘Aosumvy Opis[ItH ‘epoumleyy *O "Wd
*"SYIOX ‘WozVIY 104.10 Nf
‘PBOY PIOM G6 ‘AuNOX "YP A ACW
TOISVYLOVL
TPMxeW “f ‘worNgysutT pedo
Agisvog "0 “WH ‘wonqysuy pesoy
joodzaary "490139
jedeyH ‘ssurpring s,eaversieyy FT
“Nu ‘sdnimud stoqng ‘9 "a 4dep

jood20Ary
‘monnqysuy yesoy “qQeuNy “ ‘O "tT

STIG JoqieaH ‘wMMesnyY uov10d109
spay

‘Koyury “PlEyISOM ‘MOSM “€ “H |

08'd “W'W ‘q34s10,7

PIAvq ‘spaeT TeH Teormdosopiyg
UIQN ‘490179 TAM SOTO ge “Mey,

“PIO “HO pus ‘uosmey “MM “Ig “¢
SsouUOAUy

qoos UsIH 6% ‘AeqINOD “Dp ‘w
oud T,-aodn-9[4SBoMo NT

TPH AON ‘UMoIg UOITRA “TL
TINH “pvoy

SSOUTOPIOH BEF “SD ‘prvddayg ‘yz,

TIME 400199 meqgTeM T “Ysieg "SM

* ajestoy ‘pug avy ‘plepsoin ry
P1OFIEM

Sone rey 19180 ny: GAN
‘S'D'd ‘IPC "MM

“aoydureyynoy ‘moryngysay Aoya1B_
qoyIeg J ‘su00y

‘Ainqsouy

s,AqoT00g [worqdosoyIyg pus Arer0qrT
MOSSBLD

qoonlg WIV L0G “qyeuueg asajoq
MOZSETH)

WIV L0G ‘uositegoy “f “Lf
5 ‘sult Q AKO}

“00149
et A-Toy MeN

* “BUY sul PUelpITL

008 °H “N ‘1190 “Ae 71
=. “005 "48g “TOuryy
: "009 “OI “OuRTT
: ‘00g ‘[oaDH ‘oun,
. ‘20g "3005 "TouspL

‘008 "V "HN Ue JO ‘I
+009 Tog "NW WOITeTT

‘00S “IU ‘9VT 1ood ary
* "00S *[09) food, ary

|* "00g "3084 ood ary

‘ * "O05 ‘i [ood ary
‘008 “IU “FT 10989018 T
“OOEBY 1090 “QBN spae'T
* — "20SSY ‘T0984 spaary
: pueypary 90g “4uIg
* "909 "log ssoTIOATT

“Sug “UI “Sul

; ‘ON Wd ‘PS 10H
*00§ “(08D IIH

* ‘O'H'N ®[epsemjoH
5 009 ‘HN 8y10
*"O “8308
* ‘OM ‘O'S 'S XeTeH
* 009 “TT Aossepy
* 008 “Ht "N MoSeerp

| 6981 ‘SteoulZuq [eoruvyooyy pus

| ‘HATO ‘Suyuyyy Jo eynq14sUy pUB[prTy
POST ‘Aqa100g A109

“SIH [Bingen asoljop ysnoroqiaeyy

SE8T ‘AQoI00g [BoTIST7Eg ToySOTOULTT

0881
‘Aqatoog [vordoosorxoryy + aoysoyouvyy
| 8e8t
| ‘Agetooy volSojoaxy raqsoyouryy
Lact §

‘qgoloog jworyderZoex areqsoyouryy

6181 ‘Aqooog uviaenbyuy

pues Aroqstyy YeangeN ‘Jo o[sy ‘uvpL
6181 ‘Aqato0g og1yU0

“TOS PUB SISTTRINIVN PLOT Wooley
BIST ‘Jo Ajato0g [vo

-tydosoriyg pue A1e104ry ‘[oodzeary

* SggT ‘Ajero0g [vorsoj004 [oodseary

T68T ‘Aqoro0g [woryderZ004 oodaaary

G/8T ‘Aqe100g Sutrosursuy oodzsaryT
Gest ‘Aqer00g [Bo

-Tydosojigg pure Areteqry 10jse010'T
89ST ‘MOMeroOssy OYT9

-WdTog DUB QnIQ ,sIslTemgeN spoeyT

PLEL ‘WOTZBIOOSSW [OISO[OIy spaary
L#81 Jo Ayato0g Armb

“UJ [eoog puv [vorsiyxqg ‘puvpery
$281 “QNTO PPM

pus Ajajoog oylquerlog ssouteauy

* sresulsugy SULUTyy JO WoNqYsUuy
988T ‘qnIO

84812109 N PLAT PUB OBIQUAINg [[NL

* —* 1881 ‘Ajolo0g Teorsooe.H [INH
L981

‘qnjO AroisIR [RANQeNT eTepsemMjOH
181 ‘ANID Ped puu Aje10

-0S AIOISIY [BANIVN d.1YSpa0j}10FF
eB S881 ‘AqaT00g ]BOIsO[

“OBYOTY pue QUID PIP ortysaue yy
PLST ‘ANID PIPL 180130]

-08H) pau AJaI00g OYIQUEIOg xVITTV_
Z08T

‘Jo Ayayoog yeorqdosopiyg ‘mossepy
Iggt ‘Jo

Aqayoos AroqsyH [VINQUNL ‘Mossury

1900.

REPORT

590

|

‘ Aypenuue

| ‘srsoursag = Surarpy

0 p vy 90

; ‘suoqousuvly,
*ATTenuue ‘ssurpos0.1
“ATpBraUaTq ‘suOTZOVSHB.L,

*ATTen ue ‘sd atpeoo01g

*fyavod-J] By ‘Teaano ¢

*AyTBNTIUB ‘suOTZOBSTBAT,
*ATqgaour

jo

TWONGNINGSU] JO SMOTZORsUBIT,

AyenUUe ‘suooVsUVAT,
*ATPBUOISBd0O ‘sTOTJOVSMVA,

*AyenuuUe ‘ssatpseo1g
“AT qQuoUt ‘si99 Us UAT
SULUTTY JO UOINFYSU]SUB.L,
*A[A9}.BND
‘gstyeange Ny 1oqsaqooyy ,
*ATTBIUTOT ‘SMOTORSUB.LT,
ATTRNUUB ‘S3UT
-pes001g pus suorjovsuv.y,
‘A[[BMOTSBINO ‘sTOLQOR
-suvly, f Ayyenuues 4.10doxy
. *ATpeuOIsBO
-00 ‘SUO}JBAIASGQ [BOIsoT
-oLoageyy § ATpenuwe ‘4.10deyy

‘AyTenUUe *4.10d oxy

“AT[BNTU ‘suOTQOVSUBAT,
*<y1941enb ‘wuanor

“ATTenUaUs
‘suorousuviy, pus yazodayy

“<Tqquout
‘S1oOTsUG, «Sura jo
WOT4NGIYSUT JO SMOMOVSUBLT,

“AT[VNUU ‘sMOORsUBIT,

SMOT}BOTTGN JO onssy
jo Aouonborg pues oyyty

‘Pd “SOT
“S81
‘SOT
sq

"sg PUB'SOT

SIv][OP Z

‘SIZ PUB"YO STE

"89
16

*P9 “SOL

“S@G PUB ‘Sop

“9¢
89

"BO “8G

"Pd “SOT

>
"P9 "SL
“9g

ST
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“9g

‘SGP PUB ‘STS
"5q

worydrrosqug
jenury

‘auo iS
auoN
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auoN
auON

*P9 “SOT
pus *sT “21

auoN
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auoN

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sq

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oot
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60L

008‘T

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BLL
sarqoqoog gg
raat
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agp
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OF%

SIOQUIOW
JOON

*“(panuiquoa) ‘ox

696 “ST “Yonqooy wostmaq *A\
PIegar ‘uoydoy

“soy “oqIVQ JOMOT ‘UA “AI
AON 09D *H *paloyoroyy

‘Arwaqvy vary ‘uo00y quiO odoyjoo A.
uouIMVs'T ‘AAOIH Yuasa ¢

‘Soquyyg "g "SG "NOTAIBA, ‘canesnyy

“V'd “ABS yzaq

-layy “oud y,-W0-o]svomoN ‘ospiag

sBliug ‘aynqiysuy = yeorgderd00H
Aespury
‘SOT, “SUIP[ Mg oynz4sSu] WeIPBURD

MBILSUyWMATg 4a0149 []/eyMaN

§ “WOU ‘WqTUg dopuvxely
SII2.M edpriquny, ‘proxy roueasory

weddn 9g “S'O"W'W ‘330qq-y 931005
uo, odup ‘umesnyy

UBOLITV TINO, ‘aurTyd104s10gH *g 4H
TOABOM "AM “VI AO PUBOTQMUBIG,

"ML 1OO"yT ‘uoquney, ‘a9sup on,
"EN “WO4lTUe ET

‘MLOVOUBIG ‘“UBUIMOIIBG some
oysoyoory.

‘asnoH uepury ‘yq10omdeyT uyor
sTepyooy “400.199 ployooayy
col “Osa “YMOMYSY plvursey ¢

* WOSTTIA LS “Uytod ‘goog Aug,
JOMLOSUOW "WH “Aq ‘eouvz
-uog ‘sduipimg oyqng ‘wnosnyy

Aosteg ‘oovtg Aqunop ¢ ‘xoupaey “¢
MBYSUT}ION
‘adel[0p Aqisteatug “VQ AA *f *JOlg
199900 ‘W*O
*‘JOIg pus wosuryoiq "H “vy ‘audy,
-W0-a]svoMaN ‘UINeSHyY YooousyyT
UojdMIVyQAION ‘opRrvg
HIV ASVq es “VW ‘UOXIG ‘N ‘H
*SHRqS ‘OU04g ‘WOpLI ST19.A\
“"M fSHBIS ‘aysvomoN ‘adsvarvora.
AOPPVN “WW ‘AIQVd "A WL “ACW

aud -modn-d[}svoMaN

‘TRH eTAON ‘UMOTg™ UWOITeA “WW
TOLMIO NT

‘arenbg 8, Wolo 48 ‘WOSTOYOIN “V "MW

WOT] “GUN *SHIOX
‘00g *ATOg *[0aH *sHIOK
* *O ' “N adoyjooM
E “OEY (NAIR AL
* ‘90g ‘Hoa oprsoudy,

‘009

‘sq ‘IJSV O}UOIOT,

* “BUG “4sUT “YRIg *g
- + + goa ‘as
* ‘008 ‘Td WeoNtzy 's
‘00g "HN "V “Y8}08,Ul0g
* goog “4sUy SUTUTTY
: * "O 'N do}seqooy
“00g "JOY “FT arepyooy
* "TOS *N ‘00g 'sqog
+ 90g °Y “HEN ‘Zuag
+ -qsuy [td Aoqsyeg

ji ‘00S “JBN “PION

‘009 'H 'N ‘qmnqqoNn
F "008 “H *N “07,N

‘O “A "BRIS 'N

“qsuy “SUM 'N
"009 JBN ‘AMON "JON

Axe49.100g JO sso1ppy
pus owe 10 s104.1enb-pwoyy

aTIME poqwracqay

‘SHITHIOOS DNIGNOdUSHUNO),

LOST MOTE SISTTeANIwN' OITYSHIOK

LEST ‘o100g opt

-Yyooy [Og pus [worsooep a.1qsyt0X
TST

ANIO PONT .SystreanqeN edoyjoo,
FEST “QUID POM S}S1So[o@ro

“IV PUB SIST[BINZVN OTTYSHOLMAB AL

LS8L Ajoyoog pworqdvasoay oprsouty,
PSST “JO AJoI00g [vO

-Is{q{q paw [wormoUos4sy ‘oyN0JI0,
LOST ‘sto9UT SUT

| Surmpy JO oIANSUT aatys104s00

-10M JSU puv aaryspxloyeyg yynog
968T ‘SA1Q0100g

opyuelog JO UolUA UsEYSeq-YANOg
LL8T ‘43010

“0S [worydosoriya weomyy qynog
SPSL ‘Aqoro0g AroqstH ywanyeN

pue [volsopo@yory oays}os1om10g

SL8T ‘JO oyngqYWSUT Sururpy ‘purjyoog

SAS ANID SISITBINGBN 1ojso TOO
SL8T ‘Ajor00g

ogyuepg pus Areroyry opepro0yy
L98T ‘ooua10g

jo <jol0g oaarysyqaeg
GEST ‘Aqo1oo0g uBienby

-uy pues A1O4STH [BINgVN oUBzZUEgT

[eangV Nt

8081
‘moIyngysuy peordosopryg Aolsteg

681
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CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 591

Index of the more important Papers, and especially those referring to
Local Scientijic Investigations, published by the Corresponding

* Societies during the year ending June 1, 1900.

*,* This catalogue contains only the titles of papers published in the volumes or

parts of the publications of the Corresponding Societies sent to the Secretary of
the Committee in accordance with Rule 2.

Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PuysicaL ScIENncE.

: Brack, Dr. W. G. Christmas and New Year Weather in Edinburgh.
‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xiv. 365, 1899.
Buapven, W. Wetts. Report of the Meteorological Section. ‘Trans.

N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxrv. 113-119, 1900.

BrasHEar, Dr. J. A. Diffraction Gratings. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr.
Phys. Soc.’ x. 22-23, 1900.

CamMPBELL-Bayarp, F. Report of the Meteorological Sub-Committee
for 1898. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C.’ 1898-99, 294-299, and
Appendices, 1899.

CuamBers, G. F. Kclipses of the Sun, with especial reference to the
Kclipse of May 28, 1900. ‘Trans. 8.-E. Union,’ rv. 36-42, 1899.
CRESSWELL, ALFRED. Records of Meteorological Observations taken at
the Observatory, Edgbaston, 1899. ‘Birm. and Mid. Inst. Sci. Soe.’

25 pp. 1900.

Katon, H. §. Returns of Rainfall, &c., in Dorset in 1898, with
Appendix of Rainfall Constants at 104 Stations. ‘Proc. Dorset

N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 81-98, 1899.

_ Exvins, A. World Formation and Dispersion. I. The Building of the
Chemical Molecule. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soe.’ x. 5-10, 1900.

Finneean, J. Electric Discharges in Rarefied Gases. ‘Proc. Belfast
N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-99, 68-71, 1899.

Fremine, Dr. Wu. Jas. A Simple and Inexpensive Method of Localising
with X-rays. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 12-15, 1899,

Harvey, Arraur. Astronomy in Infancy, Youth, and Maturity (Presi-
dential Address). ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soe.’ x. 67-95, 1900.

Hete-Suaw, Prof. H. 8S. Further Experiments on the Character of
Fluid Motion. ‘Trans. Liverpool HE. Soc.’ xx. 37-49, 1899,

HENDERSON, Rev. A. (Paisley Philosophical Institution). The Coats
Observatory, Paisley, its History and Equipment. 48 pp., 1899.

Hzywoop, H. Meteorological Observations in the Society’s District
1898. ‘ Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx1. 54-69, 1900. i

Hopkinson, Jonn. Report on the Rainfall in Hertfordshire in the Year
1898. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 121-128, 1899.

— Meteorological Observations taken in Hertfordshire in the Year
1898. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 148-152, 1899.

Linpsay, Tomas. Historical Sketch of the Greenwich Nautical
Almanac: IX. Star Catalogues. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soe.’ x
12-18, 1900. :

LumsprEn, G. E., and Tuos. Linpsay. Total Eclipse of the Sun of
May 28th, 1900. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ x. 44-60, 1900.

592 . REPORT—1900.

Mactean, Dr. Maanus. On the Different Instabilities of Convex Bodies
spinning in different directions on a Plane, first discovered in Celts.
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 75-82, 1899.

Marxuam, C. A. Meteorological Report—Observer’s Notes. ‘Journal
N’ton. N. H. Soe.’ x. 288-293, 1900.

—— and F. Coventry. Meteorological Reports, January to September
1899. ‘Journal N’ton. N. H. Soc.’ x. 191-197, 233-238, 268-274,.
1899.

MarLBorouGH CoLLEGE Narurat History Society. Meteorological
Report. ‘Report Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 48, 109-130, 1900.
MAWwLEY, Epwarp. Report on Phenological Phenomena observed in
Hertfordshire during the year 1898. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x.

129-135, 1899.

MircHey, Rev. J. E. Results of Meteorological Observations taken in
Chester during 1898. ‘ Proc. Chester Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 1898-99, 13-18,
1899. ;

Moncx, W. H.S. Stationary Meteor Radiants. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr.
Phys. Soe.’ x. 28-87, 1900.

Moors, A. W. Report of the Meteorological Section. ‘Yn Lioar

‘ Manninagh,’ 111. 497-498, 1899.

ParsteY PuinosopHican Institution. ‘Coats Observatory Meteoro-
logical Observations,’ 1898, 12 pp. 1899.

Parerson, JoHn A. Oceanic Tides and Tidal Phenomena as revealed in
the Genesis of Worlds. ‘Trans. Toronto Astr. Phys. Soc.’ x. 97-110,
1900.

ProwrieHt, Dr. Cuas. B. Note on Paraselene seen at Lynn, March 9,
1898. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 489, 1899.

Preston, A. W. Meteorological Notes, 1898. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soc.’ vi. 473-480, 1899.

Reynoups, Prof. Ossorne. On the Character of Fluid Motion. ‘Trans.
Liverpool E. Soe.’ xx. 49-54, 1899.

Ricnarpson, Newson, M. Notes on the Effect of the Gale of
February 11-13, 1899, on the Beach to the Kast of Weymouth.
‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 177-181, 1899.

SauNDERS, JAMES. On some Effects of the Hailstorm of June 24, 1897,
in Hertfordshire and Bedfordshire. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x.
119-120, 1899.

Surron, J. R. Do the Mining Operations affect the Climate of Kim-
berley? ‘Trans. 5. African Phil. Soc.’ x1. 7-17, 1900.

— The Winds of Kimberley. ‘Trans. S. African Phil. Soc.’ x1.
75-112, 1900. ;

Swinton, A. A.C. Electric Dischargesin Vacuo and the Réntgen Rays.
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 272-283, 1899.

Tynpatt, W. H. Report of the Meteorology of Redhill for 1895, for
1896, and for 1897. ‘Proc. Holmesdale N. H. C.’ 1896-98, 7-11,
45-538, 82-92, 1899.

Wauau, Rev. W. R. The November Meteors. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A.
F. GC.’ xx. 99-108, 1899.

WaitELeEy, J. Meteorological Table for the Year 1899 (Halifax).
‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 107-108, 1900.

co

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 59

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

Bankart, Geo. Demonstration of Carbon Printing. ‘Trans. Leicester
Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 420-424, 1900.

Cuambers, W. H. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Notes on Gob-Fires. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvitt. 154-156, 1899.

Coun, Wm. The After-Effects of the High Tide of November 29, 1897.
‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 88-86, 1899.

GERRARD, JoHN. Instantaneous Outbursts of Fire-damp and Coal,
Broad Oak Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvin. 251-258, 1900.
An Outburst of Gas at Westleigh Colliery. ‘Trans. Manch.

Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 162-165, 1899.

— Note on an Outburst of Fire-damp at Blainscough Colliery. ‘Trans,
Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxvi. 171-172, 1899.

Henptey, J.M., and W. Leck (N. Eng. Inst.). Fire-damp in the Iron
Ore Mines of Cumberland and Furness. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng,’ xv.
284-287, 1899.

Krrcan, Dr. P.Q. The Chemistry of the Lakeland Trees. ‘The Natu-
ralist for 1899,’ 349-352, 1899.

Martin, A. J. The Purification of Sewage by Bacteria. ‘Proc. Belfast
N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-99, 32-37, 1899.

Orsman, W. J. On Permitted Explosives. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’
XXvVI. 229-231, 1899.

O’SHeA, L. T. (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Safety of Modern Mining
Explosives, with special reference to Methods of Testing. ‘Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvir. 189-209, 1899.

SpEeNcER, GEORGE (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Application of Liquefied
Carbonic Acid Gas to Underground Fires. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xvir. 181-1838, 1899.

Sraruinc, E.A. Ferments and Fermentation. ‘Trans. Eastbourne
N. H. Soe.’ 8, 196-205, 1899.

Sroppart, F.W. The Circulation of Nitrogen in Nature: an Account of
some Indispensable Microbes, ‘Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc.’ 1x. 57-74,
£699.

Vecqueray, E.G. The Nordon-Bretonneau Process of Seasoning and
Preserving Timber and other Fibrous Substances by means of Elec-
tricity. ‘ Trans. Inst, Min, Eng.’ xvir. 427-429, 1899.

Section C.— GEoLoey,

Barke, F. Report of the Geological Section. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. CY’
-xxxiv. 76-79, 1900.

Barnes, J., and W. F. Hotroyp. On the Subterranean Excavation in
Limestone Areas, and a Consideration of the Atmospherical, Physio-
logical, and Hygienic Conditions produced thereby. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxvr. 206-218, 1899.

Barrett, W. §. ‘Mining Industries, &c.’ (Presidential Address).
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv1. 277-282, 1899.

Barrow, Grorce. On the Unconformity between the Carboniferous
and the Bunter, with special reference to the Cheadle Area. ‘ Trans.
N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxrv. 98-100, 1900.

1900. QQ

594 REPORT—1900.

Becuer, 8. J. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Kalgoorlie Goldfield. ‘ Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xvi. 42-49, 1899.

Bett, THomas. Notes on the Working of Coal Mines under Sea; also
under the Permian Feeder of Water, in the County Durham.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvi. 366-399, 1900.

Brewer,. Wm. M. Mineral Resources of Vancouver and Adjacent
Tslands, British Columbia. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 444-461,
1899.

Burton, F. M. Lincolnshire Coast Boulders. ‘The Naturalist for 1899.’
325-329, 1899 ; for 1900, 93-97, 1900.

CaraDoc AND SEVERN VALLEY Fre~p Cuus. Geological Notes, 1899.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 9, 35-88 [1900].

Cuargke, W.G. ‘Flint Jack:’ his Life-History. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw.
Nat. Soe.’ vi. 463-468, 1899.

Coates, Henry. ‘Geology in relation to Art’ (Annual Address).
‘Proc. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 11. xviil.—xxiv. 1899.

CRANKSHAW, JosePH. Coal Mining in South Russia. ‘ Trans, Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xxv1. 410-417, 1900.

Crick, G. C. Note on some Fossil Cephalopoda from Cornwall. ‘ Trans.
Cornw. R. Geol. Soe.’ x11. 888-841, 1900.

Crorts, W. H. Notes on the Post-Glacial Deposits of Hull and District.
‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soc.’ rv. 86, 1899.

CrosFiELD, Miss M. C. The Tremadoc Slates. ‘Proc. Holmesdale
N. H. C.’ 1896-98, 11-22, 1899.

Dawson, C. Petroleum in Sussex. ‘ Report Brighton N. H. Phil. Soe.’
1898-1899, 10-14, 1899.

De Rance, C. E. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Geology of Furness. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 805-8138, 1899.

Dickinson, JOSEPH. Striated Boulder from Blackpool. ‘Trang. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxvr. 157, 1899.

Dion, Ropert W. (Mining Inst. Scot.). The Probable Duration of the
Scottish Coal-fields. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvii. 194-211, 1899.

Dixon, JAmes §. (Mining Inst. Scot.). Notes on Hamilton Palace
Colliery. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvmt. 55-57, 1899.

Dunn, E. J. Notes on the Dwyka Coal Measures at Vereeniging, Trans-
vaal, &c. ‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ x1. 67—74, 1900.

Epwarps, Dr. A. M. On an Eocene Deposit of Bacillaria. ‘ Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soe.’ 1899, 109-114, 1900.

Fox, Howarp. Geological Notes [The North Coast of Cornwall]. ‘ Trans.
Cornw. R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 342-861, 1900.

Fox-Srraneways, C. Notes on Spitzbergen and Iceland. ‘Trans.
Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 404-410, 1900.

Gipson, Waucot. On the Existence of Coal Measures to the West of the
Staffordshire Anticline. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxx1v. 95-97, 1900.

GossELET, Prof. J. Preliminary Study of Recent Borings made in the
North of France in Search of the Coal Basin. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xvi. 317-324, 1900.

Haut, Henry. Fine Slickensides in Cannel. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’
XXVI. 285, 1899.

— Possible Case of Inversion of a Fossil Tree. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxvi. 235, 1899.

Hause, Epwarp (N. Eng. Inst.). Some Silver-bearing Veins of Mexico.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 870-384, 1900,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 595

Harner, A. Petrographical Research among Sedimentary Rocks.
‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soe.’ rv. 17-20, 1899.

— The Source of the Lincolnshire Coast Boulders. ‘The Naturalist
for 1899,’ 365-366, 1899.

Harrison, Rev. 8. N. Report of the Geological Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninach,’ 111. 486-488, 1899.

Hestop, Wm. Tayuor (N. Eng. Inst.). The Coal-fields of Natal. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvii. 410-427, 1900.

Hinp, Dr. WHEEextTon. Ona Series of Agglomerates, Ashes, and Tufts
occurring in the Carboniferous Limestone Series of Congleton Edge.
‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxtv. 80-86, 1900.

— Scaldia minuta, sp. nov. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F.C.’ xxxiv. 93-94, ©
1900.

Hryton, Martin A. C. On the Pleistocene Deposits of the Ilford and
Wanstead District, Essex. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 161-165, 1900.
Hopcxrs, L. B. M. Suggestions for working a Geological Section.

‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 224-228, 1899.

Hormes, T. V. Notes on the Geology of the Braintree District. ‘ Essex
Naturalist,’ x1. 121-126, 1899.

Hutt, Dr. E. On Sub-Oceanic Terraces and River Valleys off the Coasts
of the British Isles and Western Europe. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxv1. 8138-824, 1900.

Jounson, J. P., and G. Wuirr. Some New Sections in, and Contri-
butions to the Fauna of, the River Drift of the Uphall Estate, Ilford,
Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 157-160, 1900.

_ Jonus, J. A. The Devonian Iron Ores of Asturias, Spain. ‘ Trans. Inst.

Min. Eng.’ xvitr. 279-292, 1900.

Kern, James. Description of Sinking Two Shafts through heavily
watered Strata at Maypole Colliery, Abram, near Wigan. ‘ Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 122-152, 1899 ; 420-421, 1900.

Lamepucs, G. W. Some Open Questions in East Yorkshire Geology.

[Recent and Post-Glacial Deposits, Holderness Drifts, Yorkshire Chalk,
&e.| ‘Trans. Hull Geol. Soe.’ rv. 24-86, 1899.

Lomax, James. Recent Investigations on Plants of the Coal Measures.
‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvi. 287-255, 260-262, 1899.

Lows, Harrorp J. Natrolite from the Coverack District. ‘Trans. Cornw.
R. Geol. Soc.’ x11. 8386-337, 1900.

LyprxKcer, R. Note ona Fossil Crocodile from Chickerell. ‘ Proc. Dorset
Ne El. AL. C2, xx. 171-173, 1899.

Moncxton, G. F. Mining Districts near Kamloops’ Lake, British
Columbia. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvii. 293-310, 1900.

Mortimer, Jonn Rosert. The Chalk Water Supply of Yorkshire.

‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. C.’ 1. 81-86, 1899.

Morton, G. H. Description of a New Geological Map of Liverpool.

‘Manch. Geol. Soe.’ xxv1. 197-201, 1899.

Morr, J.J. (N. Eng. Inst.). Ore Deposits of Mount Lyell, Tasmania.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvit1. 367-369, 1900.

Newton, E. T. Note on the Mammalian Remains found in Excavations
at Carshalton. ‘Trans. Croydon M. N. H. C. 1898-99,’ 292-298, 1899.

Preston, Henry. Air Blasts below Ground. ‘The Naturalist for 1899 ’
289-290, 1899.

_ Rorcuuine, H. A. Geology in relation to Health, ‘Trans. Leicester

Lit, Phil. Soe,’ v, 8342-357, 1900,
992

596 REPORT—~1900.

SANDEMAN, JoHN J. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Mineral Resources of Tasmania.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xv. 24—41, 1899.

SHEPPARD, THos. Bibliography [Geology, &c.],1896-1897. ‘Trans. Hull
Geol. Soc.’ rv. 87-39, 1899.

— The Contents and Origin of the Gravels around Hull. ‘Trans. Hull
Sci. F. N. C.’ 1. 45-51, 1899.

—— Bibliography: Geology and Paleontology, 1895. ‘The Naturalist
for 1899,’ 805-324, 1899.

Suore, T. W. The Physical Geology and Early Archeological Associa-
tions of the Neighbourhood of Cheriton. ‘ Hants F. C.’ rv. 187-158,
1900.

Sruveson, Wu. Record of a Boring made through the Grit Rocks of
Halifax in 1898-9. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 81-84, 1899.

Smiru, Jonn. Conodonts from the Carboniferous Limestone Strata of
the West of Scotland. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 336-846,
1900.

Sonuy, Rev. H. 8. Eggardon Hill: its Camp and its Geology. ‘ Proc,
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 174-178, 1899.

Starner, J. W. The Northern Escarpment of the Wolds. ‘ Trans. Hull
Geol. Soe.’ rv. 22, 1899.

Steruens, F. J. Alluvial Deposits in the Lower Portion of the Red
River Valley, near Camborne. ‘Trans. Cornw. R. Geol. Sos.’ xxu.
324-385, 1900.

Srevart, Dovauas §.-S. The Mineral Wealth of Zoutpansberg: the
Murchison Range Gold Belt. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi, 888-426,
1899.

Stirrup, Mark. A Septarian Nodule. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxyr,
157-158, 1899.

—— The Earthquake of February 27,1899. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soe.’
xxvi. 174-176, 1899.

—— Occurrence of a Gypsum Boulder at Blackpool. ‘Trans. Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxvr. 179, 1899.

On the Value of the Fossil Plants of the Coal Measures as Strati-
graphical Guides. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvi. 180-192,
1899.

—— Report of the Delegate to the Meeting of the British Association at
Dover, September, 1899. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 401-408,
1900.

Stokes, A. H. Castleton: Geology, Minerals, and Mining. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvii1. 268-278, 1900.

— H. G. (N. Eng. Inst.) The Ore Deposits of the Silver Spur
Mine and Neighbourhood, Texas, Queensland. ‘Trans. Inst. Min.
Eng.’ xvut. 274-283, 1899.

Tucker, W. T. Barmouth during the Ice-Age. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil. Soc.’ v. 898-403, 1900.

Wauter, Rev. J. Conway. Boulders near Horncastle. ‘The Naturalist

. for 1899,’ 273-274, 1899.

Warp, Joun. Contributions to North Staffordshire Geology and Palzon-
tology: No. I. On a newly discovered Marine Bed; No, II. Notes on
Labyrinthodonts from the North Staffordshire Coalfield; No. III; On
the Occurrence of Labyrinthodont Remains in the Keuper Sandstone
of Stanton. ‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxrv, 87-92, 101-107, 108-112,
1900.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 597

Wexisvrn, Epcar D. Fish Fauna of the Lower Coal Méasures of the
Halifax District (Part II.). ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 47-50, 1899.

Warrager, W. On a Drift Deposit at Carshalton, and on Sections
shown by the Cuttings for the Sewers. ‘ Trans. Croydon M.N. H. C.
1898-99,’ 288-292, 1899.

— Coast Changes. ‘ Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 109-112, 1899.

— Geological and other Work in Hertfordshire (Anniversary Address).
‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soe.’ x. 105-117, 1899.

— The Deep-seated Geology of the Rochester District (Presidential
Address). ‘Trans. §.-H. Union,’ rv. 1-11, 1899.

Wooprurre-Preacocr, Rev. EH, A. Lincolnshire Naturalists at Harts-

holme. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 280-284, 1899.

—— Lincolnshire Naturalists at Somercotes and Saltfleetby. ‘The

Naturalist for 1900,’ 75-79, 1900.

—— Lincolnshire Naturalists at Newark. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’
117-124, 1900.

— Lincolnshire Naturalists at Frieston. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’
141-144, 1900.

Ni
BS
a
.

Section D.—Zoonoey.

Apams, L. E. Halicherus gryphus in the Isle of Man. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninaeh,’ m1. 451, 1899,
AnpEerRson, Miss M. L. Bird Notes from Lea, near Gainsborough,
January to June, 1899. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 157-160, 1900.
Bacxuouse#, James. Preliminary Catalogue of the British Bird Collec-
tions in the possession of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Part I. ‘ Report Yorks. Phil. Soc. for 1899,’ 1-7, 1900.

Barrett, C.G. Additions to the Lepidoptera of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf.

‘ Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 583-550, 1899.

Barrineton, F. Water-hen’s Nest built with Peacocks’ Feathers.

‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 552, 1899.

_ Berton, Rey. M. J. Descriptive Catalogue of the Coleoptera of South

) Africa, Family Lathridiide. ‘Trans. 8. African Phil, Soc.’ x1. 35-52,

J. 1900.

_ Binnie, Francts G. Land and Fresh-water Mollusca observed near
Tadcaster. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 18-16, 1900.

Brrp, C. Science in Education. ‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ xxiv. 62-66, 1899.

Buacksurn, Wu. Myriothela phrygia, a Tubularian Hydroid. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soe. 1898,’ 58-63, 1899.

Buapen, W. Wetts. Dreissena polymorpha, with attached Pearl.
‘Trans. N. Staff. F. C.’ xxxiv. 65, 1900.

Bonn, C. J. Experiments bearing on the Question of the Inheritance
of One Group of Acquired Characters in Plants and Animals.

_ * Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 283-294, 1899.

Boutt, J. W. List of the Macro-Leridoptera collected within eight miles
of Hull. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N. C.’ 1. 55-64, 1899.

Broepen, T. J. H. Fish of the Lincolnshire Wash and Fenland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 857-361, 1899.

—— Birds of Spalding and the South Lincolnshire Fenland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 17-82, 1900.

Bruce, Witi1am 8. A Naturalist’s Notes on the recent Voyage of the
‘Blencathra’ to the Arctic Regions. ‘Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’
Itt, 25-87, 1899.

a ae a ee So

i

a

598 REPORT—1900,

CamPsELL, Col. On the Protection of Wild Birds in Perthshire.
‘Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ mr. 18-25, 1899.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Firnp Cuus. Zoological Notes, 1899.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 9, 28-83 [1900].

Curisty, Minter. Notes on the Occurrence of the White-tailed Eagle
(Hahetus albicilla) and the Salmon (Salmo salar) at Harwich in
1666. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 76-78, 1899.

Cuark, Percy. The Black-headed Gulls in Essex (1899). ‘Essex
Naturalist,’ x1. 184-190, 1900.

CuarkeE, H. 8. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘ Yn Lioar Man-
ninagh,’ 111. 492-496, 1899.

—— _ Notes on the Life History of Sphinx ligustri (Privet Hawk
Moth). ‘ Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ m1. 431-482, 1899.

Coatrs, Henry. ‘Science Teaching,’ and ‘Seasonal Conditions’ (Open-
ing Address). ‘Proc. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ m1. iv. 1899.

Cote, Wm. The Protection of Wild Birdsin Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 10-15, 1899.

—— Stranding of a Common Rorqual Whale in the Thames at North
Woolwich, Kssex, ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 190-192, 1900.

CorpEAux, JoHN. Bird Notes from the Humber District. ‘¢ The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 173-176, 1899.

Crexuin, J. C. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘Yn Lioar Man-
ninagh,’ 11. 489-492, 1899.

CrosFIELD, J. B. Songs of Birds. ‘Proc. Holmesdale N. H. C. 1896-
98,’ 79-82, 1899.

Crossman, ALAN I, Notes on Birds observed in Hertfordshire during
the year 1898. ‘Trans. Herts N. H. Soc.’ x. 136-142, 1899.

CrowTHER, JoHN E. On the Mollusca of the Parish of Halifax.
‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ 1v. 45-47, 1899.

«— Variation in Limnea stagnalis. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 85-87,
1899.

Datuineer, Dr. Spiders: their Work and their Wisdom. ‘ Report
Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-1899, 24-27, 1899.

Dautry, Rev. T. W. Report of the Entomological Section. ‘Trans. N.

Staff. F. C.’ xxxrv. 66-70, 1900.

Drane, Rosert. [Notes on Birds, &c.] ‘Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc.’
Xxx1. 38-51, 1900.

—— Eggs of the Common Guillemot and Razorbill. ‘Trans. Cardiff
Nat. Soc.’ xxx1. 52-58, 1900.

Dura, Lieut.-Col. W. H. M. The Feathered Tenants of our Buildings.
‘ Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ m1. 10-18, 1899.

Epwarps, JAmes. Additions to the Coleoptera of Norfolk. ‘Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 515-527, 1899.

—— Additions to the Hemiptera of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.
Soc.’ vi. 528-582, 1899.

Fawcett, J. W. Reptiles and Amphibians of the County of Durham,
‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 36, 1900.

—— The Hawfinch ag a Durham Bird. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’
113-114, 1900.

Forrest, H. E. Fauna of Shropshire. ‘Car. and Sev. Vall. F. ©.’
Separate publication, 248 pp., 1899.

Foster, Sir Micnann. Integration in Science. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 209-223, 1899.

R
;
’
.
:
;

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 099

Fowier, Canon W. Warpe. Notes on Birds of the Valley of the
Somme. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 444-448, 1899.

— Animal Colouration. ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc.’ 1898-99, 27-32,
1899.

Frenco, J. On the Local Extinction and Diffusion of Molluscs in
Hissex. ‘ Hssex Naturalist,’ x1. 86-98, 1899.

Friend, Rey. Hinperic. British Well-worms (Phreoryctes), with especial
reference to a Unique Specimen from Chelmsford, Essex. ‘ Hissex
Naturalist,’ x1. 1-9, 1899.

GamBLe, I’. W. The Power of Colour-change in Animals. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1899, 92-106, 1900.

GinLANDERS, A. T. Scale Insects. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soe.’ 1898,
1-18, 1899.

— Arboreal Aphide. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1889, 71-84,
1900.

GraBpHaM, Oxtny. Bird Migration Returns from the Spurn and Flam-
borough Lighthouses for the year 1899. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’
109-112, 1900.

Gurney, J. H. The Bearded Titmouse, Panwrus biarnucus, Linn.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat Soc.’ vi. 429-438, 1899.

—, and T. SourHwety. Additions to the Birds of Norfolk. ‘ Trans.
Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 501-514, 1899.

Haren, G. H. Caron. Radde’s Bush Warbler (Lusciniola schwarzi) in
Lincolnshire. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 492-493, 1899.
Hauirax Screntiric Society AnD GeEoLoGicaAL Fisnp Cxus. Local
Records in Natural History: Zoology. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 108-

112, 1900.

Hawuipay, Epwarp. Moorland Moths. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 73-74,
1899.

Harmer, Dr. §.F. On the Occurrence of the ‘ Well-Shrimp,’ Niphargus,
near Norwich. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 489-491, 1899.
Harris, G. H. Notes on the Herring Fishery of 1898. ‘Trans. Norf.

Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 481-488, 1899.

Herworts, J. The History of the ‘Rochester Naturalist’ for sixteen
years. ‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ 1v. 538-57, 1899.

Hickson, Prof.S. J. Zoophytes (Presidential Address). ‘Trans. Manch.
Mie. Soc.’ 1899, 26-85, 1900.

Kaye, W. J. Collecting in the West Indies. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit.

Phil. Soc.’ v. 858-370, 1900.

Leacu, HK. F., and C. E. Wricut. The Fishes of Northamptonshire :
Part I. The Physiology of Fishes. ‘Journal N’ton N. H. Soc.’ x.
209-216, 259-264, 1899.

Lespour, Miss M. V. Landand Freshwater Mollusca in Northumberland.
‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 65-67, 1900.

Lrtvers, A. R. Notes on the Lepidoptera of the Nottingham District
for 1899. ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc. 1898-99,’ 40-42, 1899.

Lower, E.E. Diptera of the Warrington District (First List). ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 149-155, 1900.

——, Dr. Jonny. Additions to the Fishes of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 495-500, 1899.

Martora, Dr. R. Notes on the Mode of Growth of Tubicinella trachealis,
the Barnacle of the Southern Right Whale. ‘Trans. S. African
Phil. Soc.’ x1, 1-6, 1900.

600 REPORT—1900,

McGregor, T. M.,andG. W. Kirnanpy. List of the Rhynchota of Perth-
shire. ‘Trans. Perths. Soc. Nat. Sci.’ mr. 1-5, 1899.

Maserietp, J. R. B. Report of the Zoological Section. ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxiv. 58-56, 1900.

— Staffordshire Helices: Indigenous or Introduced? ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxrv. 57-64, 1900.

Marnews, Pauu. Ideals of Natural History Societies. ‘Trans. §.-E.
Union,’ tv. 58-61, 1899.

Meyrick, E. Entomological Observations. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 48, 43-55, 1900.

—— Notes on Garden Birds. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’ No. 48, 66-
69, 1900.

—— Hand List of Lepidoptera of the District. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N.
H. Soc.’ No. 48, 70-101, 1900.

Moruey, CraupE. On the Ichneumonid Genus Pezomachus, Graven-
horst. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 295-301, 1899.

Moss, Wm. ‘The Genitalia and Radule of the British Hyalinia. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mice. Soc.’ 1898, 24-28, 1899.

Orp, Grorce W. The Lepidoptera in relation to Flowers. ‘Trans.
Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v. 855-866, 1900.

PaTERSON, JOHN, and JoHn Renwick. Narrative of a Cruise in Loch
Fyne, June 1899 [with Natural History and Geological Notes].
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 866-378, 1900.

——, Mrs., R. Dranz, T. W. Procer, T. H. Tuomas, and D. R.
Paterson, M.D. List of the Birds of Glamorganshire. ‘ Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxx1. 1-87, 1900.

Patterson, A. Natural History Notes from Yarmouth. ‘Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soe.’ v1. 484-488, 1899.

PavuLpEN, Franz. Peripatus Leuckarti. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’
1898, 37-44, 1899.

Petty, S. Lister. Some Whitby Polyzoa, &c. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 115-116, 1900.

PickarD-Campripcr, Rey. O. Notes on British Spiders observed or
captured in 1898. ‘Proc. Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 1-22, 1899.
Rawson, F.G. 8. Some Birds of the Ryburn Valley. (Fourth Paper.)

‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ tv. 51-58, 1899; v. 13-15, 1900.

RicHarpson, Nenson M. Reports on Observations of the First Appear-
ances of Birds, Insects, &e., and the First Flowering of Plants in
Dorset during 1898. ‘Proc. Dorset N.H. A. F.C.’ xx. 182-192, 1899.

Ritson, F. W. A Ramblein North-West Durham. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 183-139, 1900.

St. Paun, Major H.C. Birds in a Ripon City Garden. ‘The Naturalist
for 1900,’ 131-132, 1900.

Scott, THos. Notes on some Crustacea from Fairlie and Hunterston,
Firth of Clyde. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 346-355, 1900.

Scriven, R. G. Wild Cattle. ‘Journal N’ton N. H. Soc.’ x. 167-170,
1899. i

SERLE, Rey. W. Migration of Birds, with special reference to Peterhead.
‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’ v. 93-116, 1899.

—— Addenda to Paper on Avifauna of Buchan, 1895. ‘Trans. Buchan
F, C. vy. 116-117, 1899.

Stater, Rev.H.H. The Birds of Northamptonshire and Neighbourhood :
Report for 1898. ‘ Journal N’ton N. H. Soe.’ x. 171-177, 1898.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 601

Smirx, Miss Tueopora. Scraps of the Life History of Insects. . ‘ Hali-

fax Naturalist,’ tv. 61-65, 1899; v. 101-106, 1900.

SoutHWELL, T. Some Additions to the Norwich Castle Museum in 1898.

_ ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1. 469-472, 1899.

— Additions to the Mammalia of Norfolk. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat.

Soe.’ vi. 498-494, 1899.

Sprenman, W. W. . Occurrence of the Ruff (Machetes pugnax) in Winter.

‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 551, 1899.

Surron, Francis. The Development of the Protective Instinct in

Fishes. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 440-444, 1899.

Sykes, Marx L. The Fourth International Zoological Congress.

: ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soe.’ 1899, 48-57, 1900.

—— Mr. C. F. Rousselet’s Method of Preserving and Mounting Rotifera

; as Permanent Objects. ‘Trans. Manch. Mie. Soc.’ 1899, 60-61, 1900.

Termites and Ants of West Africa. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’
1899, 85-91, 1900.

THORNLEY, Rev. Atrrep. Hymenoptera Sessiliventres of the Counties of
Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire: A Preliminary List. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 165-170, 1899.

—— Nottinghamshire Diptera. ‘ The Naturalist for 1899,’ 293-298, 1899.

Lincolnshire Diptera. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 841-348, 1899.

—— Phenology, or Seasonal Biology (Presidential Address). ‘ Report
Nott. Nat. Soc.’ 1898-99, 18-26, 1899.

Nottinghamshire Diptera. ‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc.’ 1898-99,
43-52, 1899.

-—— Report on the Entomological Work of the Society for the year 1899.
‘Report Nott. Nat. Soc.’ 1898-99, 53, 1899.

—— and Prof. J. W. Carr. Hymenoptera Aculeata and Tubulifera of
Nottinghamshire. (Second List.) ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 34-48
1900.

TrREUTLER, Dr. W. J. Music in its Relation to Man and Animals.
‘Report Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-99, 5-10, 1899.

Tuox, W.H. Aculeate Hymenoptera at Tostock, near Bury St. Edmunds.
‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 554-555, 1899.

Watrer, J.J. Practical Hints on the Formation of a Collection of
Coleoptera. ‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ rv. 18-35, 1899.

— A List of the Coleoptera of the Rochester District. ‘ Rochester
Naturalist,’ 11. 591-605, 607-684, 1899 and 1900.

Watuace, R. Hepaer. White Cattle: An Inquiry into their Origin and
History. Part Is. With a Bibliography. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H.
Soe.’ v. 403-457, 1900.

Watxace, WittiaM. Reasons for rejecting Physico-Chemical Theories
of the Origin of Life. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 256-266, 1899.

Watt, Hucu Boyp. Heronries, Past and Present, in the Clyde Faunal
Area. ‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 878-898, 1900.

Wess, W.M. On the Occurrence in Essex of a Species of Woodlouse
(Porcellio ratzburgi, Brandt) new to Britain. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 127, 1899.

Wituis, H.G. Beetles, ‘Trans. Manch. Mie. Soe.’ - 1898, 29-36. 1899.

-— Collecting the Lepidoptera. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1899, 62-
67, 1900. .

Wooprurre-Pracock, Rey. E. A. Lincolnshire Harvestmen or Pha-
langidea. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 831-332, 1899.

602 REPORT—1900.

Wooprvurre-Pracock, Rey. E. A. Birds in North-West Lincolnshire,
1800-1825. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 33-35, 1900.

——— Some Insects and Spiders from Ingoldmells, Lincolnshire. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 43-44, 1900.

— The Cuckoo: A Study. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 99-108, 1900.

— Weather and Birds. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 145-147, 1900.

Workman, Tuomas. Incentives to the Study of Natural History
(Address). ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-99, 17-21, 1899.

Wricut, C. EK. Report of Conchological Section. ‘Journal N’ton N.
H. Soe.’ x. 229-280, 1899.

Yarrs, Harry. A Few Notes on Marine Worms. ‘ Trans. Manch. Mic.
Soc.’ 1899, 68-70, 1900.

Section H.—GroGRAPHY,

Apamson, D. B. Yquitos, Peru. ‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ vit. 85-
37, 1900.

Boraston, J. M. Brazil in 1898. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xtv.
321-354, 1899.

Crook, H. T. The Orthography, Location, and Selection of Names for
the National Maps. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xiv. 297-303,
1899.

FarrcioucH, T. L. Expedition to the Mount Aux Sources, Basutoland.
‘Trans. Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ vir. 80-85, 1900.

Hatcu, E. F.G. Our Indian Empire: with Personal Reminiscences of
a Tour from Charing Cross to the North-West Frontier. ‘ Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xv. 159-178, 1899.

Hepspurn, Gro. A Short Account of a Trip to the Kafukwe River.
‘Journal Tyneside Geog. Soc.’ rv. 264-268, 1900.

Hersertson, Dr. A. J. Report [to the Council of the Manchester
Geographical Society] on the Teaching of Applied Geography.
‘ Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xtv. 264-285, 1899.

— The Position of Economic Geography in Education. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xv. 286-292, 1899.

Howorrtu, D. IF. The Changes in the Political Map of Europe during
the Nineteenth Century, as illustrated by Copper Coins. ‘Journal
Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xv. 24-87, 1899.

Lirtie, Mrs. A. China. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xtv. 361-364,
1899.

—— A. J. The Yangtze Valley and the British Sphere. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Geog. Soe.’ vir. 15-20, 1900.

Mavor, Samurt. From the Baltic to the Caspian: a Voyage across
Russia. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 192-222, 1899.

Newsy, Joun R. Portugal, the Portuguese, and the Vasco de Gama
Celebration, 1898. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xv. 75-122, 1899.

Reep, J. Howarp. Cuba: ‘Queen of the Antilles.’ ‘ Journal Manch.
Geog. Soc.’ xv. 187-158, 1899.

Rickmers, Mrs. R. A Journey through the Khanate of Bokhara. ‘ Trans.
Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ vir. 87-43, 1900.

ScamMEt, EK. T. The Work and Wealth of Western Australia. ‘Trans.
Liverpool Geog. Soc.’ vir. 20-29, 1900.

Sowersurts, E. Geographical Education and Commercial Museums.
‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xy. 293-296, 1899.

—

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 603

Sowrrpurts, E. Copy of Letter to British Geographical Societies and
others. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xv. 174-181, 1899. .

Wartermeyver, J.C. Some Notes on a Journey in German South-West

Africa. ‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’ xr. 19-383, 1900.

Woopwarp, Miss. A Lady’s Notes on Residence in Queensland. ‘ Journal
Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xiv. 867-871, 1899.

Worswick, Dr. H. F. The Yellowstone Park, U.S.A. ‘Journal Manch.
Geog. Soe.’ xv. 88-55, 1899.

Section F.—Eiconomic SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

_ Broavrietp, E. J. Primary Education. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.’

1899-1900, 101-120, 1900.

BrockLenurst, ¥. The Medical Charities of Manchester and Salford.
‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1899-1900, 87-100, 1900.

CaRLIsLE, Ernest J. Employers’ Liability and Compensation to
Workmen in Case of Accidents. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1899-
1900, 141-170, 1900.

Crivrs, R. D. Employers’ Liability. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’ xx.
63-78, 1899.

Devas, Cuas. 8. Statistical Aspect of Wealth and Welfare. ‘Trans.
Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1899-1900, 65-86, 1900.

Duncan, Dr. EBENEZER. Some Points on the Social Progress of Scot-
- land in Recent Times. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 1-11, 1899.
Eason, CuAs., jun. The Tenement Houses of Dublin; their Condition
and Regulation. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 883-898, 1899.
Fuux, Prof. A. W. Notes on City Government and Local Taxation in
Copenhagen. ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soc.’ 1899-1900, 1-64, 1900.
GaLtoway, JoHn R. Shipping Rings and the Manchester Cotton Trade.

‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soc.’ xiv. 241-263, 1899.

Humpureys-Davises, Guo. The Rating of Coal Mines. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xvim1. 228-286, 1900.

Kernnepy, Tomas. Fifty Years of Irish Agriculture. ‘Journal Stat.
Soe. Ireland,’ x. 898-404, 1899.

Kyicut, JAMES. Commercial Education at Home and Abroad. ‘Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 223-255, 1899.

Lawson, Wu. The Liability of Married Women to Income Tax.
‘ Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 482-486, 1899.

— The Proposal for the Abolition of Income Tax in Ireland con-
sidered. ‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 486-441, 1899.

Loneprn, J. A. [Coal Supply] (Presidential Address). ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xvi. 319-322, 1899.

MacDonett, Dr. HErcutEes. Prisons and Prisoners: Suggestions as
to Treatment and Classification of Criminals. ‘Journal Stat. Soc.
Ireland,’ x. 441-452, 1899.

MAnn, Jouy, jun. Better Houses for the Poor—Will they Pay? ‘Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 88-124, 1899.

Morrram, Txomas H. (Mining Inst. Scot.). Explosions of Fire-damp
and Coal-dust in the West of Scotland. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’
xvul. 186-198, 1899.

Pim, J.T. A Review of the Economic and Social Condition of Ireland.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 453-507, 1899.

604 REPORT—1900.

Puayrair, G. M.E. The Panacea for China. ‘Journal Manch. Geog.
Soe.’ xv. 65-74, 1899.

Ruoves, Dr. J. M. Is Insanity increasing? ‘Trans. Manch. Stat. Soe.’
1899-1900, 121-140, 1900.

SamuEs, ArTHuR. Private Bill Legislation for Ireland: A Tribunal.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 879-3828, 1899.

Scorr-Exxior, G. Fk. The Prospect in Chinese Trade and the present
Opportunity. ‘Proce. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 174-191, 1899,

Smrru, W.G. Imperial Grants considered as Adjustments of Taxation.
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 59-74, 1899.

Synnort, N. J. Over-Taxation and Local Expenditure in Ireland.
‘Journal Stat. Soc. Ireland,’ x. 404-482, 1899.

Tinpan, Jas. A. L. The Workmen’s Compensation Act (1897), as
bearing on the Building Trade. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx.
156-173, 1899.

Topp, Joun A. The Taxation of Land Values. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soc.’ xxx. 140-155, 1899.

Youne, Oswatp W. Some Observations on the Rating of Machinery.
‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 101-107, 1899.

Section G.—McHANICAL SCIENCE.

Bates, Srpnry (N. Eng. Inst.). The Driving of a Stone Drift at the
West Wylam Collieries. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 120-124,
1899.

Buatr, Maucomm. The Difficulties that Manufacturing Engineers have
to undergo in Estimating and Working to Civil Engineers’ Specifica-
tions. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soe.’ xx. 165-173, 1899.

Brovig, Jonn A. Local Transport of Goods and Passengers (Presi-
dential Address). ‘Trans. Liverpool EK. Soc.’ xx. 1-12, 1899.

Brown, J. The Viagraph : a new Instrument for testing Road Surfaces.
‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-99, 41-47, 1899.

—— M. Watron. Mechanical Ventilators: Report of the Committee
of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical En-
gineers, and the Midland Institute of Mining, Civil, and Mechanical
Engineers. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvir. 482-576, 1900.

Burman, Harrison F. The Kalgoorlie Gold Mines, Western Australia.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 849-370, 1899.

CuamBers, W. Refuse Disposal and Sewage Purification. ‘Proc.
Belfast N. H. Phil. Soe.’ 1898-99, 22-26, 1899.

Cuusneav, G. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Davey-Bickford-Smith Safety Shot
Igniter. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvir. 269-272, 1899.

CuacHorn, CLARENCE R. (N. Eng. Inst.). Present and Proposed
Methods of Operating Vinton No. 8 Colliery, Vintondale, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 351-362, 1900.

Crayton, W. W. (Midland Inst. Eng.). The Use and Abuse of Colliery
Locomotives. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 212-217, 1899.

Cunnincuam, Brysson. Engineering Formule. ‘Trans. Liverpool E.
Soc.’ xx. 115-187, 1899.

DarsisuirE, C. H. Some of the Machinery in use in Modern Road-
Stone Quarries. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 145-158, 1899.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 605

Davison, Jas. (N. Eng. Inst.). Description of the Pumping-plant at
the Stank and Yarlside Mines in the Furness District of North
Lancashire. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 296-800, 1899,

Deans, Harrison. The Pneumatophor Rescue Appliance for Use in
Mines. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxvi. 223-225, 1899.

Dickinson, JoserH. Boiler Explosions, ‘Trans. Manch. Geol. Soc,’
xxvi. 194-195, 1899.

—— Pit Props and their Setting. ‘Trans, Manch. Geol. Soc.’ xxv1.
330-354, 1900.

Dowson, J. Emerson. Metric Weights and Measures. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xvi. 326-337, 1899.

Guover, JAmes. The Genesis of Transition Curves for Railways.
‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 202-218, 1899.

Harzg, lt. (N. Eng. Inst). Automatic Sprayer for preventing Accumu-
lations of Dust in Mines. ‘ Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 118-115, 1899.

Kren, James. Description of Sinking Two Shafts through heavily
watered Strata at Maypole Colliery, Abram, near Wigan. ‘ Manch.
Geol. Soc.’ xxv. 122-152, 1899 ; 420-421, 1900.

Keutetrt, W. (N. Eng. Inst.). Description of the Machinery and

. Process of Iron-ore Washing at the Park Mines in the Furness
District of North Lancashire. ‘Trans, Inst. Min, Eng.’ xvi. 290-
295, 1899.

Liveine, Prof. E. H. (Midland Inst. Eng.). Underground Surveys and
their Connection with the Surface by the Transit Method. ‘ Trans.
Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvim. 65-71, 1899.

Mipztaxp Inst. Enc. Report of Committee upon Recovery Stations.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvim. 74-75, 1899.

Mureve, D. (N. Eng. Inst.). The Murgue Recording Volumetric
Anemometer. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvir. 261-268, 1899.

Orsman, W. J. Further Notes on Safety-Explosives. ‘Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng.’ xvi. 373-877, 1899.

Paterson, J.G. Howat’s Latest Safety Lamp. ‘Trans. Manch. Geol.
Soc.’ xxvi. 862-864, 427-430, 1900.

——, Wm. Fires: their Causes and Prevention. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil.
Soc.’ xxx. 16-29, 1899.

Preece, W. H. Electricity at the General Post Office. ‘Trans.
Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx: 85-95, 1899.

Raprorp, G.K. Mining for Gold in the Auriferous Gravels of California,
U.S.A. ‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 452-481, 1899.

Reape, M. Treteaven. Some Properties of Flexible Surfaces and
Flexible Solids noted chiefly in designing ‘The Shellbend Folding
Boat.’ ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 189-201, 1899.

Ruopves, Harry. The Use of Slow-moving Belt Ropes in Shafts.
‘Trans. Inst. Min. Eng.’ xvi. 482-439, 1899.

Sexton, Prof. A. H. The Evolution of the Blast Furnace. ‘Proc.
Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 284-293, 1899.

Taytor, G. Recrnaup. Notes on Track and Overhead Constructions for
Electric Tramways. ‘Trans. Liverpool E. Soc.’ xx. 180-187, 1899.
Txomas, Wirxz1am: Notes on Expediting Mine Survey Work. ‘Trans.

Cornw: R. Geol. Soc.’ xir. 819-328, 1900.

Youne, J. Dennorm. The Basis of Propeller Design. ‘Trans. Liver-

pool E, Soc.’ xx. 25-35, 1899.

606 REPORT—1900.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

Bennett, Georae J. The Roman Occupation of Wareham. ‘Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 148-160, 1899.

CAMPBELL, JoHN F. Report of a Conjoint Visit of the Geological and
Philosophical Societies to the Dumbuck Crannog, April 8, 1899.
‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 267-271, 1899.

CRELLIN, Miss A. M. Report of the Anthropological Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 11. 482-486, 1899.

CunninGton, Epwarp. ‘The Influence of Phenician Colonisation, Com-
merce, and Enterprise on England two thousand years ago. ‘Proc.
Dorset N. H. A. F. C.’ xx. 113-121, 1899.

Date, W. Neolithic Implements from the Neighbourhood of Southamp-
ton. ‘Hants F. C.’ rv. 183-185, 1900.

Dautry, Rev. T. W. Barrows (Presidential Address). ‘Trans. N.
Staff. F. C.’ xxxtv. 388-49, 1900.

Dawson, C. The Bell Pits (or Dene Holes) at Brightling, Sussex,
‘Report Brighton N. H. Phil. Soc.’ 1898-99, 15-17, 1899.

Harrison, Bensamin. Plateau Implements (EHoliths): Results of
Recent Research. ‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ tv. 12-17, 1899.

James, C. Henry. The Excavations at Gelligaer Camp, 1899. ‘ Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc.’ xxxr. 80-84, 1900.

Kenworrtuy, Rev. J. W. A Supposed Neolithic Settlement at Skitts
Hill, Braintree, Essex. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’ x1. 94-117, 1899.

Kermopg, P. M.C. Report of the Archeological Section. ‘Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ 111. 477-482, 1899.

Lovert, Epwarp. Notes of a Demonstration on Primitive Fire-making
Appliances. ‘Essex Naturalist,’ xr. 49-52, 1899.

Meyrick, E. Anthropometrical Statistics. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H.
Soc.’ No. 48, 131-154, 1900.

Reaver, F. W. Remarks on the Archxological Objects from the Sup-
posed Neolithic Settlement at Skitts Hill, Braintree, Essex. ‘Essex
Naturalist,’ x1. 117-121, 1899.

SHEPPARD, THomas. Note on a Bronze Celt recently found in Holder-
ness. ‘Trans. Hull Sci. F. N.C.’ 1. 52-54, 1899.

Surry, Rev. FrepERIcK. Some Investigations into Paleolithic Remains
in Scotland. ‘ Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 30-88, 1899.

Souty, Rev. H. S. Eggardon Hill: its Camp and its Geology. ‘ Proc.
Dorset N, H. A. F. C.’ xx. 174-178, 1899.

Spence, J. Folklore Days and Seasons. PartII. The Borrowing Days.
‘Trans. Buchan F. C.’ v. 65-77, 1899.

SterHens, Epwarp. The Tasmanian Half-Castes of the Furneaux
Islands. ‘Journal Manch. Geog. Soe.’ xiv. 355-860, 1899.

Woop, G. W. Denton’s Description of the Isle of Man and its Customs.
‘Yn Lioar Manninagh,’ 111. 485-444, 1899.

Section I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

Hurcuinson, Miss H. J. Modern Histology : its Development, Methods,
and Uses. ‘ Report Nott. Nat. Soc.’ 1898-99, 33-39, 1899.

Surry, Dr. J. Lorratn. Pathogenic Bacteria, with special reference to
the Typhoid Bacillus, ‘Proc. Belfast N. H. Phil, Soc.’ 1898-99,
64-67, 1899,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 607

Tomson, Dr. R. 8. A Smallpox Hospital Experience of the Protective
Influence of Vaccination. ‘Proc. Glasgow Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 294-306,
1899.

Section K.—BotTany.

Bainry, CHARLES. Maize. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1898, 48-57,
1899

Bennett, ArtHur. Flora of Cumberland [Omissions in Hodgson’s
‘Flora of Cumberland’]. ‘ The Naturalist for 1899,’ 161-162, 275, 1899.

Notes on the Flora of Cheshire. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’

853-356, 1899.

Senecio paludosus and S. palustris in Kast Anglia. ‘ Trans. Norf.
Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vi. 457-462, 1899.

Boutcesr, Prof. G. 8. History of Essex Botany. ‘ Essex Naturalist,’
xr. 57-68, 1899; 169-184, 1900.

—— Botanical Bibliography of the South-Eastern Counties. ‘Trans.
S.-E. Union,’ rv. 48-52, 1899.

— A Botanical Record and how to keepit. ‘Trans. §.-E. Union,’ rv.
69-71, 1899.

Burret, W.H. Mycetozoa. ‘ Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ vr. 449-452,
1899.

Burton, F. M. Iris spuria: a Lincolnshire Escape. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 63-64, 1900.

—— J.J. Vernacular Names in North Yorkshire. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 163-164, 1899.

CARADOC AND SEVERN VALLEY Freip Crus. Botanical Notes, 1899.
‘Record of Bare Facts,’ No. 9, 5-22 [1900].

Carr, Prof. J. W. Notes on Nottinghamshire Botany for 1899. ‘ Report
Nott, Nat. Soc.’ 1898-99, 54-55, 1899.

Curisty, Minuer. Essex as a Wine-producing County. ‘Essex Natu-
ralist,’ x1. 34-48, 1899.

CrossLaND, CHARLES. Fungus Foray at Sutton near Askern. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 367-3872, 1899.

New and Critical British Fungi found in West Yorkshire. ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 5-10, 1900.

Crump, W. B. On the Position of Crocus nudiflorus in the English
Flora. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 21-26, 1899.

— A Spring Chronicle. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ v. 15-17, 1900.

— The Flora of the Parish of Halifax. ‘ Halifax Naturalist,’ rv., v.
App. 97-144, 1899, 1900.

Dixon, H. N. The Moss Flora of Northamptonshire. ‘ Journal N’ton
N. H. Soe.’ x. 183-190, 217-222, 239-258, 279-280, 1899 and 1900.

Drucs, G. Cuaripce. The Botanologia of Northamptonshire. ‘Journal
N’ton N. H. Soe.’ x. 178-182, 1899.

— Notes on the Botany of Northamptonshire. ‘Journal N’ton N. H.
Soc.’ x. 208, 265-267, 282, 1899 and 1900.

—— Northamptonshire and Buckinghamshire Rubi. ‘Journal N’ton
N. H. Soe.’ x. 281, 1900.

Epwarps, Dr. A. M. What are Fossil Bacillaria? ‘Trans. Manch.
Mic. Soe.’ 1899, 107-108, 1900.

Fowner, Rev. W. [Lincolnshire Botany] (Presidential Address to the
Lincolnshire Naturalists’ Union). ‘ The Naturalist for 1899,’ 229-236,

608 REPORT—1900.

GELDART, Herspert D. The Mistletoe: its Hosts and Distribution in.
Great Britain. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soe.’ vi. 4538-456, 1899.
Haurrax Screntiric SocteTy AND GEoLocicAL Frenup Cxuus. Local
Records in Natural History: Botany. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ rv. 112-
114, 1900.

Hannan, Wm. I. Textile Fibres. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1899,
58-59, 1900.

Hopason, Wiuu1AM. Interesting Botanical Finds in Cumberland. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 291-292, 1899.

Hurcuins, D. E. Cape National Forests. ‘Trans. §. African Phil. Soc.’
x1. 538-66, 1900.

Hurcurnson, R. R. Lenticels and their Function. ‘Trans. Eastbourne
N. H. Soe.’ m1. 174-179, 1899.

Krraan, Dr. P. Q. The Chemistry of the Lakeland Trees. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 849-3852, 1899.

Kermopg, Rey. §. A. P. Report of the Botanical Section. ‘ Yn Lioar
Manninagh,’ m1. 488-489, 1899.

Lees, F. Arnoup. The Florula of Bare, West Lancaster. ‘The
Naturalist for 1899,’ 299-8038, 1899.

— West Lancaster Indigenes. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 3-4, 1900.

An Old Leeds Herbary. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 51-61, 1900.

McAnprew, JAMES. Botanical Notes from Galloway for 1897-98.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v. 821-3238, 1900.

MarsHatu, J. J. The Mosses of the ‘Hast Riding. ‘Trans. Hull Sci.
F. N. C.’ 1. 40-48, 1899.

MassExE, GEorGE. Essex Field Club’s Fungus Foray. ‘Essex Naturalist,’
x1. 166-169, 1900.

—— The Modern Tendency of Mycological Study. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 337-839, 1899.

Menzigs, JAMES. The Flora of Durdie and Arnbathie. ‘Trans. Perths.
Soc. Nat. Sci.’ 11. 6-10, 1899.

Meyrick, E. Botanical Observations. ‘Rep. Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc.’
No. 48, 88-42, 1900.

Moss, C. E. The Life History of the Autumn Crocus. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ 1v. 66-72, 1899.

Mort, F. T. The Wild Fruits of Leicestershire. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit.
Phil. Soe.’ v. 229-236, 1899.

Nicnouson, W. A. Root Tubercles. ‘Trans. Norf. Norw. Nat. Soc.’ v1.
553- 554, 1899.

PAINTER, Rev. W. H. Notes Supplementary to the Flora of Teeb yslhires
including the Mosses. ‘ The Naturalist for 1899,’ 177-208, 1899.

List of Derbyshire Mosses. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’ 241-272,
1899.

Pawson, A. H. Water Plants as Land Winners. ‘The Naturalist for
1899,’ 225-228, 1899.

PrerwortH, W. H. Myxomycetes. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1898,
13-23, 1899.

Petty, 8. Lister. North Lancashire Varieties of Polypodiwm vulgare.
‘ The Naturalist for 1900,’ 125-129, 1900.

PrtcarrHuEy, ALEX. Notes on the Larch Disease. Trans. Perths. Soc.
Nat. Sci.’ 11. 87-42, 1899.

Preston, Rev. T. A. Notes respecting the Flora of the County since
1885. ‘Trans. Leicester Lit. Phil. Soc.’ v. 411-419, 1900.

,

r,

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES: 609

Reyxwicr, Jon. Measurements of Notable Trees at Kglinton Castle.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soc.’ v. 899-402, 1900.

Satmon, C. EH. Localities for Plants in Surrey. ‘Proc. Holmesdale
N. H. C.’ 1896-98, 11. 86-38, 92-93, 1899.

Botanical Rambles in Ross-shire. ‘Proc. Holmesdale N, H. C.’
1896-98, 60-64, 1899.

Sare@ant, Miss E. The Cell and the Nucleus. ‘Proc. Holmesdale
N. H. C.’ 1896-98, 39, 1899.

Sournam, 8.C. Some Garden Flowers of Shakespeare. ‘Trans. Car.
and Sev. Vall. F. C.’ 1. 175-191, 1899.

Stow, Miss §. C. Mosses New to North or to South Lincolnshire.
‘ The Naturalist for 1900,’ 45-48, 1900.

TuRNER, CHARLES. The Relationship between Plants and Rain. ‘Trans.
Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1898, 45-47, 1899.

—— The Pollination of Flowers. ‘Trans. Manch. Mic. Soc.’ 1899,
115-122, 1900.

Weiss, Prof. F.E. Life. (Presidential Address.) ‘Trans. Manch, Mic.
Soc.’ 1898, 64-76, 1899.

Waepon, J. A. West Lancashire Flora Notes. ‘The Naturalist for
1900,’ 1-2, 1900.

—— Mosses of the Mersey Province. ‘The Naturalist for 1900,’ 69-74,

1900.

Wauirtton, JAs. Meteorological Notes, and Remarks upon the Weather
during the year 1898, with its General Effects upon Vegetation.
‘Trans. Glasgow N. H. Soe.’ v. 824-835, 1900.

Witxrnson, Henry J. Catalogue of British Plants in the Herbarium of
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. Part VI. ‘ Report Yorks. Phil.
Soc. for 1899,’ 11-24, 1900.

Wotstennoime, J. B. Bacteria and their Products. ‘Trans. Manch.
Mie. Soc.’ 1899, 86-47, 1900.

WoopuEap, T. W. The Bilberry—Vaccinium Myrtillus. ‘ Halifax
Naturalist,’ rv. 92-95, 1899.

Wooprurre-Pracocr, Rey. BE. A. A Critical Catalogue of Lincoln-

shire Plants: from all known sources. (Fourteenth Paper.) ‘The
Naturalist for 1900,’ 81-91, 1900.

OBITUARY.
Coats, Prof. Josspu, M.D. By Dr. T. K. Monro. ‘Proc. Glasgow
Phil. Soc.’ xxx. 811-814, 1899.
CorpEAux, Joun. By W. Eagle Clarke. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,
277-279, 1899.
By Rey. E. A. Woodruffe-Peacock. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’
280-284, 1899.

Hewerson, H. Benpetack. By J. C. ‘The Naturalist for 1899,’
237-240, 1899.

La Tovcns, Rey. J. D. By Rev. W. Elliot. ‘Trang. Car. and Sey.
Vall. F. C.’ 11. 165-174, 1899.

Sorrirt, Tomas Henry. By C. Crossland. ‘Halifax Naturalist,’ ry.
31-36, 1899,

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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.

Section A—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEctIoN—Dr, JosEPH Larmor, F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Ir is fitting that before entering upon the business of the Section we should pause
to take note of the losses which our department of science has recently sustained.
The fame of Bertrand, apart from his official position as Secretary of the French
Academy of Sciences, was long ago universally established by his classical treatise
on the Infinitesimal Calculus: it has been of late years sustained by the luminous
exposition and searching criticism of his books on the Theory of Probability and
Thermodynamics and Electricity. The debt which we owe to that other veteran,
G. Wiedemann, both on account of his own researches, which take us back to the
modern revival of experimental physics, and for his great and indispensable
thesaurus of the science of electricity, cannot easily be overstated. By the death
of Sophus Lie, following soon after his return to a chair in his native.
country Norway, we have lost one of the great constructive mathematicians of the
century, who has in various directions fundamentally expanded the methods and
conceptions of analysis by reverting to the fountain of direct geometrical intuition.
In Italy the death of Beltrami has removed an investigator whose influence has
been equally marked on the theories of transcendental geometry and on the pro-
gress of mathematical physics. In our own country we have lost in D. E. Hughes
one of the great scientific inventors of the age; while we specially deplore the
removal, in his early prime, of one who has recently been well known at these
meetings, Thomas Preston, whose experimental investigations on the relations
between magnetism and light, combined with his great powers of lucid exposition,
marked out for him a brilliant future.

Perhaps the most important event of general scientific interest during the past
year has been the definite undertaking of the great task of the international
coordination of scientific literature; and it may be in some measure in the pro-
longed conferences that were necessitated by that object that the recently
announced international federation of scientific academies has had its origin. In
the important task of rendering accessible the stores of scientific knowledge, the
British Association, and in particular this Section of it, has played the part of
pioneer. Our annual volumes have long been classical, through the splendid
reports of the progress of the different branches of knowledge that have been from
time to time contributed to them by the foremost British men of science ; and our
work in this direction has received the compliment of successful imitation by the
sister Associations on the Continent.

The usual conferences connected with our department of scientific activity have

614 REPORT-—1900.

been this year notably augmented by the very successful international congresses
of mathematicians and of physicists which met a few weeks agoin Paris. The three
volumes of reports on the progress of physical science during the last ten years, for
which we are indebted to the initiative of the French Physical Society, will pro-
vide an admirable conspectus of the present trend of activity, and form a permanent
record for the history ot our subject.

Another very powerful auxiliary to progress is now being rapidly provided by the
republication, in suitable form and within reasonable time, of the collected works
of the masters of our science. We have quite recently received, in a large quarto
volume, the mass of mest important unpublished work that was left behind him by
the late Professor J.C. Adams; the zealous care of Professor Sampson has worked
up into order the more purely astronomical part of the volume; while the great
undertaking, spread over many years, of the complete determination of the secular
change of the magnetic condition of the earth, for which the practical preparations
had been set on foot by Gauss himself, has been prepared for the press by Professor
W.G. Adams. By the publication of the first volume of Lord Rayleigh’s papers
a series of memoirs which have formed a main stimulus to the progress of
mathematical physics in this country during the past twenty years has become
generally accessible. The completed series will form a landmark for the end of the
century that may be compared with Young's ‘ Lectures on Natural Philosophy’
for its beginning.

The recent reconstruction of the University of London, and the foundation
of the University of Birmingham, will, it is to be hoped, give greater free-
dom to the work of our University Colleges. The system of examinations
has formed an admirable stimulus to the effective acquisition of that general
knowledge which is a necessary part of all education. So long as the examiner
recognises that his function is a responsible and influential one, which is to
be taken seriously from the point of view of moulding the teaching in places
where external guidance is helpful, test by examination will remain « most valu-
able means of extending the area of higher education. Except for workers in
rapidly progressive branches of technical science, a broad education seems better
adapted to the purposes of life than special training over a narrow range; and it is
difficult to see how a reasonably elastic examination test can be considered as a
hardship. But the case is changed when preparation for a specialised scientific
profession, or mastery of the lines of attack in an unsolved problem, is the object.
The general education has then been presumably finished ; in expanding depart-
ments of knowledge, variety rather than uniformity of training should be the aim,
and the genius of a great teacher should be allowed free play without external
trammels. It would appear that in this country we have recently been liable to
unduly mix up two methods. We have been starting students on the special and
lengthy, though very instructive, processes which are known as original research at
an age when their time would be more profitably employed in rapidly acquiring a
broad basis of knowledge. As a result, we have been extending the examination
test from the general knowledge to which it isadmirably suited into the specialised
activity which is best left to the stimulus of personal interest. Informal. contact
with competent advisers, themselves imbued with the scientific spirit, who can
point the way towards direct appreciation of the works of the masters of the science,
is far more effective than detailed instruction at second hand, as regards growing
subjects that have not yet taken on an authoritative form of exposition. Fortu-
nately there seems to be now no lack of such teachers to meet the requirements of
the technical colleges that are being established throughout the country.

The famous treatise which opened the modern era by treating magnetism and
electricity on a scientific basis appeared just 300 years ago, The author,
William Gilbert, M.D., of Colchester, passed from the Grammar School of his
native town to St. John’s College, Cambridge: soon after taking his first degree,
in 1560, he became a Fellow of the College, and seems to have remained in resi-
dence, and taken part in its affairs, for about ten years. All through his subse-
quent career, both at Colchester and afterwards at London, where he attained
the highest position in his profession, he was an exact and diligent explorer,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 615

first of chemical and then of magnetic and electric phenomena. In the words of
the historian Hallam, writing in 1839, ‘in his Latin treatise on the Magnet he
not only collected all the knowledge which others had possessed, but he became
at once the father of experimental philosophy in this island;’ and no demur
would be raised if Hallam’s restriction to this country were removed. Working
nearly a century before the time when the astronomical discoveries of Newton had
originated the idea of attraction at a distance, he established a complete formu-
lation of the interaction of magnets by what we now call the exploration of their
fields of force. His analysis of the facts of magnetic influence, and incidentally of
the points in which it differs from electric influence, is virtually the one which
Faraday re-introduced. A cardinal advance was achieved, at a time when the
Copernican Astronomy had still largely to make its way, by assigning the
behaviour of the compass and the dip needle to the fact that the earth itself is a
great magnet, by whose field of influence they are controlled. His book passed
through many editions on the Continent within forty years: it won the high
praise of Galileo. Gilbert has been called ‘the father of modern electricity by
Priestley, and ‘the Galileo of magnetism’ by Poggendortf.

When the British Association last met at Bradford in 1873 the modern theory
which largely reverts to Gilbert’s way of formulation, and refers electric and
magnetic phenomena to the activity of the «ther instead of attractions at a
distance, was of recent growth: it had received its classical exposition only two
years before by the publication of Clerk Maxwell's treatise. The new doctrine
was already widely received in England on its own independent merits. On the
Continent it was engaging the strenuous attention of Helmholtz, whose series of
memoirs, deeply probing the new ideas in their relation to the prevalent and
fairly successful theories of direct action across space, had begun to appear in
1870. During many years the search for crucial experiments that would go
beyond the results equally explained by both views met with small success ; it
was not until 1887 that Hertz, by the discovery of the ethereal radiation of long
wave-length emitted from electric oscillators, verified the hypothesis of Faraday
and Maxwell and initiated a new era in the practical development of physical
science. The experimental field thus opened up was soon fully occupied both in
this country and abroad; and the horderland between the sciences of optics and
electricity is now being rapidly explored. The extension of experimental know-
ledge was simultaneous with increased attention to directness of explanation ; the
expositions of Heaviside and Hertz and other writers fixed attention, in a manner
already briefly exemplified by Maxwell himself, on the inherent simplicity of the
completed sthereal scheme, when once the theoretical scaffolding employed in its
construction and dynamical consolidation is removed; while Poynting’s beautiful
corollary specifying the path of the transmission of energy through the xther
has brought the theory into simple relations with the applications of electro-
dynamics.

‘Equally striking has been the great mastery obtained during the last twenty
years over the practical manipulation of electric power. The installation of
electric wires as the nerves connecting different regions of the earth had attained
the rank of accomplished fact so long ago as 1857, when the first Atlantic cable
was laid. It was largely the theoretical and practical difficulties, many of them
unforeseen, encountered in carrying that great undertaking to a successful issue,
that necessitated the elaboration by Lord Kelvin and his coadjutors of convenient
methods and instruments for the exact measurement of electric quantities, and
thus prepared the foundation for the more recent practical developments in
other directions. On the other hand, the methods of theoretical explanation have
been in turn improved and simplified through the new ways of considering the
phenomena which have been evolved in the course of practical advances on a
large scale, such as the improvement of dynamo armatures, the conception and
utilisation of magnetic circuits, and the transmission of power by alternating
currents. In our time the relations of civilised life have been already perhaps
more profoundly altered than ever before, owing to the establishment of practically
instantaneous electric communication between all parts of the world. The

616 REPORT—1900.

employment of the same subtle agency is now rapidly superseding the artificial
reciprocating engines and other contrivances for the manipulation of mechanical
power that were introduced with the employment of steam. The possibilities
of transmitting power to great distances at enormous tension, and therefore with
very slight waste, along lines merely suspended in the air, are being practically
realised ; and the advantages thence derived are increased manifold by the almost
automatic manner in which the electric power can be transformed into mechanical
rotation at the very point where it is desired to apply it. The energy is transmitted
at such lightning speed that at a given instant only an exceedingly minute portion
of it is in actual transit. When the tension of the alternations is high, the amount
of electricity that has to oscillate backwards and forwards on the guiding wires
is proportionately diminished, and the frictional waste reduced. At the terminals
the direct transmission from one armature of the motor to the other, across the
intervening empty space, at once takes us beyond the province of the pushing and
rubbing contacts that are unavoidable in mechanical transmission; while the
perfect symmetry and reversibility of the arrangement by which power is delivered
from a rotatory alternator at one end, guided by the wires to another place many
miles away, where it is absorbed by another alternator with precise reversal of the
initial stages, makes this process of distribution of energy resemble the automatic
operations of nature rather than the imperfect material connections previously in
use. We are here dealing primarily with the flawless continuous medium which
is the transmitter of radiant energy across the celestial spaces; the part played
by the coarsely constituted material conductor is only that of a more or less
imperfect guide which directs the current of «ethereal energy. The wonderful
nature of this theoretically perfect, though of course practically only approximate,
method of abolishing limitations of locality with regard to mechanical power is
not diminished by the circumstance that its principle must have been in some
manner present to the mind of the first person who fully realised the character of
the reversibility of a Gramme armature.

In theoretical knowledge a new domain, to which the theory as expounded
twenty years ago had little to say, has recently been acquired through the experi-
mental scrutiny of the electric discharge in rarefied gaseous media. The very
varied electric phenomena of vacuum tubes, whose electrolytic character was first
practically established by Schuster, have been largely reduced to order through
the employment of the high exhaustions introduced and first utilised by Crookes,
Their study under these circumstances, in which the material molecules are so
sparsely distributed as but rarely to interfere with each other, has conduced to
enlarged knowledge and verification of the fundamental relations in which the
individual molecules stand to all electric phenomena, culminating recently in the
actual determination, by J. J. Thomson and others following in his track, of the
masses and velocities of the particles that carry the electric discharge across the
exhausted space. The recent investigations of the circumstances of the electric
dissociation produced in the atmosphere and in other gases by ultra-violet light,
the Roéntgen radiation, and other agencies, constitute one of the most striking
developments in experimental molecular physics since Graham determined the
molecular relations of gaseous diffusion and transpiration more than half a century
ago. This advance in experimental knowledge of molecular phenomena, assisted
by the discovery of the precise and rational effect of magnetism on the spectrum,
has brought into prominence a modification or rather development ot Maxwell's
exposition of electric theory, which was dictated primarily by the requirements of
the abstract theory itself; the atoms or ions are now definitely introduced as
the carriers of those electric charges which interact across the wether, and so pro-
duce the electric fields whose transformations were the main subject of the original
theory.

We are thus inevitably led, in electric and sthereal theory, as in the chemistry
and dynamics of the gaseous state which is the department of abstract physics
next in order of simplicity, to the consideration of the individual molecules of
matter. The theoretical problems which had come clearly into view a quarter of
a century ago, under Maxwell’s lead, whether in the exact dynamical relations

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 617

of zthereal transmission or in the more fortuitous domain of the statistics of
interacting molecules, are those around which attention is still mainly concentrated ;
but as the result of the progress in each, they are now tending towards consolida-
tion into one subject. 1 propose—leaving further review of the scientific aspect of
the recent enormous development of the applications of physical science for hands
more competent to deal with the practical side of that subject—to offer some re-
marks on the scope and validity of this molecular order of ideas, to which the
trend of physical explanation and development is now setting in so pronounced a
manner.

If it is necessary to offer an apology for detaining the attention of the Section
on so abstract a topic, I can plead its intrinsic philosophical importance. The
hesitation so long felt on the Continent in regard to discarding the highly de-
veloped theories which analysed all physical actions into direct attractions between
the separate elements of the bodies concerned, in favour of a new method in which
our ideas are carried into regions deeper than the phenomena, has now given
place to eager discussion of the potentialities of the new standpoint. There has
even appeared a disposition to consider that the Newtonian dynamical principles,
which have formed the basis of physical explanation for nearly two centuries,
must be replaced in these deeper subjects by a method of direct description of the
mere course of phenomena, apart from any attempt to establish causal relations ;
the initiation of this method being traced, like that of the Newtonian dynamics
itself, to this country. The question has arisen as to how far the new methods
of ethereal physics are to be considered as an independent departure, how far
they form the natural development of existing dynamical science. in England,
whence the innovation came, it is the more conservative position that has all along
been occupied. Maxwell was himself trained in the school of physics established
in this country by Sir George Stokes and Lord Kelvin, in which the dominating
idea has been that of the strictly dynamical foundation of all physical action.
Although the pupil’s imagination bridged over dynamical chasms, across which
the master was not always able to follow, yet the most striking feature of Max-
well’s scheme was still the dynamical framework into which it was built. The
more advanced reformers have now thrown overboard the apparatus of poten-
tial functions which Maxwell found necessary for the dynamical consolidation or
his theory, retaining only the final result as a verified descriptive basis for the
phenomena. In this way all difficulties relating to dynamical development and
indeed consistency are avoided, but the question remains as to how much is
thereby lost. In practical electro-magnetics the transmission of power is now the
most prominent phenomenon; if formal dynamics is put aside in the general
theory, its guidance must here be replaced by some more empirical and tenta-
tive method of describing the course of the transmission and transformation of
mechanical energy in the system.

The direct recognition in some form, either explicitly or tacitly, of the part
pleyed by the ether has become indispensable to the development and exposition
of general physics ever since the discoveries of Hertz left no further room for doubt
that this physical scheme of Maxwell was not merely a brilliant speculation, but
constituted, in spite of outstanding gaps and difficulties, a real formulation of the
underlying unity in physical dynamics. The domain of abstract physics is in fact
roughly divisible into two regions. In one of them we are mainly concerned with
interactions between one portion of matter and another portion occupying a dif-
ferent position in space; such interactions have very uniform and comparatively
simple relations ; and the reason is traceable to the simple and uniform constitution
of the intervening medium in which they have their seat. The other province is
that in which the distribution of the material molecules comes into account. Set-
ting aside the ordinary dynamics of matter in bulk, which is founded on the
uniformity of the properties of the bodies concerned and their experimental deter-
mination, we must assign to this region all phenomena which are concerned with
the uncoordinated motions of the molecules, including the range of thermal and in
part of radiant actions; the only possible basis for detailed theory is the statistical
dynamics of the distribution of the molecules. The far more deep-seated and

618 REPORT—1900.

mysterious processes which are involved in changes in the constitution of the indi-
vidual molecules themselves are mainly outside the province of physics, which is
competent to reason only about permanent material systems; they must be left to
the sciences of chemistry and physiology. Yet the chemist proclaims that he can
determine only the results of his reactions and the physical conditions under
which they occur; the character of the bonds which hold atoms in their chemical
combinations is at present unknown, although a large domain of very precise
knowledge relating, in some diagrammatic manner, to the topography of the
more complex molecules has been attained. The vast structure which chemical
science has in this way raised on the narrow foundation of the atomic theory is
perhaps the most wonderful existing illustration both of the rationality of natural
processes and of the analytical powers of the human mind. In a word, the com-
plication of the material world is referable to the vast range of structure and of
states of aggregation in the material atoms; while the possibility of a science of
physics is largely due to the simplicity of constitution of the universal medium
through which the individual atoms interact on each other.

The reference of the uniformity in the interactions at a distance between
material bodies to the part played by the wether is a step towards the elimination
of extraneous and random hypotheses about laws of attraction between atoms. It
also places that medium on a different basis from matter, in that its mode of
activity is simple and regular, whereas intimate material interactions must be of
illimitable complexity. This gives strong ground for the view that we should not
be tempted towards explaining the simple group of relations which have been found
to define the activity of the ether, by treating them as mechanical consequences of
concealed structure in that medium; we should rather rest satisfied with having
attained to their exact dynamical correlation, just as geometry explores or corre-
lates, without explaining, the descriptive and metric properties of space. On the
other hand, a view is upheld which considers the pressures and thrusts of the engineer,
and the strains and stresses in the material structures by which he transmits them
from one place to another, to be the archetype of the processes by which all mecha-
nical effect is transmitted in nature. This doctrine implies an expectation that we
may ultimately discover something analogous to structure in the celestial spaces,
by means of which the transmission of physical effect will be brought into line
with the transmission of mechanical effect by material framework.

At a time when the only definitely ascertained function of the ether was the
undulatory propagation of radiant energy across space, Lord Kelvin pointed out
that, by reason of the very great velocity of propagation, the density of the radiant
energy in the medium at any place must be extremely small in comparison with the
amount of energy that is transmitted in a second of time: this easily led him to the
very striking conclusion that, on the hypothesis that the wther is like material
elastic media, it is not necessary to assume its density to be more than 1078
of that of water, or its optical rigidity to be more than ten 10° of that of steel
or glass. Thus far the zether would be merely an impalpable material atmosphere
for the transference of energy by radiation, at extremely small densities but with very
great speed, while ordinary matter would be the seat of practically all this energy.
But this way of explaining the absence of sensible influence of the ether on the
phenomena of material dynamics lost much of its basis as soon as it was recognised
that the same medium must be the receptacle of very high densities of energy in
the electric fields around currents and magnets. The other mode of explanation

1 We can here only allude to Lord Kelvin’s recent most interesting mechanical
illustrations of a solid ether interacting with material molecules and with itself by
attraction at a distance: unlike the generalised dynamical methods expounded in
the text, which can leave the intimate structure of the material molecule outside the
problem, a definite working constitution is there assigned to the molecular nucleus.
It is pointed out in a continuation that is to appear in the Phil. Mag. for September,
that a density of eether of the order of only 10-®, which would not appreciably affect
the inertia of matter, would involve rigidity comparable with that of steel, and
thus permit transmission of magnetic forces by stress; this solid ether is however,
as usual, taken to be freely permeable to the molecules of matter.

— es

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 619

is to consider the «ether to be of the very essence of all physical actions, and to °
correlate the absence of obvious mechanical evidence of its intervention with its
regularity and universality.

On this plan of making the ether the essential factor in the transformation of

energy as well as its transmission across space, the material atom must be some

kind of permanent nucleus that retains around itself an ethereal field of physical
influence, such as, for example, a field of strain. We can recognise the atom only
through its interactions with other atoms that are so far away from it as to be
practically independent systems; thus our direct knowledge of the atom will he
confined to this field of force which belongs to it. Just as the exploration of the
distant field of magnetic influence of a steel magnet, itself concealed from view,
cannot tell us anything about the magnet except the amount and direction of its
moment, so a practically complete knowledge of the field of physical influence of
an atom might be expressible in terms of the numerical values of a limited number

_ of physical moments associated with it, without any revelation as to its essential

structure or constitution being involved. This will at any rate be the case for

ultimate atoms if, as is most likely, the distances at which they are kept apart are

large compared with the diameters of the atomic nuclei; it in fact forms our only
chance for penetrating to definite dynamical views of molecular structure. So
long as we cannot isolate a single molecule, ‘but must deal observationally with an
innumerable distribution of them, even this kind of knowledge will be largely con-
fined to average values. But the last half-century has witnessed the successful
application of a new instrument of research, which has removed in various direc-
tions the limitations that had previously been placed on the knowledge to which
it was possible for human effort to look forward. The spectroscope has created a
new astronomy by revealing the constitutions and the unseen internal motions of
the stars. Its power lies in the fact that it does take hold of the internal relations
of the individual molecule of matter, and provide a very definite and detailed,
though far from complete, analysis of the vibratory motions that are going on in it ;
these vibrations being in their normal state characteristic of its dynamical consti-
tution, and in their deviations from the normal giving indications of the velocity
of its movement and the physical state of itsenvironment. Maxwell long ago laid
emphasis on the fact that a physical atomic theory is not competent even to con-
template the vast mass of potentialities and correlations of the past and the future,
that biological theory has to consider as latent in a single organic germ containing
at most only a few million molecules. On our present view we can accept his
position that the properties of such a body cannot be those of a ‘purely material
system,’ provided, however, we restrict this phrase to apply to physical properties
as here defined. But an exhaustive discovery of the intimate nature of the atom
is beyond the scope of physics; questions as to whether it must not necessarily
involve in itself some image of the complexity of the organic structures of which
it. can form a correlated part must remain a subject of speculation outside the
domain of that science. It might be held that this conception of discrete atoms
and continuous ether really stands, like those of space and time, in intimate
relation with our modes of mental apprehension, into which any consistent picture
of the external world must of necessity be fitted. In any case it would involve
abandonment of all the successful traditions of our subject if we ceased to hold
that our analysis can be formulated in a consistent and complete manner, so far as
it goes, without being necessarily an exhaustive account of phenomena that are
beyond our range of experiment. Such phenomena may be more closely defined
as those connected with the processes of intimate combination of the molecules:
they include the activities of organic beings which all seem to depend on change
of molecular structure.

Tf, then, we have so small a hold on the intimate nature of matter, it will appear
all the more striking that physicists have been able precisely to divine the mode of
operation of the intangible ether, and to some extent explore in it the fields of

hysical influence of the molecules. On consideration we recognise that this
owledge of fundamental pkysical interaction has been reached by a comparative
process. The mechanism of the propagation of light could never have been studied

620 REPORT—1900.

in the free zether of space alone. It was possible, however, to determine the way in
which the characteristics of optical propagation are modified, but not wholly
transformed, when it takes place in a transparent material body instead of empty
space. The change in fact arises on account of the «ther being entangled with
the network of material molecules; but inasmuch as the length of a single wave of
radiation covers thousands of these molecules the wave-motion still remains uni-
form and does not lose its general type. A wider variation of the experimental
conditions has been provided for our examination in the case of those substances
in which the phenomenon of double refraction pointed to a change of the ethereal
properties which varied in different directions; and minute study of this modifica-
tion has proved sufficient to guide to a consistent appreciation of the nature of
this change, and therefore of the mode of ethereal propagation that is thus altered.
In the same way, it was the study and development of the manner in which the
laws of electric phenomena in material bodies had been unravelled by Ampére
and Faraday, that guided Faraday himself and Maxwell—who were impressed
with the view that the zether was at the bottom of it all— in their progress towards
an application of similar laws to ether devoid of matter, such as would complete a
scheme of continuous action by consistently interconnecting the material bodies
and banishing all untraced interaction across-empty space. Maxwell in fact chose
to finally expound the theory by ascribing to the sether of free space a dielectric
constant and a magnetic constant of the same types as had been found to express
the properties of material media, thus extending the seat of the phenomena to all
space on the plan of describing the activity of the ether in terms of the ordinary
electric ideas. The converse mode of development, starting with the free ether
under the directly dynamical form which has been usual in physical optics, and
introducing the influence of the material atoms through the electric charges which
are involved in their constitution, was hardly employed by him; in part, perhaps,
because, owing to the necessity of correlating his theory with existing electric
lmowledge and the mode of its expression, he seems never to have reached the
stage of moulding it into a completely deductive form.

The dynamics of the eether, in fact the recognition of the existence of an «ther,
has thus, as a matter of history, been reached through study of the dynamical
phenomena of matter. When the dynamics of a material system is worked up to
its purest and most general form, it becomes a formulation of the relations between
the succession of the configurations and states of motion of the system, the assist-
ance of an independent idea of force not being usually required. We can, however,’
only attain to such a compact statement when the system is self-contained, when
its motion is not being dissipated by agencies of frictional type, and when its con-
nections can be directly specified by purely geometrical relations between the
coordinates, thus excluding such mechanisms as rolling contacts. The courseof the
system is then in all cases determined by some form or other of a single fundamental
property, that any alteration in any small portion of its actual course must produce
an increase in the total ‘ Action’ of the motion. It is to be observed that in
employing this law of minimum as regards the Action expressed as an integral
over the whole time of the motion, we no more introduce the future course as a
determining influence on the present state of motion than we do in drawing a
straight line from any point in any direction, although the length of the line is the
minimum distance between itsends. In drawing the line piece by piece we have to
make tentative excursions into the immediate future in order to adjust each element
into straightness with the previous element; so in tracing the next stage of the
motion of a material system we have similarly to secure that it is not given any
such directions as would unduly increase the Action. But whatever views may
be held as to the ultimate significance of this principle of Action, its importance,

1 In 1870 Maxwell, while admiring the breadth of the theory of Weber, which is
virtually based on atomic charges combined with action at a distance, still regarded
it as irreconcilable with his own theory, and left to the future the question as to
why ‘theories apparently so fundamentally opposed should have so large a field of
truth common to both.’—‘ Scientific Papers,’ ii, p. 228,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 621

not only for mathematical analysis, but asa guide to physical exploration, remains
fundamental. When the principles of the dynamics of material systems are refined
down to their ultimate common basis, this principle of minimum is what remains.
Hertz preferred to express its contents in the form of a principle of straightness of
course or path. It will be recognised, on the lines already indicated, that this is
another mode of statement of the same fundamental idea; and the general equiva-
lence is worked out by Hertz on the basis of Hamilton’s development of the prin-
ciples of dynamics. The latter mode of statement may be adaptable so as to avoid
the limitations which restrict the connections of the system, at the expense, however,
of introducing new variables ; if, indeed, it does not introduce gratuitous complexity
for purposes of physics to attempt to do this. However these questions may stand,
this principle of straightness or directness of path forms, wherever it applies, the
most general and comprehensive formulation of purely dynamical action: it involves
in itself the complete course of events. In so far as we are given the algebraic
formula for the time-integral which constitutes the Action, expressed in terms of
any suitable coordinates, we know implicitly the whole dynamical constitution and
history of the system to which it applies’ Two systems in which the Action is
expressed by the same formula are mathematically identical, are physically pre-
cisely correlated, so that they have all dynamical properties in common. When
the structure of a dynamical system is largely concealed from view, the safest and
most direct way towards an exploration of its essential relations and connections,
and in fact towards answering the prior question as to whether it is a purely
dynamical system at all, is through this order of ideas. The ultimate test that a
system is a dynamical one is not that we shall be able to trace mechanical stresses
throughout it, but that its relations can be in some way or other consolidated into
accordance with this principle of minimum Action. This definition of adynamical
system in terms of the simple principle of directness of path may conceivably be
subject to objection as too wide; it is certainly not too narrow; and it is the
conception which has naturally been evolved from two centuries of study of the
dynamics of material bodies. Its very great generality may lead to the objection
that we might completely formulate the future course of a system in its terms, with-
out having obtained a working familiarity with its details, of the kind to which we
have become accustomed in the analysis of simple material systems ; but our choice
is at present between this kind of formulation, which is a real and essential one,
and an empirical description of the course of phenomena combined with expla-
nations relating to more or less isolated groups. The list of great names, including
Kelvin, Maxwell, Helmholtz, that have been associated with the employment of
the principle for the elucidation of the relations of deep-seated dynamical pheno-
mena, is a strong guarantee that we shall do well by making the most of this clue.

Are we then justified in treating the material molecule, so far as revealed by
the spectroscope, as a dynamical system coming under this specification? Its
intrinsic energy is certainly permanent and not subject to dissipation; otherwise
the molecule would gradually fade out of existence. The extreme precision and
regularity of detail in the spectrum shows that the vibrations which produce it
are exactly synchronous, whatever be their amplitude, and in so far resemble the
vibrations of small amplitude in material systems. As all indications point to
the molecule being a system in a state of intrinsic motion, like a vortex ring, or a
stellar system in astronomy, we must consider these radiating vibrations to take
place around a steady state of motion which does not itself radiate, not around a
state of rest. Now not the least of the advantages possessed by the Action prin-
ciple, as a foundation for theoretical physics, is the fact that its statement can be
adapted to systems involving in their constitution permanent steady motions of
this kind, in such a way that only the variable motions superposed on them come
into consideration. The possibilities as regards physical correlation of thus intro-
ducing permanent motional states as well as permanent structure into the con-
stitution of our dynamical systems have long been emphasised by Lord Kelvin; *

' For a classical exposition see his Brit. Assoc. Address of 1884 on ‘ Steps towards
Kinetic Theory of Matter,’ reprinted in ‘ Popular Lectures and Addresses,’ vol. i.

622 REPORT—1900.

the effective adaptation of abstract dynamics to such systems was made inide-
pendently by Kelvin and Routh about 1877; the more recent exposition of the
theory by Helmholtz has directed general attention to what is undoubtedly the
most significant extension of dynamical analysis which has taken place since the
time of Lagrange. '

Returning to the molecules, it is now verified that the Action principle forms a
valid foundation throughout electrodynamics and optics; the introduction of the
zether into the system has not affected its application. It is therefore a reasonable
hypothesis that the principle forms an allowable foundation for the dynamical
analysis of the radiant vibrations invthe system formed by a single molecule and
surrounding ether; and the knowledge which is now accumulating, both of the
orderly grouping of the lines of ‘the spectrum and of the modifications impressed
on these lines by a magnetic field or by the density of the matter immediately
surrounding the vibrating molecule, can hardly fail to be fruitful for the dynamical
analysis of its constitution. But let it be repeated that this analysis would be
complete when a formula for the dynamical energy of the molecule is obtained, and
would go no deeper. | Starting from our definitely limited definition of the nature
of a dynamical system, the problem is merely to correlate the observed relations of
the periods of vibration in a molecule, when it has come into a steady state
as regards constitution and is not under the influence of intimate encounter with
other molecules.

It may be recalled incidentally that the generalised Maxwell-Boltzmann
principle of the equable distribution of the acquired store of kinetic energy of the
molecule, among its various possible independent types of motion, is based directly
on the validity of the Action principle for its dynamics. In the demonstrations
usually offered the molecule is considered to have no permanent or constitutive
energy of internal motion. It can, however, be shown, by use of the generalisa-
tion aforesaid of the Action principle, that no discrepancy will arise on that
account. Such intrinsic kinetic energy virtually adds on to the potential energy of
the system; and the remaining or acquired part of the kinetic energy of the
molecule may be made the subject of the same train of reasoning as before.

Let us now return to the general question whether our definition of a dyna-
mical system may not be too wide. As acase in point, the single principle of
Action has been shown to provide a definite and sufficient basis for electro-
dynamics; yet when, for example, one armature of an electric motor pulls the
other after it without material. contact, and so transmits mechanical power,
no connection between them is indicated by the principle such as could by virtue
of internal stress transmit the pull. The essential feature of the transmission of
a pull by stress across a medium is that each element of voiume of the medium
acts by itself, independently of the other elements. The stress excited in any
element depends on the strain or other displacement occurring in that element
alone ; and the mechanical effect that is transmitted is considered as an extraneous
force applied at one place in the medium, and passed on from element to element
through these internal pressures and tractions until it reaches another place. We
have, however, to consider two atomic electric charges as being themselves some
kind of strain configurations in the wether; each of them already involves an
atmosphere of strain in the surrounding ether which is part of its essence, and
cannot be considered apart from it; each of them essentially pervades the entire
space, though on account of its invariable character we consider it as a unit.
Thus we appear to be debarred from imagining the ether to act as an elastic
connection which is merely the agent of transmission of a pull from the one
nucleus to the other, because there are already stresses belonging to and consti-
tuting an intrinsic part of the terminal electrons, which are distributed all along the
medium. Our Action criterion of a dynamical system, in fact, allows us to reason
about an electron as a single thing, notwithstanding that its field of energy is
spread over the whcle medium; it is only in material solid bodies, and in problems
in which the actual sphere of physical action of the molecule is small compared
with the smallest element of volume that our analysis considers, that the familiar
idea of transmission of force by simple stress can apply. Whatever view may

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 623

ultimately commend itself, this question is one that urgently demands decision.
A very large amount of effort has been expended by Maxwell, Helmholtz,
Heaviside, Hertz, and other authorities in the attempt to express the mechanical
phenomena of electrical action in terms of a transmitting stress. ‘The analytical
results up to a certain point have been promising, most strikingly so at the
beginning, when Maxwell established the mathematical validity of the way in
which Faraday was accustomed to represent to himself the mechanical interactions
across space, in terms of a tension along the lines of force equilibrated by an equal
pressure preveuting their expansion sideways. According to the views here deve-
loped, that ideal is an impossible one; if this could be established to general
satisfaction the field of theoretical discussion would be much simplified.

This view that the atom of matter is,so far as regards physical actions, of
the nature of a structure in the «ther involving an atmosphere of «ethereal strain
all around it, not a small body which exerts direct actions at a distance on
other atoms according to extraneous laws of force, was practically foreign to the
eighteenth century, when mathematical physics was modelled on the Newtonian
astronomy and dominated by its splendid success. The scheme of material
dynamics, as finally compactly systematised by Lagrange, had therefore no direct
relation to such a view, although it has proved wide enough to include it. The
remark has often been made that it is probably owing to Faraday’s mathematical
instinct, combined with his want of acquaintance with the existing analysis, that the
modern theory of the zther obtained a start: from the electric side. “Through his
teaching and the weight of his authority, the notion of two electric currents
exerting their mutual forces by means of an intervening medium, instead of by
direct attraction across space, was at an early period firmly grasped in this
country. In 1845 Lord Kelvin was already mathematically formulating, with
most suggestive success, continuous elastic connections, by whose strain the fields
of activity of electric currents or of electric distributions could be illustrated ;
while the exposition of Maxwell’s interconnected scheme, in the earlier form in
which it relied on concrete models of the electric action, goes back almost to 1860.
Corresponding to the two physical ideals of isolated atoms exerting attraction at
a distance, and atoms operating by atmospheres of ethereal strain, there are, as
already indicated, two different developments of dynamical theory. The original
Newtonian equations of motion determined the course of a system by expressing
the rates at which the velocity of each of its small parts or elements is changing.
This method is still fully applicable to those problems of gravitational astronomy
in which dynamical explanation was first successful on a grand scale, the planets
heing treated as point-masses, each subject to the gravitational attraction of the
other bodies. But the more recent development of the dynamies of complex
systems depends on the fact that analysis has been able to reduce within manageable
limits the number of varying quantities whose course is to be explicitly traced,
through taking advantage of those internal relations of the parts of the system that
are invariable, either geometrically or dynamically. Thus, to take the simplest
case, the dynamics of a solid body can be confined to a discussion of its three com-
ponents of translation and its three components of rotation, instead of the motion
of each element of its mass. With the number of independent coordinates thus
diminished, when the initial state of the motion is specified the subsequent course of
the complete system can be traced; but the course of the changes in any part of
it can only be treated in relation to the motion of the system asawhole. It is just
this mode of treatment of a system as a whole that is the main characteristic of
modern physical analysis. The way in which Maxwell analysed the interactions
of a system of linear electric currents, previously treated as if each were made up
of small independent pieces or elements, and accumulated the evidence that they
formed a single dynamical system, is a trenchant example. The interactions of
vortices in fluid form a very similar problem, which is of special note in that the
constitution of the system is there completely known in advance, so that the two
modes of dynamical exposition can be. compared. In this case the older method
forms independent equations for the motion of each material element of the fluid,
aud so requires the introduction of the stress—here the fluid pressure—hy which

624 REPORT—1900:

dynamical effect is passed on to it from the surrounding eléménts: if cotresjonds
to a method of contact action. But Helmholtz opened up new ground in the abstract
dynamics of continuous media when he recognised (after Stokes) that, if the dis-
tribution of the velocity of spin at those places in the fluid where the motion
is vortical be assigned, the motion in every part of the fluid is therein kinemati-
cally involved. This, combined with the theorem of Lagrange and Cauchy, that
the spin is always confined to the same portions of the fluid, formed a starting-
point for his theory of vortices, which showed how the subsequent course of the
motion can be ascertained without consideration of pressure or other stress.

The recognition of the permanent state of motion constituting a vortex ring as
a determining agent as regards the future course of the system was in fact justly
considered by Helmholtz as one of his greatest achievements. The principle had
entirely eluded the attention of Lagrange and Cauchy and Stokes, who were the
pioneers in this fundamental branch of dynamics, and had virtually prepared all
the necessary analytical material for Helmholtz’s use. The main import of this
advance lay, not in the assistance which it afforded to the development of the
complete solution of special problems in fluid motion, but in the fact that it con-
stituted the discovery of the types of permanent motion of the system, which could
combine and interact with each other without losing their individuality, though
each of them pervaded the whole field. This rendered possible an entirely new
mode of treatment; and mathematicians who were accustomed, as in astronomy,
to aim directly at the determination of all the details of the special case of motion,
were occasionally slow to apprehend the advantages of a procedure which stopped
at formulating a description of the nature of the interaction between various
typical groups of motions into which the whole disturbance could be resolved.

The new train of ideas introduced into physics by Faraday was thus consolidated
and emphasised by Helmholtz’s investigations of 1858 in the special domain of hydro-
dynamics. In illustration let us consider the fluid medium to be pervaded by per-
manent vortices circulating round solid rings as cores: the older method of analysis
would form equations of motion for each element of the fluid, involving the fluid
pressure, and by their integration would determine the distribution of pressure on
each solid ring, and thence the way it moves. This method is hardly feasible even
in the simplest cases. The natural plan is to make use of existing simplifications by
regarding each vortex as a permanent reality, and directly attacking the problem
of its interactions with the other vortices. The energy of the fluid arising from the
vortex motion can be expressed in terms of the positions and strengths of the vor-
tices alone; and then the principle of Action, in the generalised form which
includes steady motional configurations as well as constant material configura-
tions, affords a method of deducing the motions of the cores and the interactions
between them. Ifthe cores are thin they in fact interact mechanically, as Lord
Kelvin and Kirchhoff proved, in the same manner as linear electric currents would
do; though the impulse thence derived towards a direct hydro-kinetic explanation
of electro-magnetics was damped by the fact that repulsion and attraction have to
be interchanged in the analogy. The conception of vortices, once it has been
arrived at, forms the natural physical basis of investigation, although the older
method of determining a distribution of pressure-stress throughout the fluid and
examining how it affects the cores is still possible ; that stress, however, is not simply
transmitted, asit hasto maintain the changes of velocity of the various portions of the
fluid. But if the vortices have no solid cores we are at a loss to know where even this
pressure can be considered as applied to them; if we follow up the stress, we lose
the vortex; yet a fluid vortex can nevertheless illustrate an atom of matter, and we
can consider such atoms as exerting mutual forces, only these forces cannot be consi-
dered as transmitted through the agency of fluid pressure. The reason is that the
vortex cannot now be identified with a mere core bounded by a definite surface, but
is essentially a configuration of motion extending throughout the medium.

Thus we are again in face of the fundamental question whether all attempts to

* ‘We may compare G. W. Hill’s more recent introduction of the idea of permanent
orbits into physical astronomy,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 625

represent the mechanical interactions of electro-dynamic systems, as transmitted from
7 to point by means of simple stress, are not doomed to failure; whether they

o not, in fact, introduce unnecessary and insurmountable difficulty into the theory.
The idea of identifying an atom with a state of strain or motion, pervading the region
of the zether around its nucleus, appears to demand wider views as to what constitutes
dynamical transmission. The idea that any small portion of the primordial
medium can be isolated, by merely introducing tractions acting over its surface and
transmitted from the surrounding parts, is no longer appropriate or consistent: a
part of the dynamical disturbance in that element of the medium is on this hypo-
thesis already classified as belonging to, and carried along with, atoms that are
outside it but in its neighbourhood—and this part must not be counted twice over.
The law of Poynting relating to the paths of the transmission of energy is known to
hold in its simple form only when the electric charges or currents are in a steady
state ; when they are changing their positions or configurations their own fields of

_ intrinsic energy are carried along with them.

It is not surprising, considering the previous British familiarity with this
order of ideas, that the significance for general physics of Helmholtz’s doctrine of
vortices was eagerly developed in this country, in the form in which it became
embodied through Lord Kelvin’s famous illustration of the constitution of
matter, as consisting of atoms with separate existence and mutual interactions.
This vortex-atom theory has been a main source of physical suggestion because
it presents, on a simple basis, a dynamical picture of an ideal material system,
atomically constituted, which could go on automatically without extraneous sup-
port. ‘The value of such a picture may be held to lie, not in any supposition that
this is the mechanism of the actual world laid bare, but in the vivid illustration
it affords of the fundamental postulate of physical science, that mechanical
phenomena are not parts of a scheme too involved for us to explore, but rather
present themselves in definite and consistent correlations, which we are able to dis-
entangle and apprehend with continually increasing precision.

It would be an interesting question to trace the origin of our preference for a
theory of transmission of physical action over one of direct action at a distance.
It may be held that it rests on the same order of ideas as supplies our conception
of force ; that the notion of effort which we associate with change of the motion
of a body involves the idea of a mechanical connection through which that effort
is applied. The mere idea of a transmitting medium would then be no more an
ultimate foundation for physical explanation than that of force itself. Our choice
between direct distance action and mediate transmission would thus be dictated
by the relative simplicity and coherence of the accounts they give of the
phenomena: this is, in fact, the basis on which Maxwell’s theory had to be judged
until Hertz detected the actual working of the medium. Instantaneous transmis-
sion is to all intents action at a distance, except in so far as the law of action may
be more easily formulated in terms of the medium than in a direct’ geometrical
Statement.

In connection with these questions it may be permitted to refer to the eloquent
and weighty address recently delivered by M. Poincaré to the International Con-
gress of Physics. M. Poincaré accepts the principle of Least Action as a
reliable basis for the formulation of physical theory, but he imposes the condition
that the results must satisfy the Newtonian law of equality of action and
reaction between each pair of bodies concerned, considered by themselves ;
this, however, he would allow to be satisfied indirectly, if the effects could
be traced across the intervening xther by stress, so that the tractions on the
two sides of each ideal interface are equal and opposite! As above argued,
this view appears to exclude ab initio all atomic theories of the general type-
of vortex atoms, in which the energy of the atom is distributed throughout

‘ Gf. also Hertz on the electro-magnetic equations, § 12, Wied. Ann., 1890. [The
standpoint of Hertz’s posthumous Mechanik approximates, however, to that here
maintained. | The problem of merely replacing a system of forces bya statical stress
is. widely indeterminate, and therefore by itself unreal; the actual question is
whether any such representation can be coordinated with existing dynamics.

1990 88

626 REPORT—1900.

the medium instead of being concentrated in a nucleus; and this remark seems to
go to the root of the question. On the other hand, the position here asserted is
that recent dynamical developments have permitted the extension of the principle
of Action to systems involving permanent motions, whether obvious or latent, as
part of their constitution; that on this wider basis the atom may itself involve a
state of steady disturbance extending through the medium, instead of being only a
local structure acting by push and pull. The possibilities of dynamical explanation
are thus enlarged. The most definite type of model yet imagined of the physical
interaction of atoms through the ether is, perhaps, that which takes the ether to
be a rotationally elastic medium after the manner of MacCullagh and Rankine,
and makes the ultimate atom include the nucleus of a permanent rotational strain-
configuration, which as a whole may be called an electron. The question how far
this is a legitimate and effective model stands by itself, apart from the dynamics
which it illustrates; like all representations it can only cover a limited ground.
For instance, it cannot claim to include the internal structure of the nucleus of an
atom or even of an electron ; for purposes of physical theory that problem can be put
aside, it may even be treated as inscrutable. All that is needed is a postulate of
free mobility of this nucleus through the ether. This isdefinitely hypothetical, but
it is not an unreasonable postulate because a rotational ether has the properties of
a perfect fluid medium except where differentially rotational motions are concerned,
and so would not react on the motion of any structure moving through it except
after the manner of an apparent change of inertia. It thus seems possible to hold
that such a model forms an allowable representation of the dynamical activity of
the sether, as distinguished from the complete constitution of the material nuclei
between which that medium establishes connection.

At any rate, models of this nature have certainly been most helpful in Max-
well’s hands towards the effective intuitive grasp of a scheme of relations as a
whole, which might have proved too complex for abstract unravelment in detail.
When a physical model of concealed dynamical processes has served this kind of
purpose, when its content has been explored and estimated, and has become
familiar through the introduction of new terms and ideas, then the ladder by
which we have ascended may be kicked away, and the scheme of relations which
the model embodied can stand forth in severely abstract form. Indeed many of
the most fruitful branches of abstract mathematical analysis itself have owed their
start in this way to concrete physical conceptions. This gradual transition into
abstract statement of physical relations in fact amounts to retaining the essentials
of our working models while eliminating the accidental elements involved in
them; elements of the latter kind must always be present because otherwise the
model would be identical with the thing which it represents, whereas we cannot
expect to mentally grasp all aspects of the content of even the simplest phenomena.
Yet the abstract standpoint is always attained through the concrete; and for
purposes of instruction such models, properly guarded, do not perhaps ever lose
their value: they are just as legitimate aids as geometrical diagrams, and they
have the same kind of limitations. In Maxwell's words, ‘ for the sake of persons
of these different types scientific truth should be presented in different forms, and
should be regarded as equally scientific whether it appear in the robust form and
the vivid colouring of a physical illustration, or in the tenuity and paleness of a
symbolical expression.’ The other side of the picture, the necessary incomplete-
ness of even our legitimate images and modes of representation, comes out in the
despairing opinion of Young (‘Chromatics,’ 1817), at a time when his faith in the
undulatory theory of light had been eclipsed by Malus’s discovery of the pheno-
mena of polarisation by reflection, that this difficulty ‘ will probably long remain,
to mortify the vanity of an ambitious philosophy, completely unresolved by any
theory:’ not many years afterwards the mystery was solved by Fresnel.

This process of removing the intellectual scaffolding by which our knowledge
is reached, and preserving only the final formula which express the correlations
of the directly observable things, may moreover readily be pushed too far. It
asserts the conception that the universe is like an enclosed clock that is wound up
to go, and that accordingly we can observe that it is going, and can see some of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 627

its more superficial movements, but not much of them; that thus, by patient obser-
vation and use of analogy, we can compile, in merely tabular form, information as
to the manner in which it works and is likely to go on working, at any rate for
some time to come; but that any attempt to probe the underlying connection is
illusory or illegitimate. As a theoretical precept this is admirable. It minimises
the danger of our ignoring or forgetting the limitations of human faculty, which
can only utilise the imperfect representations that the external world impresses on
our senses. On the other hand such a reminder has rarely been required by the
master minds of modern science, from Descartes and Newton onwards, whatever
their theories may have been. Its danger as a dogma lies in its application.
Who is to decide, without risk of error, what is essential fact and what is intellec
tual scaffolding ? To which class does the atomic theory of matter belong? That
is, indeed, one of the intangible things which it is suggested may be thrown over-
board in sorting out and classifying our scientific possessions. Is the mental idea
or image, which suggests, and alone can suggest, the experiment that adds to our
concrete knowledge, less real than the bare phenomenal uniformity which it has
revealed? Is it not, perhaps, more real in that the uniformities might not have
been there in the absence of the mind to perceive them ?

No time is now left for review of the methods of molecular dynamics.
Here our knowledge is entirely confined to steady states of the molecular system :
it is purely statical. In ordinary statics and the dynamics of undisturbed
steady notions, the form of the energy function is the sufficient basis of the
whole subject. This method is extended to thermo-dynamics by making use of
the mechanically available energy of Rankine and Kelvin, which is a function of
the bodily contiguration and chemical constitution and temperature of the system,
whose value cannot under any circumstances spontaneously increase, while it
will diminish in any operation which is not reversible. In the statics of systems
in equilibrium or in steady motion, this method of energy is a particular case of
the method of Action; but in its extension to thermal statics it is made to include
chemical as well as configurational changes, and a new point appears to arise,
Whether we do or do not take it to be possible to trace the application of the
principle of Action throughout the process of chemical combination of two mole-
cules, we certainly here postulate that the static case of that principle, which
applies to steady systems, cam be extended across chemical combinations. The
question is suggested whether extension would also be valid to transformations
which involve vital processes. This seems to be still considered an open question
by the best authorities. If it be decided in the negative a distinction is involved
between vital and merely chemical processes.

It is now taken as established that vital activity cannot create energy, at any
rate in the long run which is all that can from the nature of the case be tested.
It seems not unreascreble to follow the analogy of chemical actions, and assert

- that it cannot in the long run increase the mechanical availability of energy—that

is, considering the organism as an apparatus for transforming energy without
being itself in the long run changed. But we cannot establish a Carnot cycle for
a portion of an organism, nor can we do so for a limited period of time; there
might be creation of availability acc mpanied by changes in the organism itself,
but compensated by destruction and the inverse changes a long time afterwards.
This amounts to asserting that where, as in a vital system or even in a simple
molecular combination, we are unable to trace or even assert complete dynamical
Sequence, exact thermodynamic statements should be mainly confined to the
activity of the existing organism as a whole; it may transform inorganic material
without change of energy and without gain of availability, although any such
Statements would be inappropriate and unmeaning as regards the details of the
processes that take place inside the organism itself.

In any case it would appear that there is small chance of reducing these ques-
tions to direct dynamics; we should rather regard Carnot’s principle, which in-
cludes the law of uniformity of temperature and is the basis of the whole theory,
as a property of statistical type confined to stable or permanent aggregations of
matter. Thus no dynamical proof from molecular considerations could be regarded

- ESQ

628 REPORT—1900.

as valid unless it explicitly restricted the argument to permanent systems; yet
the conditions of permanency are unknown except in the simpler cases. The only
mode of discussion that is yet possible is the method of dynamical statistics of mole-
cules introduced by Maxwell. Now statistics is a method of arrangement rather
than of demonstration. Every statistical argument requires to be verified by com-
parison with the facts, because it is of the essence of this method to take things as
fortuitously distributed except in so far as we know the contrary; and we simply
may not know essential facts to the contrary. For example, if the interaction of
the «ther or other cause produces no influence to the contrary, the presumption
would be that the kinetic energy acquired by a molecule is, on the average, equally
distributed among its various independent modes of motion, whether vibrational
or translational. Assuming this type of distribution to be once established in a
gaseous system, the dynamics of Boltzmann and Maxwell show that it must be
permanent. But its assumption in the first instance is a result rather of the
absence than of the presence of knowledge of the circumstances, and can be
accepted only so far as it agrees with the facts; our knowledge of the facts of
specitic heat shows that it must be restricted to modes of motion that are homo-
logous. In the words of Maxwell, when he first discovered in 1860, to his great
surprise, that in a system of colliding rigid atoms the energy would always be
equally divided between translatory and rotatory motions, it is only necessary to
assume, in order to evade this unwelcome conclusion, that * something essential to
the complete statement of the physical theory of molecular encounters must have
hitherto escaped us.’

Our survey thus tends to the result, that as regards the simple and uniform
phenomena which involve activity of finite regions of the universal «ther,
theoretical physics can lay claim to constructive functions, and can build up a
definite scheme; but in the domain of matter the most that it can do is to accept
the existence of such permanent molecular systems as present themselves to our
notice, and fit together an outline plan of the more general and universal features
in their activity. Our well-founded belief in the rationality of natural processes
asserts the possibility of this, while admitting that the intimate details of atomic
constitution are beyond our scrutiny and provide plenty of room for processes that
transcend finite dynamical correlation.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Note on M. Cremiew’s Experiment. By Prof. G. F, FitzGeraup, 7.2.8.

M. Cremieu has shown that, if his experimental methods can bear criticism as
well as they seem to do, there is no induced electromotive force on a coil of wire
surrounding a rotating dise when the strength of an electric charge on the dise is
changing. He has deduced from this the conclusion that there is no magnetic
induction through the disc due to the moving charge such as Rowland’s experi-
ments showed. This note is to point out that tov little is known of the theory of
the ethereal effects of a charge of electricity forced to move by mechanical actions
for us to be quite sure that both M. Cremieu’s and Rowland’s observations may
not be true—ie., that it is possible that a charge of electricity, while it is being
accelerated by moving matter, may produce such an action on the surrounding
ether as to neutralise the electric force that would otherwise be produced by the
changing magnetic induction due to the moving charge.

2. On the Creeping of Liquids and the Surface Tension of Mixtures.
By Dr. F. T. Trovroy, 2.5.

3. On a Method of Investigating Correspondences between Spectra.
By Huew Ramace.

The method is graphical ; spectral lines are plotted as abscisswe, and the atomic
weights of the elements, or functions of the atomic weights, as ordinates, Con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 629

necting lines are then drawn through homologous spectral lines. The spectra
studied by the author in this way are chiefly those emitted by the metals in the
oxyhydrogen and oxycoal gas flames. These spectra are much simpler than those
of the same metals in the electric arc or spark, and may be regarded as the funda-
mental spectra of the metals. They are therefore the most suitable spectra for
comparison.

As the flame spectra of the metals have not been fully investigated some lines
have been selected, to make the diagrams more complete, from arc and spark
spectra. In these cases the selection was made after a study of the character of
the lines in these spectra. Later experimental work on flame spectra has con-
firmed the selection of some of these lines, and the work on the Zeeman effect, of
Preston on magnesium, zinc, and cadmium, and of Lord Blythswood and Dr.
Marchant on mercury, confirms it in the spectrum of the latter metal. The
formule and work of Rydberg and of Kayser and Runge lead to the selection of
the same lines in all cases, and with these formule as guides it is possible to
extend the work to other lines and spectra. This has been done, but only to a
limited extent at present. The diagrams exhibited were drawn—(1) from atomic
weights and oscillation frequencies, and (2) from the squares of the atomic weigits
and oscillation frequencies.

The diagrams show very clearly that the spectra of similar elements are very
closely related to one another. ‘That the spectra of potassium, rubidium, and
cesium are more closely related to one another than to those of lithium and sodium,
and that there is also a break between the spectrum of magnesium and those of
zinc, cadmium, and mercury, and between that of aluminium and those of gallium,
indium, and thallium.

The connecting lines of the diffuse subordinate series of potassium, rubidium,
and cesium approach in the more refrangible lines measured to straight lines,
while those of the principal series are nearly straight lines in the second diagram.

Tke lines joining the homologous lines of doublets and triplets approach one
another as the atomic weight decreases, and, in the second diagram, intersect in
points near the line of zero atomic weight. ‘These curves give exact information
regarding the function of the atomic weight which determines the differences, in
oscillation frequencies, between the lines in doublets and triplets. j

Equations are given, after the form of Rydberg’s, for the principal series of
lithium and sodium and of potassium, rubidium, and cesium, and the calculated
numbers are in close agreement with the observed numbers.

4. Report on Radiation in a Magnetic Field.—See Reports, p. 52.

5, An Experiment on Simultaneous Contrast.
By Grorce J. Burcu, I.A., LBS.

It is well known that white objects seen against a red background look greenish-
blue, and orange against a blue background.

This phenomenon is shown in a striking manner in the following experiment
due to Hering:—A small white disc is viewed with the left eye against a red
background, and another similar disc is viewed against a blue background with the
right eye. The discs are so placed as to occupy different positions in the field or
view. The result, when the light has been properly adjusted, is that the observer
sees an amethyst-blue disc and a topaz-yellow disc against a pale purple ground.

The reason of thisis demonstrated by the author in the following experiment :—
Two pieces of glass, one red and the other blue, are inserted in a stereoscope in
place of the usual slide, each glass having two small squares of black paper on it.
Viewed binocularly the four squares appear as two. In front of the instrument,
but out of the direct line of sight, are two adjustable slits, and over the eye-lenses
of the stereoscope are two diffraction gratings. The position of the slits is so
arranged that the spectrum of the first order of the left-hand grating falls on the

630 REPORT— 1900.

right-hand square, and that of the right-hand grating on the left-hand square, the
two spectra, which can be adjusted to the same intensity, being thus seen side by
side, one with the left eye on a red ground, and the other with the right eye on a
blue ground. The red glass produces partial red blindness of the left eye, and the
spectrum seen by it lacks red, the other colours being unaltered. And for a similar
reason the spectrum seen by the right eye lacks blue, the effect being more notice-
able owing to the contrast of sensation in the two eyes. In the author's opinion
this experiment affords further confirmation of the views of Scherffer, Darwin, and
Young in regard to contrast.

6. A Quartz-Calcite Symmetrical Doublet. By J. W. Girrorp.

The difficulty in constructing lenses of crystals Gonsists chiefly in the double
refraction, which causes confusion, As quartz is a positive, and calcite a negative,
crystal, they tend to correct one another, although the separation of the lines in
quartz is only one-twentieth of that in calcite. Both lenses are cut with their
axes corresponding to the axes of the crystals. The wave-length situated at the
point of greatest actinic activity is about 2748, as found by averaging the position
of bright lines of the principal spectra as follows :

W. L. Centre W. L. Centre
Substance of maximum effect Substance of maximum effect
Air ; 3 & . 3310 Lead . ; » B0bE
Tron 5 : 3 - . 2655 J bray hy : . 2571
Magnesium . : P . 29380 Copper : . 2444
mea oy rie cali eek. we BODE. | Silver it batiag
Cadmium : : 4 . 38023 | me
Arsenic . 5 c : . 2600 2760°6 = Average.

This was equalised with W. L. 5607 or the centre of visual activity. The
indices were determined by using prisms polished on three sides, and by averaging
the observations, so that the angle of the prism might be taken as exactly 60.
The temperature was 59° Fahrenheit.

W. iL. Element Quartz Calcite

Ordinary Ray

Cd | 15981316

5893 Na 15442497 16583555
dE0T Pb 15454613 16604548
2839 cd 15837464 1°7335025
2748 Cd 1:5875286 | 1:7415041
Extraordinary Ray
5893 D 15533652 | 1:4863913
5607 Pb | 15546100 | 14873448
2839 | Cd 1:5942126 15194123
2748 | 15226616

,

In calculating the radii the formula W = was used, with the following
R

results for unity:

1 W=0 R = -4213664 S&R’=:2026631 | 8S!’ = 0
2 Sa » °33070931 » *1809102 » 1°6854657
3 th », "3160248 » ‘1746611 », 12640993
4 36 I) 4 3009760 » 1699643 » 1:0534160
5 he) | | 2809109 » . 71683743 » 8427328
6 » 25 », 2528198 » °1534578 » 6320496
7 Se » °2106832 » 1368452 » 4213664
8 Mere 6 » 1404555 » 1032977 » 2106832

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 631

No 3x by 25 was taken, and the focus=12”. The angle tade with the axis
by the ray in Calcite varied from 2°47’ 26” to 1°14’ 10” for W. L. 2748 and
from 2°36’ 26” to 1°9’17” for W. L. 5607, and the spherical aberration of the
combination for W. L. 2748 was —:051337, and for W. L. 5607 was —+069809.
No. 5 would probably have covered better without introducing too much
double refraction.

7. The Production of an Artificial Light of the same Character as Day-
light. Ly Artuur Durton, W.A,, B.Sc., and WatTeR M. GARDNER,
bradford Technical College.

Tt is a matter of common experience that many colours alter in appearance
when seen by artificial light.

The extent to which colours may vary under different illumination is perhaps not
commonly known, but is well illustrated by the range of dyed cloths exhibited.
Amongst other patterns, one which is green by daylight becomes red-brown by
gaslight ; a violet changes to purple; a grey to heliotrope; a shade of tan to a
brick red. Particularly striking is a pattern woven from specially dyed yarns,
which appears a uniform green colour by daylight, but which is figured by
gaslight. Seen by the light of the electric arc, the patterns show similar but less
marked changes.

It may be of interest to indicate briefly how such peculiar changes of colour
arise. The colour of a body depends in the first place on the nature of the
incident light. In monochromatic red light a red appears much the same as in
daylight, but a yellow changes to red, a green is almost black, while blues and
violets become red.

Gaslight shows a continuous spectrum from red to violet, but compared with
daylight is of a strong orange colour due to an excess of rays in the red, orange,
and yellow It does not, however, necessarily result that all colours appear
redder by gaslight. It is, indeed, well known that the majority of colours change
little by gaslight. This is due to the adaptability of the eye; if the light becomes
redder, the eye becomes less sensitive to red; if the light is deficient in green, the
eye becomes more sensitive to green. Persons working by guslight soon cease to
notice its intense orange colour. It results that a grey produced by mixture of
black and white appears grey under any illumination, and simple colours, such as
reds, oranges, and some greens giving light confined practically to one part of the
spectrum, undergo little change.

Generally, however, the colour of a body is due to a mixture of light from
different parts of the spectrum. All violet colours are transparent, not only for
violet, but also for blue and red light; all blues transmit not only blue, violet, and
green light, but also more or less red. Consequently, whenever a blue or violet is
used in the production of what is called by artists a ‘tertiary’ colour, the general
result is a colour having bright bands in different parts of the spectrum. A
mixture of red, blue, and yellow to produce a neutral grey will show bright
bands in the red and green—complementary colours, resulting in a proportion of
white light. According to the exact position and intensity of these bands the
grey will become redder or greener or may even remain unchanged by gaslight.

Generally colours become redder under artificial light. This is due not merely
to the redder character of artificial lights as compared with daylight, but to the
peculiar transparency of colouring matters for red light. Among reds and yellow,
we have many theoretically perfect colouring matters—a perfect yellow being one
having sharp absorption in the violet and blue, and perfect transparency for green,
yellow, orange, and red rays. A perfect blue would be transparent for violet, blue,
and green, and opaque for the rest of the spectrum.

Apparently such a blue can only be obtained by means of cupric salts. AJI
other blue dyes and pigments we have examined agree in being more or less
transparent for red light. Even greens transmit some red. This peculiar trans-
parency of colours for red light is of primary importance in colour-matching. All

638 REPORT—1900:

dyers know how persistent is the tendency to the development of red in the
production of compound. shades,

The need of an artificial light which should so closely resemble daylight as to
show colours in their true relationship has long been felt by workers in colour.
At present the electric are light is largely used for colour work, but, as we have
seen, it is far from satisfactory.

The peculiar character of daylight is due essentially to the modification
produced by the atmosphere in the light from the sun. Light from a north sky
as usually adopted for colour work is deficient in red, orange, and yellow rays,
and consequently the light from a clear north sky is intensely blue.

Starting with the electric arc light as being nearest daylight in character, we
have attempted to imitate by direct absorption the effect produced by scattering
in the atmosphere.

The light of an arc lamp consists of two distinct parts:—(1) The light from
the glowing carbons; (2) the light of the arc itself, characterised by its richness in
violet rays. In lamps of the enclosed arc type the length of arc is increased, and
consequently such lamps give a light richer in violet rays. Although arc lights
vary somewhat in the proportion of violet light, they all agree in being richer
than daylight in the amount of red, orange, and yellow rays, compared with the
amount of green and blue. Owing to the peculiar transparency of colours to red
light already noticed, it is of primary importance that the proportion of red light
should be carefully adjusted. Small variations in the amount of violet light are
of minor importance, owing to the eye being less sensitive to such rays, and also
because in mixing colours there is not the same tendency to develop a band of
violet as we have seen occurs in the red, since yellow colours generally have
complete absorption in the violet.

The required absorption of the less refrangible rays can be effected by means
of blue cupric salts. A solution of copper sulphate shows strong absorption at
the extreme red of the spectrum, the absorption extending with diminishing
intensity into the green.

For practical purposes the light from the arc is modified by passage through
pale blue glass coloured by means of copper. This coloured glass may conveniently
take the form of a globe veplacing the ordinary globe of the arc light.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The following Papers were read :—

1, On the Statistical Dynamics of Gas Theory as rllustrated by Meteor
Swarms and Optical Rays. By Dr. J. Larmor, £.4.8.

Imagine a cloud of meteors pursuing an orbit in space under outside attraction
—in fact, in any conservative field of force. Let us consider a group of the
meteors around a given central one. As they keep together their velocities are
nearly the same. When the central meteor has passed into another part of the
orbit, the surrounding region containing these same meteors will have altered in
shape; it will in fact usually have become much elongated. If we merely count
large and small meteors alike, we can define the density of their distribution in
space in the neighbourhood of this group: it will be inversely as the volume
occupied by them. Now consider their deviations from a mean velocity, say that
of the central meteor of the group; we can draw from an origin a vector repre-
senting the velocity of each meteor, and the ends of these vectors will mark out a

region in the velocity diagram whose shape and volume will represent the:

character and range of the deviation. It results from a very general proposition
in dynamics that as the central meteor moves along its path the region occupied
by the’ group of its neighbours multiplied by the corresponding region in their
velocity diagram remains constant. Or we may say that the density at the group

asi

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 633

considered, estimated by mere numbers, not by size, varies during its motion pro-
portionally to the extent of the region on the velocity diagram which corresponds
to it.

This is true whether mutual attractions of the meteors are sensibly effective or
not; in fact, the generalised form of this proposition, together with a set of
similar ones relating to the various partial groups of coordinates and velocity
components, forms an equivalent of the fundamental law of Action which is the
unigue basis of dynamical theory.

ow, suppose that the mutual attractions are insensible, and that W is the
potential of the conservative field: then for a single meteor of mass m and velocity
v we have the energy $mv*+mW conserved: hence if dv, be the range of velocity
at any point in the initial position, and dv, that at the corresponding point in any
subsequent position of the group, we have v,dv,=v,6v,, these positions remaining
unvaried and the variation being due to different meteors passing through them.
But if do, and do, are the initial and final conical angles of divergence of the
velocity vectors, corresponding regions in the velocity diagram are of extents
6u,.v,"d0; and dv,.v,*d,: these quantities are, therefore, in all cases proportional
to the densities at the group in its two positions. In our present case of mutual
attractions insensible, the volume density is thus proportional to vie, because vdv
remains constant. Now the number of meteors that cross per unit time per unit
area of a plane at right angles to the path of the central meteor is equal to this
density multiplied by v: thus here it remains proportional to v*de, as the central
meteor moves on. In the corpuscular formulation of geometrical optics this
result carries the general law that the concentration in cross-section of a beam of
light at different points of its path is proportional to the solid angular divergence
of the rays multiplied by the square of the refractive index, which is also directly
necessitated by thermodynamic principles; as a special case it limits the possible
brightness of images in the well-known way.

In the moving stream of particles we have thus a quantity that is conserved in
each group—namely, the ratio of the density at a group to the extent of the region
or domain on the velocity diagram which corresponds to it; but this ratio may
vary in any way from group to group along the stream, while there is no restric-
tion on the velocities of the various groups. If two streams cross or interpenetrate
each other, or interfere in other ways, all this will be upset owing to the collisions.
Can we assign a statistical law of distribution of velocities that will remain
permanent when streams, which can be thus arranged into nearly homogeneous
groups, are crossing each other in all directions, so that we pass to a model of a
gasP Maxwell showed that ifthe number of particles each of which has a total
energy E is proportional to e~»", where h is some constant (which defines the
temperature), while the particles in each group range uniformly, except as regards
this factor, with respect to distribution in position and velocity jointly, as above,
then this will be the case. In .act, the chance of an encounter for particles of
energies Hi and KH’ will involve the product e—»¥e—b®’ or e—h+©), and an encounter
does not alter this total energy E+E’; while the domains or extents of range of
two colliding groups each nearly homogeneous and estimated, as above, by devia-
tion from a central particle in position and velocity jointly, will have the same
product after the encounter as before by virtue of the Action principle. It
follows that the statistical chances of encounter, which depend on this joint pro-
duct, will be the same in the actual motion as are those of reversed encounter in
the same motion statistically reversed. But if the motion of a swarm with
velocities fortuitously directed can be thus statistically reversed, recovering its

revious statistics, its molecular statistics must have become steady ; in fact, we

ave insuch a system just the same distribution of encountering groups in one
direction as in the reverse direction: thus we have here one steady state. The
same argument, indeed, shows that a distribution, such that the number per unit
volume of particles whose velocity deviations correspond to a given region in the
velocity diagram, is proportional to the extent of that region without this factor
e-hF, will also be a steady one. This is the case of equable distribution in each
group as regards only the position and velocity diagrams conjointly; but in this

634 REPORT—1900.

case each value of the resultant velocity would occur with a frequency propor
tional to its square, and a factor such as e~¥ is required to keep down very high
values. The generalisations by Boltzmann and Maxwell to internal degrees of
freedom would lead us too far, the aim here proposed being merely concrete
illustration of the very general but purely analytical argument that is fully set
forth in the treatises of Watson, Burbury, and Boltzmann.

2. The Partition of Energy. By G. H. Bryan, Se.D., F.RS.

Consider a system of particles in a field of force acting on one another with
forces which are functions of the distances between them. If w, v, w are the
velocity components of a particle of mass m, V, the potential energy of the system,
the rate of increase of the component of kinetic energy, } mu’, is given by

d dV

(Se) we
dt G dx

If the probability of any given motion of the system is equal to the probability ot
the reversed motion for given positions of the particles, then since equal positive
and negative values of w are equally probable it appears that the mean rate of
increase of 3 mu” estimated from probability considerations is zero. Now form the
second differential coefficient of $ mu? with respect to the time, which may be called
the acceleration of this energy component. We obtain

igen ee hap ee d d d\ dV
——\nj )=—| — —u> — ho + W— |) —
de® nen n(ae) i («5 “dy . ‘) dx

If we are given the probability that the coordinates of the system may be between
given iimits, then a condition for the stationary state is that the mean values of
the accelerations of } mv*, 4 nw, 4 mw* are zero. We thus obtain a system of
equations of energy equilibrium for the system, which are sufficient to determine
the mean values of the components of kinetic energy, provided the system is such
that the mean values of products of velocities such as w,v,, %;¥%o, OY #0, vanish,
If this is not the case the conditions for a stationary state involve writing down
further expressions for the accelerations or second differential coefficients of these
velocity products, and equating their mean values to zero.

In this way the mean values of the squares and products of the velocity
components for a stationary distribution are expressible in terms of the mean values
of the squares of the force compenents, and the second differential coefficients of the
potential energy with respect to the coordinates.

In this preliminary investigation the simplest possible illustrative examples
are considered. For a system of two particles moving in astraight line and acting
on one another with finite forces, the partition of energy follows Maxwell's law,
and the mean product of the velocities vanishes if there is no external field of
force. If there is a field of external force, this is no longer in general the case.
We thus have some justification for the belief that in a polyatomic gas Maxwell’s
law of partition may no longer hold good, and this may account for the experi-
mental result that this law is verified approximately only when translational and
rotational energy are alone taken into account.

The principal advantage of studying the problem of energy-partition from the
consideration of energy accelerations is that it leads to results for a perfectly
reversible dynamical system somewhat analogous to the irreversible properties of
temperature. ‘The property that heat tends to flow from a hotter to a colder body
is represented on this view by the property that when two stationary systems are
allowed to act on one another, then if a certain inequality is satisfied energy is
accelerated from one system to the other, and the direction of the acceleration is

} This paper will be published im ewtenso in the dedicatory volume to Professor
Lorentz published by the University of Leiden.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 6395

determined by the sign of the inequality, This last is unaltered by reversing the
- yelocity components of all the particles.

In order that a stationary distribution of energy may be possible certain con-
ditions represented by inequalities must hold good, and further conditions, which
may or may not be identical with these, must be satistied in order that the distri-
butions may bestable. hese properties may perhaps have a physical interpretation
in the notion that change of state takes place when the conditions in question
cease to hold good. Finally, the fact that the Newtonian potential satisfies
Laplace’s equation may possibly give an exceptional character to the phenomena of
energy-partition in the cosmic universe. It is also evident that expressions for the
second differential coefficients of squares and products of velocity components may
theoretically be written down for a dynamical system of the most general character,
and applied to determine the partition of energy between the molecules and the
ether.

3. Note on the Propagation of Electric Waves along Parallel Wires.
By Prof. W. B. Morton, I/.A.

In the ‘Annalen der Physik’ for June 1900, a very complete investigation of
this problem has been published by G. Mie. He finds expressions for the wave-
length and damping of the oscillations, involving a series of ascending powers of the
ratio of radius of wires to distance apart. The object of this note is to point out
that the approximate solution, in which the square of this ratio is neglected, can
be very easily obtained {rom the known solution for a-single wire, as worked out
by Professor J. J. Thomson and by Sommerfeld. The formula for the damping
agrees with that given by Heaviside’s simple theory when Lord Rayleigh’s high-
frequency values are used for the resistance and inductance. Attention is called
to anerror in the formula for the K, function in the work of Thomson, Sommerfeld,
and Mie, arising probably from an erratum in Heine’s ‘Kugelfunctionen.’ It affects
the numerical values worked out in Sommerfeld and Mie’s papers.

4. On the Vector Potential of Electric Currents in a Field where Disturb-
ances are propagated with Finite Velocity. ByS. H. Bursury, £.£.S.

1. If uw’ v’w’ be the components of the total electric current at 2’y’ 2’ ina
homogeneous isotropic transparent medium, the components of vector potential
F GH at any point ays at a given instant are usually defined as follows,

F = {\\" da'dy/dz = |“ar &c., where 7 = f(x? = 2+ iy’ yy a @— 2)? and the

integration is over all space. Also wu’ v’w’ are the values of wu’ v’ w’ at the given
instant, and therefore all at the same instant. Hence follow Poisson’s equations

Vol aas =a ae Ate y 2 Bath ag . . . . . (tk)

ea ba
_ai_dG@
dy dz

”
iF dH
B =" ez = du ‘ . . (2)

_aG _ ak
¥ dx dy

Then

dy a8, d/dk dG di
dy dz BOs de dy dz :

636 REPORT—1900.

and if we assume

dx dy dz
and therefore
- + = + oA = 0 everywhere,
we have
er ae 2 yey eS TEI,

Hence is deduced
K @F
2 ——— = ‘ e . ° . 4
VE 4r dt* @)

1
where V = JES the velocity of propagation of adisturbance. Also 4(Fu+Gu+ Hw)

is the energy per unit of volume atays. . : : é : , » (5)
3. The theory in this form is open to objection. If u’, the current at 2” ?
changes with the time, we have a corresponding change of F given byt = =

But owing to (4) no physical quantity at 2 y z can be immediately affected by the
change at 2” y’ 2’. The change can have no effect whatever at « y = till after the

expiration of the time “ If therefore F be any physical quantity, we must have

- = 0, which is inconsistent with our definition. If F be nota physical quantity,

Fu cannot denote energy, which is inconsistent with (5).
4, The fact that V is very great, and 7 very small, does not meet the difficulty,

du’
because 7 ©”
V dt
5. It is proposed to substitute for uw’, the current at 2’ y’ z’ at the given instant,

uw,’ the current which did exist at 2’ y' x’ x seconds ago, so that our definition will

is not generally small.

be F, = | itar. F, is used by way of distinction from F. In this form of F the

objections above taken cease to have effect.
As wu’ and all its derived coefficients according to the time are supposed finite,

: r du’ r? au! : :
we may write w’;=w’— — 3 &e., or symbolically, for convenience

= oe ie
Vdt ~V? at?’

only,
F rd 5
a — a
il Tae,
F; = Jar’ e Vatu . . = . . . (6)
,

6. It is shown that, primd facie, F , G,, H,, so defined, satisfy the differential
equations (1) a8 well as do the ordinary FG H. So as regards the differential
equations the proposed substitution makes no difference in form to the theory.

7. An objection is considered that F and F, cannot both satisfy Poisson’s
equations (1) because if they did we should have y*F = vF,, and this cannot, it is
said, be true because

1 du’ r due i r? Bu’
F=F | er | pee | OC ike
+ eta 2) aan * a3) as &

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 637

and since
vr +0 "i
vr? #0 Ff

If the objection be valid, it is not evident whether we should use F or F,.
8. But Poisson’s equation requires only that, however small be the radius ‘a’
of a sphere described about 2 y z,

when r=0, y?F=y?F, is not true.

°4nr2y*Edr =—4r |'4nrudr

and that is satisfied by both F and F; For the purpose of Poisson's equation we
may use y’F and y’F; as interchangeable.

9. Since = has different values for different waves, F', should be the sum of
a number of terms of the form (6), each corresponding to a wave-length.

10. Et seg—A calculation is made of the effect of using F; instead of F in
case of a disturbance spreading in spherical waves from a source.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8,
The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1, Report on Determining the Magnetic Force on Board Ship,
See Reports, p. 45,

2. Final Report on the Sizes of Pages of Scientific Pervodicals.
See Reports, p. 45.

3. On the Similarity of Effect of Electrical Stimulus on Inorganic and
Living Substances. By Jacapis CuunveR Bosz, M.A., D.Sc., Pro-
Jessor of Physical Science, Presidency College, Calcutta.

If we take a piece of living tissue, say a piece of muscle, and subject it to an
electric stimulus, there will be produced a contraction; the stimulus causes a
rearrangement of the particles of the living substance by which the form of muscle
is changed. On the cessation of stimulus the muscle, recovering from the mole-
cular strain, gradually attains its original shape. The effect of stimulus on nerves
is, however, not apparent; there is no change of form. The molecular disturbance
due to stimulus can, however, be detected in an indirect manner from certain
electromotive variations that are produced. If now a mass of metallic filings be
taken and subjected to electric shocks, there is no visible change. The substance
appears to be irresponsive or dead to stimulus. Are inorganic substances then
really irresponsive? Could this apparent want of response not be due atter all to
our inability to detect the profound molecular changes that may have nevertheless
taken place in the substance under the action of stimulus? In nerves it is seen
that the molecular changes can only be detected indirectly by an electric method.

The author describes an electric method based on the variation of conductivity,
by which the molecular change due to an electric stimulus in an inorganic
substance is detected and measured. Curves are in this manner obtained with the
conductivity variation (proportional to molecular effect) as ordinates, and the time
; 4 exposure to the stimulus or the time of recovery from the effect of stimulus as
abscisse. ‘

It is next shown that the effect on matter of electric stimulus, of widely varying

638 REPORT—1900.

frequencies, is a continuous one. There is also a continuity of effect on all forms
of inorganic matter, similar effects being produced not only (1) in all elementary
substances—metals, non-metals, and metalloids—but also (2) in metallic compounds,
such as the chlorides, bromides, iodides, oxides, and sulphides.

Comparisons are next made of the molecular response in both inorganic and
living substances under varying conditions :—

1. On the effect of moderate stimulus.

2. On the effect of maximum stimulus.

3. On the effect of superposition of medium stimuli—(a) effect due to slow
intermittence ; (6) tetanic effect due to rapid intermittence.

4, On the opposite effect due to strong and feeble stimulus.

5. On the physical theory of ‘ fatigue ’ in inorganic and living substances.

6, On the various means of rapidly removing fatigue.

7. On the effect of injection of various substances which act as ‘ poisons.’

In all the above cases the curves for both living and inorganic substances are
found to be similar.

The author next explains a theory of vision, and describes an artificial retina ;
the various effects of radiation on this artificial retina explain many obscure
phenomena of vision.

Parallel experiments are then described with the artificial and the real
retina :—

1. On the effect of short exposure to the action of radiation.

2. On the effect of intermittent radiation; on the question of the presence or
absence of ‘flicker’ depending on the intensity of radiation and also on the
rapidity of intermittence.

3. On the peculiarity of the visual sensation curve, as explained by the curve
of effect on the artificial retina.

4, On the different elements of retinal fatigue.

5. On certain curious reversal effects,

G. On after-oscillation and visual recurrence.

7. On the novel phenomenon of binocular alternation of vision, and on the
analysis of superposed images by alternate after-vision.

8. On the persistence of retinal oscillation, and its continuity with the phe-
nomenon of memory.

In ali the phenomena described above there is seen a remarkable similarity
of effect of external stimulus on both living and non-living forms of matter. It is
difficult to draw a line and say, ‘ Here the physical process ends and the physio-
logical process begins,’ or ‘These are the lines of demarcation that separate the
physical, the physiological, and the beginning of psychical processes.’ No such
arbitrary lines can be drawn, there being no abrupt break of continuity.

4. Wrreless Telephony. By Sir Wittiam Henry Preece, K.C.B., PRS.

The first experiments in this direction were made in the month of February
1894, across Loch Ness in the Highlands. On that occasion trials were made to
determine the laws governing the transmission of Morse signals by the electro-
magnetic method of wireless telegraphy, which has formed the subject of frequent
reports to this Section since 1884; two parallel wires well earthed were taken, one
on each side of the lake, and arrangements were made by means of which the wires
could be systematically shortened with a view of ascertaining the minimum length
necessary to record satisfactory signals. It occurred to Mr. Gavey, who was
experimenting, to compare telephonic with telegraphic signals, ¢.e., to ascertain
whether articulate speech could be maintained under the same conditions as Morse
signalling. The trials showed that it was possible to exchange speech across the
Loch at an average distance of 1:3 mile between the parallel wires when the
eth of the wires themselves was reduced to four miles on each side of the
‘water,

a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 639

What led to this train of thought was the fact that although the volume of
telegraphic current was immensely greater than that of a telephonic current,
whenever, through want of balance as a loop, disturbance was evident then tele-
phonic cross-talk was also manifest. In other words, a weak telephonic current
was apparently as powerful a disturber as a strong telegraphic one.

The sensation created in 1897 by Mr. Marconi’s application of Hertzian waves,
distracted attention from the more practical and older method. Myr. Evershed
and Principal Oliver Lodge had, in the meantime, much advanced the system by
introducing admirable call systems.

In 1899 I conducted some careful experiments on the Menai Straits which
determined the fact that the maximum effects with telephones are produced when
the parallel wires are terminated by ‘ earth’ plates in the sea itself. It became
quite evident that the ordinary inductive effects are much enhanced by conductive
effects through the water, and that in consequence shorter wires are practical. No
special apparatus seems necessary. The ordinary telephonic transmitters and re-
ceivers were used without induction coils.

It became desirable to establish communication between the islands or rocks
known as the Skerries and the mainland of Anglesey, and it was determined to
do this by means of wireless telephony. ‘The lighthouse at the Skerries was
wanted to be in communication with the coastguard station at Cemlyn. <A wire
750 yards in length was erected along the Skerries, and on the mainland one of
three and a half miles from a point opposite the Skerries to Cemlyn. Each line
terminates by an earth plate into the sea. The average distance between the
parallel portions of the two wires is 2°8 miles. Telephonic communication is
readily maintained and the service is a good one.

Further experiments with wireless telephony have recently been made by Mr.
Gavey between Rathlin Island, on the north coast of Ireland, and the mainland.
The east and west portions of the island of Rathlin are about eight miles from the
mainland, but a tongue of land projects southward to within a distance of four miles.
Communication was required between the lighthouse near the north-eastern corner of
the island and the mainland, and the question for solution was whether an over-
head line running the whole length of the island from east to west was necessary
to obtain good communication, dr whether a shorter line across the neck of the
southern peninsula would serve. The preliminary experiments thet have been
made prove conclusively that communication, both telegraphic and telephonic, has
been readily maintained by means of temporary wires established across the neck
of the peninsula along the shorter line. Wireless telegraphy across the sea is
now a practical and commercial system.

No experiments have yet been made with ships, but it would appear simple to
speak by telephone between ship and ship or between ship and shore to consider-
able distances hy means of a circuit formed of copper wire terminating at each
ao of the ship in the sea, passing over the top-masts and using simple tele-
phones.

5. On the Apparent Emission of Cathode Rays from an Electrode at Zero
Potential. By Cuartes E. 8. Pururps.

It has been noticed by many people who work with X-ray or other vacuum
bulbs that numerous bright green patches occasionally appear upon the inney
surface of the glass walls of a bulb while a discharge is passing, especially during
the process of exhaustion.

These green flecks vary considerably from time to time in shape as well as in
position, and efforts have been made to connect their existence either with want
of uniformity in the composition of the glass or with irregularities in the surface
of the negative electrode.

_ LT have already, in another place, given some account of an experiment made
with the object of clearing up this uncertainty, and now beg to supplement that

1 Lilectrician, 4], 1898, pp. 425, 426.

640 REPORT—1900.

work with the following observations as to the cause of the phenomenon. The
experiment just referred to consisted in using a pivoted disc of aluminium as the
negative electrode in a bulb containing rarefied air, so that when green patches
appeared a rotational movement of the dise (actuated by means of an external
magnet) would show whether the patches of green moved in a corresponding
manner or not. It was seen that they did so move.

A distinct feature of the experiment, however, consisted in ascertaining
whether those flecks which persisted after the discharge had ceased were still
sensitive to movements of the cathode. This also was found to be the case. The
proof, therefore, that the green patches were associated with an emission from the
cathode appeared complete.

But it was further noticed that subsequently to the passage of a discharge, and
even when either or both of the electrodes were connected to earth, still the green
flecks were easily visible upon the glass walls of the bulb, and continued to move
as before when the cathode was rotated.

This was apparently a case in which cathode rays were emitted from an
electrode at zero potential.

I do not know that any explanation of this effect has so far been offered, and
I therefore venture to bring forward the following suggestions, supported by
further experiments.

When a piece of metal is placed in a rarefied atmosphere and made the nega-
tive pole for an electrical discharge passing across the attenuated gas, innumerable
small bright specks of light appear over the surface of the metal. It was found
convenient in my particular case to use an ion electrode for observations of this
effect, because it had the advantage of being readily magnetisable from without.
The addition of a similar iron electrode to act as the anode determined the shape
of the magnetic field. With such an apparatus it could be seen that the bright
spots appeared principally upon the cathode while the discharge passed, and that
the creation of a magnetic field between the electrodes made visible the individual
luminous streams of gas emanating from those tiny points of light. The paths of
these luminous streams, becoming bent by the action of the magnetic field, followed
the direction of the lines of magnetic force and exhibited a tendency to become
spiral in accordance with well-known laws. In this way a fine layer of sodium
upon the anode was caused to fluoresce through the action of the negatively
electrified particles beating down upon it. One was able, in fact, by this means
to cast shadows of objects placed in the paths of the bent streams, and at a pres-
sure considerably higher than that necessary for the production of the well-known
cathode shadow effects. In the above case, however, the method served to clearly
establish the fact that the bright points of light upon the surface of the cathode
indicated the places from which the jets of gas originated.

The number of these jets became less as the exhaustion was continued, and
individual streams were very clearly seen owing to the action of the magnetic
field. When the discharge began to cause fluorescence in the glass of the bulb
some green patches made their appearance, and, in some cases, when the cathode
was magnetised a bright spot, which was previously judged to indicate the origin
of a green patch upon the lass, would shift to a new position upon the electrode.
In all such cases the corresponding patch also moved in a similar manner upon
the glass.

‘At sufficiently high exhaustions the bright spots upon the electrode disappeared
entirely, although green flecks were still visible upon the glass. But a movemen’
as before of the electrode as well as its magnetisation gave results consistent with

revious observations.

Under these conditions, when the discharge through the bulb was stopped
ereen flecks were still visible for about ten seconds.

A positively charged body was brought up to the outside of the bulb and the
patches brightened considerably. A negative charge similarly placed extin-
guished the flecks completely. ;

Finally, vacuum bulbs, such as X-ray lamps, &e., exhibiting green flecks while
in operation, were generally found to deteriorate if laid aside for a month or two,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 641

owing to an increase in the pressure of the contained gas. We see, therefore, that
in the first place, the bright points of light upon the surface of the cathode are
-due to the emission of fine jets of gas; also that such jets, if negatively charged,
may be made to cast shadows of objects suitably placed in their paths. It is at
the same time clear that the green flecks referred to above are due, during the

sage of a discharge, to these same jets of gas impinging upon the inner side of
the glass walls, and that, under the conditions existing immediately subsequent
to the passage of the discharge, streams of gas continue to be emitted from
the pores of the electrodes. In spite of the fact that (with the electrodes con-
nected to earth) these streams consist of unelectrified particles, they assume
that property of ionisation during their passage across the space within the
bulb which appears to be essential to the production of local fluorescence in
the glass upon which they impinge.

This latter effect, while explaining the process by which a cathode emission
may appear to originate at an electrode with no electrical charge upon it, is one
to which I wish to draw especial attention, for there is reason to believe that the
speed at which the individual particles, constituting the jets, move cannot exceed
the rate at which sound is propagated in the rarefied medium.

It is therefore interesting to find that, under such circumstances, fluorescence
was produced in the glass upon which the streams impinged.

As many of the observations referred to here were made during the course of
an investigation into the diselectrifying action of magnetism now being carried
out by myself at the Davy-Faraday Laboratory of the Royal Institution, I desire
to express my indebtedness to the managers of that institution for the facilities
which they have kindly placed at my disposal.

6. On Volta-electromotive Force of Alloys, and a Test for Chemical Union.
By Dr. G. Gore, F.R.S.

The question has been asked, ‘ How far does change in physical properties,
such as electromotive force, &c., enable us to detect the existence of a compound
in an alloy ?’}

In reply to this I beg leave to say that whilst a gain of mean electromotive
force of an alloy when used as a positive plate in a voltaic cell indicates that the
constituents of the alloy are simply mixed together or dissolved in each other, a
loss of mean electromotive force shows that they are chemically combined.

It is well known that simple dilution of an electrolyte usually diminishes the
apparent electromotive force of a simple voltaic couple immersed in it. In a
research, however, on ‘The Relations of Volta-electromotive Force to Latent
Heat, &c., of Electrolytes,’* I found that in eighteen out of nineteen cases of
mere dilution of electrolytes with water, on measuring the apparent electromotive
forces of a simple voltaic couple immersed—first, in water alone; secondly, in an
undiluted electrolyte ; and thirdly, in the same electrolyte diluted—a gain of mean
electromotive force was produced by the diluted liquid above that of the mean
amount as calculated from the separate amounts excited by the water alone and
by the undiluted liquid. And I further found by a similar process in a subsequent
research on ‘A Method of Measuring Loss of Energy due to Chemical Union ’*
that when the ingredients of two electrolytes (such as an acid and an alkali)
mixed together with strong chemical union, a Joss instead of a gain of mean amount
of electromotive force occurred ; and that when two electrolytes mixed together
without any degree of such union, as they are considered to do in cases of mere
dilution, a gain of mean amount of such force nearly always took place. Similarly
with metals dissolved in mercury and with solid alloys used as positive electrodes,
the admixture of one metal with another when unattended by chemical union

1 Nature, August 16, 1900, p. 369.
2 Phil. Mag., August 1891, p. 165.
3 Phil. Mag., January 1892, p. 28.

1900.

*y 7

642 REPORT— 1900.
usually zxcreased the mean electromotive force, but when attended by such uniom
usually decreased it.'

Determinations of the amounts of apparent electromotive force yielded by
various alloys of copper and zinc when used as positive plates in a voltaic cell
have been made by A. P. Laurie, and are given in the first three columns of the
following table; and I have calculated from these numbers the mean electromotive:
forces and the percentage changes of such forces of the alloys, according to the-
method just referred to. They are as follows :—

Copper-zine Alloy as a Positive Plate.

| 1 2. miss Pe te Sane 6
: aren alculated thange o A (
| Parts of Zine. Panes BALE. in mean mean Per Cent.
PREF, Volts. E.M.F. D.M.F.
| ‘t CURE MERE (
| 100-0 —020 |
| 250+ 750 —-020 +1350 Loss ‘1370 =1014 |
44°6 + 55-4 +040 +2566 , *2160 = 843
49-5 + 50°5 +070 + 2860 », °2160 = 755
507+ 49-3 +:070 +2946 » (2246 = 761
| 528+ 47-2 +075 +3070 » 282 = 755
| 53-94 46°1 +065 +3142 » 7249 = 79:3
|. 561+ 43:9 +070 +°3279 » (257 = 78:3
583+ 41-7 +080 +3407 » 260 = 76-4
63:0 + 370 +085 +3700 » 285 = 770 |
63°5 + 365 +085 +°3737 1288 = 770
64:1 +4 35-9 +160 +3775 5 216 = 575 |
* 66-24 33:8 +°530 +3905 Gain ‘140 = 359 -!
66:3 + 332 | +°590 43942 #196 = 320 |
681+ 319 | +4:540 +4022 rei = 34:3
69°7 + 30°3 +570 44122 e158 = 38:3 |
IT0+ 23:0. | +600 +4574 » 148 = 313 |
83°6 + 16:4 +580 +4983 081 = 162
| 87-6 + 12-4 +590 +6231 » (067 = lP-BL i. |
96-5 + 3:5 +590 | +:5783 » 081 = Bison
1000+ | 600 | | |
7 == ANE

According to these numbers, whilst the apparent amounts of electromotive
force, as shown in column 3, increased in nearly all cases, and with tolerable
regularity, with the increased proportion of zinc in the alloys, the mean amounts,.
as shown in column 4, behaved very differently; thus with all the alloys con-
taining more than 33:8 per cent. of copper (agreeing with the formula Zn?Cu).
there was a loss of mean electromotive force, and with less than 35:9 per cent.
there was in all cases a gain (see column 5),

We may reasonably infer from the results obtained by dilution and mixture
of electrolytes, and of metals with mercury,' that not only these, but the
results obtained with solid alloys of copper and zinc, are largely, if not
entirely, dependent upon two influences, viz., dilution and chemical union, the
former tending to increase and the latter to decrease the mean electromotive
force, and that had there been no cases of chemical union in the foregoing
table there would have been none of doss of mean electromotive force, The
effect of chemical union upon electromotive force appears to have been greater
than that of dilution in all the mixtures which contained more than 33°8 per cent.
of copper; and the numbers in column 4 indicate what the apparent amounts of

1 See Proc. Birm. Phil. Soc., vol. viii. pp. 63-138.
2 Journ. Chem, Soc., vol. lili. p. 104.

ao

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 643.

electromotive force would have been if there had been no changes caused either
by dilution or by chemical union. .

All the facts appear to be consistent with the theory that dilution increases
and chemical union decreases the freedom of molecular movement.

7. A Lecture-room Volt- and Amperemeter.
By Professor F. G. Baty.

A d’Arsonval galvanometer of moderate resistance is used, and a powerful
lantern throws a conspicuous circle of light on to a large semi-transparent scale.
A high resistance and a set of shunts allow of the measurement of electromotive
forces, the scale being adjusted to read directly in volts or multiples, and a range
of ‘05 volt to 300 volts being obtained. By the omission of the high resistances
the galvanometer and shunts may be used for ordinary purposes, and may be adjusted
to measure thermo-electric forces. Currents from ‘5 milliampere up to 30 amperes
are measured by the difference of potential between the ends of a low resistance,
two alternative resistances being used, and the range is improved by the use of
resistances in series with the galvanometer. A tapping and a reversing key are
fixed on the box.

8. On the Phosphorescent Glow in Gases.
By Joun B. B. Burxe, M.A.

When a ring or electrodeless discharge is sent through a gas an after-clow is
produced, at pressures within certain limits, in air varying between 0:7 mm. and
0:02 mm. A series of experiments was carried out to investigate the cause of
this glow, and it was found that it was due to particles which do not carry a
charge of electricity, but nevertheless produce conductivity in the gas as they pass
through it. They are not stopped in their motion through charged wire-gauze
electrodes, nor by an electromotive force, and yet cause a current to pass between
two such electrodes situated lower down in a long vacuum tube. The glow
diffuses through narrow brass tubing which is well earthed, proving that the glow
itself does not carry a charge. When the diffusion takes place through a brass
tap between two large bulbs the glow lasts three or four times as long in the one
that the discharge has not passed through ; and it was found that the glow in the
former was destroyed instantaneously when a discharge was sent from a small
induction coil between two electrodes in a side tube, showing that the glow was
destroyed by the ionised gas.

'_ The conductivity observed was probably due to the breaking up of the phos-
oot molecules by the ions produced by the spark as the glow moved through
them.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The Section was divided into two Departments.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

DepartMENtT I.—MatTuHEmATICs.

1. Report on Tables of certain Mathematical Functions.
See Reports, p. 46.

2. Report on the Present State of the Theory of Point-Groups.
See Reports, p. 121.

Dr 2

644. REPORT—1900.

3. A Property of the Characteristic Symbolic Determinant of any n Quantics
inn Variables. By Major P. A. MacManon, F.4.S.

fo a fn Mat : ‘ ; :
If dy, G9 ++ + @,, be any m quantics in m variables in symbolic notations so

that

Cy = Oly Oyaly be he Oe ADO By, Ayn, »- » Ay,
are umbre, and

Es aka f Sn

¥ a En ° aes a

i ee Gay = pis C.., in iy a 3

the paper is concerned with the sum ,
eel. kOe te

the sum being for all positive integral values of €,, &,... &,.
It is shown that if f(6) denote the characteristic determinant of umbrie

@,,—9, Mo, +. «
Aq1y Ayg— Gy » » « |

the sum in question is

4. Sur les Relations entre la Géométrie Projective et la Mécanique.
Par M. Cyparissos ST&PHANOS.

Monsieur Stéphanos explique et précise le role de la géométrie projective dans la
mécanique, et surtout en statique, en s’appuyant sur ce fait fondamental, peut-étre
non encore remarqué, que les seules transformations entre les coordonnées pliické-
riennes d’une force qui respectent l’équilibre (c’est-a-dire, qui transforment un
systéme quelconque de forces en équilibre, appliqué 4 un corps solide libre, en un
autre systéme de forces également en équilibre) sont précisement des transforma-
tions linéaires et homogénes. Les transformations linéaires correspondent dans le
plan aux homographies planes, tandis que dans l’espace elles correspondent soit &
des homographies, soit a des corrélations.

Cela étant, les considérations et les méthodes de la géométrie projective (tant
synthétique qu’analytique) sont indispensables en statique, et surtout en statique
graphique, non seulement pour la coordination des résultats déji connus, mais
aussi pour l’assurement général et le progrés ultérieur de cette partie de la
mécanique.

Enfin M. Stéphanos attire particuliérement Vattention sur les affinités de
Vespace (transformations homographiques qui laissent invariable le plan a l’infini).
Les affinités ont seules cette vertu remarquable de respecter fidélement les
diagrammes de la statique en faisant transformer point par point tout diagramme
de forces en équilibre en un autre diagramme de forces également en équilibre.
Par contre les transformations homographiques générales, aussi que les corrélations
de l’espace, donnent immédiatement les lignes d’action des forces transformées, mais
non leurs intensités, dont la détermination demande une construction auxiliaire.

5. The Use of Multiple Space in Applied Mathematics.
By H. 8. Carstaw.

The ordinary method of Images may be used in the solution of problems in
Electrostatics, &c., when the bounding planes meet at an angle 7 , but it fails
m

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 645

when the angle of inclination is “7 (”, m positive integers). Illustrations:
m

™ (m=1, 2); “"(m=1,n=2: m=2, n=3).
m m
So far as I can learn it was first pointed out by Sommerfeld,! that a Riemann’s

surface might be here employed, and with the help of a Multiple Space, problems
in Electrostatics, Electric Conduction, Hydrodynamics, Sound, and Conduction of

Heat, in which the boundaries are planes meeting at an angle =, have now been

solved by Images.

The ideas involved may be illustrated by the potential problem in which the
boundary is the semi-infinite plane 6 =o.

There is nothing to prevent us assuming that in this case the space with which
we have to deal is defined by the range of o< 6<2z, and the behaviour of the solu-
tion of the equation Vu = 0, outside that range need not concern us. It is found?
that the periodic function

where R*=7? + 7? — 2rr’cos (8— 6’) + (s— 2’),
2r7” cosh a, =7? +97? + (s—2')%,

a
o = cosh a

_ (O--0
and 7 = cos oan

“a

is a solution of the equation Vu =0, with the required properties, its only singu-
larity, in the range —27<6<2z, being at (7’, 6’, 2’). Calling this the solution
corresponding to a pole at (6’), if we associate with it that due to a pole at (—6’),
we obtain a function, satisfying the boundary conditions, with only the one singu-
larity in the range with which we are concerned.

Similar ideas enter into the solution of the other questions of this nature:
where the ordinary Image method would reproduce singularities in the original

_ space, by taking a function of a suitable period (a Riemann’s space of the proper

order) this result is avoided.

The problems in potential involving spherical boundaries may be solved by
Tnversion from the above. Hobson has considered,® by discussion in series, the
direct solution of the cases of the circular disc and spherical bow]. By a method
similar to Sommerfeld’s, I have found the solution for the general case.

Taking the coordinate system employed by Hobson, in which the position of
the point P is defined by

= loc PA,
P fo) PB
6 = ZAPB,

g = azimuthal angle,

the boundary @=constant, represents a portion of a spherical surface, of which the
rim of the circular disc, whose diameter is AB, is the base. If we are dealing with
the space bounded by an infinite plane with a circular hole, we define this
region by

0<0<2n,
and associate with it that defined by
—2nr<6<o.
Corresponding to the singularity at (6’), we shall have one at (— 6’).
' Math Ann. ® Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., xxviii., p. 413

2 Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. xviii.

646 REPORT—1900.

When the boundary is the infinite plane with hemispherical bowl, we con-
sider our Physical Space as given by
3m,

0<0< 3

and require three revolutions of the radius vector to complete our Multiple Space.
The poles will now be at (+ 6’), (+ (8r+6). ale
The general solution (of period 2mm) required for such problems is given by

7 i sinh
We 1 coshp — cos. cos hp’ — cos 6’ ae : ats,
male Jeosha—cosha’ cosh” —coe4—
where cos ha’ = cos hp cos hp'—sin hp sin hp’ cos (6 —¢’).

6. Determination of Successive High Primes. By Lieutenant-Colonel
Auuan CunnineHam, R.2., and H. J. Woovatt, A.2.C.Sc.

A general method is described of determining, in a compendious manner, the
whole of the primes within a given range. A table is given showing the lowest
factors of all the numbers between (2% + 1020), z.e. between 16,776,196 and
16,778,236, which brings them all within the power of the existing large factor-
tables. This determines the whole of the High Primes (117 in number) within the
above range, as in table below :-—

List of 117 High Primes between (2* ¥ 1020).

16,776, ... 16,777, . .. 16,778, ... |
= StH -b81 | 713 | 901 | 027 | 213 | 447 | 633 | 729 | 903:| = ieomy
— | 379 | 593 | 719 | 919 | 049 | 259 | 469 | 639 | 751 | 907 ts = 089
211 | 391 | 607 | 731 | 931 | 099 | 289 | 499 | 643 | 777 | 949 C= 123
217 | 401 | 619 | 763 | 937 | 121 | 291 | 507 | 669 | 781 | 967 | — | 129 |
289 | 451 | 623 | 817 | 941 | 127 | 331 | 531 | 679 | 807 | 973 | — | 187

| 313 | 469 | 681 | 833 | 961 | 139 | 333 | 571 | 681 | 811 | 987 | — | 147
| 317 | 481 | 659 | 839 | 967 | 141 | 337 | 577 699 | 823 991 | — 173
| 387 | 491 | 679 | 857 | 971 | 153 | 381 | 597 | 711} 829 — | 009 | 227
| 343 | 521 | 689 | 869 | 973 | 188 | 421 | 601 | 721 | 837 | — | 023 | 28)
367 | 547 | 691 | 899 | 989 | 199 | 441 | 619 | 723 | 853 — | O71 | — |

7. On the Construction of Magic Squares. By Dr. J. W1.uts.

8. The Asyzygetic and Perpetuant Covariants of Systems of Binary
Quantics. By Major P. A. MacManon, F.&.S.

The perpetuant theory connected with a single binary quantic has been com-
pleted as a consequence of the fact that all the asyzygetic seminvariants of given
order are known and easily representable. The object of the present paper is to
extend this knowledge to the seminvariant forms connected with a system of
binary quantics. The method of Stroh is then applicable, and the complete theory
can be established without difficulty.

4

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 647

9. On the Symbolism appropriate to the Study of Orthogonal and Boolian
Invariant Systems which appertain to Binary and other Quantics.
By Major P. A. MacManon, F.2.S.

It has been customary to study the theory of invariants by considering the
invariants of the general linear substitution as of primary importance, and to pay
comparatively little attention to the invariant forms connected with the orthogonal
and Boolian substitutions. These latter substitutions are particular, and give rise
to a number of forms which include those which arise from the general substitu-
tion; so that from one point of view the ordinary invariant theory is a particular
case of the theory of orthogonal or of Boolian invariants. This is the view taken
in this paper; the orthogonal and Boolian systems are studied by means of six
invariant symbolic factors, and at any time the theory of Clebsch and Gordan
and Aronhold can be derived by restricting attention to the two symbolic factors
employed by them.

10. A Quintic Curve cannot have more than fifteen real Points of Inflexion.
By A. B. Basset, £.2.S.

Zeuthen has shown ' that not more than one third of the total number of points
of inflexion that a quartic curve can have can be real. I propose to show that a
similar proposition holds good in the case of a quintic curve.

A quintic curve cannot have more than six double points, nor more than forty -
five points of inflexion.

Let A B C be the triangle of reference; and let A be a triple point composed
of three real crunodes ; and let B be a real crunode. Then the equation of the
quintic is

au,tayr,+y'w,=0 . : : . . (1)
where u,, Vs, w; are binary cubics in 8 and y.

Since each tangent at the triple point is composed of two real nodal tangents,
the three tangents at this point count as six real stationary tangents. If, however,
each tangent at the triple point has a contact of the third order with its respective
branch (which is the highest contact that a tangent at a triple point on a quintic
can have), each tangent counts three times as a real stationary tangent ; and there-
fore the foregoing singularity reduces the number of rea/ points of inflexion by nine.
In this case, v, = ku,, and (1) becomes

(a*+kay)u,+y'w,=0 . ‘ : : 5 (2)

_ Ifeach of the tangents at the crunode B hasa contact of the fourth order with
its respective branch (which is the highest contact which a tangent at a node on a
quintic can have), each tangent counts three times as a stationary tangent, and
therefore the foregoing singularity reduces the number of real points of inflexion
Vy Six.
We shall now show that these two singularities can coexist on a quintic.

Let
Us=(A, fy vw a B, y)"
w, = (1, m, n, p Ye B, y)*
then (2) may be arranged in the form
B°{X(a? + kay) + ly*} + By {u(a® + kay) + my"}
+ By*{v(a? + kay) + ny*} + wy*(a? + kay) + py’ =0 P : (3)

If the nodal tangents at B have a contact of the fourth order with their
respective branches ‘
f=pA, m=pl
v=od, n=oal

Math. Annalen, 1875.

648 REPORT— 1200.

and (3) becomes
{A(a? + kay) + ly} (8° + pR*y + oBy*) + wy*(a? + kay) + py’ =0 . (4)

Equation (4) shows that the two foregoing singularities can coexist on a quintic.
Moreover, there is nothing in the preceding equations of condition which prevents
values being assigned to the constants which make the singularities at A and B
real. Hence a quintic can have fifteen rea/ points of inflexion. If, however, a
quintic could have seventeen real points of inflexion, it would be possible to
determine the constants so that C should be a veal crunode. This would require
that

p=0, lr =0, wk =0

in which case the quintic would break up into factors. Hence, fifteen is the
maximum number of real points of inflexion that a quintic can have.

The fact that in the case of cubics, quartics, and quintics, only one third of the
total number of points of inflexion can be real, leaves very little room to doubt
that this law is universally true in the case of all algebraic curves.

ll. On a Central-difference Interpolation Formula.
By Professor J. D, Everett, /.2.S,

The best-known formule for interpolation by ‘central differences’ are difficult
to carry in the memory on account of their unsystematic aspect, one law being
applicable to the odd and another to the even terms. This disadvantage does not
attach to the formula here proposed.

Let u, and u, be two tabulated values between which a value is to be inserted
at distance p from wu, and q from w,, so that p+q=1.

If we regard uw, and w, as ordinates joined by a straight line cut in the
required ratio, the ordinate of the point of section is gu,+pu,, which is a first
approximation, exact when second differences vanish. A second approximation,
exact when fourth differences vanish, is

-1 il —1
quy+pr, +9 DIG Vagus + LFF Dad,

2 et

where in conformity with the notation explained in my paper of last year,’
Adu, Adu, are the central differences of the second order corresponding respectively
to wu, u,. This is a sufficient approximation when ;4; of the sum of the two central
fourth differences is negligible. The complete formula is

(gtr)... @=-r) rer, Sh (ptr) -- @—7) Arar
SE ly + BOP ET a8 y

where the numerators and denominators are factorials, all having 27+1 factors
with unity as the common difference.

The only novelty about the formula is the simplicity of its form. Each pair of
terms is equivalent to a pair of terms in the second of the two central-difference
formule of Stirling (Methodus Differentialis, Prop. 20), which is reproduced in
some modern works; but that formula contains odd as well as even diflerences.

Since g—1 is —p, and p—1 is —q, the above formula may be written

GUy + pu, a {(7 1F 1) Adu, + (p + 1)A6du,}
4 PUP + 1) See {(¢ +2) A°8’u, + (p + 2)A°O?u,} + Ke.
which (in the absence of a table of numerical values of the coefficients) is perhaps

See p. 645 in 1899 Report. The full paper is in the Quarterly Journal of
Mathematics No. 124, 1900.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 64.9)

the best shape for practical calculation, and which furnishes an intermediate step
in comparing the formula with Stirling’s.

To prove the formula, note first that since the second central difference Adf(2)
or f (w+ Axv)—2f (x) +f(%—Ax) is not altered by changing the sign of Az, the
value of Ad /(q) is the same when the independent variable is p as when it is g.

re —% =

Denote") : ; by ds(g), $0 that $4(9) =9, and $,(q)=(@* D¢@—)

Then Ad¢,(g) = Add,_, (9).

Making p the independent variable, and denoting the value of our series by
F (p), we have

F ( p)=quy + $(Q)Adu, + (q)A*8°u, + &e.
+ pu, + p,(p)Adu, + pal p)A*6*u, + Ke.

ASF (p) = Adu, + G,(q)A75°u, + Ke.
+ pAdu, + p,(p)A?d*u, + &e.
ATOE (p) = gA"du, + Ke. + pAts*u, + Ke.

Giving p the values 0 and 1, these become

F(0) =%, AdF(0) = Adu,, ATS (0) = A*SF wp.
F(1)=,, AdF(1) = Adzu,, ArotF (1) = Atdrw,.

Hence F (p) coincides with w for all the tabulated values that can be built up.
from uw, and their even central differences to the 7» inclusive, that is for the
2r +2 values of which uw, and w, are the two central,

Moreover, when g is replaced by its value ]+p, F(p) has the standard
parabolic form

Apt A p+ Aap*+ ... +A ptt

containing 27+ 2 constants to be deduced from the given 27 +2 tabulated values.

Since A‘d"d,(x) = (2) =, we may write ¢,(2’) = A-*S-*2, it being understood
that in each inverse operation A~’ or 6—", the arbitrary constant is to be so taken
as to make the result vanish with v. The formula may then be written

{qt (Ad)—"¢ . Ad + (A8)-2¢. (18)? + &e.} ws,
+ {p+ (Adp . Ad + (Ad)—*p . (Ad)? + &e.} u,.
In hike manner the ordinary interpolation formula

u(e@—-1) yo a
uy + Au y+ a A*Uy + &C.

can be written
{1+A71.A+A*1.A?+ &.} %;

and the formula for the same interpoland

Uy + VOU, + —— 62x, + Ke.

can be written
{14+671.8+6° 1.8 + &e.}u,
Taylor’s Theorem can be written
S(@+v)=(1+D71.D+D~ 1. D?+&c.)f (a) ;x
and the Binomial Theorem

(1+a)*=(1+ aA + @A—* + &e.) 1,
or (l—a)-*= (1+ ad + a6 + &e.) 1.

650 REPORT—1900.

‘Stirling’s first ’ formula can be written uv. —u,
A+6

= {a+ (Ad) a. Ab + (Ad) wv . (Ad)? + &e.} 3

A is {(Ad)— a . Ad + (Ad)—2.2. (Ad) + &e.}% ;
and ‘ Stirling’s second,’ with origin midway between uw, and w,, can be written
u, = {1+ (Ad) 1, A8 + (48)? 1. (48)? + &e,} “oF
x ea “{1 + (48)! 1. 08 + (A8)-2 1. (48)? + &e.} Ary ;

but here, instead of the inverse functions vanishing with v, A— is to vanish, for
w= and 6 for x= —}. :

12. On Newton’s Contributions to Central Difference Interpolation.
By Professor J. D. Everert, £.2.S.1

After a portion of the preceding abstract had been sent to the printer, I
discovered that the two formule known as Stirling’s are really due to Newton.
They are given in Prop. 3 of Newton’s‘ Methodus Differentialis,’ which is the closing
one of a collection of minor treatises by Newton, published, with his permission, in
1711 by W. Jones, who states in the preface that this particular tract has been
transcribed by him from a manuscript in Newton’s handwriting.

T have also found in Lemma 5, which follows Prop. 40 of the third book of the
‘ Principia,’ what is doubtless the earliest statement of the ordinary interpolation
formula, now usually written

Up + VAU, + Fat) A*u, + &e.

Newton gives it in a geometric shape, 2, c—1, «—2, &c., being represented by
lines, and he defines Au, not as u,—w, but as u,—w,, with a similar convention
for higher differences, thus reversing the signs of all odd differences as compared
with modern notation. Owing, I presume, to these disguises, the formula appears
to have hitherto escaped recognition.

DeparRTMent [LI.—MEeETEOROLOGY.

1. Report on Meteorological Photography.—See Reports, p. 56.
2. Report on Seismological Observations.—See Reports, p. 59.

3. Lifth Report on the Use of Kites to obtain Meteorological Observa-
tions at Blue Hill Observatory, Massachusetts, U.S.A. By A. LAWRENCE
Roreu, S.B., M.A., Director.

Satisfactory progress has been made in the work since the report presented at
the Dover meeting, and it is gratifying to observe that the method of exploring the
air by means of instruments, recording graphically and lifted by kites, which was
es at Blue Hill in 1894, is now being extensively used on the continent of

urope.

" Published im extenso in the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, 1901.

a

ul

,
‘

iat ama a ia aati i tee io es ee) es xed

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 651

By substituting larger wire as a flying line, and so diminishing relatively the
wind resistance, and by employing kites that exert a greater component of lift, the
average height of the flights thus far made during the present year has been
increased 1,473 feet and the maximum height 3,350 feet over the corresponding
heights in 1899. From January to the end of July, 1900, records were obtained
during fifteen flights, the average height attained by the meteorograph being 8,875
feet above the adjacent ocean. Twelve of these flights exceeded 3,300 feet, ten
exceeded 6,500 feet, six exceeded 9,800 feet, and two exceeded 13,000 feet. In the
highest flight on July 21, six kites attached at intervals to four and three-quarter
miles of steel wire lifted the meteorograph 15,170 feet above Blue Hill. This
height of 15,800 feet above the sea surpasses the greatest altitude at which
meteorological observations have been made from a balloon in America.' The
records obtained during 1899 have been reduced by my assistant Mr. Clayton; a
continuation of his studies of cyclonic and anticyclonic phenomena by means of
kites was published as Bulletin No. 7 of the Observatory, and a summary appeared
in ‘ Nature.’

4, Charts illustrating the Weather of the North Atlantic Ocean wn the
Winter of 1898-99, By Captain CampBELL-Hepwort, Meteorological
Office.

The Meteorological Council, having received a large amount of information
from thé logs of Atlantic steamships, have investigated the remarkably stormy
weather experienced on that ocean in the winter of 1898-99, and charts for sixty
consecutive days have been prepared exhibiting the atmospheric conditions over
the sea and a great extent of the adjacent continents. The discussion has shown
that while severe storms were ot common occurrence on the ocean America was
ee an exceptionally cold season, while Europe enjoyed almost unexampled

ness.

Through the first few days the charts show comparatively undisturbed weather
on the frequented ocean routes, but from Christmas onward hardly a day passed
without more or less violent gales. The cyclonic depressions passed out to the
Atlantic at various points between Florida and Labrador, some crossing quickly to
the vicinity of the British Isles, others—and particularly the worst one in February
—making very slow progress. Remarks in the logs testify to the tempestuous
character of the season by frequent references to fierce, violent gales of hurricane
force, mountainous, tremendous, and terrific seas, low temperatures, and blinding
squalls of rain, hail, and snow. In the wild weather towards the close of December
waves from 45 feet to 52 feet in height were reported, the s.s. Parkman was dis-
abled, and other vessels sustained damage. At the beginning of January a
hurricane, with terrific squalls, raged on and near the Bay of Biscay, resulting iz
various shipping casualties. From January 6 to 10 violent gales were continuous
and damaged many ships. On the 23rd the s.s. Twranian broke her propeller shaft
and sustained other damage during acyclone with a mountainous cross sea running.
The disturbance centred midway across the ocean on the 30th caused much disaster
to shipping. In the hurricance, with terrific squalls and dangerous seas, the
Cunarder Pavonia was disabled and the s.s. Rossmore sprang a leak.

The staunchest ships afloat were unable to withstand the frightful violence of
the hurricanes of February, the powerful Cunarder Lucania and the Hamburg-
American Co.'s Fiirst Bismarck being delayed about three days, others a longer
time. On February 2 the barometer fell, near the banks of Newfoundland, to
27°74 inches, and a rise of 4 inch was registered on the R.M.S. Lucania in two
hours. The Hamburg-American Co.’s liner Bulgaria was disabled on the 2nd, her
rudder being broken. The Pavonia, Bulgaria, and Rossmore were now at the
mercy of the elements, the Pavonia’s boilers breaking adrift on the 3rd. Eventually
the Pavonia and Bulgaria reached the Azores, but the Rossmore had to be aban-
doned to her fate.

1 See Science, August 3, 1900.

652 REPORT—1900.

The western side of the ocean was in great turmoil towards the close of the
period under investigation, a depression skirting the American coast causing
severe hurricanes and snowstorms, a great blizzard blocking up New York, and
for twenty-four hours not a single vessel was able to pass Sandy Hook inward or
outward.

On February 11 the barometer on the far north of the Atlantic was down to
nearly 283 inches, while at the same time there was a reading of 31°42 inches
at Swift Current in Canada, believed to be the highest record known in America.

There was a very Striking difference in the conditions obtaining on the continents
on either side of the ocean. The American winter was characterised by almost
persistent and severe cold in December and February, and to a less extent in
January. As on the ocean February proved by far the worst month, the Weather
Bureau at Washington stating that ‘the overshadowing event of the month was
the severe and widespread cold, culminating in a freeze that for duration and
severity stands unparalleled in the history of the Weather Bureau.’ Temperatures
below zero Fahrenheit were registered over an extensive area, many places went
below —40°, the lowest reported being —61° at Fort Logan, Montana, on the
night of the 10th. Severe frost extended southward to the Gulf of Mexico, both
the swift-flowing rivers and Gulf water at the mouths of the Mississippi being
frozen over.

Europe, on the other hand, had an exceedingly mild, open season, there being
an entire absence of the usual January cold over the British Isles, while the
temperatures recorded round February 10 were unprecedentedly high, Greenwich,
Brussels, and Paris being higher by several degrees than ever before experienced
in February. At Liége the thermometer rose to 70°:5, or 1313° above the
American minimum of the following night. The exceptionally high temperatures
extended eastward to the Ural Mountains, and even Davos Platz, an Alpine
station at an elevation of 5,120 feet, had five days with afternoon maxima
between 60° and 63°.

-5). The Physical Effects of Winds in Towns and their Influence on
Ventilation. By J. W. Tuomas.

6. A Novel Form of Mercurial Barometer. By A. 8. Davis.

7. The Rainfall of the Northern Counties of England.
By Joun Hopkinson, 7.2. Met.Soc., Assoc.Inst.C.L.

This is the third of a series of papers on the rainfall of the English counties,
an account of the rainfall of the South-Western Counties having been given at the
Bristol Meeting of the Association in 1898, and the rainfall of the South-Hastern
Counties having been similarly treated at Dover last year. The counties here
considered as northern are Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, Westmoreland,
Lancashire, Yorkshire, Cheshire, Derby, Nottingham, and Lincoln. They comprise
an area of 18,383 square miles, which is considerably over one-third that of
England, and more than one-seventh that of the British Isles. The mean
monthly rainfall for the ten years 1881 to 1890 at ninety-four stations in these
counties has been computed, and the mean annual rainfall at 184 stations, being
one to the nearest 100 square miles in each county. Thus, for example, the mean
annual rainfall of the smallest county, Nottingham (837 square miles), is deduced
from the records of eight stations, and that of the largest, Yorkshire (5,836 square
miles), from the records of fifty-eight stations. Each Riding of Yorkshire has
been similarly treated, except that there is one station short of the full number for
the North Riding, one more than the right number being allotted to the East
Riding in order to bring the total for the whole county correct.

— ee

|
:
:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 653

The monthly and annual means for each county and for the whole area at the
ninety-four stations are as follows :—

Mean Rainfall in the Northern Counties of England, 1881-90.

Z pry | wen |
22) -2|Ga/8e/S2ie8|e2|Se2\dal/f2 2
SSlES|25 G5) 22/28/88 /a8/ 28/48) 28
as e/dB/eo8 (of | sal/ealae| 2s 8) se| es
eo [Fe] so) $0 Sai pg lor | 84) gol sa) s

°o | = fo) 4

Zz | | A |
ins. | ins. | ins. | ins. ins ins. | ins. | ims. | ins. | ins. | ins.
January . | 2°23} 2°02! 5°68} 5°69) 3°35) 2°88] 2°35] 3-61) 1:94] 1-72! 3-04
February. 1-73 | 1°47 | 4°62 4:47 | 2°30 | 2°12) 1:77) 2°63| 1:58] 1-60| 2:32
March . . | 2°73) 2°55) 4:49) 4:53} 2°89] 2°70} 2°11] 3:16] 1:87} 1-68| 2:82
April . | 1:98] 2:01] 3°05) 2°86} 2:05! 2:23) 1°69) 2-48] 1:64] 1:65} 9-15
May . . | 2°15) 2:04] 3°77] 3:54] 2°56 | 2-38] 222) 2:84) 2-19] 2-03! 9-50
June. . | 192] 1°81} 3:10] 2°89} 2°69) 2:10) 2:57 | 2:74! 1:80! 1:78) 2:97
July . . | 3°38, 3°31) 5°58) 5°31} 3:98) 3:33] 3:31] 3:56) 2.47] 2:44! 3-60
August . . | 314) 2°64 | 4:52 | 4:20} 3°64| 3:05] 3-05] 3:43] 2:28] 2-30) 3-19
September . 2°86 2:30 5:58 4:90 | 3°67 | 2-70 3:02 | 3:25] 1:94] 2:18) 3-14
October . | 318! 3:04) 5:33] 5:36) 3°81} 3:72) 3:32|-4:-47] 2-68] 2:81 | 3-79
November. . | 3:15) 2°68| 6°72 | 6 67| 4:01! 3°29] 3:30| 4-49| 2:16! 2-27) 3-79
December . | 2°58, 2:27) 5:48 5°46 | 3°38 | 2°85 | 2:63) 3°57] 189 1:84) 3-09
| Year. . 31-03 2814 57-92 |55°88 38°33 33°35 |31-34 40-23 24-44 24-30 135-56
The annual means at the 184 stations are—Northumberland (19 stations),

30°78 ins.; Durham (11 stations), 27:22 ins.; Cumberland (15 stations), 70-02 ins. :
Westmoreland, with Furness (10 stations), 57:90 ins.; Lancashire, without Furness
(16 stations), 38°84 ins. ; Yorkshire (58 stations), 33°73 ins.; Cheshire (11 stations),
32°37 ins.; Derby (10 stations), 36°79 ins.; Nottingham (8 stations), 25:25 ins, ;
and Lincoln (26 stations), 24:46 ins.; the mean for the whole area being
36°16 ins.

During the ten years 1881 to 1890 the rainfall in the North of England was
rather less than that for the twenty-five years ending 1890 and that for the thirty
years ending 1895. Forty stations (not less than two in any of the ten counties,
and nine in Yorkshire) give a mean for the ten years 1881-90 of 38°54 ins. ;
for the twenty-five years 1866-90 of 39°80 ins.; and for the thirty years
1866-95 of 39°56 ins., the excess in this latter period thus being 1:02 in., or
about 23 per cent. over the mean fall at the same stations for the ten years
1881-90. The true mean for the 184 stations for the thirty years would probably
be about 37 ins. :

The mean fall for the thirty years at the forty stations in five-yearly periods
was as follows:—For the first lustrum, 1866-70, 39:96 ins.; for the second,
1871-75, 40:12 ins. ; for the third, 1876-80, 41°85 ins. ; for the fourth, 1881-85,
41:19 ins.; for the fifth, 1886-90, 35°89 ins.; and for the sixth, 1891-95,
38°37 ins.

The rainfall in these counties follows the general rule of increase from east to
west, except in the case of Cheshire, which has a smaller fall than either
Lancashire, Derbyshire, or Yorkshire. This is probably due to the higher land in
these counties. The rule is well exemplified in the Yorkshire Ridings, the mean
annual fall in the East Riding (13 stations) being 26:48 ins. ; in the North Riding
(19 stations), 34-98 ins.; and in the West Riding (26 stations), 36:44 ins. There
is also a marked decrease in the rainfall from north to south. Dividing the
counties into three groups—North, Midland, and South—55 stations for the northern
group, Northumberland, Durham, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, give an annual
mean of 45°70 ins.; 74 stations for the middle group, Yorkshire and Lancashire,

654: REPORT—1900.

give an annual mean of 34°83 ins.; and 55 stations for the southern group,
Cheshire, Derbyshire, Nottingham, and Lincoln, give an annual mean of 26°58 ins.
In the first group the driest months are April, mean 2°41 ins., and June, 2°36 ins. ;
in the second group the driest months are February, mean 2°17 ins., and April,
2°18 ins. ; and in the third group the same months are the driest, February with a
mean of 1'81 in., and April with 1:79 in. In the first group the wettest month is
November, mean 4°60 ins.; in the second group the wettest month is October,
mean 3°75 ins.; and in the third group the same month is the wettest, with a
mean fall of 3°20 ins.

Nottingham and Lincoln are the driest counties throughout the year, except in
February, when Durham is the driest, and in May, when Durham and Northumber-
land are drier than Nottingham. Cumberland and Westmoreland are the wettest
throughout the year, Cumberland usually being the wetter of the two, but in
January, March, October, November, and December the greatest difference between
them is 0.06 in.

The mean and extreme annual rainfall at each station are given in the complete
paper, with a map showing the position of the stations and their height above

mean sea-level.

8. Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis.
See Reports, p. 46.

9. Report on recording the Intensity of Solar Radiation.
See Reports, p. 36.

10. Report on establishing an Observatory on Mount Royal, Montreal.
See Reports, p. 33.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Report and Paper were read :-—
1. Report on Electrolysis and Electrochemistry.—See Reports, p. 34.

2. A Discussion on ‘ Ions’ was opened by Professor G. F. FirzGeracb.

3. The Radiation of a Black Body on the Electromagnetic Theory.
By H. C. Pocxuineron, W.A., D.Sc.

There are two methods that may be used to solve the problem, the direct and the
indirect method, vid Kirchhoff’s laws. The latter seems preferable, as, on account
of the freedom of choice of a substance, the mathematical work may be simplified
by choosing the simplest kind of substance.

The substance here chosen is a gas, supposed to consist of atoms carrying
electric charges. As a preliminary the question whether any result can be
obtained from the data is investigated by the method of ‘dimensions,’ and the

formule
R=k6éVQ-*
and Bai!
ia 6, (Or\ ar
dR=6VQ ia! :

are found.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 655

In any such formula the constants must have values neither very great nor
very small. This is tested and found to be true. On attempting to carry out the
mathematical calculations suggested, the radiation is found to vary as the tempera-
ture; a quite impossible result. Various modifications of the nature of the
hypothetical gas selected are considered and dismissed as unsatisfactory.

The truth of the second law of thermodynamics is made to depend on the con-
stancy of the ionic charges. This indicates that the constancy of the charge is
due to some fundamental property of the ether. It seems probable that a com-
plete solution of the problem requires a complete theory of matter and electricity.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Report and Papers were read :-—

1. Report on Electrical Standards.—See Reports, p. 55.

2. A Form of Wheatstone’s Bridge. By EB. H. Grirrivns, PRS.

3. Note on an Improved Standard Resistance Coil.
By R. 8. Wuirrtr. See Reports, p. 55.

4. A Preliminary Research on Explosive Gaseous Mixtures.
By J. E. PErAveE..

Objects of the Research.—The primary object of the present research is to
extend the work originally done by Bunsen at atmospheric pressures to initial
pressures of one or two hundred atmospheres.

Both the maximum pressure of the explosion and the rate of change of the
pressure are recorded. A long series of experiments, the result of which will
shortly be published, having proved the very high thermal conductivity of com-
pressed gases, it was important to obtain some further data with regard to the
thermal properties of gases at the highest temperatures and pressures. It is also
desirable that some further information with regard to the phenomena of dissocia-~
tion at very high pressures should be obtained.

Finally, it is hoped that, from a practical point of view, the results will be of
use as a contribution to the knowledge of thermodynamics.

In all heat engines the efficiency is greatly increased by the use of a wider
temperature interval and higher pressures. Whereas mechanical difficulties, which,
up to recently, had hindered progress in this direction, are gradually being over-
come, the theoretical side of the question has not received all the attention it
merits,

The Apparatus.—In order to gain some information with regard to the effect

of the surtace of the enclosure, three distinct enclosures are used :—

1° A spherical enclosure of 500 c.c. capacity (about 4 in. diameter).
2° A cylindrical enclosure, 27 in. long, also of 500 c.c, capacity.
8° A spherical enclosure of about 10,000 c.c. capacity.

The first two enclosures are calculated to withstand pressures up to two thousand
atmospheres ; the third, pressures up to two hundred atmospheres.

' The experiments have been carried out at the Davy-Faraday Laboratory of the
Royal Institution. Part of the apparatus was provided by the Laboratory, the
remainder being purchased with the funds awarded for this purpose by the Govern-
ment Grant Committee of the Royal Society.

656 REPORT—1900.

All experiments recorded in the present communication refer to the 500 c.c.
spherical enclosure.

The Pressure Gauges.—T wo distinct gauges are used. The first measures the
maximum pressure attained and in principle is similar to Bunsen’s original
apparatus. A piston lifts or does not lift according to whether the explosive
pressure does or does not rise above the pressure corresponding to the weight with
which the piston is held down. In the present case, however, to diminish the
inertia of the system, the weights are replaced by a gaseous pressure acting on the
opposite end of the piston. The areas of the two piston heads being in the ratio of
50 to 1, an explosive pressure of 500 atmospheres is exactly balanced by a gaseous
pressure of 10 atmospheres acting on the other side of this equilibrium valve. To
render the action of the apparatus as rapid as possible, the travel of the piston is
limited by means of a micrometer screw to two or three thousandths of an inch.
The piston, on coming in contact with this micrometer screw, closes an electric
circuit communicating with an indicator. Asan example of the method a.series
of observations are given in the table.

TABLE

: Ratio of Explo- Es
No. of Ex- | initial Pressure s xplosive sive Pressure Total | Residue
eriment | in Atmospheres ee to Initial Residue | of H or O
P spheres | Atmospheres EIS per cent. per cent.
8 42°05 | Below 427-4 | Below 1017] 1:54 | 084 O
11 42-01 en 59) 4244.) ,, LODO RF 1-395 0258
12 42714 ae A236") <5, 10:05 | 27098 — H
10 41°88 | Above 421:4 | Above 10:06 | 1°602 0656 O
9 42-02 i i 4226 | ,, 10:05 | 1:48 0:90 O
6 | 4253 ede Skart te oa) 974; 235 | 1:50 0

The second measuring apparatus is in principle the same as the well-known
steam-engine indicator. The ordinary spring is, however, replaced by a brass
cylinder. The only motion which the piston can make is therefore that allowed by
the elastic compression of the metal. The time period of the system has not yet
been measured, but from the diagrams recorded, it is evidently below one five-
thousandth of a second. The maximum motion of the piston is less than one
thousandth of an inch. The motion of the piston, magnified to the desired extent
by a special device, is photographed on the cylinder of a rapidly revolving
chronograph.

The scale of time on the indicator card thus obtained can be varied from one
hundredth of a second per millimetre to one five-thousandth of a second per
millimetre.

The Results obtained.—The records show a rapid initial rise of pressure, the
rate decreasing as the temperature of dissociation is approached. It is intended
to obtain a series of these indicator diagrams for initial pressures varying between
10 and 200 atmospheres.

Many years ago Bunsen found that a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen fired at
atmospheric pressure gave an explosive pressure of 9°5 atmospheres. The present
experiments show that this ratio is still substantially correct up to initial pressures
of 42 atmospheres, the ratio actually given by Table I. being 10:06.

The ratio diminishes but slowly as the proportion of explosive gas to non-
explosive gas decreases. A mixture of H,O and oxygen, containing but 49 per
cent. of explosive gas, still gives an explosive pressure of 319 atmospheres when
fired at an initial pressure of 42 atmospheres, the ratio being therefore 7°6.

Under the same conditions a mixture containing 287 per cent. of explosive gas
gives a ratio of 6:16. Finally, a mixture containing only 12 per cent. of H,O is
not explosive.

As will be seen, even the few results that have as yet been obtained raise
many interesting questions, but with the limited data which as yet are available it
would be unwise to attempt any general discussion of the results.

ee ee ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 657

It is hoped, however, that before long a series of experiments will be completed
giving the necessary data for all mixtures of oxygen and hydrogen at all initial
pressures between one atmosphere and 200 atmospheres.

On the Relations of Radiation to Temperature.
By Dr. J. Larmor, £2.

The key to this subject is the principle, arrived at independently by Balfour
Stewart and Kirchhoff about the year 1857, that the constitution and intensity of
the steady radiation in an enclosure is determined by the temperature of the
surrounding bodies, and involves no other element. It was pointed out by
Stewart ! that if the enclosure contains a radiating and absorbing body which is
put in motion, the temperature being uniform throughout, then the constitutions
of the radiation in front of it and behind it will differ on account of the Doppler
effect, so that there will be a chance of gaining mechanical work in the restoration
of a uniform state. There must thus be some kind of thermodynamic compensa-
tion, which might arise from ethereal friction, or from work required to produce
the motion of the body against pressure excited by the surrounding radiation.
The hypothesis of friction is now out of court in ultimate molecular physics ;
while the thermodynamic bearing of a pressure produced by radiation has been
developed by Bartoli and Boltzmann (1884), and that of the Doppler effect by
Wien (1893).

Application of the Doppler Principle—The procedure of Wien amounts to
isolating a region of radiation within a perfectly reflecting enclosure, and esti-
mating the average shortening of the constituent wave-lengths produced by a
very slow shrinkage of its volume. ‘The argument is, however, much simplified
if the enclosure is taken to be spherical and to remain so; for it may then be
easily shown that each individual undulation is shortened in the same ratio as is
the radius of the enclosure, so that the undulatory content remains similar to
itself, with uniformly shortened wave-lengths, whether it is uniformly distributed
as regards direction or not, and whatever its constitution may be. But if there is
a very small piece of a material radiator in the enclosure, the radiation initially
inside will have been reduced by its radiating and absorbing action to that cor-
responding to its temperature. In that case the shrinkage must retain it always,
at each stage of its transformation, in the constitution corresponding to some
temperature. Otherwise differences of temperature would be effectively esta-
plished between the various constituents of the radiation in the enclosure; these
could be permanent in the absence of material bodies; but if the latter are
present this would involve degradation of their energy, for which there is here no
room, because, on the principles of Stewart and Kirchhoff, the state corresponding
to given energy and volume and temperature is determinate. Thus we inier that
if the wave-lencths of the steady radiation corresponding to any one temperature
are all altered in the same ratio, we obtain a distribution which corresponds to
some other temperature in every respect except absolute intensities.

Direct Transformation of Mechanical Energy into Radiation.’—There is one
point, however, that rewards examination. When undulations of any kind are
reflected from an advancing wall, there is slightly more energy in the reflected

1 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1871; cf. also Encycl. Brit., art.‘ Radiation’ (1886), by Tait.

2 The present form of this argument arose out of some remarks contributed by
Professor FitzGerald, and by Mr. Alfred Walker of Bradford, to the discussion on
this paper. Mr. Walker points out that by reflecting the radiation from a hot body,
situated at the centre of a wheel, by a ring of oblique vanes around its circum-
ference, and then reversing its path by direct reflexion from a ring of fixed vanes
outside the wheel, so as to return it into the source, its pressure may be (theoretically)
utilised to drive the wheel, and in time to get up a high speed if there is no load:
the thermodynamic compensation in this very interesting arrangement lies in the
peenne of the temperature of the part of the incident radiation that is not thus
utilised.

1900. vu

658 REPORT—1900,

beam than there was in the incident beam, although its length is shorter on
account of the Doppler effect. This requires that the undulations must oppose a
resistance to the advancing wall, and that the mechanical work required to push
on the wall is directly transformed into undulatory energy. In fact, let us con-
sider the mechanism of the reflexion. Suppose the displacement in a directly
incident wave-train, with velocity of propagation c, to be €=a@ cos (ma — met) ; that
in the reflected train will be €’=a@’ cos (m’x+m'ct), where a’, m’ are deter-
termined by the condition that the total displacement is annulled at the advanc-
ing reflector, because no disturbance penetrates beyond it; therefore when «= vt,
where v is its velocity,é+£’=0. Thus we must have a’ = —a,and m’=m — in

agreement with the usual statement of the Doppler effect when v is small compared
with ¢. Observe, in fact, that the direct and reflected wave-trains have a system
of nodes which travel with velocity v, and that the moving reflector coincides
with one of them. Now the velocities d&/dt and dé’/dt in these two trains are not
equal. Their mean squares, on which the kinetic energy per unit length depends,
are as m* to m’. The potential energies per unit length depend on the means of
(dé/dxv)° and (dé’/dx)*, and are of course in the same ratio, Thus the energies
per unit length in the direct and reflected trains are as m* to m’*, while the lengths
of the trains are as m’ to m; hence their total energies are as mm to a’; in other
words the reflected train has received an accretion of energy equal to 1—m’/m of
the incident energy, which can only have come from mechanical work spent in push-
ing on the reflector with its velocity v. The opposing pressure is thus in numerical

magnitude the fraction (1-7 )° of the density of the incident energy, which

works out to be ee of the intensity of the total undulatory energy, direct and
reflected, that is in front of the reflector.

When vis small compared with c, this agrees with Max well’s law for the pressure
of raciation. This case is also theoretically interesting, because in the application
to aether-waves € is the displacement of the «ther elements whose velocity d&/dt
represents the magnetic force; so that here we have an actual case in which this
vector &, hitherto introduced only in the theoretical dynamics of electron-theory,
is essential to a bare statement of the facts. Another remark here arises. It has
been held that a beam of light is an irreversible agent, because the radiant pres-
sure at the front of the beam has nothing to work against, and its work is there-
fore degraded. But suppose it had a reflector moving with its own velocity ¢ to
work against; our result shows that the pressure vanishes and no work is done.
Thus that objection to the thermodynamic treatment of a single ray is not well
founded.

This generalisation of the theory of radiant pressure to all kinds of undulatory
motion is based on the conservation of the energy. It remains to consider the
mechanical origin of the pressure. In the special case of an unlimited stretched
cord carrying transverse waves the advancing reflector may be a lamina, through
a small hole in which the cord passes without friction: the cord is straight on one
side of the lamina, and inclined on the other side on account of the vibration ; and
it is easily shown that the resultant of the tensions on the two sides provides a
force acting on the lamina which, when averaged, agrees with the general formula.
In the case of an extended medium with advancing transverse waves, which are
reflected directly, the origin of the pressure is not so obvious, because there is not
an obvious mechanism for a reflector which would sweep the waves in front of it
as it advances, In the wethereal case we can, however, on the basis of electron-
theory, imagine a constitution for a reflector which will turn back the radiation on
the same principle as a metallic mirror totally reflects Hertzian waves, and thus
obtain au idea of how the force acts.

The case of direct incidence has here been treated for simplicity ; that of oblique
incidence easily follows ; the expression for the pressure is reduced in the ratio of
the square of the cosine of the angle of incidence. If we average up, after
Boltzmann, for the natural radiation in an enclosure, which is incident equally at

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 659

‘all angles, we find that the pressure exerted is one third of the total density of
radiant energy.

Adiabatics of an enclosed Mass of Radiation, and resulting General Laws.—Now
consider an enclosure of yolume V containing radiant energy travelling indifferently
in all directions, and of total density E; and let its volume be shrunk by 6V. This
requires mechanical work 4 ESV, which is changed into radiant energy: thus

EV +} ESV =(E-dE)(V-8V),

where H—6E is the new density at volume V-85V, This gives $ ESV = VoL, or
Kec V-3.

As already explained, if the original state has the constitution as regards wave-
lengths corresponding to a temperature,T, the new state must correspond to some
otker temperature T—6T. ‘Thus we can gain work by absorbing the radiation
into the working substance of a thermal engine at the one temperature, and extract-
ing it at the other; as the process is reversible, we have by Carnot’s principle

4 ESV/EV = —oT/T,
so that Tx V-4, =

Thus Ex T*, which is Stefan’s law for the relation of the aggregate natural
radiation to the temperature.

Moreover the Doppler principle has shown us that in the uniform shrinkage of
a spherical enclosure the wave-lengths diminish as the linear dimensions, and
therefore as V3, or inversely as T by the above result. Thus in the radiations
at different temperatures, if the scale of wave-length is reduced inversely as the
temperature the curves of ccnstitution of the radiation become homologous, z.e.,
their ordinates are all in the same ratio. This is Wien’s law.

These relations show that the energy of the radiation corresponding to the
temperature T, which lies between wave-leneths A and X+6A, is of the form
A °F (AT) OA. The investigation, theoretical (Wien, Planck, Rayleigh, etc.) and
experimental (Lummer and Pringsheim, Paschen, ete.) of the form of this function
Ff is perhaps the most fundamental and interesting problem now outstanding in the
general theory of the relation of radiation to temperature. The theoretical
relations on which this expression is founded have been shown to be in agreement
with fact ; and it appears that the form c,e~%/*7 fairly represents f (AT) over a wide
range of temperature. These relations have been derived, as usual, from a
dynamical discussion of the aggregate intensity of radiation belonging to the
temperature ; it may be shown that the same results, but nothing in addition, will
be gained by applying the same principles to each constituent of range dA by
itself, assigning to each its own temperature.

6. On the Infra-red of the Solar Spectrum. By Dr. 8. P. Lanetey, F.R.S.

“DEPARTMENT OF ASTRONOMY.
Cuarrman: Dr. A. A. Common, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
TLe Chairman delivered the following Address :—

Ir has been decided to form a Department of Astronomy under Section A, and I
have been requested to give aun Address on the occasion. In looking up the
records of the British Association to see what position Astronomy has occupied, I
was delighted to find, in the very first volume, ‘A Report on the Progress of
Astronomy during the Present Century,’ made by the late Sir George Airy, so

uuU2

660 REPORT—1900.

many years our Astronomer Royal, and at that time Plumian Professor of
Astronomy at Cambridge. This report, made at the second meeting of the
Association, describes, in a most interesting manuer, the progress that was made
during the first third of the century, and we can gather from it the state of
astronomical matters at that time. The thought naturally occurred to me to give
a report, on the same lines, to the end of this century, but a little consideration
showed that it was impossible in the limited time at my disposal to give more
than a bare outline of the progress made.

At the time this report was written we may say, in a general way, that the
astronomy of that day concerned itself with the position of the heavenly bodies
only, and, except for the greater precision of observation resulting from better
instruments and the larger number of observatories at work, this, the gravitational
side of astronomy, remains much as it was in Airy’s time.

What has been aptiy called the New or Physical Astronamy did not then
exist. I propose to briefly compare the state of things then existing with the
present state of the science, without dealing very particularly with the various
causes operating to produce the change; to allude briefly to the new astronomy;
and to speak rather fully about astronomical instruments generally, and of the
lines on which it is most probable future developments will be made.

In this report’ we find that at the beginning of the century the Greenwich
Observatory was the only one in which observations were made on a regular
system. ‘The thirty-six stars selected by Dr. Maskelyne, aad the sun and moon,
were observed on the meridian with great regularity, the planets very rarely and
only at particular parts of their orbits; small stars, or stars not included in the
thirty-six, were seldom observed.

This state of affairs was no doubt greatly improved at the epoch of the report,
but it contrasts strongly with the present work at Greenwich, where 5,000 stars
were observed in 1899, in addition to the astrographic, spectroscopic, magnetic,
meteorological, and other work.

Many observatories, of great importance since, were about that time founded,
those at Cambridge, Cape of Good Hope, and Paramatta having just been started.
A list is given of the public observatories then existing, with the remark that the
author is ‘ unaware that there is any public observatory in America, though there
are,’ he says, ‘some able observers.’

The progress made since then is truly remarkable. The first public observa-
tory in America was founded about the middle of the century, and now public
and private observatories number about 150, while the instrumental equipment is
in many cases superior to that of any other country. The prophetic opinion of
Airy about American observers has been fully borne out. The discovery of two
satellites to Mars by Hall in 1877, of a fifth satellite to Jupiter by Barnard in
1892, and the discovery of Hyperion by Bond, simultaneously with Lassell, in
1848, are notable achievements.

The enormous amount of work turned out by the Harvard Observatory and its
branches in South America, all the photographic and spectroscopic work carried
out by many different astronomers, and the new lines of research initiated show
an amount of enthusiasm not excelled by any other country. A greater portion
of the astronomical work in America has been on the lines of the new astronomy,
but the old astronomy has not been at all neglected. In this branch pace has
been kept with other countries.

From this report we gather that the mural quadrant at most of the observa-
tories was about to be replaced by the divided circle. ‘Troughton had perfected a
method of dividing circles, which, as the author says, ‘may be considered as
the greatest improvement ever made in the art of instrmment making.’

Two refractors of 11 and 12 inches aperture had just been imported into
this country ; clockwork for driving had been applied to the Dorpat and Paris
equatorials, but the author had not seen either in a state of action.

The m:thod of mounting instruments adopted by the Germans was rather

» Brit, Assoc, Report, 1831-22, p. 126,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 661

severely criticised by the author, the general principle of their mounting being
‘telescopes are always supported at the middle, not at the ends.’

‘ Every part is, if possible, supported by counterpoises.’

‘To these principles everything is sacrificed. For instance, in an equatorial
the polar axis is to be supported in the middle by a counterpoise. ‘This not only
makes the instrument weak (as the axis must be single), but also introduces some
inconvenience into the use of it. The telescope is on one side of the axis; on the
other side is a counterpoise. Each end of the telescope has a counterpoise. A

_ «telescope thus mounted must, I should think, be very liable to tremor. If a
- person who is no mechanic and who has not used one of these instruments may

presume to give an opinion, I should say that the Germans have made no im-
provement in instruments except in the excellence of the workmanship.’
I have no doubt that this question had often occupied Airy’s mind, for in the

Northumberland Equatorial Telescope which he designed shortly after for Cam-

bridge he adopted what has been called the English form of mounting, where the
telescope is supported by a pivot at each side, and a long polar axis is supported at
each end. This telescope is in working order at the present time at Cambridce.

When he became Astronomer Royal he used the same design for what was for
many years the great equatorial at Greenwich, though the wooden uprights form-
ing the polar axis were in the Greenwich telescope replaced byiron. It says much
for the excellence of the design and workmanship of this mounting, designed as it
was for an object glass of about 15 inches diameter, when we find the present
Astronomer Royal, Mr. Christie, has used it to carry a telescope of 28 inches
aperture, and that it does this perfectly.

__ Notwithstanding the greater steadiness of the English form of mounting,
the German form has been adopted generally for the mounting of the large
refractors recently made.

There is much interesting matter in this report of an historical character.

As I have already said, the new astronomy, as we know it, did not exist, but
in a report on optics, in the same volume, by Sir David Brewster, we find that
spectrum anslysis was then occupying attention, and the last paragraph of this
report is well worth quoting: ‘ But whatever hypothesis be destined to embrace
and explain this class of phenomena, the fact which I have mentioned opens an
extensive field of inquiry. By the aid of the gaseous absorbent we may study
with the minutest accuracy the action of the elements of material bodies in all
their variety of combinations, upon definite and easily recognised rays of light,
and we may discover curious analogies between their affinities and those which
produce the fixed lines in the spectra of the stars. The apparatus, however, which
is requisite to carry on such inquiries with success cannot be procured by indivi-
duals, and cannot even be used in ordinary apartments. Lenses of large diameter,
accurate heliostats, and telescopes of large aperture are absolutely necessary for
this purpose; but with such auxiliaries it would be easy to construct optical com-
binations, by which the defective rays in the spectra of all the fixed stars down to
the tenth magnitude might be observed, and by which we might study the effects
of the very combustion which lights up the suns of other systems.’

Brewster's words are almost prophetic, and it would almost appear as if he
unknowingly held the key to the elucidation of the spectrum lines, for it was not
until 1859 that Kirchhoft’s discovery of the true origin of the dark lines was made.

Fraunhofer was the first to observe the spectra of the planets and the stars, and
to notice the different types of stellar spectra. In 1817 he recorded the spectrum
of Venus and Sirius, and later, in 1823, he described the spectrum of Mars; also
Castor, Pollux, Capella, Betelgeux, and Procyon.

Fraunhofer, Lamont, Donati, Brewster, Stokes, Gladstone, and others
carried on their researches at a time when the principles of spectrum analysis
were unknown, but immediately upon Kirchhoff’s discovery great interest was
awakened.

With spectrum analysis thus established, aided as it was later by the greater
development of photography, the new astronomy was firmly established,

' Brit. Assoc. Rep,, 1831-32, p. 308

662 REPORT—1900.

The memorable results arrived at by Kirchhoff were no sooner published than
they were accepted without dissent. The works of Stokes, Foucault, and Angstrém
at that period were all suggestive of the truth, but do not mark an epoch of
discovery.

Astronomical spectroscopy divided itself naturally into two main branches, the
one of the sun, the other of the stars, each having its many offshoots. I shall just
mention a few points relating to each. The dark lines in.the solar spectrum had
already been mapped by Fraunhofer, and now it only needed better instruments
and the application of laboratory spectra with Kirchhoff’s principle to advance this
work: still further.

Fraunhofer had already pointed out the way in using gratings, and these were
further improved by Nobert and Rutherfurd.

Kirchhoff’s Map of the Solar Spectrum, published in 1861-62, was the most
complete up to that time ; but the scale of reference adopted by him was, an arbi-
trary one, so that it was not long before this was improved upon. Angstrém
published in 1868 his map of the ‘Normal Solar Spectrum,’ adopting the natural
scale of wave-lengths for reference, and this remained in use until quite recent
times.

The increased accuracy in the ruling of gratings by Rutherfurd materially im-
proved the efficiency of the solar spectroscope, but it was not until Professor
Rowland’s invention of the concave grating that this work gained any decisive
impetus. The maps (first published in 1885) and tables (published in the years
1896-98) of the lines of the solar spectrum are now almost universally accepted
and adopted as a standard of reference. These tables alone record about 10,000
lines in the spectrum of the sun, which is in marked contrast to the number 7
recorded by Wollaston at the beginning of the century (1802). Good work in the
production of maps has also been done in this country by Higgs.

Michelson has also recently invented a new form of spectroscope called the
‘Echelon,’ 1in which a grating with a relatively small number of lines is employed,
the dispersion necessary for modern work being obtained by using a high order
(say the hundredth) into which most of the light has been concentrated.

Besides lines recorded in the visual and ultra-violet portions of the solar spec-
trum, maps have been made of the lines in the infra-red, the most important being
that of Langley’s, published in 1894, prepared by the use of his ‘ bolometer.’
Good work had, however, been done in this direction previously by Becquerel,
Lamansky, and Abney; the last, indeed, succeeded even in photographing a part
of it.

The recording of the Fraunhofer lines in the solar spectrum is not all, however.
The application of the spectroscope to the sun has several epoch-marking events
attached to it, notably those of proving the solar character of the prominences and
corona, the rendering visible of the prominences without the aid of an eclipse by
the discovery of Lockyer and Janssen in 1868, the photography of the prominences
both round the limb and those projected on the solar disc by the invention of the
spectro-heliograph by Hale and Deslandres in 1890.

Success has not yet favoured the many attempts to photograph the corona
without an eclipse by spectroscopic means; but even now this problem is being
attacked by Deslandres with the employment of the calorific rays.

Spectroscopic work on the sun has led to the discovery of many hundreds of
dark lines, the counterparts of which it has not yet been possible to produce on the
earth.

But besides those unknown substances which reveal their presence by dark
lines, there were two others discovered, which showed themselves only by bright
lines, the one in the chromosphere, to which the name of Helium was given, and
the other in the corona, to which the name of Coronium was applied.

The former was, however, identified terrestrially by Ramsay in 1895, though
the latter is still undetermined. The revision of its wave-length, brought about
by the observations of the eclipse of 1898, may, however, result in this element
being transferred from the unknown to the known in the near future,

* Ast. Phys. Jowrn., Vol. vill. 1898, p, 37,

a
q

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 663

The study of stellar spectra was taken up by Huggins, Rutherfurd, and Secchi.

Rutherfurd? published in 1862 his results upon a number of stars, and suggested

a rough classification of the white and yellow stars ; but Secchi deserves the high
credit of introducing the first systematic differentiation of the stars according to
their spectra, he having begun a spectroscopic survey of the heavens for the purposes
of classification,” whilst Huggins devoted himself to the thorough analysis of the
spectra of a few stars.

The introduction of photography marks another epoch in the study of stellar
spectra. Sir William Huggins applied photography as early as 1863,’ and secured
an impression of the spectrum of Sirius, but nearly another decade elapsed before
Professor IH. Draper * took a photograph of the spectrum of Vega in 1872, which
was the first to record any lines. With the introduction of dry plates this branch
of the new astronomy received another impetus, and the catalogues of stellar
spectra have now become numerous. Among them may be mentioned those of
Harvard College, Potsdam, Lockyer, McClean, and Huggins. The Draper
Catalogue® of the Harvard College, which is a spectroscopic Durchmusterung,
alone contains the spectra of 10,551 stars down to the 7-8 magnitudes, and this has
further been extended by work at Arequipa, whilst Voge! and Miiller of Potsdam ®
made a spectroscopic survey of the stars down to the 7°5 magnitude between —1°
and + 20° declination. This has again been supplemented by Scheiner? (‘ Unter-
suchungen iiber die Spectra der helleren Sterne’), and by Vogel and Wilsing ®
(‘Untersuchungen iiber die Spectra von 528 Sternen’). Lockyer® in 1892 published
a series of large-scale photographs of the brighter stars, and more recently
McClean '° has completed a spectroscopic survey of the stars of both hemispheres
down to the 3} magnitude. For the study and investigation of special types of
stars, the researches of Dunér on the red stars made at Upsala, and those
of Keeler and Campbell on the bright line stars made at the Lick Observatory,
deserve mention. Tor the study of stellar spectra the use of prisms in slit or
objective prism spectroscopes has predominated, though more recently the use of
specially ruled gratings has been attended by some degree of success at the Yerkes
Observatory.

Several new stars have also been discovered by their spectra by Pickering in
his routine work of charting the spectra of the stars in different portions of the
sky. The photographic plate containing their peculiar spectra was, however, not.
examined in many cases until the star had died down again.

Spectrum analysis also opened up another field of inquiry, viz., that of the
motion of the stars in the line of sight, based on the process of reasoning due to
Doppler, and accordingly named Doppler’s Principle.!!

The observatories of Greenwich and Potsdam were among the first to apply
this to the stars, and more recently Campbell at Lick, Newall at Cambridge, and
Belopolsky at Pulkowa have made use of the same principle with enormous
success.

It was also discovered that there are certain classes of stars having a large
component velocity in the line of sight, which changes its direction from time to
time, and in many such cases orbital motion has been proven, as in the case of
Algol.

Ancther class of binary stars has also been discovered spectroscopically and
explained by Doppler’s principle. I refer to the stars known as spectroscopic
binaries, in which the spectrum lines of one luminous source reciprocate over those

1 Am. Journ., vol. xxxv. 1862, p. 77. 2 Comptes Iendus, t. lvii. 1853.

3 Phil. Trans., 1864, p. 428.

* Am. Jowrn. of Soc. and Arts., vol. xviii. 1879, p. 421.

° Annals Harvard Coll., vol. xxvii. 1890.

° Astro-Phys. Obs. zw Potsdam, vol. iii. 1882-83. :

7 Tbid., vol. vii. 1895. * Tbid., vol. xii. 1899.

® Phil. Trans., vol. clxxxiv. A, 1893.

Phil. Trans., vol. exci. A, 1898.

«Ueber das farbige Licht der Doppelsterne, ... Abhandl. der K. Bihmischen
Ges. d. Wiss, V. Folge, 2. Bd, 1843.

664: REPORT—1900.

from the other source of light, according as one is moving towards or away from
the earth. This displacement of the spectrum lines led to the discovery of the
duplicity of 8 Aurigz, and ¢ Ursse Majoris by Pickering.’

Several other such stars have now been detected, notably @ Lyre, and
lastly Capella, discovered independently by Campbell? at Lick, and Newall* at
Cambridge.

The progress of the new astronomy is so closely bound up with that of photo-
graphy that I shall briefly call to mind some of the many achievements in which
photography has aided the astronomer.

Daguerre’s invention in 1839 was almost immediately tried with the sun and
moon, J. W. Draper and the two Bonds in America, Warren de la Rue in this
country, and Foucault and Fizeau in France, being among the pioneers of celestial
photography ; butno real progress seems to have been made until after the intro-
duction of the collodion process. Sir John Herschel in 1847 suggested the daily
self-registration of the sun-spots to supersede drawings; and in 1857 the Dela Rue
photo-heliograph was installed at Kew. From 1858-72 a daily record was main-
tained by the Kew photo-heliograph, when the work was discontinued. Since
1878 the Kew series has been continued at Greenwich, which is supplemented by
pictures from Dehra Din in India and from Mauritius. The standard size of the
sun’s disc on these photographs has now been for many years 8 inches, though for
some time a 12-inch series was kept up.

The first recorded endeavour to employ photography for eclipse work dates back
to 1851, when Berowsky obtained a daguerreotype of the solar prominences during
the total eclipse. From that date nearly every. total eclipse of the sun has been
studied by the aid of photography.

In 1860 the first regularly planned attack on the problem by means of photo-
graphy was made, when De la Rue and Secchi successfully photographed the pro-
minences and traces of the corona, but it was not until 1869 that Professor Stephen
Alexander obtained the first good photograph of the corona.

In recent years, from 1893 up to the total eclipse which occurred last May,
photography has been employed to secure large-scale pictures of the corona.
These were inaugurated in 1893 by Professor Schaeberle, who secured a 4-inch
picture of the eclipsed sun in Chili: these have been exceeded by Professor Langley,
who obtained a 15-inch picture of the corona in North Carolina during the eclipse
of May 1900.

Photography also supplied the key to the question of the prominences and
corona being solar appendages, for pictures of the eclipse sun taken in Spain in 1860
ee eae this dispute with regard to the prominences, and finally to the corona in

871.

In 1875, in addition to photographing the corona, attempts were made to
photograph its spectrum, and at every eclipse since then the sensitised plate has
been used to record both the spectrum of the chromosphere and the corona. The
spectrum of the lower layers of the chromosphere was first successfully photo-
graphed during the total eclipse of 1896 in Nova Zembla by Mr. Shackleton, though
seen by Young as early as 1870, and a new value wag given to the wave-length of
the coronal line (wrongly mapped by Young in 1869) from photographs taken by
Mr. Fowler during the eclipse of 1898 (India).

Lunar photography has occupied the attention of various physicists from time
to time, and when Daguerre’s process was first enunciated, Arago proposed that
the lunar surface should be studied by means of the photographically produced
images. In 1840 Dr. Draper succeeded in impressing a daguerreotype plate with a
lunar image by the aid of a 5-inch refractor. The earliest lunar photographs, how-
ever, shown in England were due to Professor Bond, of the United States. These
he exhibited at the Great Exhibition in 1851. Dancer, the optician, of Manchester,
was perhaps the first Englishman who secured lunar images, but they were of
small size.*

Another -skilful observer was Crookes, who obtained images of 2 inches

> Am. Jour. (3), 39, p. 46 (1890). 2 Astro-Phys. Jour., vol. X. p. 177.
* Monthly Notiees, vol. 1x, p. 2 (1899), + Abney, Photography,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 665

diameter with an 8-inch refractor of the Liverpool Observatory. In 1852 De la
Rue began experimenting in lunar photography. He employed a reflector of some
10 feet focal length and about 18 inches diameter. A very complete account of
his methods is given in a paper read before the British Association. Mr. Ruther-
furd at a later date having tried an 1]4-inch refractor, and also a 13-inch reflector,
finally constructed a photographic refracting telescope, and produced some of the
finest pictures of the moon that were ever taken until recent years. Also Henry
Draper’s picture of the moon taken September 3, 1863, remained unsurpassed for
a quarter of a century.

Admirable photographs of the lunar surface have been published in recent years
by the Lick Observatory and others. I myself devoted considerable attention to
this subject at one time. Photographs surpassing anything before attempted were
published in 1896-99 by MM. Loéwy and Puiseux, taken with the Equatorial

_ Coudé of the Paris Observatory.

Star prints were first secured at Harvard College, under the direction of W. C.
Bond, in 1850 ; and his son, G. P. Bond, made in 1857 a most promising start with
double-star measurements on sensitive plates, his subject being the well-known
pair in the tail of the Great Bear. The competence of the photographic method to
meet the stringent requirements of exact astronomy was still more decisively
shown in 1866 by Dr. Gould’s determination from his plates of nearly fifty stars
in the Pleiades. Their comparison with Bessel’s places for the same objects
proved that the lapse of a score of years had made no difference in the configura-

*tion of that immemorial cluster; and Professor Jacoby’s recent measures of

Rutherfurd’s photographs taken in 1872 and 1874 enforce the same conclusion.

The above facts are so forcible that no wonder that at the Astrophotographic
Congress held in Paris in 1887 it was decided to make a photographic survey of
the heavens, and now eighteen photographic telescopes of 13 inches aperture are in
operation in various parts of world, for the purpose of preparing the international
astrographic chart, and it was hoped that the catalogue plates would be completed
by 1900.

4 Photography has been applied so assiduously to the discovery of minor planets
that something like 450 are now known, the most noteworthy, perhaps, aa
regards utility being the discovery of Eros (433) in 1898 by Herr Witt at the
Observatory Urania, near Berlin.

With regard to the application of photography to recording the form of various
nebul, it is interesting to quote a passage from Dick’s ‘ Practical Astronomer,’
published in 1845, as opposed to Herschel’s opinion that the photography of a
nebula would never be impossible.

‘It might, perhaps, be considered as beyond the bounds of probability to expect
that even the distant nebulee might thus be fixed, and a delineation of their objects
produced, which shall be capable of being magnified by microscopes. But we
ought to consider that the art is only in its infancy, and that plates of a more
delicate nature than those hitherto used may yet be prepared, and that other
properties of light may yet be discovered, which shall facilitate such designs. For
we ought now to set no boundaries to the discoveries of science, and to the
practical applications of scientific discovery, which genius and art may accomplish.’

It was not, however, until 1880 that Draper first photographed the Orion
Nebula, and later by three years I succeeded in doing the same thing with an
exposure of only thirty-seven minutes. In December 1885 the brothers Henry by
the aid of photography found that the Pleiades were involved in a nebula, part of
which, however, had been seen by myself! with my 3-foot reflector in February
1880, and later, February 1886, it was also partly discerned at Pulkowa with
the 30-inch refractor then newly erected.

Still more nebulosity was shown by Dr. Roberts’s photographs,” taken with his
20-inch reflector in October and December 1886, when the whole western side of the
group was shown to be involved in a vast nebula, whilst a later photograph taken
by MM. Henry early in 1888 showed that practically the whole of the group was
a shoal of nebulous matter.

} Monthly Notices, vol. xl. p. 376. * Monthly Notices, vol, xlyii. p, 24,

666 REPORT—1900.

In 1881 Draper and Janssen recorded the comet of that year by photography.

Huggins! succeeded in photographing a part of the spectrum of the same
object,(Tebbutt’s Comet 1881, II.) on June 24, and the Fraunhofer lines were amongst
the photographic impressions, thus demonstrating that at least a part of the
continuous spectrum is due to reflected sunlight. He also secured a similar
result from Comet Wells.’

I propose to consider the question of the telescope on the following lines:
(1) The refractor and reflector from their inception to their present state. (2) The
various modifications and improvements that have been made in mounting these
instruments, and (8) the instrument that has been lately introduced by a com-
bination of the two, refractor and reflector, astriking example of which exists now
at the Paris Exhibition.

At a meeting of the British Association held nearly half a century ago (1852)
(Belfast) Sir David Brewster showed a plate of rock crystal worked in the form
of a Jens which had been recently found in Nineveh. Sir David Brewster asserted
that this lens had been destined for optical purposes, and that it never was a dress
ornament.

That the ancients were acquainted with the powers of a magnifying lens
may be inferred from the delicacy and minuteness of the incised work on their
seals and intaglios, which could only have been done by an eye aided by a lens of
some sort.

There is,"however, no direct evidence that the ancients were really acquainted
with the refracting telescope, though Aristotle speaks of the tubes through which
the ancients observed distant objects, and compares their effect to that of a well
from the bottom of which the stars may be seen in daylight.* As an historical fact
without any equivocations, however, there is no serious doubt that the telescope
was invented in Holland.

The honour of being the originator has been claimed for three men, each of
whom has had his partisans. Their names are Metius, Lippershey, and Janssen.

Galileo himself says that it was through hearing that some one in France or
Holland had made an instrument which magnified distant objects that he was led
to inquire how such a result could be obtained.

The first publisher of a result or discovery, supposing such discovery to be
honestly his own, ranks as the first inventor, and there is little doubt that Galileo
was the first to show the world how to make a telescope.* His first telescope was
made whilst on a visit to Venice, and he there exhibited a telescope magnifying
three times: this was in May 1609. Later telescopes which emanated from the
hands of Galileo magnified successively four, seven, and thirty times. This latter
number he never exceeded.

Greater magnifying power was not attained until Kepler explained the theory
and some of the advantages of a telescope made of two convex lenses in his
Catoptrics (1611). The first person to actually apply this to the telescope was
Father Scheiner, who describes it in his Rosa Ursina (1630), and Wm. Gascoigne
was the first to appreciate practically the chief advantages by his invention of the
micrometer and application of telescopic sights to instruments of precision.

It was, however, not until about the middle of the seventeenth century that
Kepler’s telescope came to be nearly universal, and then chiefly because its field
of view exceeded that of the Galilean.

The first powerful telescopes were made by Huyghens, and with one of these
he discovered Titan (Saturn’s brightest satellite): his telescopes magnified from
forty-eight to ninety-two times, were about 24 inches aperture, with focal lengths
ranging from 12 to 28 feet. By the aid of these he gave the first explanation of
Saturn’s ring, which he published in 1659.

Huyghens also states that he made object-glasses of 170 feet and 210 feet focal
length; also one 300 feet long, but which magnified only G00 times; he also
presented one of 123 feet to the Royal Society of London.

1 Proc. Roy. Soe., vol. xxxii. No. 213. 2 Rep. Brit. Assoc., 1882, p. 442.
$ De Gen. Animalium, lib. y, 4 Newcomb’s Astronomy, p. 108.

——

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 667

Auzout states that the best telescopes of Campani at Rome magnified
150 times, and were of 17 feet focal length. He himself is said to have made
telescopes of from 300 to 600 feet focus, but it is improbable that they were ever
put to practical use. Cassini discovered Saturn’s fifth satellite (Rhea) in 1672,
with a telescope made by Campani, magnifying about 150 times, whilst later, in
1684, he added the third and fourth satellites of the same planet to the list of his
discoveries.

Although these telescopes were unwieldy, Bradley, with his usual persistency,
actually determined the diameter of Venus in 1722 with a telescope of 212 feet
focal length.

With such cumbersome instruments many devices were invented of pointing
these atrial telescopes, as they were termed, to various parts of the sky. Huyghens
contrived some ingenious arrangements for this purpose, and also for adjusting and
centreing the eyepiece, the object-glass and eyepiece being connected by a long
braced rod.

It was not, however, until Dollond’s invention of the achromatic object-glass
in 1757-58 that the refracting telescope was materially improved, and even then
the difficulty of obtaining large blocks of glass free from striz limited the telescope
as regards aperture, for even at the date of Airy’s report we have seen that
12 inches was about the maximum aperture for an object-glass.

The work of improving glass dates back to 1784, when Guinand began
experimenting with the manufacture of optical flint glass.

He conveyed his secrets to the firm of Fraunhofer and Utzschneider, whom he
joined in 1805, and during the period he was there they made the 9°6 inches
object-glass for the Dorpat telescope.

Merz and Miidler, the successors of Fraunhofer, carried out successfully the
methods handed down to them by Guinand and Fraunhofer,

Guinand communicated his secrets to his family before his death in 1823, and
they entered into partnership with Bontemps. ‘The latter afterwards joined the
firm of Chance Bros., of Birmingham, and so some of Guinand’s work came to
England.

At the present day MM. Feil, of Paris, who are direct descendants of
Guinand and Messrs. Chance Bros., of Birmingham, are the best known manu-
facturers of large discs of optical glass.

It is related in history that Ptolemy Euergetes had caused to be erected on a
lighthouse at Alexandria a piece of apparatus for discovering vessels a long way
off; it has also been maintained that the instrument cited was a concave reflecting
mirror, and it is possible to observe with the naked eye images formed by a
concave mirror, and that such images are very bright.

Also the Romans were well acquainted with the concentrating power of con-
cave mirrors, using them as burning mirrors, as they were called. The first
application of an eye lens to the image formed by reflection from a concave mirror
appears to have been made by Father Zucchi, an Italian Jesuit. His work was
published in 1652, though it appears he employed such an instrument as early as
1616. The priority, however, of describing, if not making, a practical reflecting
telescope belongs to Gregory, who, in his ‘Optica Promota,’ 1663, discusses the
forms of images of objects produced by mirrors. He was well aware of the
failure of all attempts to perfect telescopes by using lenses of various curvature,
and proposed the form of reflecting telescope which bears his name.

Newton, however, was the first to construct a reflecting telescope, and with it
he could see Jupiter's satellites, &c. Encouraged by this he made another of
62 inches focal length, which magnified thirty-eight times, and this he presented
to the Royal Society on the day of his election to the Society in 1671.

To Newton we owe also the idea of employing pitch, used in the working of
the surfaces,

A third form of telescope was invented by Cassegrain in 1672. He substituted
a small convex mirror for the concave mirror in Gregory’s form, and thus rendered
the telescope a little shorter.

Short also, from 1730-1768, displayed uncommon ability in the manufacture of

668 REPORT—1900,

reflecting telescopes, and succeeded in giving true parabolic and elliptic figures to
his specula, besides obtaining a high degree of polish upon them. In Short’s first
telescopes the specula were of glass, as suggested by Gregory, but it was not until
after Liebig’s discovery of the process of depositing a film of metallic silver upon
a glass surface from a salt in solution that glass specula became almost universal,
and thus replaced the metallic ones of earlier times.

Shortly after the announcement of Liebig’s discovery Steinheil \—and later,
independently, Foucault *—proposed to employ glass for the specula of tele-
scopes, and, as is well known, this is done in all the large reflectors of to-day.

I now propose to deal with the various steps in the development of the
telescope, which have resulted in the three forms that I take as examples of the
highest development at the present time. These are the Yerkes telescope at
Chicago, my own 5-foot reflector, and the telescope recently erected at the Paris
Exhibition, dealing not only with the mountings, but with the principles of con-
struction of each. When the telescope was first used all could be seen by holding
it in the hand. As the magnifying power increased some kind of support would
become absolutely necessary, and this would take the form of the altitude and
azimuth stand, and the motion of the heavenly bodies would doubtless suggest the
parallactic or equatorial movement, by which the telescope followed the object
by one movement of an axis placed parallel to the pole. This did not come,
however, immediately. The long-focus telescopes of which I have spoken were
sometimes used with a tube, but more often the object-glass was mounted in a
long cell and suspended from the top of a pole, at the right height to be in a line
between the observer and the object to be looked at; and it was so arranged that
by means of a cord it could be brought into a fairly correct position. Notwith-
standing the extreme awkwardness of this arrangement most excellent observations
were made in the seventeenth century by the users of these telescopes. Then the
achromatic telescope was invented and mechanical mountings were used, with
circles for finding positions, much as we have themnow. Ihave already mentioned
the rivalry between the English and German forms of mountings, and Airy’s
preference for the English form. The general feeling amongst astronomers has,
however, been largely in favour of the German mounting for refractors, due, no
doubt, to a great extent, to the enormous advance in engineering skill. We have
many examples of this form of mounting. A list of the principal large refracting
and reflecting telescopes now existing is given at the end of this Address. All the
refractors in this list, with the exception cf the Paris telescope of 50 inches, and
the Greenwich telescope of 28 inches, are mounted on the German form. Some
of these carry a reflector as well as, for instance, the telescope lately presented
to the Greenwich Observatory by Sir Henry Thompson, which, in addition to a
26-inch refractor, carries a 30-inch reflector at the other end of the declination
axis, such as had been previously used by Sir William Huggins and Dr. Roberts;
the last, and perhaps the finest, example of the German form being the Yerkes
telescope at Chicago.

The small reflector made by Sir Isaac Newton, probably the first ever made,
and now at the Royal Society, is mounted on a ball, gripped by two curved
pieces, attaéhed to the body of the telescope, which allows the telescope to be
pointed in any direction. We have not much information as to the mounting of
early reflectors. Sir William Herschel mounted his 4-foot telescope on a rough
but admirably planned open-work mounting, capable of being turned round, and
with means to tilt the telescope to any required angle. This form was not very
suitable for picking up objects or determining their position, except indirectly; but
for the way it was used by Sir William Herschel it was most admirably adapted:
the telescope being elevated to the required angle, it was left'in that position, and
became practically a transit instrument. All the objects passing through the field
of view (which was of considerable extent, as the eyepiece could be moved in
declination) were observed, and their places in time and declination noted, so that

1 Gaz. Univ. d Augsburg, March 24, 1856.
* Comptes Rend, vol, xliv, February 1857,

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION A. 669

the positions of all these objects in the zone observed were obtained with a
considerable degree of accuracy. It was on this plan that Sir John Herschel made
his general catalogue of nebule, embracing all the nebulz he could see in both
hemispheres; a complete work by one man that is almost unique in the history of
astronomy.

Sir William Herschel’s mounting of his 4-foot reflector differs in almost every
particular from the mountings of the long-focus telescopes we have just spoken of.
The object-glass was at a height, the reflector was cluse to the ground. There was
a tube to one telescope, but not to the other. The observer in one case stood on
the ground, in the other he was on a stage at a considerable elevation. One pole
sufficed with a cord for one; a whole mass of poles, wheels, pulleys, and ropes sur-
rounded the other. In one respect only were they alike—they both did fine work.

Lassell seems to have been the first to mount a reflector equatorially. He,
like Herschel, made a 4-foot telescope, which he mounted in this way. Lord
Rosse mounted his telescopes somewhat after the manner of Sir William Herschel.
The present Karl has mounted a 3-foot equatorially.

A 4-foot telescope was made by Thomas Grubb for Melbourne, and this he

-mounted on the German plan. The telescope being a Cassegrain, the observer is
practically on the ground level. A somewhat similar instrument exists at the
Paris Observatory. Liassell’s 4-foot was mounted in what is called a fork mounting,
as is also my own 5-foot reflector, and this in some ways seems well adapted for
reflectors of the Newtonian kind.

We now come to the Paris telescope. This is really the result of the combina-
tion of a reflector and a refractor. JI cannot say when a plane mirror was first
used to direct the light into a telescope for astronomical purposes. It seems first
to have been suggested by Hooke, who, at a meeting of the Royal Society,
when the difficulty of mounting the long-focus lenses of Huyghens was under
discussion, pointed out that all difficulties would be done away with if, instead of
giving movement to the huge telescope itself, a plane mirror were made to move
in front of it.’

The Earl of Crawford, then Lord Lindsay, used a heliostat to direct the rays
from the sun, on the occasion of the transit of Venus, through a lens of 40 feet
focal length, in order to obtain photographs, and it was also largely used by the
American observers on the same occasion.

Monsieur Loéwy at Paris proposed in 1871 a most ingenious telescope made by
a combination of two plane mirrors and an achromatic object-glass, which he calls
a Coudé telescope, which has some most important advantages. Chief amongst
these are that the observer sits in perfect comfort at the upper end of the polar
axis, whence he need not move, and by suitable arrangements he can direct the
telescope to any part of the visible heavens. Several have been made in France,
including a large one of 24 inches aperture, erected at the Paris Observatory, and
which has already made its mark by the production of perhaps the best photographs
of the moon yet obtained. I have already spoken of Lord Lindsay and his 40-foot
telescope, fed, as it were, with light from a heliostat. This is exactly the
plan that has been followed in the design of the large telescope in the Paris
Exhibition. Butin place of a lens of 4 inches aperture and a heliostat a few inches
larger, the Paris telescope has a plane mirror of 6 feet and a lens exceeding
4 feet in diameter, with a focal length of 186 feet. The cost of a mounting on the
German plan and of a dome to shelter such an instrument would have been
enormous. The form chosen is at once the best and cheapest. One of the
great disadvantages is that from the nature of things it cannot take in the
whole of the heavens. The heliostat form of mounting of the plane mirror causes
a rotation of the image in the field of view which in many lines of research is a
strong objection. There is much to be said on the other side. The dome is
dispensed with ; the tube, the equatorial mounting, and the rising floor are not
wanted. The mechanical arrangements of importance are confined to the
mounting of the necessary machinery to carry the large plane mirror and move
it round at the proper rate. The telescope need not have any tube (that to

! Lockyer, Star-gazing, p. 453.

670 REPORT—1900.

the Paris telescope is of course only placed there for effect), as the flimsiest
covering is enough if it excludes false light falling on the eye end; and more
important than all, the observer sits at his ease in the dark chamber. This
question of the observer, and the conditions under which he observes, is a most
important one as regards both the quality and quantity of the work done.

We have watched the astronomer, first observing from the floor level, then
mounted on a high scaffold like Sir William Herschel, Lassell, and Lord Rosse ;
then starting again from the floor level and using the early achromatic telescope ;
then, as these grew in size, climbing up on observing chairs to suit the various
positions of the eye end of the telescope, as we see in Mr, Newall’s great telescope ;
then brought to the floor again by that excellent device of Sir Howard Grubb,
the rising floor. This is in use with the Lick and the Yerkes telescopes, where
the observer is practically always on the floor level, though constant attention is
needed, and the circular motion has to be provided for by constant movement, to
say nothing of the danger of the floor going wrong. Then we have the ideal
condition, as in the Equatorial Coudé at the Paris Observatory, where the observer
sits comfortably sheltered and looks down the telescope, and from this position
can survey the whole of the visible heavens. The comfort of the observer is a
most important matter, especially for the long exposures that are given to photo-
graphic plates, as well as for continued visual work. In such a form of telescope
as that at Paris the heliostat form of mounting the plane mirror is most suitable,
notwithstanding the rotation of the image. But there is another way in which
a plane mirror can be mounted, namely, on the plan first proposed by Auguste
many years ago, and lately brought forward again by Mons. Lippmann, of Paris, and
that is by siwply mountirg the plane mirror on a polar axis and parallel therewith,
and causing this mirror to rotate at half the speed of the earth’s rotation. Any
part of the heavens seen by any person reflected from this mirror will appear to
be fixed in space, and not partake of the apparent movement of the earth, so long
as the mirror is kept moving at this rate. A telescope, therefore, directed to such
a mirror can observe any heavenly body as if it were in an absolutely fixed position
so long as the angle of the mirror shall not be such as to make the reflected beam
less than will fill the object-glass. There is one disadvantage in the ccelostat, as
this instrument is called, and that is its suitability only for regions near the
equator. The range above and below, however, is large enough to include the
greater portion of the heavens, and that portion in which the solar system is
included. Here the telescope must be moved in azimuth for different portions of
the sky, as is fully explained by Professor Turner in vol.1vi. of the ‘Monthly Notices,’
and it therefore becomes necessary to provide for moving the telescope in azimuth
from time to time as different zones above or below the equator are observed.
No instrument yet devised is suitable for all kinds of work, but this form, not-
withstanding its defects, has so many and such important advantages that I
think it will obviate the necessity of building any larger refractors on the usual
models, The cost of producing a telescope much Jarger than the Yerkes on that
model, in comparison with what could be done on the plan I now advocate, renders
it most improbable that further money will be spent in that way. It may be
asked, What are the lines of research which could be taken up by a telescope of ,
this construction, and on what lines should the telescope be built ? I willendeavour
to answer this. All the work that is usually done by an astronomical telescope,
excepting very long-continued observations, can be equally well done by the fixed
telescope. But there are some special lines for which this form of research is
admirably suited, such as photographs of the moon, which would be possible with
a reflecting mirror of, say, 200 feet focal length, giving an image of some 2 feet
diameter in a primary focus, or a larger image might be obtained either by a longer-
focus mirror or by a combination, It might even be worth while to build
a special ecelostat for lunar photography, provided with an adjustment to the
polar axis and a method of regulating the rate of clock to correct the irregular
motion of the moon, and thus obtain absolutely fixed images on the photographic

late.
3 The advantage of large primary images in photography is row fully recog-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 671

nised. For all other kinds of astronomical photography a fixed telescope is
admirably adapted; and so with all spectroscopic investigations, a little con-
sideration will show that the conditions under which these investigations can be
pursued are almost ideal. As to the actual form such a construction would take,
we can easily imagine it. ‘The large mirror mounted as a ccelostat in the centre;
circular tracts round this centre, on which a fan-shaped house can be travelled
round to any azimuth, containing all the necessary apparatus for utilising the
light from the large plane mirror, so as to be easily moved round to the required
position in azimuth for observation. In place of a fan-shaped house movable
round the plane mirror, a permanent house might encircle the greater portion
round the mirror, and in this house the telescope or whatever optical combination
is used might be arranged on an open framework, supported on similar rails, so
as to run round to any azimuth required. The simplicity of the arrangement
and the enormous saying in cost would allow in any well-equipped observatory
the use of a special instrument for special work. The French telescope has a
mirror about 6 feet in diameter and a lens of about 4 feet. This is a great step
in advance over the Yerkes telescope, and it may be some time before the glass
for a lens greater than 50 inches diameter will be made, as the difficulty in making
optical glass is undoubtedly very great. But with the plane mirror there will bo
no such difficulty, as 6 feet has already been made; and so with a concave mirror
there would be little difficulty in beginning with 6 feet or 7 feet. The way in
which the mirror would be used, always hanging in a band, is the most favour-
able condition for good work, and the absence of motion during an observation,
except of course that of the plane mirror (which could be given by floating the
polar axis and suitable mechanical arrangements, a motion of almost perfect
regularity).

One extremely important thing in using silver or glass mirrors is the matter
of resilvering from time to time. Up to quite recently the silvering of my 5-foot
mirror was a long, uncertain, and expensive process. Now we have a method of
silvering mirrors that is certain, quick, and cheap. This takes away the cne great
disability from the silver or glass reflecting telescope, as the surface of silver
can now be renewed with greater ease and in less time than the lenses of a large
refracting telescope could be taken out and cleaned. It may be that we shall
revert to speculum metal for our mirrors, or use some other deposited metal on
glass; but even as it is we have the silvered glass reflectcr, which at once allows
an enormous advance in power. ‘To do justice to any large telescope it should
be erected in a position, as regards climate, where the conditions are as favyour-
able as possible.

The invention of the telescope is to me the most beautiful ever made. Famili-
arity both in making and in using has only increased my admiration. With the
exception of the microphone of the late Professor Hughes, which enabled one to
hear otherwise inaudible sounds, sight is the only sense that we have been able to
enormously increase in range. The telescope enables one to see distant objects as if
they were at, say, one five-thousandth part of their distance, whilst the microscope
renders visible objects so small as to be almost incredible. In order to appreciate
better what optical aid does for the sense of sight, we can imagine the size of an eye,
and therefore of a man, capable of seeing in a natural way what the ordinary eye
sees by the aid of a large telescope, and, on the other hand, the size of a man and
his eye that could see plainly small objects as we see them under a powerfui micro-
scope. The man in the first case would be several miles in height, and in the
latter he would not exceed a very small fraction of an inch in height.

Photography also comes in as a further aid to the telescope, as it may possibly
be to the microscope. For a certain amount of light is necessary to produce sen-
sation in the eye. If this light is insufficient nothing is seen; but owing to the
accumulative effect of light on the photographic plate, photographs can be
taken of objects otherwise invisible, as I pointed out years ago, for in photographs
I took in 1883 stars were shown on photographic plates that I could not see in the
telescope. All photographs, when closely examined, are made up of a certain
number of little dots, as it were, in the nature of stippling, and it is a very inter-

672 REPORT—1900,

esting point to consider the relation of the size and separation of these dots that
form the image, and the rods and cones of the reckoner which determines the
power of the eye.

Many years ago I tried to determine this question. I first took a photograph
of the moon with a telescope of very short focus (as near as I could get it to the
focus of the eye itself, which is about half an inch), The resulting photograph
measured one two-hundredth of an inch in diameter, and when examined again
with a microscope showed a fair amount of detail, in fact, very much as we see
the moon with the naked eye; making a picture of the moon by hand on such
a scale that each separate dot of which it was made corresponded with each
separate sensitive point of the retina employed when viewing the moon without
optical aid, I found, on looking at this picture at the proper distance, that it looked
exactly like a real moon. In this case the distance of the dots was constant, mak-
ing them larger or smaller forming the light or shade of the picture.

I did not complete these experiments, but as far as I went I thought that there
was good reason to believe that we could in this way increase the defining power
of the eye. It is a subject well worthy of further consideration.

I know that in this imperfect and necessarily brief address I have been obliged
to omit the names of many workers, but I cannot conclude without alluding to the
part that this Association has played in fostering and aiding Astronomy. A glance
through the list of money grants shows that the help has been most liberal. In my
youth I recollect the great value that was put on the British Association Catalogue
of Stars; we know the help that was given in its early days to the Kew Observa-
tory ; and the Reports of the Association show the great interest that has always
been taken in our work, The formation of a separate Department of Astrenomy is,
I hope, a pledge that this interest will be continued, to the advantage of our
science.

List of Large Telescopes in existence in 1900.

Refractors 15 inches and upwards Refractors 15 inches and upwards
Inches | Inches

Paris (Exhibition) . . | 50 Princeton . e ° - | 23:0
Yerkes . : 5 - = 40 Mount Etna. : - «gees
Wick, = 6. i x é eo eeoO Strassburg . = é A 191
Pulkowa A - : At) e380 || Milan . F ; ; = i een OP
Nice — . 5 ; : - 29:9 || (Dearborn) Chicago. caleelssh
Paris’ < P ; ; : 28:9 || Warner Obs., Rochester, U.S. | 160
Greenwich . : . .| 280 || Washburn Observatory,
Vienna. : ; Pal ora O2 uml Madison, Wisconsin . 15°5
Washington . : i .| 26:0 || Edinburgh . : Fi » | iba
Leander, McCormick Obser- | | Brussels -. : : > | amloel

vatory, Virginia ; .| 26:0 || Madrid . : ; : Pe lH)
Greenwich . - : .| 26:0 || Rio Janeiro . : : «jee 0
Newall’s, Cambridge . =) 25:0 Paris. . : - | cleO
Cape of Good Hope. ; 24:0 Sir William Huggins . : 15-0
Harvard , : : oi 2240) 3 dienbarist ger. : : : . | 15:0
Reflectors 2 feet 6 inches and upwards | Reflectors 2 feet 6 inches and upwards

Ft. In. | Hae Uns

Lord Rosse . ‘ A vu 6. “0 South Kensington a a, 0
Dr. Common : : ml > OMe @rossleyaChick): - Rimes). 1)
Melbourne . : : fipoce Greenwich . - A > | Zee
Paris 6 m 4 0 South Kensington - |) 2G
Meudon 3.3

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. ~- 675

The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Application of the Electric Telegraph to the Furtherance of

‘Eclipse Research. By Professor Davip P. Topp, Director of the
Observatory of Amherst College, U.S.A.

In 1878 the idea first occurred to the writer! of telegraphing eastward in
advance of the lunar shadow in order to enable the immediate verification of
any possible discovery as of an intramercurian planet without waiting for another
eclipse to take place. A scheme of application to the eclipse of 1887 was
published,” but the feasibility of the method was not demonstrated till the eclipse
of January 1889, when the California observations were, by the courtesy of the
Western Union Telegraph Company, reported in New York with such celerity as
to outstrip completely the motion of the moon’s shadow across the earth. A like
experiment, only in more practical form, was carried out during the recent eclipse
by co-operation with Mr. A. If. Douglass, of the Lowell Observatory, whose station
was in Washington, Georgia. Totality there preceded the same phenomenon in
Tripoli, the writer's station, by 2 hours 45 minutes. Immediately totality was
over, Mr. Douglass reported in full the success of his observations and the instra-
ments with which they were made, his despatch being forwarded at once to
Washington and New York, and over the Western Union Company’s cables to
Penzance. By the courtesy of J. Denison Pender, Esq., Vice-President and
Managing Director of the Hastern Telegraph Company, London, the message was
forwarded over this company’s cables from Penzance to Gibraltar, thence to Malta,
and finally to Tripoli, where a special messenger delivered it at once to the writer at
the British Consulate. This message was received and read in less than half an
hour of absolute time from its leaving Georgia, and more than two hours before
totality actually came on at Tripoli. Had the message announced any discovery,
there was abundant time to have prepared for its special veritication.

The thanks of astronomers are especially due to the managers of these
two great telegraph systems for their generous gift of this service, which has now
proved conclusively the practicability of communication between remote eclipse
stations while the moon’s shadow is still upon the earth. It is easy to see how
such communication, during the total eclipse of 188%, might have afforded data for
the orbit of the comet discovered during that eclipse, and whose path is now
unknown.

Similarly, also, application of the land and cable lines of the globe may be of
the greatest service in notifying the occurrence of future meteoric showers,

2. On the Operation of Eclipse Instruments Automatically. By Professor
Davin P. Topp, Director of the Observatory of Amherst College, U.S.A.

The successful application of automatic machinery to a wide variety of uses
and purposes, removing the uncertainty of manual operations, indicates clearly the
desirability of its application to the photography of solar eclipses.

Three distinct systems of controlling the mechanical movements of such
instruments are feasible, the capabilities of all of which I have tested within
recent years:

(a) The pneumatic system devised and built for the U.S. Eclipse Ex%dition
o West Africa, 1889.4

The power requisite for the individual movements of shutters and plate-

holders was obtained by small collapsible pneumatic ‘ pockets,’ connected with a

} Washington Astronomical OUsertatians for 1876, Appendix iii, p. 354.

2 American Journal of Sciénce, vol. exxxiii. p. 226. '

* Total Eclipses of the Sun, by Mrs. Todd (Sampson Low, Marston, & Co., 1900)
pp. 164-173,

4 Monthly Notices B.A‘S., vol. 1. p. 380. :

1900, xx

674 REPORT—1900.

large exhaust bellows by lead tubes of small calibre. The operation of the pockets
was controlled through a pneumatic commutator, the control sheet being of paper,
and having perforations at such points as corresponded to the mechanism or
instrument desired. This sheet unwound from the barrel of an ordinary chrono-
graph, which thereby not only regulated the exposures, but recorded their exact
times. Twenty-two photographic instruments were controlled by this scheme of
operation at Cape Ledo, West Africa, on December 22, 1889.

(b) The electric system devised and built for the Amherst Hclipse Expedition
to Japan, 1896, through the liberality of Messrs. Willis and Arthur James, of
New York, who sent the expedition out in their yacht Coronet... The power
requisite for the automatic movements was here derived for the most part from
spiral springs, the recoil of which was governed by specially devised escapements
operated by ordinary electro-magnets. The control currents were sent through a
commutator ? which was originally a chronograph, the cylinder being replaced by
a copper barrel, in which pins were inserted at suitable points for making contacts
with the teeth of a copper comb. Thus, as in the pneumatic system, the commu-
tator regulated the exposures and recorded their times as well. ‘Twenty photo-
graphic instruments were controlled by this scheme of operation at Esashi, Japan,
on August 9, 1896.

(c) The mechanical system, devised and built for the expedition to Tripoli,
1900, and at the charges of Mr. Percival Lowell, of Boston. By the courtesy of
the Hon. T. S. Jago, H.B.M.’s Consul-General at Tripoli, the station was
established on the terrace or roof of the British Consulate. This location afforded,
among other advantages, an exceptional chance of utilising gravity as a motive
power for the mechanical operation of shutters and plate-holders by means of
cords wound upon pulleys which turned the axles, the cords being pulled by small
weights which descended within the interior court of the Consulate. This system
not haying been invented until after my arrival in Tripoli, its construction was neces-
sarily crude and provisional. In addition to the help of native artisans I had
the very efficient assistance of Messrs. W. H. Venables and W. F. Riley, of the
English colony in Tripoli. The commutator was again a barrel, improvised from a
large oil-drum, and turned by a cord and heavy weight, its speed being regulated
to the requisite accuracy by a fan governor. By the courtesy of Mr. James A.
Doughan this was built in the machine shops of Messrs. Perry, Bury, & Company.
From the commutator barrel there unwound also seven cords which passed over
pulleys to the various mechanical movements of the shutters and plate-barrels,
held in position by escapements similar to those used in Japan for the previous
eclipse; and upon these cords were fastened large beads at intervals suited to the
exposures required. Each bead in passing the escapement tripped it, thus
allowing gravity to advance the movement by a single stage or unit. Seven
instruments were operated on this system during the recent eclipse at Tripoli, and
about one hundred photographs secured.

Experience with these three systems leads me to the conclusion that with
slight modifications the last is simplest and best for the automatic operation of a
very few instruments. But a combination of the first and second is best for a large
number of instruments, the mechanisms being no more likely to get out of order
than the similar movements in the pneumatic and electric action of a modern
church organ, and no more likely to tail of the right exposure on the right plate
at the right time than such an organ is likely to sound a false or unintended note.

3. On the Adaptation of the Principle of the Wedge Photometer to the.
Biograph Camera im photographing Total Eclipses. By Professor
Davip P. Topp, I.4., Ph.D., Director of the Observatory of Amherst
College, U.S.A.

‘Vhis paper describes an instrument devised for photographing the reeent eclipse
both the slender partial phases and the corona on a single film, with correctly
The Astrophysical Journal, vol. v., p..318. :

2 Stars and Telescopes, by Professor David P, Todd (Sampson Lows Marston, &
Co., 1900), p. 363. : ;

_— oe eS ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 675

graduated exposures foreach, Just in front of the film is mounted a positive wedge
of yellow optical glass, backed with an equivalent negative wedge of plain optical
glass, the whole having a sliding motion lengthwise. The necessary thickness and
length of the wedges are first. found by experiment on the sun, entirely obscured
artificially by an occulting disc, excepting only the extreme limb. ‘Through a
tuby aperture in the camera the observer watches the gradually diminishing
eclipse crescent on the film, and racks the wedge along, keeping the intensity of
the image as nearly as possible constant. The biograph films of the recent
eclipse, taken by Mr. J. N. Maskelyne, F.R.A.S., indicate the necessity of this
great reduction of the strong light of the crescents, to avoid solarisation ; and show
further the ease with which the inner coronal ring can be photographed, long

before and after totality,

—=

4, On the ‘ Square-shouldered’ Aspect of Saturn.
By H. M. Anronianpt, 7. R.A.S.

The author accounts for the abnormal figure assumed by Saturn, under a
slight opening of the ring system, by the existence of the planet’s dark polar cans,
checking irradiation along the minor axis of the disc,

5. On the Types of Sun-spot Disturbances.
By Rev. A. L. Cortiz, 7. R:A.S.

As an aid to researches connected with sun-spots an attempt has been made
to classify them according to some prevailing typical forms. Tor this purpose the
Stonyhurst drawings of the solar surface for the last twenty years have been
caretully examined. From these it would follow that spots appear as scattered
groups of small spots, as trains of spots, as composite groups consisting of three or
more larger spots, as single spots of round and regular outline which may or may
not be accompanied by smaller companions, and as single spots of irregular
outline at times accompanied by a train of small companions, or with outliers not
arranged in the form of a train. The chief type, however, of which the above-
mentioned are in most, probably in all, cases but phases, is the double-spot
formation, w:th a train of smaller spots between the two principal spots of the
group. In this form the principal spot, which eventually becomes a round spot of
regular outline, is generally the leading spot; but in some cases it is the following
spot, while in other yet rarer cases both the chief spots develop as regular spots,
The mode of development of this leading typé is described in detail. The
following are suggested as the types which will be probably found to cover every
case that may arise.

Type J. A group of a few scattered small spots.

Type II. The two-spot formation.

Type II. a. In which the leader is the principal spot.

Type Il. b. In which the following spot is the principal spot.

Type II.c. In which both spots are more or less equal,

Type III. A train of spots.

Type III.a. With well-defined principal spots,

Type IiI.b, Without well-defined principal spots, but mostly penumbral

patches th scattered irregular umbre.

Type LV. Single spots.
Type IV.a. A single spot of round and regular outline.
_ Type lV.b. A single spot of round and regular outline, with small com-
*panions. :
Type 1V.c. A single spot of irregular outline.
- Type IV.d. A single spot of irregular outline with a train of small com-
panions,

Sie 2

676 REPORT—1900.

Type IV. e. A single spot of irregular outline with smal! companions not in a
train.
Type V. An irregular group of larger spots.

As an example, the process of formation and life-history of a composite
disturbance which crossed the solar disc five times during the period May 14-
September 4, 1887, could be succinctly described as follows:

I. IL. b, | Vd. LV.a. | 1V.a, Ved. 1V.a.| 1V.e. 1 Taso,

6. On a Cheap Form of Micrometer for determining Star Positions on
Photographic Plates. By H. H. Turner, I.A., F.RS., Savilian
Professor. j ;

The experience of those who have been working at the Astrographie Chart
shows that for measuring star photographs a réseaw is practically indispensable.
The réseaux made by M. Gautier of Paris may be treated as sensibly correct for
nearly all purposes. The cost is between 2/. and 5/., according to the number of
lines ruled ; and this initial expense is in any case necessary. But since a photo-
graphic copy is often as gocd as the original, this expense might be shared
between two or three workers, or borne by some society, which could distribute
copies for a few shillings each to its members.

Given the réseau, the rest of the micrometer can be made at a very small
expense (say 30s. at most) with wood, glass, and paper. Ofcourse, some conveni-
ence is sacrificed and a little accuracy lost. The micrometers in use at the Cape of
Good Hope cost 180/. apiece ; the duplex micrometer used at Greenwich about
100/.; even the simple form used at Oxford costs 30/. It is not to be supposed
that nothing is gained by such expenditure. But with a very simple form of
instrument such as that exhibited, which a man could make for himself or with a
little assistance from any carpenter, excellent worl can be done.

The chief part of the instrument is the microscope with scale in the eyepiece.
Most people have some old microscope which would do quite well, and in any case
a cheap one is all that is necessary. The scale in the eyepiece can be made
photographically, drawing the scale on a large sheet of cardboard and taking a
miniature photograph of it.

The plate-holder is merely a sheet of glass on which the plate can be easily
moved backwards and forwards. The screws required for slow motion and
clamping may be ordinary electrical binding-serews or something similar; the
counterpoises bags of shot; the reflector a penny mirror, and so on.

To measure photographs which have no réseau already impressed upon them,
a photographic copy of a réseau may be bound up in contact with the plate in the
manner of a lantern slide. Attention may, however, be directed to a method. of
impressing the réseaw on such plates which have been alréady developed and
tixed,? due to M. Bourget, of the Toulouse Observatory.

SEE
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,
The following Papers were read :—

1. Comparison of Prominence and Corona Photographs taken at Santa Pola,
Spain, and Wadesboro, in North Carolina, during the Total Solar
Eclipse of May 28,1900. By Witu1am J. 8. Lockyer, U.A., Ph.D.
This paper consists of .a comparison of photographs taken at eclipse stations,

5,900 miles distant from each other, namely, Santa Pola and Watlesboro.

' Given in the Obsertatdry, May 1900, p. 223; and in the Billetm Astrénomigue,
March 1900. ae

aa

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 677

It was found that during the two and a half hours’ difference of time
between the times of totality the main prominences had changed considerably
in shape and form, but the polar rifts at the north polar region did not undergo
any alteration.

The comparison has further led the author to advocate the employment of
long-focus cameras for such eclipse work, and to eliminate the necessity of
enlargement afterwards.

An explanation is also given to account for the extreme sharpness of the
lunar limb on one of the long-exposure photographs, the chief argument employed
being the very rapid diminution of intensity of the corona as the outer layers
are reached.

2. Description of the New Photographic Equatorial of the Cambridge
Observatory. By A. R. Hinks, J/A.

3. Diagram for Planning Observations of Lros at the Opposition of
1900-1. Ly A. R. Hinks, IA.

4. On some Points in connection with the Photography of a
Moving Object. By W. E. Prummer.

I have recently had occasion to make some investigations in connection with
the theory of Comet 1899, I. The object of the present paper is not td call
attention to the form of the orbit, so that that point need not be considered.

But in the course of the examination of the observations I was led to com-
pare a series of places.of the comet obtained under the superintendence of the
Astronomer Royal, by means of photography with the Thompson Equatorial.

There is, so far as I know, no series of equal length in which the places of a
moving object have been determined by photography, and it seemed desirable to
investigate the peculiarities with some care.

The series extends from May 25 to June 16, 1899, during which time the
comet passed over some 80° of R.A. and 30° of declination.

It is not usual to compare the final elements with individual observations, but
only with the normal places. The photographed places have therefore been com-
pared with the preliminary orbit, in this case an hyperbola ; and the small deviations,
which are removed by the solution of the Equations of Condition, are displayed in
the comparison.

But for the purposes of the present investigation it is sufficient to remove
these discrepancies by any convenient interpolation formula, and so obtain the
deviations of the observations from the true path of the comet.

When this is effected the following deviations are noticeable :—

da cos 6 ds da cos 6 ds
1899 ” ’” 1899 ” uw
May25 .. — 42 —O7 June 9 5 ,. —J3:9 —4°6
» 26 — 60 ~0-9 PRE ee EE —76
» 29 + 18 ~1-0 | we 10% ¢ + 34 —51
30°" = £7 —1°6 ieee —9-4
eS as 1-9 0:0 | +2. [oes +111 +92
June 2 + 14 —0°6 | jo GE BG 73 208
ae + 3-1 ~1-9 Ge! Bite -h) 36 +38
phil — 36 +155

The probable error of a single observation, derived simply from the disagreement
from the mean, is, in the case of a, + 4/16, and in 6, + 2/85.

There seems no prima facie reason why the right ascension coordinate should
not be determined with the same accuracy as the declination if the epoch of
observation is successfully established.

678 REPORT—1900.

The declinations in the early part of the series are eminently satisfactory; in
that part the motion was very small in 6. Towards the end, when the comet was
moving quicker, the agreement is not so satisfactory.

The right ascension varied most rapidly at the beginning of the series, and
the agreement would have been more satisfactory throughout, though more
noticeable at the beginning, if the epoch of observation had been some seconds
later.

It is a very difficult matter to determine the proper time of exposure, since the
first few seconds in the photograph of a faint object do not seem to be used in the
blackening of the film.

The importance of this point in the photographs of Eros recommended by the
International Comité de la Carte du Ciel will not escape the attention of
astronomers,

There is another point: how do these observations compare with those made
micrometrically in a typical observatory? ‘To illustrate this I select that of
Strassburg, where the observations are of unusual excellence, and where the focal
length of the instrument is fairly comparable with that of the Greenwich tele-
scope. ‘The series of Strassburg within the same dates, and over which the same
interpolation formula is available, is not quite so long, but fairly comparable. The
Greenwich places rest in every case, it is believed, on the positions of three stars,
the Strassburg never on more than two, and sometimes on a single comparison.

The error in the star’s place is therefore more effective. The errors are as
follows :—

da cos 6 ds ) da cos 5 as

1899 ” w” 1899 ” ”

May 27 . . +59 —0°5 | June Sys. il4 —72

ROT ins eABiS +1:0 | E fihon Het. > heb +29

June 1’. . —2:4 —O1 | ant UE, eae i) +0°6

po ete) eemore) +09 Ra OU he gue eent LB +10
time’ web's +0°8 |

The probable error of a single observation here amounts to
+ 2/68 and 41/91
which is tess than that of the Greenwich observation in approximately the pro-
portion of 3 to 2.
Pending further experiments, which I believe are to be carried out by photo-
graphic experts at the Paris Obseryatory, the importance of this comparison in
the matter of the Eros observations will not be left out of sicht.

5. On Needle-hole Maps for Meteor Observation.
By J. C. W. Herscukgt.

1, For an original map the stars are plotted out on squared millimetre paper
to the scale of 1 dm=45° by Professor Turner’s formula,' primarily devised for the
p-ates of the Astrographic Chart.

As a check there is used

€ cot (a—A)=sin P-7 cos P.*

2. The paper for the copies is sky-blue on one side and white on the other, on
which the meteors’ paths and descriptions are written.

The needles used are the ordinary commercial needles Nos. 2-12 for magnitudes
1:5 to 4:0 by steps of quarter magnitudes, No. 12 is also used for all stars below
4-0, and an extra large needle for superior stars. The points are ground flat and
the needles set in handles, The holes made are round and clean.

' Monthly Notices, R.A.S8., 1894, vol. liv., November.

? For a~A=90°, when the formula is indeterminate, ¢= "7.

cos P

=

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A, 679

Representing light as area, these stars approximate very happily to steps of
quarter magnitudes.

Half-a-dozen sheets are laid, blue side down, on a sheet of lead, the original
map laid over them, and the stars punched through with the proper-sized needles.

3. At night a copy is laid on a writing-desk with a sloping ground glass tor,
and illuminated with a night light, which also keeps them dry.

The meteor track (when observed) is marked in pencil along a celluloid ruler
with a blackened bevel-edge, which, being transparent, does not hide the
configuration of the stars on the map.

4. Observing. After comparing my watch with Greenwich time, I sit back in a
hammock chair with the illuminated map beside me, a pencil and ruler handy. I find
I can hold my eye far more steadily on the meteor’s place than a wand held in the
hand, which I therefore do not use. I cannot usefully extend my field beyond 45°
on either side of the point facing me, except for bright meteors. I let my eyes
continually rove about, and when a meteor appears I fasten on it at once, and
all the stars fade out ; but only for an instant during which I am free to observe
the magnitude, colour, speed, and streak. Presently the nearest stars begin to
glimmer out again and set themselves as a framework round the place of the
meteor. But I do not look away at them till I have thoroughly impressed a
mental picture of the meteor as part of the scene before me. Whilst doing so I
estimate its duration. But the most important thing is the direction. I follow
its line cautiously backwards and forwards, prolonging it until I find suitable
reference stars: either, that the line lies over a star—or passes a degree or two
from it—or cuts the distance between two stars in a certain proportion. Thus I
get two reference points some ten or twenty degrees apart. Next I define to
myself the ength of path as starting and ending on the line joining two stars, or so
many degrees before or after that line.

Returning to the estimation of duration, I use Professor Herschel’s excellent
method of repeating the alphabet over at the rate of five letters to the second,
leaving out W—the only letter not monosyllabic.

Now I look at my watch and note the trme of appearance.

As to the advisability of using maps at all, if the observer knows the stars by
heart in configuration and by name, he may very well dispense with maps, &c.,
describing the meteor and defining its position in words in a notebook in the dark,
while still looking at the star lest he miss another meteor. But not many have
such knowledge: and the conciseness of the record —a single line on the map—
recommends itself compared with a description needing many words. To look away
from the sky, down on the map, is a relief to the eye—at the cost, it is true, of
possibly losing a meteor, though it must be difficult to go on writing down the
description of one meteor while studying another.

Looking down therefore on the map, I set the transparent ruler to the best of
my judgment, guiding myself by the reference points I have decided upon, and run
a pencil along for the length of path, finishing with a half arrow-head to show
the direction, and write the time alongside, and the description at the edge of the
map; taking the line back also lightly towards the radiant. It is astonishing
how slight a shift satisfies or dissatisfies one, but it is worse than useless to look
up again at the sky.

Next day the end points of the paths are read off for tabulation through a
‘spider web’ of R.A. and Decl. lines on tracing cloth laid over the map.

6. Stationary Meteor Radiants. 2y G. C. Bompas, .£.A.8.

7. Cosmic Evolution. By Prof. A. W. Bickerton,

680 REPORT—1900,
8, Duration of Totality of the Solar Eclipse of May 28, 1900,
By C. T. WuITMELL.
The Paper included the following table :—

Duration Excess

No. | Locality | Longitude Latitude | see Observers
| Predicted | Observed | Observed
OY | o | 8 3 8

1 Ovar 8 38 W.| 40 50N.| 92:7 84:5 8:2 Christie
2 Plasencia.) 6605) 40513; 88-0 82-0 6-0 Downing
3 Coria 6 30 ,, | 89 54 ,, 80-0
4 Naval- 5 34.,, |-39 52 ,, 87:0 80:0 70 Whitmell

moral
5 | Navaher- | (4 29 ,,)|(89 40 ,,) 80:0

mosa

(near)
6 |Santa Pola} 030 ,, | 3813 ,, 79:0
7 | Alicante | (0 25 ,,)|(38 20 ,,)| | 68:0 |
8 | Algiers 3 2H. | 36 48 ,, 670+ | 64:0 3:0 | Turner

Obsy. | |
9 | Algiers, | (3 4 ,.)/(8647,,)| 673-— | 62:5 4:3. Cromme-
Hotel | lin

10 | Cape BOLD 4 oOi48) Fe ay eT eO

Matifou
11 | Mene:- BOO! ay | OO 4S 4, 71:0

ville

9. Duration of Annularity in a Solar Eclipse.
By C. T. Wuitmety, W.A., B.Sc.

10. On the Connection between Latitude-variation and Terrestrial
Magnetism. Dy J. Hat,

The following propositions were advanced :—

I. The changes in the motion of the pole of rotation of the earth round the
pole of figure are in intimate connection with the variations of the earth-magnetic
torces.

II. Inasmuch as the latter phenomena are in a close relation with the state of
solar activity, the motion of the pole is also indirectly dependent on the dynamical
changes taking place at the sun’s surface.

III. The distance between the instantaneous and mean poles decreases with
increasing intensity of earth-magnetic disturbance.

IV. The length of the period of latitude variation increases with increasing
intensity of earth-magnetic disturbance.

V. In strict analogy with the phenomena of aurore and of magnetic disturb-
ance, the influence of the eleven years’ period of sun-spots, as well as of the
‘great’ period, is clearly exhibited in the phenomenon of latitude-variation ; and
the same deviations from the solar curve as are manifested by the aurore are also
evident in the motion of the pole.

VI. The half-yearly period of the earth-magnetic phenomena influences the
motion of the pole of rotation in such a way that its path, instead of being circular,
assumes the form of an ellipse, having the mean pole at its centre.

VI. The half-yearly period also explains the conspicuous fact of a rotation of
the axes of the ellipse in a direction opposite to that of the motion of the pole.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 681

Section B.—CHEMISTRY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION.—Professor W. H. Prrnin, Jun., Ph.D., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The President delivered the following Address :—

The Modern System of Teaching Practicai Inorganic Chemistry
and its Development.

In choosing for the subject of my Address to-day the development of the teaching
of practical inorganic chemistry I do so, not only on account of the great import-
ance of the subject, but also because it does not appear that this matter has been
brought before this Section, in the President's Address at all events, during the
last few years. ’

In dealing generally with the subject of the teaching of chemistry as a branch
of science it may be well in the first place to consider the value of such teaching as
a means of general education, and to turn our attention for a few minutes to the
development of the teaching of science in schools.

There can be no doubt that there has been great progress in the teaching of
science in schools during the last. forty years, and this is very evident from the
perusal of the essay, entitled ‘Education: Intellectual, Moral, and Physical,’
which Herbert Spencer wrote in 1859. After giving his reasons for considering
the study of science of primary importance in education, Herbert Spencer con-
tinues: ‘While what we call civilisation could never have arisen had it not
been for science, science forms scarcely an appreciable element in our so-called
civilised training,’

From this it is apparent that science was not taught to any appreciable extent
in schools at that date, though doubtless in some few schools occasional lectures
were given on such scientific subjects as physiology, anatomy, astronomy, and
mechanics.

Herbert Spencer’s pamphlet appears to have had only a very gradual effect
towards the introduction of science into schemes of education. For many years
chemical instruction was only given in schools at the schoolroom desk, or at the
best from the lecture table, and many of the most modern of schools had no
laboratories.

The first school to give any practical instruction in chemistry was apparently
the City of London School, at which, in the year 1847, Mr. Hall was appointed
teacher of chemistry, and there he continued to teach until 1869.1 Besides
the lecture theatre and a room for storing apparatus, Mr. Hall’s department

1 Mr. A. T. Pollard, M.A., Head Master of the City of London School, has kindly
instituted a search among the bound copies of the boys’ terminal reports, and informs
me that in the School form of Terminal Report a heading for Chemistry was intro-
duced in the year 1847, the year of Mr. Hall’s appointment,

682 REPORT—1900,

containcd a long room, or rather passage, leading into the lecture theatie, and
closed at each end with glass doors. In this room, which was fitted up as a
laboratory, and used principally as a preparation room for the lectures, Mr. Hall
performed experiments with the few boys who assisted him with his lectures. As
accommodation was at that time strictly limited, he used to suggest simple
experiments and encourage the boys to carry them out at home, and afterwards
he himself would examine the substances which they had made.

From this small beginning the teaching of chemistry in the City of London >

School rapidly developed, and this school now possesses laboratories which
compare favourably with those of any school in the country.

The Manchester Grammar School appears to have been one of the first to teach
practical chemistry. In connection with this school a small laboratory was built
in 1868: this was replaced by a larger one in 1872, and the present large labora-
tories, under the charge of Mr. Francis Jones, were opened in 1880.

Dr. Marshall Watts, who was the first science master in this school, taught
practical chemistry along with the theoretical work from the commencement in
1868.

As laboratories were gradually multiplied it might be supposed that boys were
given the opportunity to carry out experiments which had a close connection with
their lecture-room courses, But the programme of laboratory work which became
all but universal was the preparation of a few gases, followed by the practice of
qualitative analysis. The course adopted seems to have been largely built up on
the best books of practical chemistry in use in the colleges at that time ; but it was
also, no doubt, largely influenced by the requirements of the syllabus of the
Science and Art Department, which contained a scheme for teaching practical
chemistry.!. Even down to quite recent times it was in many schools still not
considered essential that boys should have practical instruction in connection with
lectures in chemistry.

A Report issued in 1897 by a special Committee appointed by the Technical
Education Board of the London County Council adduces evidence of this from
twenty-five secondary schools in London, in which there were 3,960 boys learning
chemistry. Of these 1,698 boys, or 43 per cent., did no practical work whatever ;

1 T find on inquiry at the Board of Education that practical work in qualitative
analysis formed part of the examinations for teachers’ certificates in inorganic
chemistry which were held at South Kensington annually in November from 1859
to 1866 inclusive. A syllabus for this examination was published in the Science
Directory for 1859, the following portion of which relates to practical work :-—
‘Outlines of Qualitative Analysis. Reactions of the principal mineral acids and

bases. Course pursued in the application of these reactions to the analysis of a ,

mixture of several acids and bases.’ Three questions were set involving the quali-
tative analysis of (1) a mixture of two acids and two bases soluble in water or
acids; (2) a mixture of two acids and two bases partly or entirely insoluble in water
and acids; (3) more complicated mixtures. The candidates for these certificates
were not examined in practical organic chemistry.

The first practical examination in chemistry for students was held by the Board
in 1878, inthe Advanced Stage and Honours only of inorganic chemistry, the analysis
of simple salts beizg prescribed in the former, and of complex mixtures in the latter
examination. Previously to this, however, special extra payments had been made on
the results of instruction in practical chemistry, and questions dealing with labora-
tory practice were set in the ordinary written examinations in chemistry, and were
‘as far as possible so framed as to prevent answers being given by pupils who had
obtained their information merely from books and oral instruction.’ The Inspector,
however, when visiting the schools might call upon any students who were to be
presented for these special grants to perform experiments in his presence. This
system was continued in the elementary stage of inorganic chemistry till 1882.

In 1878 the syllabus for organic chemistry extended these two methods of
practical examination to that branch of the subject. In the syllabus published in
1882 the present division in all stages of both organic and inorganic chemistry into
distinct theoretical and practical examinations was commenced,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 685

955 boys, or 24 per cent., did practical work, consisting of a certain amount of
preparation of gases, together with qualitative analysis; but of these latter 743,
or 77 per cent., had not reached the study of the metals in their theoretical work,
so that their testing work can have been of little educational value. It was also
found that in the case of 655, or 68 per cent. of the total number of boys taking
practical work, the first introduction to practical chemistry was through quali-
tative analysis.

But some years before this Report was issued a movement had begun which
was destined to have a far-reaching effect. A Report ‘on the best means for pro-
moting Scientific Education in Schools’ having been presented to the Dundee
Meeting of this Association in 1867, and published in 1868, a Committee of the
British Association was appointed in 1887 ‘for the purpose of inquiring and
reporting upon the present methods of teaching chemistry.’ The well-known
Report which this Committee presented to the Newcastle Meeting in 1889 insisted
that it was worth while to teach chemistry in schools, not so much for the useful-
ness of the information imparted as for the special mental discipline it afforded if
the scientific method of investigating nature were employed. It was argued that
‘learners should be put in the attitude of discoverers, and led to make observations,
experiments, and inferences for themselves.’ And since there can be little progress
without measurement, it was pointed out that the experimental work would
necessarily be largely of a quantitative character.

Professor H. E, Armstrong, in a paper read at a conference at the Health
Exhibition five years before this, had foreshadowed much that was in this Report.
He also drew up a detailed scheme for ‘a course of elementary instruction in
physical science,’ which was included in the Report of the Committee, and it
cannot be doubted that this scheme and the labours of the Committee have had
a very marked influence on the development of the teaching of practical chemistry
in schools. That this influence has been great will be admitted when it is under-
stood that schemes based on the recommendation of the Committee are now
included in the codes for both Elementary Day Schools and Evening Continuation
Schools. The recent syllabuses for elementary and advanced courses issued by the
Incorporated Association of Headmasters and by the Oxford and Cambridge local
boards and others are evidently directly inspired by the ideas set forth by the
Committee.

The Department of Science and Art has also adopted some of the sugges-
tions of the Committee, and a revised syllabus was issued by the Department in
1895, in which qualitative analysis is replaced by quantitative experiments of a
simple form, and by other exercises so framed ‘as to prevent answers being given
by students who have obtained their information from books or oral instruction.’
This was a very considerable advance, but it must be admitted that there is
nothing in the syllabus which encourages, or even suggests, placing the learners in
the attitude of discoverers, and this, in the opinion of the Committee of this
Association, is vital if the teaching is to have educational value.

Many criticisms have been passed upon the 1889 Report. It has been said
that life is much too short to allow of each individual adyancing from the known
to the unknown, according to scientific methods, and that even were this not so
too severe a tax is made upon the powers of boys and girls. In answer to the
second point it will be conceded that while it is doubtless futile to try to teach
chemistry to young children, on the other hand experience has abundantly shown
that the average schoolboy of fourteen or fifteen can, with much success, investigate
such ‘problems as were studied in the researches of Black and Scheele, of Priestley
and Cavendish and Lavoisier, and it is quite remarkable with what interest such
young students carry out this class of work.

It may be well to quote the words which Sir Michael Foster used in this
connection in his admirable Presidential Address to this Association in 1899. He
said: ‘The learner may be led to old truths, even the oldest, in more ways than
one. He may be brought abruptly to a truth in its finished form, coming straight
to it like a thief climbing over a wall; and the hurry and press of modern life
tempt many to adopt this quicker way. Or he may be more slowly guided along

684 REPORT—1900.

the path by which the truth was reached by him who first laid hold of it. It is by
this latter way of learning the truth, and by this alone, that the learner may hope
to catch something at least of the spirit of the scientific inquirer.’

I believe that in the determination of a suitable school course in experimental
science this principle of historical development is a very valuable guide, although
it is not laid down in the 1889 Report of the British Association.

The application of this principle will lead to the study of the solvent action of
water, of crystallisation, and of the separation of mixtures of solids before the
investigation of the composition of water, and also before the investigation of the
phenomena of combustion. It will lead to the investigation of hydrochloric acid
before chlorine, and especially to the postponement of atomic and molecular
theories, chemical equations, and the laws of chemical combination, until the
student has really sufficient knowledge to understand how these theories came to
be necessary.

There can be no doubt that this new system of teaching chemistry in schools
has been most successful. Teachers are delighted with the results which have
already been obtained, and those whom I have had the opportunity of consulting,
directly and indirectly, cannot speak too highly of their satisfaction at the dis-
appearance of the old system of qualitative analysis, and the institution of the new
order of things. Especially I may mention in this connection the excellent work
which is being carried on under the supervision of Dr. Bevan Lean at the Friends’
School in Ackworth, where the boys have attained results which are far in advance
of anything which would have been thought possible a few years since.

It is, of course, obvious that if a schoolboy is made to take the attitude of
a discoverer his progress may appear to be slow. But does this matter? Most
boys will not become professional chemists ; but if while at school a boy learns
how to learn, and how to ‘make knowledge’! by working out for himself a few
problems, a habit of mind will be formed which will enable him in future
years to look in a scientific spirit at any new problems which may face him,
‘When school-days are past the details of the preparation of hydrogen may have
been forgotten ; but if it was really understood at the time that it could not be
decided at once whether the gas was derived from the acid or from the metal, or
from the water, or in part from the one and in part from the other, an attitude
of scepticism and of suspended judgment will have been formed, which will
continue to guard from error.

In the new system of teaching chemistry in schools much attention must
necessarily be given to weights and measurements; indeed, the work must be
largely of a quantitative kind, and it is in this connection that an important note
of warning has been sounded by several teachers.” They consider, very rightly,
that it is important to point out clearly to the scholar that science does not consist
of measurement, but that measurement is only a tool in the hand of the in-
quirer, and that when once sufficient skill has been developed in its use it should
be employed only with a distinct object. Measurements should, in fact, be made
only in reference to some actual problem which appears to be really worth solving,
not in the accumulation of aimless details.

And, of course, all research carried out must be genuine and not sham, and
all assumption of the ‘obvious’ must be most carefully guarded against. But the
young scholar must, at the same time, not forget that although the scientific
method is necessary to enable him to arrive at a result, in real life it is the
answer to the problem which is of the most importance.*

Although, then, there has been so much discussion, during the last ten years,
on the subject of teaching chemistry in schools, and such steady progress has been
made towards devising a really satisfactory system of teaching the subject to young
boys and girls, it is certainly very remarkable that practically nothing has been

1 Of. Professor J. G. Macgregor in Nature, September 1899. ;

2 Cf. H. Pictonin Lhe School World, November 1899; Bevan Lean, ibid., February
1890.

’ Cf. Mrs. Bryant, Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. ii. p. 113,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 635

said or written bearing on the training which a student who wishes to become a
chemist is to undertake at the close of his school-days at the college or university
in which his education is continued.

One of the most remarkable points, to my mind, in connection with the teaching
of chemistry is the fact that although the science has been advancing year by year
with such unexampled rapidity, the course of training which the student goes
through during his first two years at most colleges is still practically the same as
it was thirty or forty years ago. Then, as now, after preparing a few of the
principal gases, the student devotes the bull of his first year to qualitative analysis
in the dry and wet way, and his second year to quantitative analysis, and,
although the methods employed in teaching the latter may possibly have under-
gone some slight modification, there is certainly no great difference between the
routine of simple salt and mixture practised at the present day and that which
was in vogue in the days of our fathers and grandfathers,

Since, then, the present system has held the field for so long, not only in this
country but also on the Continent, it is worth while considering whether it affords
the best training which a student who wishes to become a chemist can undergo in
the short time during which he can attend at a college or university. In con-
sidering this matter I was led in the first place to carefully examine old books
and other records, with the object of finding out how the present system originated,
and I think that valuable and interesting information bearing on the subject may
be obtained from a very brief sketch of the riso and development of the present
system of teaching chemistry, and especially in so far as it bears on the inclusion
of qualitative analysis. Unfortunately, it is not so easy to gain a good historical
acquaintance with the matter as I at first imagined would be the case, and this is
due in a large measure to the fact that so few of the laboratories which took an
active part in the development of the present system of chemical training have
left any record of the methods which they employed. In this connection I may,
perhaps, be allowed to suggest that it would be a valuable help to the future
historian if all prominent teachers of chemistry would leave behind them a brief
record of the system of teaching adopted in their laboratories, showing the changes
which they had instituted, the object of these changes, and the results which
followed their adoption.

There is no doubt that the progress of practical chemistry went largely hand
in hand with the progress of theoretical chemistry, for as the latter gradually
developed, so the necessity for the determination of the composition, first of the
best known, and then of the rarer minerals and other substances, became more and
more marked.

The analytical examination of substances in the dry way was employed in very
early times in connection with metallurgical operations, and especially in the
determination of the presence of valuable constituents in samples of minerals,
Cupellation was used by the Greeks in the separation of gold and silver from their
ores and in the purification of these metals. Geber knew that the addition of
nitre to the ore facilitated the sepdration of gold and silver, and subsequently
Glauber (1604-1668) called attention to the fact that many commoner metals could
easily be separated from their ores with the aid of nitre.

But it was not till the eighteenth century that any marked progress was made
in analysis in the dry way, and the progress which then became rapid was
undoubtedly due to the discovery of the blowpipe, and to the introduction of its
use into analytical operations. The blowpipe is mentioned for the first time in
1660, in the transactions of the Accademia del Cimento of Florence, but the first
to recommend its use in chemical operations was Johann Andreas Cramer in
1739. The progress of blowpipe analysis was largely due to Gahn (1745-
1818), who spent much time in perfecting its use in the examination of minerals,
and it was he who first used platinum wire and cobalt solution in connection with
blowpipe analysis, The methods employed by Gahn were further developed by
his friend Berzelius (1779-1848), who gave much attention to the matter, and who
with great skill and patience gradually worked out a complete scheme of blowpipe
analysis, and published it in a pamphlet, entitled ‘Ueber die Anwenduny des

686 REPORT—1900,

Léthrohrs,’ which appeared in 1820, After the publication of this work blowpipe
analysis rapidly came into general use in England, France, and Germany, and the
scheme devised by Berzelius is essentially that employed at the present day.

Indeed, the only notable additions to the methods of analysis in the dry way
since the time of Berzelius are the development of flame reactions, which Bunsen
worked out with such characteristic skill and ingenuity, and the introduction of the
spectroscope.

The necessity for some process other than that of analysis in the dry way
seems, in the first instance, to have arisen in quite early times in connection with
the examination of drugs, not only on account of the necessity for discovering
their constituents, but also as a means of determining whether they were adul-

terated. In such cases analysis in the dry way was obviously unsuitable, and ex-
perience soon showed that the only way to arrive at the desired result was to
treat the substance under examination with aqueous solutions of definite sub-
stances, the first reagent apparently being a decoction of gallnuts, which is
described by Pliny as being employed in detecting adulteration with green
vitriol.

The progress: made in connection with wet analysis was, however, exceedingly
slow, largely owing to the lack of reagents; but as these were gradu: lly discovered
wet analysis rapidly developed, especially i in the hands of Tachenius, Scheele,
Boyle, Hottman, Margraf, and Bergmann, Boyle (1626-1691) especially had an
extensive knowledge of reagents and their application ; and, indeed, it was Boyle
who first introduced the word ‘analysis’ for those operations by which substances
may be recognised in the presence of one another. Boyle knew how to ‘test for
silver with hydrochloric acid, for calcium salts with sulphuric acid, and for copper
by the blue solution pr oduced by aramonia.

Margraf (1709-1782) introduced prussiate of potash for the detection of iron, and
Bergmann (1735-1784) not only introduced new reagents and new methods for
decomposing minerals and refractory substances, such as fusion with potash, diges-
tion with nitric acid or hydrochloric acid, but he also was the first to suggest
the application of tests in a systematic way, and, indeed, the method of analysis
which he developed is on much the same lines as that in use at the present day.
He paid special attention to the qualitative analysis of minerals, and gave careful
instructions for the analysis of gold, platinum, silver, lead, copper, zinc, and other
ores. The work of Scheele (1742-17 786) had indirectly a great influence on quali-
tative analysis, as, although he did not give a eeneral systematic method of
procedure in the analysis of substances of unknown composition, yet the methods
which he employed in the examination of new substances were so original and
exact as to remain models of how qualitative analysis shonld be conducted.

Great strides in analytical chemistry in the wet way were made through the work
of Berzelius, who, by the discovery of new methods, such as the decomposition of
silicates by hydrofluoric acid and the introduction of new tests, greatly advanced
the art. He paid special attention to perfecting the methods of analysis of mineral
waters, and these researches as well as his work on ores, and particularly his investi-
gation of platinum ores, stamp Berzelius as one of the great pioneers in qualitative
and quantitative analytical chemistry.

By the labours of the great experimenters Seeks I have mentioned qualitative
analysis gradually acquired the familiar appearance of to-day, and many
books were written with the object of arranging the mass of information which
had accumulated, and of thus rendering it available for the student in his efforts to
investigate the composition of new minerals and other substances. Among these
books may be mentioned the ‘Handbuch der analytischen Chemie,’ by H. Rose,
and especially the well-known analytical text-books of Fresenius, which have had
an extraordinarily wide circulation and passed through many editions.

The work of the great pioneers in analytical chemistry was work done often
under circumstances of great difficulty, as before the end of the seventeenth cen-
tury there were no public institutions af any sort in which a practical knowledge
of chemistry could be acquired. Lectures were, of course, given from very early
times, hut it was not until the time of Guillaume Francois Rouelle (1703-1770), at

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 687

the beginning of the eighteenth century, that lectures began to be illustrated
by experiments. Rouelle, who was very active as a teacher, numbered among his
pupils many men of eminence, such as Lavoisier and Proust, and it was largely
owing to his influence that France took such a lead in practical teaching. In
Germany progress was much slower, and in our country the introduction of lectures
illustrated by experiments seems to have been mainly due to Davy.

When it is considered how slowly experimental work came to be recognised
asa means of illustration and education, even in connection with lectures, it is not
surprising that in early times practical teaching in laboratories should have been
thought quite unnecessary.

The few laboratories which existed in the sixteenth century were built mainly
for the practice of alchemy by the reigning princes of the time, and, indeed, up to
the begiuning of the nineteenth century, the private laboratories of the great
masters were the only schools in which a favoured few might study, but which
were not open tothe public. Thus we find that Berzelius received in his laboratory
a limited number of students who worked mostly at research: these were not
usually young meu, and his school cannot thus be considered as a teaching institu-
tion in the ordinary sense of the word.

The first really great advance in laboratory teaching is due to Liebig, who, after
working for some years in Paris under Gay-Lussac, was appointed in 1824 to be
Professor of Chemistry in Giessen. Liebig was strongly impressed with the neces-
sity for public institutions where any student could study chemistry, and to him
fell the honour of founding the world-famed Giessen Laboratory, the first public
institution in Germany which brought practical chemistry within the reach of all
students.

Giessen rapidly became the centre of chemical interest in Germany, and students
flocked to the laboratory in such numbers as to necessitate the development of a
systematic course of practical chemistry, and in this way a scheme of teaching was
devised which, as we shall see later, has served as the foundation for the system of
practical chemistry in use at the present day.

When the success of this laboratory had beer clearly established many other
towns discovered the necessity for similar institutions, and in a comparatively short
time every university in Germany possessed a chemical laboratory. The teaching
of practical chemistry in other countries was, however, of very slow growth; in
Trance, for example, Wurtz in 1869 drew attention to the fact that there was at
that time only one laboratory which could compare with the German laboratories,
namely, that of the Ecole Normale Supérieure.

The earliest laboratory for teaching purposes in Great Britain was that of
Thomas Thomson, who, after praduating in Edinburgh in 1799, began lecturing in
that city in 1800, and opened a laboratory for the practical instruction of his pupils.
‘Thomson was appointed lecturer in Chemistry in Glasgow University in 1807,
and Regius Professor in 1818, and in Glasgow he also opened a general laboratory.

Actual progress in the general establishment of laboratories for the study ot
chemistry seems to date from the time of Thomas Graham, who in 1830 was ap-
pointed Professor of Chemistry at Anderson’s College in Glasgow, and in 1837 at
University College, London. Whether practical chemistry was taught in Anderson’s

College at that time I have not been able to ascertain, but there is no doubt that
_ regular courses in testing and systematic analysis were given by Graham from 1837
\ to the date of his resignation in 1855.

In 1845 the College of Chemistry was founded in London, an institution which

-under A. W. Hofmann’s guidance rapidly rose to such a prominent position, and
in 1851 Frankland was appointed to the chair of chemistry in the new college
founded in Manchester by the trustees of John Owens, and here he equipped a

laboratory for the teaching @practical chemistry. Under Sir Henry Roscoe this
laboratory soon became too small for the growing number of chemical students,
a defect which was removed when the new buildings of the college were opened
in 1873. In 1849 Alexander Williamson was appointed Professor of Practical
Chemistry at University College, London, where he introduced the practical
methods of Liebigs. '

~

688 REPORT—1900.

Following these examples, the older universities gradually came to see the
necessity for providing accommodation for the practical teaching of chemistry, with
the result that well-equipped laboratories haye been erected in all the centres of
learning in this country.

Since Liebig, by the establishment of the Giessen Laboratory, must be looked
upon as the pioneer in the development of practical laboratory teaching, it will
be interesting to endeavour to obtain some idea of the methods which he used in
the training of the students who attended his laboratory in Giessen, From small
beginnings he gradually introduced a systematic course of practical chemistry, and
a careful comparison shows that this was similar in many ways to that in use at
the present day. The student at Giessen, after preparing the more important
gases, was carefully trained in qualitative and quantitative analysis; he was then
required to make a large number of preparations, after which he engaged in original
research.

- Although there is, as far as I have been able to ascertain, no printed record of
the nature of the quantitative work and the preparations which Liebig required
from his students, the course of qualitative analysis is easily followed, owing to the
existence of a most interesting book published for the use of the Giessen students.

In 1846, at Liebio’s request, Henry Will, Ph.D, Extraordinary Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Giessen, wrote a small bool, for use at Giessen,
called ‘ Giessen Outlines of Analysis,’ which shows clearly the kind of instruction
given in that laboratory at the time inso far as qualitative analysis is concerned.
This book, which contains a preface by Liebig, is particularly interesting on
account of the fact that it is evidently the first Introduction to Analysis intended
for the training of elementary students which was ever published. In the preface
Liebig writes: ‘The want of an introduction to chemical analysis adapted for the
use of a laboratory has given rise to the present work, which contains an accurate
description of the course I have followed in my laboratory with great advantage
for twenty-five years. It has been prepared at my request by Prolessor Will, who
has been my assistant during a great part of this period.’

This book undoubtedly had a considerable circulation, and was used in most of
the laboratories which were in existence at that time, and thus we find, for example,
that the English transiation which Liebix ‘hopes and believes will be acceptable
to the English public’ was the book used by Hofmann for his students at the
College of Chemistry. In this book the metals are first divided into groups much
inthe same way as is done now; each group is then separately dealt with, the
privcipal characteristics of the metals of the group are noted, and their reactions
studied. Those tests which are useful in the detection of each metal are particularly
emphasised, and the reasons given for selecting certain of them as of special value
for the purposes of separating one metal from another.

Throughout this section of the book there are frequent discussions as to the
possible methods of the separation, not only of the metals of one group, but of
those helonging to different groups; and the whole subject is treated in a manner

- which shows clearly that Liebig’s great object, was to make the student think for
himself. After studying in a similar mapner the behaviour of the principal acids
with reagents, the student is introduced to a course of qualitative analysis com-
prising, 1, preliminary examination of solids; 2, qualitative analysis of the
substance in solution.

Both sections are evidently written with the object not only of constructing a
system of qualitative analysis, but more particularly of clearly leading the student
to argue out for himself the methods of separation which he will ultimately adopt.
The book concludes with a few tables which differ considerably in design from
those in use at the present day, and which are so meagre that the student could
not possibly have used them mechanically. %

The system introduced in this book, no doubt owing to the excellent results
obtained by its use, was rapidly recognised as the standard method of teaching
analysis in most of the institutions existing at that time. Soon the course began
to be further developed, book after book was published on the subject, and
gradually the texchine of qualitative analysis assumed the shape and form with

—

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 689

which we are all so well acquainted. But the present-day book on qualitative
analysis differs widely from ‘ Giessen Outlines’ in this respect, that whereas in the
latter the tables introduced are mere indications of the methods of separation to
be employed, and are of such a nature that the student who did not think for
himself must have been constantly in difficulties, in the book of the present day these
tables have been worked out to the minutest detail. Every contingency is
provided for ; nothing is left to the originality of the student ; and that which, no
doubt, was once an excellent course has now become so hopelessly mechanical as
to make it doubtful whether it retains anything of its former educational value.

The question which I now wish to consider more particularly is whether the
system of training chemists which is at present adopted, with little variation, in our
colleges and universities is a really satisfactory one, and whether it supplies the
student with the kind of knowledge which will be of the most value to him in his
future career.

Those who study chemistry may bs roughly divided as to their future
careers into two groups—those who become teachers and those who become
technical chemists. Now, whether the student takes up either the one or the other
career, I think that it is clear that the objects to be aimed at in training him are
to give him a sound knowledge of his subject, and especially to so arrange his
studies as to bring out in every possible way his capacity for original thought.

A teacher who has no originality will hardly be successful, even though he
may possess a very wide knowledge of what has already been done in the past.
He will have little enthusiasm for his subject, and will continue to teach on the
lines laid down by the text-books of the day, without himself materially improving
the existing methods, and, above all, he will be unable, and will have no desire,

to add to our store of knowledge by original investigation.

It is in the power of almost every teacher to do some research work, and it
seems probable that the reason why more is not done by teachers is that the
importance of research work was not sufficiently insisted on, and their original
faculty was not sufficiently trained, at the schools and colleges where they received
their education.

And these remarks apply with equal force to the student who subsequently
becomes a technical chemist.

In the chemical works of to-day sound knowledge is essential, but originality
is an even more important matter. A technical chemist without originality can
scarcely rise to a responsible position in a large works, whereas a chemist who is
capable of constantly improving the processes in operation, and of adding new
methods to those in use, becomes so valuable that he can command his own terms.

Now, this being so, I think it is extraordinary that so many of the students
who go through the prescribed course of training—say for the Bachelor of Science
degree—not only show no originality themselves, but seem also to have no desire
at the conclusion of their studies to engage in original investigation under the
supervision of the teacher. That this is so is certainly my experience as a teacher
examiner, and I feel sure that many other teachers will endorse this view of the
and case.

If we inquire into the reason for this deficiency in originality we shall, I think,
‘be forced to conclude that it is in a large measure due to the conditions of study
and the nature of the courses through which the student is obliged to pass.

A well-devised system of quantitative analysis is undoubtedly valuable in
teaching the student accurate manipulation, but it has always seemed to me that
the long course of qualitative analysis which is usually considered necessary,
and which generally precedes the quantitative work, is not the most satisfactory
training for a student.

There can be no doubt that to many students qualitative analysis is little more
than a mechanical exercise: the tables of separation are learnt by heart, and every
substance is treated in precisely the same manner: such a course is surely not
caleylated to develop any original faculty which the student may possess. Then,
again, when the student passes on to quantitative analysis, he receives elaborate
jastructions as to the little details he must observe in order to get an accurate

1900, vr

690. REPORT—1900.

4”

result ; and even after he has become familiar with the simpler determinations he,
rarely attempts, and indeed has no time to attempt, anything of the nature of an
original investigation in qualitative or quantitative analysis. It indeed sometimes
happens that a student at the end of his second year has never prepared a pure
substance, and is often utterly ignorant of the methods employed in the separation
of substances by crystallisation ; he has never conducted a distillation, and has no
idea how to investigate the nature and amounts of substances formed in chemical
reactions; practically all his time has been taken up with analysis. That this is
not the way to teach chemistry was certainly the opinion of Liebig, and in
support of this I quote a paragraph bearing on the subject which occurs in a very
interesting book on ‘ Justus von Liebig: his Life and Work, written by W. A.
Shenstone (pp. 175, 176).

‘Jnhis practical teaching Liebig laid great stress on the producing of chemical
preparations ; on the students preparing, that is to say, pure substances in good
quantity from crude materials. The importance of this was, even in Liebig’s time,
often overlooked ; and it was, he tells us, more common to find a man who could
make a good analysis than to find one who could produce a pure preparation in
the most judicious way.’

‘There is no better way of making one’s self acquainted with the properties of
a substance than by first producing it from the raw material, then converting it
into its compounds, and so becoming acquainted with them. By the study of
crdinary analysis one does not Jearn how to use the important methods of crys-
tallisation, fractional distillation, nor acquire any considerable experience in the
proper use of solvents. In short, one does not, as Liebig said, become a
chemist.’

One reason why the present system of training chemists has persisted so long
is no doubt that it is a very convenient system: it is easily taught, does not
require expensive apparatus, and, above all, it lends itself admirably for the purpose
of competitive examination.

The system of examination which has been developed during the last twenty
years has done much harm, and is a source of great difficulty to any conscientious
teacher who is ‘possessed of originality, and is desirous, particularly’ in special
cases, of leaving the beaten track.

In our colleges and universities most of the students work for some definite
examination—frequently for the Bachelor of Science degree—either at their own
University or at the University of London.

For such degrees a perfectly definite course is prescribed and must be followed,
because the questions which the candidate will have to answer at his examination
are based on a syllabus which is either published or is known by precedent to be
required. The course which the teacher is obliged to teach is thus placed beyond.
his individual power of alteration, except in minor details, and originality in the
teacher is thereby discouraged: he knows that all students must face the same
examination, and he must urge the backward man through exacily the same
course as his more talented neighbour. a

In almost all examinations salts or mixtures of salts are givén for qualitative
analysis. ‘ Determine the constituents of the simple salt A and of the mixture B”
is a favourite examination formula; and as some practical work of this sort is sure.
to be set, the teacher knows that he must contrive to get one and all of his students
into a condition to enable them to answer such questions.

If, then, one considers the great amount of work which is required from the
present-day student, it is not surprising that every aid to rapid preparation for
examination should be accepted with delight by the teacher; and thus it comes
about that tables are elaborated in every detail, not only for qualitative analysis in
inorganic chemistry, but, what is far worse, for the detection of some arbitrary
selection of organic substances which may be set in the syllabus for the examina-
tion. I question whether any really competent teacher will be found to recommend
this system as one of educational value or calculated to bring out and train the
faculty of original thought in students. ‘

If, then, the present system is so unsatisfactory, it will naturally be asked,

>
x
}

_. Noted.

:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 691

How are students to be trained, and how are they to be examined go as to find
out the extent of the knowledge of their subject which they have acquired ?

In dealing with the first part of the question—that is, the training best suited
to chemists—I can, of course, only give my own views on the subject—views which,
no doubt, may differ much from those of many of the teachers present at this
meeting. The objects to be attained are, in my opinion, to give the student a
sufficient knowledge of the broad facts of chemistry, and at the same time so to
arrange his practical work in particular as to always have in view the training of
his faculty of original thought.

I think it will be conceded that any student, if he is to make his mark in
chemistry by original work, must ultimately specialise in some branch of the
subject. It may be possible for some great minds to do valuable original work in
more than one branch of chemistry, but these are the exceptions; and as time goes
on, and the mass of facts accumulates, this will become more and more impossible.
Now a student at the commencement of his career rarely knows which branch of
the subject will fascinate him most, and I think, therefore, that it is necessary, in
the first place, to do all that is possible to give him a thorough grounding in all
branches of the subject. In my opinion the student is taken over too much ground

_in the lecture courses of the present day: in inorganic chemistry, for example, the

study of the rare metals and their reactions might be dispensed with, as well as
many of the more difficult chapters of physical chemistry, and in organic chemistry
such complicated problems as the constitutions of uric acid and the members of
the camphor and terpene series, &c., might well be left out. As matters stand now,
instruction must be given on these subjects simply because questions bearing on
them will probably be asked at the examination.

And here perhaps I might make a confession, in which I do not ask my fellow-
teachers to joinme. My name is often attached to chemistry papers which I should
be sorry to have to answer; and it seems to me the standard of examination
papers, and especially of Honours examination papers, is far too high. Should we
demand a pitch of knowledge which our own experience tells us cannot be main-
tained for long ?

In dealing with the question of teaching practical chemistry it may be hoped,
in the first place, that in the near future a sound training will be given in ele-
mentary science in most schools, very much on the Jines which I mentioned in the

first part of this Address. The student will then be in a fit state to undergo a

thoroughly satisfactory course of training in inorganic chemistry during his first
two years at college. Without wishing in any way to map out a definite course,
I may be allowed to suggest that instead of much of the usual qualitative and
quantitative analysis, practical exercises similar to the following will be found to
be of much greater educational value.

(1) The careful experimental demonstration of the fundamental laws of

chemistry and physical chemistry.
(2) The preparation of a series of compounds of the more important metals,

, either from their more common ores or from the metals themselves. With the

ee a

aid of the compounds thus prepared the reactions of the metals might be studied
and the similarities and differences between the different metals then carefully

(3) A course in which the student should investigate in certain selected cases :
) the conditions under which action takes place ; (6) the nature of the products
ormed; (c) the yield obtained. If he were then to proceed to prepare each
product in a state of purity, he would be doing a series of exercises of the highest
educational value. ;

(4) The determination of the combining weights of some of the more important
metals. This is in most cases comparatively simple, as the determination of the
combining weights of selected metals can be very accurately carried cut by measur-
ing the hydrogen evolved when an acid acts upon them. ‘

Many other exercises of a similar nature will readily suggest themselves. and
In_arranging the course every effort should be made to induce the student to cons

YY 2

692 REPORT—1900.

sult original papers and to avoid as far as possible any tendency to mere mechanical
work.

The exact nature of such a course must, however, necessarily be left very much
in the hands of the teacher, and the details will no doubt require much considera-
tion; but I feel sure that a course of practical inorganic chemistry could be con-
structed which, while teaching all the important facts which it is necessary for
the student to know, will, at the same time, constantly tend to develop his faculty of
original thought.

Supposing such a course were adopted (and the experiment is well worth trying),
there still remains the problem of how the student who has had this kind of
training is to be examined.

With regard to his theoretical work there would be no difficulty, as the
examination could be conducted on much the same lines as at the present time.
In the case of the practical examination I have long felt that the only satisfactory
method of arriving at the value of a student’s practical knowledge is by the in-
spection of the work which he has done during the whole of his course of study.
and not by depending on the results of one or two days’ set examination. I think
that most examiners will agree with me that the present system of examination in
practical chemistry is highly unsatisfactory. This is perhaps not so apparent in ,
the case of the qualitative analysis of the usual simple salt or mixture; but when
the student has to do a quantitative exercise, or when a problem is set, the results
sent in are frequently no indication of the value of the student’s practical work.
Leaving out of the question the possibility of the student being in indifferent
health during the short period of the practical examination, it not infrequently
happens that he, in his excitement, has the misfortune to upset a beaker when his
quantitative determination is nearly finished, and asa result he loses far more marks
than he should do for so simple an accident.

Again, in attacking a problem he has usually only time to try one method of
solution, and if this does not yield satisfactory results he again loses marks; whereas
in the ordinary course of his practical work, if he were to find that the first
method was faulty he would try other methods until he ultimately arrived at the
desired result.

It is difficult to see why such an unsatisfactory system as this might not be
replaced by one of inspection, which I think could easily be so arranged as to
work well.

A student taking, say, a three years’ course for the degree of Bachelor of
Science might be required to keep very careful notes of all the practical work
which he does during this course, and in order to avoid fraud his notebook could
from time to time be initialled by the professor or demonstrator in charge of the
laboratory. An inspection of these notebooks could then be made at suitable
times by the examiners for the degree, by which means a very good idea would be
obtained of the scope of the work which the student had been engaged in, and if
thought necessary a few questions could easily be asked in regard to the work so
presented. Should the examiners wish to further test the candidate by giving him
an examination, I submit that it would be much better to set him some exercise
of the nature of a simple original investigation, and to allow him two or three
weeks to carry this out, than to depend on the hurried work of two or three
days.

The object which I had in view in writing this Address was to call attention
to the fact that our present system of training in chemistry does not appear,>
develop in the student the power of conducting original research, and at the same
time to endeavour to suggest some means by which a more satisfactory state of
things might be brought about. I have not been able, within the limits of this
Address, to consider the conditions of study during the third year of the student’s
career at college, or to discuss the increasing necessity for extending that course
and insisting on the student carrying out an adequate original investigation before
granting him a degree, but I hope on some future occasion to have the oppor-
tunity of returning to this very important part of the subject. If any of the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 693

suggestions I have made should prove to be of practical value, and should lead
to the production of more original research by our students, I shall feel that a
useful purpose has been served by bringing this matter before this Section. In
concluding I wish to thank Professor H. B. Dixon, Professor F. S. Kipping, and
others, for many valuable suggestions, and my thanks are especially due to Dr.
Bevan Lean for much information which he gave me in connection with that
part of this Address which deals with the teaching of chemistry in schools.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools.
See Reports, p. 187.

2. On some Problems connected with Atmospheric Carbonic Anhydride, and
on a New and Accurate Method for determining its Amount, suitable
Jor Scientific Expeditions. By Professor Lurrs, D.Sc., Ph.D., &c.,
and R. F. Buake, £..C., £.C.S., Queen’s College, Belfast.

Attention is drawn to the variations in the amount of atmospheric carbonic
anhydride which correspond with at least 10 per cent. of the total amount, the
causes of which are still to a large extent obscure. In the author's opinion the
subject is an important one, and is worthy of a systematic investigation by a
number of skilled observers working in different localities and employing the same
method of determination which shall have been proved to give results which do
not vary from the true amount by more than three or four parts per million of
air. Among the problems relating to atmospheric carbonic anhydride which
the authors think are specially deserving of attention are the following :—

1. Is Schloesing’s Theory Correct ?—Do the oceans really act as regulators of the
amount of atmospheric carbonic anhydride by the production or dissociation of
earthy bicarbonates according as the amount rises above the normal or falls below
it? As consequences of this theory latitude should influence the quantity of
atmospheric carbonic anhydride, which ought to be lower in polar than in tropical
localities, and the great ocean currents should also have an etfect as they pass from
warmer to colder regions, or the opposite.

2. The Influence of Day and Night at Sea.—To account for the increased
quantity of atmospheric carbonic anhydride over land surfaces at night, which
most of the observers have found, two theories have been advanced: (a) cessation
of plant activity in decomposing the gas owing to the absence of light, and (4) the
streaming out of ground air from the soil owing to the lowering of temperature.

At sea no such influences can be exerted, but an absorption of atmospheric
carbonic anhydride may occur at the surface of the water owing to lowering of
temperature, thus reversing the land effect.

3. The Effects of Atmospheric Precipitates, and especially of Snowfall, which
appears to increase the amount of Atmospheric Carbonic Anhydride.—No reason-
able theory has been advanced to account for this curious phenomenon, and it
would be interesting to ascertain whether it occurs at sea as well as on land; and
the same remark would apply to fog and rain, both of which appear to affect the
amount also,

Other supposed causes of variation are worth studying, such as the effects of the
seasons, direction and force of the winds, the prevailing type of weather, &c. But
those which the authors think most interesting are such as a scientific mission
would be under peculiarly favourable conditions for observing, and especially the
proposed Antarctic expeditions.

In a memoir of the authors recently published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal
Dublin Society’ (vol, ix. N.S., Part If, No, 15) a modification of Pettenkofer’s

694 REPORT—1900,

process for determining atmospheric carbonic anhydride is described by means
of which results of great accuracy may be obtained. Thus in the final set
of test experiments with artificial mixtures of purified air and carbonic anhydride
in known volumes a mean error (in six determinations) of about 1 per cent. of
the gas was found, corresponding with some four parts per million of air taken.

For use by a scientific expedition it seemed, however, to the authors that a
different process is required in which the operations at the place of observation
should be as simple as possible, and of such a nature as to permit of the actual
determinations being made at any convenient time later, when the resources of a
properly equipped laboratory are available

The authors have accordingly devised a method which fulfils these conditions,
and which is simple and accurate. On the one hand it resembles Pettenkofer's
process in that a relatively small volume of air is examined (about six litres},
while, on the other, Miintz and Aubin’s principle is adopted of absorbing the
carbonic anhydride by caustic potash solution and afterwards liberating it by
ebullition 7 vacuo with an acid and measuring its volume in a suitable gas
analysis apparatus.

A series of sealed tubes is prepared in the laboratory, each tube containing an
accurately measured volume of weak potash solution (the amount of combined

carbonic anhydride which such a solution always contains having been ascer- ~

tained for a given stock),

The only operations which have to be performed at the place of observation are
the collection of the air sample in a suitable receiver; the transfer of the contents
of one of the sealed tubes to the latter, and after absorption of the atmospheric
carbonic anhydride their retransfer as far as possible to the same tube, which
will be again sealed. ‘The tubes can of course be kept for an indefinite period both
before and after their contents have been thus treated, and the determination of
the absorbed carbonic anhydride made, when convenient, with an aliquot portion
of their contents. The experiments made to test the accuracy of the new method
were satisfactory. Artificial mixtures of purified air and carbonic anhydride in
definite volumes were employed (the two heing in about the proportion they occur
in ordinary air). Five determinations in such mixtures gave a mean error of
13 per cent. of the carbonic anhydride taken equivalent to four parts per million
of air,

3. On the Distribution of Chlorine in West Yorkshire.
By Wituiam Ackroyp, LC.

The present observations are to be regarded as the preliminaries to an attempt
to construct isochlors for this part of Yorkshire. The subject is one of acknow-
ledged importance, Professor Mason remarking:—‘State maps, such as those
issued for the States of Massachusetts and Connecticut, are most valuable, and their
construction is well worth the expenditure of public money.’! Although the work
is not far enough advanced for map construction, the figures which follow, and
observations thereon, will be of chemical and hygienic interest during the visit of
the British Association to Bradford.

In the first place these British normal chlorine figures are very high in com-
parison with the published American data. The lowest Massachusetts figure is
‘O7 part of Cl per 100,000 in the area farthest removed from the Atlantic sea-
border : here the lowest found has been*7 part per 100,000 in the upper reaches
of the Wharf, and all round it appears that the Yorkshire figures are about ten times
larger than those of the State of Massachusetts, which is to be accounted for—
(1) by the closeness of the sea-border on either side to the Pennine range, and (2)
by the density of population in and the antiquity of the inhabited areas.

The unit isochlor area is coextensive with the highest hills and their becks,
deans and gills. The following chlorine determinations with waters from the

1 W. P. Mason, Lxamination of Water, p. 29.

|.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Bz 695

upper reaches of the Wharf, Wenning, Ribble, Aire, and Calder will ke stifficiently
illustrative :—

Chlorine | Chlorine

parts per parts per

100,000 109,000
Barden ' . ° ghitLs Ingleborough Cave 2
Grimwith Beck 1:2 Lower Bentham 2 . (1:4
Gate-up-Gill O7 Malham Tarn outlet. Tha
Bleabeck . 1:0 » Cove 0:95
Buckden Pike 1-0 Airehead 10
Starbottom . 0:8 id Smelt Mili 1G
Kettlewell . 1:0 Gordale Beck 1:2
Buckden Village 1:2 Hanlith Bridge 11
Gaping Ghyll . 9 12 Hardcastle Craggs Tel
Beck Head, Clapdale . 13 Walshaw Dean . 11

As the sea is approached, and more populous districts are reathed, the chlorine
rises, and remarkable examples of rise may be met with on the same hill slope.
Halifax furnishes a striking instance. The town rests on a sloping bed of Mill-
stone grit, the ancient and most thickly populated part being towards the bottom
of the incline. The ground waters of the highest parts—Mount Tabor—vary from
16 to 2:6; widely separated wells, about halfway down, yield the figure 3'8;
while towards the bottom of the slope two wells give the figures 4:7 and 55, The
public water supply from Pennine gathering grounds, ten milesaway, stands at, 1:5.

The figures obtained for other parts of the West Riding have not yet been
severely collated, and are therefore reserved for a further communication.

4. On alimiting Standard of Acidity for Moorland Waters.
By Wiuu1am Ackroyd, 111.C., Public Analyst for Halifax.

Many large towns, more especially in the West Riding of Yorkshire, have their
public water supplies of moorland origin. The case of Milnes v. the Hudders-
tield Corporation in 1881 gave great prominence to the fact that this class of water
may give rise to plumbism. No satisfactory explanation could be given at the
time, and it is only during the present decade that it has been clearly understood
that the plumbo-solvent action of moorland waters is to be associated with acidity.
An idea of the relation is furnished by the following determinations :—

Parts per 100:000,

Acidity in Equivalent Lead dissolved from
of Sulphuric Acid. 32-inch Piping.

13 5 Fi : 0:29 Inlhour . : : 703

2. . , . 030 9 5 5 . 057

3. . . » 0:29 3 : : + 7025

= . . pelos: Injhour . : as

5. 5 . 159 3 F ? ». 95

The acidity is due to carbonic anhydride and peaty acids, and the total is found
by ascertaining the number of c.c. of N/100 alkali required to neutralise 100 c.c.
of the water, the result being expressed as sulphuric acid. Phenolphthaiein is
used as the indicator. ;

The acidity may be very high as from peaty gathering grounds of small incline,
ay awe 44, or comparatively low in gathering grounds of steep incline, say

in 12, ie

In the former case violent action on lead precludes its use for domestic con-
sumption, and in the latter even a limit must be placed on the degree of acidity
allowable. During epidemics of plumbism in the West Riding much diversity of
opinion has been expressed on various points connected with the matter which the

' ? Ackroyd, Journ. Chem. Soe,, 1899, p. 199.

696 REPORT—1900,

author caniidt discuss here ; he contents himself with stating that after some years
of experience he has néver learnt of the occurrence of any case of plumbism where
the acidity of the water has been under the equivalent of 0°5 partof sulphuric acid
per 106-000 of water, and this he tentatively proposes as a limiting standard of
acidity for potable waters of moorland origin when the acidity is determined
in the manner already described with phenolphthalein as indicator.

The average acidity of nine samples of water not above suspicion in this
respect was 0:63, ranging from 0:53 to 0°91; while on the other hand sixty-one
samples above reproach from neighbourhoods where plumbism has not been known
had an average acidity of 0:27, the extremes being 0°20 and 0:41. ©

5. On the Effects of Copper on the Human Body.
Ly Tuomas Wuirrsipr Hime, B.A., ID.

The recrudescence of an agitation by some public analysts as to alleged
danger to health produced by copper has rendered it desirable to make an investi-
gation into the subject, although it was long since satisfactorily disposed of, from
a point of view hitherto scarcely utilised as it deserves, and at the same time to
review the general results attained. The examination of the two principal
excretions, solid and liquid, by which copper is eliminated from the body, offered a
promising means of judging of the effects of the agent, whether merely swallowed
or also absorbed. ‘These excretions have therefore been examined during a period
of severa] months, from a number of healthy persons engaged, some for many years,
in dealing with copper, either in smelting works or as workers in its alloys, brass,
&c., or from healthy persons unconnected with any kind of copper work, who had
intentionally swallowed some compound of copper in improperly so-called

-‘ greened’ vegetables (they are not rendered ‘ green’ by treatment with copper) or
otherwise. Copper was found in relative abundance in the excretions of all of
these persons, yet they had enjoyed perfect health, and were unconscious of any-
thing abnormal existing in their excretions. It is excreted slowly, and some
weeks may elapse before the whole of the copper-compound ingested is got rid of.
That fact, that copper may, after being swallowed, be absorbed into the blood and
exist there for months, and no doubt during at least twenty years, without indicat-
ing its presence by the slightest interference with health, or indeed in any way
whatever, has thus been established beyond question. In one case, a brags-finisher
aged thirty-eight, who had been thirty years engaged in brass-work, copper was
found on various occasions when sought, during several months. For the last
fourteen years this man has never drawn any money from his sick club, and he
has had perfect health. The copper exists in the excretions, as it dces in coppered
vegetables, not as copper, but as an insoluble compound, which when tested
directly for copper gives no indication of copper being present in any form. As a
fact, no copper is present. It is entirely unjustifiable to speak of copper being a
poison because when combined with some other elements poisonous effects may be
produced by the compound. Because copper and arsenic combined, forming copper
arsenite, which. is not copper, is poisonous, a death due to copper arsenite is
reported and quoted for sixty years in all the text-books as due to ‘ poisoning by
copper!’ As well call iron a poison, because it too, when combined to form a new
compound, arseniate of iron, may prove poisonous. Copper exists in a great number
of plants, including cereals, mineral waters, wines, shell-fish, fruits, and various kinds
of animal flesh, It has been calculated that a man eating good bread, ‘ coppered’
only by nature, would consume in this way alone some 93 grains of copper,
corresponding to 866 grains of the sulphate. Thousands of wealthy and educated
persons who flock yearly to the health-restoring springs of Wiesbaden, Teplitz,

Pyrmont, &c., consume copper in every glass of water they drink, yet their health _

improves, they return yearly to derive fresh benefit, and are unaware that they are
being ‘poisoned.’ Many trustworthy observers have found copper as a normal
constituent in the human body. That the consumption of vegetables which have
been treated with copper to preserve their natural green is perfectly harmless has

a a

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 697

been proved beyond all doubt, not only by such experiments as that of Galippe,
who for fourteen months took copper with his food daily without any ill effect,
and the classic experiments of Lehmann and his pupils on themselves for many
months; but by the infinitely larger experiments made yearly by thousands of the
public who consume copper in some form or other in artificially coppered vegetables,
and in their flour, fruit, various kinds of flesh, oysters, crabs, wines, mineral
waters, &c. ‘coppered’ by nature. Not one case of injury to health under such
circumstances has ever been brought forward, even in prosecutions for selling
‘coppered’ peas as being ‘injurious to health!’ The charge is supported by the
allegation ‘copper is a poison.’ But people who eat ‘coppered’ vegetables do not
consume ‘copper.’ The chemical compound of copper they swallow is not copper
at all, and they are not injured. Even verdigris, so much feared, is not all the
dangerous substance alleged. Copper utensils are quite harmless with ordinary
cleanliness. The alleged ‘poisonings’ by food cooked in copper vessels have
undoubtedly been mostly, if not all, due to ptomaine-poisoning. Copper has been
known and used longer than any other metal, and in its alloys is the most generally
used of all metallic substances. It has been in use from prehistoric times, and. its
dangers, if they existed, must have been known to the ancient and modern world.
Yet the ancients are absolutely silent on the subject, and among moderns only a
few, almost entirely analysts, declaim to an incredulous public as to dangers which
have not been realised. The alleged fraud in so-called ‘greening’ of vegetables is
purely imaginary. The copper does not ‘green’ old peas or make them look
young. Old yellow peas when ‘coppered’ still look old and yellow. The quantity
of the copper compound present in the amount of artificially treated vecetables
which is occasionally eaten at a meal is only a fraction of the corresponding
amount of copper sulphate which physicians prescribe to be taken three times a
day for weeks and months continuously. Therefore there is no sufficient ground
for the prohibition of the sale of ‘coppered’ vegetables, any more than of the
innumerable kinds of fruits, vegetables, shell-fish, cereals, mineral waters, wines,
and animal flesh which naturally contain the metal in some form. If the latter
drastic arrangement were attempted, absolute and general starvation would be the
inevitable result, so widely is the natural presence of copper in articles of food
extended.

6. Interim Report on the Continuation of the Bibliography of
Spectroscopy.—See Reports, p. 150.

7. Report on Preparing a New Series of Wave-length Tables
of the Spectra of the Elements.—See Reports, p. 193.

PRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1, The Specific Heat of Gases at Temperatures up to 400° C.
By H. B. Dixon, /.R.S., and F. W. Rixon, B.Sc.

The authors have found that the specific heat of gases between 15° C. and
400° C. may be directly measured by heating the gas (under pressure) in a thin
steel cylinder and dropping it into a water calorimeter. A repetition of the
experiment with the steel cylinder empty makes the method a differential one,
eliminating most of the experimental error.

The specific heat of CO, at constant volume has been thus measured between
15° and 115° C., 192° C., 298° C., and 898° C. The specific heat obtained at
115° agrees closely with that obtained by Joly under nearly similar conditions.

698 REPORT—1900,

The specific heat of CO, is found to rise regularly with the temperature. Varia-
tions in the pressure of the gas produce slight variations in the specific heat.

The following values have been obtained by reducing the observed values by
means of Joly’s formula to the same pressure :— ;

Specific Heat reduced to

Initial Temperature Final Temperature Pressure of 100 Atmos.
115° 16° 2000
118° Vig 2004
192° 175 ‘2092
298° aae 2884
398° 21° 3565

The authors propose to determine the specific heat of nitrogen and of argon
under the same conditions with the same apparatus.

2. Interim Report on the Nature of Alloys.

3. Report on the Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys. By F. H.
Nevitte, /.2.S.—See Reports, p. 131.

4. On the Mutual Relations of Iron, Phosphorus, and Carbon when
together in Cast Iron and Steel. By J, E, Swap.

5. The Crystalline Structure of Metals! By J. A-Ewine, V.RS., Professor
of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the University of Cambridge ;
and Waurrr Rosenuain, B.A., St. John’s College, Cambridge, 1851
Exhibition Commissioner's Research Scholar, University of Melbourne.

The paper describes the results arrived at by the authors in investigating the
effects produced upon the micro-structure of metals by (1) plastic strain, and by
(2) exposure of strained metal to moderate temperatures. After describing and
illustrating the well-known characteristics of erystalline structure in metals as
revealed by the microscope, the authors show that plastic strain is accompanied
by the appearance of minute steps on a surface of the metal which had been plane
polished before the application of the strain. When viewed under the microscope
these steps appear as black lines under normally incident light, but they appear as
bright bands when oblique light of suitable incidence is used. Their observations
lead the authors to conclude that metals yield under plastic strain by the slipping
of the component parts of each crystal along definite cleavage or gliding plane.
The steps in the surface being a consequence of these slips, the authors have called
them ‘slip-bands.’ Further evidence leads the authors to conclude that plastic
strain in metals occurs without loss of crystalline character, the crystals as a whole
accommodating themselves to new shapes and positions by the slipping of their
elements, with the result that the crystalline structure is preserved even when the
material as a whole undergoes much deformation.

The use of slip-bands as a means of microscopic observation is also described
and illustrated, more particularly with reference to the occurrence and formation
of twin-crystals in copper, gold, nickel, lead, and other metals. Slip-bands are also
illustrated in various kinds of iron and steel, nickel, zinc, tin, cadmium, lead, silver,
gold, bismuth, and some alloys, the magnifications varying from 40 to 1,000
diameters,

' For other accounts of these researches see papers by the same authors, Proc.
Roy. Soc., March 16 and May 18, 1899, May 81, 1900, and Phil. Trans., vol, A, 1900,
and yol. A, 1901. :

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 699

The second part of the paper deals with the effects of moderate temperatures

‘(up to 200° C.) on such metals as lead, zinc, tin, and cadmium. The authors have

found that when these metals are subjected to a very severe plastic strain the
original large crystals are broken up into much smaller ones, without, however,
destroying their truly crystalline nature. They have further found that when so
treated these metals readily recrystallise. In’ the case of severely strained lead
they have shown that even at the ordinary temperature of a room gradual recrys-
tallisation can be observed in the course of several months, while at higher tem-
peratures the changes are much more rapid. A freshly strained specimen exposed
to 200° C. was found to recrystallise in a few minutes. It was also found that
severe plastic strain is essential to such recrystallisation, and that minute crystals
obtained by chilling the metal in casting are not capable of recrystallisation at
such moderate temperatures. Closer observation has shown that this recrystallisa~
tion of strained metal takes place by the growth of certain of the minute crystals
at the expense of their neighbours; individual crystals have been observed to
grow until they were many hundreds of times larger than their neighbours,

The final section of the paper deals with a theory which one of the authors
(W. Rosenbain) bas advanced as an explanation of these phenomena of annealing.
According to this view, which both authors believe to be correct, the metallic im-
purities present in the metal, and forming with it eutectic alloys, play an essential
part in these actions. In the ordinary crystallisation of the metal these eutectics
form thin films of intercrystalline cement, and, according to the theory of the
authors, the growth of one crystal at the expense of its neighbour occurs by means
of solution in and diffusion through the entectic films of the metal constituting the
erystals, Evidence is adduced to show that such diffusion would be greater in ore
direction than the other, and to support the authors’ belief that the action may be
electrolytic. As a consequence of this theory ihe authors were led to make
experiments on the cold welding of lead, and they have found that, as the theory
would indicate, a weld between clean surfaces of lead is a barrier to crystalline
growth, but that such growth readily crosses a weld into which a small amount of
a suitable metallic impurity had been introduced. The authors believe that these
experiments strongly support their ‘ solution theory ’ of annealing.

6. On the Electric Conductivity of the Alloys of Iron.
By Professor W. F. Barrert, J.£.S,

-

7. Some new Chemical Compounds discovered by the Use of the
Electric Furnace. By C. 8. Brapiey.

These chemical compounds, which were discovered and examined by Mr. Charles
B. Jacobs, of New York, consist of the alkaline earth silicides of calcium, barium,
or strontium; by a secondary step silico-acetylene is obtained.

They have the formula CaSi,, BaSi,, and SrSi, respectively, and are the silicon
analogues of the alkaline earth carbides, while the silico-acetylene is the analogue
of acetylene having the formula Si,H, when the carbonates or oxides of the
alkaline earths are mixed with silica in the form of ground quartz or sand, in
which the relative atomic proportion of the alkaline earth metal to the silicon in
the mixture is as 1 is to 2, and sufficient carbon to effect the reduction is added, or,
when silicates of the alkaline earth metals in which the atomic relation of the
earth metal to the silicon is as 1 to 2, are mixed with sufficient carbon to take up
the oxygen of the compounds present, and heated in the electric furnace under
conditions substantially like those maintained in the manufacture of alkaline earth
carbides, silicides of the alkaline earth metals result.

As an example of the process the following reactions for the formation of
barium silicide from the barium compounds are given :—

(1) BaCO, + 2 SiO, + 6C =BaSi, +7 CO
(2) BaO+2Si0, + 5C =BaSi, +500

200 REPORT—1900,

Calcium and strontium silicides are formed by exactly similar reactions from
similar compounds. They are white or bluish-white substances of metallic appear-
ance, and also resemble aluminium silicide and silicon somewhat in appearance.

They possess a distinctly crystalline fracture, showing plate-like crystals very
similar to those seen in the fracture of cast zinc, the crystals being, however, some-
what smaller in size.

They oxidise slowly in the air and more rapidly under the influence of heat,
yielding silicon dioxide and the oxide of the alkaline earth metals present. Like
the carbides they decompose with water, but yield, instead of acetylene, hydrogen
in a pure state, which is evolved without explosion, the following being the
reaction :—

(1) CaSi, + 6H,0=Ca (OH), +2 SiO, + 10H
(2) BaSi, +6 H,O = Ba (OH), +2 SiO, + 1OH
(3) SrSi, + 6H,O= Sr (OH), +2 SiO, + 10H

The calcium compound dissolves slowly in cold water, but more rapidly in hot
water; the barium compound decomposes rapidly in both cold and hot water.
The strontium compound dissolves more rapidly in water than the calcium, but
not so rapidly as the barium compound.

It will be noticed by considering the equations 1, 2 and 3, that all of these
compounds evolve large volumes of hydrogen :—

1 1b, CaSi, producing 104 Ib, or 18°73 cubic ft. hydrogen
11b. BaSi, 53 O51 Ib. or 9:15 - bf
11b. SrSi, r ‘069 lb. or 12°36

at 0° C. and 760 mm.

Calcium silicide, when treated with dilute acids, either the oxy-acids or the
hydrogen acids, gives rise to the formation of a new compound which has the
formula Si,H, and is therefore the silicon analogue of acetylene C,H, and must be
called silico-acetylene since it bears the same relation to silico-methane (silicon
hydride) SiH, as acetylene bears to methane CH, The reaction being °

CaSi, + 2 HCl = CaCl, + Si,H,

Silico-acetylene is a yellow crystalline compound and differs in properties from the
compound SiH, which Ogier obtained by sparking SiH, which was unstable and
exploded when subjected to a shock, Si,H, being stable or non-explosive at
ordinary temperatures.

When treated with 20 per cent. solution of caustic soda or potash, Si,H,
yields hydrogen according to the following equation :—

Si,H, + 4 NaOH +2 H,O=2 Na, SiO, +1 OH

Heated in air this compound Si,H, oxidises rapidly, giving 2 SiO, H,O, and
when heated in a closed tube it breaks down into amorphous silicon and free
hydrogen. Strontium silicide when treated with a strong acid does not produce
silico-acetylene with the same facility, while the barium compound when so treated
produces a mixture of gaseous compounds and free hydrogen. These silicides can
be produced at low cost where electric power is cheap, are very powerful reducing
agents, and we hope will find large use in the dye industries. Some experiments
have been tried on molten steel carrying phosphorus and sulphur, and the requisite
quantity of silicide of barium or calcium completely removed these impurities as
well as all oxygen present.

” ”

8. Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis.
See Reports, p. 171.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 701

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Derivatives of Methyl-furfural. By Henry J. Horstman Fenton,
F.R.S., and Miss Mitprep Gostiine, B.Sc.

The authors have previously shown that an intense purple colour results when
levulose, cane sugar, sorbose, or inulin is acted upon by dry hydrogen bromide in
ethereal solution. The colour-giving substance was isolated in a crystalline state
and was shown to be bromo-methyl-furfural, its formation being characteristic of
ketohexoses, or substances which yield them on hydrolysis. This substance is now
the subject of further investigation, and the following results have so far been
obtained.

When acted upon by stannous chloride in acid solution the bromine is easily
replaced by hydrogen, and the resulting liquid is identical in every way with
oO methyl-furfural; so that the reaction affords by far the simplest method for the
preparation of the latter substance in a pure state.

The bromo-compound, when dissolved in appropriate solvents, readily reacts
with various silver saits, giving rise often to beautifully crystalline compounds ;
the acetoxy- and benzoxy-derivatives have, for example, been prepared and
analysed. By the action of sulphurous acid, these, like the parent compound,
yield the remarkable condensaiion product C,,H,O,, which gives beautiful colour-
reactions with caustic alkalis and with aniline. This condensation-product has
also been further studied, and the results so far favour the author’s original
suggestion that it is a dicarbonyl compound.

2. A Simple Method for comparing the ‘ Affinities’ of certain Acids. By
Henry |. Horsrman Fenton, £.2.S., and Humporey Owen Jonss,
BA, B.Sc.

In a former communication! the authors have described the isolation and
properties of free oxalacetic acid, and several interesting reactions of this acid are
now being investigated. During a more extended study of the Aydrazone the
following somewhat remarkable behaviour has been observed. Heated with dilute
sulphuric acid it is transformed, as was previously shown,” into Wislicenus’s phenyl-
pyrazolon carboxylic acid (C,,H,,N,O, =C,,H,N,O, + H,0) ; but in order that this
change may be complete it is now found that a certain minimum concentration of
the acid is necessary. When heated with pure water an entirely different result
is obtained : carbon dioxide is evolved, and the hydrazone of pyruvic acid separates
in the crystalline state—C,,H,,N,O, = C,H,,N,0,+CO,. If the concentration of
the acid falls below this necessary minimum both reactions occur simultaneously,
even though the acid is present in excess; with decinormal sulphuric acid,
for example, about 26 per cent. undergoes the second change. A preliminary set
of observations has been made with the following acids, using decinormal solutions
and measuring the evolved carbon dioxide in a specially constructed apparatus—
hydrochloric, nitric, sulphuric, trichloracetic, tartaric, malic, succinic, citric, acetic.
The results obtained indicate that the amounts of carbon dioxide evolved are in
the inverse order of the concentration of the hydrogen ions, so that a comparison
can be made of the relative ‘strengths’ or ‘ affinities’ of the acids. The order
obtained with the above acids agrees remarkably well with that resulting from
the other well-established methods.

3. Recent Developments in Stereochemistry. By W.J. Pore.

1 Trans. Chem. Sac., 77, 1900.
2 Loc. cit.

702 REPORT—1900,

4, The Constitution of Camphor. By A. Lapwortu, D.Sc.
See Reports, p. 299.

5. The Degradation of Camphor. By Juuius Brept.

6, The Camphor Question. By Professor Osstan ASCHAN.

7. Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives.—See Reports, p. 297.

8. Report on Isomorphous Derivatives of Benzene.—See Reports, p. 167.

9. Report on the Relations between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical
Constitution of Organic Bodies.—See Reports, p. 151.

10. Action of Aluminium Powder on some Phenols and Acids.
By W. R. Hopexiyson.

11. On the Direct Preparation of }-Naphthylamine.
By Dr. Lyonyarp Limpacn and W. R. Hopexryson.

On nitrating naphthalene in the usual manner there results not only o-nitro, but
also an appreciable quantity of the 8-derivative, as we haye several times proved
by obtaining B-naphthylamine.

This note has, of course, a theoretical interest only, as 8-naphthylamine can so
easily be obtained from 8-naphthol ky the NH, process under pressure.!

The nitro-naphthalene obtained by direct nitration of naphthalene is reduced in
the usual way, and the naphthylamine converted into the HCl salt. The hydro-
chloride of a-naphthylamine is comparatively insoluble, whilst the hytirodhlgane of
the 8-derivative is very soluble. This ailows of an easy fractional cr ystallisation,
the mother liquors containing much of the @-salt. A good method of separation.
consists in treating these mother liquors with potassium hydrate in excess and
steam distilling. The steam distillate, after becoming solid, or nearly so, is dried
by pressure between paper or on a pump, and then sublimed. 8-Naphthylamine
alone sublimes, and can in this manner be obtained quite pure, of melting point,
112°, and boiling point 304°. It sublimes in beautiful pearly plates.

The amount of B-naphthylamine generally contained 1 in tlie crude naphthy lamine
seems to be about 5 per cent. or under. ;

- ‘We have obtained by this method about a kilog. he purs Swi from
technical naphthylamine mother liquors.

12. Interaction of Furfuraldehyde and Caro’s Reagent.
By C. F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and J. F. Briaas.

Tn a previous paper? it was shown that hydrogen peroxide reacted with furfural
to form a monohydroxy-furfuraidehyde as the main product, with simultaneous

1 Siebermann (Anz. 123, 264) also obtained B-naphthylamine direct, but by a
somewhat roundabout process.
2 Chem. Soc, J., 1899, p. 747,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 703-

production of the corresponding carboxylic acid in small quantity. The substitut-
Ing groups appear to occupy the J, 2 positions in the ring.

The monohydroxy furfural is identified, by its very characteristic relations
with phloroglucivol and resorcinol, as a constituent of the lignocelluloses.

Caro's reagent, prepared from potassium persulphate and sulphuric acid,
according to the directions of Baeyer and Villiger,! reacts under similar conditions
in a different manner. In the first place the reaction appears to be quantitative, and
when the furfural has taken up O, a trace of either reagent in excess persists.
The temperature remaining at 15°-2U°, and there being no evolution of gas, we may
expect to find a product of empirical formula C;H,O,, and as the aldehydic group
disappears this should be a hydropyromucie acid. From the isolation and
analysis of a crystalline methylphenyl-hydrazide we confirm the product as a
monocarboxylic acid. On reduction with sodium amalgam an aldehydic product
is obtained with the brilliant colour reactions of the monohydroxyfurfurals.
Control observations on pyromucic acid proved that this acid is reduced under
similar conditions to furfural.

The reactions of this hydroxyfurfural, though similar to those described in our
previous paper, are sufficiently differentiated to indicate that we have obtained a
second isomeride. Moreover, the corresponding acids are differentiated, the one
giving Pb and Ba salts, insoluble in acetic acid; the salts of the new acid are
soluble, and, moreover, the acid undergoes hydrolysis with such ease as to make its
isolation in the pure state a matter of great difficulty. In the course of the usual
processes for isolating the Ba and Ca saits, decomposition occurs, and the crystalline
salts isolated are those of a dibasic acid. On boiling the original product in
solution at constant volume, formic acid distils continuously and with traces only
of cther acids. The yield of formic acid amounted in one experiment to 0:7 grm.
per 1 grm. of original furfural. All these observations indicate that the original
product of oxidation is the acid C,H,0 . (COOH) (OH) 1-4. . . . A characteristic
reaction of this original acid is the production of a yellowish-red precipitate with
ferric chloride, similar to that obtained with pyromucic acid.

At is to be noted that the Caro reagent oxidises the constituent of the
lighocelluloses, which gives the brilliant colour reactions with phenols character-
istic of these natural products, which we know to be a hydroxyfurfural. In this
respect the reagent differs from the oxidants ordinarily used for bleaching purposes,
eg., hypochlorites and permanganates.

A quantitative experiment with a typical aldose (dextrose) and the Caro reagent
gave a somewhat unexpected, entirely negative result. The cupric reduction
(Fehling solution) was unaffected.

The typical ketose lzvulose, on the other hand, is slowly oxidised.

All of these matters are under investigation.

13. On the Synthesis of Benzo-y-pyrone.
By Dr. 8. Rusemann and H. E. Srapurron, B.A. (Oxon.)

The important group of yellow vegetable dyes, the éhief of which are chrysin,
fisetin, and morin, are derived primarily from a phenyl! benzo-y-pyrone—

\co%

This was synthetised in 1898 by Kostanecki, but the mother substance itself,
benzo-y-pyrone, had not, up to the middle of 1900, been isolated. The authors
succeeded in preparing this compound from phenoxy-fumarie acid—

COOH .C = CH. COOH
‘ .
ees (UAE AE ile 1
1 Ber., 1899,

704 REPORT—1900.

This acid dissolves with evolution of heat in concentrated sulphuric acid, and on
diluting the solution with water a new acid is precipitated which was found to be
benzo-y-pyrone carboxylic acid—

COOH .C = CH—CO

Ose: eH,

On distillation 7 vacuo this broke up with the evolution of carbon dioxide, and a
liquid distilled over which slowly solidified. It crystallised from a mixture of
benzene and ligroin in flat needles which melted at 59°, and analysis showed it to
be benzo-y-pyrone. The yellowish solution of benzo-y-pyrone in concentrated
sulphuric acid possesses a violet fluorescence.

14. On the Combination of Thiophenol and Guaiacol with the Esters of
the Acids of the Acetylene Series. By Dr. S. RuneMaAnn and H. E.
Srapteton, B.A. (Oxon.)

In this paper an account is given of the continvation of previous work on the
combination of phenols with the esters of the acetylene acids. The authors were
induced to study the action of thiophenol on these esters in the hope of finding a
new method of preparing thioacetophenone, whilst the investigation of guaiacol
was taken up, as no derivative of a dihydric phenol had previously been worked
with.

During the progress of the research various new derivatives of thiophenyl-
cinnamic, fumaric, and succinic acids were discovered, but it was found that

thiophenyl styrene :
C,H,;.C = CH,

S.C,H,

‘on boiling with dilute mineral acids is decomposed into acetophenone and
hiophenol, and not into thioacetophenone and phenol, as had been expected.
Guaiacol was found to combine readily with phenyl propiolic ester; guaiacolyl
cinnamic acid and its ester were prepared, and it was found that the acid on
heating quantitatively decomposed into carbon dioxide and guaiacolyl styrene—

C,H, .C=CH,
|
0. C,H, 0.CH,

From the latter mineral acids regenerated guaiacol, with the additional formation
of acetophenone.

15. Chlorination of Aromatic Hydrocarbons.
By H. D. Dasin,and J. B. Couzn, Ph.D.

—v ene, se ar

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The Section was divided into two Departments.

The following Papers were read ;—
DEPARTMENT I.
1. On some Recent Work on thé Difusion of Gases and Liquids,
By Horace T. Brown, 2.8,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 705

9. On Recent Developments in the Textile Industries.
By Dr. A. Lirpmann.

3. Influence of Pressure on the Formation of Oceanie Salt Deposits.
By H.M. Dawson, Ph.D., B.Sc.

The preseut paper forms one of a series of investigations carried out with a
view of obtaining information in regard to the conditions of formation of the
Stassfurt deposits. . ‘4 F

In previous papers (van’t Hoff and pupils) the isothermal equilibrium relation-
ships of salts occurring in sea-water and the influence of temperature on these
has been investigated. This paper deals with the influence of pressure.

One of the last phases of salt deposition in the Stassfurt layer is represented
by tachhydrite (CaCi, 2MgCl, 12H,O); experiment shows that this separates
from solutions of the mixed chloride of Ca and Mg if the temperature exceeds
22°4 C.

Below 22°4 C. a mixture of the simple salts separates, but no tachhydrite. If
the mixed chlorides be heated in the solid condition, then at 22°4 C, water is
split off and tachhydrite is formed.

The influence of pressure on the temperature of formation of this double salt
has been studied.

Careful determinations by the thermometric method show that under atmo-
spheric pressure this temperature is 22°-400 C.

By means of the manokryometer the temperature of formation under higher
pressures was determined.

The mean result of this direct determination of the influence of pressure is
that for an increase of 100 atmospheres the temperature of formation is raised
1°62 C.

Another and indirect determination is possible by applying the formula of
Thomson for the influence of pressure on the melting point to the transition
temperature at which calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, tachhydrite, and
saturated solution are in equilibrium. Trom the formula in question, yiz.,

dT _ 10333 (v,—%,)
dp 42500 gq’

the determination of av only involves the knowledge of the change of volume ard
#) y 8 §

the heat change accompanying the reaction, which takes place according to

CMgCl,6H,O + 1:188CaCl,6H,O
_—-—"
vy,
Saturated Solution.

— °262CaC1,2MeC1,-12H,0 + °101(100H1,0 9:27 CaCl, 4:92 MgCl,) + ¢ Cals.
——_—__—__—_

ne
Vg

The estimation of (v,—v,) and of g from a series of experiments and substitu-
tion in the thermodynamic formula gives for a the value ‘0135° C, In other

words, 160 atmospheres would raise the temperature of formation 1°-35 C,

Both results show that the influence of pressure on the separation of salts
from solution is very small in comparison with the influence of temperature.

On thermodynamic grounds it can be shown that the influence of pressure on
temperature displacement in the case of other salts must be of the same order of
magnitude as that found in the case of tachhydrite.

The fact that certain Stassturt salts (e.g., Kieserte, Kainite, Liwéite and
Langbeinite) are not deposited on’ evaporation of sea-water at a constant

1900. ZZ

706 REPORT—1900.

temperature of 25° C. cannot be attributed to the influence of the pressure which
has existed during the natural salt deposition, but must be accounted for by
the prevalence of higher temperatures. The presence of these salts in the
Stassfurt layer enables us, in fact, to draw conclusions in regard to the tempera-
tures which existed during the salt deposition.

4. On the Sensitiveness of Metallic Silver to Light.
By Major-General J. Warernousse, J.5.C.

The paper is a continuation of that read before the Royal Society on May 31,
and contains an account of further experiments on the production of visible
photographic images upon plain silver surfaces by the action of solar radiations.

The author has found that such visible images are formed when pure silver
foils or silvered glass are exposed to sunlight in exhausted glass tubes, and,
apparently, more readily in the presence of watery vapour. Invisible, but develop-
able, images were readily obtained in exhausted tubes in which no signs of the
presence of moisture were apparent. By prolonged exposure a visible change
also takes place.

When thin films of silver on glass have been fully exposed in sunlight the
action has been found to penetrate the film and produce a distinctly visible image
at the back as well as on the face, the exposed parts appearing always lighter than
the unexposed,

Fresh experiments with silver plates used as anode and cathode in a decom-
position cell containing distilled water, through which a weak current was allowed
to pass, showed that the pale grey deposit on the cathode and the dark olive
yellow coating on the anode were both quite sensitive to light, and appeared
lighter by exposure, in a manner somewhat analogous to that observed on silvered
glass or plain silver foils exposed to light.

It was noticed that the visible images were not dissolved away either by the
usual photographic fixing agents or by dilute nitric acid.

A very curious action of light upon glass has also been observed. In this
case a silvered glass plate was exposed for about a month under a cut-out screen
of thin aluminium, the unsilvered side of the glass being in contact with the
aluminium and not protected from the air by a covering glass plate. After
exposure the plate was put aside for a few days with the exposed glass side in
contact with the silvered surface of another piece of polished silvered glass, which
was then found to have received an impressed image from the glass of the design
cut out of the aluminium screen. ‘lhe image was quite visible, clear and sharp,
and somewhat similar to the images directly impressed by light, though it had not
the same appearance of being bleached out, when examined by retlected light.
Several days afterwards a second similar image was produced in the same way by
contact with the glass upon another freshly polished silvered glass plate, and no
doubt several more could be produced in the same way.

These new experiments seem to show that the images formed by the action of
light upon plain silver surfaces are due more to molecular or physical changes than
to chemical decomposition, though the latter may also probably come into play in
the presence of watery vapour, or other conditions favouring oxidation and reduction
of the metallic surface. ‘The author is continuing the investigation.

5. Some Thoughts on Atomic Weights and the Periodic Law.
By J. H. Guapsrone, D.Sc., 2... and GEorGE GLADSTONE,

The object of this paper was to recall attention to a suggestion made during the
discussion of a paper by Professor Dumas at the meeting of the Association at Ipswich
in 1851, viz., that the case of‘ triads’ of analogous elements showed a resemblance
to the progression in a series of organic compounds, and might be due to a similar
cause. It was shown that the difference in atomic weight between the horizontal
lines in Mendeljeff’s arrangement is in the first instance 16, which afterwards

er eC

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 707

changes to about 20, and ultimately to about 24. But this increment is
really arrived at by 8 steps, giving in the first instance an average of 2-0 for each
element ; in point of fact, however, the increments are not regular, being for the
first line, and starting with lithium, 2'1, 1:9, 1-0, 2-0, 2:0, 3:0, and then 4:0 for two
steps, the intermediate one being unknown. ‘This departure from regularity in the
increment seems to show that it is of a compound nature; that the original
substance may run through the whole series, but be modified by small quantities
of one or more additional substances. This would seem to explain not only the
slight irregularities, but how our place in Mendeljeft’s arrangement may be occupied
by two or more elements which closely resemble one another, but differ very
slightly in atomic weight or in other properties, such as the iron group, the plati-
num group, the two didymiums, and the metals associated with yttrium. On this
supposition the elements having high atomic weights may be expected to be less
regular than is the case in the earlier part of the series.

6. The Heating and Lighting Power of Coal Gas.
By T. Fatrury, LARS. LLC,

The author pointed out the importance of knowing the heating power of gas
as well as the lighting power, now that it is so largely used for heating and
engine purposes.

Coal gas is a complex mixture consisting chiefly of marsh gas and hydrogen
with small quantities of heavy hydrocarbons, oxides of carbon, aqueous vapour,
nitrogen, &c. The first two control mainly the heating value, and the heavy
hydrocarbons the lighting value in ordinary burners. Incandescent g¢as-burners
are not considered in this paper.

That heavy hydrocarbon vapours raise the lighting more than the heating
power, explains why carburetted water-gas has a less heating value than ordinary
coal-gas of the same lighting power. Air or nitrogen drawn into gas lowers the
lighting power more than the heating power.

In gas made from one kind of coal the calorimeter may be worked constantly
so as to watch the gas in place of the jet photometer.

The author referred to the various calorimeters invented, and gave directions

_ for securing accuracy. Finally he gave a table of average resuits showing the

heating power of gas of different lighting power.

Lighting power, Heating power. Pounds | Lighting power, Heating Power. Pounds
Standard candles. of water heated 19°F. | Standard candles. of water heated 1° F.
by 1 cubic foot of gas. by 1 cubic foot of gas.

11 533 / 15 624

12 555 16 648

13 578 17 676

14 tol 18 704

7. On Smoke. By J. B. Conen, Ph.D.

Department II.

1. Bradford Sewage and its Treatment.
By F. W. Ricuarpson, F.1.C., the Bradford City Analyst.

___ In times of normal trade over twenty tons of wool-grease come every weekday
into the city’s sewers. Wool-suds and effluents, in addition to grease, contain
enormous amounts of nitrogenous impurities; thus it is that Bradford sewage is
one of the very worst sewages in the kingdom. Of the daily dry-weather flow of
twelve million gallons of sewage one and a quarter millions consist of woolcombers

ZZ2

708 REPORT—1900.

suds and effluents and two millions of dyeworks effluents, with over half a million
gallons from Messrs. Lister’s, of Manningham Mills. From experiments upon
bulks of 20,000 gallons, a mixture of one part of wool-suds and seven parts of
Bradford Sunday sewage requires nine times as much precipitant, and produces
ten times as much wet and twelve and a half times as much settled sludge, as the
Sunday sewage alone. A number of the woolcombers recover part of the wool-
grease by ‘cracking’ the crude suds with oil of vitriol. The effluent so obtained
is very acid, contains from 100 to 200 grains of grease per gallon, with a very
large amount of nitrogenous impurities. he difliculties arising from the pre-
sence of the wool-suds and effluents are twofold: (1) The peculiar emulsive
character of wool-grease; (2) the excessive amount of nitrogenous impurities,
With Bradford sewage have been tried :—

(1) Lime, giving a clear but bad effluent with a large amount of sludge.

(2) Copperas, followed by lime, producing a turbid but better effluent.

(3) Alumina-ferric, z.c., alumina sulphate, giving unsatisfactory results at a
high cost.

(4) Acid ferric sulphate, giving a high degree of purification, but with an
acid effluent.

(5) Neutral ferric sulphate, yielding as good results, but with less acidity.

(6) Basic ferric sulphate, giving a 62 per cent. purification and a neutral or
slightly alkaline effluent.'

The basic sulphate is made at the sewage works by McCulloch's Patent. As
it a necessary to use a considerable weight of the basic salt, the method proves
costly.

The author has fully investigated the biology of Bradford sewage, and has
tried different methods of bacterial treatment. It has not been very difficult to
get nitrification with as high a purification in extreme cases as 70 per cent.

The grease present to the extent of 40 to 50 grains per gallon very soon
chokes up the filters. There can be no doubt that if the woolcombers’ suds and
effluents were entirely removed the whole of the city’s sewage could be
treated biologically, with an immense saving in the cost of chemicals and the
treatment of the sludge. Failing the elimination of the wool-suds the best
method would seem to be a preliminary treatment with the cheapest precipitant
obtainable and the biological purification of the effluent, either on bacteria beds or
on land, preferably on both.

Several patentecs have experimented on Bradford sewage, but hitherto with
unsatisfactory results, and they have all retired from the attempt, saying that the
grease baffled them.

After describing the chemical and biological methods in detail, the author
entered at some length into the scientific causes of the difficulties of treatment.

2. On the Treatment of Woolcombers’ Effluents. By W. Leacu.

3. On a Simple and Accurate Method for estimating the Dissolved Oxygen
in Fresh Water, Sea Water, Sewage Effuents, &c. By Professor Lrrrs,
D.Sc. PhD. &e., and R. F. Buaxe, LLC., F.C.8., Queen’s College,
Belfast.

After criticising the existing methods for determining the dissolved oxygen in
water volumetrically, the authors describe a very simple and accurate method for
the purpose, of which the following is an outline:

An ordinary separating funnel is filled with the water to be examined, and a
measured volume withdrawn. A definite volume of standard ferrous sulphate
solution is then added, and afterwards ammonia—the volume of these two reagents

' This effluent, after passing at a rapid rate through fine breeze beds, gives an
additional 9 per cent. of purification, although no nitrification occurs. :

,

TRANSAGTIONS OF SECTION B. - AQG

together corresponding with that of the water removed—and the stopper of the
funnel is then inserted, care being taken that no air bubbles are enclosed.

Within the separating funnel there is now a layer of ferrous sulphate below,
next the water, and abcve all the ammonia. hese are mixed by inverting the
vessel once or twice by a swinging motion, when a greenish turbid mixture results,
which rapidly darkens as the dissolved oxygen is absorbed. After fifteen minutes
the vessel (still stoppered) is inverted, and its tube or lower extremity (now, how-
ever, the upper one) is nearly filled with a mixture of equal volumes of sulphuric
acid and water. The tap is then opened, when the acid flows downwards into
the alkaline mixture, and in the course of a few minutes dissolves the iron hydrates,
forming a clear solution. This is then run off into a porcelain dish, and there
titrated, either with permanganate or bichromate, conveniently of the strength
lec. =1 cc. of dissolved oxygen at N.T.P.

In the authors’ experiment the separating funnel had a capacity of 382°5 ¢.c.,
practically 4 litre; and its tube contained, when nearly full, about 8 cc. of
diluted sulphuric acid. About 7 c.c. of the water was removed, 5c.c. of standard
ferrous sulphate solution added and about 2c.c. of strong ammonia. The ferrous
sulphate solution contained about 12 crams of the crystallised salt in 250c.c. of
distilled water.- It was standardised for each determination by titrating 5c.c. in
a porcelain basin, mixed with the same volume of the water under examination as
employed in the dissolved oxygen determination and the same volume of acid.

For all practical purposes the dissolved oxygen contained in the volume of
water which the separating funnel holds amounts to the difference between the
burette readings for the blank experiment and for the actual determination, The
following are a few typical results :—

Dissolved Oxygen per litre
eerie f fluid
Liquid Analysed pee Peas. Difference
Found True Amount
Distilled water saturated | Permanganate | 7:26 7:20 (Roscoe and | + 0°06
with air at 15°-7. Lunt).
Belfast water — Town 6h 5°80 5:75 (Gasometric + 0:05
supply. | analysis).
| Seawater from Belfast ” | 5-53 +043
Lough. \ 5:10 (Gasometric | f +48
Seawater from Uelfast | Bichromate ; analysis). d
Loweh | 510, L000
Sewage effluent from | Permanganate| ,., - re
‘ Bacteria Beds.’ ee {| 0°36 (Gasometric f sige
Sewage effluent from | Bichromate WO analysis). ;
‘Bacteria Beds,’ ne J | eas

It will be seen that for sea water and sewage effluents bichromate gives more
accurate results than permanganate,

4, The Utilisation of Sewage Sludge. By Professor W. B. Borromtey,
M_A., Ph.D., King’s College, London.

No one system of sewage treatment is universally applicable. Local conditions
must determine which system is best for any locality. Parliamentary returns in
1894 gave 233 sanitary districts in England and Wales where systems for treating
sewage by precipitation were in operation. In most cases the sludge was not only
valueless, but a nuisance.

The author experimented with specially prepared sewage sludge, enriched by
the use of phosphatic material in treating the sewage. A crude phosphatic rock
was treated with sulphuric acid slightly in excess of the amount necessary to
combine with the oxides of iron and aluminium present ; the resultant substance

710 -REPORT—1900.

—spoken of as Phosalite—was usel as a precipitating agent for sewage, and as a
pressing agent for sewage sludge.
Experiments at Chiswick Sewage Works, where Phosalite was used as a
precipitating agent, yielded in the dried sludge cake :-—
Nitrogen=Ammonia , . 1-44 Phosphate of Lime . . 6:21
When used as a pressing agent in conjunction with half the usual amount of
lime, the dried sludge cake yielded :—
Nitrogen=Ammonia . . 1°04 Phosphate of Lime . . 12:06

Experiments at Glascow Sewage Works with Phosalite as a pressing agent
gave the following results :—

a. Sludge pressed with } per cent. of lime and 1 per cent. of Phosalite:—
Nitrogen=Ammonia . 2 v4 Phosphate of Lime , yg? Oars
b. Sludge pressed with 3 per cent. of lime and 2 per cent. of Phosalite :—
Nitrogen=Ammonia , . 2°04 Phosphate of Lime . . 9:49

By the use of Phosalite as a pressing agent for sludge there was obtained—

(a) an economy of lime necessary for pressing ; (b) a much-improved press liquor ;
(c) a greatly enhanced manurial value for the sludge.

These specially enriched sludges, when dried and ground, formed excellent
manures, giving results equal to those produced by many high-priced artificial
manures. The experiments show that for the effective utilisation of sewage sludge
as a manure there are two requisites :—

1. The use of some such phosphatic material as Phosalite when pressing the
sludge.

2. The resultant sludge-cake must then be dried and ground, so that it may
easily mix with the soil.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 711

Srction C.—GEOLOGY.

PRESIDENT of THE SECTION—Professor W, J. Sottas, D.Sc,, LL.D., F.RS

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The President delivered the following Address :—
Evolutional Geology.

Tux close of one century, the dawn of another, may naturally suggest some brief
retrospective glance over the path along which our science has advanced, and some
general survey of its present position from which we may gather hope of its
future progress; but other connection with geology the beginnings and end-
ings of centuries have none. The great periods of movement have hitherto begun,
as it were, in the early twilight hours, long before the dawn. Thus the first step
forward, since which there has been no retreat, was taken by Steno in the year
1669 ; more than a century elapsed before James Hutton (1785) gave fresh energy
and better direction to the faltering steps of the young science; while it was less
than a century later (1863) when Lord Kelvin brought to its aid the powers of the
higher mathematics and instructed it in the teachings of modern physics. From
Steno onward the spirit of geology was catastrophic; from Hutton onward it
grew increasingly uniformitarian; {rom the time of Darwin and Kelvin it has
become evolutional. The ambiguity of the word ‘uniformitarian’ has led toa
good deal of fruitless logomachy, against which it may be as well at once to guard
by indicating the sense in which it is used here In one way we are all uniformi-
tarians, 7.e., we accept the doctrine of the ‘ uniform action of natural causes,’ but,
as applied to geology, uniformity means more than this. Defined in the briefest
fashion it is the geology of Lyell. Hutton had given us a ‘Theory of the Earth,’
in its main outlines still faithful and true ; and this Lyell spent his life in illustrating
and advocating ; but as so commonly happens the zeal of the disciple outran the
wisdom of the master, and mere opinions were insisted on as necessary dogma.
What did it matter if Hutton asa result of his inquiries into terrestrial history
had declared that he found no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end? It
would have been marvellous if he had! Consider that when Hutton’s ‘Theory’
was published William Smith’s famous discovery had not been made, and that
nothing was then known of the orderly succession of forms of life, which it is one
of the triumphs of geology to have revealed; consider, too, the existing state of
physics at the time, and that the modern theories of energy had still to be for-
mulated; consider also that spectroscopy had not yet lent its aid to astronomy
and the consequent ignorance of the nature of nebulz ; and then, if you will, cast
a stone at Hutton. With Lyell, however, the case was different : in pressing his
uniformitarian creed upon geology he omitted to take into account the great

712 REPORT—1900.

advances made by its sister sciences, although he had knowledge of them, and
thus sinned against the light. In the last edition of the famous ‘ Principles’ we
read; ‘Itis a favourite dogma of some physicists that not only the earth, but the
sun itself, is continually losing a portion of its heat, and that as there is no known
source by which it can be restored we can foresee the time when all life will cease
to exist on this planet, and on the other hand we can look back to a period when
the heat was so intense as to be incompatible with the existence of any organic
beings such as are known to us in the living or fossil world. . . . A geologist in
search of some renovating power by which the amount of heat may be made to
continue unimpaired for millions of years, past and future, in the solid parts of the
earth . . . has been compared by an eminent physicist to one who dreams he
can discover a source of perpetual motion and invent a clock with a self-winding
apparatus. But why should we despair of detecting proofs of such regenerating
and self-sustaining power in the works of a Divine Artificer ?’ Here we catch the
true spirit of uniformity ; it admittedly regards the universe as a self-winding
clock, and barely conceals a conviction that the clock was warranted to keep
true Greenwich time. The law of the dissipation of energy is not a dogma, but a
doctrine drawn from observation, while the uniformity of Lyell is in no sense an
induction : it is a dogma in the narrowest sense of the word, unproved, incapable
of proof ; hence perhaps its power upon the human mind; hence also the transi-
toriness of that power. Again, it is only by restricting its inquiries to the stratified
rocks of our planet that the dogma of uniformity can be maintained with any pretence
of argument. Directly we begin to search the heavens the possibility, nay even
the likelihood, of the nebular origin of our system, with all that it involves, is
borne in upon us. Lyell therefore consistently refused to extend his gaze beyond
the rocks beneath his feet, and was thus led to do a serious injury to our science:
he severed it from cosmogony, for which he entertained and expressed the most
profound contempt, and from the mutilation thus inflicted geology is only at length
making a slow and painful recovery. Why do I dwell on these facts? To
depreciate Lyell? By no means. No one is more conscious than I of the noble
service which Lyell rendered to our cause: his reputation is of too robust a kind
to suffer from my unskilful handling, and the fame of his solid contributions to
science will endure long after these controversies are forgotten. The echoes of
the combat are already dying away, and uniformitarians, in the sense already
defined, are now no more; indeed, were I to attempt to exhibit any distinguished
living geologist as a still surviving supporter of the narrow Lyellian creed, he
would probably feel, if such a one there be, that I was unfairly singling him out
for unmerited obloquy.

Our science has become evolutional, and in the transformation has grown
more comprehensive: her petty parochial days are done, she is drawing her pro-
vinces closer around her, and is fusing them together into a united and single com-
monwealth—the science of the earth.

Not merely the earth's crust, but the whole of earth-knowledge is the sub-
ject of our research. To know all that can be known about our planet, this, and
nothing less than this, is its alm and scope. From the morphological side geology
inquires not only into the existing form and structure of the earth, but also into the
series of successive morphological states through which it has passed in a long
and changeful development. Our science inquires also into the distribution of
the earth in time and space; on the physiological side it studies the movements
and activities of our planet; and not content with all this it extends its researches
into etiology and endeavours to arrive ata science of causation. In these pursuits
geology calls all the other sciences to her aid. In our commonwealth there are no
outlanders ; if an eminent physicist enter our territory we do not begin at once
to prepare for war, because the very fact of his undertaking a geological inquiry of
itself confers upon him all the duties and privileges of citizenship. A physicist
studying geology is by definition a geologist. Our only regret is, not that physi-
cists occasionally invade our borders, but that they do not yisit us oftener and
make closer acquaintance with us,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 713

Early History of the Earth: First Critical Period.

If I am bold enough to assert that cosmogony is no longer alien to geology, I
may proceed further, and taking advantage of my temerity pass on to speak of
things once not permitted to us. I propose therefore to offer some short account of
the early stages in the history of the earth. Into its nebular origin we need not
inquire—that is a subject for astronomers. We are content to accept the infant
earth from their hands as a molten globe ready made, its birth from a gaseous
nebula duly certified. If we ask, as a matier of curiosity, what was the origin of
the nebula, I fear even astronomers cannot tell us. There is an hypothesis which
refers it to the clashing of meteorites, but in the form in which this is usually
presented it does not help us much. Such meteorites as have been observed to
penetrate our atmosphere and to fall on to the surface of the earth prove on
examination to have had an eventful history of their own of which not the least
important chapter was a passage through a molten state; they would thus appear
to be the products rather than the progenitors of a nebula.

We commence our history then with a rapidly rotating molten planet, not
impossibly already solidified about the centre and surrounded by an atmosphere
of great depth the larger part of which was contributed by the water of our
present oceans, then existing in a state of gas. This atmosphere, which exerted a
pressure of something like 5,000 lb. to the square inch, must have played a very
important part in the evolution of our planet. The molten exterior absorbed it to
an extent which depended on the pressure, and which may some day be learnt
from experiment. Under the influence of the rapid rotation of the earth
the atmosphere would be much deeper in equatorial than polar regions, so
that in the latter the loss of heat by radiation would be inexcess. This might of
itself lead to convectional currents in the molten ocean. The effect on the atmo-
sphere is very difficult to trace, but it is obvious that if a high-pressure area
originated over some cooler region of the ocean, the winds blowing out of it would
drive before them the cooler superticial layers of molten material, and as these
were replaced by hotter lava streaming from below, the tendency would be to
convert the high into a low pressure area, and to reverse the direction of the
winds. Conversely under a low-pressure area the in-blowing winds would
drive in the cooler superficial layers of molten matter that had been swept away
from the anticyclones. If the difference in pressure under the cyclonic and anti-
cyclonic areas were considerable, some of the gas absorbed under the anticyclones
might escape beneath the cyclones, and in a later stage of cooling might give rise
to vast floating islands of scoria. Such islands might be the first foreshadowings
of the future continents. Whatever the ultimate effect of the reaction of the
winds on the currents of the molten ocean, it is probable that some kind of
circulation was set up in the latter. The universal molten ocean was by no means
homogeneous: it was constantly undergoing changes in composition as it reacted
chemically with the internal metallic nucleus: its currents would streak the
different portions out in directions which in the northern hemisphere would
run from N.E. to S.W., and thus the differences which distinguish particular
petrological regions of our planet may have commenced their existence at a very
early stage. Is it possible that as our knowledge extends we shall be able by a
study of the distribution of igneous rocks and minerals to draw some conclusions
as to the direction of these hypothetical lava currents? Our planet was pro-
foundly disturbed by tides, produced by the sun; for as yet there was no moon;
and it has been suggested that one of its tidal waves rose to a height so great as
to sever its connection with the earth and to fly off as the infant moon. This
event may be regarded as marking the first critical period, or catastrophe if we
please, in the history of our planet. The career of our satellite, after its escape
from the earth, is not known till it attained a distance of nine terrestrial radii;
after this its progress can be clearly followed. At the eventful time of parturition
the earth was rotating, with a period of from two to four hours, about an
axis inclined at some 11° or 12° to the ecliptic, The time which has elapsed

714, REPORT—1900.

since the moon occupied a position nine terrestrial radii distant from the earth is
at least fifty-six to fifty-seven millions of years, but may have been much more.
Professor Darwin’s story of the moon is certainly one of the most beautiful
contributions ever made by astronomy to geology, and we shall all concur with
him when he says, ‘ A theory reposing on vere cause, which brings into quanti-
tative correlation the length of the present day and month, the obliquity of the
ecliptic, and the inclination and eccentricity of the lunar orbit, must, I think,
have strong claims to acceptance.’

The majority of geologists have long hankered after a metallic nucleus for the
earth, composed chietly, by analogy with meteorites, of iron. Lord Kelvin has
admitted the probable existence of some such nucleus, and lately Professor Wiechert
has furnished us with arguments— powerful’ arguments Professor Darwin terms
them—in support of its existence. The interior of the earth for four fifths of
the radius is composed, according to Professor Wiechert, chiefly of metallic
iron, with a density of 82; the outer envelope, one fifth of the radius, or about
400 miles in thickness, consists of silicates, such as we are familiar with in
igneous rocks and meteorites, and possesses a density of 3:2. It was from this
outer envelope when molten that the moon was trundled off, twenty-seven miles in
depth going to its formation. The density of this material, as we have just seen,
is supposed to be 3:2; the density of the moon is 3:39, a close approximation,
such difference as exists being completely explicable by the comparatively low
temperature of the moon.

The outer envelope of the earth which was drawn off to form the moon was,
as we have seen, charged with steam and other gases under a pressure of 5,000 Ib.
to the square inch; but as the satellite wandered away from the parent planet
this pressure continuously diminished. Under these circumstances the moon
would become as explosive as a charged bomb, steam would burst forth from
numberless volcanoes, and while the face of the moon might thus have ac-
quired its existing features the ejected material might possibly have been shot
so far away from its origin as to have acquired an independent orbit. If so we
may ask whether it may not be possible that the meteorites, which sometimes
descend upon our planet, are but portions of its own envelope returning to it. The
facts that the average specific gravity of those meteorites which have been seen to
fall is not much above 3:2, and that they have passed through a state of fusion,
are consistent with this suggestion.

Second Critical Period. ‘ Consistentior Status.’

The solidification of the earth probably became completed soon after the birth
of the moon. The temperature of its surface at the time of consolidation was about
1170° C., and it was therefore still surrounded by its primitive deep atmosphere of
steam and other gases. This was the second critical period in the history of the
earth, the stage of the ‘consistentior status, the date of which Lord Kelvin would
rather know than that of the Norman Conquest, though he thinks it lies between
twenty and forty millions of years ago, probably nearer twenty than forty.

Now that the crust was solid there was less reason why movements of the
atmosphere should be unsteady, and definite regions of high and low pressure
might have been established. Under the high-pressure areas the surface of the
crust would be depressed ; correspondingly under the low-pressure areas it would
be raised; and thus from the first the surface of the solid earth might be dimpled
and embossed.?

Third Critical Period. Origin of the Oceans.

The cooling of the earth would continuously progress, till the temperature of
the surface fell to 370° C., when that part of the atmosphere which consisted of
steam would begin to liquefy; then the dimples on the surface would soon

1 It would be difficult to discuss with sufficient brevity the probable distribution -
of these inequalities, but it may be pointed out that the moon is possibly responsible,
and that in more ways than one, for much of the existing geographical asymmetry.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. PB,

become filled with superheated water, and the pools so formed would expand and
deepen, till they formed the oceans. This is the third critical stage in the history of
the earth, dating, according to Professor Joly, from betweeneighty and ninety millions
of years ago. With the growth of the oceans the distinction between land and sea
arose—in what precise manner we may proceed to inquire. If we revert to the
period of the ‘consistentior status,’ when the earth had just solidified, we shall
find, according to Lord Kelvin, that the temperature continuously increased from
the surface, where it was 1170° C., down to a depth of twenty-five miles, where
it was about 1430°C., or 260° C. above the fusion point of the matter forming
the crust. That the crust at this depth was not molten but solid is to be explained
by the very great pressure to which it was subjected—just so much pressure,
indeed, as was required to counteract the influence of the additional 260° C. Thus
if we could have reduced the pressure on the crust we should have caused it to
liquefy ; by restoring the pressure it would resolidify. By the time the earth’s
surface had cooled down to 370°C. the depth beneath the surface at which the
pressure just kept the crust solid would have sunk some slight distance inwards,
but not sufficiently to affect our argument.

The average pressure of the primitive atmosphere upon the crust can readily
be calculated by supposing the water of the existing oceans to be uniformly
distributed over the earth’s surface, and then by a simple piece of arithmetic
determining its depth: this is found to be 1:718 miles, the average depth of the
oceans being taken at 2°393 miles. Thus the average pressure over the earth's
surface, immediately before the formation of the oceans, was equivalent to that of
a column of water 1:718 miles high on each square inch. Supposing that at its
origin the ocean were all ‘ gathered together into one place,’ and ‘the dry land
appeared,’ then the pressure over the ocean floor would be increased from 1:718 miles
to 2°393 miles, while that over those portions of the crust that now formed the land
would be diminished by 1°718 miles, This difference in pressure would tend to
exaggerate those faint depressions which had arisen under the primitive anti-
cyclonic areas, and if the just solidified material of the earth’s crust were set into
a state of flow it might move from under the ocean into the bulgings which were
rising to form the land, until static equilibrium were established. Under these
circumstances the pressure of the ocean would be just able to maintain a column
of rock 0'886 mile in height, or ten twenty-sevenths of its own depth. It could do no
more ; but in order that the dry land may appear some cause must be found com-
petent either to lower the ocean bed the remaining seventeen twenty-sevenths of its
full depth or to raise the continental bulgings to the same extent. Such acause may,
I think, be discovered in a further eflect of the reduction in pressure over the con-
tinental areas. Previous to the condensation of the ocean these, as we have seen,
were subjected to an atmospheric pressure equal to that of a column of water
1718 miles in height. This pressure was contributory to that which caused the
outer twenty-five miles of the earth’s crust to become solid; it furnished indeed
just about one fortieth of that pressure, or enough to raise the fusion point
6°C. What then might be expected to happen when the continental area was
relieved of this load? Plainly a liquefaction and corresponding expansion of the
underlying rock.

But we will not go so far as to assert that actual liquefaction would result ; all
we require for our explanation is a great expansion; and this would probably
follow whether the crust were liquefied or not. For there is good reason to
suppose that when matter at a temperature above its ordinary fusion point: is
compelled into the solid state by pressure, its volume is very responsive to changes
either of pressure or temperature. The remarkable expansion of liquid carbon
dioxide is a case in point: 120 volumes of this fluid at —20° C. become 150 volumes
at 33°C.; a temperature just below the critical point. A great change of volume
also occurs when the material of igneous rocks passes from the crystalline state to
that of glass; in the case of diabase ! the difference in volume of the rock in the two

1 C. Barus so names the material on which he experimented ; apparently the
rock is a fresh dolerite without olivine.

716 REPORT—1900.

states at ordinary temperatures is 13 per cent. If the relief of pressure over the
site of continents were accompanied by volume changes at all approaching this,
the additional elevation of seventeen twenty-sevenths required to raise the land to
the sea-level would be accounted for.! How far down beneath the surface the
unloading of the continents would be felt is difficult to say, though the problem
is probably not beyond the reach of mathematical analysis; if it affected an outer
envelope twenty-five miles in thickness, a linear expansion of 6 per cent. would
suffice to explain the origin of ocean basins. If now we refer to the dilatation
determined by Carl Barus for rise in temperature in the case of diabase, we
find that between 1093° and 1112°C. the increase in volume is 3'3 per cent. As
a further factor in deepening the ocean basins may be included the compressive
effect of the increase in load over the ocean floor: this increase is equal to the
pressure of a column of water 0-675 mile in height, and its effect in raising the
fusion point would be 2° C., from which we may gain some kind of idea of the
amount of compression it might produce on the yielding interior of the crust. To
admit that these views are speculative will be to confess nothing; but they certainly
account for a good deal. They not only give us ocean basins, but basins of the
kind we want, that is, to use a crude comparison once made by the late
Dr. Carpenter, basins of a tea-tray form, having a somewhat flat floor and
steeply sloping sides ; they also help to explain how it is that the value of gravity
is greater over the ocean than over the land.

The ocean when first formed would consist of highly heated water, and this,
as is well known, is an energetic chemical reagent when brought into contact
with silicates like those which formed the primitive crust. As a result of its action
saline solutions and chemical deposits would be formed; the latter, however,
would probably be of no great thickness, for the time occupied by the ocean in
cooling to a temperature not far removed from the present would probably be
included within a few hundreds of years.

The Stratified Series.

The course of events now becomes somewhat obscure, but sooner or later the
familiar processes of denudation and the deposition started into activity, and have
continued acting uninterruptedly ever since. The total maximum thickness of

* Professor Fitzgerald has been kind enough to express part of the preceding
explanation in a more precise manner for me. He writes: ‘It would require a very
nice adjustment of temperatures and pressures to work out in the simple way you
state it ; but what is really involved is that in a certain state diabase (and everything
that changes state with a considerable change of volume) has an enormous isothermal
compressibility. Although this is very enormous in the case of bodies which melt
suddenly, like ice, it would also involve very great compressibilities in the case
of bodies even which melted gradually, if they did so at all quickly, i.¢., within a
small range of temperature. What you postulate, then, is that ata certain depth
diabase is soft enough to be squeezed from under the oceans, and that, being near its
melting point, the small relief of pressure is accompanied by an enormous increase
in volume which helped to raise the continents. Now that I have written the thing
out in my own way it seems very likely. It is, anyway, a suggestion quite worthy
cf serious consideration, and a process that in some places must almost certainly
have been in operation, and maybe is still operative. Looking at it again, I
hardly think it is quite likely that there is or could be much squeezing sideways of
liquid or other viscous material from under one place to another, because the
elastic yielding of the inside of the earth would be much quicker than any flow of
this kind. This would only modify your theory, because the diabase that expands
so much on the relief of pressure might be that already under the land, and raising
up this latter, partly by being pushed up itself by the elastic relief of the inside of
the earth and partly by its own enormous expansibility near its melting point. The
action would be quite slow, because it would cool itself so much by its expansion
that it would have to be warmed up from below, or by tidal earth-squeezing, or by
chemical action before it could expand isothermally,’

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 717

the sedimentary deposits, so far as I can discover, appears to amount to no less
than 50 miles, made up as follows :—

Feet
Recent and Pleistocene 4 . 4,000 ; . Man.
Pliocene F : : 5,000 ; . Pithecanthropus.
Miocene " . : 4 . 9,000
Oligocene . : : 7 « 12,000 . 5
Eocene. 3 3 , F . 12,000 é . Hutheria,
Cretaceous . - 4 4 . 14,000 : :
Jurassic F : ‘ F . 8,000 :
Trias. ; C ‘ - . 13,000 ; . Mammals,
Permian - ; : . 12,000 3 . Reptiles.
Carboniferous . = , . 24,000 : . Amphibia,
Devonian . : 3 - . 22,000 ‘ . Fish.
Silurian s ‘: i . 15,000
Ordovician . - 5 : . 17,000 : 5
Cambrian . c . 5 . 16,000 5 . Invertebrata,
Keweenawan 5 4 : . 50,000
Penokee ‘ 3 é 3 . 14,000
Huronian . : : < - 18,000

Geologists, impressed with the tardy pace at which sediments appear to be
accumulating at the present day, could not contemplate this colossal pile of strata
without feeling that it spoke of an almost inconceivably long lapse of time. They
were led to compare its duration with the distances which intervene between the
heavenly bodies; but while some chose the distance of the nearest fixed star as
their unit, others were content to measure the years in terms of miles from the sun.

Evolution of Organisms.

The stratified rocks were eloquent of time, and not to the geologist alone,
they appealed with equal force to the biologist. Accepting Darwin’s explanation
of the origin of species, the present rate at which form flows to form seemed so
slow as almost to amount to immutability. Jlow vast then must have been the
period during which by s!ow degrees and innumerable stages the protozoon was
transformed into the man! And if we turn to the stratified column, what do we
find? Man, it is true, at the summit, the oldest fossiliferous rocks 34 miles
lower down, and the fossils they contain already representing most of the great
classes of the Invertebrata, including Crustacea and Worms. Thus the evolution
of the Vertebrata alone is known to have occupied a period represented by a
thickness of 34 miles of sediment. How much greater, then, must have been the
interval required for the elaboration of the whole organic world! The human
mind, dwelling on such considerations as these, seems at times to have been
affected by a sur-excitation of the imagination, and a consequent paralysis of the
understanding, which led to a refusal to measure geological time by years at all,
or to reckon by anything less than ‘ eternities.’

Geologic Periods of Time.

After the admirable Address of your President last year it might be thought
neediess for me to again enter into a consideration of this subject; it has been
said, however, that the question of geological time is like the Djin in Arabian
tales, and will irrepressibly come up again for discussion, however often it is
disposed of. For my part I do not regard the question so despondingly, but rather
hope that by persevering effort we may succeed in discovering the talisman by
which we may compel the unwilling Djin into our service. How immeasurable
would be the advance of our science could we but bring the chief events which
it records into some relation with a standard of time!

Before proceeding to the discussion of estimates of time drawn from a study
of stratified rocks let us first consider those which have been already suggested
by other dati. These are as follows:—(1) Time which has elapsed since the

718 REPORT—1900.

separation of the earth and moon, fifty-six millions of years, minimum estimate by
Professor G, H. Darwin. (2) Since the ‘consistentior status,’ twenty to forty
millions (Lord Kelvin). (8) Since the condensation of the oceans, eighty to
ninety millions, maximum estimate by Professor J. Joly.

It may be at once observed that these estimates, although independent, are all
of the same order of magnitude, and so far confirmatory of each other. Nor are
they opposed to conclusions drawn from a study of stratified rocks; thus Sir
Archibald Geilkie, in his Address to this Section last year, affirmed that, so far as
these were concerned, 100 millions of years might suffice for their formation.
There is then very little to quarrel about, and our task is reduced to an attempt,
by a little stretching and a little paring, to bring these various estimates into
closer harmony.

Professor Darwin’s estimate is admittedly a minimum; the actual time, as he
himself expressly states, ‘may have been much longer.’ Lord Kelvin’s estimate,
which he would make nearer twenty than forty millions, is founded on the
assumption that since the period of the ‘ consistentior status’ the earth has cooled
simply as a solid body, the transference of heat from within outwards having been
accomplished solely by conduction.

It may be at once admitted that there isa large amount of truth in this
assumption; there can be no possible doubt that the earth reacts towards forces
applied for a short time as asolid body. Under the influence of the tides it behaves
as though it possessed a rigidity approaching that of steel, and under sudden blows,
such as those which give rise to earthquakes, with twice this rigidity, as Professor
Milne informs me. Astronomical considerations lead to the conclusion that its
effective rigidity has not varied greatly for a long period of past time.

Still, while fully recognising these facts, the geologist Inows—we all know—that
the crust of the earth is not altogether solid. The existence of volcanoes by
itself suggests the contrary, and although the total amount of fluid material which
is brought from the interior to the exterior of the earth by volcanic action may be,
and certainly is, small—from data given by Professor Penck, I estimate it as
equivalent to a layer of rock uniformly distributed 2 mm. thick per century '—
yet we have every reason to believe that volcanoes are but the superticial manifesta-
tion of far greater bodies of molten material which lie concealed beneath the
ground, Even the wide areas of plutonic rock, which are sometimes exposed to
view over a country that has suffered long-continued denudation, are merely the
upper portion of more extensive masses which lie remote from view. The existence
of molten material within the earth’s crust naturally awakens a suspicion that
the process of cooling has not been wholly by conduction, but also to some slight
extent by convection, and to a still greater extent by the bodily migration of
liquid lava from the deeper layers of the crust towards the surface.

The existence of local reservoirs of molten rock within the crust is even
still more important in another conzection, that is, in relation with the supposed
‘average rate of increase of temperature with descent below the ground.’ It is
doubtful whether we have yet discovered a rate that in any useful sense can be
spoken of as ‘average. The widely divergent views of different authorities as to
the presumed value of this rate may well lead to reflection. The late Professor
Prestwich thought a rise of 1°F. for every 45 feet of descent below the zone
of constant temperature best represented the average; Lord Kelvin in his earlier
estimates has adopted a value of 1°F. for every 51 feet; the Committee of
this Association appointed to investigate this question arrived at arate of 1° F.
for every 60 feet of descent ; Mr. Clarence King has made calculations in which a
rate of 1° F. for 72 feet is adopted; a re-investigation of recorded measurements
would, I believe, lead to a rate of 1° F. in 80 or 90 feet as more closely approaching
the mean. This would raise Lord Kelvin’s estimate to nearly fifty millions of years.

When from these various averages we turn to the observations on which
they are based, we encounter a surprising divergence of extremes from the

1 The heat thus brought to the surface would amount to one seventeenth of that
conveyed by conduction,

>

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION Cy 719

mean; thus in the British Isles alone the rate varies from 1° F. in 34 feet
to 1°F. in 92 feet, or in one case to 1° F. in 180 feet. It has been sug-
gested, and to some extent shown, that these irregularities may be connected with
differences in conductivity of the rocks in whieh the observations were made, or
with the circulation of underground water; but many cases exist which cannot be
explained away in such a manner, but are suggestive of some deep-seated
cause, such as the distribution of molten matter below the ground. Inspection of
the accompanying map of the British Isles, on which the rates of increase in

Fic. 1—Map of the British Isles, showing the distribution of
rates of increase of temperature with descent. ‘Uhe
rates are taken from the ‘ British Association Report,’
except in the case of those in the south of Ireland.

ee ,
Ts

different localities have been plotted, will afford some evidence of the truth of this
view. Comparatively low rates of increase are found over Wales and in the pro-
vince of Leinster, districts of relatively great stability, the remnants of an island
that have in all probabilty stood above the sea ever since the close of the Silurian
period. To the north of this, as we enter a region which was subject to volcanic
disturbances during the Tertiary period, the rate increases.

It is obvious that in any attempt to estimate the rate at which the earth is
cooling as a solid body the disturbing influence of subterranean lakes of molten

rock must as far as possible be eliminated ; but this wi!! not be effected by taking

750) Rrevort—1900.

the accepted mean of observed rates of increase of temperature! such an Average
is merely a compromise, and a nearer approach to a correct result will possibly be
attained by selecting some low rate of increase, provided it be based on accurate
observations.

It is extremely doubtful whether an area such as the British Isles, which has
so frequently been the theatre of volcanic activity and other subterranean disturb-
ance, 1s the best fitted to afford trustworthy results; the Archzean nucleus of a
continent might be expected to afford surer indications. Unfortunately the hidden
treasures of the earth are seldom buried in these regions, and bore-holes in conse-
quence have rarely been made in them. One exception is afforded by the copper-
bearing district of Lake Superior, and in one case, that of the Calumet and Hecla
mine, which is 4,580 feet in depth, the rate of increase, as determined by Pro-
fessor A. Agassiz, was 1° F. for every 223-7 feet. The Bohemian ‘horst’ is a
somewhat ancient part of Europe, and in the Przibram mines, which are sunk in it,
the rate was 1°F. for every 126 feet of descent. In the light of these facts it
would seem that geologists are by no means compelled to accept the supposed mean
rate of increase of temperature with descent into the crust as affording a safe guide
to the rate of cooling of a solid globe; and if the much slower rate of increase
observed in the more ancient and more stable regions of the earth has the im-
portance which is suggested for it, then Lord Kelvin’s estimate of the date of the
‘consistentior status’ may be pushed backwards into a remoter past.

If, as we have reason to hope, Lord Kelvin’s somewhat contracted period will
yield to a little stretching, Professor Joly’s, on the other hand, may take some
paring. His argument, broadly stated, is as follows. ‘The ocean consisted at first
of fresh water; it is now salt, and its saltness is due to the dissolved matter that
is constantly being carried into it by rivers. If, then, we know the quantity of
salt which the rivers bring down each year into the sea, it is easy to calculate
how many years they have taken to supply the sea with all the salt it at present
contains. For several reasons it is found necessary to restrict attention to one
only of the elements contained in sea salt: this is sodinm. The quantity of
sodium delivered to the sea every year by rivers is about 160,000,000 tons; but
the quantity of sodium which the sea contains is at least ninety millions of times
greater than this. The period during which rivers have been carrying sodium
into the sea must therefore be about ninety millions of years. Nothing could be
simpler ; there is no serious flaw in the method, and Professor Joly’s treatment of
the subject is admirable in every way ; but of course in calculations such as this
everything depends on the accuracy of the data, which we may therefore proceed
to discuss. Professor Joly’s estimate of the amount of sodium in the ocean may
be accepted as sufficiently near the truth for all practical purposes. We may
therefore pass on to the other factor, the annual contribution of sodium by river
water. Here there is more room for error, Two quantities must be ascertained :
one the quantity of water which the rivers of the world carry into the sea, the
other the quantity or proportion of sodium present in this water. The total volume
of water discharged by rivers into the ocean is estimated by Sir John Murray as
6,524 cubic miles. The estimate being based on observations of thirty-three great
rivers, although only approximate, it is no doubt sufficiently exact; at all events
snch alterations as it is likely to undergo will not greatly affect the final result,
When, however, we pass to the last quantity to be determined, the chemical com-
position of average river water, we find that only a very rough estimate is possible,
and this is the more unfortunate because changes in this may very materially affect
our conclusions. The total quantity of river water discharged into the sea is, as
we have stated, 6,524 cubic miles. The average composition of this water is deduced
from analyses of nineteen great rivers, which altogether discharge only 488 cubic
miles, or 7:25 per cent. of the whole, ‘The danger in using this estimate is two-
fold: in the first place 7:25 is too small a fraction from which to argue to the re-
maining 92:75 per cent., and, next, the riyers which furnish it are selected rivers, z.e.,
they are all of large size. The eflect of this is that the drainage of the voleanic
regions of the earth is not sufficiently represented, and it is precisely this drainage
which is richest in sodium salts, The lavas and ashes of active volcanoes rapidly

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION. C, 721

disintegrate under the energetic action of various acid gases, and among volcanic
exhalations sodium chloride has been especially noticed as abundant. Conse-
quently we find that while the proportion of sodium in Professor Joly’s average
river water is only 5°73 per million, in the rivers of the volcanic island of Hawaii
it rises to 24°5 per million.’ No doubt the area occupied by volcanoes is trifling com-
pared with the remaining land surface. On the other hand the majority of volcanoes
are situated in regions of copious rainfall, of which they receive a full share
owing to their mountainous form. Much of the fallen rain percolates through the
porous material of the cone, and, richly charged with alkalies, finds its way by
underground passages towards the sea, into which it sometimes discharges by
submarine springs.

Again, several considerations lead to the belief that the supply of sodium to
the ocean has proceeded, not at a uniform, but at a gradually diminishing rate.
The rate of increase of temperature with descent into the crust has continuously
diminished with the flow of time, and this must have had its influence on the
temperature of springs, which furnish an important contribution to river water.
The significance of this consideration may be judged from the composition of the
water of geysers. Thus Geyser, in Iceland, contains 884 parts of sodium per
million, or nearly 160 times as much as Sir John Murray estimates is present in
average river water. A mean of the analyses of six geysers in different parts of
the world gives 400 parts of sodium per million, existing partly as chloride, but
also as sulphate and carbonate.

It should not be overlooked that the present is a calm and quiet epoch in the
earth’s history, following after a time of fiery activity. More than once, indeed,
has the past been distinguished by unusual manifestations of voleanic energy, and
these must have had some effect upon the supply of sodium to the ocean. Finally,
although the existing ocean water has apparently but slight effect in corroding
the rocks which form its bed, yet it certainly was not inert when its temperature
was not far removed from the critical point. Water begins to exert a powerful
destructive action on silicates at a temperature of 180° C., and during the interval
occupied in cooling, from 370° to 180° C., a considerable quantity of sodium may
have entered into solution.

A review of the facts before us seems to render some reduction in Dr. Joly's
estimate imperative. A precise assessment is impossible, but I should be inclined
myself to take off some ten or thirty millions of years.

We may next take the evidence of the stratified rocks. Their total maximum
thickness is, as we have seen, 265,000 feet, and consequently if they accumulated
at the rate of one foot in a century, as evidence seems to suggest, more than
twenty-six millions of years must have elapsed during their formation.

Obscure Chapter in the Larth’s History.

Before discussing the validity of the argument on which this last result de-
pends let us consider how far it harmonises with previous ones. It is consistent
with Lord Kelvin’s and Professor Darwin’s, but how does it accord with Professor
Joly’s? Supposing we reduce his estimate to fifty-five millions: what was the earth
doing during the interval between the period of fifty-five millions of years ago and
that of only 264 millions ago, when, it is presumed, sedimentary rocks commenced to
be formed ? Hitherto we have been able to reason on probabilities ; now we enter
the dreary region of possibilities, and open that obscure chapter in the history of
the earth previously hinted at. For there are many possible answers to this
question. In the first place the evidence of the stratified rocks may have been
wrongly interpreted, and two or three times the amount of time we have demanded
may have been consumed in their formation. This is a very obvious possibility,
yet again our estimate concerning these rocks may be correct, but we may have
erroneously omitted to take into account certain portions of the Archean complex.
which may represent primitive sedimentary rocks, formed under exceptional con-

? Walter Maxwell, Lavas and Soils of the Hawaiian Islands, p. 170.
1900, 3A

Toe REPORT—1900.

ditions, and subsequently transformed under the influence of the internal heat of
the earth, This, I think, would be Professor Bonney’s view. Finally Lord
Kelvin has argued that the life of the sun as a luminous star is even more briefly
limited than that of our oceavs. In such a case if our oceans were formed fifty-
five millions of years ago, it is possible that after a short existence as almost
boiling water they grew colder and colder, till they became covered with thick ice,
and moved only in obedience to the tides. The earth, frozen and dark, except for
the red glow of her volcanoes, waited the coming of the sun, and it was not till his
growing splendour had banished the long night that the cheerful sound of running
waters was heard again in our midst. Then the work of denudation and deposition
seriously recommenced, not to cease till the life of the sun is spent. Thus the
thickness of the stratified series may be a measure rather of the duration of sunlight
than of the period which has elapsed since the first formation of the ocean. It
may have been so—we cannot tell—but it may be fairly urged that we lmnow less
of the origin, history, and constitution of the sun than of the earth itself, and
that, for aught we can say to the contrary, the sun may have been shining on the
just-formed ocean as cheerfully as he shines to-day.

Time required for the Evolution of the Living World,

But, it will be asked, how far does a period of twenty-six millions satisfy the
demands of biology ? Speaking only for myself, although I am aware that eminent
biologists are not wanting who share this opinion, I answer, Amply. But it will
be exclaimed, Surely there are ‘comparisons in things.’ Look at Egypt, where more
than 4,000 years since the same species of man and animals lived and flourished
as to-day. Examine the frescoes and study the living procession of familiar
forms they so faithfully portray, and then tell us, how comes it about that from
changes so slow as to be inappreciabie in the lapse of forty centuries you propose
to build up the whole organic world in the course of a mere twenty-six millions of
years? To all which we might reply that even changeless Egypt presents us with
at least one change—the features of the ruling race are to-day not quite the same
as those of the Pharaohs. But putting this on one side, the admitted constancy in
some few common forms proves very little, for so long as the environment remains
the same natural selection will conserve the type, and, so far as we are able to
judge, conditions in Egypt have remained remarkably constant for a long period.

Change the conditions, and the resulting modification of the species becomes
manifest enough ; and in this connection it is only necessary to recall the remark-
able mutations observed and recorded by Professor Weldon in the case of the
crabs in Plymouth Harbour. In response to increasing turbidity of the sea water
these crabs have undergone or are undergoing a change in the relative dimensions
of the carapace, which is persistent, in one direction, and rapid enough to be
determined by measurements made at intervals of a few years.

Again, animals do not all change their characters at the same rate: some are
stable, in spite of changing conditions, and these have been cited to prove that
none of the periods we look upon as probable, not twenty-five, not a hundred
millions of years, scarce any period short of eternity, is sufficient to account for the
evolution of the living world. Ifthe little tongue-shell, Zingula, has endured with
next to no perceptible change from the Cambrian down to the present day, how
long, it is sometimes inquired, would it require for the evolution of the rest of the
animal kingdom? The reply issimple: the cases are dissimilar, and the same record
which assures us of the persistency of the Lingula tells us in language equally
emphatic of the course of evolution which has led from the lower organisms upwards
to man. In recent and Pleistocene deposits the relics of man are plentiful: in the
latest Pliocene they have disappeared, and we encounter the remarkable form Pithe-
canthropus; as we descend into the Tertiary systems the higher mammals are met
with, always sinking lower and lower in the scale of organisation as they occur
deeper in the series, till in the Mesozoic deposits they have entirely disappeared, and
their place is taken by the lower mammals, a feeble folk, offering little promise of the
future they were to inherit, Still lower, and even these are gone; and in the Permian

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 723

We ericounter reptiles and the ancestors of reptiles, probably ancestors of mammals
too ; then into the Carboniferous, where we find amphibians, but no true reptiles ;
and next into the Devonian, where fish predominate, after making their earliest
appearance at the close of the Silurian times ; thence downwards, and the verte-
brata are no more found—we trace the evolution of the invertebrata alone, Thus
the orderly procession of organic forms follows in precisely the true phylogenetic
sequence: invertebrata first, then vertebrates, at first fish, then amphibia, next
reptiles, soon after mammals, of the lowlier kinds first, of the higher later, and
these in increasing complexity of structure till we finally arrive at man himself.
While the living world was thus unfolding into new and nobler forms, tho
immutable Lingula simply perpetuated its kind, To select it, or other species
equally sluggish, as the sole measure of the rate of biologic change would seem as
strange a proceeding as to confound the swiftness of a river with the stagnation
of the pools that lie beside its banks. It is occasionally objected that the story
we have drawn from the paleontological record is mere myth or is founded only
on negative evidence. Cavils of this kind prove a double misapprehension, partly
us to the facts, partly as to the value of negative evidence, which may be as good
in its way as any other kind of evidence.

Geologists are not unaware of the pitfalls which beset negative evidence, and
they do not conclude trom the absence of fossils in the rocks which underlie the
Cambrian that pre-Cambrian periods were devoid of life; on the contrary, they are
fully persuaded that the seas of those times were teeming with a rich variety of
invertebrate forms. How is it that, with the exception of some few species found
in beds immediately underiving tne Cambrian, these have left behind no vestige of
their existence? The explanation does not lie in the nature of the sediments,
which are not unfitted for the preservation of fossils, nor in the composition of the
then existing sea water, which may have contained quiteas much caleium carbonate as
occurs in our present oceans; and the only plausible supposition would appear to be
that the organisms of that time had not passed beyond the stage now represented
by the larvee of existing invertebrata, and consequently were either unprovided
with skeletons or at all events with skeletons durable enough for preservation. If
so, the history of the earlier stages of the evolution of the invertebrata will receive
no light from palzeontology ; and no direct answer can be expected to the question
whether, eighteen or nineteen millions of years being taken as sufficient for the
evolution of the vertebrata, the remaining available eight millions would provide
for that of the invertebrate classes which are represented in the lowest Cambrian
deposits. On é@ priori grounds there would appear to be no reason why it should
not. If two millions of years afforded time enough for the conversion of fish into
amphibians, a similar period should suffice for the evolution of trilobites from
annelids, or of annelids from trochospheres. The step from gastrulas to trocho-
spheres might be accomplished in another two millions, and two millions more
would take us from gastrulas through morulas to protozoa.

As things stand, biologists can have nothing to say either for or against such
a conclusion: they are not at present in a position to offer independent evidence ;
nor can they hope to be so until they have vastly extended those promising
investigations which they are only now beginning to make into the rate of the
variation of species.

Unexpected Absence of Thermal Metamorphosis in Ancient Rocks.

Two difficulties now remain for discussion: one based on theories of mountain
chains, the other on the unaltered state of some ancient sediments. The latter may
be taken first. Professor yan Hise writes as follows regarding the pre-Cambrian
rocks of the Lake Superior district: ‘The Penokee series furnishes an instructive
lesson as to the depth to which rocks may be buried and yet remain but slightly
affected by metamorphosis. The series itself is 14,000 feet thick. It was covered
before being upturned with a great thickness of Keweenaw rock. This series at
the Montreal River is estimated to be 50,000 feet thick. Adding to this the known
thickness of the Penokee series, we have a thickness of 64,000 feet... . The

3A 2

724 REPORT—1900,

Penokee rocks were then buried to a great depth, the exact amount depending
upon their horizon and upon the stage in Keweenaw time, when the tilting and
erosion, which brought them to the surface, commenced.

‘That the synclinal trough of Lake Superior began to form before the end of the
Keweenaw period, and consequently that the Penokee rocks were not buried under
the full succession, is more than probable. However, they must have been buried to a
great depth—at least several miles—and thus subjected to high pressure and
temperature, notwithstanding which they are comparatively unaltered.’ !

I select this example because it is one of the best instances of a difficulty that
occurs more than once in considering the history of sedimentary rocks. On the
supposition that the rate cf increment of temperature with descent is 1° F. for
every 84 feet, or 1° C. for every 150 feet, and that it was no greater during these
early Penokee times, then at a depth of 50,000 feet the Penokee rocks would attain
a temperature of nearly 833° C. ; and since water begins to exert powerful chemical
action at 180° C. they should, on the theory of a solid cooling globe, have suffered
a metamorphosis sufficient to obscure their resemblance to sedimentary rocks.
Hither then the accepted rate of downward increase of temperature is erroneous,
or the Penokee rocks were never depressed, in the place where they are exposed
to observation, to a depth of 50,000 feet. Let us consider each alternative,
and in the first place let us apply the rate of temperature increment deter-
mined by Professor Agassiz in this very Lake Superior district: it is 1° OC.
for every 402 feet, and twenty-five millions of years ago, or about the time when
we may suppose the Penokee rocks were being formed, it would be 1° C. for every
305'5 feet, with a resulting temperature at a depth of 50,000 feet of 163° C. only.
Thus the admission of a very low rate of temperature increment would meet the
difficulty ; but on the other hand it would involve a period of several hundreds of
millions of years for the age of the ‘consistentior status,’ and thus greatly exceed
Professor Joly’s maximum estimate of the age of the oceans. We may therefore
turn to the second alternative. As regards this it is by no means certain that the
exposed portion of the Penokee series ever was depressed 50,000 feet: the beds lie
in a synclinal the base of which indeed may have sunk to this extent, and entered
a region of metamorphosis ; but the only part of the system that lies exposed to
view is the upturned margin of the synclinal, and as to this it would seem impos-
sible to make any positive assertion as to the depth to which it may or may not have
been depressed. To keep an open mind on the question seems our only course for
the present, but difficulties like this offer a promising field for investigation.

The Formation of Mountain Ranges.

It is frequently alleged that mountain chains cannot be explained on the hypo-
thesis of a solid earth cooling under the conditions and for the period we have
supposed. This is a question well worthy of consideration, and we may first
endeavour to picture to ourselves the conditions under which mountain chains arise.
The floor of the ocean lies at an average depth of 2,000 fathoms below the land,
and is maintained at a constant temperature, closely approaching 0° C., by the
passage over it of cold water creeping from the polar regions. The average tem-_
perature of the surface of the land is above zero, but we can afford to disregard the
difference in temperature between it and the ocean floor, and may take them both
at zero. Consider next the increase of temperature with descent, which occurs
beneath the continents: at a depth of 13,000 feet, or at same depth as the ocean
floor, a temperature of 87° C. will be reached on the supposition that the rate of
increase is 1° C. for 150 feet, while with the usually accepted rate of 1° C. for
108 feet it would be 120°C. But at this depth the ocean floor, which is on the
same spherical surface, is at 0° C. Thus surfaces of equal temperature within the
earth’s crust will not be spherical, but will rise or fall beneath an imaginary
spherical or spheroidal surface according as they occur beneath the continents or the
oceans. No doubt at some depth within the earth the departure of isothermal

1 Tenth Annual Report U.S, Geol. Survey, 1888-89, p. 457.

i

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 725

surfaces from a spheroidal form will disappear; but considering the great breadth
both of continents and oceans this depth must be considerable, possibly even forty
or fifty miles. Thus the sub-continental excess of temperature may make itself
felt in regions where the rocks still retain a hizh temperature, and are probably not
far removed from the critical fusion point. The effect will be to render the con-
tinents mobile as regards the ocean floor ; or, vice versd, the ocean floor will be stable
compared with the continental masses, Next it may be observed that the con-
tinents pass into the bed of the ocean by a somewhat rapid flexure, and that it is
over this area of flexure that the sediments denuded from the land are deposited.
Under its load of sediment the sea-floor sinks down, subsiding slowly, at about the
same rate as the thickness of sediment increases; and, whether as a consequence or
a cause, or both, the flexure marking the boundary of land and sea becomes more
pronounced. A compensating movement occurs within the earth’s crust, and solid
material may flow from under the subsiding area in the direction of least resist-
ance, possibly towards the land. At length, when some thirty or forty thousand feet
of sediment have accumulated in a basin-like form, or, according to our reckoning,
after the lapse of three or four millions of years, the downward movement ceases, and
the mass of sediment is subjected to powerful lateral compression, which, bringing
its borders into closer proximity by some ten or thirty miles, causes it to rise in
great folds high into the air as a mountain chain.

It is this last phase in the history of mountain making which has given geo-
logists more cause for painful thought than probably any other branch of their subject,
not excluding even the age ot the earth. It was at first imagined that during the
flow of time the interior of the earth lost so much heat, and suffered so much con-
traction in consequence, that the exterior, in adapting itself to the shrunken body,
was compelled to fit it like a wrinkled garment. This theory, indeed, enjoyed a
happy existence till it fell into the hands of mathematicians, when it fared very
badly, and now lies in a pitiable condition neglected of its friends."

For it seemed proved to demonstration that the contraction consequent on
cooling was wholly, even ridiculously, inadequate to explain the wrinkling. But
when we summon up courage to inquire into the data on which the mathematical
arguments are based, we find that they include several assumptions the truth of:
which is by no means self-evident. Thus it has been assumed that the rate at
which the fusion point rises with increased pressure is constant, and follows the
same law as is deduced from experiments made under such pressures as we can
command in our laboratories down to the very centre of the earth, where the
pressures are of an altogether different order of magnitude; so with a still more
important coefficient, that of expansion, our knowledge of this quantity is founded
on the behaviour of rocks heated under ordinary atmospheric pressure, and it is
assumed that the same coefficient as is thus obtained may he safely applied to
material which is kept solid, possibly near the critical point, under the tremendous
pressure of the depths of the crust. To this last assumption we owe the terrible
bogies that have been conjured out of ‘the level of no strain.’ The depth of this
as calculated by the Rev. O. Fisher is so trifling that it would be passed through
by all very deep mines. Mr. C. Davison, however, has shown that it will lie
considerably deeper, if the known increase of the coefficient of expansion with rise
of temperature be taken into account. It is possible, it is even likely, that the
coefficient of expansion becomes vastly greater when regions are entered, where
the rocks are compelled into the solid state by pressure. So little do we actually
know of the behaviour of rock under these conditions that the geologist would
seem to be left very much to his own devices; but it would seem there is one
temptation he must resist—he may not take refuge in the hypothesis of a liquid
interior.

We shall boldly assume that the contraction at some unknown depth in the
interior of the earth is sufficient to afford the explanation we seek. The course of
events may then proceed as follows. The contraction of the interior of the earth,

1 With some exceptions, notably Mr, C, Davison, a consistent supporter of the
theory of contraction.

726 REPORT—1900.

consequent on its loss of heat, causes the crust to fall upon it in folds, which rise
over the continents and sink under the oceans, and the flexure of the area of
sedimentation is partly a consequence of this folding, partly of overloading. By
the time a depression of some 80,000 or 40,000 feet has occurred along the ocean
border the relation between continents and oceans has become unstable, and
readjustment takes place, probably by a giving way of the continents, and chiefly
along the zone of greatest weakness, 7c. the area of sedimentation, which thus
becomes the zone of mountain building. It may be observed that at great depths
readjustment will be produced by a slow flowing of solid rock, and it is only
comparatively near the surface, five or ten miles at the most below, that failure of
support can lead to sudden fracture and collapse; hence the comparatively super-
ficial origin of earthquakes.

Given a sufficiently large coefficient of expansion—and there is much to suggest
its existence '—and all the phenomena of mountain ranges become explicable: they
begin to present an appearance that invites mathematical treatment; they inspire
us with the hope that from a knowledge of the height and dimensions of a continent
and its relations to the bordering ocean we may be able to predict when and where
a mountain chsin should arise, and the theory which explains them promises to
guide us to an interpretation of those world-wide unconformities which Suess
can only account for by a transgression of the sea. Finally it relieves us of the
difficulty presented by mountain formation in regard to the estimated duration of
geological time.

Influence of Variations in the Eccentricity of the Earth's Orbit.

This may perhaps be the place to notice a highly interesting speculation which
we owe to Professor Blytt, who has attempted to establish a connection between
periods of readjustment of the earth’s crust and variations in the eccentricity of
the earth’s orbit. Without entering into any discussion of Professor Blytt’s
methods, we may offer a comparison of his results with those that follow from our
rough estimate of one foot of sediment accumulated in a century.

Table showing the Time that has elapsed since the Beginning of the Systems in the
Jirst column, as reckoned from Thickness of Sediment in the second column,
and by Professor Blytt in the third :—

—_— | Years | Years
EGecney! <yitnaty wil to ngiewuta 4,200,000 | 3,250,000
Oligocene 5 ‘ } 2,000,090 | 1,810,000
Miocene Ea valt ieee Rekacan etal 1,800,000 | 1,160,000
Pliocene . 3 F c , 4 900,000 | 700,000
Pleistocene : : A ; - | 400,000 | 350,000

It is now time to return to the task, too long postponed, of discussing the data
from which we have been led to conclude that a probable rate at which sediments
have accumulated in places where they attain their maximum thickness is one foot
per century.

Rate of Deposition of Sediment.

We owe to Sir Archibald Geikie a most instructive method of estimating the
existing rate at which our continents and islands are being washed into the sea by
the action of rain and rivers: by this we find that the present land surface is being
reduced in he'ght to the extent on an average of 57,, foot yearly.2 If the
material removed from the land were uniformly distributed over an area equal to
that from which it had been derived, it would form a layer of rock zay0 foot thick
yearly, z.e. the rates of denudatior and deposition would be identical. But the two
areas, that of denudation and that of deposition, are seldom or never equal, the latter

) Vide p, 715. ? According to Professor Penck =4,, foot,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. ae

as a rule being much the smaller. Thus the area of that part of North America
which drains into the Gulf of Mexico measures 1,800,000 square miles; the area
over which its sediments are deposited is, so far as I can gather from Professor
Agassiz’s statements, less than 180,000 square miles; while Mr. McGee’estimates it
at only 100,000 square miles. Using the larger number, the area of deposition is
found to measure one tenth the area of denudation ; the average rate of deposition
will therefore be ten times as great as the rate of denudation, or 74, foot may be
supposed to be uniformly distributed over the area of sedimentation in the course
of a year. But the thickness by which we have measured the strata of our
geological systems is not an average but a maximum thickness; we have
therefore to obtain an estimate of the maximum rate of deposition. If we
assume the deposited sediments to be arranged somewhat after the fashion of a
wedge with the thin end seawards, then twice the average would give us the
maximum rate of deposition: this would be one foot in120 years. But the sheets of
deposited sediment are not merely thicker towards the land, thinner towards the
sea, they also increase in thickness towards the rivers in which they have their
source, so that a very obtuse-angled cone, or, better, the down-turned bowl of a
spoon, would more nearly represent their form. This form tends to disappear under
the action of waves and currents, but a limit is set to this disturbing influence by the
subsidence which marks the region opposite the mouth of a large river. By this the
strata are gradually let downwards, so that they come to assume the form of the
bowl ofa spoon turned upwards. Thusa further correction is necessary if we are to
arrive at a fair estimate of the maximum rate of deposition. Considering the very
rapid rate at which our ancient systems diminish in thickness when traced in all
directions from the localities where they attain their maximum, it would appear
that this correction must be a large one. If we reduce our already corrected
estimate by one sixth, we arrive at arate of one foot of sediment deposited in a century.

No doubt this value is often exceeded; thus in the case of the Mississippi
River the bar of the south-west pass advanced between the years 1838 and 1874 a
distance of over 2 miles, covering an area 2'2 miles in width with a deposit of
sediment 80 feet in thickness; outside the bar, where the sea is 250 feet in
depth, sediment accumulates, according to Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot, at a
rate of 2 feet yearly. It is quite possible, indeed it is very likely, that some of
our ancient strata have been formed with corresponding rapidity. No gravel
nor coarse sand is deposited over the Mississippi delta; such material is
not carried further seawards than New Orleans. Thus the vast sheets of
conglomerate and sandstone which contribute so largely to some of our ancient
systems, such as the Cambrian, Old Red Sandstone, Millstone Grit, and Coal
Measures, must have accumulated under very different conditions, conditions for
which it is not easy to find a parallel; but in any case these deposits afford
evidence of very rapid accumulation.

These considerations will not tempt us, however, to modify our estimate of
one foot in a century ; for though in some cases this rate may have been exceeded,
in others it may not have been nearly attained.

Closely connected with the rate of deposition is that of the changing level of
land and sea; in some cases, as in the Wealden delta, subsidence and deposition
appear to have proceeded with equal steps, so that we might regard them as
transposable terms. It would therefore prove of great assistance if we could
determine the average rate at which movements of the ground are proceeding; it
might naturally be expected that the accurate records kept by tidal gauges in
various parts of the world would afford us some information on this subject; and
no doubt they would, were it not for the singular misbehaviour of the sea, which
does not maintain a constant level, its fluctuations being due, according to
Professor Darwin, to the irregular melting of ice in the polar regions. Of more
immediate application are the results of Herr L. Holmstrém’s observations in
Scandinavia, which prove an average rise of the peninsula at the rate of 3 feet
in a century to be still in progress; and Mr. G. K. Gilbert’s measurements in the
great Lake district of North America, which indicate a tilting of the continent
at the rate of 3 inches per hundred miles per century. But while measurements
like these may furnish us with some notion of the sort of speed of these changes

728 REPORT—1900,

they are not sufficient even to suggest an average; for this we must be content to
wait till sufficient tidal observations have accumulated, and the disturbing effect
of the inconstancy of the sea-level is eliminated.

It may be objected that in framing our estimate we have taken into account
mechanical sediments only, and ignored others of equal importance, such as lime-
stone and coal. With regard to limestone, its thickness in regions where systems
attain their maximum may be taken as negligible ; nor is the formation of lime-
stone necessarily a slow process. The successful experiments of Dr. Allan,
cited by Darwin, prove that reef-building corals may grow at the astonishing
rate of 6 feet in height per annum,

In respect of coal there is much to suggest that its growth was rapid. The
carboniferous period well deserves its name, for never before, never since, have
Carbonaceous deposits accumulated to such a remarkable thickness or over such
wide areas of the earth’s surface. The explanation is doubtless partly to be found in
favourable climatal conditions, but also, I think, in the youthful energy of a new
and overmastering type of vegetation, which then for the first time acquired the
dominion of the land. If we turn to our modern peat-bogs, the only carbona-
ceous growths available for comparison, we find from data given by Sir-A. Geikie
that a fairly average rate of increase is 6 feet in a century, which might perhaps
correspond to one foot of coal in the same period.

The rate of deposition has been taken as uniform through the whole period of
time recorded by stratified rocks ; but lest it should be supposed that this involves
a tacit admission of uniformity, I hasten to explain that in this matter we have
no choice ; we may feel convinced that the rate has varied from time to time, but
in what direction, or to what extent, it is impossible to conjecture. That the sun
was once much hotter is probable, but equally so that at an earlier period it was
much colder; and even if in its youth all the activities of our planet were
enhanced this fact might not affect the maximum thickness of deposits. An
increase in the radiation uf the sun, while it would stimulate all the powers of
subaérial denudation, would also produce stronger winds and marine currents;
stronger currents would also result from the greater magnitude and frequency of
the tides, and thus while larger quantities of sediment might be delivered into the
sea they would be distributed over wider areas, and the difference between the
maximum and average thickness of deposits would consequently be diminished.
Indications of such a wider distribution may perhaps be recognised in the Paleozoic
systems, ‘Thus we are compelled to treat our rate of deposition as uniform, not-
withstanding the serious error this may involve.

The reasonableness of our estimate will perhaps best appear from a few appli-
cations. Fig. 2 is a chart, based on a map by De Lapparent, representing the
distribution of land and sea over the European area during the Cambrian period.
The strata of this system attain their maximum thickness of 12,000 feet in
Merionethshire, Wales; they rapidly thin out northwards, and are absent in
Anglesey; scarcely less rapidly towards Shropshire, where they are 3,000 feet
thick ; still a little less rapidly towards the Malverns, where they are only 8U0 feet
thick; and most slowly towards St. David’s Head, where they are 7,400 feet thick.
Tbe Cambrian rocks of Wales were in all probability the deposits of a river
system which drained some vanished land once situated to the west. How great
was the extent of this land none can say; some geologists imagine it to have
obliterated the whole or greater part of the North Atlantic Ocean. For my part
TI am content with a somewhat large island. What area of this island, we may
ask, would suffice to supply the Cambrian sediments of Wales and Shropshire ?
Admitting that the area of denudation was ten times as large as the area of
deposition, its dimensions are indicated by the figure a bc don the chart. This
evidently leaves room enough on the island to furnish all the other deposits
which are distributed along the western shores of the Cambrian Sea, while those
on the east are amply provided for by that portion of the European continent
which then stood above water.

If one foot in a century be a quantity so small as to disappoint the imagina-
tion of its accustomed éxercise, let us turn to the Cambrian succession of Scans

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, 729

dinavia, where all the zones recognised in the British series are represented by a
column of sediment 290 feet in thickness. If 1,600,000 years be a correct
estimate of the duration of Cambrian time, then each foot of the Scandinavian
strata must have occupied 5,512 years in its formation, Are these figures
sufficiently inconceivable ?

In the succeeding system, that of the Ordovician, the maximum thickness is
17,000 feet. Its deposits are distributed over a wider area than the Cambrian,
but they also occupied longer time in their formation ; hence the area from
which they were derived need not necessarily have been larger than that of the
preceding period. Sag: :

Great changes in the geography of our area ushered in the Silurian system: its
maximum thickness is found over the Lake district, and amounts to 15,000 feet ;

Fie. 2.—Chart of the distribution of land and sea, and of the thickness of deposits of
the Cambrian system, ‘The dotted lines indicate distances of 100 and 200
miles from the shore.

ax

but in the little island of Gothland, where all the subdivisions of the system, from
the Landovery to the Upper Ludlow, occur in complete sequence, the thickness is
only 208 feet. In Gothland, therefore, according to our computation, the rate of
accumulation was one foot in 7,211 years.

With this example we must conclude, merely adding that the same story is
told by other systems and other countries, and that, so far as my investigations
have extended, I can find no evidence which would suggest an extension of the
estimate I have proposed. It is but an estimate, and those who have made
acquaintance with ‘estimates’ in the practical affairs of life will know how far
this kind of computation may guide us to or from the truth.

This Address is already unduly long, and yet not long enough for the magni-
tude of the subject of which it treats, As we glance backwards over the past we

730 REPORT—1900.

see catastrophism yield to uniformitarianism, and this to evolution, but each as
it disappears leaves behind some precious residue of truth. Fov the future of our
science our ambition is that which inspired the closing words of your last
President’s Address. that it may become more experimental and exact. Our pre-
sent watchword is Evolution. May our next be Measurement and Experiment,
Experiment and Measurement.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Notes on the Geology and Paleontology of Patagonia.
By W. B. Scorr, Princeton University.

For the past four years Princeton University has been conducting explorations
in Patagonia under the direction of Mr. J. B. Hatcher. The large expenses of the
undertaking have been defrayed by the generosity of friends in New York and
Baltimore, and Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan has given the sum of 5,000/. for the
publication of the important results which My. Hatcher has obtained.

The oldest sedimentary formation observed is a marine Cretaceous found in the
Cordillera ; the Ammonites of this horizon have been studied by Mr. Stanton, and
he reports that they indicate Gault age and show close relationship to the Uitenhage
beds of South Africa.

The oldest marine Tertiaries are given in the section near the Straits of
Magellan, and my assistant, Dr. Ortmann, informs me that the fossils point to a
late Hogene or Oligocene age for these beds, which he has called the Magellanian
beds. These are overlaid by the great Patagonian formation, which is of great
extent, of marine origin, and richly fossiliferous. The 200 species of marine
invertebrate fossils obtained from this horizon have been studied by Dr. Ortmann,
and lead to some very interesting conclusions. Jn the first place. they unequi-
vocally demonstrate the Miocene age of the beds (not Cretaceous and oldest
Eocene as Ameglimo has maintained), and in the second place they display the
closest resemblance to the Miocene of Australia and New Zealand, pointing to a
shore connection with those countries in Miocene times, The Patagonian and
supra-Patagonian stages are shown not to be distinguishable.

The Santa Cruz beds, a fresh-water and terrestrial formation, overlie and
partially dovetail in with the Patagonian. They contain an incredibly abundant
and varied mammalian fauna, of which a vast collection was brought home. This
fauna has only a very remote connection with the Miocene mammals of the
northern hemisphere, and strongly confirms Riitimeyer’s contention of a southern
centre of distribution. The presence of numerous carnivorous marsupials (there
are no true Carnivora) is additional evidence of a connection, direct or indirect,
with Australia.

Unconformably overlying the Santa Cruz is another marine formation, dis-
covered by Mr. Hatcher and by him named the Cape Fairweather beds. The
fossils indicate the Pliocene age of these beds.

Mr. Hatcher's labours have thus resulted in proving that Patagonian geology
is in complete accord with the system established for the northern hemisphere, and
that it is not of such exceptional character as has been supposed.

2. On the Order of the Formation of the Silicates in Igneous Rocks,
By Prof. J. Jory, M.A., D.Se., PRS.

The viscous properties of fused silica are shown, by experiments on the
stretching of ‘ quartz fibres,’ to extend to temperatures so low as 715°C. The
silica fibre develops crystalline structure at 1040° C. Rock crystal in fine powder
exposed on the platinum ribbon of the meldometer to a temperature of 1100° C.
for four hours shows distinct evidence of fusion. At 1200° U., falling to 915° C.
in eighteen hours, its fusion and incipient recrystallisation are easily accomplished.

The principal silicates under prolonged heating (four hours) melt at tempera-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. Vol

tures which in all cases are inferior to the melting points determined on brief
observation. It is found that silicates of low percentage of silica show a less
depression of melting point than those of high silica percentage, the result being
that the melting points as newly determined fall into general harmony with the
normal order of consolidation.

The suggestion is offered that the time required for the crystallised silicates to
assume the appearance of fusion is a rough measure of the stability of the
crystalline aggregate under conditions of high temperature; for, in fact, it isa
measure of the crystalline rigidity opposing the unbalanced molecular surface-
force. It is shown that if this be accepted the stability-relations of the silicates with
one another may, according to the experiments, vary with temperature. Thus the
manner in which the time required to effect fusion varies with the temperature in
the cases of leucite and augite would indicate that in a high temperature magma
the stability of leucite may be greater than augite, and leucite may crystallise
in advance of augite. At lower temperatures augite is the more stable, and would
be idiomorphic towards leucite. In a cooling magma every stage of mutual
relations may arise. ‘There will be one temperature for such substances at which
the stabilities are equal, and at this temperature, phenomena of intergrowth, such
as pegmatitic development, will be favoured.

Quartz may separate idiomorphically in a high temperature magma, being at
high temperatures more stable than most of the silicates, or it may be left over as
a residual constituent in a low-temperature magma, most of the ferro-magnesian
silicates being more stable at low temperatures, Again at low temperatures its
stability and that of the felspars approximate, and pegmatitic intergrowth as a
frequent residuum is accordingly to be expected.

The normal order of consolidation follows in general that of the maximum
stabilities of the silicates, that is, their stabilities at low temperatures. Abnor-
malities of order may be expected to arise more especially in connection with rapid
cooling of a magma for long preserved under conditions of high temperature.

Appearances of magmatic instability, such as resorption, alteration of species,
corrosion, &c., are ascribed to changes in the stability relations of the silicates
with descending temperature.

3. On the Geoloyical Age of the Earth as indicated by the Sodium-contents
of the Sea. by Prof. J. Jouy, D.Sc., L.R.S.—See Reports, p. 369.

4. Some Experiments on Denudation in Fresh and Salt Water.
by Prof. J. Jory, D.Se., FBS.

The question of the relative rates of solution in fresh and salt water of the
more important rock materials is considered in this paper, which records the
results of experiments on basalt, orthoclase, obsidian, and hornblende.

Tn these experiments equal weights of fresh material in the same state of
subdivision are exposed to the solvent action of fresh and salt water under like
conditions of temperature, aération, &c.

In order to secure full aération, in one set of four duplicate experiments on
the substances mentioned, the material is treated in the form of fine powder, and
the solvent containing it maintained in motion by a continuous stream of filtered
and moistened air escaping in bubbles at the bottom of the containing vessel. The
maintained action of atmospheric carbon dioxide and oxygen is thus secured.
After three months’ continuous exposure to these conditions the solvent was
removed and analysed.

In a second form of experiment, confined to basalt, the fresh material is
brought to the grain of a fine sand, and is placed in U-tubes through which the
solvent passes alternately in opposite directions, air being freely admitted. This

experiment lasted for four months, the circulation of the solvent being maintained
for six hours daily.

732 REPORT—1900.

In the final results the analyses of the salt-water solutions are compared with
the analyses of unused samples of the sea water.

The results in all cases ascribe to the sea water solvent effects greatly
exceeding those of fresh water, contrary to what is generally believed to be the
case. Although it was found impossible to estimate the alkali-s and magnesia
taken up by the sea waters, the total estimated amount of material taken into
solution is from 2} to 14 times the mass determined in the fresh-water solutions,
the preponderance being specially marked in the lime. Complete analyses of
the sea water would, of course, ascribe a still greater preponderance to its
activity. The preponderance of activity is most marked in the cases of orthoclase
and hornblende. Obsidian proved to be the most insoluble of the substances
dealt with.

The consideration of the application of these experiments to the relative rates
of marine and atmospheric denudation is deferred till other experiments are com-
pleted, as this question also involves the conservative action of exhausted
materials precipitated or left 7m situ. But the experiments as they stand show
that the conclusion often drawn from Daubrée’s well-known experiment with
orthoclase exposed to the solvent action of chloride of sodium solution is erroneous,
sea water in presence of the atmosphere being a much more active solvent of
rock materials than fresh water.

5. The Inner Mechanism of Sedimentation.
By Prof. J. Jory, D.Sc., LBS.

The precipitating effects of marine salts on suspended particles of clay, &c.,
are responsible for geological effects of great magnitude. This paper is occupied
by an account of experimental work directed to the investigation of the inner
mechanism of these actions.

It is shown that the precipitating effects of salts in solution in general vary with
the valency of the electro-positive ion and (within certain: limits) according to the
same law as obtains in the case of the coagulative power exerted by electrolytes
on colloids. At very extreme dilutions a further remarkable activity of triad
salts is revealed.

These actions are ascribed to the electrical effects of the ions which by their
free charges neutralise the repulsive ‘electric layers’ of the immersed particles,
bringing about flocculation, when precipitation follows, the theory being similar
to that which has been applied to colioids.

The extension of the theory to the larger particles involved in sedimentation is
considered. It is shown that larger particles, by diminishing the element of
chance entering into the encounters of ions with particles, will tend to conceal
the valency effects. Conformably with this it is found that the finer sediments
require more concentrated solutions than the coarser to produce equal effects.
Similarly it is shown that at high concentrations the effects dependent on the
amount of charge carried by the ion (the valency effects) should be concealed. In
agreement with this it is observed that eoncentrations above about 05 gram
equivalents per litre produce flocculative effects equal in degree in monad, diad,
and triad salts.

The flocculative effects of the constituents of sea water are compared, and it
is shown that, owing to its monad valency, the chloride of sodium, although so
largely preponderating, produces effects no greater than the separate effects of the
magnesium chloride and magnesium sulphate present, and rather inferior effects to
the calcium sulphate.

Applications to geology follow. The compacting of marine sediments and the
deposition in bulk of the finer detrital sedimentary rocks are ascribed to the
ionisation in the sea of the salts dissolved by denudation from the rocks.

TRANSACTIONS OF SEGTION C. 733

6. On Tidal Sand Ripples above Low-water Mark.
By Vaucuan Cornisu, I.Sc., F.CS., F.LR.GS.

In the third Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the Action of
Waves and Currents on the Beds and Foreshores of Estuaries by means of Working
Models (Cardiffmeeting, 1891), Professor Osborne Reynolds writes: —‘ The large tidal
sand ripples below low water in the model estuaries, with the flood and ebb taking
the same course, constitute a feature which it is impossible to overlook, yet the
existence of corresponding ripples had been entirely overlooked in actual estuaries
until they were found to exist when they were looked for, having been first seen
in the models. The reason that they were overlooked before is, no doubt, ex-
plained by the fact that the bottom is not visible below low-water mark in actual
estuaries; but this is not all. In the estuaries these ripples, where found, have been
confined to the bottoms and sides of the narrow channels between high sand-banks,
and they do not occur on the level sands below low water towards the mouths of
estuaries to anything like the same extent as in the models.’

In December 1899 the author observed that the extensive sand-banks which
are exposed at every tide in the Mawddach Estuary, opposite Barmouth, North
Wales, were covered, even in their highest parts, with remarkably regular series
of sand ripples, averaging about 16 feet from ridge to ridge. The identity of
origin of these sand ripples with the tidal sand ripples of Osborne Reynolds was
soon established, and it appeared that they afforded an opportunity for more de-
tailed study than is practicable in the case of structures beneath low-water mark.
The author therefore made observations, with measurements and photographs,
during the six months January—June 1900, of the sands at Barmouth (N. Wales),
Grange (Lancashire), Findhorn (N.B.), Montrose (N.B.), Mundesley (Norfolk), the
Goodwins, Pegwell Bay (Kent), on the Severn between Newnham and Severn
Tunnel, and at Aberdovey (N. Wales).

It appears that between certain limits of speed and depth the steady action
of a current can produce these ripples of regular wave-length without the
agency of periodic quickenings and checkings such as operate in the formation of
the ordinary ripple-mark of the strand. The author has observed in the shallow
streams of sandy foreshores that a train of sand ridges of regular wave-length is
produced almost instantaneously when the velocity of the stream becomes
sufficient to render the water decidedly turbid with flying sand. On the other
hand, a current flowing over tidal sand ripples with clear water can be seen
to lower them. It appears probable that their formation commences at that
critical velocity at which a great part of the moving sand is thrown into ‘ eddying
suspension,’ and no longer merely rolls or slides along the bottom; and that they
can be produced independently of co-operation between flood and ebb, although
where flood and ebb pursue the same course but in opposite directions the
ridges may become more regular. The mechanism of their formation seems to
be as follows: when a current, flowing over extensive sands, attains the velocity
at which the sand is largely thrown into eddying suspension, then a state is soon
reached in which the amount of sand dropped by the current is on the whole equal
to the amount picked up by it, dut any small excrescence causes a convergence of
current in the lowest layers of the water (‘ forced towards the centre of the curve’
as at the bends of rivers). Under the specified conditions as to the charge of
sand held in suspension, the excrescence increases. In like manner any slight
depression is deepened. ‘Scour’ in the troughs and ‘fill’ on the ridges proceeds ;
and this goes on until the concentration of the stream over the ridge, and its
expansion above the trough, balance the effect. A considerable degree of
regularity in the size and form of the ridges is soon attained, and the dimensions
are limited by the depth and by the speed of the current.

Since the amplitude of the sand ridge is limited by the depth of the water, it is
evident that a sand-bank in a tideway cannot dry in ridges if the final runnings of
shallow water be prolonged or violent. Similarly the rising tide produces the greater
effect in ridging when the first part of the flood is gentle. Thus the Dun Sands,
below the junction of the Wye and Severn, being protected from rapid shallow

73k : REPORT—1900,

water currents by a rocky ridge called English Stones on the seaward side of them,
are finely ridged. Fifteen consecutive ridges were found to average 37’ 8” trom
ridge to ridge, and 22” in amplitude. Above Severn Bridge, on the contrary,
where the first of the flood comes almost as a bore and the ebb current, com-
mencing long after high water, runs strongly to the last, the sands when dry are
almost smooth.

Tn estuaries where the sand-banks dry in tidal sand ridges, their size and direc-
tions afford at a glance a good idea of the course and velocities of the streams of
flood and ebb over these banks, and often show by the steep face of the ripple in
what parts the flood or the ebb respectively is the stronger. The present position
of the lower portion of the rivers in the valleys of Aberdovey, Barmouth, and
Montrose is apparently due to the alongshore drift of beach material from the side
exposed to the greatest waves. To this are also due the D shape of their tidal
basius and the resulting circulation of the tide. The deep-water channel of the
ebb is down the straight limb of the D, which is close under the hills which bound
the valley, having been pushed as far as possible by the drift of beach material.

Tidal sand ripples above low-water mark are not confined to estuaries, being
often found upon the sea-shore in places where there are strong currents. They
face with the current, not with the swell, and are thus readily distinguished from
wave ripple-mark. Owing to variable direction of the currents in such situations,
the ripples are not generally in long straight ridges. It often happens that the
only traces of the tidal sand ripples left by the receding tide on the sea-shore are
pools, the characteristic section of which (like that of the print of a horse’s hoof in
sand) indicates that analogy with the fudjes of the desert which is demonstrated
by the author's observations.

The complete paper, illustrated by photographs, is intended for publication in
the ‘Geographical Journal.’

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—
1. Remarks on a Table of Strata. By Dr. H. Woopwarn, L.R.S.

2. Report on Seismological Observations.—See Reports, p. 59.

3. Geological Notes on the Upway Disturbance. By CLEMENT Rei, F.R.S,
Appendix to Seismological Report.—See Reports, p. 108.

4, The Caves and Pot-holes of Ingleborough and the District.
By 8. W. Currriss.

The portion of Yorkshire to which this paper refers is contained in Sheets 49,
50, and GO (New Series) of the I-inch Ordnance Survey. The great Craven
Faults which traverse it in a N.W. to 8 E. direction have produced a difference of
level of the strata of several thousands of feet; the limestones on the south side
of the Faults being far below the surface.

The Silurian slates and grits form the basement beds, and are exposed in several
of the valleys. On these rests the Carboniferous Limestone, which has a thickness
of about 500 feet from the base to the present exposed surface on Ingleborough. |
The name Carboniferous Limestone is here applied only to distinguish a particular
bed of rock in the district. Above this are a series of thinner limestones, shales,
and sandstones (the Yoredales of Professor Phillips) capped by Millstone Grit.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 735

Towards the west the Carboniferous Limestone kas been cut off by the Dent
Fault, while the Craven Faults determine its extension towards the south. The
main line of fault passes through Ingleton, Clapham, and Austwick to Settle, then
eastwards by Malham. North of this is another fault, near the first at Austwick,
but about 14 miles apart at Malham. Further north the most interesting caves
and pot-holes are found in an area comprising the Leck Fells, Kingsdale, Chapel-
le-Dale, Ribblesdale, and around Ingleborough.

The whole area may be divided into three sections :

1. The Yoredales, comprising the rocks of that name. These limestones being
comparatively thin, and intercalated with beds of shale and sandstone, the caves
are small and obstructed with earth, through which the water percolates. They
are at an elevation of from 1,300 to 1,600 feet, and do not materially affect the
drainage of the ground.

2. The Southern Carboniferous, including the Carboniferous Limestone between
the two Craven Faults. Although part of the same formation as the Carboniferous
Limestone north of the Fault, yet the caves in the two sections differ entirely in
their characteristics. Here they are distinguished by an absence of running water,
the walls are covered with a considerable thickness of calcareous deposit, and their
entrances are blocked with clay and rock débris. The well-known Victoria and
Attermire Caves are included in this section. A further characteristic is the
entire absence of pot-holes—vertical chasms in the ground caused by falling water
enlarging the rock fissures.

3. The Main Carboniferous, which includes the remainder of the Carboniferous
Limestone within the area detined. Tlere there are no dry caves, all being active
drainage channels. Pot-holes also are very abundant. In the Leck Fell and
Kingsdale districts the caves are almost without exception those of engulfment,
while in Chapel-le-Dale and Ribblesdale they are chiefly caves of débouchure.
The first-named are usually low at the entrance. The passages then increase in
height to 20 feet or more, but rarely exceed 6 feet in width, usually much
narrower. Some may be traversed a quarter of a mile or more, such as Lost John's
Cave, which terminates in a subterranean pot-hole over 100 feet deep. The caves
of débouchure are much more numerous. The mouth is generally wide and
shallow, with a flat roof. A cascade or waterfall is usually found some little
distance in, beyond which the passage is a simple water-worn channel, gradually
shallowing and broadening until too low to permit of further progress.

The pot-holes occur at or near the top of the limestone, at between 1,100 and
1,500 feet elevation, and always where there are surface streams, which fall into
the chasms. Over thirty have been named, nearly all of which have been
descended by the writer and friends, members of the Yorkshire Ramblers’ Club,
many of them for the first time. Half the number are over 100 feet deep. Gaping
Ghyll, on Ingleborough, attains a depth of 350 feet, and was first descended by
Mons. E. A. Martel in 1895 Rowten Pot, in Kingsdale, was conquered in 1897, and
found to be 365 feet deep, thus being the deepest known pot-hole in the country.

No evidence of the presence of the Silurian rocks has been found, the lowest
observable rock being either light or black limestone. The average summer
temperature in both caves and pot-holes is 48° Fahr.

The writer has prepared a special map of the district on which are shown all
the known caves and pot-holes, with the surface streams, Such a map illustrates
in a forcible manner the interesting fact that the entire surface drainage of
Ingleborough is swallowed up by the limestone. Not a single stream from the
higher levels continues an uninterrupted course into the valley below.

5. The Underground Waters of North-West Yorkshire. By Rev. W. Lower
Carter, IA. F.G.S., Hon. Sec. Underground Waters Committee,
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society,

Part #. The Sources of the Aire.

Introduction. Description of the area investigated, The Silurian and Car-
boniferous rocks between Malham Tarn and Malham are trayersed by two

736 REPORT—1900.

branches of the Craven Fault with the downthrow to the south. Malham Tarn
lies on Silurian, and its overflow sinks in the limestone directly the northern fault
is crossed. The drainage of the area to the west of the Tarn disappears at the
Smelt Mill Sink. The drainage of the area east of the Tarn is carried off by
Gordale Beck, along the course of which some water sinks into the jointed lime-
stone, To these three sinks correspond three principal outlets, the stream at
Malham Cove, Aire Head Springs, and the springs at the bottom of Gordale.

The history of previous investigations is then given. From the centre of
Malham Cove a dry limestone gorge runs in a northerly direction to the Tarn,
Up to the beginning of this century floodwaters were known to traverse this
valley and discharge over the Cove. There are several sinks along the line of
this dry valley. Now all the overflow is taken by three sinks south of the Tarn

Various efforts have been made to trace the connection between the sinks and
outlets. Flushes of water from the Tarn have been shown to affect Aire Head
before Malham Cove. Experiments by introducing chaff, bran, magenta, and
uranin into the sinks failed to show any traces at the outlets. a ‘

The present investigation was carried out during 1899 by a Committee of
Engineers, Chemists, and Geologists, appointed by the Yorkshire Geological
and Polytechnic Society. Flushes of water were sent down from the Tarn to the
Tarn Water Sinks. Aire Head Springs responded in two hours. With large
flushes a rise in Malham Beck was also observed.

The chemical investigations were as follows :

Ammonium sulphate was put in below the Malham ‘Tarn Sluice on June 22
and appeared at Aire Head from July 4to ll. Distinct traces were also found
at Malham Cove on the same dates.

Common salt and fluorescein, put in at the Smelt Mill Sink between J 2
and 28, appeared at Malham Cove from July 4 to 11. WERE AANERE

Fluorescein, put in at Tranlands Beck on June 22, appeared at Scalegill Mill
on June 28.

Ammonium sulphate, put into upper Gordale Beck on August 26
the springs below Gordale Scar on September 7. 4 v CDPD

Common salt, put into Cawden ‘ Burst’ on Se tember 18, appeared Lire’
Barn from September 28 to 27. : ; Bppeared wth ee

Fluorescein put into the bottom of Grey Gill Cave was not traced.

A geological investigation of the area showed that the limestone is traversed
by two sets of prominent joints, of which the master-joints, which run in a north-
west to south-east direction, are very well developed. These master-joints are
found to largely determine the flow of the underground waters. f

The direction of these master-joints unites the Smelt Mill Sinks and Malham
Cove directly, and that may be taken as the direction of flow. A parallel line
from Malham Tarn Sinks would bring the water from them to Grey Gill, a dr
valley in the escarpment to the east of Malham Cove. No evidences of oni
water were found there. ij

To the south of the Mid-Craven Fault the jointing of the limestone is found
to be variable; but prominent joints were found bearing in a north-east and south-
west direction. Ifthe Tarn water followed these joints on crossing the fault it
would traverse a direction almost at right angles to its previous course, and
following the limestone in its bend underneath a synclinal of Yoredale shale,
would be likely to reappear at Aire Head Springs, which is the nearest point
for re-emergence on the southern side of the anticlinal.

The master-joints north of the Mid-Craven Fault would similarly carry the
water which sinks into the bed of Gordale Beck south-eastward into the lime-
stone, and if, as it nears the fault, it followed a set of joints running at right
angles to the previous set, it would come out at the springs at the foot of Gordale
Scar, which was found to be the case by the chemical tests. Gordale itself turns
in this direction from some cause.

The conclusions of the Committee are :

1, That Malham Cove Spring discharges the water from Smelt Mill Sink and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 737

the limestone area west of the dry valley; and under certain conditions some of
the Tarn water.

2. That Aire Head Springs discharge the main portion of the water disappear-
ing down Malham Tarn Water Sinks.

3. That Gordale Beck Springs discharge the water sinking in Upper Gordale.

4, That chemicals put into Cawden ‘ Burst’ appeared at Mire’s Barn,

5. That Tranlands Beck Sinks discharge at Scalegill Mill,

6. The investigations show that within the area the main direction of under-
ground flow is along the master-joints of the limestone,’

6, Report on the Movement of Underground Waters of Craven. The
Ingleborough District.—See Reports, p. 346.

7. On Ancient Plateaux in Anglesey and Carnarvonshire.
By HE, GREENLY, £.G.S.

The surface of Anglesey, considered as a whole, is seen to be composed of a
series of broad ridges ranging N.E. and 8.W., and so remarkably even in height
as to leave little doubt that they are really portions of an undulating plateau
about 200-300 ft. above the sea. Holyhead Mountain and about four other hills
rise abruptly above the general level. This plateau is traversed, not bounded, by
the Menai Straits, beyond which it ranges to the foot-hills of the mountain region, .
where a totally different type of scenery begins. The profile of this mountain
region appears, when viewed from the N.W., as that of a very gentle flattened
dome, rising gradually from Penmaenbach, on the N.E,, till it attains a height of
more than 3,500 ft. in the Carnedds and Snowdon, and declines again as gradually
to Yr Hifl and Carn Boduan, in the farS.W. This, therefore, and the Anglesey
plateau, would appear to be ancient platforms or base-levels ; and they also appear
to be distinct.

That of Anglesey must be at least of post-Carboniferous age, for Carboniferous
and older rocks are levelled off indiscriminately at its surface, and if the Red rocks
of the island are Permian or Triassic it must be of Mesozoic, possibly of Cretaceous,
age. The age of the platform bounding the mountain region is more difficult to
determine. It is tentatively suggested that this feature may pass below the
Carboniferous rocks, and so be really adeeply denuded sub-Carboniferous base-level
rising as the core of a broad anticlinal.

8. On the Form of some Rock-bosses in Anglesey.
By E. GREENtY, F.G.S.

The general trend of the major axis of the bosses that are so marked a feature
of the land surface in Anglesey coincides as a rule with the strike of the dominant
structures, which is for the most part N.E.-S.W. But slight discordances are not
uncommon ; and in some cases, particularly among the hornblende gneisses about
Craig-y-Allor, the bosses trend in the usual N.K.-S.W. direction, in spite of the
fact that the banding of the gneiss strikes almost N.W.-S.E., z.e., very nearly at
right angles to this.

9. The Concretionary Types in the Cellular Magnesian Limestone of
Durham. By G. Assort, ILR.CS.

Associated with the Cannon-ball bed near Sunderland is a cellular limestone
which is much more extensive, and exhibits still more remarkable physical
1 The complete report, fully illustrated, will be published in the Proceedings of

the Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society, Vol. XI1V., Part I.
1900. 3B

738 REPORT—1900.

features Although descrived by Professor Sedgwick more than sixty years ago
with other magnesian beds in the north of England, it is stil] comparatively
unknown, He divided the concretions in these strata into ten classes, but I have
been unable to find any classified collection except the one in the Newcastle
Museum; even this is only partially done.

My own studies at Fulwell and Hendon lead me to suggest a new classification,
with jive primary forms, viz. (1) rods, (2) bands, (3) rings, (4) balls and modified
spheres, (5) eggs. Combinations of these forms constitute the major part of these
massive beds, and frequently a bed of less than a foot thick shows examples of
several different combinations. These I place in ten classes, though they may have
to be added to. he chief types are (1) tubes, (2) ‘ cauliflowers,’ (3) basaltiform,
(4) irregular, (5 and 6) troughs and bands (two kinds), (7) ‘fanlike,’ (8 and 9)
‘honeycomb’ or coralloid (two kinds), (10) pseudo-organic.

Photographs were exhibited on the screen showing both the primary forms and
the combinations as seen (wherever possible) in the undisturbed rock sections.

My own conclusions are as follows:

1. That the rod structure is secondary to the formation of the conspicuous
bands which run across the beds at various angles. (These bands need to be
distinguished from the bands mentioned among the ‘primary forms’) The
conspicuous bands act as planes of origin for the ‘rods,’ and do not cross through
the long axes of the rods themselves. They appear never to cross the bedding
planes, though occasionally they follow them and also the outline of the joints.
The question therefore arises, whether this does not give us a clue to the age
and sequence of the changes which have occurred in these beds, and whether the
previous existence of joints does not mean that the beds were already above the
sea-level when the changes commenced.

2, The rods invariably start from the last-mentioned bands, and may be seen
at every possible angle. As they have grown upwards and obliquely as well as
downwards, the term ‘stalactitic’ is a very misleading one to use. As Mr.
Garwood stated long ago, these beds ‘present many points which appear irrecon-
cilable with the theory of their stalactitic origin.’

3. The first step in the series of changes which have taken place was probabiy
an orderly but unsymmetrical arrangement of amorphous molecules of calcium
carbonate which separated themselves from those of the carbonate of magnesia.

4, The internal architecture is due to such arrangement of amorphous particles
of lime which has since been coated with an outer crystalline layer. In some cases,
however, the central part has undergone a complete subsequent change into a
crystalline condition.

5. Pearl-spar (crystals of the combined carbonates) is not always met with, I
failed to find any.

6. In the Fulwell beds there are very few fossils, and where met with, as at
Marsden, concretionary action is not always traceable near them.

7. The specimens at Fulwell which arouse the most interest are coralloid
masses (‘honeyecomb’ of the quarrymen). They are confined, so far as I could
discover, to a stratum, about 14 foot thick, above the marl bed, and lie in close
juxtaposition to each other, which accounts for their peculiar external shape.

8. Very little evidence of erosion of lime is to beseen anywhere ; unless we may
attribute the cavities in the balls and elsewhere to this cause.

In conclusion I would point out the close resemblance which exists between
the ‘lines’ and ‘planes’ in these concretionary beds, and the ‘lines’ which shoot
across congealing water. In some respects the architecture of the magnesian beds
compares with the ice decorations seen on our window-panes in frosty weather.

10. The Pebbles of the Hollybush Conglomerate, and their bearing on Lower
and Cambrian Paleogeography. By THEoporE Groom, M.A., DSc.

The Malvern Hills are commonly supposed to have formed part of an old coast
during the deposition of the Lower Paleozoic beds. A preliminary examination

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 739

of the materials of the Hollybush Conglomerate by the author does not support
this view.

The most abundant pebbles consist of guartz; these vary from a coarse mosaic
of crystals to a fine quartz-schist. Most of the varieties are probably of meta-
morphic origin; some appear to be merely vein-quartz, and some represent the
quartzose portions of granites and other rocks. Red granites and granophyres,
often crushed, are tolerably abundant ; these often contain microcline. Mica-schist
and chlorite-schist occur rarely. Very abundant are different varieties of felsite.
These appear to be mostly micro- or crypto-crystalline, and often micro-graphic,
rhyolites, compact or porphyritic ; sometimes banded, and occasionally spherulitic.
Some of the varieties may represent crushed intrusive felsites. ar rarer than the
rhyolites are microlithic andesites, or andesitic basalts. Other pebbles, and the
grains of the groundmass, consist of materials derivable from the rocks mentioned
above.

The resemblance of these materials to the rocks of the Malvern Range is suffi-
ciently close to prove the Pre-Cambrian age of the latter. But striking differences
in microscopic structure and in the proportionate numbers of ecrresponding rocks
in the two series, and the absence of any relation between the local nature of the
conglomerate and that of the Archean mass nearest to it, can hardly be explained
except on the assumption that the Range itself did not furnish the materials.

The stratigraphical relations of the conglomerate and Archzean mass, moreover,
appear to indicate that. the Malvern Hills—the southern portion at least—in
Cambrian times formed part of an area of deposition, and not of denudation.

The author maintains, then, that the Malvern Hills did not form a coast-line
in Cambrian times, a conclusion which is in agreement with his former contention
that they arose at a much later date.

: 11. On the Igneous Rocks associated with the Cambrian Beds of Malvern,

By Tueopore Groom, J.A., D.Sc.

‘The igneous rocks of the Cambrian beds of the Southern Malverns have
commonly been regarded as of volcanic origin. The author, after a careful
examination of the rocks under the microscope, and of the ground, concludes that
the scoriz and tuffs previously described are non-existent, and that the whole of
the igneous rocks are probably intrusive. They consist of silts and small laccolites
of basic and ultra-basic olivine diabase and olivine basalt, in which olivine is often
extremely abundant, and of bosses and dykes of peculiar amphibole bearing
andesttes and andesitie basalts.

Intrusion probably took place in Ordovician times.

ATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On a Possible Coalfield in the London Basin.
By Professor W. J. Soutas, D.Se., LL.D., PRS.

A very expensive and laborious investigation was undertaken some years ago
to determine the dip of the Paleozoic rocks reached by deep borings at Ware and
Cheshunt. The results were communicated to the Association by Mr. J. Francis
on the occasion of its meeting in Ipswich in 1895. At Ware the Silurian strata,
which had been reached at a depth of 797 feet, were found to dip nearly due south
at an angle of 41°; at Turnford, near Cheshunt, Devonian rocks were encountered
at 980 feet, and dipped a little to the west of southat an angle of*26°.

When beds occur in somewhat gently undulating folds, such as those which
appear to characterise the Paleozoic rocks of the east of England, the sweep of

3B2

740 REPORT —1900.

the synclinals can be traced with sufficient approximation by drawing lines at right
angles to the dips and describing circles from the point of intersection of these
lines as a centre. The thickness of the beds between any two points is given by
the length of the radius intercepted by the two corresponding circles. To test this
method it has been applied to cases in which the course of the synclinals was
known: one of these was afforded by the section across the northern side of the
South Wales coal basin, along the course of the river Sawdde, a distance, of four
miles; the other by the section exposed in the cuttings along the Rhymney railway
through the Old Red Sandstone, north of Cardiff, nearly two miles in length; in
both cases the results very closely approached the facts.

Two points at which the dips are known, such as those of Ware and Cheshunt,
are suflicient to determine one side of a synclinal. From the construction obtained
a basin is indicated having its axis running east and west and situated below
Enfield Lock on the river Lea, Its northern half is thirteen miles in breadth, the
thickness of the contained strata 29,500 feet: of this 19,000 feet are Silurian
and Devonian ; the remaining 7,500 feet are Devonian and Carboniferous. How
much of this upper portion is Devonian is unknown, no great thickness probably,
when the great thickness, 19,000 feet, of the underlying Devonian and Silurian
is considered. How much of the Carboniferous consists of productive Coal-
measures is also uncertain, but that there is ample room for an important coalfield
is shown by comparison with the Forest of Dean: that is only eight miles in width,
and the total thickness of the Carboniferous beds, upper and lower, contained by
it is only 3,500 feet, while the Enfield trough is approximately fourteen miles in
width and 7,500 feet in depth. An attempt to apply another method of deter-
mining the course of folds, employed by Professor Lapworth, shows that the
thickness of the Enfield measures may be even greater than here given—perhaps
10,000 feet.

It is scarcely necessary to point out that faults and other troubles may exist.
by which these estimates may be modified, but the dip of the Devonian heds to
the south, as determined by the deep boring made at Meux’s Brewery, London,
affords a strong confirmation of their general truth.

The strike of the beds would suggest a locality somewhat west of Enfield Lock—
possibly near the town of Enfield or New Barnet—as the most promising spot for
a trial boring.

2. On the Formation of Reef Knolls. By R. H. Trppeman, I4., F.G.S.

[Communicated with the permission of the Director-General of the
Geological Survey. |

At the meeting of the British Association at Newcastle in 1889 I brought out
my interpretation of the probable origin of the limestone knol!s of Yorkshire.

It was shown that the Lower Carboniferous Rocks in the North of England
had two distinct types—that the Yoredale or Northern type extended from the
Craven Faults to the Tyne, and that the Southern or Bowland type occupied the
country from the Craven Faults to near the Western Seaside plain and extended
south as far as Derbyshire. Without now recalling the two tables of the succes-
sion there given, I mentioned specially the curious construction of certain mounds
of limestone, which I called reef-knolls, and gave my reasons for supposing that they
bad been gradually built up on a slowly sinking sea bottom by the gradual
accretion of animal remains, somewhat in a similar manner to coral reefs. I also
showed that from the enormously disproportionate thickness of rocks in the area
of the downthrow side and from other considerations there was every reason to
ae the Craven Faults were actually taking place during the formation of
those;rocks. : ee: Hie Oe a, oo

My friend Mr. J. E. Marr, F.B.S.; has in’ a most courteous way, whilet taking

1 Report Brit. Assoc., 1889.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 741

my géological mapping as for the most part correct, found reasons for dissenting
‘with all the groundwork on which it was founded.

In combating Mr. Marr’s views I offer no opinion on knolls of other localities or
other ages which he brings forward in support of his views. I speak only of the
Carboniferous knolls of which I have written, and with which I am well
acquainted. Speaking generally, I think the differences between us may be thus
summarised :

1. Mr. Marr disagrees with my reading of the succession and thickness of the
rocks on the south side of the Craven Faults, and, whilst I consider that we have
two distinct successions of different thickness caused by a difference in the rate of
submergence in the two districts, and by shallower and deeper seas, he regards the
rocks on both sides as having been one series of like thickness in orderly sequence
to the north, but, so to speak, shuffled by earth movements on the south of those
faults and repeated several times by over-thrusts.

In illustration let us take a pack of cards, say arranged in suits as repre-
senting the regular country en the north side, and several packs similarly arranged
to represent the greater thickness on the south side. Shuffle these last to repre-
sent the supposed disturbance and oyer-thrusting. Shall we always find after
shuflling the same general succession? Yet over a tract reaching from Draughton
to Chipping and from Settle to Derbyshire, we do get such a general succession,
and that does not at all resemble the succession on the north side of the faults.
The over-thrusting to do this effectually must cover the whole of this wide area
comprised in three or four counties and not confine its operations to a narrow
disturbed belt near the Craven Faults. Is Mr. Marr prepared to make his orogenic
movements extend over so large an area, and thereby arrange the whole country,
which they break up, into so orderly a disposition ?

2. Mr. Marr regards the great difference between the black and white lime-
stone, the form and constitution of the reef-knolls, the abundance in them of
perfect fossil forms in a well-preserved state, the conglomerates and breccias which
accompany them, as all being the result of what he calls orogenic movements; in
other words, of the folding, repetition, and over-thrusting of the rocks, with kere
and there relief of pressure. More especially is the last called in as being the
reason for the abundant and well-preserved fossils and the change of the lime-
stones.

It is extremely difficult for me to accept these views. If we could believe that
a black, well and thinly bedded limestone can by any physical change be converted
into a white crystalline mass with little visible bedding, but with abundant fossils
in a perfect state, we have still to learn what has become of the shales which are
almost always present with the black limestone. If squeezed out, as might be
suggested, they would at least leave partings behind, and the rock would be more
bedded than it is,

Mr. Marr contemplates the likelihood of several different limestones being
shifted together to make one reef-knoll, but if so, are we not as likely to get the
thin sandstones of the Pendleside Grit sandwiched into them as well? Yet
sandstones and shale-beds are unknown in the reef-knolls.

Mr. Marr makes a number of statements about what he calls the Vs of the
Middle Craven Fault. His opinion is that this is a great thrust plane dipping
gently north, and that the Coal-measures are forced beneath the limestone, and so
on along its course. A bed of coal in the limestone at Ingleton is regarded by
him as having been forced up from underlying Coal-measures by pressure, and not
as originally interbedded. Unfortunately for these views, there are no proper Vs
or dipping planes of faulting indicated in the map. The sinuous track of the
Craven Fault is not so drawn to accommodate any theory, but is merely put where
the exposures of rock show it to run. Its wanderings are either dictated by or
stand im relation to the two principal lines of jointing in the limestone, which
range W.N.W. and N.N.W. Sometimes one direction, sometimes the other, has
the mastery. At Clapham the line is absolutely straight, and does not curve up

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. lv, pp. 327-361.

742 REPORT—1900.

stream as suggested by Mr. Marr. The coal seam mentioned is well known to me.
On searching it I found several Producti fairly perfect embedded in it and filled
with it, and the conclusion I came to was that it was either a coal-seam which had
grown on a reef and been submerged, or a deposit of seaweed. These Producti
seem to disagree with the injection theory, Such coal-seams are found occasionally
in the limestone. One near Kirkby Lonsdale has been worked for coal,

Mr. Marr has mentioned two places where knolls of grit occur. I do not admit
that a knoll of grit can have anything in common with the reef molls of Craven
unless it be the external form; but if such structures were made by earth thrusts
and abounded, it would no doubt be a strong point in favour of his views. One of
these grit knolls is said to be in the canal at the back of Shipton Castle. I think
this must be an error. I know of no sandstone in that locality, though I know it
well. I have consulted others who are, as geologists conversant with Shipton,
competent to form an opinion, and they agree with me that nothing but limestone
and shales occurs in that canal at that point. The beds there are certainly con-
torted, but not sandstone, and contortions do not necessarily imply reef-knolls.

I feel unable to regard Mr. Marr’s ‘model knoll’ as in any respect: resembling
what I have called reef-Imolls. That is, according to his views, a broken plication
of a thin hard bed of limestone in a mass of softer shale, the shale surrounding its
broken fragments. The knolls to which I allude are almost solid limestone from
top to base. They have no alternations of hard and soft beds, and, so far as Ihave
seen, no repetition of beds by folding. The evidences of movement on their flanks,
if any, are not more than one would expect from the vertical pressure of a more or
less plastic shale upon what is at least a less plastic limestone.

I admit fully that there are abundant evidences in the district of faulting, of
great pressure, and quite likely of over-thrusts; but to say that these have given to
these rocks a change of character, or are responsible for the order of their succes-
sion, appears to me to be invoking an unnecessarily powerful but yet inadequate
force. Such thrust-planes as are implied would meet the geologist in the field at
every turn, and force themselves into recognition. They would admit of easy
mapping, and no statement of their existence can be complete without some such
systematic recognition,

3. On the Construction and Uses of Strike Maps.
By J, Lomas, A.B.C.S., £.GS.

In studying the deformations which a series of rocks have undergone, we are
apt to regard the vertical movements as all-important, and neglect the horizontal
movements to which they have been subjected. This is largely owing to the
difficulties experienced in picturing such horizontal movements and representing
them on a plan.

Lines dependent on surface inequalities confuse the worker when he seeks to
use the ordinary geological maps for this purpose.

It is easy to get rid of these lines by projecting the strikes of the beds on to a
horizontal plane. We then have the appearance that would be produced if the
country were planed down to a horizontal surface. The outcrops would coincide
with the strikes, and any deviation from straight lines would indicate horizontal
movements,

Vertical movements would also be shown on such a plan by the closing up of
outcrops of beds of equal thickness.

All the necessary data necessary to represent these features on a strike map
are given in the ordinary Geological Survey Sheets.

To construct such a map, first trace the dips given on the geological map and
draw short lines at the points of the arrows, at right angles to the direction of dip.
__, We thus have represented the strikes of the beds at a number of points. Now
, is necessary to connect these up by lines to show the strike at intermediate
places.

It would not be safe to connect one line with another, as the strikes may refer
to different beds,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 743

In order to overcome this difficulty, draw a series of lines parallel to the
strike line on both sides of it. On doing this for all the positions it will be found
that the lines either connect themselves in linear series, or we have represented a
series of tangents to curves which become evident when the lines are prolonged in
the direction of the strike. Care should be taken not to connect in the same line
strikes with dips in contrary directions, and it is well to represent the dip side of

the strike lines by a short mark : :

When the amount of dip is known, as well as the direction, we can represent
the steepness of the folds by suitable shading, either by hachures or closeness of
strike lines.

As an illustration I exhibit strike maps of the district about Clitheroe, including
the well-known knolls at Worsa and Gerna. The anticlinal ridge just north of
Chatburn is clearly shown, and the strata dipping with wavy folds towards the
Ribble on the north and Clitheroe on the south.

The Salt Hill quarries are excavated in this southern slope at a place where
the fold becomes acute.

The knolls at Worsa and Gerna appear like whirls or eddies such as may be
seen in a stream when the flow is obstructed by boulders in the stream bed.

4. On Rapid Changes in the Thickness and Character of the Coal Measures
of North Staffordshire. By W. Gipson, 2.G.S.

[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of H.M. Geological SurVey.]

Variability in thickness and character of the strata is universal throughout the
Carboniferous period, but is nowhere more marked in the Midlands than in the coal-
tield cf the North Staffordshire Potteries

This important coalfield consists of two portions. On the east the productive
measures lie in a well-marked syncline, while on the west the strata rise in a sharp
anticline extending from Silverdale to Talke. The two productive areas are
separated by a strip of ground two and a half miles broad, composed of barren
upper measures.

A notable difference in the thickness of the strata and nature of the coal seams
characterises these structurally distinct areas. In the centre of the syncline, near
Shelton, the vertical distance between the highest ironstone, or summit of the
productive measures, to the Bullhurst coal, or lowest workable seam, is about
1,300 yards. On the anticline at Apedale only 800 yards of strata separate the
same horizons. This makes a remarkable decrease in thickness of 500 yards of
strata in a distance of under three miles. The reduction in thickness westward of
the productive measures is continued, though in a less degree, in the upper barren
series, but owing to the absence of shaft sections the amount cannot be definitely
stated It is known, however, that the red marls forming the lower portion of
the upper burren series are more than 1,000 feet thick near Etruria station on the
Shelton property, and about 850 feet thick near Silverdale, on the south-eastern
limb of the anticline. With the decrease in thickness a change has taken place in
the lower coals of the productive series. The seams which are house or steam coals
on the east change into gas and coking coals on the west.

This great variability seems to show that, separate areas of deposit were being
marked out by local movements of elevation and depression, and thus fulfilling in
North Staffordshire the conditions characteristic of the Carboniferous of the
Midlands generally, as pointed out by Prof. Lapworth.!

In North Staffordshire it happens that the areas of maximum and minimum
deposit correspond with a syncline and anticline. If this is true generally, and not
merely a local coincidence, we may expect the coals in the unexplored coalfield
which lies at the surface to the west of the anticline, and which represents the

a Sketch of the Geology of the Rirmingham District (Geol. Assoc.), 1898,
p. 364.

744, REPORT—1900,

eastern margin of the great synclinal of coal measures beneath the Cheshire plain,

to be of a different quality from those in the anticline, while the thickness of the
measures will be increased.

5. Report on the Registration of Type Specimens.—See Reports, p. 342.

6. Suggestions in regard to the Registration of Type-fossils.
By Rev. J. F. Buake.

Whereas:

1. There is now in existence, and has been for some time, a Committee of the
British Association ‘ to consider the best methods for the registration of all type
specimens of fossils in the British Isles.’

2. There is as yet in course of production no general register of such
specimens.

3. The original types are in many, perhaps the majority of, cases either lost,
inaccessible, or inadequately preserved or described.

4, Many names in common use have a foreign origin which have not been
adopted after actual comparison with the original foreign types.

5. Palzontological nomenclature consequently still remains burdened with
names of uncertain value.

It is therefore advisable that—

1. The above-named Committee recognise and register a new class of ‘ types,’
which may be either original or adopted, but which satisfy certain conditions laid
down to insure their having a definite value.

2, A register be published annually of such types, so that an author in using a
name may have the option of quoting this register, instead of the original author's
name,

3. This register should give references (1) to the author or authors, and their
publications thereupon, who have first satisfied the required conditions; (2) to the
museum where the type is deposited.

4. The limitation of types, registered by the British Association, should have
reference to the type specimens, whatever their origin, which are deposited in
museums within the United Kingdom (possibly to be enlarged at a future date to
the British Empire).

5. The Committee should, from time to time, determine the conditions required
for registration, but should be in no way responsible for the validity of the
‘ species’ to which the type may be said to belong, or for the name under which
it is registered, which registration should apply to the ‘specific’ name only and
not be affected by its reference later to another genus; the only care of the
Committee, beyond seeing that the required conditions are satisfied, being to secure
that identical diagnoses are not registered under different names, and that the same
name is not used at different times for different diagnoses.

The suggested conditions for registration are as follows:

1. A single specimen must be selected as the type, but two or more co-types
may be admitted, which are identical in all other respects than the preservation of
different necessary characters.

. 2. The exact horizon and locality of the specimen thus selected must be
nown,

3. All the commonly called ‘ specific’ characters required, in the class to which
it belongs, must be known by the type or by the co-types together, and also
described, and also the generic ones when the genus is not obvious. [N.B.—The
determination whether this condition is carried out in any particular case will rest
with the member of the Committee charged with the sae |

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C, “TAS

4, All characters, capable of numerical statement, including size, proportion of
parts or lines, angle, &c., must be so given. [N.B.—Adequate figures may suffice
tor this. }

5. ‘The type specimen must be permanently placed in a public museum in the
United Kingdom.

N.B.—It is not necessary that the type specimen in the above sense should be
the first anywhere described under the registered name, but only the first that
satisfies the above conditions,

It is suggested that registered types should be quoted as B 1, B 13—e¢.
Terebratula biplicata, B 1, or Phacops caudatus, B 13—B standing for British,
and the number for that of the year of the century. Specimens differing notably
from the type, but included in the same species, might be quoted as (B 1),

7. The Outcrop of the Corallian Limestones of Elsworth and St. Ives.
By C. B, Wepp, B.A., F.G.S.

[Communicated by permission of the Director-General of H.M. Geological Survey. ]

The ferruginous and oolitic limestones known as the Elsworth and St. Ives
Rocks are now generally believed to be one and the same, an opinion supported by
my own work in that district recently. The limestone in question has long been
known to occur at St. Ives in brick-pits, being well exposed to the west of the
town. It was known also to occur throughout the village of Elsworth. Mr.
Cameron noticed a fossiliferous rock outcropping near Hilton, between Elsworth
and St. Ives. No other surface exposures were known, but a similar rock was
found in the railway cutting at Bluntisham, north-east of St. Ives, at Swavesey,
east of the same place, and Bourn, south of Elsworth, and a few other localities,
and like rock was found in Wells.

The outcrop can be traced almost continuously from a mile west of the brick-
yard at St. Ives, striking eastwards along the northern flank of the Ouse valley,
and passing north of St. [ves to Needingworth; here it bends abruptly southwards
to Holywell and forms a gentle rise. The southern part of the village of Holy well
stands on a gravel-capped escarpment of the rock; a collection of fossils in the
Woodwardian Museum, Cambridze, agreeing closely with those of the Elsworth
and St. Ives Rocks, was believed to have come from Holywell. East of Holywell
the outcrop must cross the Ouse valley; I found traces of the rock in a drain some
distance west of Swavesey. From here, south-westwards, it is not seen again till
it appears at the surface between Hilton and Conington, where a rock was noted
by Mr. Cameron. Southwards from here the outcrop crosses a valley to the rising
ground west of Elsworth, through which village a narrow tongue of the rock runs
still further south. The main outcrop, however, flanks the northern slope of the
drift-capped high ground to the west, and can be traced along the slope through
Papworth Everard, westwards to Yelling, following the contour of the ground.
At both of these localities there are good and highly fossiliferous exposures in
streams. Thence the outcrop disappears southwards under drift, but the rock may
be seen again to the south, less than two miles south of Croxton, in a ditch in the
valley of the Abbotsley Brook.

To the north, east, and south-east of the line of outcrop of this limestone, the
ground is occupied by Ampthill clay, to the west by Oxford clay. It will thus be
seen that the Elsworth and St. Ives Rocks, besides agreeing closely in their fauna,
outcrop along the same line of strike, with Ampthill clay above and Oxford clay
below. The dip is always small, and the rock at Bluntisham, if it reaches the
surface at all, does so probably as an inlier, though it may be directly connected at
the surface with the outcrop east of St. Ives.

8. Report on the Exploration of Caves at Uphill, near Weston-super- Mare.
See Reports, p. 342,

746 — REPORT—1900.

9. Report on the Exploration of Irish Caves.
See Reports, p. 340.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

A joint Discussion with Section K on the Conditions under which the Plants
of the Coal Period grew was opened by the reading of the following Papers :—

Flora of the Coal-measures. By R. Krpston.

Leaving out of consideration for the meantime a few genera of which we
possess little or no definite knowledge, the flora of the Coal-measures consists of
Ferns, Calamites, Lycopods, Sphenophyllee, Cordaites, and Conifere.

In genera and species the ferns are probably more numerous than the whole of
the other groups, and contain representatives of the Husporangiate and Lepto-
sporangiate members of the class. The Eusporangiate, or those ferns whose
sporangia are unprovided with an annulus, were more numerous in the Carboni-
ferous period than at present, though in the Coal-measures they do not appear to
have been more numerous than the genera with annulate sporangia. Tree ferns,
though not very common, are more frequent in the Upper than in the Lower
Coal-measures, in the lowest beds of which they seem to be very rare.

The Calamites are largely represented throughout the whole of the Coal-
measures, Asterophyllites (Calamocladus) and Annularia probably being their
foliage.

Lycopods are also very numerous, and are represented by many important
genera—Lycopodites, Lepidodendron, Lepidophloios, Bothrodendron, and Sigillaria,
with their rhizomes Stigmaria and Stigmariopsis. These genera contributed
largely to the formation of Coal.

The genus Sphenophyllum was also frequent during Coal-measure times, and
forms a type of vegetation essentially distinct from any existing group.

The Gymnosperms are represented by Cordaites, Conifere, and Cycads,

The Cordaites had tree-like trunks and long yucca-like leaves. They are
plentiful in the Coal-measures, and, like the arborescent lycopods, must have been a
prominent feature in a Carboniferous forest-scene.

The Conifere, so far as I have seen, are only represented by a single specimen
of Waichia from the Upper Coal-measures ; and though Cycads have been discovered
in the Upper Coal-measures on the Continent, I am not aware of any British
species which can be referred with certainty to this group.

The Origin of Coal. By A. Strawn, ILA.

The deposition of the Coal-measures was due to the subsidence of large por-
tions of the earth’s crust to a depth often amounting to several thousand feet.
The subsidence, being unequal, led to the formation of coal-basins, parts of the
margins of which are still recognisable. That the intervening areas rose no
less rapidly than the basins sank is proved by the vast denudation sutlered by the
earlier Paleozoic rocks during the Carboniferous period.

The subsidence was counterbalanced during Coal-measure times by sedimenta-
tion, for the occurrence of marine beds among deposits of a generally estuarine
aspect proves that the surface was maintained at or near sea-level. The
Carboniferous sediments consist,in the majority of coal-fields, of marine limestones
in the lower part, of marine grits and conglomerates in the middle part, and of
estuaro-marine sandstones and shales in the upper part. The sequence is due,
firstly, to the admission of the sea to the subsiding areas; and lastly, to the
restoration of level brought about by sedimentation and denudation. But there
is evidence also of the sedimentation having been more or less spasmodic. Thus
the Limestone Series generally consists of repetitions of small groups of strata,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 747

each group being composed of sandstone, followed by shale, shale followed by
limestone. Similarly the Coal-measures present repetitions of sandstone followed
by shale, shale by coal. Limestone in the one case and coal in the other are
therefore comparable in the respect that each represents an episode when sedimen-
tation had come to a pause. Early views as to the origin of coal, namely, that it
was formed of vegetable matter drifted beyond the region to which the finest
mineral sediment could reach, were in accordance with these facts.

More minute examination of the strata, however, revealed proofs of land-
surfaces in the Coal-measures, and it was generally accepted that the coal-seams
represent forests in the place of their growth. The evidence may be summarised
as follows:—

1, Rain-pittings, sun-cracks, and footprints prove that the surfaces of some of
the beds were exposed to the air.

2, Erect tree-trunks of large size, in some cases attached to large spreading
roots, are not uncommon. Land-shells, millipedes, and the skeletons of air-
breathing reptiles have occasionally been found within the hollow trunks,

3. The underclays of coal-seams are traversed in all directions by branching
rootlets, unlike the drifted fragments in the bedding planes of the other strata.
‘They were described as an invariable accompaniment of coals, and as being
the soils in which the coal-forest was rooted.

4. Coal-seams, with thin minute partings, persist over vast areas, and it was
thought impossible that so wide and regular a distribution of the vegetable matter
could have been accomplished by drifting.

5, The chemical composition of the coals was believed to prove that the vege-
table matter underwent partial decomposition in the open air before being
submerged or buried.

This evidence, however, though it proves the existence of land surfaces, is not
conclusive of the coal-seams being forests in place of growth. The rain-pittings,
sun-cracks, and footprints occur, not in the coals, but in the intervening strata.
Of the erect tree-trunks a large proportion occur in sandstones devoid of coal, a
few only having been found to stand upon an underclay, or to be associated with
seams of coal. Vast areas of coal have been worked without any such trunks
having been encountered. The majority of the trunks, moreover, are destitute of
spreading roots, and are believed to have been floated to their present positions.
The land-shells, insect and reptilian remains, are of extremely rare occurrence.

The underclays do not resemble soils, inasmuch as they are perfectly homo-
geneous, and lie with absolute parallelism to the other members of a stratified
series. They are not always present beneath coal-seams, but, on the other hand,
often occur in them or above them. F requently they have no coal associated with
them. The rootlets in them have no connection with the coal, which is a well-
stratified deposit with a sharply defined base.

The persistence of the partings and characters of the coal over wide areas is in
favour of their being subaqueous deposits, for on so large an expanse of land there
must have been river-systems and variations in the vegetation. The stream-beds,
known to miners as ‘ wash-outs,’ are not proportioned in size to the supposed land-
surfaces,

Sub-aérial decomposition of part of a mass of vegetable matter would take place
whether it were floating or resting on dry land. Spores, which enter largely into the
composition of many coals, would travel long distances either by wind or water.

Some coal-seams show clear proof of a drifted origin, as, for example, those
which are made up of a mass of small water-worn chips of wood or bark. Other
Seams pass horizontally into bands of ironstone, and one case has been observed
of a coal changing gradually into a dolomitic tufa, doubtless formed in a stagnant
lagoon. Putting aside exceptional cases, the sequence of events which preceded
the deposition of a normal coal-seam seems to have been—firstly, the outspreading
of sand or gravel with drifted plant-remains, followed by shale as the currents
lost velocity. The water was extremely shallow, and even retreated at times, so
as to leave the surface open to the air. The last sediments were extremely fine,

748 REPORT—1900.

homogeneous, and almost wholly siliceous, and in them a mass of presumably
aquatic vegetation rooted itself. This further impediment to movement in the
water cut off all sediment, and the material brought into the area then consisted only
of wind-borne vegetable dust or floating vegetable matter carrying an occasional
boulder. Lastly, the formation of the coal-seam was brought to a close by a sudden
invasion of the area by moving water. The mass of vegetable matter, often after
suffering some little erosion, was buried by sandstone or shale rich in large
drifted remains of plants or trees, and the whole process was recommenced.

Botanical Evidence bearing on the Climatic and other Physical
Conditions under which Coal was formed. By A, C. Sewarp, /.4.S.

Botanical investigations into the nature and composition of the vegetation
which has left abundant traces in the sediments of the Coal-measures may be ex-
pected to throw some light on the natural conditions which prevailed during that
period in the earth’s history that was par excellence tue age of coal production.
The minute examination of petrified tissues has rendered possible a restoration of
the internal framework of several extinct types of plant-life, and has carried us a
step further towards the solution of evolutionary problems. It is possible, even
with our present knowledge, to make a limited use of anatomical structure as an
index of life-conditions, and to restore in some degree from structural records the
physiological and physical conditions of plant-life characteristic of the close of the
Carboniferous epoch,

I. Evidence furnished by the Coal-period Floras as to Climatic and
other Physical Conditions.

The uniformity in the character of the vegetation exaggerated ; the Glossopteris
flora of Australia, South Africa, and South America. The existence of botanical
provinces in Upper Paleozoic times.

A comparison of the Coal-period vegetation with that of the present day as
regards (i.) the relative abundance of certain classes of plants, (ii.) the geographi-
cal distribution of certain families of plants during the Carboniferous epoch and at
the present day. The importance of bearing in mind the progress of plant-evolu-
tion as a factor affecting the consideration of such comparisons. The possible exist-
ence of a Palzeozoic Mountain flora of which no records have been preserved.

Il. The Form, Habit, and Manner of Occurrence of Individual Plants
as Indices of Conditions of Growth.

Comparison of calamites and horse-tails. Fossil forests of calamites. Psaronius
stems zz situ and bearing roots at different levels, suggesting growth in a region of
rapid sedimentation. Vertical stems either in loco natal or drifted. Climbing
plants possibly represented by Sphenophyllum, some species of ferns and Medul-
loseee. Function of the so-called Aphlebia leaves of ferns.

III. Anatomical Evidence.

The value of evidence afforded by anatomical features. Risks of comparison
between structural character of extinct and recent plants. Structure considered
from the point of view of evolution, as the result of adaptation to external
conditions, and to mechanical and physiological requirements.

(a) Spores and leaves.—Abundance of spores provided with filamentous or
hooked appendages ; adaptation of spores to floating or to wind-dispersal. The leaf
structure of calamites, ferns, &c.; presence of stomata, palisade tissue, and water-
glands; the ‘parichnos’ or aérating tissue in the leayes of Lepidodendree and
Sigillaries.

(8) Stems and roots.—Absence of annual rings of growth. The large size of
water-conducting elements connected with rapid transport (e.g. Sphenophyllum) or
with storage of water (e.g. Megaloxylon). The chambered pith of Cordattes,

ee

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 749

quoted as evidence of rapid elongation, of little or no physiological significance.
Abundance of secretory tissue. Anatomical characteristics of a Lepidodendroid type
of stem; great development of secondary tissue in the outer cortex, little or no true
cork, lax inner cortex. lacunar tissue in the roots of calamites; hollow appen-
dages of Stigmaria. Indications of xerophytic characters may be the result of
growth in salt marshes,

Evidence as to the Manner of Formation of Coal.

(a) The structure of calcareous nodules found in coal seams; the preservation
of delicate tissues, the occurrence of fungal hyphe and the petrification of Stig-
marian appendages as evidence in favour of the subaqueous accumulation of the
plant-débris found in the calcareous nodules.

(6) Ordinary coal microscopically examined. Spores, fragments of tissues, bac-
teria, and the ground substance of coal. Coal found in the cavities of cells in
earbonised tissues. Suggested non-vegetable origin of the matrix of coal.
‘ Boulders’ and coal-balls included in coal seams.

(ec) Boghead, Cannel coal, and Oil-shales—Receni investigations of Bertrand,
Renault, and others. The structure and mode of origin of torbanite, kerosene,
shale, &c. Suggested origin of Boghead from the minute bodies of algze (flewrs
d@eau), spores, &c., embedded in a brown ulmic substance found on the floor of a
lake. Absence of clastic material. Cannel coal characterised by abundance of
spores,

: (d) Paper-coal of Russia.—The paper-coal of Culm age in the Moscow basin con-
sists largely of the cuticles of a Lepidodendroid plant, Bacterial action as an agent
in the destruction of plants and as a factor in the production of coal.

The Origin of Coal. By J. HE. Marr, F.R.S.

I. What is Coal? A non-scientific term introduced into scientific nomen-
clature for substances of divers character and, therefore, probably of different
modes of origin.

Il. Was the Carboniferous period one where conditions suitable to formation of
coal were unusually widespread ?

Coincidence at this period of dominant giant cryptogams, extensive plains of
sedimentation, and suitable climatic conditions. Such coincidence never occurred
before or after the Carboniferous period.

Il. What work should be done in order to advance our knowledge of origin of
coal?

In the past light has been thrown on coal-formation by chemical, petrological,
paleeontological, and stratigraphical studies, and these should be continued.

1, Chemical—Importance of study of chemical composition of fire-clays and
other accompaniments of coal in addition to coal itself.

2. Petrological—Dr. Sorby’s work on origin of grains of mechanically formed
rocks (sandstones, &c.) should be continued.

3. Paleontological.Studies of faunas and floras throwing light on physical
and also on climatic conditions.

4. Stratigraphical—Much detailed work is required in many parts of the world
to discover over what periods coal-formation occurred in exceptional amount.
Tendency at outset to refer all upper Paleozoic coal-formations to the Coal-
measures.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. On the Fish Fauna of the Yorkshire Coalfields.
By Evcar D. Weiieury, F.G.8.
,, Only Lower and Middlé Measures ‘present: their extent and boundaries.
Lower Measures, their extent and general characters, beds of marine and fresh-

750 REPORT—1900.

water origin present. Middle Measures, their general character; formed in a
series of freshwater lake basins. Fish remains, where found and in what state of
preservation; their habits of life; Elasmobranchs, Teleosteans (and in some cases
Dipnoians), commingled, zc. marine and freshwater types in same beds (fresh-
water); Elasmobranchs found in marine and freshwater beds; Dipnoi only
found under freshwater conditions. Teleostean orders, Crossopterygii and
Actinopterygii found in both freshwater and marine beds. Conditions under
which coals were deposited as bearing on the occurrence and habits of the fish.
The swim-bladder of Coelalacuthus, and its peculiar use to them under certain
conditions. Remarks on fish remains; Elasmobranchii represented by eleven
genera and twenty-three species; Ichthyodorulites by seven genera and eight
species ; Dipnoi by two genera and two species; and the Teleostomi by twelve
genera and thirty-three species. Tabular list of fish remains showing their
stratigraphical distribution ; remarks on above list ; several new fish-bearing coal
shales; the distribution and vertical range of the Yorkshire coal-fishes being thus
greatly extended ; several genera and species new to Yorkshire, and others new to
science.

2, On some Fossil Fish from the Millstone Grit Rocks.
By Epear D. WeLiBuRY, £.GS.

The Millstone Grits are naturally grouped into three divisions, viz.: (1) Rough
Rock; (2) Middle Grits; (3) Kinder Grits at base. Middle Grits, consisting of
grits, sand, shales, subdivided into A B C and D beds, A being uppermost.
Pennine Aunticline, mostly composed of these rocks, and on Lancashire side at
head of Calder Valley, on the south side in a quarry at summit, there is a good
exposure of the D shales, and in these shales majority of fish remains found; a
few others having occurred at same horizon at Wadsworth Moor, Sowerby, Kilne
House Wood, and Eccup, Yorkshire. Majority of fish in nodular masses, few
in shales. Associated with marine fauna. Fish-bearing beds formed under
marine estuarian conditions. Fish of great geological and zoological interest, as
largely increasing our knowledge of the fish fauna in groups of rocks whose
yield of fish remains has hitherto been extremely Jimited ; and zoologically in fact
that (1) one genus and several species are new; (2) one Lower Old Red Sandstone
fish present; (3) the occurrence of the Lower Carboniferous types, Orodus,
Psephodus, Pristodus; and (4) several genera and species are new to these rocks.
Remarks on fish remains, Table of stratigraphical distribution.

3. The Plutonic Complea of Cnoc-na-Sroine and its Bearing on Current
Hypotheses as to the Genesis of Igneous Rocks. By J.J. H. Teatt,
M.A., F.RS., Pres.G.S.

The plutonic complex of Cnoc-na-Sroine begins about five miles south of
Inchnadampf, in Sutherlandshire, and extends in a south-easterly direction for
about five miles, with an average width of about one mile. It is bounded on the
north and south by peat-covered tracts, and is, therefore, more extensive than is
indicated by the above figures. It lies in the disturbed zone. The main outcrop
of the Ben More thrust lies to the east, but outliers of rocks above this thrust
occur to the north and west. The plutonic rocks were intruded into the Durness
limestone series, which is locally altered at the junctions to a marble containing
silicates of lime and magnesia.

The central part of the mass is a red soda-granite or quartz-syenite,' mainly
composed of orthoclase and albite (or a closely allied felspar), with which a little
quartz is associated. Ferro-magnesian minerals are almost entirely absent. The
peripheral portions are more basic, and include syenites, augite-syenites, nepheline-

1 See Geological Magazine for September, 1900, for further petrographical
Getails. eroge i . : é

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. (As il

syenites, and the peculiar rock to which the term borolanite has been applied.
These basic border rocks are richer in lime, iron, magnesia, and titanic acid, though
still containing alkali felspar and nepheline. This is proved by the occurrence of
biotite, eegirine-augite, melanite, and sphene.

There are three possible ways in which the complex may have originated :
(1) successive intrusions; (2) differentiation zz situ; and (8) modification of the
original magma by the absorption of material from the adjacent limestones or
dolomites.

The fact that transitional forms between the main types are abundant seems
to suggest that successive intrusions of sharply differentiated magmas have not
played an important part in the building up of the complex. The formation of a
border facies of basic rocks, richer in lime and magnesia, can be explained by
absorption from the adjacent limestones or dolomites, but the enrichment in iron
and titanic acid, as represented by the frequent abundance of melanite and sphene,
cannot be so accounted for. ‘The evidence at present available suggests that
differentiation, coupled, it may be, with some absorption of material from the
adjacent sedimentaries, has heen the main agent in forming the complex.

But, however the complex may have originated, it is certain that the magmas
vepresenting the more acid and the more basic portions appear outside the plutonic
area as dykes and sills. Thus to the north there are felsitic rocks containing
egirine closely allied in composition to the quartz-syenites, and in the Coigach
district of West Ross-shire, about seventeen miles to the west of Cnoc-na-Sroine,
there are dykes of borolanite.

The main object of this communication is to call attention to the extremely
interesting petrographical province—unique so far as the British Islands are
concerned—of which Cnoc-na-Sroine forms a part, and to the problems connected
with it which still await solution,

4. On a Granophyre-dyke Intrusive in the Gabbro of Ardnamurchan,
Scotland. By Professor K. Busz, of Miinster.

Similar contact-phenomena to those already known of Barnayave in Ireland
and of Strath on the isle of Skye have been found near the village of Kilhoan
on Ardnamurchan, where a granophyre-dyke, intrusive in a surrounding mass of
gabbro, has not only effected alterations of the gabbro, but has also undergone
alterations in its own composition through the absorption of basic material.

The gabbro occurs in two varieties, the one being a fine sugar-grained black
rock, without any macroscopically visible structure, the other showing a porphy-
ritic structure and containing small black crystals or crystalline aggregates of
triclinic felspar.

They both consist of anorthite, pyroxene—diallage and common augite—and
magnetite ; rhombic pyroxene in considerable quantity is also present in the por-
phyritic variety.

On the junction line, where the granophyre and gabbro meet, all constituents
have been greatly altered. The triclinic felspar gradually passes into orthoclase
and the alteration-product of pyroxene is hornblende (usually uralite), brown mica,
and secondary granular augite.

The granophyre consists _of quartz generally in well-defined crystals and of
grey orthoclase, which serves as interstitial matter. It also contains a great
number of rectangular felspar crystals, the centre of which in many cases consists
of triclinic felspar (gabbro-xenocrysts). It appears spotted with numerous black
patches of different size, mostly minute, which are the remains of pyroxene-xeno-
crysts, originated from the gabbro and showing every stage of alteration.

The results of the examination of these rocks lead to the following conclusions:

1. The gabbro is presumably a dyke-rock, belonging to the group:which has
heen termed beerbachite, and also partly a porphyritic variety of the same—beerda-
chite-porphyry. ;

2. It was solidified before the intrusion of the granopbyre, as the latter contains

752 REPORT—1900.

a great number of xenoliths of it, which through the acid magma have undergone
great alterations.

3. The granophyre has absorbed a considerable quantity of the basic material,
thereby altering its own composition and effecting the crystallisation of hornblende
and mica, two constituents which we have to consider as not belonging to the
original granophyre magma.

4. In the solidification of the granophyre two stages can be distinguished, the
first giving rise to the formation of the rectangular orthoclase crystals, which
crystallised in parallel intergrowth with the plagioclase-xenocrysts, the second
forming a kind of groundmass in which fresh quartz crystallised, while the ortho-
clase filled up the remaining spaces.

5 Interim Report on the Present State of owr Knowledge of the Structure
of Crystals.

6, Report on Life Zones in British Carboniferous Rocks.
See Reports, p. 340.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER ll.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1, On Naiadita from the Upper Rietic (Bed K of Wilson’s Section) of
Redland, near Bristol. By Icurna B, J. Souuas, B.Sc.

The plant remains known as Naiadita are found in Rhetic beds in the Severn
district below the Avon. Phillips mentions their occurrence at Tewkesbury,
Westbury-on-Severn, and Bristol.

These fossils are well known from the description published fifty years ago by
Buckman. It was Buckman who chose for them the name Naiadita, because he
considered them to be monocotyledonous plants resembling the members of the
order Naiadacez.

Mr. Starkie Gardner in 1886 re-examined them, and pointed out that the
markings taken by Buckman as having been left by the rectangular venation of a
Waias-like leaf were in reality fossilised cell-walls.

Mr. Gardner concludes that the plant is a moss, and probably closely allied to
the genus Fontinalis. He speaks of a capsule, but of this he gives no description.

A slab from the Naiadites bed of Pyll Hill, Bristol, was recently sent by
Mr. Wickes of that town to my father for examination, because it contains bodies
which were thought to be possibly gemmules of sponges. On this proving not to
be the case the specimen was handed over to me.

The plant, which was delicate, slender, and moss-like in habit, is preserved in a
more or less fragmentary condition, 1 believe, however, that the parts are suf-
ficiently connected to show that the sporangia are situated at the bases of the leaves,
between their upper surfaces and the stem. The stems branch laterally, and a
sporangium is often to be seen near a point of branching.

The shapes of the leaves are various, and this has led Buckman to establish
three distinct species. No doubt there may be more than one species present, but
certainly leaves of at least two different shapes are to be seen attached to one and
the same piece of stem, viz., small obovate leaves and larger ones of an elongate
elliptical shape.

The epidermal cell-walls are preserved and their outlines are very clear. The
cells are long and rectangular, shortening towards the bases of the leaves. No
stomata are to be seep.

-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 7090

The capsules are more or less spherical, and measure 0°75 mm. in diameter,
Those which are broken are seen to contain a granular mass of spores. The more
perfect capsules have a wall which appears tessellated, as it is composed of small
quadrate cells.

Sections of the capsules show that the spores are still connected into tetrads
by the spore mother cell-walls. The coats of the spores are covered with minute
bosses. The sporangium wall is at least one cell layer thick.

Sections of the vegetative parts do not reveal any details of structure, but some
points may be made out by simply rubbing down onahone. Long tubes filled
up with oxide of iron lying in the axes of the stems are all that is preserved of the
internal tissues. The tubes may occasionally be found sending a branch to a leaf,

The nature and position of the sporangia and their contents suggest that
Naiadita had affinities with Lycopods rather than with mosses.

On this account I searched thoroughly for stomata, as structures confirmatory
of the sporophytic nature of the plant. The result of the search was, as I have
said, negative, and it is not surprising that this should be the case. The associated
fossils are freshwater forms, and the habits of the plant point to a submerged
existence. Mr. Gardner has already appreciated this fact in maintaining the close
kinship of Naiadita with Fontinalis. The submerged species of Isoétes show that
aquatic life in the case of Cryptogams leads to loss of stomata just as in that of
Phanerogams,

2 The Influence of the Winds upon Climate during Past Epochs: a
Meteorological Explanation of some Geological Problems. By F. W.
Harmer, 2.G.S.

This paper is in continuation of one read at Dover in 1899, on ‘The Meteoro-
logical Conditions of North-western Europe during the Pliocene and Glacial
Periods.’

The irregular distribution of the isotherms in the northern hemisphere is
largely due to the direction of the prevalent winds. In regions where these are
constantly varying, as, for example, in Great Britain, the climate varies diurnally,
one day being often dry or cold, and the next rainy or warm. In others, where
the wind changes seasonally, one part of the year is rainless and another pluvial.
Permanent alterations in climate would equally result were the course of the pre-
valent winds permanently changed.

The direction of the winds, which must always be more or less parallel to the
isobars, depends on the relative position, and on the form and alignment of areas
of high and low barometric pressure. The movements of the latter being largely
interdependent, any important meteorological disturbance, however caused, may
male its influence felt at a considerable distance from the focus of its origin.

The winds blow round areas of high and low pressure; outwards, from the
former, and to the north of the Equator, from left to right: and inwards, towards
the latter, from right to left. Hence, in the northern hemisphere, southerly
winds prevail to the east of a cyclonic centre, and northerly winds to the west of
it, the contrast between the temperature of the two being usually in proportion
to the distance the aérial currents may have travelled from the south and the
north respectively. Warm and cold winds must therefore necessarily coexist,
causing differences in climate in countries having the same latitude. The winter
temperature of Hudson’s Bay is, for example, 60° F. colder than that of Great
Britain. Similar climatal conditions must also have existed during the Pleistocene
epoch,

The continental regions of the northern hemisphere, being at present warmer
during summer than the ocean, are cyclonic; in winter they are colder, and con-
sequently anticyclonic. Over the great ice-sheets of the Glacial period, however,
high pressure must have prevailed, more or less, at all seasons, and, generally, the
meteorological conditions, including the direction of the prevalent winds, and local
variations in climate must then have been widely different from those of our own

1900 3c

754 REPORT—1900.

times. Oceanic winds, with copious rainfall, may have prevailed in regions now
arid, and mild winters where they are now excessively severe. Such cases of
anomalous climate as those of the pluvial conditions of the Sahara, and of Arabia
and Persia, during the Pleistocene era, may be satisfactorily explained by the changes
in the relative positions of cyclonic and anticyclonic systems, which were caused by
the gradual growth and disappearance of the great ice-sheets, as may be the
alternate humidity and desiccation of the great basin of Nevada, the former
existence of the eri on the shores of the Polar Sea, &c.

It is difficult, however, to restore hypothetically the meteorological conditions
of the Pleistocene epoch, on the theory that the maximum glaciation of the eastern
and western continents was contemporaneous, At present, the influence of the
Gulf Stream and the south-west winds caused by the Icelandic cyclone carries in
winter a comparatively warm climate, and low pressures, northwards into the Arctic
Circle, but no permanent ice-sheet could have existed in Great Britain under such
circumstances. Inthe opinion of Professor Jas. Geikie and of Dr. Buchan, the polar
basin was filled with ice, and therefore permanently anticyclonic, during the Glacial
epoch. Cyclones and anticyclones in regions more or less contiguous are, however,
necessarily complementary, in order that the vertical circulation of the atmosphere
may be maintained. The existence of an enormous polar anticyclone, extending
southwards over a great portion of Europe and North America, would have
involved also that of a cyclonic system of corresponding importance in the North
Atlantic, a region which must have been at all seasons warmer than those covered
with ice. If Europe and North America were glaciated at the same time, the
Icelandic cyclone, which now lies (statistically) in winter near to the south-east
coast of Greenland, would have been forced to the south ; but the further south it
went, the warmer would have been the southerly winds which blew east of its centre
towards Great Britain and Western Europe. Conditions similar to those which
may have prevailed during the Glacial period occurred during the early part of
1899, for information as to which the author desires to acknowledge his indebted-
ness to Mr. W. N. Shaw, F.R.S., of the Meteorological Office. At that time a
great low-pressure system, which sometimes extended from Europe to America, and
from Iceland to the Canary Islands, occupied the North Atlantic. Vast volumes of
cold air were consequently poured over North America, and Western Europe was
flooded by warm aérial currents from the sub-tropical zone. At the beginning of
February, temperatures of from—40° F, to—60° F’. were commonly registered in
different parts of North America; while at the same time the thermometer rose
in London to 66° F., in Liége to 70° F., and in Davos to 62° F., the average
maximum for that month at the latter place being 38° F. These coincident varia-
tions in the temporary climate of the northern hemisphere are directly traceable to
the same cause. :

No meteorological difficulties arise if we adopt the hypothesis that glacial and
interglacial periods alternated in the eastern and western continents. If the ice-
cap extended from Greenland to Scandinavia, the North Atlantic cyclone would
have been forced to the south-west, towards the American coast, producing warm

south-east winds over Labrador; if, on the contrary, it stretched from Greenland

to North America, the cyclone would have been driven in the direction of Europe,
causing mild weather in the latter, as in the case just given.

Such a view affords a simpler explanation of the geological facts than those
usually adopted. Instead of supposing that the climatic changes of the Great Ice
age, several times recurrent at intervals of a few thousand years only, were due to
astronomical causes, it is here suggested that the climate of the Pleistocene
epoch being uniformly colder than that of our own era, conditions of comparative
warmth or cold may have been local, as they now are, affecting the great conti-
nental areas at different periods.

3 Notes on some Recent Excavations in the Glacial Drift in Bradford.
By Jas. Moncxmay, D.Sc.

The stream that flows through the Bradford Valley rises on the hills above
Thornton and flows in an easterly direction to the centre of the town, where it
turns at right angles towards the north and falls into the Aire at Shipley.

et)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION CG, 700

In the lower branch of the valley we find abundance of glacial materials, which
have been pushed up from the Aire by a branch of the Airedale glacier, and
among the rocks abundance of limestones.

In the upper valley we do not find the same state of things; but, instead of the
limestones, are grits and sandstones, except along a line commencing at Leventhorpe
Hall (which is about three miles from the centre of the town), and passing through
Lidget Green, Grange Estate, Little Horton to Bankfoot, it forms a fairly straight
line, about three-quarters of a mile south of the Town Hall, at its nearest point.

Behind Grange load, to the south, there is an extensive deposit, which has
been exposed to a depth of twenty-two feet in some places, and excellent oppor-
tunities afforded of examining the boulders, among which were found many speci-
mens of limestones, light-coloured and dark, banded and cherty, also a fair quantity
of Silurian grits.

I afterwards found limestone at Hewenden, and Mr. Muff found it near Oxen-
hope ; there is also an immense deposit at Cowling.

Thus we find the same kind of deposits along a moderately straight line on the
south side of the Aire Valley.

The presence of the Silurian pebbles appears to indicate that, as there is no
rock on the south of the Aire from which they could be derived, the Ribblesdale
ice was forced over into Airedale, and that the moraine formed from the grits and
slates of Ingleborough became the southern one in the Aire Valley.

The grit boulders to the south of this line are of the same character as the
strata forming the hills on that side of the valley, and were probably carried by
smaller local streams of ice.

4. On @ Glacial ‘ Hxtra-morainic’ Lake occupying the Valley of the
Bradford Beck. By J. E. Wuson.

Tn the paper read by the late Professor H. Carvill Lewis before the Geological
Section at Manchester in 1887 on the Extra-morainic Lakes of Central England
and elsewhere, he pointed out that the Aire glacier was the cause of three lakes—
one in the neighbourhood of Skipton, towards Bolton Abbey; one due to the
damming up of the Bradford Beck; and one in the valley of the Worth. The present
aed is the outcome of an endeavour to verify these observations of Professor

ewis. The proof of the existence of the Aire glacier and of its extension need
not detain us further than to point out out that glacial strix occur on both sides
of the Aire Valley, and are seen about the outlet of the Bradford Beck at Wind-
hill, and that boulder clay containing scratched limestones is frequent in the Brad-
ford area. Any glacier in the Aire Valley which extended on to the slopes of
Idle Hill, the northern point of the ridge which bounds the Bradford basin to the
east, would block up the mouth of the Bradford Valley. This ridge has an altitude
above the sea at Idle Hill of 750 feet, and gradually decreases in height as far as
Laisterdyke, afterwards rising again to the southward. The lowest point of the
lip of the Bradford basin is marked by the dip through which the Great Northern
Railway extends out of Bradford at Laisterdyke. In the event of a block in the
valley between Heaton and Idle Hill this would naturally be the outlet of the
ee so produced. The height of the col at Laisterdyke is about 560 feet above
the sea.

It would be very unlikely that one would find in a district like this, either
much built over or under cultivation, anything in the way of beaches or terraces,
But at several points beds of sand and sandy clay have been observed, and these
occur at levels of about 550 feet. The most striking is a deposit of sand and silt,
showing extremely good current-bedding, on the hill opposite Leaventhorp Mill,
towards Allerton, and also in the neighbourhood of the mill itself. The mode
of its occurrence and its appearance suggest a delta deposit, and it is at exactly
such an altitude as would fit with the presence of a lake having an outlet at
Laisterdyke. The difficulty occurs, however, that the stream flowing in the valley
separating the two patches of current-bedded material has a much smaller drainage

302

706 REPORT—1900.

area than Thornton Beck, of which it is a tributary, and in the Thornton Beck
Valley similar deposits are very poorly represented.

To explain this a consideration of the lakes to the westward is necessary.
Although Professor Caryill Lewis only inferred lakes in the Bradford area and in
the Haworth area, there is a valley—that of the Harden Beck—between them,
which also maintained its lake. The Chellow Dean reservoirs of the Bradford
Corporation are situated in a deep narrow valley, the rivulet originally flowing
down it having its rise in a drainage area of only about three-quarters of a mile
square, an area wholly inadequate to account for the valley. Its upper part is in
fact a deep notch in the ridge, which would form the outlet of the Cullingworth
lake, and is at a height of 720 feet. The presence of this lake would account for
bods of current-bedded silt at Sandbeds, near Cullingworth, at exactly this level.
But in the valley below Chellow Dean hardly any traces of delta deposits have
been observed at the level of Lake Bradford—that is, on the same level as the
Leaventhorp beds. If, however, the extension of the Aire glacier blocked up the
notch at Chellow Dean, the outlet of the lake would be at the next lowest col—
that near Stream Head Farm, 870 feet above the sea. The valley below Stream
Head Col soon becomes a deep narrow gorge similar in many respects to that at
Chellow Dean, and it is on either side of this valley, when it reaches the level of
Lake Bradford, that the delta deposit above referred to is found. The position of
this large deposit would therefore be explained if it is regarded as the result
of the erosion of the valley above by the water from the extensive drainage areas
of the Worth and Harden Beck pouring over the Stream Head Col. The material
carried dawn by tire beck and arrested in its course on reaching Lake Bradford
would be deposited just where the Leaventhorp beds occur. Corroborative evi-
dence of the presence of a lake at the level of the Stream Head Col is possibly
provided by the occurrence of current-bedded sand exposed in a gravel pit at
Hallas Rough Park at about the level of the col.

On the other hand, the absence of delta deposits from the Chellow Dean Beck
would be explained if it is considered that possibly, when the extension of the
zlacier was such that the Chellow Dean Col was open, the size of the glacier was
not sufficient to wholly block the mouth of the Bradford Valley. In this case the
water would escape by its present outlet, and no lake would exist to arrest the
material brought down from the ravine of Chellow Dean. ;

At the period when the Chellow Dean Col was open there would be two lakes
to the westward, one in the Cullingworth Valley,above mentioned, and one in the
Worth Valley. The outlet of the latter would be a deep notch at Sugden find,
near Haworth, at 720 feet ; but asthe Stream Head Col is at a greater height than
this, the two lakes would be merged into one large lake when the Chellow Dean
Col was blocked, so that for this period Professor Carvill Lewis’s theory would
be correct.

5. A Preliminary Note on the Glaciation of the Keighley and Bradford
District. By Aupert Jowett, J.Sc., and Hersert B. Murr.

1. General View of the Surface Features of the Area.

The general trend of the Aire Valley in this district is from N.W. to S.E.
Actually, the valley makes a number of roughly rectangular bends, receiving a
large tributary valley, from the south side, at each southern convexity, viz.: the
Glusburn Valley at Kildwick, the Worth Valley at Keighley, the Harden Valley
at Bingley, and the Bradford Valley at Shipley. ‘The valleys entering on the
north side are much smaller.

The tributary valleys, of which the Worth Valley and the Bradford Valley
are the largest and most complex, have been excavated in the plateau of Upper
Carboniferous rocks, of which the Millstone Grit here forms the Pennine water-
shed. The altitude of the watershed rarely exceeds 1,500 feet; there is a break
below 1,125 feet west of Haworth, and a broader depression below 900 feet
between Colne and Kildwick. The ridges between the tributary valleys, on both

a eT

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 757

sides of the main valley, are cut at right angles in many places by notches trend-
ing from N.W. to S.E.

2. Characteristics of the Glacial Deposits and Strie.

Boulder Clay is found in many places throughout the area, and consists of a
tough blue clay which has a superficial covering of yellow sandy clay of very
variable thickness. The contained stones are chiefly Carboniferous limestone,
chert, grit, and sandstone, including gannister, together with shales and iron-
stone nodules. Occasional pre-Carboniferous grits and slates have been met with.
The limestone boulders become fewer in number and generally smaller in size
as we proceed down the main valley, and also as we approach the periphery of
the area from the main valley. Boulders of the other rocks are also found to the
south-east of their solid outcrops. Most of the boulders in the blue clay are
beautifully moulded and striated. The yellow clay contains fewer limestones
than the blue, of which it appears to be simply the weathered crust.

Gravel is often found above and at the margin of the boulder clay, and in
some places passes into current-bedded sands. Occasionally a section is seen
showing clay, sand, and gravel of all degrees of coarseness in interdigitating
layers. Sections at the lower ends of the spur-cutting notches above mentioned
have revealed current-bedded sands and gravels, &c., composed of materials similar
to the rocks exposed in the sides of the gorge above. Strie are most frequently
preserved on beds of grit which have a covering of clay; one set was found on
gannister similarly preserved. In the case of the grit surfaces, not only are there
long parallel striations on the whole surface, but the larger quartz-pebbles are very
finely scratched in the same direction. ‘he direction of the ice-movement was
deduced from the observation that surface irregularities were rounded and smoothed
on the one side, but rough on the other.

3. Maximum Extent and Direction of Movement of Glacier.

The floor of the Glusburn Valley is covered with boulder clay which is con-
tinuous with and similar to the drift on the western side of the Pennine watershed
described by Mr. R. H. Tiddeman. On Cowling Moor, along ridge of unstratified
gravel, 50 feet thick, is seen at an altitude of 1,150 feet O.D. Great masses of a
hard conglomerate of limestone, grit, and shale occur, the cementing material of
which is calcite, evidently deposited from solution by percolating water. Above
this ridge, sandy clay with limestone and chert, as well as grit, gannister, &c.,
may be traced up under the peat to 1,350 feet, and to a somewhat greater altitude
to the westward. Combe Hill (1,454 feet) was not overrun by the ice, its surface
being covered by the angular fragments of the underlying grits, and drift being
also absent from its southern and south-eastern slopes. On Boulsworth Hill, to
the south, drift is found up to nearly 1,400 feet. Thus, though the ice stood up
against these two hills, it did not actually force its way through the gap between
them,

Traced eastwards, the altitude of the margin of the drift diminishes, and it
continues to diminish all down Airedale. It reaches 1,250 feet on Keighley Moor,
and is traceable round into the Worth Valley above Ponden at 950 feet. On
Haworth Moor the limit is met aboye Leeshaw Reservoir, and south-west of
Leeming, at just above 1,025 feet. No traces of glaciation occur on Oxenhope
Moor and Thornton Moor above Devholme; but the ice pushed round into the
Harden Valley, leaving a marginal moraine at Hallas Rough Park (900 feet) con-
sisting of boulder clay, gravel, and sand heaped up in ridges running from N.W.
to S.E, The Harden Valley contains boulder clay as far as Denholme Station.
Clay is also found in the Wilsden Valley and up the face of Harrop Edge to over
925 feet. Drift around Allerton shows that the ice pushed over Chellow Dean
into the Bradford Valley, laying down thick deposits of tough clay, with many
scratched limestones at Horton Grange, and reaching up to the summit of the ridge
separating Aitedale and Calderdale at Wibsey Bank Foot. The drift-filled valley
seen in section near Low Moor Station points to the conclusion that, at the extreme

758 PREPORT—1900.

phase, a lc ke of 1ce actually stood over the broad depression in the watershed there,
and smeared over the low slope a thin cover of boulder clay which entirely obli-
terated the pre-existing minor surface features.

The presence of drift brings the ice-edge far up the slope as we follow the
watershed round past Bowling to Laisterdyke, where the ice laid down ina hollow
in the solid rock, outside the Bradford Valley, a mass of clay 70 feet in thickness.
The country east of Tyersal is driftless, but the ice passed over the ridge from
Undercliffe to Wrose Hill, boulder clay occurring on the top of Stonehall Hill,
Eccleshill, at an altitude of 700 feet, and also allalong the eastern slope of the ridge.
The altitude gradually drops as far as Newlay, where a mass cf gravel 30 feet
thick occurs at 200 feet O.D., and 75 feet above the level of the river. All the
pebbles are rounded, and though limestones are numerous, they are small in size,
rarely exceeding four inches in diameter. This gravel marks the last definite trace
that we have found in Airedale of the Airedale ice.

From similar evidence to that which we have adduced in the case of Airedale,
we conclude that there was a glacier in Wharfedale which was confluent with the
Airedale Glacier to the N.W., and also to the S.E. of Rumbles Moor, leaving
only its highest ridge uncovered as a ‘nunatak.’ The limiting altitude of the ice
on the west is 1,250 feet, sinking gradually to about 1,100 feet on the east. The
configuration of the country, and the presence of a series of drift ridges running
continuously from Wharfedale on the N.W. to Airedale on the S.E., lead us to
believe that the Wharfedale Glacier pushed in as far as Guiseley, the onset of the
Airedale Glacier having been considerably weakened here by its passage over
Hope Hill and the high ground between Hope Hill and Rumbles Moor. The
outermost of these ridges consists largely of gravel containing limestones, and runs
from Lanshaw Delves, on Ilkley Moor, to Hawksworth.

Over the districts of Guiseley, Yeadon, and Horsforth, drift occurs sporadic-
ally, and we have been unable to draw a boundary line between the Airedale and
the Wharfedale ice in this region.

The strize indicate a general ice-movement from the N.W. ‘Those which we
have observed at higher levels are more strictly parallel to this general direction,
whilst the others more nearly conform with the trend of the particular part of the
valley in which they occur, A greater freedom of movement would be expected
in the upper layers of a glacier than in the lower layers, which must mould them-
selves to the inequalities of the glacier bed.

The whole area, within the limits traced out above, displays abundant
evidences of the characteristic remains of a glacier. Irom Apperley Bridge
upwards the lower portion of the main valley is full of moraine mounds left behind
during the retreat of the ice. The best examples are at Tong Park, near Esholt ;
Nab Wood, near Saltaire; and Bingley.

4. The Extra-Glacial Drainage.

Every embayment in the ungiaciated area—at the edge of the ice at its
ereatest extension, and during the various phases of retreat—would, by receiving
the natural drainage, be converted temporarily into a lake. The level of each
lake would be determined by the height of the ice-barrier and of the watershed
around the margin of the lake. The height of the ice-barrier becomes gradually
lower from N.W. to 8.E., and hence we should expect the level of each succeeding
lake at some particular phase to be Jower than that of the lake preceding it to
the N.W., so long as the drainage water is confined on that side of the main
watershed proximal to the ice.

We should therefore expect an overflow of the waters of each lake, by the
lowest point in its margin, into the succeeding lake at the period of greatest exten-
sion of the ice and at every other temporary stationary period during the general
recession.

The peculiar spur-cutting valleys above mentioned we believe to have been
the overflow-channels of such lakes. Typically, they are flat-bottomed, steep-
sided grooves passing completely through the watershed, characters indicating
rapid cutting by considerable volumes of water. They often end quite suddenly

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 799

on both slopes of the watershed through which they are cut, with no approach to
base-levelling to the existing streams. They all slope from the west or north-west
in an easterly or south-easterly direction, their lower terminations being often
marked by level or gently sloping fans of detritus. The altitude of such an
alluvial flat corresponds with that of the head of a similar valley on the next spur
to the south-east. The very temporary nature of the surface levels of the lakes,
as attested by the rapidity with which the gorges were cut, renders the produc-
tion of beaches similar to those observable in Glen Roy and neighbourhood very
unlikely. We have not found any but doubtful examples; the detection of such
minor features in a country consisting of nearly horizontal beds of hard sandstone
and soft shale must ever be a matter of extreme difficulty.

A list was brought forward of over forty overflow-channels with their altitudes,
which mark the successive levels of the surface-waters of the lakes. During the
maximum glaciation there were six lakes on the south side. Those on the north
side were only in existence during retreat.

The authors desire to thank Mr. P. F. Kendall, F.G.S., for much valuable
advice in connection with the extra-glacial drainage systems.

6. The Source and Distribution of the far-travelled Boulders of Lust
Yorkshire, By J. W. Statuer, F.GLS.

About ten years ago Mr. G. W. Lamplugh counted and roughly classified the
larger boulders of Flamborough Head and other selected localities on the York-
shire coast. The work has been continued by the members of the Hull Geological
Society, who have examined and tabulated upwards of 3,500 boulders of 12 inches
and upwards in diameter (the size-limit adopted by Mr. Lamplugh),

But besides the larger boulders attention has been paid to the smaller stones
of the drift, which have also yielded results of much interest.

With regard to the larger boulders (lists of which have been published in the
reports of the Yorkshire Boulder Committee and of the British Association
Committee) it has been sought to discover the proportion of rocks from distant
sources, after the elimination of the secondary rocks of local derivation.

The following table, showing the boulders of two selected localities in the
southern part of the Yorkshire coast and two in the northern part, will serve to
illustrate the general distribution :—

Dimling- North #8
£. ton | Ferriby Whitby Saltburn

per cent. | percent. | percent. | per cent.

Carboniferous sandstones and me
limestones : : . } on oy Gs e
Basalt (whin-sill) . : : 5 32 30 24 20
Granite, gneiss, &c. P . , 13 11 1 0
Magnesian limestone . . . — — 5 | 7
100 | 100 100 | 100

_ The investigation shows—(1) The proportion of Carboniferous sandstones and
limestones increases northward. (2) The whin-sill increases southward proportion-
ately though not numerically, probably bearing transport better than (1). (8) The
magnesian limestone in the form of large boulders disappears southward. (4) The
granites, gneisses, &c., decrease both proportionately and in numbers northward,
except the Shap granite and the Cheviot porphyrites, which show a rapid
increase in the same direction. A considerable number of (4) agree with well-
known rock types of Scandinavia, and these are more plentiful in the south of the
county and in Lincolnshire than in North Yorkshire. The unknown rock types
included in the same group agree in this respect with these recognisable Scandi-

760 REPORT—1900.

navian rocks, which bears out Mr. Harker’s suggestion that the rocks not identified
are also from Scandinavia.

The distribution of the Cheviot porphyrites, which occur principally as stones
and pebbles of smaller dimensions than the boulders of the above table, presents
some points of peculiar interest. These, besides increasing in numbers towards
their source, are also more abundant in the upper boulder clays and in the gravels
at the highest levels than in the low-level drift; while, on the other hand, the
Scandinavian rocks, whether as pebbles or boulders, rarely occur at high levels.
This lends support to Mr. Lamplugh’s supposition that the North Sea ice-sheet
attained its maximum development and reached farthest inland before the ice
flowing from the north-west of England had reached this portion of the coast, and
that the former flow shrank back as the latter gained strength.

7. On the Glacial Phenomena of the North-east Corner of the
Yorkshire Wolds. By J. W. Sratuer, F.G.S.

The rapid thinning away of the Drift inland from the Yorkshire coast has long
been recognised and variously explained. The phenomena along the margin
where it thus thins away on the high ground are worthy of particular attention.

North-westward from Speeton, where the drift terminates in a chain of morainic
mounds, the top of the chalk escarpment is more or less covered with drift as far
as Hunmanby, where a deep valley, now dry, breaks through the escarpment, and
drains inward to the central valley of the Wolds. Into the valley at Aruna
the drift penetrates for a considerable distance, in the form of boulder clay on the
slopes, and gravel containing many foreign stones in the bottom. The boulder
clay thins out long before we reach the main valley, but the gravel with foreign
stones intermixed with local material is present in strong force in the bottom of
the main valley, and it is suggested that a stream draining from the ice has flowed
from Hunmanby along this course. In the higher parts of the main valley, above
Weaverthorpe, foreign material is almost absent, except that near the head of the
valley, near Luton, there is a patch of drift (shown on the Geological Survey map)
in which are foreign stones, derived chiefly if not wholly from the oolitic rocks,
quite different from the drift in the lower part of the valley.

North of Hunmanby, at the sharp angle of the Wolds, the boulder clay again
rises to the crest of the escarpment in the form of a thin covering which fades out
gradually westward into a sprinkling of foreign stones in the soil. The stones
occur abundantly at an altitude of 400 feet above sea level at High Fordon and
include a large number of Cheviot porphyrites, which here as elsewhere further
north are most abundant at the highest levels, near the margin of the Drift.

To explain these phenomena it seems necessary to suppose the existence of an
ice-sheet occupying the bed of the North Sea, with its margin only slightly over-
topping the Wolds and not extending far across them. It also appears, as stated
in a preceding paper, that the ice carrying the Cheviot rocks formed the uppermost
portion of the sheet.

8. On the Age of the Raised Beach of Southern Britain as seen in Gower.
By R. H. Trppemay, J.A., F.G.S., HM. Geological Survey.

[Communicated with the permission of the Director-General.]

Gower has a reputation for its cayes with their bone-beds, and for its raised
beaches, but to the matter of its Glacial Drifts very little attention has been paid.
Some of the caves were known to and noted by Dean Buckland.! The caves
were long and diligently explored by Colonel Wood of Stout Hall, and the results
carefully collated by Dr. Falconer. A great number of the bones are exhibited in
the Swansea Museum. Mr, Starling Benson, who lived at Swansea, has left an

\ Reliquie Diluviane.
* Falconer’s Paleontological Memoirs, vol. ii.

——

~

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 761

account of Bacon Hole, and Dr. Falconer has incidentally alluded to other caves
in describing the animal remains.

These three observers noted the fact that the cave fauna, which included
Hyena, Elephas antiquus, and Rhinoceros hemitechus, was found in bone-beds in
the shore caverns and rested on or above a cemented shelly conglomerate, which
was evidently a raised beach, for it formed a floor across the cave at from 10 to
80 feet above the level of the present beach. This conglomerate was found to
contain shells which could not be distinguished from those of the litoral zone on
the present beach. ;

It was recognised that the beach must have been made when the sea was at
that higher level, and that the bones could not have been accumulated until the coast
had been raised above the old beach-level. But the further reasoning, which was
chiefly concerned with the age of the bones, was that, the beach being evidently
rather recent, the bones must be more recent. Falconer did not appear quite con-
tent with this, and called in Prestwich to assist in finding out what relation, if
any, the bone-deposits and raised beach bore to the Glacial deposits.

Prestwich appears to have worked from the west along the coast to Bacon
Hole, but not to the east. He reported: ‘ With respect to the point I had particu-
larly in view, viz. the relation of the Gower caves to the Boulder Clay, I am as yet
unable to forma decided opinion. I got the Boulder Clay within a mile of the raised
beach, but on opposite sides of the Point of Rhos-sili the subject requires further
and more lengthened inquiry.’ On this Falconer summed up as follows :—

1. That the Gower caves have probably been filled up with mammalian
remains since the deposition of the Boulder Clay.

2. That there are no mammalian remains found elsewhere in the ossiferous
caves of Britain referable to a fauna of a more ancient geological date.

It is very singular how near these two eminent men were to making a dis-
covery which they were even looking for. To the east of the rich colony of caves
between Minchin Hole and Bacon Hole, at which they were specially working, the
Drift-beds come on in force, and the succession which they were looking for might
have been very well seen.

It is true that the proper succession was gradually hammered out by explora-
tions in other places by the Victoria Cave Exploration Committee, by the late
Dr. Hicks in the caves of North Wales, and at a later date by the Rev. C. H.
Pollen, but their researches and the facts evolved by them received a long and
well-sustained fire of hostile criticism which has not long come to an end. ,

The survey of Gower has now established, I think I may say, incontestably :—

1. That the raised beach is Pre- or Interglacial.

2. That the bone-beds which rest upon it in the caves are continuous with the
earlier ‘ head’ or débris which lies above it along the coast, and which consists of
limestone fragments.

3. That Glacial Drift again lies over this.

4, This in turn is often covered by a later deposit of ‘ head.”

Frequently, immediately above the raised beach is a deposit of sand which is

probably blown sand. It contains in places land-snails which are abundant on the
blown sands of Glamorganshire. It is of a foxy-red colour, and its lower part is
often cemented together into calcareous concretions containing little nodules of
manganese and iron. ‘This sand is interesting in this way, that it is seen in many
places where sand could not blow now. The upheaval of the coast implied by the
raised beach would necessarily subject a wide fringe of foreshore to the action of
sun and wind, and the blown sand would result. It is just where we might reason-
ably expect it.
_ The section is not always complete. Sometimes the Drift is absent, sometimes
it rests on rock, sometimes one member is absent, sometimes another, but this
represents the succession in which they always occur when present. It is astonish-
ing ae very regular they are, considering the steep irregularity of the clits and
coasts.

762 REPORT—1900.

Tt will of course be suggested that the Drift may have slipped down from the
cliffs above on to the ‘head.’ This hypothesis is fairly negatived by the very
strong contrast in material between the ‘head’ and the overlying Drift. ‘The latter
is full of rounded stones of Carboniferous sandstone and Old Red pebbles and frag-
ments, with scarcely a trace of limestone, whilst on the contrary the underlying
débris contains nothing but fragments of limestone. The change is exceedingly
sudden, and forbids the possibility of the Drifts resting on the cliffs for long pre-
viously and later slipping down on to the débris, Scattered boulders would
certainly have occurred in the débris

The Drift is evidently the ordinary Glacial Drift of Glamorganshire, such as
abounds further to the north-east, nor can we doubt that it is about the same age
as that which sealed up in the Victoria Cave at Settle, and other caves, the fauna
which has been so abundant in the caves of Gower, a fauna which if not Pre-
glacial was certainly Interglacial.

On the other hand, the discovery of the antiquity of the raised beach, which
does not appear to have been ev2n hinted at, is one which, from the wide range of
that physical feature, must necossarily be of importance. It will assist in building
up the relations of late formations to the Glacial Period into a consecutive system
and establish relations with other successions in lands to which Glacial phenomena
have not extended.

9. Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles.
See Reports, p. 343.

10. A Lerriferous Horizon in the Huronian, North of Lake Superior.
By Professor A. P. Coteman.

The Huronian of Ontario has long attracted attention for its geological interest,
and also because it is much the most important formation in the Province for its
economic products, most of the mines of gold, copper, nickel, and iron occurring
in it. There has, however, been much difficulty in correlating the different areas
mapped as Huronian, and doubts have been expressed as to their being of the
same age. The finding, a year ago, of a band of iron-hearing sandstone and
jasper in the Michipicoton district, north-east of Lake Superior, has thrown fresh
light on the subject. This band has already been traced sixty miles, and very
similar rocks have been proved to exist at various points for a distance of 600
miles, practically from one end of the Province to the other. Not far off from
this band there are very often thick beds of schist conglomerate containing pebbles
of the ferriferous rock, indicating a profound break between upper and lower
Huronian. These two easily recognised horizons occur in practically all the
Huronian areas of Ontario, and afford an excellent clue to the stratigraphy. Their
equivalents are probably found in the Vermilion iron range of Minnesota and the
Markette and Penokee ranges in States to the south of Lake Superior, containing
the most famous iron mines in America. One similar mine has been found at
Michipicoton, estimated to contain at least 15,000,000 tons of high-grade hematite ;
and there are indications of other ore deposits on the same range. The recent
discoveries promise, therefore, to be of great economic importance, as well as of
much interest in solving some tangled problems in connection with the oldest
formation in Canada.

11. Final Report on the Pleistocene Beds of Canada.
See Reports, p. 328.

’ ‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 763

12. Glacial Notes at Rhyd-ddu, Carnarvon.
By J. BR. Daxyns, IA.

Terminal Curvature.

Near Rhyd-ddu glacial strize are to be seen at the following places, to wit:
near the railway station, at about 627 feet above the sea, running N. 30° W.; near
Rhos-clogwyn slate quarry, at 900 feet, running N, 50° W.; and near the path to
Snowdon at 1,200 feet above sea level, running N. 50° W. These strize indicate a
general motion of ice down the valley of the Garfai in which Llyn Cwellyn lies.

On the west side of Llyn-y-Gader (out of which the Garfai flows), not much
above the level of the lake, there is an old slate quarry in ground sloping gently
to the north-east, in which the planes of slaty cleavage, striking north-east and
dipping north-west, have their weathered edges bent over towards the north-west.
As this coincides with the direction of ice-flow indicated by the striae mentioned
above, it is but natural to suppose that the bending over was caused by the ice
moving towards the north-west.

But at quarries in the neighbourhood the cleavage planes have not been bent over ;
they have not been so affected at the Rhos-clogwyn quarry, near which striz
were observed, nor at the Cwmy Llan quarries; nor at two other old quarries
een only a hundred yards from that exhibiting the curvature, but on higher
ground.

It is therefore clear that the moving object which bent over the cleavage
planes must have been confined to the very bottom of the valley. The observed
phenomenon could not have been caused by the glacier, whose striz are to be seen
on the rocks up to at least 1,200 feet above sea level.

Till.

In some parts of the basin of the river Colwyn a stratified stony clay exists in
which the included stones are all lying flat. In one section this till is seen to
consist of three perfectly distinct divisions. It seems to me to be obviously of a
sedimentary origin, let down (after the manner suggested by Mr. Goodchild) as a
frozen mass of mud, stones, and ice gradually melted.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.
The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Beach Formation in the Thirlmere Reservoir.
By R. D, Orvuan, Geological Survey of India.

Readers of Mr. Marr's book on the ‘Scientific Study of Scenery’ will recall the
contrast drawn between the irregular and angular outline of the Thirlmere Lake
reservoir, due to the submergence of a land surface shaped by subaérial denudation,
as contrasted with the more gracefully curved outline of the natural lakes, where
wind, waves, and streams have combined to round off the angularities by wearing
away the prominences and filling up the re-entering angles. This reproach seems
to the author to be somewhat exaggerated, as the shore lines of the Cumberland
Lakes have only been partially remodelled by wave action and delta formation,
and the original outlines due to simple submergence are still to be seen. However
this may be, the reproach, such as it is, isin process of removal. All along the
shore of the Thirlmere Lake incipient beach erosion is to be seen, and towards the
northern end of the Jake, where the shores close in and are exposed to the force of
the waves driven along the length of the lake by the prevailing southerly winds,
typical beaches and beach curves are being developed. Lantern slides showing the
as yet incompleted transition from the irregular outlines produced by submergence

"64 REPORT—1900.

to the regular curves of beach formation were exhibited and attention drawn to
this interesting opportunity of witnessing the gradual formation and growth of a
beach.

2. The Basal (Carboniferous) Conglomerate of Ullswater and its Mode of
Origin. By R. D. Otpuan, Geological Survey of India.

On the western shore of Ullswater, near its lower end, a good section has
recently been exposed of the basal conglomerates, variously ascribed to Old Red or
lowermost Carboniferous age. This conglomerate has been considered as glacial in
its origin, but does not appear to the author to preseut any true glacial character-
istics. It contains angular and subangular blocks of all sizes, which are not
scattered indiscriminately, but are arranged with a distinct, though obscure,
banding. In the admixture of blocks of all sizes and the absence of rounded
boulders, it differs {rom the known river deposits of temperate climes, and more
closely resembles the accumulations of debris which result from cloud-bursts than
any other form of deposit which can be observed in the British Isles at the present
day. The conglomerate cannot, however, be reasonably attributed to any such
local deposits ; its true analogue must be looked for in the dry regions of Western
and Central Asia, where all rainfall rushes off the bare hills, producing an effect
very like that of a cloud-burst in our own climate, and causing a mixed mass of
water, silt, and stones to rush down the river channels, which are dry or carry only
a feeble stream in ordinary times. This mass of material is carried out from the
hills, and forms a deposit with a gently sloping surface extending for miles into
the open country. Carried along in this manner the rock fragments do not
undergo the ‘rounding which they suffer in a more permanent torrent, and are
deposited, on the sudden subsidence of the flood, in a mixed mass of fragments of
all sizes. The sections exposed along the roadside near the foot of Ullswater not
only exhibit a rude banding, due to the action of successive floods, but also show
patches of current-bedded, fine-grained, gravelly material, representing the action
of the feebler stream which continued after the passage of the flood.

The conclusion drawn is that the conglomerate is a torrential deposit, formed
on dry land, near the foot of a range of hills, in a generally dry climate, varied by
seasonal or periodical bursts of rain. The red colour of the fine-grained material
suggests tropical or sub-tropical conditions, as the formation of red soils is at the
present day much more common in tropical than in temperate regions to such a
degree that it may almost be regarded as characteristic of a hot climate.

3. Report on Photographs of Geological Interest.— See Reports, p. 350.

4, Sections at the Alecandra Dock Extension, Hull. By W. HH. Crorts.

These works situated immediately to the east of the Alexandra Dock, and
covering about seven-acres, necessitated the excavation of earth zm situ to a depth
of about 20 feet over a great part of this area, the trenches being eight or twelve
feet deeper. The formations exhibited are glacial and post-glacial.

There is evidence of a basin in chalk corresponding with the valley of the river
Hull, the top of the chalk on the east side of the valley being in places higher
than in the bed of the river.

The glacial deposits reach from the sea on the east up the slope of the Wolds
on the west: these beds are depressed in the neighbourhood of Hull; this depres-
sion is filled in with warp.

The Humber warp to the extent of upwards of twelve feet covered the whole
area of the works ; below this over a greater part of this area a peat and clay bed
exists, varying from one inch to three feet in thickness, resting on glacial beds of
a varied character which borings show to be about sixty feet’ thick, with angular
chalk and flint gravel between them and the solid chalk.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 765

The deepest part of the wall trenches was about forty feet, but the general
depth was thirty to thirty-four feet below O.D.
The trench of the eastern wall showed the following section at the south end,

Ft. In.
Laminated Warp . : : : : F . L200
Shell Bed . P c : : é F F aa OB
Silt ; Pa tae es : : 3 d F . we Le. 6
Shell Bed. - ; - - - - : te te 0
Glacial Gravels_ . - : y : 5 aL CG

Compact Boulder Clay ; - 5 - : > re ey)

Towards the north the surface of the Boulder Clay rises, a bed of stoneless red
clay intrudes in the upper portion of the gravels, a peat bed makes its appearance,
one of the shell beds disappears, and the toe of a sandy balk is introduced under
the warp. At the north end of this trench there are two beds of Boulder Clay
separated by gravels, the red clay having disappeared ; otherwise the section is
similar to that last described.

The shell bed contained Cardium edule, Tellina solidula, Scrobicularia
piperata, Utriculus obtusus, Rissoa ulva, Littorina rudis, L. obtusata, Mytilus
edulis, Pholas candida, and Nassa incrassata, the latter five being new records
for this bed.

The large number of very young specimens and both valves being often intact
indicate but a short journey and beach-like conditions.

The surface of the clay and peat bed was level and undisturbed, except that
the smaller shells of the shell bed above penetrated into numerous. crack-like
crevices, and seemed to indicate that the clay had been exposed and sun-dried before
the waters of the estuary formed their shell beach.

The shell bed underlying the warp and the method of deposition of the warp
appear to suggest that, whether the clay below was deposited under conditions due
to subsidence, sudden or rapid, or not, a gradual subsidence took place during
the deposition of the warp.

In the clay and peat bed there were stumps of trees, including oak (Quercus
pedunculata), with the roots extending several feet into the glacial beds below ;
a number of perfect cherries (Prunus Padus) were found, the quantity and con-
dition of which may suggest that the trees were bearing fruit at the time of the
first inundation ; a few pieces of charcoal grouped together were also found in this
bed, but careful search revealed nothing that could be attributed to human agency.

Nore.—Upper Shell Bed and top of Clay and Peat Bed, about 13 ft. below
O.D.; High Water ordinary Spring Tides, about 12 ft. above O.D.; Low Water
ordinary Spring Tides, about 10 ft. below O.D.

5. The Jurassic Flora of East Yorkshire. By A. C. Suwarp, F.R.S,

The plant-beds exposed in the cliff sections of the Yorkshire coast have
afforded unusually rich data towards a restoration of the characteristics and com-
position of a certain facies of Mesozoic vegetation. Rich collections of plants from
Gristhorpe Bay and other well-known localities are found in the British Museum,
also in the Museums of Scarborough, Whitby, Cambridge, Oxford, Manchester,
York, Newcastle, Leeds, and elsewhere. The Natural History Museum, Paris,
contains several important Yorkshire plants, some of which have been described
by Brongniart and Saporta. The following species have been recognised from the
East Yorkshire area :—

Marchantites erectus (Leck., ex Bean, MS.); Eyuisetites columnaris, Brongn. ;
Equisetites Beant (Bunb.) ; Lycopodites fulcatus, L. & H.; Cladophlebis denticu-
lata (Brongn.); C. haiburnensis (L. & H.); C. lobéfolia (Phill.) ; Contopteris arguta
(lL. & H.); C. hymenophylloides (Brongn.); C. guingueloba (Phill.) ; Dictyophyl-
lum rugosum, L. & H.; Klukia exilis (Phill.) ; Laccopteris polypodioides (Brongn.);
L. Woodwardi (Leck.); Matonidium Goepperti (Ett.); Pachypteris lanceolata,
Brongn.; Ruffordia Goepperti (Dunk.) ; Sugenopteris Phillipst (Brongn.); Sphe-

766 REPORT—1900.

nopteris Murrayana (Brongn.); 8. Williamsoni, Brongn.; Teniopteris major, L. &
H.; T. vittata, Brongn.; Todites Williamsoni (Brongn.); Anomozamites Nilssont
(Phill.); Araucarites Phillipsi, Carr; Baiera gracilis, Bunb.; B. Lindleyana
(Schimp.); B. Phillipsi, Nath.; Beania gracilis, Carr; Brachyphyllum mamillare,
Brongn. ; Chezrolepis setosus (Phill.); Cryptomerites divaricatus, Bunb.; Ctenis
falcata, L. & H.; Czekanowskia Murrayana(L. & H.); Dioonites Nathorsti, sp.
nov.; Ginkgo digitata (Brongn.) ; G. whitbiensis, Nath.; Nagetopsis anglica, sp.
noy.; Nilssonia compta (Phill.); N. mediana (Leck., ex Bean, MS.); NV. tenui-
nervis, Nath.; Otozamites acuminatus (L. & H.); O. Beani (L. & H.); O. Bun-
buryanus, Zign.; O. Feistmanteli, Zign.; O. graphicus (Leck., ex Bean, MS.); O.
obtusus (L. & H.), var. ooliticus; O. parallelus (Phill.) ; Pagiophyllum Williamsont
(Brongn.); Podozamites lanceolatus (L. & H.); Pétilozamites (Leck., ex Bean,
MS.); Yaaites zamioides (Leck.); Williamsonia gigas (L. & H.); W. pecten
(Phill.).

The English flora is compared by the author with Rhetic, Jurassic, and Weal-
den floras of other regions; a comparison is made also between the fossil flora and
the vegetation of the present day.

6. Note on the Age of the English Wealden Series.
By G. W. Lamptueu, £.G.8., of H.M. Geological Survey.

In recent discussions arising from the renewed attempts to define more closely
the boundary between the Jurassic and Cretaceous systems in Russia, Germany,
Belgium, and France, and also in North America, constant reference has been made
to the English Wealden deposits as affording a standard of comparison. But
meanwhile doubt has been thrown, by paleontologists who have studied certain
portions of the Wealden flora and fauna, on the hitherto accepted classification of
these English deposits with the Lower Cretaceous, on the ground that the fossils
showed strong Jurassic affinities. This opinion has been expressed by the late
Professor O. C. Marsh in regard to the reptiles, by Dr. A. Smith Woodward in
regard to the fish, and by A. C. Seward in regard to the plants. To prevent
further confusion it is therefore desirable that certain facts which have been over-
looked in this discussion, though for the most part already published, should be
restated, since these facts seem sufficient to prove that at any rate the greater
portion of the English Wealden series must remain as part of the Lower Cre-
taceous.

It has not always been sufficiently borne in mind that the accumulation of the
Wealden Series must have required a period of long duration. The sands of the
Hastings Beds may indeed have been deposited rather rapidly, but the shaly clays
with layers of shells and cyprids interstratified with these sands indicate slower
sedimentation, and the great mass of Weald Clay, reaching 1,000 feet in thickness,
must represent an epoch of great length. Hence, since it is universally acknow-
ledged that the fresh-water conditions did not set in until the closing stages
of the Jurassic period, it seems inevitable from this consideration alone that such
conditions persisted into Lower Cretaceous times.

Again, nearly all the ‘ Wealden’ fossils in which Jurassic affinities have been
observed have been obtained from the lower part of the Wealden series (¢.e. from
the Hastings Beds), and very little is known respecting the corresponding fossils
from the Weald Clay which probably represents the major portion of the Wealden

eriod.

Moreover, the argument from the Jurassic affinities of the land and fresh-water
fossils alone inspires no confidence, since if we eliminate the Lower Wealden
fossils from the Lower Cretaceous lists our knowledge is practically limited to
the marine life of this period; and it may be legitimately asked whether the land
and fresh-water fossils of the Hastings Beds are not, after all, of the character
proper to the lowermost part of the Cretaceous, wherein a close relationship to
the immediately preceding period seems quite appropriate.

It is from the stratigraphical evidence, however, that the Lower Cretaceous

TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION C. 767

age of at least the greater portion of the English Wealden Series can be most
satisfactorily established, by its relation to the marine sequence which must form
the ultimate basis of the classification. The marine beds directly overlying the
Weald Clay in the south of England represent only the latest stage (Aptien)
of the Lower Cretaceous period; and although there is a sharp line of demarca-
tion at their base, this seems to denote a rapid change of conditions and not a
lengthy time-interval, since the incoming of marine or brackish-water shells near
the top of the Wealden strata in Dorset, Hampshire, and Surrey, foreshadowing
the termination of the fresh-water episode, indicates that the series is practically
complete, and has undergone little if any erosion in these parts before the deposition
of the overlying marine strata. Such erosion may, however, have taken place
locally towards the easterly and westerly terminations of the basin of deposition,
where the topmost beds of the Wealden Series are not found.

In the Speeton Clay, where the Lower Cretaceous marine sequence is fully
represented, the equivalents of the Lower Greensand and Atherfield Clay of the
south of England are comprised within a relatively narrow compass in the
sparingly fossiliferous upper part of the sequence ;! and therefore by far the greater
portion of the Lower Cretaceous period, if represented at all in the south of
England, must be represented in the Wealden Series. The portion of the Speeton
Clay unrepresented by marine sediments in the south includes the lower part of
the Zone of Belemnites brunsvicensis, and the whole of the Zone of Bel. jaculum,
both undoubtedly Lower Cretaceous (Barrémien, Hauterivien, and Valanginien),
together with the whole of the Zone of Bed. lateralis, the fauna of which shows
Jurassic affinities. Furthermore, in tracing this marine series southward from York-
shire through Lincolnshire into Norfolk, the author has found that in the latter
county the lower zones are apparently absent, and the remaining portion, represent-
ing probably the lower part of the Zone of Bel. brunsvicensis, is characterised by
the presence among the marine fossils of plant remains, chiefly fragments of a
Wealden fern, Weichselia (Mantelli?), and by other indications of fluviatile influ-
ence, suggesting the beginning of a lateral change into Wealden conditions.?

With the well-recognised gradual development of fresh-water conditions in
the Purbeck beds of the Wealden area towards the close of the Jurassic period,
and indications of the reversal of this process in the top of the Weald Clay during
the later stages of the Lower Cretaceous, and with evidence for a lateral passage of
part of the Lower Cretaceous marine sediments of the North of England into
estuarine deposits further south, there seems every reason to believe that in the
fresh-water or estuarine strata of the English Wealden the whole of the time-
interval between the Portlandian and Aptien stages is represented, and that it
would be equally erroneous to classify the series entirely with the Jurassic
system and entirely with the Cretaceous, if the hitherto recognised boundary of these
systems in the marine deposits of other areas is to be maintained,

The deposits classed as Wealden in Belgium, Germany, and France appear to
be much more restricted in vertical range than the English series, and to represent
different parts of the period in different places, but nowhere to imply the same
long continuance of fresh-water conditions in a single area,

' See Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey fur 1897, p.
* See Survey Mem. Borders of the Wash (sheet 69 O.8)., pp. 21-

129.
25.

7. Report on the Irish Elk Remains in the Isle of Man.
See Reports, p. 349.

768 REPORT—1900.

Section D,—ZOOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEctIoON—Rameay H. Traqvarr, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S,

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6,
The President delivered the following Address :—

In opening to-day the sittings of the Zoological Section, I must first express my
sense of the honour which has been conferred on me in having been chosen as
your President on this occasion, and I may add that I feel it not only as an
honour to myself personally but also as a compliment to the field of investigation
in which the greater part of my own original work has been done. It is a wel-
come recognition of the doctrine, which I, and much more important men indeed
than I, have always maintained, namely, that Paleontology, however valuable,
nay, indispensable, its bearings on Geology may be, is in its own essence a part of
Biology, and that its facts and its teachings must not be overlooked by those who
would pursue the study of Organic Morphology on a truly comprehensive and
scientific basis. As I have asked on a previous occasion, ‘ Does an animal cease
to be an animal because it is preserved in stone instead of spirits? Is a skeleton
any the less a skeleton because it has been excavated from the rock, instead of
prepared in a macerating trough?’ And I may now add—Do animals, because
they have been extinct for it may be millions of years, thereby give up their place
in the great chain of organic being, or do they cease to be of any importance to
the evolutionist because their‘soft tissues, now no longer existing, cannot be
imbedded in parafline and cut with a Cambridge microtome ?

These are thes2s which I think no one denies theoretically ; but what of the
practical application of the rule? for though cordially thanking my biological
brethren for the honour they have done me in placing me in this chair to-day, I
must ask them not to be offended if I say that in times past I have a few things
against some of them at least. I refer first to the apathy concerning palzonto-
logical work, more especially where fishes are concerned, which one frequently
meets with in the writings of biologists, as seen in the setting up of classifications
and theories and the erection of genealogical trees without any, or with at least
inadequate, enquiry as to whether such theories or trees are corroborated by the
record of the rocks. But more vexatious still are the offhand proceedings of some
biologists who, when they wish to complete their generalisations on the structure
of a living organism, or group of organisms, by allusion to those which in geological
time have gone before, do not take the trouble to consult the original palzonto-
logical memoirs or papers, or to make themselves in any way practically
acquainted with the subject, but derive their knowledge at second or third hand
from some text-book or similar work, which may not in every case be exactly up
to date on the matters in question, Nay, more than this, I think I have seen the
authors of such text-books or treatises credited with facts and illustrations which
were due to the labours of hard-working paleontologists years before.

=—v

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 769

But a better time, I am convinced, is not far off, when the unity of all biological
science will be recognised not merely theoretically but also practically by workers
in every one of its branches.

Of one thing I must however warn those who have hitherto devoted their
time exclusively to the investigation of things recent, namely, that a special
training is necessary for the correct interpretation of fossil remains, especially
those of the lower Vertebrata and many groups of Invertebrata. So it comes that
what looks to the uninitiated eye a mere confused mass of broken bones or plates
may to the trained observer afford a flood of valuable licht on questions of struc-
ture previously undetermined. We must take into account the condition of the
fossil as regards mineralisation and crushing; we must learn to recognise how
the various bones may be dislocated, scattered, or shoved over each other, and to
distinguish true sutures from mere fractures. We must carefully correlate the
positive results obtained from one specimen with those afforded by others, and in
this way it happens that to make a successful restoration of the exo- or endo-
skeleton of a fossil fish or reptile may require years of patient research. But the
thought sometimes does come up in my mind, that some people imagine that
fossils, such as fishes, occur in the rocks all restored and ready, so that the author
of such a restoration has no more scientific credit in his work than if he were an
ordinary draughtsman drawing a perch ora trout for an illustrated book! But
the student of fossil remains must learn not only to see what does exist in the
specimen he examines, but also to refrain from seeing things which are not there
—to know what he does not see as well as what he does see. For. many grave
errors have arisen from want of this necessary training, as for instance where
the under surface of a fish’s head has been described as the upper, or where
markings of a purely petrological character have been supposed to indicate actual
structures of the greatest morphological importance. Or we may find the most
wonderful details described, which may indeed have existed, but for which the
actual evidence is only the fertile imagination of the writer.

From this it will be apparent that though Paleontology is Biology and
Biology includes Paleontology, yet as regards original research a division of
labour is in most cases necessary. For though paleontological investigations are
absolutely impossible without an adequate knowledge of recent zoology, yet the
nature of the remains with which the paleontologist has to deal renders their
interpretation a task of so different a character from that allotted to the investiga-
tion of the structure and development of recent forms that he will scarcely have
time for the successful carrying out of a second line of research. Conversely, the
same holds regarding the sphere of work of the recent biologist.

Now those last remarks of mine may perhaps tend to confirm an idea which I
have at least been told is prevalent in the minds of recent biologists, namely,
that the results of Paleontology are so uncertain, so doubtful, and so imperfect,
that they are scarcely worthy of serious attention being paid to them. And the
best answer I can make to such an opinion, if it really does exist, is to try to
place before you some evidence that Paleontology is not mere fossil shell hunting,
or the making up of long lists of names to help the geologists to settle their
stratigraphical horizons, but may present us with abundance of matter of genuine
biological interest.

Since the days of Darwin, there is one subject which more’than all others
engrosses the attention of scientific biologists. I mean the question of Evolution,
or the Doctrine of Descent. Time was when controversies raged round the very
idea of Evolution, and when men of science were divided among themselves as to
whether the doctrine to which Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection gaye so
mighty an impetus was or was not to be accepted. Times have however changed,
and I hardly think that we should now find a single true scientific worker who
continues to hold on by the old special creation idea. Philosophie zoologists now
busy themselves either with amassing morphological evidences of Descent or with
the discussion of various theories as to the factors by which organic evolution has
been brought about—whether Natural Selection has been the all-sufficient cause or
not, whether acquired peculiarities are transmissible, and so on,

1900, 3D

770 REPORT—1900.

From the natui'e of things it is clear that the voice of the paleontologist can
only be heard on the morphological aspect of the question, but to many of us,
including myself, the morphological argument is so convincing that we believe
that even if the Darwinian theory were proved to-morrow to be utterly baseless,
the Doctrine of Descent would not be in the slightest degree affected, but would
continue to have as firm a hold on our minds as before.

Now as Palwontology takes us back, far back, into the life of the past, it
micht be reasonably expected that it would throw great light on the descent of
animals, but the amount of its evidence is necessarily much diminished by two
unfortunate circumstances. First, the terrible imperfection of the geological
record, a fact so obvious to any one having any acquaintance with Geology that
it need not be discussed here; and secondly, the circumstance that save in very
exceptional cases only the hard parts of animals are preserved, and those too often
in an extremely fragmentary and disjointed condition. But though we cannot
expect that the paleontological record will ever be anything more than fragmen-
tary, yet the constant occurrence of new and important discoveries leads us to
entertain the hope that, in course of time, more and more of its pages will become
disclosed to us.

Incomplete, however, as our knowledge of Evolution as derived from
Paleontology must be, that is no reason why we should not appraise it at its
proper value, and now and again stop for a moment to take stock of the material
which has accumulated.

You are all already acquainted with the telling evidence in favour of Evolution
furnished by the well-known series of Mammalian limbs, as well as of teeth, in
which the progress, in the course of time, from the more general to the more
special is so obvious that I cannot conceive of any unprejudiced person shutting
his eyes to the inference that Descent with modification is the reason of these
things being so. Suppose, then, that on this occasion we take up the paleonto-
logical evidence of Descent in the case of fishes. This I do the more readily
because what original work I have been able to do has lain principally in the
direction of fossil ichthyology ; and again, because it does seem to me that it is in
this department that one has most reason to complain of want of interest on the
part of recent biologists, even, I may say, of some professed paleontologists
themselves.

But the subject is really of so great an extent that to exhaust it in the course
of an address like the present would be simply impossible, so I shall in the main
limit myself to the consideration of Palzozoic forms, and this more especially see-
ing that we may hope for a large addition to our light on the fishes of the more
recent geological formations from the fourth volume of the ‘Catalocue of Fossil
Fishes’ in the British Museum, which will soon appear from tbe pen of my friend
Dr. A. Smith Woodward. I need scarcely say how much his previous volume has
conduced to a better knowledge of the Mesozoic forms.

Ilere I may begin by boldly affirming that I include the Marsipobranchii as
fishes, in spite of the dictum of Cope that no animal ean be a fish which does not
possess a lower jaw and a shoulder-girdle. Why not? The position seems to me
to be a merely arbitrary one; and it is, to say the least, not impossible that the
modern Lampreys and Hags may be, as many believe, the degenerate descendants
of originally gnathostomatous forms,

Yo the origin of the Vertebrata Paleontology gives us no clue, as the fore-
_ runners of the fishes must have been creatures which, like the lowest Chordata of
the present day (Urochorda, Hemichorda, Cephalochorda), had no hard parts capable
of preservation, And though I shall presently refer again to the subject, I may
here affirm that, so far as I can read the record at least, it is impossible to derive
from Paleontology any support to the view, recently revived, that the ancient
fishes are in any way related to Crustacean or Merostomatous ancestors,

What have we then to say concerning the most ancient fishes with which we
are acquainted ?

The idea that the minute bodies, known as Conodonts, which occur from the
Cambrian to the Carboniferous, are the teeth of fishes and possibly even of ancient

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. Vil

Marsipobranchs may now be said to be given up. They are now accepted by the
most reliable authorities as appertaining to Invertebrata such as Annelides and
Gephyrea.

More recently, however, Rohon! has described from the Lower Silurian of the
neighbourhood of St. Petersburg small teeth (Paleodus and Archodus) associated
with Conodonts, and which seem to be real fish teeth, but not of Selachians, as is
shown by the presence of a pulp cavity surrounded by non-vascular dentine, It is
impossible to say anything more of their affinities.

Obscure and fragmentary fish remains have been obtained by Walcot, and
described by Jaekel, from rocks in Colorado supposed to be of Lower Silurian or
Ordovician age.* But doubts have been thrown on their age, and the fossils them-
selves, which have, it must be owned, a very Devonian look about them, are
so extremely fragmentary that they do not help us much in our present purpose.

It is not till we come to the Upper Silurian rocks that we begin to feel the
ground securely under our feet, though we may be certain, from the degree of
specialisation of the forms which we there find, that fishes lived in the waters of the
globe for long ages previously.

Characteristic of the ‘ Ludlow bone-bed’ are certain minute scales on which
Pander founded the family Ccelolepidee, having a flat or sculptured crown, below
which is a constricted ‘neck,’ and then a base usually perforated by an aperture
leading into a central pulp cavity. As these little bodies, looked upon by Agassiz
as teeth, were shown by McCoy to be scales, and as they occurred at Ludlow in
England and Oeselin Russia along with small Selachian spines (Onchus), they were
usually considered as appertaining, with the latter, to small Cestraciont sharks.
The genera Thelodus, Celolepis, and others were founded on these dermal bodies,
but it is doubtful if any but the first of these names will stand.

But the aspect of affairs was altogether changed by the discovery three years
ago by the officers of the Geological Survey-of entire specimens of Zhedodus in
the Upper Silurian rocks of the South of Scotland, from which it was evident that
the fish, though somewhat shark-like, could hardly be reckoned as a true Selachian.®
Thelodus scoticus, Traq., has a broad flattened anterior part corresponding to the
head and forepart of the body, very bluntly rounded in front, and passing behind
into right and left angular flap-like projections, which are sharply marked off from
the narrow tail, which is furnished with a deeply cleft heterocercal caudal fin.
Unless the flap-like lateral projections are representatives of pectorals, no other
fins are present, neither do we find any teeth or jaws, nor any trace of internal
skeleton ; and itis only a few days since Mr. Tait, collector to the Geological
Survey of Scotland, pointed out to me in a recently acquired specimen a right and
left dark spot at the outer margins of the head near the front, which spots may
indicate the position of the eyes.* A previously unknown genus, Lanarkia, Traq.,
also occurred, in which the creature had the very same form, but instead of having
the skin clothed with small shagreen-like scales, possessed, in their place, minute
sharp conical hollow spines, without base and open below. What we are to think
of those two ancient forms, apparently so primitive, and yet undoubtedly also to a
great extent specialised, we shall presently discuss.

Let us now fora moment look at the genus Drepanaspis, Schliiter, from the
Lower Devonian of Gmiinden in Western Germany,” We have here a strange

‘ «Ueber untersilurische Fische,’ Wélanges Géol. et Paléont. vol. i. (St. Petersburg,
1889), pp. 9-14.

2 Bulletin Geol. Soe. America, vol. iii. 1892, pp. 153-171,

* KR. H. Traquair, ‘ Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological Survey in
the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland,’ Zrans. Roy. Soc. Hdin., vol. xxxix.
1899, pp. 827-864. A specimen of Zhelodus had, however, been found by Mr. James
Young, of Lesmahagow, before the Geological Survey came on the scene,

* IT am indebted to Sir A. Geikie, F.R.S., Director-General of the Geological
Survey, for permission to make use of this and other facts disclosed by Mr. Tait’s
work in the Lesmahagow Silurians during the present summer.

5 R. H. Traquair, Geol. Maq., April 1900.

172 REPORT—1900,

creature whose shape entirely reminds us of that of Thelodus, having the same flat
broad anterior part, bluntly rounded in front, and angulated behind, to which is
appended a narrow tail ending in a heterocercal caudal fin, which is, however,
scarcely bilobate. But here the dermal covering, instead of consisting of separate
scales or spinelets, shows a close carapace of hard bony plates, of which two are
especially large and prominent—the median dorsal and the median ventral—other
large ones being placed around the margins, while the intervening space is occupied
by a mosaic of small polygonal pieces. The position of the mouth, a transverse
slit, is seen just at the anterior margin ; it is bounded behind by a median mental
or chin-plate, but no jaws properly so called are visible, nor are there any teeth.
Then on each margin near the front of the head is a small round pit, exactly in the
position of the dark spot seen in some examples of Thelodus, which, if not an orbit,
must indicate the position of some organ of sense. Again, the tail is covered with
scales after the manner of a ‘ganoid’ fish, being rhombic on the sides, but assum-
ing the form of long deeply imbricating fulcra on the dorsal and ventral margins.
The position of the branchial opening, or openings, has not yet been definitely
ascertained.

All these plates are closely covered with stellate tubercles, and we cannot
escape from the conclusion that they are formed by the fusion of small shagreen
bodies like those of Thelodus, and united to bony matter developed in a deeper
layer of the skin.

Ifthe angular lateral flaps of Thelodus represent pectoral fins, then we should
have the exceedingly strange phenomenon of such structures becoming functionally
useless by enclosure in hard unyielding plates, though still influencing the general
outline of the fish. Be that as it may, can we doubt that in Drepanaspis we have
a form derived by specialisation from a Ccelolepid ancestor ?

This Drepanaspis throws likewise a much-desired light on the fragmentary
Devonian remains known since Agassiz’s time as Psammosteus. These consist of
large plates and fragments of plates, composed of vaso-dentine, and sculptured
externally by minute closely set stellate tubercles, exactly resembling the scales of
some species of Thelodus. These tubercles are also frequently arranged in small
polygonal areas, reminding us exactly of the small polygonal plates of Drepanaspis,
and, like them, often having a specially large tubercle in the centre. That Psam-
pase had an ancestry similar to that of Drepanaspis can also hardly be

oubted.

Finally, in the well-known Pteraspis of the Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian
formations we have a creature which also has the head and anterior part of the
body enveloped in a carapace, to which a tail covered with rhombic scales is
appended behind, and, though the caudal fin has never been properly seen, such
remains of it as have occurred distinctly indicate that it was heterocercal in its
contour. The plates of the carapace have a striking resemblance in general
arrangement to those of Drepanaspis, though the small polygonal pieces have
disappeared, and there is a prominent pointed rostrum in front of the mouth; and
it is to be noted that the small round apertures usually supposed to be orbits are
in a position quite analogous to that of the sensory pits in Drepanaspis. The
plates of the carapace of Pteraspis are not, however, tuberculated, but orna-
mented by fine close parallel ridges, the microscopic structure of which, along with
their frequent lateral crenulation, leaves no doubt in our minds that they have
been formed by the running together in lines of Zhélodus-like shagreen grains.
An aperture supposed to be branchial is seen on the plate forming the posterior
angle of the carapace on each side.

Until these recent discoveries concerning the Coelolepide and Drepanaspidie,
Pteraspis and its allies, Cyathaspis and Paleaspis, constituted the only family
included in the order Heterostraci of the sub-class Ostracodermi, distinguished, as
shown by Lankester, by the absence of bone lacunz in the microscopic structure
of their plates. It is now, however, clear that we can trace them back to an
ancestral family in which the external dermal armature was still in the generalised
form of separate shagreen grains or spinelets.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. Vie

But the Ostracodermi are usually: made to include two other groups or orders,
namely the Osteostraci and the Asterolepida.!

The Osteostraci are distinguished from the Heterostraci by the possession of
lacunee in their bone structure, and by having the eyes in the middle of the head-
shield instead of at the sides. Cephalaspis, which occurs from the Upper Silurian
to the top of the Devonian, is the best known representative of this division, In-
stead of a carapace, we find a large head-shield of one piece, though its structure
shows evidence of its having been originally composed of a mosaic of small poly-
gonal plates, and it is also to be noted that the surface is ornamented by small
tubercles, there frequently being one larger in size in the centre of each polygonal
area. The posterior-external angles of the shield project backwards in a right and
left pointed process or cornu, scarcely developed in C. Murchisoni, internal to
which, and also organically connected with the head-shield, is a rounded flap-
like structure, which strongly reminds us of the lateral flaps of the Ccelolepide.
The body is covered with scales, which on the sides are high and narrow;
there is a small dorsal fin, and the caudal, though heterocercal, is not bilobate.
It is scarcely necessary for me to add that we find just as little evidence of jaws
or of teeth as in the case of the Heterostraci.

The association of the Heterostraci and Osteostraci in one sub-class of Ostra-
codermi has been strongly protested against by Professor Lankester and Dr. O. M.
Reis, but here the Scottish Silurian strata come to the rescue with a form which I
described last year under the name of Ateleaspis tessellata, and of which some more
perfect examples than those at my disposal at that time have recently come to
light through the labours of Mr. Tait, of the Geological Survey of Scotland.

Here we have a creature whose general form reminds us strongly of Thelodus,
but whose close affinity to Cephalaspis is absolutely plain, were it only on account
of the indications of orbits on the top of the head:

The expanded anterior part which here represents the head-shield of Cepha-
laspis shows not the slightest trace of cornua, but forms posteriorly a gently
rounded lobe on each side, clearly suggesting that the cornual flaps of
Cephalaspis are homologous with and derivable from the lateral expanses in the
Ceelolepide. This cephalic covering is composed of numerous small polygonal
plates like those of which the head-shield in Cephalaspis no doubt originally con-
sisted, and the minute tubercles which cover their outer surfaces also suggest that
the superficial layer was formed by the fusion of Coelolepid scales. The body is
covered with rhombic scales, sculptured externally with tubercles and wavy trans-
verse ridges, and arranged in lines having the same general direction as the scutes
of Cephalaspis, from which we may infer that the latter originated from the fusion
of scales of similar form. The fins are as in Cephalaspis, there being one small
dorsal situated far back, and a heterocercal caudal, which is triangular in shape, and
not deeply cleft into upper and lower lobes as in the Coelolepide. Finally, the
scales, on microscopic examination, show well-developed bone lacunz in their
internal structure.

That Ateleaspis belongs to the Osteostraci there is thus not the smallest doubt,
but its general resemblance to the Ccelolepide in its contour anteriorly led me
to regard it as an annectent form, and consequently to believe that there is after
all a genuine genetic connection between the Heterostraci and the Osteostraci.
And I have not seen reason to depart from that opinion even though Ateleaspis
turns out to be still closer to Cephalaspis than was apparent in the original
specimens.

If this be so, then Cephalaspis, as well as Pteraspis and its allies, is traceable
to the Coelolepidse, shark-like creatures in which, as we have already seen, the
dermal covering consists of small shagreen-like scales, or of minute hollow spines,
and consequently all theories as to the arthropod origin of the Ostracodermi, so
far as they are founded on the external configuration of the carapace in the more

1 To these I myself recently added a fourth, the Anaspida, for the remarkable
Upper Silurian family of Birkeniide, but as these throw no light as yet on the problem
ef Descent they may at present be only mentioned.

774 REPORT—1900.

specialised forms, must fall to the ground, And from the close resemblance of these
scales of Thelodus to Elasmobranch shagreen bodies—for forty-five years they had
been, by most authors, actually referred to the Selachii—I concluded that the
Ccelolepidee owed their origin to some form of primitive Elasmobranchs. That
is, however, not in accordance with the view of the late Professor Cope, that the
Ostracodermi are more related to the Marsipobranchii, and that, from the apparent
absence of lower jaw, they should be placed along with the last-named group in a class
of Agnatha, altogether apart from the fishes proper. And Dr. Smith Woodward,
who is inclined to favour Cope’s theory, has expressed his view that the similarity
of the Ccelolepid scales to Elasmobranch shagreen is no proof of an Elasmobranch
derivation, but that such structures, representing the simplest form of dermal hard
parts, may have originated independently in far distant groups.1 Knowing what
we do of the occurrence of strange parallelisms in evolution, it would not be safe
to deny such a possibility. But as to a Marsipobranch affinity, I would point out
that the apparent want of lower jaw among the hard parts which nature has pre-
served for us is no proof of the absence of a Meckelian cartilage among the soft parts
which are lost to us for ever; and also, as Professor Lankester has remarked, that
there is no evidence whatever that any of the creatures classed together as Ostraco-
dermi were monorhinal like the Lampreys. The only fossil vertebrate having a
single median opening, presumably nasal, in the front of the head is Pal@o-
spondylus, but, whatever be the true affinities of this little creature, at present the
subject of so much dispute, I think we may be very sure that it is not an
Ostracoderm,

The Devonian ‘ Antiarcha’ or Asterolepida, of which Pterichthys is the best
lmown genus, are also usually placed in the Ostracodermi, with which they agree
in the possession of a carapace of bony plates, in the absence of distinct lower jaw
or teeth, in the non-preservation of internal skeleton, and in having a scaly tail
furnished with a heterocercal caudal fin, and, as in the Cephalaspide, also with a
small dorsal. But they have in addition a pair of singular jointed thoracic limbs,
evidently organs of progression, which are totally unlike anything in the Osteostraci
or in the Heterostraci, or indeed in any other group of fishes. These limbs are
covered with bony plates and hollow inside; but though I once fancifully compared
them in that respect with the limbs of insects, I must protest strongly against this
expression of mine being quoted in favour of the arthropod theory of the deriva-
tion of the Vertebrata !

Nor do I think that there is any probability in the view published by Simroth
nine years ago,” namely, that Pterzchthys may have been a land animal which used
its limbs for progression on dry ground, and that the origin of the heterocercal tail
was the bending up of the extremity of the vertebral axis caused by its being
dragged behind the creature in the act of walking. That view was promulgated
before the discovery of the membranous expanse of the caudal fin in this
genus.

But though the Asterolepida are apparently related to and inclusible in the
Ostracodermi, the geological record is silent as to their immediate origin, no inter-
mediate forms having been found connecting them more closely with either the
Heterostraci or the Osteostraci. In the possession of bone lacunz and of a dorsal
fin they have a greater resemblance to the latter, but it may be looked upon as
certain that they could have had no direct origin from that group.

As regards the Ostracodermi as a sub-class, they become extinct at the end of
the Devonian epoch, and cannot be credited with any share in the evolution of the
fishes of more recent periods, not even if we restore the Coccosteans or Arthrodira
to their fellowship. ‘To the latter most enigmatical group, which I shall still
continue to look upon as fishes, I shall make some reference further on.

Coming now to say a word regarding the Elasmobranchii, it is plain from the
fin-spines found in Upper Silurian rocks that they are of very ancient origin, and
that if we only knew them properly they would have a wonderful tale of evolution

1 Geol. Mag., March 1900.
2 «Die Entstehung der Landthiere,’ Leipzig, 1891.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 779
to tell. But their internal skeleton is from its nature not calculated for preserva-
tion, and for the most part we only know those creatures from scattered teeth,
fin-spines, and shagreen, specimens showing either external configuration or
internal structure being rare, especially in Paleozoic strata. But from what we do
know, there is no doubt that the ancient sharks were less specialised than those of
the present day, and that the recent Notidanids still preserve peculiarities which
were common in the Selachii of past ages.

If we ask whether the fossil sharks throw any light on the disputed origin of
the paired limbs, whether from the specialisation of right and left lateral folds, or
whether that type of limb called ‘ archipterygium’ by Gegenbaur, consisting of
a central jointed axis with pre- and post-axial radial cartilage attached, was the
original form, I fear we get no very definite answer from Klasmobranch paleon-
tolory. The paired fins of the Upper Devonian shark, Cladoselache, as described
by Bashford Dean, Smith Woodward, and others, seem to favour the lateral fold
theory, and Cope pointed to the right and left series of small intermediate spines
which in some Lower Devonian Acanthodei (Parevus and Climatius) extend
between the pectorals and ventrals as evidence of a former cortinuous lateral
fin. So also, if 1 am right in looking on the lateral flaps of the Coelolepide
as fins, the’ evidence of these ancient Ostracodermi would be in the same
direction.

But, on the other hand, we have the remarkable group of Pleuracanthidie,
extending from the Lower Permian back to the Upper Devonian, in which the

aired fins are represented by an ‘archipterygium’ which in the pectoral at least
is biserial.

From this biserial ‘archipterygium’ in the Pleuracanthidee, Professor A.
Fritsch, ten years ago,' derived the tribasal arrangement of modern sharks, much
according to the Gegenbaurian method, effecting, however, a compromise with the
lateral fold theory by assuming that the Pleuracanth form originated from one,
consisting of simple parallel rods, like that described in Cladoselache.

In my description of the pectoral tin of the Carboniferous Cladodus Netlsoni *
I have shown that the cartilaginous structures apparently present a uniserial
archipterygium intermediate between the arrangement in Plewracanthus and that in
the modern sharks, but I felt compelled to acknowledge that the specimen might
also be interpreted in exactly the opposite way, namely, as an example of a transi-
tion from the ‘ ptychopterygium’ of Cladoselache to the Pieuracanth and Dipnoan
limb. And so in fact this tin of Cladodus is claimed in support of their views by
both parties in the dispute.

When we add that Semon emphatically denies that there is any proof for
considering that the pectoral fin of Cladoselache is primitive in its type,? and that
Campbell Brown, in his recent paper on the Mesozoic genus Hybodus,* supports
Gegenbaur’s theory, it will be seen that Elasmobranch palzontology has not as
yet uttered any very clear or decided voice on the question as to whether the so-
called archipterygium is the primary form of paired fin in’ the fish, or only a

‘secondary modification. We shall now inquire if we can obtain any more light

‘on the subject from the Crossopterygii and Dipnoi.

The Crossopterygii are a grcup of Teleostomous fishes, characterised externally
by their jugular plates and lobate paired fins, and represented in the present day
only by the African genera Polypterus and Calamoichthys, which together form
the peculiar family Polypteride. The Crossopterygii appear suddenly in the
middle of the Devonian period, their previous ancestry being unknown to us.

Your families ® are known to us in Paleozoic times—the Osteolepide, Rhizo-

1 «Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation Béhmens,’ vol. iii,
pf. i. (Prague, 1890), pp. 44-45.

? Trans. Geol. Soe. (Glasgow), vol. xi. pt. 1, 1897, pp. 41-50.

3 «Die Entwickelung der paarigen Flossen des Ceratodus Forsteri.’ Jena, 1898.

+*Ueber das Genus Hybodus und seine systematische Stellung,’ Paleonto-
graphica, vol. xlvi. 1900.

° Five, if we include the singular and still imperfectly known Tarrasiidw of the
Lower Carboniferous,

776 REPORT—1900.

dontide, Holoptychiidx, and Cceelacanthide, but it is only with the first three that
we have at present to deal. The Osteolepide and Rhizodontide, which appear
together in Middle, and die out together in Upper Paleozoic times, resemble eavh
other very closely. In both we have the paired fins, more especially the pectoral,
obtusely or subacutely lobate: there are two separate dorsal fins, one anal, and the
other caudal, which is usually heterocercal, though in some genera it is more or less
diphycercal. In both the teeth are conical and have the same complex structure,
the dentine being towards the base thrown into vertical labyrinthic folds, exactly
as in the Stegocephalian Labyrinthodonts, and this along with the lung-like
development of the double air-bladder in the recent Polypteride has given rise to
the view that from these forms the Stegocephalia have originated. The nasal
openings must have been on the under surface of the snout, as in the Dipnoi.

Of these two so closely allied families we must conclude that the Osteolepide
are the more primitive, as in them the scales are acutely rhombic and usually
covered with a thick layer of ganoine, while in the Rhizodontidx they are rounded,
deeply imbricating, and normally devoid of the ganoine layer, which, however,
occasionally recurs on the scales of Rhizodopsis and the fin-rays of Gyroptychius.

What then of the structure of the paired fins? Fortunately in the Rhizodont
genera Tristichopterus and Eusthenopteron the internal skeleton of the lobe was
ossified, and what we see clearly exhibited in the pectoral of some specimens is
striking enough. We have a basal piece attached to the shoulder-girdle and
followed by a median axis of four ossicles placed end to end. The first of these
shows on its postaxial margin a strong projecting process, while to its preaxial
side, close to its distal extremity, a small radial piece is obliquely articulated, and a
similar one is joined also to the second and third segments of the axis, The
arrangement in the ventral fin is essentially similar.

In fact we have in the Rhizodontide a short uniserial ‘archipterygium,’ and
the question is, Has this been formed by the shortening up and degeneration of an
originally elongated and biserial one, or on the other hand do we find here a
condition in which the stage last referred to has not yet been attained? This
question is inseparable from the next, whether the Rhizodonts or the Holopty-
chians form the most advanced type.

The Holoptychiidze resemble the Rhizodontide extremely closely in their external
head-bones, in their rounded, deeply imbricating scales, and in the form and arrange-
ment of their median fins. But the teeth show a more complex and specialised
structure than those of the Rhizodontide ; the simple vertical vascular tubes formed
by the repeated folding of the dentine in that family being connected by lateral
branches around which the dentine tubules are grouped in such a way as to give rise
in transverse sections to a radiating arborescent appearance; hence the term ‘ den-
drodont.’ In this respect, then, the Holoptychiidze show an advance on the Rhizo-
dontidee—what then of the paired fins? While the ventral remains subacutely lobate,
as in the previous family, the pectoral has now assumed an elongated acutely lobate
shape, with the fin-rays arranged along the two sides of a central scaly axis exactly
as in the Dipnoi; and though the internal skeleton has not yet been seen, yet,
judging by analogy, we cannot escape the belief that it was in the form of a
complete biserial ‘ archipterygium.’

What, then, is the condition of affairs in the oldest known Dipnoan ?

The oldest member of this group with whose configuration we are acquainted is
Dipterus, which likewise appears in the middle of the Devonian period simultaneously
with the Osteolepidse, Rhizodontide, and Holoptychiide. In external form it
closely resembles a Holoptychian, having a heterocercal caudal fin, two similarly
placed dorsals, one anal, and circular imbricating scales, which, however,
have the exposed part covered with smooth ganoine. But now we have the
ventrals as well as the pectorals acutely lobate in shape, and presumably archi-
pterygial in structure; the top of the head is covered with many small plates, there
is no longer a dentigerous maxilla, the skull is autostylic, and the palatopterygoids
and the mandibular splenial are like those of Ceratodus and bear each a tooth-plate
with radiating ridges.

Now, comparing Dipterus with the recent Ceratodus and Protopterus, the first

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. V10

conclusion we are likely to draw is, that the older Dipnoan is a very specialised
form, that its héterocercal tail and separate dorsals and anal are due to specialisa-
tion from the continuous diphycercal dorso-ano-caudal arrangement in the recent
forms, that the Holoptychiide were developed from it by shortening up of the
ventral archipterygium, as well as by the changes in cranial structure, and that
the Rhizodontidx and Osteolepide are a still more specialised series in which the
pectoral archipterygium has also shared the fate of the ventral in becoming
shortened up and uniserial.

Five years ago, however, M. Dollo, of the Natural History Museum at
Brussels, the well-known describer of the fossil reptiles of Bernissart, proposed a
new view to the effect that the process of evolution had gone exactly in the
opposite direction ; 1 and after long consideration of the subject I find it difficult to
escape from the conclusion that this view is more in accordance with the facts of
the case, though, as we shall see, it also has its own difficulties.

T have already indicated above that we are, on account of the more specialised
structure of the teeth, justified in considering the Holoptychians, with their
acutely lobate pectorals, a newer type than the Rhizodonts, even though they did
not survive so long in geological time. What, then, of the question of autostyly ?

We do not know the suspensorium of Holoptychius, but that of the Rhizodontidse
was certainly hyostylic, asin the recent Polypterus. Now as there can be no doubt
that the autostylic condition of skull is a specialisation on the hyostylic form, as seen
also in the Chimeroids and in the Amphibia, to suppose that the hyostylic
Crossopterygii were evolved from the autostylic Dipnoi is, to say the least, highly
improbable ; in my own opinion, as well as in that of M. Dollo, it will not stand.
And if we assume a genetic connection between the two groups itis in accordance
with all analogy to look on the Dipnoi as the children and not as the parents of
the Crossopterygii.

M. Dollo adopts the opinion of Messrs. Balfour and Parker that the apparently
primitive diphycercal form of tail of the recent Dipnoi is secondary, and caused
by the abortion of the termination of the vertebral axis as in various ‘ Teleostei,
so that no argument can be based on the supposition that it represents the original
‘ protocercal’ or preheterocercal stage. Very likely that is so, but it is not of so
much importance for the present inquiry, as both in the Osteolepidze and Rhizodon-
tide we find among otherwise closely allied genera some which are heterocercal,
others more or less diphycercal. Diplopterus, for example, differs from Thursius
only by its diphycercal tail, and in like manner among the Rhizodontide Tristi-
chopterus is heterocercal, Eusthenopteron is nearly diphycercal, and there can be no
doubt that, in spite of this, their caudal fins are perfectly homologous structures.

But of special interest is the question of the primitive or non-primitive nature
of the continuity of the median fins in the recent Dipnoi. Like others I was
inclined to believe it primitive, and that the broken-up condition of these fins in
Dipterus was a subsequent specialisation, and in fact gave the series Phaneropleuron,
Scaumenacia, Dipterus macropterus, and D. Valenciennesti as illustrating this
process of differentiation.? This view of course draws on the imperfection of the
geological record in assuming the existence of ancient pre-Dipterian Dipnoi with
continuous median fins, which have never yet been discovered. But Dollo, using
the very same series of forms, showed good reason for reading it in exactly the
opposite direction.

The series is as follows :—

1. Dipterus Valenciennesii Sedgw. and Murch., from the Orcadian Old Red,
and the oldest Dipnoan with whose shape we are acquainted, has two dorsal fins
with short bases, a heterocercal caudal, and one short-based anal.

2. Dipterus macropterus Traq., from a somewhat higher horizon in the
Orcadian series, has the base of the second dorsal much extended, the other fins
remaining as before.

’ ‘Sur la Phylogénie des Dipneustes,’ Bulletin Soc. belge géol. paléont. hydr,,
yol. ix. 1895.

* Geol, Mag. (3), vol. x. 1893, p. 268,

778 REPORT—1900.

8. In Scaumenacia curta (Whiteaves), from the Upper Devonian of Canada,
the first dorsal has advanced considerably towards the head, and its base has now
become elongated, while the second has become still larger and more extended,
though still distinct from the caudal posteriorly.

4, In Phaneropleuron Andersoni Huxley, from the Upper Old Red of Fife-
shire, the two dorsal fins are now fused with each other and with the caudal,
forming a long continuous fin along the dorsal margin, while the tail has become
nearly diphycercal, with elongation of the base of the lower division of the fin.
But the anal still remains separate, narrow, and short-based.

5. In the Carboniferous Uronemus lobatus Ag. the anal is now also absorbed
in the lower division of the caudal, forming now, likewise on the hzemal aspect, a
continuous median fin behind the ventrals. There is also a last and feeble remnant
of a tendency to an upward direction of the extremity of the vertebral axis.

6. In the recent Ceratodus Forsteri Krettt, the tail is diphycercal (secondary
diphycercy), the median fins are continuous, the pectorals and ventrals retain the
biserial archipterygium, but the cranial roof-bones have become few.

7. In Protopterus annectens Owen, the body is more eel-like, and the paired
fins have lost the lanceolate leaflike appearance which they show in Ceratodus
and the older Dipnoi. They are like slender filaments in shape, with a fringe on
one side of minute dermal rays; internally they retain the central jointed axis of
the ‘archipterygium,’ but according to Wiedersheim the radials are gone, except
it may be one pair at the very base of the filament.

8. Finally in Lepidosiren paradoxa Fitz. the paired fins are still more reduced,
haying become very small and short, with only the axis remaining.

From this point of view, then, Dipterus, instead of being the most specialised
Dipnoan, is the most archaic, and the modern Ceratodus, Protopterus, and Lepi-
dosiren are degenerate forms, and instead of the Crossopterygii being the offspring
of Dipterus-like forms, it is exactly the other way, the Dipnoi owing their origin
to Holoptychiidee, which again are a specialisation on the Rhizodontide, though
they did not survive so long as these in geological time. Consequently the
Ceratodus limb, with its long median segmented axis and biserial arrangement of
radials, is not an archypterygium in the literal sense of the word, but a deri-
vative form traceable to the short uniserial type in the Rhizodonts, But from
what form of fin that was derived is a question to which paleontology gives
us no answer, for the progenitors of the Crossopterygil are as yet unknown to us.

Plausible and attractive as this theory undoubtedly is, and though it relieves
the paleontologist from many difficulties which force themselves upon his mind
if he tries to abide by the belief that the Dipnoan form of limb had a selachian
origin, and was in turn handed on by them to the Crossopterygii, yet it is not
without its own stumbling-blocks. :

First as to the dentition, on which, however, M. Dollo does not seem to put
much stress, it is impossible to derive Dipterus directly from the Holoptychiide,
unless it suddenly acquired, as so many of us have to do as we grow older, a
new set of teeth. The dendrodont dentition of Holoptychius could not in any
way be transformed into the ctenodont or ceratodont one of Dipterus: both are
highly specialised conditions, but in different directions. Semon has recently
shown that the tooth-plates of the recent Ceratodus arise trom the concrescence of
numerous small simple conical teeth, at first separate from each other.' Now
this stage in the embryo of the recent form represents to some extent the con-
dition in the Uronemidz of the Carboniferous and Lower Permian, which stand
quite in the middle of Dollo’s series.

Again, the idea of the origin of the Dipnoi from the Crossopterygii in the
manner sketched above cuts off every thought of a genetic connection between
the biserial archipterygium in them and in the Pleuracanthidz, so that we should
have to believe that this very peculiar type of limb arose independently in the
Selachii as a parallel development. It may be asked, Why not? We may feel
perfectly assured that the autostylic condition of the skull in the Holocephali

1 «Die Zabnentwickelung des Ceratodus Forsteri.’ Jena, 1899,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 779

arose independently of that in the Dipnoi, as did likewise a certain amount of
resemblance in their dentition. But those who from embryological grounds
oppose any notion of the origin of the Dipnoi from ‘Ganoids’ might here say, if
they chose, If so, why should not also the same form of limb have been inde-~
pendently evolved in Crossopterygii ?

Accordingly, while philosophic paleontology is much indebted to M. Dollo for
his brilliant essay, and though we must agree with him in many things, such as
that the Crossopterygii were not derived from the Dipnoi, and that the modern
representatives of the latter group are degenerate forms, yet as to the zmmediate
ancestry of the Dipnoi themselves, and the diphyletic origin of the so-called
archipterygium, we had best for the present keep an open mind.

Tn his ‘ Catalogue of the Fossil Fishes’ in the British Museum (vol. ii. 1891)
Dr. Smith Woodward, following the suggestion of Newberry in 1875, classified the
Coccosteans or ‘ Arthrodira’ as an extremely specialised group of Dipnoi. At first
I was much taken with that idea, but after looking more closely into the subject
I began to doubt it extremely. My own opinion at present is that the Coccosteans
are ‘leleostomi belonging to the next order, Actinopterygii; but Prof. Bashford
Dean, of New York, will not have them to be even ‘fishes,’ but places them in a
distinct class of ‘ Arthrognatha,’ which he places next to the Ostracophori
(=Ostracodermi), even hinting at a possible union with them, whereby the old
‘ Placodermata’ of McCoy would be restored. It will, therefore, be better to leave
them out of consideration for the present, pending a thorough re-examination of
their structure and affinities.

We come then to the great order of Actinopterygii, to which a large number
of the fishes of later Paleeozoic age belong, as well as the great mass of those
of Mesozoic, Tertiary, and Modern times. Of these we first take into considera-
tion the oldest sub-order, namely, the Acipenseroidei or Sturgeon tribe, in which
the dermal rays of the median fins are more numerous than their supporting
ossicles, while the tail is, in most, completely heterocercal. And the oldest family
of Acipenseroids with which we are acquainted is that of the Paloniscide,
which, in addition to well-developed cranial and facial bones, has the hody
normally covered with rhombic ganoid scales furnished with peg-and-socket articu-
lations. Of this family one genus, Chezrolepis, appears in the same Devonian strata
(Oreadian series) with the earliest known Crossopterygii, and of its immediate
ancestry we know no more than we do of theirs. Chetrolepis is a fully evolved
paleeoniscid, as shown by its oblique suspensorium, wide gape, and other points
of its structure. In the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Scotland, where the family
attains an enormous development, we find one or two genera, e.g. Canobius,
which appear less specialised, as the suspensorium is nearly vertical, and the
mouth consequently smaller.

This family endures up to the Purbeck division of the Jurassic formation, and
in the Carboniferous Cryphiolepis, the Lower Permian Trissolepis, and the Jurassic
Coccolepis we find the same degeneration of the rhombic scales into those of a
circular form and imbricating arrangement, which we find repeated in other groups
of ‘Ganoids.’ In fact, in one Carboniferous genus, Phanerosteon, the scales
disappear altogether with the exception of those on the body prolongation in the

upper lobe of the caudal fin, and a few just behind the shoulder-girdle.

And in these Paleozoic times we notice also a side branch of the Paleoniscide,
constituting the family Platysomide, in which, while the median fins acquire
elongated bases, the body becomes shortened up and deep in contour. The scales
become high and narrow, their internal rib and articular spine coincident with the
anterior margin; the suspensorium, too, instead of swinging back as in the typical
Palzoniscidze, tends to be directed obliquely forward, while the snout becomes
simultaneously elongated in front of the nares.

A most interesting series of forms can be set up, beginning with ZEurynotus,
which, though it has the platysomid head contour and a long-based dorsal, has
only a slight deepening of the body, and still retains the paleoniscid squamation
and a short Bistot anal fin. In Mesolepis, which resembles Eurynotus in shape,
being only slightly deeper, we have now the characteristic platysomid squamation,

780 REPORT—1 900,

and the base of the anal fin is considerably elongated. Platysomus has a still more
elongated anal fin, and the body is rhombic; while in Chezrodus the body is still
deeper in contour, with peculiar dorsal and ventral peaks, long fringing dorsal and
anal fins, while the ventrals seem to have disappeared altogether. Here also, as in
the allied genus Chezrodopsis, the separate cylindro-conical teeth characteristic of
the family are, on the palatal and splenial bones, replaced by dental plates, remind-
ing us of those of the Dipnoi. Certainly the Platysomide seem to me to forma
morphological series telling as strongly in fayour of Descent as any other in the
domain of paleeontology.?

If we now return to the Palwoniscidee we find that they dwindled away in
numbers in the Jurassic rocks, and finally hecame extinct at the close of that
epoch. But already in the Lias (leaving the Triassic Catopteride out of considera-
tion for the present) we find that they have sent off another offshoot sufficiently
distinct to be reckoned as a new and separate family, namely, the Chondrosteide,
in which the path of degeneration, in all but the matter of size, seems to have been
entered on.

In the genus Chondrosteus, though the paleoniscid type is clearly traceable
in the cranial structure, there is marked degeneration as regards tne amount of
ossification, and though the suspensorium is still obliquely directed backward the
toothless jaws are comparatively short, and the mouth seems now to have become
tucked in under the snout as in the recent sturgeon. Then the scales have entirely
disappeared from the skin except on the upper lobe of the heterocercal caudal fin,
where they are still found arranged exactly as in the Palxoniscidee.

Chondrosteus in fact conducts us to the recent Acipenseroids—the Poly-
odontidz (Paddle-fishes) and Acipenseridz (Sturgeons).

The first of these resembles Chondrosteus in the nakedness of the skin, except
on the upper lobe of the caudal fin,? the more paleoniscid aspect of the external
cranial plates, such of them as remain, for they are now still further reduced. But
in front of the mouth and eyes there is an addition in the form of an enormous
vertically flattened paddle-shaped snout covered above and below with a large
number of small ossitications.

The sturgeons have, however, nearly altogether lost the paleoniscid arrange-
ment of the cranial roof-bones, which, strange to say, now exhibit an arrangement
reminding us of that in Dzpteruws, and the external facial plates are still more
reduced than even in Polyodon; but we may note a very strong resemblance to
Chondrosteus in the position of the mouth, the edentulous jaws, and the jugal
bone, indeed also in the palatal apparatus.

So the sturgeons and paddle-fishes of the present day would seem to be the
degenerate, though bulky, descendants of the once extensively developed group of
Palzoniscide, even as the modern Dipnoi are degenerated from those of Paleozoic
times.

We now notice another apparent offshoot of the Paleoniscide, namely, the
family of Catopteridee (Catopterus and Dictyopyge), which is limited to rocks of
Triassic age. Unfortunately the osteology of the head is not well known, but Dr.
Smith Woodward’s observations are to the effect that both the head and shoulder-
girdle are of paleoniscoid type. The relationship of these small fishes to the
Paleeoniscidze is shown by the general shape, the number and position of the fins,
the rhombic ganoid scales, and the close arrangement of the rays of the median
fins. But the rays of the dorsal and anal fins are now almost equal in number to
their supporting ossicles, and the tail has become only abbreviate heterocercal.
That is to say, the caudal body prolongation no longer proceeds to the termination
of the upper lobe, which is reduced in size and in the number of its rays. The

1 R. H. Traquair, ‘Structure and Affinities of the Platysomider,’ Trans. Roy. Soc.
Edin. xxix, 1879, pp. 343-391.

2 Collinge has, however, found rudimentary scales in the skin of the recent
Polydon folium (Journ. Anat. and Phys. ix. pp. 485-487), and Cope has described an
allied Hocene genus, Crossopholis, in which minute scales are seen (Mem. Vat. Acad,
Sciences, iii, 1886, pp. 161-163),

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 781

Catopterid are obviously an annectent group, as, although from their abbreviate
heterocercal tail they have usually been placed in the next sub-order, Dr. Smith
Woodward prefers to look upon them as Chondrostei (¢e. Acipenseroidei).'
Wherever we place them they express the beginning of a set of changes towards
a more modern type of fish, which are emphasised in the great series of Lepidos-
teoid fishes (Protospondyli+ Atheospondyli of Smith Woodward), being the fishes
more or less allied to the recent Bony Pike of North America.

But these changes must have been well advanced before the Triassic era, for
already in the Upper Permian occurs the genus <Acentrophorus, whose fellowship
with Semionotus, Lepidotus, and all the rest of the series of Mesozoic semi-hetero-
cercal ‘ Ganoids’ is at once obvious. :

If we look at the configuration of a typical Jurassic member of this series, such
as Lepidotus or Eugnathus, we shall at once see that we are a stage nearer the
modern osseous fish. Though the scales are bony, rhombic, and ganoid, we are
struck by the ‘Teleostean’-like aspect of the external bones and plates of the
head, the rays of the dorsal and anal fins are fewer and correspond in their number
to that of the internal supports or ‘ interspinous’ bones, while in the caudal we
see again the semi-heterocercal or abbreviate-heterocercal condition we noticed
above in Catopterus.

Then if we refer to the tail of Lepidostews itself we shall observe how few are
its rays and how evident it is that we have here to do only with the lower lobe of
the original palzoniscoid caudal fin. For a convincing corroboration of this we have
only to look at the tail of the embryo Lepidosteus as described and figured by

_ Prof. A. Agassiz to see that it in reality passed through an Acipenseroid stage,
and the last we see of the upper lobe of this tail is in the form of a filament
which projects from the top of the original lower lobe and then disappears.

Again, in these Lepidosteid forms we have a repetition of the same tendency
for the thick rhombic peg-and-socket articulating scales to become rounded and
imbricating as we saw in the Crossopterygii and again in the Paleoniscide. So,
for instance, in Caturus, which has been shown by Dr. Smith Woodward to
resemble Eugnathus so closely in structure, the scales are deeply overlapping, and
most of them ‘cycloidal’in shape. To such an extent does this go that in the
recent Ama, whose skeletal structure so clearly shows it to belong to this group,
the rounded scales are so thin and flexible that after it was removed from the
Clupeoid family, or Herrings, and placed among the ‘ Ganoids,’ it was considered
to be the type of a distinct sub-order of ‘Amioidei.’ Ten years ago, however,
Dr. Beard came to the conclusion, from anatomical and embryological data, that
this division could no longer be maintained, and that the Amioids must in fact
be united with the Lepidosteids.? Dr. Smith Woodward has, therefore, in the
third volume of his catalogue, done well to reduce the ‘Amioidei’ to the rank
of a family, including also the Jurassic genera Liodesmus and Megalurus, and to
place this family close to the Eugnathide.

As the Acipenseroids dwindled away after the close of the great Palsozoic
era, and are now scantily represented only by the degenerate paddle-fishes and
sturgeons, so the Lepidosteid series, flourishing greatly in the Trias and Jura, in their
turn declined in the Cretaceous, and in the Tertiary period became about-as much
a thing of the past as they are now, the North American Lepidosteus and Amia,
of which remains of extinct species have also been found in Eocene and Miocene
rocks, only remaining. These two genera can, however, hardly be called ‘ degenerate.’

But that the fishes which succeeded the Lepidosteids in populating the seas

1 Dr. Smith Woodward also refers the singular Belonorhynchide of the Trias to
the same sub-order on account of the excess of the number of the dermal rays of the
dorsal and anal over that of their supporting ossicles, even although the tail is here
abbreviate diphycercal,

* «The Inter-relationships of the Ichthyopsida, Anatomischer Anzeiger, 1890.
Smith Woodward arrived at the same result in 1893 from the study of the Jurassic
Beers Lepidotus and Dapedius. See Proc. Zool, Soc, Lond, June 20, 1893, pp. 559=

De

782 REPORT—1900.

and rivers of the globe were evolved from them there can be no ¢easonable doubt,
while it is equally clear that they branched off at an early period, as already in
the Trias we find the first representatives of the order of Isospondyli, which
contains our familiar Herrings, Salmonids, Elopids, Scopelids, &e. For Dr. Smith
Woodward has not only definitely placed the Jurassic Leptolepide and Oligo-
pleuride in the Isospondyli, but also the Pholidophoride, which appear in the
Trias and extend to the Purbeck. And it is of special interest that in the
Pholidophori the scales are still brilliantly ganoid and mostly retain the peg-and-
socket articulation, while in the allied Leptolepide, although they have become
thin and circular, a layer of ganoine mostly remains.

With the Isospondyli we now get fairly among the bony fishes of modern
type—Teleostei as we used to caJl them—to which other sub-orders are added in
Cretaceous and Tertiary times, and which in the present day have assumed an
overwhelming numerical preponderance over all other fishes. The prevalent form
of scale among these is thin, rounded, deeply imbricating, and with the posterior
margin either plain (cycloid) or serrated (ctenoid), But that these ‘cycloid’ and
‘ctenoid’ scales are modifications from ihe rhombic osseous ‘ganoid’ type we
cannot doubt after what we have seen. It is indeed strange that the same
tendency to the change of rhombic into circular overlapping scales should have
occurred independently in more than one group.

For reasons given at the beginning, and also because I fear I have already
exceeded the limit of time usually allotted to such an Address, I must now stop.

But in conclusion I may allude to a well-known fact regarding the tail of
these modern fishes, the bearing of which on the doctrine of Descent is sufficiently
clear and has long heen recognised.

We have seen that the completely heterocercal tail of the typical Acipenseroid
becomes, by abortion of the upper lobe and shortening of the axis, the semi-
heterocercal one of the Lepidosteids, in most of which, however, the want of
symmetry is still perceptible externally by a short projection or ‘sinus’ of scales
which is directed obliquely upward at the beginning of the top of the fin. In the
ordinary bony fishes and in some Lepidosteids also the caudal fin becomes like-
wise symmetrical, as seen from the outside; generally also bilobate, though the
upper lobe is not that of a Paloniscid or Sturgeon. This condition of tail has
been long known as ‘homocereal.’ But in many such homocercal tails, when we
dissect away the skin and soft parts, the upward bend of the vertebral axis is
revealed, and in some, as in the Salmon, the extremity of the vertebral axis is
continued as a cartilaginous style among the rays near the upper margin of the fin.
But there are many others, such, for instance, as the peculiarly specialised group of
Pleuronectidee or flat fishes, in which the skeleton of the caudal extremity looks
quite symmetrical, but yet in the embryo the extremity of the notochord is seen
to have an upward bend, showing that the homocereal tail is indeed a specialisa-
tion on the old heterocercal one. It is strange that though this embryological
fact was long ago pointed out by Agassiz, and though he noted its great interest in
connection with the prevalence of heterocercy among the Paleozoic fishes, yet he
yemained to the end an opponent of evolution. But this is just one of these
instances in which Phylogeny and Ontogeny mutually illustrate each other.
Why, otherwise, should the tail of the embryo stickleback or flounder be hetero-
cercal P

Incompletely as I have treated the subject, it cannot but be acknowledged
that the paleontology of fishes is not less emphatic in the support of Descent
than that of any other division of the animal kingdom. But in former days the
evidence of fossil ichthyology was by some read otherwise.

Tt is now a little over forty years since Hugh Miller died: he who was one
of the first collectors of the fossil fishes of the Scottish Old Red Sandstone, and
who knew these in some respects better than any man of his time, not excepting
Agassiz himself. Yet his life was spent in a fierce denunciation of the doctrine
of evolution, then only in its Lamarckian form, as Darwin had not yet electrified
the world with his ‘Origin of Species.’ Many a time I wonder greatly what
Huch Miller would have thought had he lived a few years longer, so as to have

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 783

been able to see the remarkable revolution which was wrought by the publication
of that book.

The main argument on which Miller rested was the ‘high’ state of organisa-
tion of the ancient fishes of the Paleozoic formations, and this was apparently com-
bined with a confident assumption of the completeness of the geological record.
As to the first idea, we know of course that evolution means the passage from
the more general to the more special, and that although as the general result an
onward advance has taken place, yet specialisation does not always or necessarily
mean ‘highness’ of organisation in the sense in which the term is usually
employed. As to the idea of the perfection of the geological record, that of
course is absurd.

We do not and cannot know the oldest fishes, as they would not have had hard
parts for preservation, but we may hope to come to know many more old ones,
and older ones still, than we do at present. My experience of the subject of fossil
ichthyology is that it is not likely to become exhausted in our day.

We are introduced at a period far back in geological history to certain groups
of fishes some of which certainly are high in organisation as animals, but yet of
generalised type, being fishes and yet having the potentiality of higher forms.

But, because their ancestors are unknown to us, that is no evidence that they did

not exist, and cannot overthrow the morphological testimony in favour of
evolution with which the record actually does furnish us. We may therefore
feel very sure that fishes, or ‘fish-like vertebrates,’ lived long ages before the
oldest forms with which we are acquainted came into existence.

The modern type of bony fish, though not so ‘high’ in many anatomical
points as that of the Selachii, Crossopterygii, Dipnoi, Acipenseroidei, and
Lepidosteoidei of the Paleozoic and Mesozoie eras, is more specialised in the
direction of the fish proper, and, as already indicated. specialisation and ‘high-
ness’ in the ordinary sense of the word are not necessarily coincident. But ideas
about these things have undergone a wonderful change since those pre-Darwinian
days, and though we shall never be able fully to unravel the problems concerning
the descent of animals, we see many things a great deal more clearly now than
we did then.

The following Reports were read :—

1. Report on the Bird Migration in Great Britain and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 403.

2. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station, Naples.
See Reports, p. 380.

3. Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, Plymouth.—See Reports, p. 399.

4, Report on the ‘ Index Animalium.’—See Reports, p. 392.

5. Interim Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English
Channel.—See Reports, p. 379.

6. Tenth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands.
See Reports, p. 398,

784 REPORT—1900.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.

The following Papers were read :—

1. The Miocene Fauna of Patagonia. By Professor W. B. Scor'.

2. The Nesting Habits of Ornithorhynchus. By Dr. Greaa Wi1son.

3. Malaria and Mosquitoes. By Major Ronatp Ross.

4, The Nuclei of Dendrocometes.
By Professor 8. J. Hickson, I.A., D.Sce., F.R.S.

Plate denied the existence of true ‘ Nebenkerne,’ or micronuclei, in Dendro-
cometes, and Schneider was unable to prove their existence. There can be no
doubt, however, that such bodies do occur, and I have been able by the improved ~*
methods of preservation and staining to trace all the important stages of their
mitosis. Maupas asserted that in the Suctoria there is only one micronucleus, and
that it is very small. If this is true of the Suctoria generally, Dendrocometes is
exceptional, as there is reason for believing that at least two and sometimes three
or four micronuclei occur, each of which is as large as or larger than the micronuclei
of Paramecium caudatum. During conjugation one micronucleus from each
individual passes down the connecting bar, and there can be no doubt that a
fusion of micronuclei occurs, although the whole series of stages of this process
has not yet been observed.

The macronuclei of the conjugating individuals are very much elongated and
pointed at their extremities. In several cases I have observed that one end of the
macronucleus of each conjugating individual passes down the connecting bar, and
in one specimen an actual fusion of the two macronuclei was seen.

It would be premature to discuss the meaning of this conjugation of the
macronuclei at present, but there can be no doubt of the bearing of this fact upon
the prevalent view that the conjugation of Infusoria is entirely an affair of
micronuclei. At the end of conjugation the macronucleus disintegrates, as in the
Ciliata. The new macronucleus, which makes its appearance during the early
stages of the disintegration of the old macronucleus, is at first clear, homogeneous,
and almost devoid of chromatin. The chromatin accumulates in it as the frag-
ments of the old macronucleus disintegrate.

The structure of the macronucleus has been very carefully reinvestigated.
Details of the results will be published later, but it may be stated here that the
division of the macronucleus during gemmation is purely amitotic. There are no
centrosomes and no achromatic spindle.

In this investigation I have been very materially assisted by Mr. T. J.
Wadsworth, of the Owens College laboratory.

The iron hematoxylin method of staining has been principally used, but
valuable results have aiso been obtained by a new method of using brazilin with
iron-alum.

5. Cyclopia in Osseous Fishes. By Jamus F. Gemmitt, IA., UD.

In this paper an outline is given of the anatomy of some cyclopean trout
embryos ; the conditions present are contrasted with those which are found in
similar cases among the higher animals, and their general bearing is briefly discussed.

Summary of Chief Points relating to Cyclopia in the Trout.

1. In all the specimens examined distinct olfactory organs and nerves of
reduced size are present.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 785

2. Dropsy of the central cavities of the brain or of the meninges is remarkable
for its absence. The cerebral lobes are more or less united, but they may attain
a very fair degree of development, Pineal growths are present as in the normal
condition.

3. Trabecule cranii of full length are present, but they bend downwards so as

* to lie below the cyclopean eye or pair of eyes. They are closely fused together
anteriorly to form a single median bar, the appearance of which suggests that in
this region they have never been separate.

4, In some of the specimens examined cyclopia is associated with absence of
the mouth opening and great shortening of the lower jaw arch.

In these cases the infundibulum and the whole pituitary body are absent,
the basal masses of the mid-brain are more or less fused together, the optic nerves
are rudimentary or absent, and the eyes, though they have a well-developed
retina and choroid, have no choroidal fissure. The auditory labyrinths and capsules
on either side as well as the suspensorial cartilages remain, however, almost as
widely separate as in the normal condition,

6. On some Causes of Brain-configuration in the Brain of Selachians,
Ly Professor R. BurcKHARDT.

7. On the Systematic Value of the Brain in Selachians.
By Professor R. BurckHarpr.

8. On some Points in the Life-History of the Littoral Fishes.
By Professor W. C. McIntosu, 7.2.5.

No group of marine fishes is better fitted for the demonstration of the great
mortality which ensues between the period of the deposition of the eggs and the
attainment of the adult condition than the littoral fishes, such as the shanny,
viviparous blenny, sea-scorpion, lumpsucker (partim), gunnel, fifteen-spined stickle-—
back, and the five-bearded rockling. The adults, for instance, of the shanny can,
as a rule, be readily located in the pools between tide-marks on rocky shores. The
adult female deposits a considerable number of eggs in small rocky caverns, and
the pelagic young abound in the tidal pools in August and September. As they
increase in size they become fewer, not by spreading themselves in the ocean or
by taking advantage of new sites amongst the rocks, but by steady diminution
from the attacks of other predatory forms. One or two adults alone survive in
each suitable rock-pool. In the group under consideration the conditions of the
Species are various, the majority, however, having demersal eggs, which in the
case of the gunnel are protected by the parents, and in the fifteen-spined stickle-
back are sheltered in a nest, whilst the reckling has pelagic eggs, and the vivi-
parous blenny produces living young fully two inches in length. The result is
nearly the same in each case, for the adults do not, as a rule, vary much from
period to period. A comparatively large number of eggs and young are necessary
to maintain the species, even though in our country there is no systematic capture
of any of them either for food or pleasure,

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1, Report on the Physiological Effects of Pept one and its Precursors
when untroduced into the circulation.—See Reports, p. 457.

1900, 3k

786 | REPORT—1900.

2 On a Peptic Zymase in Young Embryos.
By Marcus Hartoe, I.A., D.Sc., FLAS.

In 1896 I communicated to the Association a note in which I referred incident-
ally to the discovery of a peptic zymase in the embryo of the frog at a stage when
the macromeres appear as a white plug in the region of the blastopore, in the
entire embryo of the chick after twenty-four hours, and in the extravascular
blastoderm after three days’ incubation. These observations were made by the
classic method of killing and coagulating with absolute alcohol, drying and
powdering, extracting with glycerine, precipitating with absolute alcohol, and
ascertaining the properties of this precipitate on boiled white of ege and
boiled blood-fibrin. In successive years I obtained only negative results. A
hint from Professor J. Reynolds Green gaye me the explanation of these con-
tradictory results. In 1896 I had the valuable assistance of Mr. E. J. Butler,
and was able to carry through each series of experiments continuously ; while in
the three following years they were protracted indefinitely. This spring I was
able to confirm my original results, changing my methods to avoid delay and con-
sequent loss of zymase. The objects themselves were killed in chloroform- or
thymol-water and pounded; and instead of using other substances for diges-
tion'I contented myself with the abundant material of the vitelline granules
present in each case within the cell.

I relied in all cases on the ‘ biuret. test’ of Piotrowsky, consisting in warming
the product of digestion (after neutralising, boiling, and filtering to remove all acid-
albumen) with strong caustic alkali and a trace of copper sulphate; the pink
coloration reveals the presence of albumoses or peptones. On some occasions the
chick-blastoderm tests turned yellowish brown as the temperature continued to
rise, and on boiling there was an abundant dark precipitate, indicating the presence of
a reducing body. A zymase capable of yielding such a product has recently been
described by Muller, who, however, has only found it active in neutral liquids.

No trace of any other ferment has been found so far; it is noteworthy that all
observers are agreed in the recognition of a peptic ferment only in the holozoic
Protista.

Frog embryos kept in thymol water in a stoppered jar in the dark—in a closed
locker—for a month had lost all digestive properties.

Two important conclusions appear to follow :—

1. In all plants, so far as is known, it has been shown that the cell cannot
directly utilise the reserves that it contains, but only the products of their hydro-
lysis ; and this hydrolysis is not a function of the living protoplasm itself, but of
the zymases it forms, since the process can be reproduced in vitro working with
the killed cell or its extract. It would seem almost certain that the same law
holds good for the animal cell.

2. These facts explain the apparent exception to the law of division at the
doubling of the volume formulated by Herbert Spencer, as I indicated in my,
note of 1896. A cell that instead of growing by its protoplasm only accumulates
reserve material has no need to constantly readjust its surface to its volume.
‘When, however, the formation of a zymase enables it to utilise its reserves, and
its protoplasm grows at the expense of the products of their digestion, the need for
augmented surface asserts itself, and we get the repeated cell-divisions so marked
in the ‘segmentation’ of the embryo and in other cases of brood-formation. It
follows also that two distinct processes have been compounded under the single
term of ‘anabolism:’ (a) the building up and storage of reserves; (6) the
growth of the protoplasm at the expense of nourishment from without, or the
digestion of the reserves within. From this point of view the segmentation of the
embryo is certainly an anabolic process of the second category, and not mainly
catabolic, as usually stated.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D, 787

3 On the Mechanical and Chemical Changes which take place during
the Incubation of Eggs. By R. Irvine, £.C.S.

Six hen’s eggs were hatched in the usual manner. These ezgs were weighed
daily. The loss of weight was progressive during the t wenty-one days of hatching,
ranging from

InUNO EG oe - : 3 : - . 0°34 gramme
die : ° 4 . a - 0:36 5
ae aa - i 2 : - 0°25 ”
on the first day to a maximum of
in Noes - . : : - - 0°50 gramme
pp eS he < : - : =p 0'°O5 “e
Ar le : > - - - » 0°36 oc

on the twenty-first day, the loss being proportional to their size and weight, the
total loss during the twenty-one days being

INN On a : : 6 : = . 794 grammes
Se, 9 eae ee
Othe : , : : : moo | i,

when the chicks chipped the shells and hegan life on their own account.
The other three eggs were not fertile, but during the twenty-one days lost
weight also, on the first day losing

inNo.4 . : : : : : . 0-23 gramme

SOs De URNS FEC Fo.

eee Ons 3 : 5 - 5 . 0:33 Ay
the loss in No. 4 reaching 0°30 gramme on the 21st day

” ” 5 ” 0:47 ” ” ”

” ” 6 ” 0°32 ” ” ”

the totals being

No.4 . . E c B : . 534 grammes

ty GeueKe Ya camrsdtiird'} 2b) elephant

» 6 : ’ ' ; ThE LS eee,

The average weight of each of the fertile egzs was 56:93 grammes, falling to
49-65 grammes on the day before the chicks liberated themselves from the shells.
Thus the average loss sustained by each egg was 7°38 grammes, or 12-96 per cent ;
so that the average loss per egg per day was 0°35 per cent.

As the results from the unfertile eggs were useless for comparison, a fresh
egg was employed to determine the weight of water and solid matter respectively.

The egg weighed . : : : : : F ° - 68-40 grammes
The shell and membrane (moist, 6:92) . : . ; . 5:80 Fe dry)
The weight of yolk, albumen, and water in egg and membrane

was. - : : : - A . 52°60

51°45 grammes of the egg were dried et 101° C., and gave of

Dry matter . . ° = . 13:18 grammes, or per cent. 25:617
Moisture . . - “ : - 38:27 np Pr a 74:383

100-000

A newly hatched chick, weighing 40:8 grammes, was dried in the same
manner, and after the moisture had been driven off there was left

Dry matter . . : - . 10°9 grammes, or per cent. 26°715
Moisture . A i F a EO “e a 5 73:285
100°000

3E2

788 REPORT—1900.

These results are curious and interesting, for they seém to show that the
proportions of water and solid contents are practically the same in the fresh egg
and in the newly hatched chicken.

Ultimate analyses were made of the dry matter contained in the fresh egg
and in the dried chicken. After deducting the weight of the shell and water
from the total weight of the egg, there remained 13:21 grammes of dry matter,
This gave on analysis

Ash . ° > . 0568 gramme, or percent. 4°30 of dry matter
Nitrogen . ‘ aon Le a = 4 Bl ss 5
Hydrogen . : sy szO2 AS a 5 0 oe 3
Oxygen } a Ud 2°295 ” ” ” 17:38 ” ”
Carbon . - © 7972 ” 55 ; 60°35 , i
13:208 grammes 100:00 per cent.
The same method of analysis showed the dried chicken to consist of
Ash . ‘ + . 0'676 gramme, or per cent. 6:20 of dry matter
Nitrogen . - a alone ny 5. - 10:00, 5 2
Hydrogen . : . 0892 5 ib “1 SB iss ”
Oxygen . fk . 2261 oy + 5 20°62 =O, 7
Carbon . 4 . 6:000 or “ i B00" 5 3
10:920 grammes 100-00 per cent.
Results.
Ash was raised by . : : : . . 1:90 gramme per cent.
Nitrogen was raised by . : A ‘ peels L Hs
Hydrogen was lowered by : : : - 0:92 a a
Oxygen was raised by . é rs ‘ . 3°24 * 5
Carbon was lowered by . ‘ J . . 535 35 -

The increase of ash in the chicken is obviously due to lime being absorbed
from the shell, and combined with phosphorus present in the yolk.

The increase of nitrogen (equal to 1:13 per cent.) is apparently due to the
decrease of carbon. ‘This also applies to the increase of oxygen. ‘The decrease of
carbon (5°35 per cent.) and hydrogen (0°92 per cent.) is due to their oxidation,
ahd may be (in part) accounted for as carbonic acid and water passing through

the shell during incubation.
Seemingly we have a rearrangement of the elements above named, and the

fact established that water becomes altered into potential living matter, repre-
senting the tissues and feathers of the living bird, &c., whilst the ash is also
increased by the abstraction of lime from the shell, combined with the phosphorus
derived from the yolk during the hatching process.

4. On the Physiological Effect of Local Injury in Nerve.
By Professor F. Gotcn, /.2.8.

5. Report on the Comparative Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules.
See Reports, p. 452.

6. Report on the Vascular Supply of Secreting Glands.
_ See Reports, p. 458.

7. Report on Electrical Changes in Mammalian Nerve
See Reports, p. 455.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 789

8. Report on the Comparative Histology of Cerebral Cor em,
See Reports, p. 453,

9. Report on the Micro-chemistry of Cells—See Reports, » 449.

10, Observations on the Development of the Cetacean Flipper.
By Professor JoHNsoN SYMINGTON.

11. The Articulations between the Occipital Bone and Atlas and
Axis in the Mammalia. By Professor Jonnson SYMINGTON.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. Mnestra parasites, Krohn. Preliminary Account.
By R. T. Gtnruer, WA., F.R.GS., Magdalen College, Oxford.

During the spring of the present year the prevailing westerly winds no doubt
contributed to the fact that an unusually large number of Phyllirhoé bucephala were
‘captured in the Bay of Naples. I examined every specimen I could get hold of
and found that of thirty-one individuals of Phyllirhoé taken between March 28
and April 20 nineteen, or more than half, had a Mnestra adhering to them. My
friend Cavaliere Lo Bianco in the kindest way placed his store of spirit-preserved
material at my disposal for examination. Unfortunately the dates of capture
were not noted, but of forty-three Phyllirhoé every one had or had had a Mnestra
upon it.

From this relative abundance of the parasite it follows that the reproductive
power of the Mnestra must be far and away in excess of that of the Phyllirhoé
bucephala of the Bay of Naples. Indeed, the fertility of Mnestra must, one would
think, be greater than is usual even among parasites. It is therefore most remark-
able that hitherto the method of the propagation of Mnestra should have remained
undiscovered. We do not know whether it reproduces itself by a sexual or an
asexual process, by eggs or budding.

It was in consequence of our ignorance of this point that systematists have not
been able to assign Mnestra to its proper place in the system of Haeckel—which
primarily depends upon the place of development of the genital cells in the Medusa.

I have, however, been fortunate enough to discover other characteristics of the
Mnestra which will enable us to unhesitatingly affirm that it should be classed
with the Cladonemide, a family of the Anthomeduse.

The Mnestra is attached to the Phyllirhoé by its manubrium, which is com-
paratively short and serves the purpose of obtaining nutriment, apparently by
sucking the blood of the host. The shape of the body of the Mnestra varies greatly.
The margin of the umbrella is sometimes notched, but this marginal notch is by
no means so constaht in its presence as to justify us in regarding it as Claus!
did, a characteristic of Mnestra. The shape of the Medusa can be well described
as that of a bun with a large inpushing or ‘dimple’ in the middle of the exumbral
surface, from which, in typical cases, four furrows proceed interradially to the
margin. It is by the intensification of one of these grooves that the notch of
Claus is often produced. The symmetry of the velum and circular canal is
generally not much affected by these furrows on the surface of the ex-umbrella.

The tentacles are four in number. The majority of specimens examined had
two reduced to mere knobs, and some had three or even all the tentacles reduced
to this condition. It seemed to me that the reduction of the tentacle was a mark

1 Claus, Verh, Zool, Bot, Tyst., Wien, xxv, 1876,

790 ‘ REPORT—1900,

of old age. A well-developed tentacle of Mnestra is a compound tentacle of
undoubted Cladonemid type. The base is swollen and simple, but the distal
portion is slender and tapering, with a row of small stalked multinucleate club-
shaped bodies along the entire length of one margin. These bodies contain
nematocysts, and they are undoubtedly homologous with the stalked clubs
containing thread cells of many of the Cladonemid genera.

A further point of resemblance between Mnestra parasites and certain of the
Cladonemidee is in the fact that there is a circular tract of nematocysts arranged
round the umbrella margin, close to the circular canal, and from this circular
tract extend four centripetal tracts along the perradii of the ex-umbrella, These
perradial tracts usually extend as far as the exumbral ‘dimple’ and sometimes
continue down into it.

The gastro-vascular system is of the usual type. There are a central stomach,
four radial canals, and a circular canal. ‘The stomach is of an irregular shape and
is often provided with irregular diverticula in which corpuscles which originally
belonged to the blood of the Phyllirhoé may sometimes be seen. The mouth is
clogged with endoderm cells with intercellular spaces through which the organism
imbibes its nutriment.

Among the 100 odd individuals examined a number of varieties and abnormal
forms were observed. A description of these as well as the histology of Mnestra
will shortly be published in the Naples ‘ Mittheilungen,’

2. The Respiration of Aquatic Insects. By Professor L. C. Miaut, F.R.S,

3. The Tracheal System of Simulium : a Problem in Respiration.
By T. H. Tayzor.

4, The Pharynz of Eristalis. By J. J. W1LKrNson.

5. The Structure and Life History of the Gooseberry Sawfly.
By N. WALKER.

6. Report on the Coral Reefs of the Indian Region.—See Reports, p. 400.

7. Contributions to the Anatomy and Systematic Position of the
Lemargide. By Professor R. BurckHarpt.

8. On the Nestling of Rhinochetus. By Professor R. BurckHarptT.

9. The Dentition of the Seal. By R. J. Anperson, If,A., ID.,
Professor of Natural History, Galway.

The dentition of the common seal is generally understood to be in the great majo-
rity of cases 3 I.,} C., 4 P.-m.,4.M. ‘There may be an additional premolar, due to
the persistence of one of the milk-teeth. The molars are not too much crowded
in the upper jaw, but more so in the lower. The incisors have standing room, but
the central of the lower jaw show a disposition to stand back; the small platform
on which the latter seem to stand narrows anteriorly, and the sockets are deeply |
sunk in front of this plane. The four incisors of the ower jaw correspond to the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. : 791

- inner four of the upper jaw when the teeth are met, and are about the same size as
these latter, whilst the two upper lateral incisors are larger than the inner two, but
are far removed from the canines both in position and size. The comparison of the
dentition of the seal with that of the polecat, the grison, and especially the otter,
is instructive. The badger may be said to occupy a place between bears and
weasels, and the upper incisors have carnivor type, formula, and arrangement. In
the upper set the incisors are not embarrassed, although they stand three abreast
on each side, as in better marked carnivors. In the badger the intermediates in
the lower jaw stand back out of range, asin Putorius and Galictis. In the upper jaw
of the otter the incisors are in range, but the second incisors of the lower jaw stand
back, as if the teeth were crushed up. It is noteworthy that the first premolar of
the upper jaw in this animal is placed internal to the canine, while the first pre-
molar of the lower jaw is placed at an interval behind the canine.

All the molar teeth of the common seal except the first are well known to
have two fangs; as regards the cusps, the precise arrangement is not generally
stated. The cusps of the upper molars fit into intervals between the cusps of one
lower molar or of separate adjacent molars. The first premolar has a large front
cusp with a shoulder (an approach to the formation of a cusp) in front, and a small
cusp behind. A slight groove passes forwards and inwards, marking off an enamelled
surface internal to the cusps. The second upper premolar has a large central cusp,
a shoulder in front and to the inner side of this; and two cusps, one immediately
behind the larger and one still farther back. The third premolar has a shoulder
in front and internal to a large cusp; then there are two smaller cusps in succes-
sion to this posteriorly. The fourth has a blunter chief cusp, slight irregularities
on the inner shoulder, and a second cusp, with an attempt at the formation of a
third cusp still farther back; this tooth is more like the last molar of the otter
than the previous teeth are. The molar has a large middle cusp, with a slightly
smaller one behind it and a small cusp anteriorly. The first lower premolar has
three cusps; the anterior is the smallest, and the central one next. The cusps are
placed near the outer surface of the tooth; internal to and behind the middle one
is an elevation suggestive of a fourth cusp. The second premolar has a large cen-
tral cusp curved somewhat back, a small cusp in front of this, and two behind;
there is a platform internal to the cusps. The ¢Aird premolar has fowr cusps: the
front cusp small, the second the largest and tumed back, the two posterior smaller.
The fourth premolar has five cusps: two small ones in front of the large one, and
two behind it ; the central cusp is bent back. The molar has one cusp in front of
and two behind the central cusp, which is not prominent. This tooth is very
small, and has a bulging opposite each of the first three cusps. The contrast in
the comparison of the incisors of the lion, hyena, and dog with those in the lower
jaw of the badger, the polecat, and otter is well worth noting. In the otter there
would not be room for the intermediate (second) incisor to stand in rank. The
second incisors in the bear stand somewhat back, but the sockets are placed behind
the level of the third pair of incisors. It may seem likely that the habits of the
badger and weasel should render a narrow lower jaw desirable anteriorly, but it
is not clear that the otter would be well served by the same device. The lower
jaw of a very young seal which was examined has lost the lower incisors, but the
sockets are suggestive of a nearer approach to the otter arrangement.

Halicherus grypus has the same dental formula as the common seal. The
last molar of the upper jaw is at some distance from the other back teeth, which
are all pointed with single cusps. In some, however, there isa shoulder suggestive
ot a second cusp. This is the case in the last lower, where a slight indication of a
cusp exists behind the pointed cone. A furrow is visible on the outer sides of the
third and fifth lower and second and fifth upper. The lower canines extend
between the upper corner incisors and the upper canines, which are about the same
length as the corner incisors, but much thicker.

The following animals have the intermediate incisor behind the inner and outer,
either from base to apex or at the base alone :—Paradoxurus, Ailurus, Her-
pestes mungos, Lutra, Galictis, Gulo, Conepatus, Brown Bear, the Malayan
Bear, Snow Bear, Polar Bear, and Ursus collaris; Melursus not, Arctoidotherium

7b2 REFORT—1900,

Bonariense, Gerv., behind at base, between at apex. In Ursus spelzeus behind.
Australian Sea-lion, Otaria pusella, O. stelleri, O, jubata, I. 3. Elephant Seal, I. 3.
Crab-eating Seal, Monachus, and Onomatophora, I. 3. The innermost is far back in
the last. In Felis tigris the inner and in F. macroscelides the inner and intermediate
incisors are somewhat back.

10. Note on Exhibition of Skulls of Antarctic Seals. |
Sy G. KE. H. Barrerr-Hamirton.

I am indebted to the authorities of the British Museum of Natural History for
the opportunity of studying the collection of seals brought home from the antarctic
seas by the Belgica, and now the property of the ‘ Expédition Antarctique Belge.’

The collection is not a large one, and consists almost entirely of specimens of
the Phocide, the Otariide being represented by only one very immature skull.

One of the main points of interest regarding the specimens is the fact that they
afford no support whatsoever to the supposition, sometimes advanced, that some
startlingly new forms of marine Carnivora will be found to occur in the antarctic
seas. All the species known to occur in these seas, except the (perhaps extinct)
sea elephant, are represented in the collection. Thus there are skulls of Leptony-
chotes weddeli, Ogmorhinus leptonyx, Lobodon carcinophaga, and Ommatophoca
rossi; but all these are framed on patterns so close to those of the older specimens
in the British Museum that it is impossible (with the present material) to find even
new sub-specific differences amongst them. At the same time it is highly interest-
ing to have a series of specimens of various ages from which to amplify our know-
ledge of the various forms.

Probably the most interesting species represented in the collection is Ommato-
phoca rosstt, of which there are two skulls. These are remarkable for the
variability of their dentition ; a point to which Mr. W. Bateson has already drawn
attention with reference to the only two previously known skulls. It seems now
certain that variability of dentition must be regarded as one of the characteristics
of Ross’s seal, and it is interesting to know that this variability is not shared by
the other species of antarctic Phocide, all the specimens which I have examined
being quite uniform and showing no abnormalities,

IT hope at a later date to publish a more detailed account of these skulls.
The following were exhibited at the Section:—Omimatophoca rossii (two skulls)
and Lobodon carcinophaga. :

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER ll.
The following Papers were read :

1. Photographs of some Malayan Insects.2 By Newson ANNANDALE.

The photographs were taken from living insects in the Siamese Malay States
last year. The first represented a Stawropus larva not dissimilar to the English
Lobster Caterpillar on its food-plant, Melastoma polyanthum—the so-called
‘Straits Rhododendron.’ When it is about to change its skin this larva resembles
a bird’s dropping, and is then sluggish in its movements; but after the ecdysis has
taken place, the insect becomes active again, and keeps its true legs and the pro-
cesses on the posterior region of its abdomen in constant agitation. Its colour
also changes considerably.

The second photograph represented a portion of the stem of a living Areca-
valm, with a small Geometrid caterpillar that conceals itself by plastering frag-
ments of a powdery lichen upon its own back.

The third and fourth photographs showed two species of a peculiar type of larva,
supposed to belong to Lycid beetles, and noticeable for its flattened hody, minute

' P.Z.8., 1892, pp. 106, 107.
# For details see Proc, Zool. Soc., London, Noy. 1900.

Se

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D., 793

retractile head, and for the processes that project in a series along the sides of the
abdomen, Nothing is known as to the metamorphosis of these larve, and some
examples of the type reach a size considerably greater than that of any Lycid
beetle as yet discovered. The two species shown in the photographs are found
together, beneath the bark of dead trees and under fallen timber in the jungle.
The broader and more highly specialised of the two bears no resemblance, as far
as I have been able to discover, to any other animal; but the narrower species,
which in its younger stages differs very little from the ordinary type of Lycid
larva, is not unlike a Millipede (Orthomorpha sp.) found together with it.

The fifth and three following photographs showed a pupa of the mantis Hymeno-
pus bicornis seated on an inflorescence of Melastoma polyanthum. In its active
pupal stage this insect bears so close a likeness to the flowers of the ‘ Rhododen-
dron’ that I have found it impossible to assign the exact limits of true vegetable
tissue and animal counterfeit, even when holding in my hand an inflorescence in
which one of these mantises was seated. The resemblance is brought about by the
development of broad, petal-like expansions of the femora of the second and third
pairs of legs, by the pink coloration of the insect, and by the extraordinary
nower-like sheen of its integument. A broad bar of vivid green runs across the
thorax of the pupa, dividing the animal visually into two perfectly distinct parts:
a black spot is most conspicuous on the tip of its abdomen; and five brown lines
mark the dorsal surface of the abdomen longitudinally. The mantis refuses to
settle on any other part of the plant than the inflorescence. It sits among the
flowers with its abdomen flexed backwards, so as to lie almost parallel to the
thorax ; and it sways its whole body from side to side, The movement attracts
certain minute flies, which settle indiscriminately on the body of the insect (being
then indistinguishable at the short distance from tho black tip of the abdomen)
and on the petals it simulates. The mantis takes no notice of these small flies,
but seizes and devours larger Diptera, and probably other insects, that come within
its reach. When the flowers among which it is seated commence to fade, the
mantis droops its abdomen, thus bringing the brown lines upon the dorsal surface
into view, and finally leaps to the ground. When separated from the inflorescence
of Melastoma polyanthum, it resembles an orchid that has fallen from its stem.
Hymenopus bicornis has a fairly wide distribution (from Sikkim to Sarawak), but
s is rare in every locality where it occurs. A white variety of the pupa is also

nown,

The ninth photograph showed some Siamese of the State of Patalung clapping
their hands to attract the edible cicada (Dundubia intemerata). In April the
females of this insect are thus captured in considerable numbers for food, during
the short interval between sunset and darkness, The cicada-catchers must clap
their hands in unison and observe a definite rhythm. A fire is a usual, but not a
necessary, adjunct to the performance.

‘The enormous elongation of the anterior region of the head of many Fulgorinz
(lantern flies) into a hollow nose-like organ has often puzzled entomologists,
who have generally abandoned the old theory that this structure was lumi-
nescent. I was so fortunate as to observe its use as an organ of progression, or
rather of sudden flight from danger. When the insect is disturbed, it presses the
tip of its ‘nose’ against the tree-stem on which it is seated, at the same instant
pushes its body violently away with its powerful legs, and so is projected for a
considerable distance through the air, the ‘nose’ being flexible at one point, and
also so elastic that it acts as a piece of whalebone would do under like circum-
stances.

2. Observations on Mimicry in South African Insects.
By Guy A. K. Marsa,

[Arranged and communicated by EDWARD B. Poutton, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of
Jesus College, Oxford, and Hope Professor of Zoology in the University. ]

The following paper is an abstract of the results obtained by Mr. Guy A. K.
Marshall in South Africa, When no locality is mentioned it is to be understood

794 REPORT—1900,

that the observation was made at Salisbury, Mashonaland (5,0CO feet). The
observations here briefly recorded have added in a most important manner to our
knowledge of the natural history (bionomics) of South African insects, a subject of
which the foundations were laid by Roland Trimen. Groups of mimetic Lepido-
ptera captured on the same day as their models have been obtained both from Natal
and Mashonaland (Salisbury), thus demonstrating more fully than has been done
hitherto the fact that model and mimic fly at the same time as well as in the same
place. The groups bring out the extraordinary power of Danaine butterflies in, so
to speak, moulding the species of other sub-families into a superficial likeness to
themselves. There are only four or five species of Danaine in the region under
consideration, and each one of them is the centre of a group of forms superficially
similar, but remote in affinity. The abundant and widespread Limnas chrysippus
was largely resembled both in Natal and Mashonaland. In experiments conducted
upon insect-eating animals, this butterfly appeared to be less unpalatable than the
Acrea (A. encedon) which resembles it. The explanation may be found in the far
wider range of the Danaine model, which would render it familiar to enemies
passing from an area in which the Acrea does not, to one in which it does exist.

In the case of two forms of Ewralia (£.mima and EL. wahibergi) mimicking two
very different species of Amavris (A. echeria and A. dominicanus) there is good
reason to believe that a single species has become dimorphic. Photographs of
four mima (two male, two female) and four wahlbergi (three male, one female) were
shown, the whole set having been part of a company of twelve individuals going to
rest together on a small clump of fern under a steep kraantz, Umbilo River,
Malvern, near Durban, Natal (June 28, 1897). The two forms have also been
taken 7” coitw, and have been found together freshly emerged from the pupa on the
same tree. Intermediate varieties are also known. Ifspecific identity be established,
the case will constitute a new form of mimetic dimorpbism in the Lepidoptera,
similar to that of the Dipterous genus Volucella. Allcases of dimorphism in mimetic
Lepidoptera hitherto described are either sexual or confined to a singlesex. In one
sex, indeed, a mimetic species may be polymorphic, as in the female of Papilio
cenea or Hypolimnas misippus.

In the case of the distasteful sub-family Acreine, the two very different
species A. natalica and A. anemosa were shown captured at Salisbury on the same
day. Although entirely different in detail, the pattern of the two species is broadly
the same, and during flight would probably appear to be identicai, Another even
more striking example of Miillerian or synaposematic resemblance was afforded by
a set of eighteen specimens belonging to five species of small Acrzeas captured on
the same day (December 31, 1898) in the same locality. The whole group pre-
sented a wonderfully uniform appearance in size, shape, colour, and the general
distribution of markings.

An example of a Hesperid (Baoris netopha) mimic of an Acrea (A. double-
dayi), the two captured on the same day, added another to the rare instances of
mimicry in this family. The resemblance is only seen in the attitude of rest,
and is confined to the undersides of the wings.

The aberrant Lycznid (Alena amazoula) has a general Acreine aspect, and
is very unlike the well-known appearance of its true family. It is probably dis-
tasteful, and is resembled with tolerable closeness, especially upon the under-
sides of the wings, by a day-flying Geometrid moth (Petovia dichroaria), They
were captured together at Malvern, near Durban, on September 26, 1897,

A most interesting series of injured specimens of butterflies showed the
probable attacks of birds or lizards, observations in the field affording strong sup-
port to this interpretation. Members of the specially protected conspicuous
groups were, as Fritz Miller showed in the case of South America, also subject to
attack. Comparatively few of the injuries were inflicted at the junction of the
fore and hind wings, or indeed anywhere except at the apex of the fore wing, or,
more commonly still, at the anal angle of the hind wing. In many cases the
injury was symmetrical, indicating that a piece had been bitten out of both right
and left wings during the usual attitude of rest, or as they came together momen-
tarily in flight. ‘The two points of special attack are commonly rendered con-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 795

spicuous by special marks, and, in the case of the hind wing, structures such as
‘tails,’ ‘eye-spots,’ &c. In the Lycenide, where the ‘tails’ are rendered still fur-
ther prominent by movement, many specimens were captured with these parts
bitten out from one or both of the wings.

Large additions were also made to our knowledge of mimicry and warning
colours in Coleoptera. In the Carabid genus Anthia, a probable warning character
common to different species consisted in a large white patch, placed in some
species on the sides of the thorax, in others on the anterior surface of the elytra.
The general effect was the same, but the anatomical relations entirely alien. The
characteristic banded pattern of the Cantharide was shown to be resembled by
beetles of widely different groups, the spotted pattern of the Coccinelhde by an
Hemipterous insect (Steganocerus multipunctatus), while the appearance of many
8, African species of Lycide, light-brown auteriorly and_black posteriorly, was
repreduced in beetles of many groups, many species of Hymenoptera, an Hemi-
pteron, two moths from remote sections of the order, anda fly. In the vast
majority of these cases of likeness to and among Coleoptera, it is probable that the
resemblance is Miillerian (synaposematic) ratver than Batesian (pseudosematic).
The interpretation of the remarkable likeness borne by a species of Longicorn
(Phantasia gigantea) for certain Curculionide is more uncertain, although it is
clear that some general principle is at work, inasmuch as resemblances between
other species of the same groups are well known in many parts of the world. An
interesting group of superficially similar insects from three different orders con-
sisted of a Bracon, a Reduviid bug, and a Longicorn beetle.

Evidence of the struggle for existence in Coleoptera was supplied by a group
of five beetles taken from the crop of a Guinea-fowl (Mwmida coronata). The
four species belonged to the Buprestids, Curculios, Longicorns, and Phytophaga.
All the beetles had been swallowed whole and were almost uninjured, even as
regards limbs and antenne.

Among the other orders of Insecta the Hemiptera afforded a wonderful
example of mimicry or common warning colours from Malvern, near Durban, the
Reduviid bug Phonoctonus nigro-fasciatus bearing the most remarkable likeness to
the somewhat smaller Lygeid Dysdercus superstitiosus. The mimetic resem-
blance of Diptera to Aculeate Hymenoptera was illustrated by many examples,
model and mimic having been captured in the same place and within the same
month. The most remarkable of these was a splendid new species of Hyperechia,
closely resembling the black, reddish-brown banded, African species of AXylocopa,
such as X. flavo-r rufa. Instances of common warning (synaposematic) colours in
Hymenoptera were also illustrated by a group of three species with a general
resemblance to each other: the Aculeata being represented by a species of
Myzine and one of Ceropales, the Terebrantia by a species of Zchnewmon. All
were captured at Salisbury in January 1899.

The whole of the material here briefly described may be seen in the Hope
Department of Zoology, Oxford University Museum.

3. Observations on Mimicry in Bornean Insects.
By R. Suerrorp, B.A., Curator of the Sarawak Museum.

[Arranged and communicated by EDWARD B. PouLTON, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of
Jesus College, Oxford, and Hope Professor of Zoology in the University. ]

‘The following paper is an abstract of results obtained by Mr. R. Shelford,
B.A., Curator of the Sarawak Museum, British North Borneo. The vast majority
of his observations were made at or near Kuching, the capital of Sarawak ; a few,
however, in Singapore. When no locality is mentioned, Sarawak is to be under-
stood. The observations form a very important addition to our knowledge of
mimicry in Malayan insects, especially the Coleoptera.

Among Lepidoptera an ZElymnias, believed to be a new species from Mount
Penrissen, is a tolerable mimic of the well-known Euplea, Tronga cramert.
Among the Chalcosid moths, three species of Jsbarta mimicked two of Euplwa and

796 REPORT—1900.

one of Pierine (Delias eathara). The latter is of considerable interest, inasmuch
as the Pierine model appears to be excessively rare. There can be little doubt,
however, as to the true relationship, for another species of the same genus,
I. pandemia, is a magnificent mimic of another species of Delias (D. pandemia),
both coming from Mount Kina Balu in North Borneo.

In the Neuroptera the Mantispides are shown to be mimics, a splendid new
species (M. simulatrix, McLachlan) resembling a common Bracon flying with it
on Mount Matang, near Kuching, while a small species from Singapore (JM. ? cora)
exactly mimicked an ichneumon flying with it.

It is in the Bornean Coleoptera, and especially the Longicornia, that by far
the largest additions to the subject of mimicry have been made. Many Longicorn
species, chiefly of the genus Oberea, were excellent mimics of the Braconidae,
and perhaps other Hymenoptera. The long narrow form of the beetle resembled
the Bracon at rest with wings folded. As seenfrom the side, certain species of Oberea,
notwithstanding their uniform diameter, were apparently ‘waisted’ like a Hymeno-
pterous insect, the effect being due to a conspicuous white patch on the side of the
anterior abdominal segments, The part of the body thus covered is obliterated, while
the outline of the patch is such that the uncovered, and therefore conspicuous, part
of the body conforms to the shape of a slender ‘ waist,’ from the posterior end of
which the abdomen gradually swells. The effect in one species is as perfect as if
an artist had deliberately painted the profile of a Hymenopterous abdomen upon
that of a beetle. Among other examples of the same form of mimicry was a
magnificent Cerambycid from Mount Penrissen (Nothopeus or n. gen., 0. sp.), a
beautiful mimic of the abundant wasp, Salius sericosoma, which flew with it.
The common Dammar Bee (Trigona apicalis), which does not sting, but is
formidable because of its bite, is the centre of a group of three species with the
most remote affinities. Not only is there a Longicorn, Lpania singaporensis, but
a Bracon and a Reduviid bug. The mimicry is probably Miillerian in most, if not
all, of the species of this group. 5

Another important set of Longicorns, species of Entelopes, Tropimetopa,
Chreonoma,and Astathes, were extremely perfect mimics of Phytophaga( Galerucide).
In one large group both models and mimics were reddish-brown, in another
iridescent blue-black, in a third anteriorly blue-black, posteriorly reddish-brown.
Another species of Entelopes (£. glauca) resembled a common Coccinellid (Caria
dilatata), a Cassid also falling into the group.

The Lycide were models for Longicorns and other insects in Borneo no
less than in South Africa. Species belonging to the Longicorn genera Erythrus,
Ephies, Xyaste, and Eurycephalus mimicked Lycids with remarkable accuracy. In
the Jast-named genus one species, £. lundi, was a mimic, while another closely
related (Z. cardinalis) exhibited a warning coloration of the most startling
character, an indication that the genus is distasteful and the mimicry Miillerian.
Jn addition to these, the Lycids were mimicked by a Clerid beetle, by numerous
Hemiptera and a Zygzenid moth, the latter from Singapore.

The resemblance of certain Longicorns to the Rhynchophora was far more
evident than in South Africa, for not only was there a mimic ( 7rachystola granulata)
of a Curculionid (Sipalus granulatus), but there were species belonging to no less
than four genera mimetic of the Brenthide. These latter mimics hold their long
antenns extended forwards side by side, the tips only, or in some species the
anterior halves, diverging. Thus the rostrum of the Brenthid, together with its
usually short antennz, are represented by the long antennz of the Longicorn.
The Anthribide were mimicked by Longicorns of the genera Evets and Cacia.

A feature of both Rhynchophorous models and their mimics, and one very
unusual in mimicry, is the inconspicuous mottled colouring and the absence of
strongly contrasted tints.

A very interesting Longicorn mimic of an Endomychid beetle (Spathomeles sp.
near ¢turitus) Was a rare species of Zelota as yet undescribed.. The curved
spine on the elytron of the model was represented by a brush of hairs on that
of its mimic. Ixperiments indicated that the Zndomychide as a group were
distasteful, and large synaposematic sets of purplish black, yellow or orange

a i

@RANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 797

Spotted species were found near Kuching together with several species of Erotylide
aud a Pentatomid bug with the same general appearance. Another group of dark
Endomychids was rendered conspicuous by numerous spines (Amphisternus).

Two groups of Longicorns were mimicked by other Longicorns belonging to
entirely different sections. The iridescent green Cerambycide of the genus
Chloridolum were closely resembled by two Lamiide (Saperdine? genus, and
Chiorisanis viridis) and by the Cerambycid genera Xystrocera, Psalanta, and
Leptura. Many genera and species of the banded Cerambycid Clytine were
very closely mimicked by Lamizde and other Cerambycide. This last case is of
peculiar interest, inasmuch as the Clytine are themselves perhaps the most con-
spicuous mimics of Hymenoptera to be found in the whole of the Longicornia.
All over the world their numerous species commonly present a black yellow-
banded appearance bearing a general resemblance to wasps, while mimicry of
Mutillide, Cicindehde, and, in the allied Tillomorphine, of ants is also found.
When, therefore, we also find that this group itself furnishes numerous models to
other Longicorns, we are driven to conclude that it is in some way specially
defended, and that its resemblance to Hymenoptera is Miillerian rather than
Batesian.

The mimetic resemblance to the aggressive and active Cicindelide was very
marked, examples being afforded not only by Longicorn beetles of the genera
Selethrus and Collyrodes, but also by a Dipterous insect found flying together with
its model (Collyris emarginata) on Mount Seramba, December 1898. ‘This is the
first example of the mimetic resemblance of a fly toa tiger beetle. The remark-
able Locustid mimic Condylodera tricondyloides (or a closely allied species)
described by Professor Westwood from Java was also rediscovered in Borneo, and
its habits for the first time observed.

Indirect evidence that the mimicry of Cleride is Miillerian rather than
Batesian is similar to that which pointed to the same conclusion in the Longicorn
Clytine. One Bornean species of a Clerid genus (Thanasimus) resembled a
Mutillid, another (genus near Tenerus) a Lycid, while a third, a species of Lemidia,
was mimicked by the Longicorn Daphisia pulchella.

Among the Diptera a splendid black Hyperechia (H. fera) was a beautiful
mimic of the abundant Aylocopa latipes, another example of parallelism with South
African bionomics. An allied species, Laphria sp. near Terminalis, was an
excellent mimic of Salius aurosericeus. Dipterous mimics of Hymenoptera are
extremely abundant in Borneo: remarkable among them was a species which
mimicked an ichneumon of the genus Mesosternus. The short antenne of the
fly in no way resembled the very long black and white ones of the ichneumon.
The fly, however, held up its black and white legs, applying their bases to its
head and moving them so that they closely resembled the antenns of the
Hymenopterous insect in movement as well as in colouring and proportions,
Another species of fly possessed true anternze which were remarkably long for
this order, and thus closely resembled those of an ichneumon.

With few exceptions, the whole of the material here briefly described may be
seen in the Hope Department of Zoology, Oxford University Museum.

4, Note on an Experiment supporting the General Principle of
* Miillerian’ Mimicry. By Professor C. Luoyp Morean, /.R.S.

5. Lllustrations of Mimicry and Protective Resemblance.
By Manx L. Syxzs.

6. The Colour Physiology of Hippolyte varians
By F. W. Gampue and F. W. Kesste.

798 REPORT—1900,

7. The Locust Plague and its Suppression. By AB. Monro, M.D.

Locusts have devastated the greater part of the habitable world, and during
the last ten years have done great damage in the southern republics of South
America, in North and South Africa, in India, &c.—countries widely separated
from each other—and they have caused great loss of human and animal life in
large areas in Africa belonging to Britain, The importance of the subject is
therefore considerable. But the difficulties which hitherto have been connected
with the plague seemed excessive and inguperable barriers in dealing with it
effectually.

To illustrate the remarks in this paper I select the four following typical and
well-known species of the insect, namely, 1, the Caloptenus spretus, or Rocky
Mountain locust; 2, the Stawronotus criatus, or Cyprian locust; 38, the
Schistocerca paranensis; and 4, the Acridium peregrinum, or Old World locust,
in order to emphasise in a more pointed way certain aspects or characteristics of
the insect which I think it well to put prominently forward in attempting to bring
this plague under review, and askirg favourable attention as to the best means to
check it and alleviate the distress.

a. Our increased and gradually accumulating knowledge of the habits of the
insects is derived mainly while the insects come to and sojourn in their temporary
homes, for we do rot yet know them in their permanent or true homes. The
one and only success in combating the plague by human means in the whole
history of the world was due to the putting in force the simple observation that the
young (or the old) locusts cannot adhere to smooth surfaces, such as glass, owing to
the fact which is now made abundantly clear, namely, that, unlike flies, the pro-
cesses or claws on the feet of their front and middle pair of legs are too short and
weak to enable them to do this.

6. The general and characteristic features of the locust run through all the
species alike. This fact has been greatly lost sight of or minimised, and the dif-
ferentiations which help to mark off one species from another haye been magnified
into an unjustifiable and unnecessary importance. The instincts and the structure
of all the varieties are very nearly alike, although one species may not be so large
or haye different markings as compared with anotler.

e. The direction which the ‘army’ assumes when the larve at a certain
period set out for and continue on their ‘march’ is a most important matter to
settle and be certain about, as this is the most destructive period in the life of the
insect. They then devour everything that comes in their way. Not so with the
flight of flying locusts, which only levy toll here and there as they pass or sojourn.
The ‘army on the march ’ usually pursue a straight given course, irrespective of all
obstacles and dangers (natural or artificial) that may be in their way, minus any
with smooth surfaces owing to the reason above stated. Now the course or
direction of the ‘ march’ will be found (though further observation is requisite to
confirm the truth fully) to be always in a given direction in certain countries,
Thus in the Argentine and South Africa they travel southwards, in Algeria north-
wards, in the United States eastwards, and so on. It may not be true south, or true
north, or true east in the respective instances mentioned, but it will be respectively
towards the south, north, or east, as the case may be. The important thing to bear
in mind is that they all march in one general direction as a body at the same time,
and without any leader ; while so far as suitability and abundances of food are con-
cerned to satisfy all their instincts an exactly opposite or other direction would be
far better. The ‘Screen and Trap’ or ‘ Cypriote’ system was based on the suppo-
sition that the insects march ina given specific direction. It has beenowing to this
fact that the power of the plague was broken in the course of one year (1888) in
Cyprus, although it baffled all efforts to check it for centuries before. Since the
suppression of the plague, and no doubt very much on account of it, Cyprus has
entered on a new era of prosperity.

Outline of the Means for Checking or Suppressing the Plague,

There is a sense in which a plague or pest such as that of locusts may be re-
garded as the increase over the natural checks with regard to the normal number,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 799

When this gain takes place it is now almost universally admitted that human
measures ought to be resorted to with the view of aiding the natural agencies, so
that the insects may be reduced in number to a point that is safe or free from
danger,

I. The Natural Agencies for Checking the Plaque.

Destruction by (1) the wind; (2) birds; (8) reptiles, lizards, toads; (4)
mammals and fish; (5) wasps; (6) disease:—(a) internal larvee from the
Tachino fly, (4) Mylabris parasite, (c) Mermis parasite, (d) Cynomia pictifacies
parasite, (¢) Empusa grylli parasite, (/) various others, such as mites; (7) eggs
destroyed by insects, animals, weather, water.

Il. Artificial and Mechanical Means for Checking the Plague.

1. Ingenuity or finessing. 2. Destruction of the eggs by—(a) Machines,
ploughs, harrows ; (6) eating by pigs; (c) tramping the ground ; (d) irrigation ;
(e) judicious use of chemicals; (f) collecting the eggs. 3. destruction of hoppers
by—(a@) maiming, (4) crushing, (c) tramping with stock, (d) diverting, (e)
catching and bagging, (f) trapping, (vy) burning, (A) use of chemicals, (7) inocu-
lation of fungi. 4. Destruction of the winged locusts by—(a) diverting a flock
or flight, (4) shooting them on the wing, (c) maiming, (d) chemicals, (e) tramping,
(f) crushing, (7) burning, (4) catching and bagging, (7) imoculation of the flying
locust with a fungus.

800 REPOT—1900.

Suction E—GEOGRAPHY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SecTIon—Sir Georce 8. Rosertson, K.C.S.1.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Wauen the British Association for the Advancement of Science honoured me with
an invitation to preside over this Section, Iaccepted the distinction, thoughtfully
and with sincere gratification. The selection as your President at Bradford,
this great and interesting centre of commercial energy, of a student of political
movements who was also deeply interested in the science of geography, seemed to
point suggestively to a particular branch of our subject as appropriate for an
opening address. This consideration, and, to my thinking, the fitness of the
occasion, led me to believe that the British Empire itself was a very proper
subject for such reflections as could be compressed within the limits of an in-
augural Presidential Address. Many of my predecessors have eloquently and
wisely dealt with various topics of admitted geographical rectitude—with
geography in its more strictly scientific study, with its nature and its purview,
with its recent progress, and with the all-important question of how it could
be best taught methodically, and how most profitably it might be studied. In
dealing with the important practical application of our science to the facts of
national life—Political geozraphy—lI feel that perhaps a word of explanation
is necessary. Pure geography, with its placid aloofness and its far-stretching
outlook, combined sometimes with a too rigid devotion to the facts and con-
clusions of strict geographical research, is apt to incline many scientific minds
to an admirable quiet-eyed cosmopolitanism—the cosmopolitanism of the cloistered
college or the lecture theatre. It perhaps also at times has a tendency to create
in purely academic students a feeling of half disdain or of amicable irritability
against those who love the science for its political and social suggestiveness and
elucidations. Thus there is a possible danger that geographers of high intel-
lectual calibre, with enthusiasms entirely scholarly, may come to underrate
nationality and to look upon the world and mankind as the units, and upon
people and confederacies and amalgamations merely as specific instances of the
general type. We know that geography is often looked upon as the science
of foreign countries more especially. Such mental confusion is undoubtedly
less common than it was, yet it still influences, unconsciously, the. minds of
many people. It is well not to forget this curious fact, and to point out, as
if it required emphasising, that there is nothing foreign to geographical thought
in the association of geography and patriotism, and that the home country is
worthy of careful study, particularly when, as with us, our home country is not
Yorkshire, nor England, nor the United Kingdom, but the whole British Empire.
That is my justification aud my apology for taking Political Geography and the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 801

British Empire as my subject, if justification and apology seem to any one to be
necessary. To the generous hearts of our distinguished foreign visitors who honour
us quite as much as they delight us by their presence, I am sure of my appeal.
Every true man loves his own country the best in the world. That beautifying
love of country does not require him to be ignorant of or to hate other countries,
The community of the civilised nations, no longer to be described as Christendom
even, for Japan has been received into it, is a mighty fact in geography no less
than in politics. ‘fo love mankind one must begin by loving individuals; before
attaining to true cosmopolitanism one must first be patriotic.

Now, besides dealing with the topography of the globe, geography considers also
the collective distribution of all animal, vegetable, and mineral productions which are
found upon its surface. The aspect of the science which deals with man’s enyiron-
ment, and with those influences which mould his national character and compel
his social as well as his political organisation, is profoundly interesting intrinsically
and of enormous practical usefulness when rightly applied. Given the minute
topography of a country, a complete description of its surface features, its rivers,
mountains, plains, and boundaries, a full account of its vegetable and mineral
resources, a knowledge of its climatic variations, we have at once disclosed to us
the scene where we may study with something like clearness man’s procession
through the ages. Many of the secrets of human action in the past are explained
by the land-forms of the globe, while existing social conditions and social organisa-
tions can often thereby be intelligently examined and understood. Persistent
national characteristics are often easy to explain from such considerations. For
instance, the doggedness of the Dutch river-population, caused very greatly by a
perpetual struggle against the sea, or the commercial carrier-instinct of the Nor-
wegians, those northern folk born in a country which is all sea-coast of countlese
indentations. Having few products to barter, the Norwegians hire themselves
to transport the merchandise of other peoples. We British also were obyiously pre-
destined to isolation and insularity, when perhaps in the human period the Thames
ceased to be a tributary of the Rhine. Our Irish fellow-countrymen were similarly
fated for all time to lead a separate, special, and national life apart from our own,
when at a still earlier period, geologically, the Irish Channel was formed.

Such large-scale facts are not to be overlooked; there are others, however, of
varying degrees of prominence. Some merely require to be interpreted thonght-
fully, while others, after diligent study, may still remain dubious and matter for
speculation. Geography is the true basis of historical investigation and the
elucidation of contemporary movements. At the present time great social and
political changes are occurring throughout the world—in Europe, Asia, Africa, and
America, and in the islands of the great seas. These changes are absolutely
dependent upon the physical peculiarities of the different lands acting upon
generations of men during a prolonged period of time. As a consequence of
certain soils, geographical characteristics, and climates, we notice how harsh
surroundings have disciplined some races to hardiness and strenuous industry,
accompanied by keen commercial activity, which is itself both a result of in-
creasing population and the cause of still greater overcrowding. Then we see
other people at first sight more happily circumstanced. With them the struggle
to live is less ferocious, their food is found with little toil, But we perceive that
the outcome of generations of Nature’s favouritism has been to leave them less
forceful and less ingenious in the never-ending warfare of existence. By com-
parison they grow feeble of defence against the hungrier nations, ravenous for
provender. Man forever preys upon his own kind, and an easy life in bland
surroundings induces a flabbiness which is powerless against the iron training of
harsh latitudes, or against the fierce energy and the virile strength produced by
hereditary wrestling with unkindly ground.

The discovery of America and Vasco da Gama’s voyage round the Cape
originated movements and brought into play those subtle influences of foreign lands
upon alien sojourners, and through them upon their distant kindred, which alter
the course of history and modify national manners and perhaps national charac-
teristics also. The colonisation of territories in the temperate zone by European

1900, 3F

802 REPORT—1900.

Governments, separated by vast ocean-spaces from their offshoots, has given origin
to new and distinct nations different from the parent stock in modes of thought
and in ways of life, a result due mainly, no doubt, to local physical conditions,
but in part also, if only in part, to detachment, to complete and actual severance
from the mother country. This brings us to that most interesting and important
topic, geographically speaking, of Distance, an aspect of our science which is of
the utmost concern to traders and to statesmen ; indeed, an eminent German
geographer defines geography as the Science of Distances. To this subject of
Distance I wish in particular to direct your attention, and especially to its
bearings upon the British Empire.

The British Empire is equal in size to four Europes, while its population
approximates four hundred millions. Although that may seem a somewhat
grandiloquent method of description, it is a fairly accurate statement of fact. Still
more interesting to us is another truth—that outside of these islands we have
some ten millions of white-skinned English-speaking fellow-subjects. These
islands are scarcely more than one-hundredth part of the whole Empire, although
we count as four-fifths of its white population; of the total number of the Queen’s
subjects we are, however, no more than a tenth.

British Empire is somewhat of a misnomer, just as the North American and
Australian Colonies were never colonies at all in the classical sense of the word.
For the colonies are not independent of the mother country. An empire again
really means a number of subject peoples brought together, and at first held to-
gether, by force. India is an empire for instance. Some new title or phrase
would have to be invented to describe accurately all the possessions of the British
Crown from the Government of India through all possible grades of more or less
direct control until we come to sume colony with representative institutions, and
thence to the great commonwealths with responsible legislators and responsible
cabinets. Happily, however, there is no need now for any novel designation.
The style British Empire has become in time of stress a rallying cry for all the
Queen’s subjects, and the term has been sanctified by the noble eager devotion
shown to her Majesty, both as a beloved and venerated constitutional sovereign,
and as the common bond of unity between those great self-governing daughter-
nations which we in the past were accustomed to speak of as ‘our colonies.’
Consequently British Empire has henceforward a clearly detined, a distinct, a national
significance, just as Imperialism has a special and peculiar meaning to all of us.
Weunderstand by British Empire and by British Imperialism a confederacy of many
lands under the rule of her Britannic Majesty. This confederacy is dominated by
white peoples—Anglo-Saxons, Celts, French-Canadians, and others— Init together
in most instances by the ties of blood relationship, but with equal if not greater
closeness by common interests, an identical civilisation, and a love of liberty, in
addition to that dignified but enthusiastic acceptance, already referred to, of the
constitutional sovereignty of the same Queen. We may hope that generous demo-
cratic expansiveness and social assimilation will also in time detain willingly within
the limits of this British confederacy of white peoples those other Christians and
distant kinsfolk of ours in South Africa who are at present so bitterly antagonistic.

Ruled and controlled under liberal ideals by the centre of authority there are,
in addition, the great subject territories whose non-Christian population are less
advanced in moral and material progress. They exhibit indeed every degree of
backwardness, from the barbarism of the savagest tribesman to the intellectual but
archaic civilisation of ancient Asiatic nationalities.

Concerning the British Empire, and comparing it with other empires, ancient,
recent, or now existing, its two most remarkable features are its prodigious and
long-continued growth and the persistency of its power. It cannot to all seeming
grow much larger, from lack of expansive possibility. But it is unprofitable to
predict. Every step which has been taken in the way of extension, particularly
of late years, has been against the wishes and in almost passionate opposition to
the views of large sections of the people. Yet the process of enlargement has
gone on continually, being often in actual despite of a Government, whose
members find themselves powerless to prevent absorptions and concretions which

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 8038

they would gladly avoid. Objections to this perpetual growth of empire in
territory, and to the resulting responsibility which we not altogether willingly
accept, are unanswerable theoretically. The too heavy and continually increasing
strain upon our military resources every one can appreciate. The limit in power
of the strongest navy in the world is at least as obvious as the vital necessity
that our Navy be largely and ungrudgingly strengthened. Naturally the ery of
cautious patriotic men is the same now that it has always been—‘ Consolidate
before you step farther.’ In India, owing to conscientious and strenuous opposi-
tion to every suggestion of expansion and to the almost violent form which that
opposition often took, our progress has been on the whole slow and comparatively
sale. We have (I, of course, avoid all allusion to very recent policy) a3 a rule
consolidated, strengthened ourselves, and made our ground sure before another
advance. But there is a general impression that in other parts of the world we
have been hastily and unfortunately acquisitive, whether we could help it or not;
that the new provinces, districts, and protectorates are some of them weak to
fluidity; that the great and unprecedented growth of the Empire has led toa
stretching and thinning of its holding links which are overstrained by the weight
of unwieldy extension and far beyond the help of a protecting hand. I hope to
be able to show that in some important respects this suspicion is not altogether
true; that science, human ingenuity, and racial energy have given us some com-
pensations, and that it is not paradoxical nor incorrect to say that our recent
enormous growth of empire has been everywhere accompanied by a remarkable
shrinkage of distances—by quicker and closer intercommunication of all its parts
one with another and with the heart centre. In short, the British Empire, in
spite of its seemingly reckless outspread, its sometimes cloudy boundaries, its
almost vague and apparently meaningless growth, is at the present day more
braced together, more manageable, and more vigorous as a complete organisation
than it was sixty years ago. The difference between its actual extent in the last
year of the century and its size at the date of the Queen’s accession can be
estimated by a glance at a remarkable series of maps published in the ‘ Statesman’s
Year-book for 1897,’ while since 1897, and at this instant as we all know well,
_ its‘mighty bulk is being still further increased.

The world as a whole has strangely contracted owing to a bewildering increase
in lines of communication, to our more detailed geographical knowledge, to the
formation of new harbours, the extension of railways, the increased speed and the
increased number of steamships, and the greatly augmented carrying power of
great sailing vessels built of steel. Then, hardly second in importance to these
influences are the great land lines and the sea-cables, the postal improvements, the
telephones and, perhaps we may soon add, the proved commercial utility of wireless
telegraphy. This universal time-diminution in verbal and personal contact has
brought the colonies, our dependencies, protectorates, and our dependencies of
dependencies, closer to each other and all of them nearer still to us. Measured by
time-distance, which is the controller of the merchant and the cabinet minister
just as much as of the soldier, the world has indeed wonderfully contracted, and
with this lessening the dominions of the Queen have been rapidly consolidating.
Nor is this powerful influence by any means exhausted. In the near future we
may anticipate equally remarkable improvements of a like kind, especially in
railways, telegraph lines and deep-sea cables, and in other scientific discoveries for
transmitting man’s messages through water, in the air, or perhaps by the vibra-
tions ofthe earth. For us particularly, railway schemes of expansion must be
mainly relied upon to open up and to connect distant parts of the Empire. Our
true and only trustworthy road of intercommunication between the heart of the
Empire and its limits must always be the sea. For general trade purposes, such
as the convenience of business travellers, all continental lines and all the great
projected railways will be helpful, whatever nation controls them ; but our certain
security is the sea, the sea which protects us, which has taught us to be an
Imperial people. If we ever forget that, there may be a calamitous awakening.
We must not be persuaded to build—or at any rate to place reliance upon—land
roads or railways through regions inhabited by tribes and peoples over whom we

3r2

804 REPORT—1900.

have not complete military as well as political control. Persian, Arabian, North
African railway projects are happily rarely heard of now. As national enter-
prises they never were and never could be practicable, or otherwise than dangerous
mistakes. We are a world-power solely because of our worship and because of
our command of the sea, In the future also we shall remain a world-power only
so long as we hold command of the sea in the fullest sense of the term, not merely
by the force and efficiency of the fighting navy, but by the excellence and the
perfecting of our mercantile marine, by increasing its magnitude, carrying power,
ard speed, and by anxiously attending to its recruitment by British sailors. We
must not attempt to overtax our resources to guard railway lines through foreign
semi-civilised or savage countries by exported or local armies. A heavy land
responsibility lies upon us already. Under a little more we might be easily over-
weighted and crushed down. We must concentrate all our surplus energies upon
our sea communications. Therefore the railway lines which I spoke of as helping
to consolidate the Empire in the near future are those only which are projected or
are being built in the various colonies and dependencies, lines to distribute and
collect, to connect provinces, and feed harbours. The mighty Canadian Pacific
Railway is unique in the Empire. It not only complies with all these require-
ments, but in addition it provides to Australia and the Eastern dependencies an
alternative road, convenient and safe. AsI said before, all railways, wherever
built, will probably help us directly or indirectly in the long run, provided we
are never committed to the protection of any one of them outside of our own
boundaries.

And what has been said about railways applies, with obvious modifications, to
telegraph lines and to maritime cables. The more general the extension of these,
and the more numerous they become, the greater benefit will there be to this
country in its double capacity as the greatest trader and the greatest carrier of
merchandise in the world; while the actual equivalent to a diminution of time-
distance in travelling is to be found in the instantaneous verbal message which can
be despatched to the most distant point of the Empire. But we ought certainly to
join all the shores of the Queen’s dominions by sea-cables completely controlled by
British authority. To rely upon connection between our own cables through
telegraph systems stretching across fo’eign countries, however friendly, or to
permit the ends of these sentient nerves of the Empire to emerge upon shores
which might possibly become an enemy’s country, is dangerous to the point of
recklessness, that parent of disaster. As a melancholy instance of my meaning
it is only necessary for us to remember the Pekin catastrophe—how we suffered
from those dreadful intervals of dead silence, when we could not even communi-
cate directly with our own naval officers at Taku, or with any one beyond Shanghai,
although we have in our possession a place of arms at Wei-hai-Wei upon the Gulf
of Pechili. It is obvious that we ought to have an all-British cable for pure
strategic reasons as far as Wei-hai-Wei, our permanent military outpost on the
mainland.

Now to give some suggestion of the increased facilities for carrying mer-
chandise, for conveying passengers quickly about the world, and for the sending
of messages to all parts of the earth, a few, a very few, salient facts may be
oe about ships—sailing ships and steam yessels—and about telegraphs and
cables,

In 1870 there were no more than ten British sailing ships which exceeded or
reached two thousand tons burden. In 1892 the yards on the Clyde alone launched
forty-six steel sailing ships which averaged two thousand tons each. In 1895 the
number of Jarge steel sailing ships being built in the United Kingdom was down
to twenty-three, and, speaking generally, it is inevitable that sailing vessels must

Rive way to ocean steamships for most kinds of cargo—cattle, coals, wool, grain,
oil, and everything else," gt

Now let us turn to the results in shortening journeys accomplished by the
progress made in the construction and in the driving machinery of steamships

en the last forty years, which has especially been fruitful in such improve-
ments,

Masi)

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 805

During this century the six months’ voyage round the Cape to India became
a forty and then a thirty days’ journey by what was known as the overland route
for mails and passengers through Egypt. By degrees it had become shorter still
by the railway extensions on the Continent and by the unbroken steamship passage
through the Suez Canal, until now the mails and hurrying travellers may reach
London in twelve or fourteen days after leaving Bombay; and the great liners
of the P. & O. Company can arrive in the Thames eight days later. This famous
corporation, after her Majesty had been reigning nearly ten years, possessed only
fourteen ships, with an aggregate of 14,600 tons. Now it owns a priucely fleet
of fifty-three ocean steamers, with a total capacity of 142,320 tons. Practically
the voyage to India in her Majesty’s reign has been diminished by one-half at
least.

Also since the Queen’s accession the passage between the British Isles and the
Commonwealth of Australia has grown shorter, from the ninety days taken by the
sailing clippers to the fifty-three days occupied by Krunel’s Great Britain. At
the present time it lasts from thirty to thirty-five days by the Suez Canal route,
while it has been finished in as little as twenty-eight days. Australia is conse-
quently only half as far away, in time, as it was; while, if the Suez Canal were
closed for any reason, we have at our disposal, in addition to the Cape route with
its quick steamers, which is linked to us by the Pacific Ocean road, the splendid
service of that Empire-consolidator, the Canadian Pacific Railway.

The important part played by the Suez Canal in this connection will be discussed
a little later. Now I am merely indicating by a few well-known facts the
diminution of distance by the improvements which have been made in the ships
themselves and in their propelling machines.

Across the Atlantic the rapidity of travelling and the general average speed of all
cargo steamers have increased remarkably. Very interesting statistics on this point
were given to the British Association for the Advancement of Science last year, at
Dover, by Sir William White in the Presidential Address of Section G. We may
say, without repeating details, that during the last half of the nineteenth century
the breadth of the Atlantic has practically been diminished one-half.

In 1857 the Union Company contracted to carry mails in thirty-seven days to
the Cape. Now the contract time is nineteen days. This again diminishes the
distance by one-half. As an instance of the remarkable change which has been made
in steamships within forty years, it may be mentioned that the first Norman of the
Union Company took forty-two days to reach the Cape, while the present Norman
has covered the journey in fourteen days twenty-one hours. I need not specify
particularly the equivalent acceleration of speed upon other great steamship lines.
All our sea distances have been shortened 50 to 60 per cent. in an identical way.

It is not too bold to predict that the Atlantic, from Queenstown to New York,
will, before long, be steamed in less than four days. The question has now
resolved itself simply into this—will it pay shipowners to burn so much coal as to
ensure these rushing journeys before a cheaper substitute for coal is found? We
lmow that a torpedo-destroyer has been driven through the water at the rate of
forty-three miles an hour by the use of the turbo-motor instead of reciprocating
engines. Consequently an enormous increase in the present speed of the great
Atlantic liners is certain if the new system can be applied to large vessels. By
such very swift steamers, and by the example they will set to all established and
competing steamship companies, the journey to Canada and subsequently to all
other parts of the Empire will be continually quickened, until predictions which
would now sound extravagant will in a few years be simple everyday facts.

We must turn next to the subject of telegraphic communication, especially as
it relates to the British Empire.

‘The mazes of land-lines and of sea and ocean cables are too numerous and
intricate to be described in detail. Also the general effect of this means of bringing
distant peoples together, and its transcendent importance for political, strategic, and
trading purposes, need not be too much insisted upon in this place, so obvious
must they be toevery one. Yet, great as has been its power and/advantage in all of
those directions in the past, it is certain that still greater development and still
greater service to the world will follow in the future even from existing systems,

806 kEPORT—1900.

not to speak of their certain and enormous possibilities of growth. In the celerity
ot the actual despatch of a message we need not ask for much improvement.
Lightning speed will be probably sufficient for our go-ahead children of the
twentieth century. But where we may expect and shall undoubtedly get
increased success is in multiplied facilities for sending telegrams all over the earth,
and in widening their usefulness and convenience to all ranks and sections of the
community. ‘To obtain these necessary advantages there are two requisites—
first a great and general cheapening of tariffs and, as a certain consequence of
such reduced charges, a duplication or even a quadrupling of many of the
present cables to prevent blocking ; and, secondly, an indefinite extension of both
lines and cableseverywhere. Progressinsubmarine telegraphy undoubtedly means
a lessening in the price of service and a firmer control by the State, as an obvious
corollary to the large help to the companies already given by the general tax-
payer, quite as much as it means those scientific inventions and scientific discoveries
which the coming years have in store for us. At the present time the charges are
far too high, ridiculously so as regards India, and the use of the great cables is
therefore very often beyona the power of the small capitalist and the trader of the
middle sort. Yet certain and early news is of supreme importance to large
numbers of both classes. Its absence hampers or stops business, while its price is
too severe a tax upon average profits, This fact has led to the invention of
ingenious and elaborate codes. ‘They might possibly have been devised in any
case; but there isno doubt that messages by code would be certainly expanded
so as to prevent all possible ambiguity, if telegraphing to distant countries were not
so costly. The spreading of land-lines and sea-cables about the earth has gone on
rapidly since 1870; to the extent that those already completed would seem even to
be in advance of their requirement, if that requirement were to be measured by
their full employment. Nevertheless it is to be wished that new companies could
be formed and new lines laid down to excite competition and thereby to cheapen
rates; or else that our Government should step in and regulate charges over
subsidised British lines. For the power of the great telegraph corporations, by
reason of their monetary resources, enables them to overcome ordinary rivalry and
to treat public opinion with indifference. A general cheapening of rates has
constantly been followed by increased profits, earned by the resulting augmentation
of traffic, but it needs an enterprising directorate to face the necessary initial
expenditure, except under pressure. Boldness and foresight in finance are natu-
rally less prominent features in the management of the great telegraph companies
than contentment with a high rate of interest on invested capital. All their energy
and watchfulness are employed to crush competition rather than to extend their
activities indefinitely. Moreover, money-making is their business, not Imperial
statesmanship. If it were a question of the added security or the close coupling-
up of the Empire (which are probably synonymous) on the one hand and a loss of
profit (however splendid the dividends might still remain) on the other, we know
what would be the result of their deliberations.

Important as are the sea-cables for statesmen, for strategy, and for commerce,
they are or will be equally important socially to keep up intimacy and swift
intercourse between families half in Britain and half in India for instance, or
between friends and relations in these Islands and in the great Colonies. They
might be made to give the sensation almost of actual contact, of holding the hand
of your friend, of speaking directly to his heart, It is this interchange of per-
sonal news and private wishes, quite as much as the profound political and com-
mercial aspects of lightning communication with all parts of the Empire, which
will bind the Empire in bonds stronger than steel, easy as affection, to hold it
together with unassailable power. Consequently the health and strength of the
Empire depend very greatly upon a cheapening of telegraph charges. Doubtless
a time will come when all our main cables of the first importance will be in the
hands of Government, when they will only touch upon British territory, and when
they will be all adequately protected from an enemy. Those are truly Im-
perialistic and patriotic aspirations. But we must never forget the grand part in
bringing together, within whispering distance as it were, the different parts of the
world, and consequently of our world-wide Empire, which has been taken in the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION f&. 807

past by such Napoleonic organisers as the late Sir John Pender. It is to him and
to such men as he that we owe those splendid beginnings which by means of vital
reflexes from the nerve-centre of the Empire have helped to fire our white fellow-
subjects all over the globe with a loftier patriotism and with new, brave, and
broader ideals of nationality.

It was coincident with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 that the liveliest
interest began to be taken in sea-cables, and a master mind perceived their com-
mercial possibilities. Before that time the success of the constructing companies
had not been great. Sir John Pender then founded the famous Eastern Telegraph
Company by the amalgamation of four existing lines, which had together laid
down 8,500 miles of sea-cables, besides erecting land-lines also. A year later, in
1873, from three other companies he formed the Eastern Extension Australasia
and China Telegraph Company, which jointly possessed 5,200 miles of submarine
lines, From that date the extension of electric communication to all parts of the
earth, over wild as well as over civilised countries, and beneath the salt water, has
only been equalled by their average remunerativeness, Now there are 175,000
miles of submerged cables alone, of which this country owns no less than
113,000 miles. The history of some of these cables is full of interest, and might
attract the delighted attention of the lover of picturesque romance no less than of
the student of commercial geography. It also supplies suggestions and many
facts, both to the physical geographer and to the student of seismic phenomena.
Science has taught the companies to economise time, labour, and material in cable-
laying operations, as well as how to improve the working instruments, Human
ingenuity, business perception, and organising power have shown once more their
startling possibilities when directed and controlled by cool, clear-eyed intelligence
combined with general mental capacity.

It is only necessary to reaffirm, for the reasons already given, the national, the
imperial, the commonwealth requirement for cheap telegraphy, and the profound
necessity there is both strategically and politically for complete government con-
trol by purchase, guarantee, or other equitable means over main cables which
connect Great Britain with her daughter states, her Indian empire, and her depen-
dencies. Our communications with our own folk must be independent of private
companies and completely independent of all foreign nations.

All the details which I have given are illustrative of man’s successful energy
and of his progressive ingenuity in enslaving the great forces of the earth to
diminish distance, to shorten world-journeys, and to speed world-messages.
Another human achievement, the piercing by Lesseps of the Suez isthmus, has
had remarkable consequences. It had been talked of in England centuries ago.
Christopher Marlowe makes Tamerlane brag :—

* And here, not far from Alexandria,
Whereas the Tyrrhene and the Red Sea meet,
Being distant less than full a hundred leagues,
I meant to cut a channel to them both
That men might quickly sail to India.’

The illustrious French engineer solved one great problem in 1869, only to
originate others which are of profound importance to commercial geography—and
to the British Empire most of all. The Suez Canal has brought India and the
Australasian Commonwealth wonderfully near to our shores, It has greatly
diminished many time-distances, but why has it not injured our Eastern trade?
Also is there any danger or menace of danger to that trade? From the very
beginnings of the great commerce, the Eastern trade has enriched every nation
which obtained its chief share. It has been the seed of the bitterest animosities.
It alienated Dutch and English, blood relations, co-religionists, co-reformers, into
implacable resentment, and bitter has the retribution been. On the other hand it
brought into temporary alliance such strange bedfellows as the Turks of the six-
teenth century and the Venetians. At the present day what international jealousies
and heartburnings has the same rivalry not fostered! For all the trading peoples
know how vital is that traffic.

In the earliest days of commercial venturings the Eastern trade focussed at

808 REPoRT—1900.

Alexandria, afterwards at Constantinople and the Italian ‘ factory ’ stations of the
Eastern Mediterranean, Barbarous upheavals in Central Asia interrupted the
current at times, but only as temporary dams. Then came Vasco da Gama’s
voyage round the Cape and its sequels—the diversion of the rich merchandise of
the Orient from the Italian ports and from the Eastern Mediterranean to the sea-
coast cities of the Atlantic. Out of the relentless scramble of the Atlantic nations
for this, the grandest of the trader’s prizes, the English came out bloodily trium~
phant, and the British have remained the dominant shippers ever since. But when
the Suez Canal was trenched through, a geographical reversal followed: the mer-
chant’s chief path may be said to have left the Cape circuit and to have regained
the old line, with immensely added facilities, to debouch upon the Eastern
Mediterranean. Why has it not affected us more profoundly? Are not geo-
graphical canons outraged by the great steamers passing by the French and Italian
ports to find distributing centres in these islands? I think that theoretically it is
so, even admitting that the foreign harbours are more difficult than ours. Practi-
cally only a few industries have suffered; the volume of our trade has increased
greatly, and it still remains easily pre-eminent. One of the chief explana-
tions I believe to be this: Geographical considerations were defeated, for the
time at any rate, by the excellence of our banking system when the Suez Canal
was opened. The wealth of the country, then as now, instead of being separated and
divided into isolated patches, was accumulated in the hands of bankers and was
readily and easily available for commercial enterprises. So the necessary steamers
—huge, and ofspecial line—were built at once by our companies and launched into
the valuable Eastern trade before their rivals could begin to stir. This country had
the invaluable help of its monetary facilities. Wealthy shipping corporations, once
fully organised and successful, have great power, by reason of their reserves and
resources, to hustle and to ride off the attacks of weaker and less experienced
competitors. Supposing this great change had but just occurred—our advantages,
though still distinct, would have been less remarkable. And in the future inter-
national trade jealousy will be keener and the competition even more severe. We
must not forget that our geographical position is no longer in our favour for steam-
ships plying from the Kast, and, as in the immediate past, we must throw away no
chances, but seek to make up for that admitted defect by foresight, by education,
by maintaining and constantly adding to our experience, and by defending and
supporting that admirable system—our national banking system—which has carried
us over seemingly insurmountable obstructions to brave trade triumphs.

The general considerations which I have named might lead to the inference
that actual geographical disadvantages, in trade competition for instance, may
sometimes be conquered by man’s resourcefulness and energy. Within obvious
limitations that is certainly true. At places, as we know, the borderland between
geography and many of the natural sciences is often vague and confusedly inter-
laced. So perhaps also with mechanical and economic science our boundaries at
certain spots overlap. Quick steamers, far-reaching telegraph lines, and the
piercing of isthmuses by ship-canals may at the first glance appear outside the
a of the geographer. Yet from that particular aspect of geography which

have already spoken of as the Science of Distances we perceive how relevant
they are, how worthy of study. Truly ours is a very catholic science, and we have
seen how even the comparative value of national banking systems may help to
explain seeming geographical inconsistencies, to reconcile facts with possibly un-
expected results, and to show how the human element modifies, perhaps, the
strictly logical conclusions of the geographer intent upon physical conditions
alone. It is for the statesman and the philosopher to speculate upon the character
and the permanency of such influences. Our success as an Empire will probably
depend for its continuance upon a high level of national sagacity, watchfulness,
and resource, to make up for certain disadvantages, as I think, of our geographical
position since the cutting of the Suez Canal; and it will also depend upon the
comprehensive and intelligent study of all branches of geography, not the least
important of which to my view is the Science of Distances—the science of the mer-
chant, the statesman, and the strategist.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E£. 809

The following Papers were read :—

1. Attempts to improve the Teaching of Geography in Elementary Schools,
especially in the West Riding. By T. G. Roopsmr, //.J/Z.

Reforms were begun through the Royal Geographical Society, whose collection
of foreign maps was lent for exhibition in Bradford in the year 1837. The display
of maps, models, and various devices for illustrating the instruction in geography
in the elementary schools of Germany, France, and Sweden attracted special
attention, Conferences were held in connection with the exhibition, one of which
was attended by Dr. Scott Keltie, who made the collection.

One immediate result of these proceedings was the commencement of a series
of local maps and models, a collection of which is exhibited. The conferences
discovered the chief defects in the existing instruction: (1) Lessons in geography
were not based on object teaching, nor on the observation of local features and
scenery. (2) The art of ‘ reading’ maps was not taught, nor was the construction
of a map led up to by making plans of short walks and diagrams of the neighbour-
hood. (8) The study of political and commercial geography was not based upon
the study of physical geography, neither were the details of geographical study
connected as cause and eflect. There was no attempt to present a country to the
scholar as a connected whole, and the lessons consisted of lists of names and
figures, at the most arranged in groups. Of such details many were wholly un-
suited to the elementary stage,

The chief reforms consisted in the intelligent study of local geography through
local maps and models, and in object lessons which explain the principles of
physical geography. The reliefs and models led up to the art of reading maps
and to the demand for better maps. Such lessons are an excellent introduction
to reasoning, and prove how little there is that is purely arbitrary even in the
sites of towns and villages in the neighbourhood, much less in the industries which
are carried on in them.

The necessity for good wall-maps is now apparent, and correctly drawn details
are demanded in place of vague and inaccurate sketches. Maps must interpret
nature, and map reading is the converse of the process of studying home geography.
In studying home geography the child begins with a natural feature such as a
river or hill, and learns how to represent it on paper. On the other hand,in
reading a wall-map the scholar begins with the symbols or representations of
natural features which he has not seen, and arrives by means of them at the
natural facts which such symbols represent. Hence the extreme importance of
the right study of home geography and local models and reliefs. The symbols on
the wall-map are vague and meaningless unless a content and significance are
given them by previous practice in the building up of local plans and maps. The
scholar has to be taught with care how to translate the symbols of the wall-map
back into the forms of nature which they, however inadequately, represent. The
difference between a good and a bad map is now apparent. As the scholar com-
mences geography by the study of nature in a triple process, which consists of
observation, description, and representation, so, if the wall-map be accurate enough,
he can continue to draw inferences from it much as though he were actually ob-
serving the country by personal inspection.

The value of graphic work in teaching geography is insisted on. The mere
copying and colouring maps of various parts of the world is rather an exercise in
drawing than in geography. Each map should be drawn to serve some definite
purpose. It should disentangle from a complex whole some particular part which
analysis brings to light, and illustrate it with precision and simplicity. Further,
the sketch-maps should proceed from simpler studies to more complex, and no
map should be made of a country as a whole until the leading features have been
dealt with separately, and thus the ‘constructive’ method of teaching geography
is introduced.

The comparison of statistics of various kinds is made much more intelligible if

+ the scholars learn to express their statistics by the use of square-ruled paper.

810 REPORT—1900.

Abstract numbers are thus converted into concrete space forms, and are then much
more comprehensible. In conclusion the formation of local geographical
societies for educational purposes is recommended, and an account is given of the
formation and working of the Southampton Geographical Society.

2. Commercial Geography in Education.
By EB. R. Wetuey, I.A., LRG.

A description of a three years’ course of lectures on Commercial Geography to
teachers in the West Riding, and of what has actually been done, on the diffi-
culties encountered and on ways of getting over them.

1. The three years’ course: (i.) The principles of Commercial Geography and
their application to the British Empire; (ii.) the Commercial Geography of
foreign countries ; (ili.) special trades and commodities.

Twenty-five lectures to the course—30 to 40 teachers in attendance ; average
percentage of attendances 92; centres Leeds and Huddersfield.

2. The difficulties: (i.) The inadequate knowledge of general geography the
main difficulty, z.c. how best to explain commercial results of Physical Geography
to minds deficient in knowledge of the elements of Physical Geography. Remedy
obvious but not easy of attainment owing to multiplicity of school subjects.
Accessories wanted—Government grants for commercial as well as technical or
industrial side of education. (ii.) The inadequate notions still existing as to what
is meant by Commercial Geography. (iii.) The collection of appropriate lantern
slides.

3. A selection of lantern slides illustrating some of the chief points brought out
in the three years’ course.?

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Treatment of Regional Geography.
By Hucu Rosert Mint, D.Sc., LL.D.

The author brought a scheme for a geographical description of the British
Islands, based on the l-inch map of the Ordnance Survey, before the Section at the
Liverpool Meeting in 1896. He has since worked out the regional geography of the
area delineated in two sheets of the l-inch map of South-west Sussex. The
extension to the whole country of work on an equally minute scale appears to be
rendered impracticable only by its cost and the indifference of the public to geo-
graphy. It is hoped, however, that the principles of regional description laid down
in the paper may be of service in promoting similar descriptions for other parts of
the country, whether carried out as part of a general scheme or independently.

The configuration of the district as deduced from the l-inch map is the first
condition in importance, and should be treated both generally, as to the main
features alone, and also specially, as to particular details which are of more imme-
diate interest than the rest. The distribution of rocks and superficial drift taken
from the geological map comes next in importance, and it is interesting, though not
essential, to trace the causal relation of geological structure and geographical form.
It is more important to indicate clearly the places where mineral products of
economic value occur. The next part of the description deals with what may be
called, in default of a better term, mobile distributions. These include all features

1 As it would be obviously impossible to show more than a mere fraction of
the slides used (nearly 3,000 in all), a further and much larger selection was placed
in the Association’s temporary museum.

* See Geographical Journal, vol. xv. 1900, pp. 205, 353.

eS

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 811

relating to the surface which are modified in theirdistribution by the action of
fixed forms and particular rock-formations. They include climate, the character
of which depends greatly on altitude and on the direction of heights and valleys with
regard to the prevailing winds ; water supply, including rainfall, as modified by the
altitude and exposure of slopes, percolation and the return of water to the surface
as springs (dependent on the geological nature of the ground), and the volume
and frequency of rivers, vegetation, animal life, population in all the distributional
details of birth- and death-rates, disease, migration, towns, villages, and connecting
roads and railways, agriculture, industries, and trade.

The particular case selected was a fairly representative one, and brought out
very clearly how all the conditions of human settlement and migration depended
ultimately in a more or less marked degree on the forms of the land. It became
very clear from such a study that geography rightly conceived was the science
which unified and made available for practical application the immense mass of
distributional statistics of all kinds which are brought together at great expense
by Government, but never coordinated or made available.

2. Foreign and Colonial Surveys. By E. G. RAVENSTEIN.

3. Military Maps. By B. V. Darsisuire, IZA.

Our Ordnance map is primarily a military map, made by soldiers for the use
of soldiers.
A practical question :—

What is the best form of map for the use of troops in standing camps in this
country, or fer volunteers encamped for their annual training ?

Arising out of this, another question :—

How far do the maps supplied by the Ordnance Survey answer the above
purpose ?

1. On what points can maps give us information which is useful, and even
necessary, for carrying on military operations ?
(a) Rivers, streams: Width, nature of banks; fords, bridges, ferries, locks.
(6) Roads: Width, surface; whether enclosed or not; whether ditches
alongside.
(ec) Railways: Double or single track ; embankment or cutting ; tunnels.
(2) Woods, copses, heather, gorse.
(e) Villages: Size, shape; houses, how placed to roads, so as to favour
attack or defence.
(f) Hedges and ditches.
(g) Footpaths.
(A) Detached houses.
(¢) Physical features (‘ Terrain’),
2. Specimens of British Manceuvre maps.
°
vo.

The British Ordnance map as a Manceuvre map.
Completely satisfactory except as regards (¢.) (Terrain) and scale.

4. Representation of relief, various methods used for Ordnance maps.
(a) Contours alone. Great Britain, Italy, United States, Switzerland.
(6) Shading alone. Germany.
a (c) Contours with shading. Switzerland, Norway, Austria-Hungary, Great
ritain,

5, The Ideal Manceuvre map. Scale; topographical details; Terrain.

812 REPORT—1900.

4, Journeys in Central Asia. By Captain H. H. P. Drasy.

Captain Deasy’s paper deals with explorations in Western Tibet and Chinese
Turkestan, begun in 1896. The most important features of this explorer’s work
are, first, the extensive use of triangulation for determining longitudes from
peaks, fixed by the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, and heights; secondly,
the discovery of the sources of the Khotan River; and thirdly, the detailed survey
of that exceedingly difficult mountainous region, the hitherto unknown stretch of
the Yarkand River.

The continued opposition of the Chinese added considerably to the physical
difficulties encountered, and resulted in the explorer and his assistant being
incapacitated from work by severe illnesses. The latter compelled Captain Deasy
to return to India much sooner than he had intended.

It may be of interest to note that the heights of about 250 peaks were
determined, and over 40,000 square miles of country surveyed. Much valuable
assistance was rendered by the Indian Government, especially by the Surveyor-
General, and several officers of the Foreign Department. Captain Deasy is very
zrateful for this, as well as for the services of the native topographers, kindly lent
by Colonel Gore, R.E., now Surveyor-General of India.

5. Large Earthquakes recorded in 1899. By Joun Mine.

In 1899 at Shide, in the Isle of Wight, 130 earthquakes were recorded. The
greater number of these were also observed at Kew, whilst very many of them
were common to registers from Canada, the Cape of Good Hope, India, Java,
Japan, and other distant countries.

Analysis of these records has increased our knowledge respecting the rates at
which motion is transmitted through our world, and indirectly thrown new light
upon its rigidity. The arcual velocity of surface waves has been investigated, and
new rules based on these investigations have been formulated for determining the
position of earthquake origins. It has, for example, been shown that the distance
of an origin from a given station can be determined either from the interval by
which the preliminary tremors cutrace the larger surface waves or from the interval
between the arrivals of waves which had travelled from their origin round the
world in opposite directions.

With this knowledge it is frequently possible for an observer in any part of the
world to name the district from which an earthquake recorded at his observatory
has originated.

One series of observations showed that the amplitude of the large waves
of earthquakes decreased more rapidly when traversing suboceanic paths than
when they radiated over continental surfaces. In discussing the nature of
large waves this observation on the damping effect of oceans was used as an
argument that this form of seismic movement represented gravitational surface
waves rather than the outcrop of distortional waves propagated through the body
of the world.

One hundred and twenty-five out of the 130 records considered represented

disturbances which had suboceanic origins. The principal of them may be grouped
as follows:—

1. North-eastern Pacific, W. of British Columbia . 4 4 . 14
2. Kast Mid Pacific, W. of Southern California : ; ; sub
3. East Southern Pacific, W. of Peru and Chili 5 Y 28
4. West Pacific, off Japan - 5S : : 3 5 9
5. West Mid Pacific, near Java 5 5 - . 5 4082
6. Mid Indian Ocean i “ : : ; 5 5 : 5s)
7. North Atlantic, east side . d 5 2 a
8. West North Atlantic and West Indies . . 6
9

. Mid Equatorial Atlantic , RE

RANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 813

If we except the second group we see that the Pacific origins are on the face or
at the bottom of ‘deeps,’ which form portions of the trough or troughs around the
eastern and western margins of that ocean. If future soundings show that the
indicated exception is only apparent, then the second group will also illustrate the
rule that accelerations in secular adjustments of the earth’s crust are most frequent
where this exhibits the greatest flexure.

Inasmuch as there are reasons for believing that each of these earthquakes was
accompanied by large mechanical displacements of solid materials, the import-
ance of localising the sites where such changes are frequent is evident to those who
select routes fur deep-sea cables.

Although we are not in a position to say that these displacements are suf-
ficiently large to produce a measurable effect on the moment of inertia of the
earth, attention may be directed to the fact that at those times when changes in
latitude have been marked large earthquakes have been frequent, whilst when
they have been few such changes have been less pronounced.

Another subject of interest to those engaged in geodetic work is the fact that
changes in the rates of pendulum time-keepers may sometimes be traced to the
unfelt movements of large earthquakes, which so frequently disturb all countries in
the world.

6. Report on the Climate of Tropical Africa,—See Reports, p. 413.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers and Report were read es

1. Railway Connection with India.
By Colonel Sir T. H. Hoxpicu, X.C.1.£.

The paper deals with the general geographical conditions of South-west Asia
which may favour a scheme of railway connection with Western India, the subject-
matter of the successive sections of the paper being as follows :—

1. The impracticability of the northern approaches to India leading over the
Hindu Kush into Kashmir or Afghanistan from the Oxus regions.

2. The nature of the great transverse water divide of Asia, which includes the
Hindu Kush, and the most favourable points for crossing it.

3. The opening afforded by the Hari Rud river to the west of Herat.

4. The configuration of the Persian plateau and mountains, and its adaptation
to railway alignment.

5. Consideration of Persian lines of communication with Western India. The
coast-line between Basra, at the head of the Persian Gulf, and Karachi. Details
of alignment. Commercial and climatic objections to such a line as far as Bandar
Abbas.

6. Alternative central line from Western Persia to Bandar Abbas. Diffi-
culties of connection with European systems.

7. Details of alignment between Bandar Abbas and Karachi. Difficulties
of coast line, and possibility of interior central line.

8. The proposed connection between Kushk and Chamen (?.e. the Herat-
Kandahar line). Geographical conditions that exist between Kushk aud Herat,
and between Herat and Kandahar. ‘Their favourable nature.

9. Objections which have been raised to the line—political and military. Its
commercial prospects.

10. Conelusion.

814. REPORT—1900.

2. The Siberian Railway. By C. Raymonp Beazury.

Short account of the route traversed by the Siberian Railway as far as the
Amur. The connections of the railway main trunk with the regions to the north
and south, (a) as already made, (8) as in construction and projected. The
bearing of the Siberian line on Central and Southern Asia by the intended link,
from Tashkent to Orenburg. Primary commercial and industrial purpose of
Siberian line west of Lake Baikal. Development of the country: its population,
mining enterprises, agriculture, cattle-raising, manufactures, &c., through the
movements created by the railway, illustrated by some details. The railway in
connection with the river navigation, (a) of the West Siberian rivers, Ob, Yenisei,
&c.; (8) of the Kama and Volga; (y) of the Dvina and Petchora. The railway
in connection with the western ocean and inland seas: (a) White Sea, (8) Black
Sea, (y) Caspian. Connections of the railway with Russia’s strips of ice-free coast
and ice-free ports in the west: (a) on Arctic Ocean, especially Catherine Harbour,
near the frontier of Norway; (8) on Black Sea, especially Novo-Rossiisk ; (y) on
South-west Caspian, especially Baku.

The railway in its eastern part: different problems here. Highly political
aspect of this section. The more recent advance of the line here through Man-
churia. The ice-free outlet at Port Arthur, Talien-wan, and the Kwang-tune
peninsula. Projects for maritime development of trade to Japan and America from
this ‘window’ as well as from Vladivostok. Connections with China through
Mongolia as well as Manchuria.

3. On the Possibility of obtaining more Reliable Measurements of the
Changes of the Land-level of the Phlegrean Fields. By R. T. GUNTHER.

4. The British Antarctic Hxpedition, 1899-1900. By C. E. BorncHGREVINK.

Mr. Borchgrevink commenced with an account of the origin of the expedition
which he commanded, thus referring to his previous work within the Antarctic
Circle, and to the resolution which was carried at the Sixth International Geo-
graphical Congress at the Imperial Institute in 1895. The voyage of the
Southern Cross was shortly described with a few incidents; the results of some
of the principal observations (both meteorological and magnetic), the landing, the
camp, and the work of the land expedition from March 1899 to March 1900. An
account of the principal discoveries made during one year on South Victorian
Land was given, with a description of the ice conditions, in winter and summer,
near Cape Adare and in the pack,

What the author claims as the principal work of the expedition is the
pioneer work in Victoria Land, extending over a period of one year, thus for
the first time proving the possibility for an expedition to live on South Victoria
Land in the winter, with the following results :—

1. Recording the meteorological and magnetic conditions at Cape Adare and at
various places on the ice and on the mainland between this locality and the
78th parallel, thus locating the present approximate position of the South Mag-
netic Pole, in latitude 78° 20’ S. and longitude 146° E., about 220° west by north
from Wood Bay.

2. Discovery of new species in antarctic biology, with special reference to the
shallow-water fauna and the flora of South Victoria’ Land, both proving
bi-polarity, and suggesting a theory for the distribution of organisms.

3. Touching upon the importance of the discovery of insects as indicating an
averave temperature in the neighbourhood of the locality where they were found,
not deviating much from what was experienced during the years 1899-1900.

4, Furthest south 78° 50’.

The author gave his views shortly in regard to further exploration within the
sean Circle, as well in regard to outfit as in reference to desirable places for

anding.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 815

5. Through Arctic Lapland. By C. J. Curctirre Hyneg, WA.

-Finner whale fishing in Arctic Seas—Vardé—Across the Varanger fjord—The
start of an eighty-five mile tramp—Boris Gleb—Skolte Laps—Up the Neiden—
Arctic Finns—Enare See—Fisher Laps—Enare Town—Farmer Laps—By canoe
and swamp—Life on a Lapland Farm—The Arctic mosquito—Herder Laps—
Reindeer culture—Norwegian Laps—Rovaniemi—Down to Torneo-Haparanda—
The Gulf of Bothnia.

6. Report on Physical and Chemical Constants of Sea Water.
See Reports, p. 421.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Some Consequences that may be anticipated from the Development of the
Resources of China by Modern Methods. By Guo. G. Cuisuoim,
M.A., B.Sc.

Various causes are pointed out as already in operation tending to bring about
that development in spite of the opposition of some sections of the people. These
are of such a nature as to make it unlikely that this development, however brought
about, will be long retarded.

When it does come about this development is bound to have world-wide effects
on a scale of extraordinary magnitude, and in one direction it seems probable that
it will tend to reverse the tendency of the last generation in the economic history
of the world.

The peculiarity of the position of China is this, that it is the one region in the
world with all the means for industrial development on a gigantic scale that
remains to be opened up. In the past thirty or forty years we have chiefly seen
the opening up of new countries or old countries without great resources for
industrial development.

Among the consequences that may he anticipated from this opening up are
these :—

1. A rise in prices in China, especially in the industrial regions.

2. The creation of a demand for food-stuffs not likely to be supplied by China
itself; a demand which in itself will be one of the most powerful causes contri-
buting to maintain the rise in prices.

3. The imparting of a great stimulus to the food-producing regions most
favourably situated for meeting this demand, more particularly M anchuria, Siberia,
and western North America, probably the Pacific States of North America to a
greater extent than Canada.

4, Perhaps the most important of all, the creation of a tendency to a gradual
but prolonged rise in wheat and other grain prices all the world 6ver, reversing
the process that has been going on since about 1870 in consequence of the successive
Opeuing up of new countries.

2. The Commercial Resources of Tropical Africa.
By Epwarp Heawoop, i.A.

At least 70 per cent. of the total trade of Africa falls to the countries of the
extreme north and south, leaving the whole of Tropical Africa, with an area of
some 9 millions of square miles, a total trade of at most 30,000,0007., of which
nearly 7,000,000. belongs to the small islands of Mauritius and Réunion. The
object of the present paper is to examine the causes of this small commercial

816 REPORT —1900.

movement as compared with that of other tropical countries, and to form some
conclusion as to the permanence, or the reverse, of present conditions.

Among historical reasons for the smallness of the existing trade are (1) the
attraction exercised during the age of great discoveries by America and the East
and the consequent neglect of Africa; (2) the political condition of the African
peoples; (3) the effects of the slave trade ; while geographical causes are found
in (1) the massive form of the continent and consequent absence of natural means
of communication ; (2) the unhealthiness of the coastlands. That many of these
causes are not necessarily permanent is shown by a comparison with Brazil, which
affords a close parallel with Tropical Africa in many respects. This shows that,
given natural resources capable of supporting an increased export trade, the com-
mercial future of Tropical Africa need not be hopeless.

The resources of a new country may be classed as (1) exhaustible, principally
ninerals ; (2) permanent, chiefly animal and vegetable products, the second group
being the more important. It may be again subdivided into (1) jungle products,
which, though not necessarily exhaustible, are likely to suffer diminution; (2)
cultivated products. ‘The former may, under cultivation, be transferred to the
latter sub-group, which is the most important of all. In Brazil, e.g., the vast
preponderance of the exports is made up by the four products coffee, cacao,
tobacco, and cotton. Which, with rubber, make up the principal resources of the
country. In Tropical Africa jungle products, principally rubber and palm-oil
and kernels (total annual value over 4,000,000/.), are at present those on which
the export trade mainly depends. A period of development of plantation pro-
ducts has, however, set in, and coffee, cacao, cotton, tea, &c., have been grown
with success in various parts. The chief difficulties to be encountered arise from
(1) want of means of transport; (2) scarcity of labour; but these are now in a
fair way to be overcome. The modern tendency for each country to depend for
tropical produce largely on its own colonies must favour the commercial develop-
ment of Africa, while the comparatively low population of Africa per square mile
renders it probable that it will in the future play an important part in providing a
food supply for the more thickly peopled continents.

3. On Snow Ripples.
By Vaucuan Cornisx, JZSc., 2.C.S., PAGS.

These observations, made in Scotland last winter, are preliminary to a general
investigation of the surface forms of snow, which the author proposes to continue
in a colder climate during the coming winter. The investigation is undertaken in
connection with the author’s research upon terrestrial waves and wave-like sur-
faces.

The general conditions during the following observations are: ground already
covered with snow, temperature a little below the freezing point.

Case I.—Snow falling sparsely. In absence of wind the surface was uneven,
owing to clinging together of flakes. In a light breeze there was a notable
tendency for the prominent parts to arrange themselves transversely in ridges, the
distance from ridge to ridge not more than one inch. When the breeze freshened
these became regular ripples, with a smoothed surface of closer texture. One set of
measurements gave the distance between successive ridges, 1:125, 1:225, 0°85, 1-05,
and 1:00 inch. Their amplitude was approximate:y ‘05 inch, which gives a ratio
Length : Height = 21 approximately, The steep face of these ripples is on the
windward side, whereas in sand ripples and water waves the steep face is on the
sheltered side. The normal movement is downwind, the most noticeable feature
of the process being the retreat of the steep weather face, consequent upon the
abrasion of its surface. For occasional short intervals, however, during lulls and
during moments of heavier snowfall, the ripples rush upwind, owing to the sudden
deposit of snow upon each weather face.

Case I1.—Fresh breeze without snowfall, blowing upon uncompacted snow.
The surface was beautifully covered by ripples of 3 inches to 15 inches from ridge

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION FE. 817

to ridge, which were rapidly increasing in size. The steep side faced the wind.
The ridges, which were pretty accurately parallel one to another, were transverse
to the wind, but with much sinuosity, no ridge being straight for more than a few
inches. It is evident that the wind must be concentrated in the re-entrant angles
of the steep weather slope, and this would tend by rapid erosion to destroy the
arrangement of long transverse lines which is the most obvious characteristic of
Tipples. The ridges, however, did not lose their transversality, which was
apparently preserved by the greater deposit of drifting snow in these re-entrants,
which stopped the threatened gaps; and by the collapse of the overhangine
cornice of uncompacted snow at the salient angles, by which these promontories
were truncated.

Case I1I.—The latest-fallen layers of snow having been blown away, the wind
acts upon compacted snow (this was generally in drifts which had become exposed
owing to change of direction of wind). The wind abraded a fine granular ¢ drift,
which did not adhere to the smooth hard surfaces. Parallel lines of bevelling or
grooving transverse to the wind are the most conspicuous feature of the resulting
structure in the compact, almost homogeneous, fine-grained material. The
lines are much freer from minor irregularities than the ripples described above.
As the action continues, however, the sinuosities are emphasised, for, the ‘drift’
not adhering well, the re-entrants are cut back more and more behind the
salients. Further, the wind concentrating along the lines of the re-entrants, the
general level of the surface here is lowered more quickly by abrasion than is the
case along the intermediate lines of the salient angles. ‘Thus is produced a well-
marked form transitional between snow ripples and sastrug?, in which inter-
mediate form the transverse ridges are crossed at right angles by alternate ridges
and furrows parallel to the wind, the furrows being along the line of the re-entrants.

Sastrugt.—This action went on until the ridges transverse to the wind were
merely a subordinate and scarcely noticeable feature, and the snow was seen to be
in great ridges parallel to the wind. These corresponded perfectly with the
sastrugi of the Tundras as described by A. Penck?! on the authority of F. Schmidt
and G. Bore.

On the opposite orientation of snow ripples and sand ripples.—Ripples in loose
sand have their steep faces on the leeward, snow ripples on the windward side.
The exposed face of the snow ripple becomes steeper than the sheltered face,
because the cohesiveness of the snow while in mass enables the wind to carve out
wind caves, in which its force is concentrated. In loose sand the slipping of the
material prevents this. The friability of the snow also assists in the effect, the
detailed explanation of which would, however, be too long for this abstract.

Observations were also made upon the forms of snowdrifts.

Photographs were taken of ripples, sastrug?, and drifts.

4, The Geographical Distribution of Relative Humidity.
By KE. G. Ravenstern.

The author stated that the importance of relative humidity as a climatic factor
was fully recognised. Having illustrated its influence upon organic life, upon
agriculture and human industries, he expressed his regret that neither in number nor
in trustworthiness did humidity observations meet the requirements of a person
desirous of illustrating its distribution over the globe by means of a map. This was
owing largely to defects in the instruments employed, incompetence of the observers,
and unsuitability of the hours chosen for the observations. As to the humidity over
the ocean, we were still dependent upon the observations made on board passing
vessels, and he was afraid that the time had not yet come when floating meteoro-
logical observatories would be stationed permanently throughout a whole year at
a few well-chosen localities in mid-ocean. N. otwithstanding this paucity of
available material he had ventured, in 1894, to publish in Philip’s ‘Systematic
Atlas’ a small chart of the world showing the distribution of humidity. The

* Morph. der Erdoberfléiche, vol. i. pp. 388, 389.
1900. 3G

818 REPORT—1900,

subject had not been lost sight of by him since then, and he now placed the results
before this meeting. He did so with some diffidence, and over-cautious meteoro-
logists might condemn his action, but they must remember that when Berghaus, in
1838, acting upon suggestions made by Zimmermann and Humboldt, published the
first isothermal chart the observations on temperature were even less numerous
than those on humidity were at present. His charts, of course, must be looked
upon as sketches, but he felt confident that they brought out the broad features of
the subject, and to reduce the sources of error he had limited himself to indicating
four grades of mean annual humidity, the upper limits of which were respectively
50 per cent. (very dry), 65 per cent., 80 per cent., and 100 per cent. (very
damp). The relative humidity over the oceans might exceed 80 per cent., but
in certain regions (‘ horse latitudes’) it was certainly much less, and in a portion of
the Southern Pacific it seemed not to exceed 65 per cent., a feature seemingly con-
firmed by the salinity of that portion of the ocean, which exceeded 3°6 per cent.

His second chart exhibited the Annual Range of Humidity, viz. the difference
between the driest and the dampest months of the year. In Britain, as in many
other parts of the world, where the moderating influence of the ocean was allowed
free scope, this difference did not exceed 16 per cent., but in the interior of
the continents it occasionally exceeded 45 per cent., spring or summer being
exceedingly dry, whilst the winter was excessively damp, as at Yarkand, where a
humidity of 30 per cent. in May contrasted strikingly with a humidity of 84 .
per cent. in December.

This great range directed attention to the influence of temperature (and of alti-
tude) upon the amount of relative humidity, for during temperate weather we were
able to beara great humidity with equanimity, whilst the same degree of humidity,
accompanied by great heat, such as is occasionally experienced during the ‘ heat
terms’ of New York and recently in London, may prove disastrous to men
and beasts. Hence, combining humidity and temperature, the author suggested
mapping out the earth according to sixteen hygrothermal types, as follows :-—

1. Hot (temperature 73° and over) and very damp (humidity 81 per cent. or
more): Batavia, Camaroons, Mombasa.

i Hot and moderately damp (66-80 per cent.): Havana, Calcutta.

Hot and dry (51-65 per cent.): Bagdad, Lahore, Khartum.

Hot and very dry (50 per cent. or less): Disa, Wadi Halfa, Kuka.

. Warm (temperature 58° to 72°) and very damp: Walvisch Bay, Arica.

Warm and moderately damp: Lisbon, Rome, Damascus, Tokio, New Orleans.

. Warm and dry: Cairo, Algiers, Kimberley.

Warm and very dry: Mexico, Teheran.

. Cool (temperature 33° to 57°) and very damp: Greenwich, Cochabambo.

10. Cool and moderately damp: Vienna, Melbourne, Toronto, Chicago.

11. Cooland dry: Tashkent, Simla, Cheyenne.

12. Cool and very dry: Yarkand, Denver.

13. Cold (temperature 32° or less) and very damp: Ben Nevis, Sagastyr, Godt-

POAT oe PS

14. Cold and moderately damp: Tomsk, Pike’s Peak, Polaris House.
15. Cold and dry:
16. Cold and very dry: Pamir.

The actual mean temperature of the earth amounted, according to his computa-
tion, to 57° F., and this isotherm, which separated types 8 and 9, also divided De
Candolle’s ‘ Mikrothermes’ from the plants requiring a greater amount of warmth.

V'he author further illustrated his paper by a number of diagrams giving the
curves of the temperature, rainfall, and humidity, and also by a chart of the world
exhibiting the number of rainy days.

5. The Origin of Moels, and their Subsequent Dissection
By J. E. Marr, F248.

In this paper, the influence of vegetation in modifying hill-outlines is first
considered, and it is shown that the concave curye of water-erosion is partly

iri «et

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E, 819

replaced by a convex curve of weathering on the upper parts of hills, with
herbaceous vegetation in temperate regions, and often entirely replaced by a
convex curve in tropical regions, where the sides of the hills are clad with forest
rowth.

3 The dissection of such round-topped hills or moels by stream action is then
considered, and it is pointed out that buttress-like lateral peaks will be formed
around the resultant central peak. Lateral peaks of this nature have been
described by Mr. I. C. Russell on Mount Rainier, under the name tahomas; he
gives reason for their production by glacial denudation in that particular case.

6. On the Pettersson-Nansen Insulating Water-bottle.
Sy HueH Rosert Mitt, D.Se., LL.D.

Professor Pettersson has, in conjunction with Professor Nansen, completed a
modification of his well-known apparatus for obtaining samples of sea-water
without change of temperature. A specimen of the improved water-bottle con-
structed by Messrs. Ericsson, of Stockholm and London, was exhibited. The
purpose of this apparatus is to enclose a quantity of sea-water at any desired depth,
to hold it securely, and to bring it to the surface without any change of tempera-
ture exceeding one hundredth of a degree Centigrade. The previous form of insu-
lating water-bottle was found by Dr. Nansen in his arctic expedition to be less
trustworthy at great depths than in shallow water; hence the suggestions which
resulted in the new apparatus. The insulation, which is the essential feature of the
water-bottle, is secured by a series of concentric chambers of non-conducting
material which are simultaneously filled with water, and so protect the portion,
measuring about two litres, which occupies the large central tube. The walls of
the inner tubes are so constructed as not to become heated by compression at
the greatest depth. This is secured by using metal, which is heated by com-
pression, and indiarubber, which is cooled by compression, in such proportions as
to ensure constancy of temperature for the whole structure.

The water-bottle when set is held apart, so that the base, sides, and lid are
separated, and the water passes freely through the tubes as the apparatus descends.
When the apparatus is being drawn up a propeller (which during the descent
revolves freely) engages with a screw and releases a heavy weight, which closes
and locks the whole rigidly together. An arrangement is provided for the relief of
pressure as the included water expands on being hauled up, The temperature is
ascertained by a thermometer, protected againt pressure, enclosed in the central
tube, and projecting sufficiently far to be easily read. If preferred, the aperture for
the thermometer may be closed by a screw and the thermometer inserted when the
water-bottle is brought up. A reversing thermometer to give the temperature of
the water independently may be attached to the upper part of the water-bottle,
and is set in action at the moment of closing. The whole apparatus weighs about
58 lb., and is used on a wire line and worked by a steam winch.

During August of this year the improved water-bottle was tested by Professor
Nansen on board the Michael Sars in the sea between Iceland and Spitsbergen, and
at the greatest depth met with (3,000 metres =1,670 fathoms) the insulation was
perfect. On August 11 a sample was taken from 3,000 metres, and when it came
up the thermometer read: 1°-285 C., after five minutes 1°283, after nine minutes
1°-270, and after eleven minutes 1°210. On August 13 in a sample from 2,000
metres the thermometer showed 1°-135, after five minutes 1°-135, after six minutes
1°-180, and after eight minutes 1°-110. Professor Nansen considers it essential
to use an included thermometer.

‘Published in full in the Geographical Journal, vol. xvi. (1900), pp. 469-471.

820 REPORT—1900.

Srction F.—ECONOMIC !SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Major P. G. CratciE, V.P.S.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

The President delivered the following Address :—

Tun ‘ Advancement of Science’ is the motive wherewith the British Association
brings annually together, in autumnal conclave, a gathering of those who desire
to tell and those who wish to hear something of the most recent developments of
scientific labour. Entrusted for the session with the high honour of presiding
over a Section where the chair has from time to time been occupied by a long
roll of distinguished men, whose qualifications for the task necessarily far outstrip
any I could pretend to claim, I may yet follow the example set by such authorities
in maintaining on your behalf, and on my own, that the right production, the
proper treatment, and the wise grouping of garnered facts concerning man and
his relations to the State as a member of society constitute a study second in
importance to no other form of research. Moreover, such expert discussion of
statistical methods and statistical results as ought to be possible in this Section
should, I think, prove a factor of no small moment in its bearing on the true
advancement of Science in its broadest sense, whether physical, economic, or
political.

Without the claim to speak to you on the lines which could be appropriately
adopted by some former Presidents, who have held positions of eminence, won
either in the highest fields of politics or earned by patient work in the cloistered
retreats of academic study, I come here rather to represent those who form, as it
were, the hewers of wood and drawers of water for the economic controversialists
of the day. As such we are concerned in the daily outturn of raw statistical
material, and we are naturally jealous as to the use to be made of our figures by
those who employ them in the process of scientific deduction, in the business of
practical administration, or in the efforts of philosophic teaching.

Whatever be the precise meaning we are willing to accord to the term of
‘ statisties’—and both the primary interpretation and the proper scope of the
expression have been differently construed—I believe you will agree with me in
echoing the opinion expressed, I think, by a very distinguished past President
of this Association, that nearly all the grandest discoveries in science have been
but the rewards of accurate measurement and patient long-continued labour in the
sifting of numerical results.

Not only thus may we claim for what is sometimes looked upon as the merely
mechanical part of statistical work a directly educational effect on the honest
workers themselves, in the training and discipline of mind which are required for
the handling and weighing, the balancing and comparing of numerically arranged
facts; we may go further and assert that every science in its turn has occasion to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 821

rely on the statistician’s art, and that the true advancement of knowledge in what-
ever path we take depends quite as much on the avoidance of rash conclusions as
on the faculty of quick perception of apparent results,

There is then this lesson to be learned in the discussions to be held in this
Section, and it is one on which, in opening our deliberations, I think I am fairly
entitled to insist. Since accurate statistical data are fundamental to sound areu-
ment and correct deductions in any sphere of science, too great care cannot be
expended in the task of making sure that figures given to the public are really
what they claim to be. Where a comparison is to be made it is our business to
see a practical identity in the character of the facts to be observed, and to give
such warning as is requisite to guard against the possibility of over-strained and
illegitimate use of the data by those into whose hands they may ultimately come.
Where a deduction is to be made or a conclusion is to be announced by the original
compiler himself, it is well, too, he should remember that a statistical decision
should have in it something of judicial deliberation and gravity, and should be
given to the world only after the application of a chastened scepticism and distrust
to the testing of the first impressions to which the bare numbers that appear on
the surface of any calculation seem to point.

Lastly, let us not overlook the prescriptive cautions of many past masters in
statistical work to distrust big totals and dissect general averages.

We are all of us familiar with the vastly larger space accorded to statistics in
debate in the second half of the dying century, how readily the arbitrament of
figures is now appealed to by the politician or the journalist, by the man of
science or the philosopher. This very fact, however, constitutes in itself a
danger, and I trust, therefore,I may be forgiven if I interpose between the
Section and its prepared work by preaching from the Chair with some insist-
ence the somewhat trite doctrine that statistical and economic science has few
greater enemies than those who fail to apply the most rigid tests to the sufficiency
of the elementary figures on which a theory is to be formed or an administrative
act accomplished. Nor, indeed, is a much smaller offence involved in the over-
confident use, whether for international comparisons or for those flights of prophecy
in which we all like from time to time to indulge, of figures not in their immediate
connection themselves erroneous, but which are, nevertheless, not quite strong
enough to bear the strain of the superstructure to be reared, or which are devoid
of the essential elements of true comparability of condition.

It is then alike for the makers and the users of statistics to observe much
caution in their own utterances and in the manufacture of those missiles of con-
troversy which every table furnishes, and which in the hasty discussions of our
day, when mere rapidity is exalted almost to the place of a virtue, are apt at times
to prove dangerous to those who wield them, whether in the press, the lecture-
room, or the senate.

Most of all is it incumbent on one who ventures on the duties of this Chair
with none of the opportunities of reflection which many professorial predecessors
must have enjoyed, and who comes straight from the daily turmoil of executive
work and the discharge of continuous official service, to exercise some reticence in
venturing on expressions of individual opinion. In what I may say, therefore,
by way of preface to your discussions I would endeavour to confine my remarks
to a notice of some of the chief statistical investigations now impending and
an account of the difficulties to be encountered by the statistician in his work,
illustrating, from the class of subjects with which my work has made me familiar,
the sorts of obstacles which hinder the accurate presentation of international
comparisons of agricultural conditions.

The entire omission cf a sectional address—for which there is, I believe, pre-
cedent in your records—or the substitution of a simple speech for a reasoned paper,
as was allowed to the distinguished statesman who presided at the last Bradford
meeting, on the score of the demands of the State on the services of its servants,
might, perhaps, have met my case and relieved me of a duty to which I feel far
from equal, and you of listening to my crude remarks, This indulgence has not,
however, been accorded, and I must, therefore, crave the pardon of the Section I can

822 REPORT—-1900.

only serve so badly, and urge its members, in the later discussions, to supply the
shortcomings of the occupant of the Chair.

Of all statistical work the enumeration of the units of population must ever
take the foremost place, and on the eve of the census to be taken before man
more months have passed a reference to that great impending task could hardly
be omitted on this occasion. In common with all students of the machinery of
census-taking I am sure I echo the feelings of the Section—as I do those of the
Royal Statistical Society, who have long laboured in this direction—in deeply
regretting that the first census of the twentieth century is not to possess the
distinction many had hoped to see conferred upon it of being by preliminary
announcement—as I hope it may prove to be in ultimate fact—the first of a series
not of decennial but of quinquennial countings of the people.

The growing complexity of social conditions and speed of life in all its functions
at the present date, contrasted with the leisurely movements of a hundred years
ago, would alone and amply justify a more frequent stock-taking of the inhabitants
of Great Britain than has been the practice in the past. The practical wants of our
much-multiplied system of local government cannot fail, I believe, ere long to
bring about the granting of an intermediate numbering, even if for the moment
other considerations overrule the more academic pleas of statisticians for this
reform, or the arguments, sound as I believe them to be, for a permanent Census
Office, a permanent Census Act, and a trained and continuous Census Staff, to
whom preparation of the machinery beforehand and detailed elaboration of the
results after the actual census year might with real economy be entrusted.

Like probably many another student of practical statistical organisation, I
have to own to some modification of the demands for enquiry into the condition
as well as the numbers of the people, which I once believed might be properly
combined with the actual operations of enumeration. Some little experience in
measuring the extent and the value of the answers elicited by question and by
schedule have shown me that with due regard to the quality, if not even to the
quantity, of the replies extracted from the least instructed section of the popu-
lation, you must limit your curiosity unless you are to be landed in doubt, in
difficulty, and in misconception.

Specific and parallel enquiries in point of time by one or another central
body may no doubt be devised and directed so as to bring out a definite and
limited series of facts, affording matter to be compared with population totals.
But to load the census proper with side issues is not to help forward the best type
of statistical knowledge, and the attempt may well be pushed too far. I fancy
there is now some reason to believe that ten years ago we erred in this respect. For
these reasons I have never in recent years been able to go along with many active
and highly intelligent foreign colleagues, whose more sanguine aspirations as to
possibilities of what a census can tell it is always pleasing to witness, even if the
feasibility of their suggested developments may be questioned.

Sound and reasonable advice on such a subject may be found in the timely
remarks of my colleague Mr. J. A. Baines, in his paper to the Royal Statistical
Society in February last on the ‘limitations’ of census-taking. From no better or
more practical source could we hope to be instructed on what can and what can
not with advantage be got than from the able officer whose superintendence of
the vast Indian Census of 1891 brought him such widespread recognition.

The mention J haye made of the suggestions of foreign statisticians on census-
taking reminds me that although the proposal which has been before the Inter-
national Statistical Institute in one form or another for a synchronous ‘ world’s
census,’ at the moment of passing from one century to another, is hardly likely,
for administrative reasons and in view of the previous fixtures of the great census-
taking Governments of the earth, to be literally realised, the dates of the great
countings of the nations will nevertheless come sufficiently close for all practical
comparisons. The great Russian enumeration, on the success of which M. Troinitsky
is so heartily to be congratulated, is not yet long accomplished. The twelfth
census of the United States is now being taken. The Scandinavian enquiry

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 823

coincides with the century’s end, the Italian and the Spanish censuses are already
overdue, and both France and England take their count within a few months alter
the twentieth century has begun.

Not persons only, but their conditions, their possessions, their trade, and their
burdens are all subjects of perennial statistical enquiry, and in connection with the
last of these groups in the near future the attention of statistical critics will no
doubt be drawn again to the massive collection of materials respecting local taxes,
their growth and pressure, which may be looked for from the final report of the
Royal Commission on Local Taxation. How many times in the last half of this
century this section of our finance has been debated here I have not been able to
ascertain. In one form or another it has exercised a fascination on the minds of
some of our most active economists. Personally I confess the field was one of the
first in which I ventured to make some enquiry and draw tabular comparisons. To
this I was incited by the study, not at first of the second-hand stores of the
many blue-books which have seen the light on this matter, but rather by the
peculiar circumstances of my local residence in a Yorkshire township four-and-
thirty years ago, when local government and local rates of necessity came home
with primary concern to one who happened, like myself, to be the sole inhabitant
householder of an area constituting for several purposes a unit of local
administration.

I cannot pretend to have followed through the later years of the century the
wider developments of these controversies, which were far from simple even in
the days when the issue was limited to a question of pressure of the ratal system
on agricultural land. Now, when the vast and complicated outlay of the great
urban centres on matters which, in time past, we were not disposed to regard as
subjects of taxation at all, but rather of directly remunerative outlay, has to be
brought into the survey, it may well tax the ingenuity of our younger statisticians
to unravel the facts, and it may try the courage and the skill of the economists to
pronounce, as this Section may be expected to do before its sittings close, as to the
orthodox limits and sphere of ever-extending municipal expenditure and municipal
trade.

The statistical part of such enquiries as these will abound with problems in the
working out of which it will be well to recall the warnings I have indicated as to
the danger attending the use of non-comparative or defective data. Pitfalls
innumerable await the less wary controversialist in such questions as these, which
seem near at hand, while yet wider discussion on the relative pressure and com-
parative growth of taxes generally may erelong attract renewed attention, as well
as the subjects of statistical debate which centre round the records of crime and
its punishment, of educational facilities and the economic results of their super-
vision by the State, or, again, of excursions into the intricate region of labour and
wages, wherein some of our section have already pursued useful investigations.
In all and every one of these topics the scientific statistician will have to re-
member that his profession does not allow him to be a partisan advocate of one or
the other view, in search of some figures to illustrate or decorate a predetermined
theory. On the contrary, his function is to work in the cold, clear light of pure
scientific research, and with a single aim to free the facts of each case from obscurity
and place the data before the world in such shape as to allow a true judgment to
be recorded.

Quite as full of difficult problems and obstinately non-comparable figures will be
found to be the use of statistics of production and of trade. The varying and
scanty records of one period may have to be viewed in connection with and inter-
preted by the better and fuller data of the day, and the conditions of one country
may have to be contrasted with those of another, while the puzzling variations in
the system employed have to be allowed for and discounted in the conclusions.

Perhaps the difficulties of just comparison between the records of one time and
another, or one State and its neighbour, come home to me with peculiar emphasis
when the statistics dealt with relate to agricultural conditions. With ourselves

824 REPORT—1900,.

and still more in certain quarters abroad regular agricultural statistics are of quite
recent birth.

It is difficult, perhaps, for us now to recall the comparatively recent origin of
comprehensive statistics of agriculture in Great Britain. Writers of note,
economists, and philosophers had no doubt from early times ventured to make
estimates of more or less individual authority on the probable magnitude of our
agricultural resources, Expert witnesses, with more or less opportunities of indi-
vidual observations, came before Parliamentary Committees with rough impressions
of the extent of our cultivated area and the distribution of the crops which it bore.
The labours of the old Board of Agriculture, which existed at the end of the last and
for a few years at the beginning of this century, amassed, no doubt, much valuable
though scattered local information and many details of farming practice, but they
completed no such exact survey as would have proved invaluable now to the
statisticians of 1900 respecting the use made of the soil of our country a hundred
years ago, The erroneous estimate of 47,000,000 acres of total area assigned to Eng-
land by the Chairman of that Board, when later data proved the measurements to

yield 10,000,000 acres less, is a warning of the care which is needed in the use of

such figures as were available in those distant days

After efforts more or less spasmodic in 1831, again in 1845, and yet again in the
more complete work of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland in 1854—
7, encouraged by the verdict of the House of Lords’ Committee of 1855, and fortified
by the repeated recommendations of International Statistical Congresses, the House
of Commons was, in 1864, persuaded by Sir James Caird to pass a resolution for the
establishment of annual agricultural returns. These were first collected in 1866, and
one year later they took the more complete form which gave us the continuous
records Great Britain now possesses for tracing the development or retrogression of
our country in agricultural conditions throughout the last third of the nineteenth
century. ‘The data thus obtained must, of course, be read with full allowance for
some minute but inevitable variations of definition due to the gradual improvement
and growing completeness of the returns themselves, first under the Board of Trade,
then under the care of the Privy Council, and now under the Board of Agriculture.

Agricultural statistics, whether in this or other countries, are assuredly not
exempt from the need of careful and intelligent handling and of caution in
drawing comparisons, The leading features to which any agricultural enquiry is
directed are naturally the extent and characteristic modes of the occupation of
the surface, the number of persons engayed and the size of their holdings, the
area and yield of the distinctive crops, and the numbers and classes of live stock.
Some of these points can, and others with advantage cannot, be made the subject
of direct annual enquiry and compilation. But in all cases questions as to precision
of definition arise when the careful investigator looks below the surface to see what
the figures really mean.

The total measured areas of the countries we desire to contrast may, it is true,
be fairly accurately given, though even here there is room for error, in regard to
the practice of including or excluding areas covered by inland and tidal waters,
lakes, and rivers. When the next step is taken, and it is desired to contrast the
respective areas actually made use of for productive purposes, difficulties of com-
parison at once present themselves. The phrase ‘ cultivated’ area in our country
Is one to which, at least in unofficial if not in Government publications, two
distinct meanings are often attached. The term is sometimes used as if in some
sense synonymous with the arable surface, whereas in the other, and with us by
long tradition the official sense, the term covers all land, other than woodlands
or rough wastes and mountain grazings, utilised for agriculture, whether under the
category of permanent grass or under yearly varying crops.

Nor is uniformity of practice much greater as regards the methods of returning
the actual agricultural population. The number of persons actually employed,
male and female, may as a rule be distinguished, but all countries are not agreed
as to what employment means. The practice as to who are and who are not
to be regarded as dependents, or as occasional and casual workers, may vary
greatly, In all countries, and perhaps rather more abroad than here, there are

aT

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 825

many persons who combine an agricultural with some other calling, and this in
an infinitely varying degree. The German and some other statistics endeavour
laboriously to give tables which take account of these persons with double
occupations and allot to them a place under more than one head. In England we
have no provision in our census for these cases, and a farmer and brewer or a
labourer engaged sometimes on a farm and at other times at other work may be
classed by the accident of the first entry in one or other category at random.

By what is nearly a common consent, the attempted enumeration of the
agriculturally occupied population is connected rather with the general enquiries
of the census than with the crop returns of each year. Its value of necessity
depends on the coincident and relative record of the occupations, other than
agricultural, in which the inhabitants of any country are engaged. Such con-
siderations supply the answer to some of our less reflective writers on this
question, who would have a perennial investigation going on into the available
supply of agricultural labour—year by year, if not month by month. The move-
ment in the direction of concentration of growing numbers of the workers of a
nation in the urban districts, which is apparent in so many countries besides our
own, and under the most opposite conditions of Governmental polity or agri-
cultural organisation, will no doubt form in a short time a very interesting topic
of statistical discussion. But the general figures cannot be handled with very
great advantage now at the distance of wellnigh a decade from the last enumera-
tions and at the moment when the taking of a new census is at hand. Until
that enquiry reveals its facts, the student of questions of relative rural population
may be referred to the mine of information collected by the Royal Commission
on Labour, and the late Mr. W. OC. Little’s admirable and exhaustive analysis,
and to the most valuable statistical buff-book which the Board of Trade have
just issued from the pen of Mr. Wilson Fox.

Equally or even more full of pitfalls for comparison are statistics of the size of
holdings, whether the comparison be made between one date and another in a
country like our own, or between one country and another. Not only will the
grades employed necessarily vary between country and country, but the starting-
point and definition of what is a ‘ holding’ is usually entirely different.

In one of the earliest meetings of the International Statistical Institute at
Rome I drew attention to the barrier thus offered to international comparisons on
the latter point. I then showed how occasionally it may happen that the recog-
nised ‘ boldings’ seem to have included every plot, however minute. Germany and
Belgium, and I may add Ireland, apparently made a beginning at zero. Great
Britain at one time regarded a quarter of an acre as a limit of statistical enquiry,
although since 1892 restricting the term ‘agricultural holding’ to something over
an acre of land. Elsewhere, as in Holland and in the United States, refusals,
except under specially defined conditions, to take anything less than a plot of two
and a half or three acres in extent as a starting-point in the agricultural
enumerations are encountered.

It is not always remembered that we ourselves have, even within the com-
paratively brief course of our official agricultural returns in Great Britain, held
more than one opinion as to what the siarting-point should be. At the first
collection of these statistics nothing under five acres was taken account of as agri-
cultural, ‘lhe scope of the annual enquiry was subsequently extended to plots of
a quarter of an acre, and the limit was raised again eight years ago to the present
requirement, which refrains from requesting annual details of the acreage of their
crops from the occupiers of holdings of a single acre or less. As a matter of
administrative convenience there is very considerable advantage in the course now
pursued, and no real statistical loss is involved, for the land occupied by the
various petty crofts or gardens which escape annual record was found not to
reach one-tenth of one per cent. of the cultivated area, and such rare changes as
might occur in the crops raised on these minute sections of territory could in no
perceptible degree affect the value of the returns as affording a general view of
the current change of agricultural practice, Changes, however, in the unit of

826 REPORT—1900.

area, as well as changes even in the direction of improvement in the machinery of
collection, are all hindrances to very close and accurate comparisons.

Attempts have no doubt been made to enumerate separately the strips of land
held as gardens or allotments, at different dates, in England, but considerations
such as I have above indicated have rendered the results of much less statistical
value than can be claimed for the yearly returns, and the failures of some of these
repeated attempts furnish a conspicuous warning against overloading the never
very simple task of rural stock-taking by too frequent and necessarily costly
enquiries into very minute points of agricultural condition.

Even in records of the numbers of animals there is room for much misunder-
standing. ‘Horses’ are defined differently in the returns of different countries,
at one place the numbers including trade and private horses, in another only
those engaged in agriculture. The ages and the classes of the animals, and the dates
of the collection again, may and do vary considerably, and this may bring in lambs
in one country and omit some portions of this group in another. Even cows, it is
found, may mean one thing in one country and another in another, and may be
returned with other cattle in a single class or shown separately from other horned
stock. Oxen are shown in some countries with no distinction of class or age ;
in others those still used for working the farm may be distinguished from those
reared for purposes of meat production only, All these cautions are only examples
of the danger of venturing on too close reliance on data of this kind in interna-
tional comparisons.

Over and above all difficulties due to difference of agricultural practice and
local definitions, the most serious bar to exact comparison of the course of
agriculture in different countries is the widely varying practice as to the intervals
at which statistics are collected. Live stock may be enumerated, as with ourselves,
in France, or in the United States, annually, while wide gaps occur between the
years of stock-taking elsewhere. The acreage of each crop in each season may be
recorded in one country ; in another five or ten years, in some cases even fifteen,
may elapse between the enquiries on this essential point, and estimates of produce
checked by no local examination of the surface occupied too often prove delusive
guides to the results of particular years. These gaps are the dread of any one
who sets himself seriously to examine what has been the general movement either
in the changing areas of crop distribution or in the relative growth or decline of
agricultural production abroad.

Continuous annual data of acreage, production, and live stock ought, however,
to be within the reach of most fully equipped Governments of modern times. The
method of the collection will necessarily differ. Information obtained direct from
the immediate producer by written schedule is perhaps available nowhere but in
ourown land. ‘The fact is one which says something for progressive intelligence and
the general support which the State receives from the great bulk of farmers of Great
Britain, and the working of our system has attracted much attention of late from
those responsible for the conduct and development of agricultural statistics in
foreign countries, We may pardonably view our position in this country with
satisfaction when it-is recognised how largely foreign correspondents are yearly
seeking for more and more information as to how so big a statistical operation
is annually accomplished here between June 4 and August 28 in the time and
with the machinery at our command, To the statisticians of Russia, Spain, Italy,
Germany, Denmark, and even of Japan we have had lately to explain our process.
Could some approach to this system be obtained, the means for accurate measure-
ment of the world’s agricultural movements would be greatly helped, and it may
at least be hoped that a generation hence facilities will abound for a closer review
of the position of food supply and production than is now feasible. But it is not
necessary to wait quite so long for some general glimpse of the facts. Already in
France, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Roumania, Russia, and the United States
among foreign countries, in our Indian possessions, and in our Australasian colonies,
we find indeed annual statements—not all, however, collected similarly—of the
area under the principal grain crops. Two only of the provinces of the Canadian

Bat'

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 827

Dominion venture on annual returns. Annual, if later, figures reach us from the
smaller States of Holland and Sweden, and from Algeria and Japan.

It is not for us here, like amateur war-critics distributing praise and blame from
our armchairs on statisticians engaged in local conflict with the difficulty of crop-
collection abroad, to forget the relative compactness of the area of these islands
and the relatively developed intelligence of an agricultural population farming, on
the average, larger holdings than most of our continental neighbours. We ought
not, therefore, to refuse to appreciate the difficulties, administrative and financial,
which a close adoption of anything like the British system would involve, either
where the peasant population is predominant or where the areas to be accounted
for are vast, as in the United States or in Russia.

It is, I think, in the circumstances not illegitimate to use, at all events for
comparison of the state of matters within the same country, the data which are
now available from year to year. With less confidence we may even quote, as
presumptive indications of the directions of movements, the isolated returns of
acreage for particular years which alone some States supply. That there is peril,
however, in such a course may be seen by what is proved to have happened in a
country like France, whence we do receive continuous data. For the past quarter
of a century the acres devoted to wheat in France have been practically the same,
17,000,000 acres. One single exception appears, however, in the season of 1891,
when under exceptional climatic conditions an area of only 14,000,000 acres was
reported. Now, had France rendered only occasional acreage records, like her
Belgian neighbour, like Denmark, or like Argentina, and had the year 1891 chanced
to be the date of the enquiry, an investigation of the rise or fall of wheat culture
in Europe might have been deflected from a true conclusion by the deceptive record
of a state of matters occurring only once in a single exceptional season, and
immediately recovered from.

In any attempts which may be made, even within the period of fairly reliable
agricultural statistics, to trace the features of the changes of the past twenty or thirty
years, it is necessary to remember that, as between one country and another, the
data can be received only with much reserve, and as strictly comparative, if even
that, only within the respective States compared at different dates.

Attempts to utilise statistical data, to determine the relative development of
agriculture in different parts of the world and at different periods of time, are
sometimes made with regard solely to what is described as the world’s aggregate
of one or two leading individual products as typical as the rest; or, again, one or
two typical countries, or at least countries where the available information is
more complete than elsewhere, are chosen, and the course of development or
decline of their crop areas or the several descriptions of their animal produce is
traced and compared.

Certain obvious objections, which it is well to recognise, impede the student
of figures who resolves to proceed on the first of these methods. At the outset he
is arrested by embarrassment attending the choice of what single products are to
be held as representative of agricultural outturn. The most usual of all selec-
tions is that which restricts enquiries to the case of wheat. This course appears
to be rendered, comparatively speaking, easy, as more has probably been written
and more statistics, official or unofficial, theoretical or commercial, actual or
imaginary, have been compiled, with regard to this bread grain than for any other
crop. But it is time we recognised that wheat has had too much and too exclu-
sive attention directed to it as a type of agricultural production. Very widely as
it is undoubtedly used in the form of bread, even as food its place is occupied at
one time or another, and in one country or another, by other substitutes, and its
cultivation is, after all, not the employment which demands the most attention
and most skill at the hands of the agriculturist. Not only do rye and even
maize serve as substitutes or supplements in feeding man, but other crops, such as
oats, barley, millet, rice, and so on, have claims to greater notice than they
receive, and play a direct as well as indirect part in providing food. Cotton, flax,
and wool are other typical products, the use of which for clothing is all-important

828 REPORT—1900,

to an enormous population, and the extension or retrogression of such crops
deserves some of the attention of the agricultural statistician. Tea, coffee, wine,
spirits, and beer are, it is not to be forgotten, agricultural products in one clime or
another, either directly or indirectly ; and crops so important as sugar or tobacco
are almost to be classed as necessaries of existence. Of yearly growing importance
is it also, in these days, when the animal portion of our food supply bulks so much
more fully than before in the daily rations of populations as they grow in wealth
and increase in consumptive power, that we should closely follow the fluctuations
in the live stock maintained for food and learn the teaching of the agricultural
returns on the manufacture of beef, of mutton, of pig meat, or of milk.

The growing requirements of our 40,000,000 of population in this country—
dependent for a large proportion of their meat on cattle, sheep, and swine fed in
other lands and in some of the most distant countries of the globe—have pro-
voked a series of enquiries into the extent of our domestic production and the
density of the herds and flocks maintained on like areas of the surface of the other
and different regions.

It is half a century since Sir James Caird, in calling the attention of farmers
to what he foresaw was the certain growth of the demand for butcher’s meat, for
milk, and for butter in the United Kingdom, argued that as the expenditure of
the lower classes increased the development of household outlay with increasing
means would necessarily take this direction. Venturing a little beyond the safe
ground of statistical deduction as to what was forthcoming from our own stock,
it is true he prophesied that it would not be found practicable to import fresh
provisions coming from distant countries, and he therefore suggested that the
enterprising home producer would have the full market here practically at his own
vommand, The same authority repeated in 1868 his advice as to the direction
the development of agriculture here might take, placing the extent of the reliance
of the British consumer on the foreigner at only one-ninth part of his supply of
meat, and one-fifth of his consumption of butter and of cheese. That these ratios
have altered since, to the detriment of the producer, if to the benefit of the con-
sumer, assuredly does not render the need of statistical enquiry into meat and milk
production less urgent than it was as a most important factor in the nation’s food
supply.

Sixteen years ago, when this Association met at Montreal, I ventured to lay
before this Section some data on the nature and extent of our meat supplies and
the scale of our production, based in the latter case mainly on the very practical
investigation of a former President of the Royal Agricultural Society—Sir H. M.
Thompson—but adapted to the data of the current agricultural returns of live
stock. For numerous purposes the formula I then employed has since been
followed as convenient for serial comparisons of annual results in the statistics
founded on reports by Royal Commissions and Parliamentary Committees. But
no student of statistics will contend that the conditions of agricultural production
are ever absolutely permanent, and I have seen there are not wanting opinions
that it may be needful, from one cause or another, to revise the scales of the calcu-
lation, and to compare the most recent rate of meat production in this country
with that of other lands.

Few subjects seem to me to possess more practical interest for those willing to
aid in statistical research, competent to apply to the numerical data a cor-
responding knowledge of the development of stock-feeding in recent years and in
different countries. I commend a re-investigation of this subject—and the kin-
dred one of milk production and the manufacture of dairy produce in this country
and abroad—on the lines in the one case of the inquiry of 1871, and in the other
on the lines which Mr. Rew suggested in a paper in 1892 to the Royal Statistical
Society—to the best attention of a younger generation of estimators. Whether and
how far the earlier maturity of our present breeds of sheep and cattle and swine
has resulted in the production of a larger annual volume of meat is a factor
which should have careful consideration, and if a careful inquiry should suggest
the time for revision has arrived respecting the 67 tons of beef, the 124 tons of
mutton, or the 694 tons of pig meat I and others haye hitherto used as the equi-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 829

valent of the annual production of 1,000 animals of each type respectively I should
not be unprepared to make whatever change is proved needful, despite the re-
luctance with which every statistician forsakes, even on good grounds, a basis
of conversion which has served without break of continuity for the comparison of
more than thirty years.

How largely the demands of a population like our own have upset the old pro-
portions of our reliance on imported meat and imported milk products may be
learned from the fact that the latest calculation which I have made suggests a
meat consumption of no less than 132 lbs. per head in the United Kingdom,
against a little over 100 lbs. thirty years ago, more than two-fifths of the whole
now reaching us from foreign countries or British possessions, against the ninth
part at which Sir James Caird estimated the foreign quota.

The mention of these meat estimates suggests a reference, by way of illustration,
to the extremely interesting and legitimate application of the important deductions
. from purely agricultural statistics possible when once the temptation to narrow
the question to one of wheat production and wheat supply is resisted, which was
made by my colleague, Mr. Crawford, in a paper read to the Royal Statistical
Society last winter. The calculations made dealt with the relative dimensions
and sources of the food supply of the United Kingdom, France, Germany, and
Belgium. The deductions made from the data available, and the useful discus-
sions thus provoked—including a supplementary memorandum by Mr. Hooker on
the relative forces occupied in production under the differing conditions of British
and Continental farming—are replete with interest to the future investigator who
is willing to face the labour of looking below the surface either of agricultural
statistics or of import or export returns into the economic meaning of the situa-
tion thus disclosed. No lesson, perhaps, of this paper is more worthy to be
remembered than the warning which it gives to the class of writers who, without
a due appreciation of the facts, are as ready, from the vantage-ground of the
editorial chair, to fight the battle of the agriculturist for him on paper, as to
teach our generals how to handle a British army in the field.

But for considerations often overlooked, which were on this occasion put
forward, the abolition of our dependence on sea-borne produce, it is sometimes
argued, could be procured by a simple extension of our own agricultural area.
What that extension would have to be it is now shown is something much more
serious than many imagine. It is not alone that to fill the gap of our imports
of wheat and flour would take another 6,000,000 acres of the prolific quality of
our own, but the direct production of the imported meat and dairy produce and of
the numerous feeding stuffs required for the manufacture of our present quota of
animal food raised at home would at the most modest computation necessitate
17,000,000 acres more to be added to our productive area, and that, be it
remembered, without withdrawing any portion whatever of our present surface,
which, whether under crop or grass, helps to sustain our outturn at the present
level. The prospects of a practical annexation of this aggregate of 23,000,000
acres to those now under cultivation at home I confess do not seem to me great.

Although the attempt to grasp the relative magnitude of the agricultural
production of one State as compared with another;‘or to note the growth or decline
of its prominence in the cultivation of particular staples, or the manufacture of
particular kinds of human food, is always an enterprise of difficulty in existing
statistical conditions, it is one which has fascination for many classes of economists
and politicians. If attempted at all it is well to recognise that there are inevitable
dangers in tke task, and that if any figures are relied on as conclusive their
meaning must be interpreted by some knowledge of the demographic conditions
of each State and its geographical, climatic, and agricultural circumstances.

Taking a few of the most conspicuous products of the soil, it will generally be
found that a very few leading States are so particularly identified with one or
other type of production that the examination of their records is therefore
available as a guide to the course of a single crop.

830 REPORT—1900,

Probably quite two-thirds of the cotton of the world is g¥own in the United
States alone, where the surface so employed reaches 25,000,000 acres as compared
with under 9,000,000 acres in British India, the next largest cotton-growing region
of which statistical record exists. In wool the produce of the Australasian
Colonies of Great Britain—with flocks which still exceed 100,000,000 head—makes
much the largest contribution to the total. In rice, so far as statistics carry us,
our Indian possessions head the list of producers. In hops the English crop still
probably exceeds the German in production, although the latter with larger area
closely contests the place. In tobacco, while the acreage apparently employed in
British India is nearly double the 595,000 acres in the United States, no other
country in our statistical records comes within one-seventh of the American
area. The vineyards of Italy are returned as covering 8,500,000 acres, and
those of France 4,300,000 acres, while those of Austria and Hungary, next in
magnitude, cover but a seventh part of the last-mentioned figure. Russia bulks
largely as a grower of flax, and alone shows a whole third of the area of barley
recorded in all the countries which supply returns, and if in the case of potatoes
the Russian acreage is not very different from that of Germany the total produc-
tion of the latter empire reaches the largest aggregate of any single country.

If the subject of enquiry be the place of wheut-growing in the world at one
date or another, it would not be to the older European countries, other than Russia
at all events, we should turn to see where the surface so utilised was extending,
Reckoned by the percentage of her cereal area which she still devotes to wheat,
France, with 47 per cent. under the crop, or Italy, with 55 per cent., would
naturally be selected as typical wheat-growers; but both are practically in a
stationary or, collectively, even in a. slightly retrograding position. It is on the
other side of the Atlantic where the most noteworthy movements have occurred.
In comparatively new exporting countries, such as Argentina and Canada,
though the statistics from neither are complete, wheat areas still extend, and
that of the United States, though fluctuating with great sensitiveness under vary-
ing price conditions, and moving from one centre to another westward or north-
westward across the American continent, is now reported as covering 44,600,000
acres. This total, it must be allowed, whatever views may be held as to future
progress, makes the United States a typical grower of this particular cereal, to
which it gives an importance second only to the still more extensive product of
American soil, to which we give the name of maize, but to which alone in Ameri-
can parlance is allowed the title of corn,

The leading changes in the production of typical crops as measured by the
acreage, and the stock of cattle, sheep, and swine recorded at or near the com-
mencement, the middle, and the close of the past thirty years, may be contrasted
for exporting countries with expanding populations and growing agriculture, and
in countries where these conditions are absent, or in a typical consuming centre
like our own country. Relying on the agricultural returns of the United States,
a table could be constructed, as under, for three dates within the past thirty years
which furnish the following indication of agricultural changes :—

United States 1870 1885 1899
Population, in million persons . 5 : : 38°6 56"1 76:0
Area under maize, in millionacres . : : 38'6 731 82-1
Area under wheat A - a 4 19:0 34:2 44:6
Area under oats “e ‘ 88 22°8 26°3
Area under cotton a ; . 99 18:3 25:0
Cattle (million head) ‘J . 25°5 43°'8 43°9
Sheep z paeieg th ae ae 40:9 50-4 41-9
Swine " 5 E ¢ : 26'8 45-1 38°7

In 1870 the United States held, it would thus appear, a population of

are

TRANSACTIONS OF SECIION F, 851

38,600,000, and grew an acre of maize for each unit of the population, and an
acre of wheat for every two persons, and somewhat more than an acre of cotton
for every four. At this period the surplus exported to other nations, it may be
added, represented two-thirds of the cotton, rather more than one-fifth of the
wheat, but less thau one per cent. of the maize.

In 1886 the population had augmented to an estimated total of 56,000,000, or
by 45 per cent. The area under the crops above quoted had meantime been ex~
tended in nearly twice this ratio. The United States exported still about two-
thirds of the cotton grown; the wheat export was slightly greater in proportion
to the product than before, or 26 per cent., while nearly 3 per cent of the maize
crop found a market abroad.

The population of the States is now estimated to have risen to 76,000,000, or
twice what it was thirty years ago, although the census has yet to say if this
calculation has been realised. The cultivation of maize had meantime reached
82,000,000 acres, wheat was reported to cover 44,000,000 acres, and cotton
25,000,000 acres, while the foreign market received 65 per cent. of the cotton,
35 per cent. of the wheat, and now as much as 9 per cent. of the maize grown on
these areas.

In none of these cases, it will be noted, has the area under crop failed to
increase, but in all the rate of increase was distinctly slower in the second than
in the first half of the period. If time sufficed to trace the annual course of move-
ment between the contrasted dates, it might be well remembered that from 1871
onward to 1889, with only a single slight check in 1887, the growth of the maize
acreage has been continuous. From 1889 to 1894 fluctuations were reported
yearly, ending in the latter year at a total acreage no higher than that of 1880, but
returning again in a single year, if the record can be trusted, to, the highest point
reached. The wheat acreage movement has been more irregular, and the latest
figures are complicated by the admitted corrections which were made to an
amount of 5,000,000 acres for too low previous estimates in 1897. Allowing for
this, the regular upward movement of the wheat acreage was apparently checked
in 1880, and has only begun again since 1898 under the stimulus of higher prices in
that year.

In live stock the development would seem to have been arrested altogether
between 1885 and the end of the century in the case of cattle, and turned into an
absolute decline in the number of sheep and swine, although in the fifteen years
before 1885 cattle had increased more than 71 per cent., swine 74 per cent., and
sheep 26 per cent. As a matter of fact the maximum number of cattle was reached
in 1892, when the numbers were 54,000,000, or ten millions more than at present,
the stock of swine declining in a still greater ratio from the same year. and sheep
declining and rising again in the separate periods between 1883 and 1889, and
between 1893 and 1897. If the ratio under each head to population is considered,
it would appear that the United States possessed 661 cattle for every 1,000 of her
citizens in 1870. This was raised to 829 per 1,000 persons in 1885, while the ratio
now has fallen again below the starting-point, or to 604 per 1,000 persons, Sheep
have fallen in the thirty years from 1,060 in 1870 to 880, and now to 537 head
only per 1,000 inhabitants. These remarkable changes are worthy of note in
connection with the exports of living animals and animal products, which last have
been maintained at a still higher level than before.

Turning to a country of nearly stationary population, provided for in the main
from its own agricultural produce with only slight assistance from abroad, a like con-
trast for the beginning, the middle, and the end of the period under review will
give roughly the results shown below. Here, although we are provided with an
annual figure, the start has to be made after the Franco-German war with the data
two years later, or in 1872. (For table see p. 832.)

ThusinFrance, where wheat-growing has always had such a predominance amon
the cereals, the area is neither increasing nor diminishing. The total of 17,000,000
acres falls, however, somewhat short of the provision of an acre to two persons,

832 REPORT—1900.

which held good in the United States; but this is more than corrected by tlie
higher average yield, which is nearly 5 bushels per acre greater in France than in
America. Taking wheat and rye together, there are a million acres less of bread
corn grown in France than there was when her slow-moving population was two
millions smaller, or less than 58 acres to 100 persons now as against 60 acres to
the 100 twenty-eight years ago.

France 1872 1885 1899
Population, in million persons . . . 36:1 38:2 38°5
Area under wheat, in million acres i 17:1 17-2 171
Area under oats Ss P je 14) 9:1 ADEE
Area under rye =F : 4:7 41 3°6
Area in vineyards 5; 65 4:9 4:3!
Cattle (million head) ‘ 11:3 131 13°41
Sheep ” . : P : F 24:6 22°6 21:3!
Swine ff : : oy ee : 54 58 6-2!

The changes which the last quarter of the nineteenth century has seen in
the leading features of French agriculture may be easily summarised, The popu-
lation of 1872 but little exceeded 36,000,000, that of 1885 reached 38,000,000, and
the latest data only bring it up to little over 38,500,000. The wheat-growing
area remains, it would appear, under all conditions practically at 17,000,000 acres,
the only break to the general uniformity of the cultivation of this cereal (with
which the returns include spelt) occurring in the season of 1891, when, under
‘exceptional climatic conditions, only 14,000,000 acres were harvested.

There is one typical French agricultural product—wine—which has materially
declined under circumstances which are well known. The vineyards of 1872,
which were reported as covering 6,500,000 acres, are now returned as less by a
third cf that area, and covering 4,300,000 acres only.

In cattle a material growth up to 1885, but a very small increase since that year,
is reported ; while if sheep, asin all European countries, are fewer, the fall is less than
in Germany, and it is most marked in the first half of the period. Swine in France
have steadily increased. As regards the cattle, it may be noted that France had
313 cattle to each 1,000 of her people in 1872, 345 in 1885, and 352 per 1,000 now.
Of sheep the number per 1,000 is 560, against 681 at the earlier date.

Treating a few of the distinctive points of our own agriculture in the same way
at the beginning, middle, and end of the past thirty years, the statistics of the
United Kingdom would give these results :—

United Kingdom 1870 1885 1899 |
Population, in million persons . 31:2 36:0 40°7
Area under wheat, in million acres . 3°8 2°6 21
Area under oats Fr 4:4 4:3 4-1
Area under other corn crops _,, ° : 3°6 3:1 26
Cattle (million head) . . . . 9°2 10-9 11:3
Sheep ” . a 32°8 30:1 al
Swine os 37 37 4:0

Here the most striking contrast with France is in the growth of population.
From being a country with 5,000,000 fewer inhabitants the United Kingdom is
now one actually greater by 2,000,000 persons than is France. This isan increase
of more than 80 per cent., while the surface under wheat has heavily fallen, the
main loss occurring under circumstances which have been amply discussed between

1 In 1898

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 833

1875 and 1895, With some revival, as in America, consequent on an improve-
ment of price in recent years, the slight apparent decline I have shown in the
cultivation of oats is in fact confined to Ireland, the area in Great Britain being
greater than at the beginning of the period. The cattle stock of the United
Kingdom is increased by some 23 per cent., and the swine by about 8 per cent.,
while our flocks of sheep have been maintained at a level far exceeding that of
other European States, and distinctive in a peculiar manner of the agriculture of
Great Britain, for they still represent, as it appears, on the average 400 sheep to
every 1,000 acres of land, against 164 in France, 81 in Germany, 32 in Belgium,
and 17 in the United States.

Passing to a comparison with another great country, which, like the United
States, is a typical exporter of more than one form of agricultural produce, it may
be asked how far the available statistics of Russia allow such information to be
furnished. For the earliest of the three years contrasted the dates for the Russian
empire are meagre and unsatisfactory. Poland must be excluded as blank in our
statistics at that time, while as regards animals no figures at all would appear to
have been made public for any of the last twelve years. With such qualifications
as these, the available data for the nearest year in the larger crops stood as
under :—

Russia in Europe (ea Poland) 1870 1885 1899
| J aes
Population in million persons . 65°7 81:7 9423 |
Area of rye in million acres 66°4} 64:6 634 |
Area of wheat * 28:7} 28:9 38:0
Area of oats “4 , 3 32°8! 34:9 36'1
Area of other cereals in million acres 2 31:4 34:2
Cattle in million head 22:8 23°6 ? (246) #
Sheep ” 48:1 46°7 2 (44:5) #
Swine 9% 9-1 9-42 (9:2) 4

. . . . .
oe - O OOOO ee

Thirty years ago the population of European Russia, ex Poland, would appear
from such data as we possess to have been estimated in round numbers at under
sixty-six million persons. It is given as somewhere about eighty-two millions in
1885, and according to the recent census it is ninety-four millions now. The bread
corn of the country continues to be much more largely rye than wheat, and the
area in the year 1872, for which statistics are available, occupied by the former
crop was practically an acre to the person, or in all 66,400,000 acres, less than half
an acre per inhabitant, or 29,000,000 acres, being under wheat. The combined
surface devoted to these two bread grains together was thus 95,000,U00 acres in
the aggregate, or 145 acres to every 100 persons.

Fifteen years later, when the population was apparently greater by 16,000,000
persons, or 24 per cent., the statistics of rye acreage indicate 2,000,000 acres less
than before, or 64,600,000 acres. The wheat acreage, if the official data be accepted,
was little if at all in excess of the 1872 figure, the rye and wheat together roughly
giviug 115 acres to 100 persons. The suggestion of this decline, while the exports of
both grains were maintained or extended, affords an opportunity for closer enquiry
into the basis of the published returns which are received from that country.

But carrying the review of the official figures further, the very latest data for
this section of the Russian territory would appear to indicate a yet further shrink-
age in the acreage of rye, but accompanied now, as was apparently not the case
until lately, by a considerable increase in land under wheat. The total of this
cereal is now put as high as 38,000,000 acres, but the net available area of bread-
stuffs, although brought up to 101,000,000 acres, represents a still diminishing
ratio to population, or 107 acres to every 100 persons. Moreover, as Russia must

1 In 1872. 2 In 1883, * Census of 1897. ‘ In 1888.
190 0, 3H

834 P REPORT—1900.

be regarded as growing both wheat and rye for export as well as consumption, the
larger proportions of her acreage which is employed in feeding a non-Russian
population deserve to be specially marked in this connection, when the low yields
of both cereals are remembered.

Whether the foregoing figures do indeed represent the facts of each period is,
I think, a worthy object of enquiry for some of our younger statisticians, and it is
a problem one would like to see solved as regards this particular country before
venturing on any too confident conclusion as to what is the real meaning of the
changes of the past, and what may be the future position in regard to the growth
of breadstuffs and the growth of population in the world as a whole.

Calculations, however, such as those just quoted cannot fail to remind the
student how very different in productive power the ‘ acre’ of wheat may be, and
is, in different countries. Assuming that we take the existence of 38,000,000 acres
as reported of wheat land in Russia in Europe (ev Poland) to be proved, a com-
parison of the estimated yields shows that such an area represents less than
12,000,000 acres of the productive power we are accustomed to in Great Britain.
So, too, for the vast wheat area of the United States, it takes two and a third acres
to produce what is now our average yield in this country. Three Indian or three
Italian acres of wheat of the calibre now in use would in the same way be required
to supply the number of bushels that a single acre of our soil in the climate we
enjoy, and worked under the system of farming that we practise here, would in
ordinary seasons produce. In other extensive areas of wheat-growing the yields,
though greater than the above, are very considerably below our own, the Austrian,
Hungarian, and French yields standing at 16,17, and 18 bushels respectively,
against the 30 bushels which is apparently the average yield of the last five
years in the United Kingdom. Only when we come to very small total areas do
we find instances where the average wheat yields approach or over any consideyr-
able periods exceed our own. When Denmark, for example, is referred to as
reaching 42 bushels per acre in the season of 1896, it is not to be forgotten that
only a minute area of selected land, in this case only 84,000 acres, is devoted to
this cereal. Results realised on this small scale can hardly be spoken of as an
average in contrast with those of countries where millions of acres are grown, and
can usually be paralleled in some sections of the bigger country.

Nor should it be forgotten, if the agricultural position of one State be com-
pared with another, how widely the conditions of different parts vary from the
picture presented by the average figures credited to the State as a unit, and how
often sections of one country differ more from each other agriculturally than from
the country with which they are contrasted. Within the United Kingdom alone
we are, or ought to be, familiar with essential local differences of this type, which
have to be kept in mind. Even in respect of the relative density of population
and the number of mouths to be sustained in a given area, it may be quite correct
to describe every 1,000 acres in the United Kingdom as carrying on their surface
on the average 519 persons, but it may be remembered with advantage that,
considered geographically apart, Scotland, for example, is a country of but 220
persons, and Ireland of but 219, to the 1,000 acres of area.

Such a position suggests that it might be fair to draw our agricultural com-
parisons between Scotland or Ireland as units of area, and such a country as
Denmark, where the population is 248 to the 1,000 acres. Thus one-third of the
cereal area of England is still devoted to the growth of wheat, while Denmark has
but 8 per cent. so occupied, thereby resembling Scotland or Ireland, where some
4 per cent. only of the corn is wheat. Similarly, on this population basis, Austria
with 320 persons, or Switzerland with 311, to the 1,000 acres may be not
inappropriately classed with Wales, where the density is $45. In particular an
examination of the live stock maintained by each 1,000 acres of the surface in all
these cases affords parallels and contrasts which are both interesting and instruc-
tive. (For table, see p. 835.)

Thus Wales bears easily the palm as regards the total stock of sheep
carried, while Ireland, with a population practically bearing a similar ratio to that of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 835

Scotland to her surface, has more than three times as dense a stock of cattle and
more than eight times as many pigs, although not much more than half as many
sheep to the 1,000 acres. Although beaten as regards the number of pigs maintained
on a given area by Denmark and by Hungary, Ireland’s cattle are more than twice as
numerous relatively as those of France, where the population is not so very different
in proportion to the soil.

Per 1,000 Acres of Total Area
Country
Persons Cattle Sheep Swine
Treland . : f é 219 217 207 61
Scotland. E A : 220 64 390 7
Hungary. 3 : ; 232 85 102 92
Denmark . = 5 248 186 115 88
France . 2 ‘é 293 103 164 48
Switzerland . 5 ‘ 311 132 27 57
Austria . F - ; 320 117 43 48
Wales . : “ ‘ 345 147 685 50

———e

Among countries where the areas are still greater in proportion to the resident
population it may not be without interest to group together—as regards their
present density—persons, cattle, sheep, and swine.

Per 1,000 Acres of Total Area
Countries
Persons Cattle Sheep Swine
New South Wales . : 7 10 221 il
New Zealand . 3 d 11 18 294 3
Victoria. . A : 21 32 234 6
Norway . f : F 26 13! 18} 2
United States . : F 32 19 17 17
“Sweden. . : : 49 25 13 | 8
Russia (ex Poland) . 4 66 20? 36? WE

ST

Such figures serve to emphasise the vast difference between the flocks main-
tained in our Australasian colonies and the other countries in this group.

The animal wealth of England by herself, omitting the Celtic fringes above
quoted, may be compared with a nearer competitor. Belgium has 893 persons to
1,000 acres, England 925; and Belgium has 195 head of cattle and 160 head of
swine, but only 32 sheep, on an average area of this size in her little kingdom,
against 144 cattle, 64 pigs, and as many as 488 sheep in England. Were the
comparison to be made more closely yet, the cattle stock of Belgium agrees
closely in point of density with, say, the particular division of our area com-
prising the north-western counties of England, which have 194 cattle to 1,000 acres,
or considerably more than the great butter-exporting country of Denmark, and
at least a very close approach to the 197 head per 1,000 acres which are to be found
in the fat pastures of the Netherlands.

These limited comparisons on single points of agricultural production in
single countries do not, I know, satisfy the demands which are often made
for world-wide surveys and comparisons on a larger scale. I confess I
somewhat distrust the streneth and due coherence of tke statistical bricks on
which these heroic conclusions are built up. It is most usual in corn trade
journals, and the practice is sometimes followed in serious debate and repro-
duced in the year-books of the United States Government, to give a yearly

1 In 1890, ® In 1888.

836 REPORT—1900.

picture of at least the world’s wheat crop. For the close comparison of one season
with another much must depend on the sufficiency of the weakest item in the
account, and weakness is sure to creep in somewhere when crops are estimated on
varying systems, at different dates, and on authorities of unequal value. The
definitions adopted by one calculator as to the limits of the ‘world’ vary from
those of another, and commercial estimates, as they are called, may be, at the
discretion of the computer, substituted for or adopted in the absence of official data,
so that the guesses at a single country’s harvest may differ more widely from each
other than wouldaccount for the total margin between one year’s aggregate supply
and another, to the confounding of satisfactory conclusions as to what is really
happening. Last but not least of the obstacles to uniform grouping of harvests in
complete years—ending as these years do at different periods—is the fact, not to
be overlooked, that wheat harvests are being gathered somewhere in every month in
twelve.

One is driven back then to the attempt to rest opinions on the growth of one
form of culture or another on recorded acreage, rather than assumed production.
Yet even here a good illustration of the difficulty of any extensive compilation
may be found in the tentative memorandum Sir Robert Giffen put before the last
Royal Commission on Agriculture as indicating, with many necessary reservations
and qualifications, the relative movements of grain area, live stock, and population
in the twenty years before 1893. Briefly, the earlier totals brought into conjunction
for this purpose were made up, as regards the population figures taken to represent
the starting-point of 18738, from the statistics of groups of countries and colonies at
dates for the most part about 1871-3, but in some instances ranging back to 1866
and on to 1881, and aggregating 365,800,000 persons, Against these were set a
total of 461,800,000 persons, enumerated, for the most part, about 1890-93, but in
a few instances, where later data were wanting, going back to 1880-88, the growth
of population between the totals being 26 per cent.

The acreage about 1873 and about 1893, contrasted with these figures, included
wheat, rye, barley, and oats, but not maize—a larger crop than any of the last
three. ‘The countries contrasted were limited necessarily by the extent of
information, and the list did not include all of which the population was accounted
for, the increases per cent. being 28 per cent. in the case of oats, 19 per cent. in the
case of wheat, 5 per cent. in the case of barley, with a decrease of 5 per cent. in
rye. It should be observed, however, that the calculation as to the increase of
wheat would have been much closer to that of population had not a very large
area, nearly stationary in amount, been credited to India and Japan at both dates;
the local population of these Asiatic countries being disregarded as, generally
speaking, non-wheat-eating.

It was only as an outline pointing the direction in which enquiry might be
useful that Sir Robert Giffen called attention to these figures, which, as he acknow-
ledged, were of the roughest possible description, and rather suggestive of a closer
enquiry, which should take account of the difference between the consumptive
power of the countries aggregated, the varying productive power of nominally
equal areas of surface, and the varying type of live stock maintained.

If the wheat acreage table, in the memorandum referred to, is examined in
detail, a very effective picture of the difficulty of exact comparison as between
any two given dates is incidentally presented. Out of twenty-four countries
enumerated (including Canada and Australasia as units) a twenty or twenty-one
years’ coraparison is only really effected in five cases—Russia, the United States,
France, United Kingdom, and Australasia. In five other instances the period
dealt with is only from seventeen to eighteen years; in three other casas only
fourteen or fifteen years. In Canada, Egypt, and Denmark, the comparison will
be found to be more limited still, and only to cover eleven or twelve years ; while
in the Argentine Republic, where the recent expansion of wheat-growing has been
prominent, the available statistics allowed only of a comparison of two periods, no
more than nine years apart. For seven other countries the wheat acreage was
necessarily either omitted or inserted as presumably the same at both the earlier
and the later date, Had the retrospect been confined to the cases where a twenty

=—s os ao

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 837

or twenty-one year's’ comparison was possible—and these, after all, included the
most important and typical wheat-growing communities—the increase would have
stood, not at 19, but at 24 per cent., or scarcely below that of the growth of
population generally. This result is reached without taking account of any South
American figures, where the increase of area is relatively much greater, or of
those of India, where the comparison is difficult and the acreage growing but
slightly. But, further, it is to be remembered that if the comparison of the
memorandum were to be continued up to 1899, instead of stopping at 1893, the
figures would have shown that wheat-growing had apparently made a new start
in the five important countries for which the lone comparison was possible, as
many million acres having been added in the past six years as in the whole pre-
ceding twenty—a result which may afford much occasion for suspending our final
judgment and no little warning of the danger of single-year contrasts.

Since the above calculations were before the Commission there has been an
extension of 10,000,000 acres in the official estimates of wheat areas in the United
States, and 5,400,000 acres in Russia, while, although official details are still
wanting beyond 1895 for Argentina, nearly 3,000,000 acres more were in that
year accounted for in that republic; and there is an impression, apparently well
founded, that by the present time the total may have reached 8,000,000 acres, or
nearly five million acres more than the final figure in Sir Robert Giffen’s calcula-
tion. If anything like 20,000,000 acres have thus been added to the wheat-
growing surface of the globe in the last five or six years, which these further
figures suggest, even if no correction be made for the Indian quota, there may
be much less difference than was suggested in the memorandum between the growth
of population and wheat-growing. :

Without attempting in any way to controvert what was one of the lessons of
the memorandum f{ have been examining, as to the tendency to increase the
numbers of cattle at a ratio above that of population, it has also to be remembered
that the apparent 37 per cent. increase there shown between 1873 and 1893 may
have to be discounted by subsequent deductions in the United States, in Aus-
tralasia, and at the Cape in recent years; while it is one of the problems I have
never yet seen satisfactorily answered, why in almost all old countries except our
own the diminution of the stock of sheep seems continuous and remarkable. I
mention these matters only, however, to suggest the amount of uncertainty which
must attend the efforts to arrive at conclusions, made even by the highest authori-
ties, on the only data which exist. If there is, as I have shown, such uncertainty
still in the facts on which a conclusion could be built as to the past history of the
relative growth of live stock, or of cereal culture and the supply of bread-stuffs,
how much greater must the difficulty be of those who attempt, on the basis of
such data, to forecast the course of events for a generation yet tocome! I confess
I am not intrepid enough to follow some of the conjectures which have been
hazarded on this point, and can only, in concluding this address, recur once more
to the prime qualifications for safe statistical deductions with which I opened
my remarks—redoubled caution in handling calculations, a very guarded use of
data giving records of single and isolated years, and a wise reservation in any
prophetic pictures of the future of agricultural production, whether of wheat or
cotton, in meat or in wool, of the contingency, always present, of altered con-
ditions which ever and anon in the past have altered and falsitied the predictions
of earlier observers,

The following Reports and Paper were read :—

1. Report on Future Dealings in Raw Produce.—See Reports, p. 421.

2. Report on State Monopolies in other Cowntries.—See Reports, p. 436.

838 REPORT—1900,

3. Population and Birth-rate, viewed from the historico-statistical standpoint.
By Marcus Rusty, Director of the Royal Danish Bureau of Statistics.

As is well known, it has become more common than furmerly for historians to
seek the help of statistics to support, as far as may be, with observations of groups,
those scattered records which frequently give misleading results, A not un-
important part of the investigations undertaken, and of the tracts, &c., published by
the author outside his official reports, have been coneerned with kistorico-statis-
tical investigations. One of the earliest of them—published in 1882—was con-
cerned with the question of the number of the inhabitants of Copenhagen in the
seventeenth century, an inquiry based on the records of baptisms in the church
registers for that century. The paper offers an extension of the discussions of
principle to which that inquiry gave rise.

The chief question to be answered is the following: Assuming that the number
of baptisms at some period in the past can be ascertained for a town or a country,
how can its population be deduced from that number? As a rule the registers
give information only of baptisms, not of still-births. In general, at any rate in
Denmark, children were baptised as soon as possible after birth, so that the
numbers not baptised may rather be compared with the still-born of later times.
Given the number of baptisms at some period in tke past, this number must first
be subjected to an addition before it can be compared with the record of births of
recent times (living births and still-births), At the beginning of the present cen-
tury the still-births were some 8 per cent. of those born alive. Thus to find the
number of births of the earlier times at least 8 per cent. must be added to the
number of baptisms. Having obtained this datum, what multiplier will yield the
total of the population? This is dependent on whether people in former times
married earlier than now; further, on whether marriages were more fruitful ;
and, finally, on whether the number of illegitimate births was greater.

It is quite clear that if, in comparison with the population, more children were
born in preceding centuries than nowadays, the multiplier must be made less than
would serve now to deduce population from births, and vice versa. Unfortunately,
the old Danish church registers contain no record of the ages at marriage, but one
may assume that people married earlier than at present, because such a course was
in agreement with the needs and wishes of the time, whether considered from the
point of view of State, of Church, or of public opinion.

I have secured information on this point from the records of a census of Den-
mark in the year 1787, which exist in the Danish Statistical Bureau, but have not
been published hitherto. This census proves the following both for town and
country :—In former times the well-to-do and independent section of the population
married earlier than now, while the masses married later. This is a consequence
of the fact that the labouring classes were not then free as now, but boarded in
their master’s house, and for this and other cognate reasons were obliged to delay
marriage; whereas nowadays they need not wait; indeed they often find advan-
tage in marrying young. The more well-to-do, on the other hand, married as
soon as they could, since in old days people did not take our modern views in
social matters, but regarded it as both the right and the duty of men (and of
women) to marry as soon as law and custom made it possible. But, further, not
merely did all marry as soon as they might, but they married as often as might be,
2.é., there were fewer widows and widowers than in our time, since none who
could marry remained unmarried. To sum up, on the average the age of marriage
was higher than in our time, because the masses were compelled to postpone
marriage, but in spite of this the number of marriages was greater, partly because
the well-to-do married earlier than now, partly because the masses married, almost
without exception, as soon as they could, and, further, partly because the widowed
remarried in far greater proportion than now. ‘The statistical proof of the fact is
given in the paper, where it is also shown that precisely the opposite happens
nowadays to that which occurred formerly. Now the well-to-do marry late, the
masses early}

Although, on the average, marriages were later than now, yet the number

1 See Table I.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 839

of children to a marriage was at least as great as in our time. In our time the
fertility of marriage is determined partly by physical, partly by social causes.
Formerly the fertility of marriage was as great as nature permitted, just as
marriage was undertaken as freely as the law and the economic development of the
community permitted, not as nowadays, when people remain unmarried though
not restrained by the fact of being unable to afford it. In spite of the marriages
taking place later on the average, the fertility of marriage was not less than now.
This position is established in the paper by means of statistics.

Finally comes the question of illegitimacy. A result of the masses being com-
pelled to defer wedlock to a later age than now was that the number of illegitimate
births was greater than in our time. This cannot be proved directly, but the
paper shows, by the use of modern statistics, how the number of illegitimate
children increases as the age of marriage among the masses increases. I am
confident that the rule can be laid down for Denmark that in former times, both
within and without the bonds of wedlock, more children were born relatively to
the population than in our own time. The tendency towards a diminished birth-
rate which can be shown for our time (and is demonstrated in the paper) did not
exist of old. That the population did not increase was due, not to a small natality,
but to a great mortality, as is also shown in the paper.

When the number of the baptised in former centuries is determined, a smaller
factor must be used with which to multiply it, in order to deduce the population,
than would be appropriate for our time. If the number of baptisms in former
times be multiplied by 30, the numbers of the population will probably be
determined to within 10 per cent. of excess or defect.

The following tables illustrate some of the more important facts to which
allusion is made :—

TastE I.—Change in the Ratio of Civil Conditions at each Age-group in Denmark.
; 100 in each Age-group and for each of the Sexes.

Males Females

Ages Unmarried | Married | Widowed | Unmarried] Married | Widowed

(a) Census of 1787.

20~40 56°6 426 0:8 44-9 53'0 21
40-60 88 86°9 4:3 8:0 176 14-4
60 and over 3°8 75:5 20°7 6:0 46:0 48:0
20 and over B31 62:2 AT 26:6 60°1 133

(b) Census of 1890.

20-40 48'8 50:1 11 43:5 54:4 21
40-60 8:8 85:0 6:2 12:0 734 14:6
60 and over 6:4 67:0 26°8 96 42-2 48-2
20 and over | 28:2 64°6 72 27:1 58:2 14:7

Taste II.—Change in Numbers in different Age-groups.

Of every 1,000 Males Of every 1,000 Females
Ages 1787 | 1801 1880 1890 1787 1801 1880 1890
0-20 408 | 409 440 454 401 403 416 423
20-60 512 503 471 450 506 498 482 469
60 and over 80 88 89 96 93 99 102 108
1,000 {1,000 |1,000 j1,000 |1,000 |1,000 {1,000 | 1,000

ee Se ee ee ee a ee

840 REPORT—1900,

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Results of Experimental Work in Agriculture in Canada under Govern-
ment Organisation, By Wiuitam Saunpers, LL.D., Director of
Canadian Experimental Farms.

For some years prior to 1884 agriculture in Canada was in a depressed condition,
and during that year a Select Committee was appointed by the House of Commons
to inquire into the best means of encouraging and developing the agricultural in-
dustries of Canada.

From the investigations of this Committee it was shown that farming in
Canada was at that time in a very defective condition, that there was a lack of
thorough tillage, that no sufficient measures were taken to maintain the fertility
of the soil, that there was a want of knowledge in regard to rotation of crops, and
of the selection of improved varieties of seed; that lack of information existed
also in reference to many of the principles underlying the successful rearing of
stock, the manufacture of dairy products, and the growing of fruit.

This Committee recommended that the Government establish an Experimental
Farm where experiments might be carried on in connection with all branches of
agriculture, horticulture, and arboriculture, and that the results of these experi-
ments be published from time to time and disseminated freely among the farmers
of the Dominion.

In 1886 an Act was passed by the Parliament of Canada authorising the
Government to establish a Central Experimental Farm and four Branch Experi-
mental Farms in different parts of the Dominion, and during the two years
following these farms were established and set in operation.

The results of twelve years’ experience have shown that these institutions have
been highly beneficial to the farming community. Experimental research has
been carried on along the lines prescribed by the Act by which these farms were
established, and much information has been accumulated and distributed freely to
the farmers of Canada in reports and bulletins. Benefits have thus been con-
ferred on Canadian farmers in connection with all the more important farm crops,
in the development of the stock and dairy industries, in the production of fruits,
in the growing of trees for shelter and timber, and in the advancement of other
- branches of arboriculture.

Much attention has been given to experiments relating to the maintenance of
the fertility of the land, to the best methods of cultivating the soil, to a proper
rotation of crops, to the best time for sowing, and the selection of the best and
most productive varieties for seed.

By freely spreading the information gained, supplemented by a liberal distri-
bution of samples of the best and most productive cereals, crops have been im-
proved, and the attention of farmers generally awakened to the importance of
adopting such measures as will result in increased crops. The steady advance-
ment which has taken place within recent years in Canada, and the increasing
prosperity of agricultural industries, may in large measure be attributed to the
useful work of these Experimental Farms established and maintained by the
Government in different parts of Canada.

2. The Economic Possibilities of the Growth of Sugar Beet in England. By
A. D. Hati, WA., Principal of the South-Eastern Agricultural Col-
lege, Wye.

The sugar beet can be grown successfully in the south and east of England ;
the yield of sugar per acre is equal, if not superior, to the yield in other countries,
where the industry is conducted on a large scale.

The economic question of the value of the industry is confused by bounties and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 841

duties; it is therefore necessary to ascertain the possible profit of the crop at the
price of sugar which prevails in the open British market. Itis also desirable to find
the value of the crop for consumption on the farm, pending the general establish-
ment of factories to deal with the roots grown in each district.

In 1898 a series of trials was carried out on farms in various parts of the
country ; the average yield per acre was 15} tons of unwashed roots. This figure
is probably too high, if roots with a high sugar content are grown; in the same
year the average yield of six German estates, where an intensive system cf cultiva-
tion is practised, was only 10:7 tons of washed roots per acre.

In 1898 six different kinds of sugar beet were grown upon the farm of the
South-Eastern Agricultural College at Wye, Kent, the crop being managed in the
same manner as the adjacent mangold break; the average yield per acre was
14 tons of unwashed roots, as against 29 tons of mangolds. The sugar content
was highly satisfactory, the season being one of prolonged warmth: it is calcu-
lated that about 1} ton of sugar per acre could have been extracted, representing
a gross return of 18Z. 10s.

In several respects the crop is more expensive to grow than mangolds; manure
and cultivation were found to cost 10/. 8s. per acre, to which rent, supervision, and
all incidental charges must be added.

The roots grown were stored with the mangolds until spring, and given,
together with cake and corn, to two selected lots of sheep, with the general result
that each sheep consumed 63 lb. of sugar beet per week, against 146 Ib. of
mangolds, and that the increase in live weight was 30°6 per cent. with beet and
37°2 per cent. with mangolds. Recalculating on a basis of acreage required: ten-
elevenths of an acre of sugar beet will provide the same amount of succulent food for
sheep as an acre of mangolds, and will supply 38 sheep for 12 weeks; the sheep on
mangolds will, however, make 293 lb. greater increase in live weight. The
experiment showed that the beet forms an indifferent fodder for sheep.

Turning to the general question of the return to the farmer, the average price
paid in 1898 in the six selected German cases mentioned above was 19s. 6d. per
ton for roots delivered at the factory.

Assuming from the 1898 experiments an average English production of 14 tons
of dressed roots per acre, the gross return to the farmer at the above price would
be 187. 18s. The cost of cartage from the factory to the farm must be taken into
account: it is estimated that the 3,000 acres of sugar beet which Lawes and
Gilbert specify as required to maintain a factory would mean an average distance
from farm to factory of four miles, the cartage over which distance would cost
about 30s, per acre for the 14-ton crop. When this is added to the cost of
cultivation and an allowance made for rent, &c., there is no margin left for the
farmer from the gross return of 131. 13s. per acre set out above.

The 19s. 6d. per ton for roots is a price that is not possible in this country, the
price payable for the raw material being dependent on the price of sugar. Taking
similar grades of sugar, the return received by the German manufacturer was in
January 1900 13s. per ewt., while the price in England was 11s. 3d. per ewt. ;
a difference of 35s. per ton of sugar. As 7} tons of beet are required to produce
a ton of sugar, this difference in the price of the finished product is equivalent to a
reduction of 4s. 8d. per ton in the price payable for roots.

The English figures, then, become: Average yield per acre, 14 tons; price
at the factory, 14s. 10d. per ton; gross return to the farmer, 10/. 8s. per acre ;
against an expenditure which has been set at 11/. 18s. per acre, without including
rent.

The success of the sugar beet industry depends upon several factors :—

(1) Cheap technical skill in the factories.
(2) A farming community working for smaller returns than prevail in Britain.
(8) A system of bounties and countervailing duties.

For further details see the Jowrnal of the South-Eastern Agricultural College.

842 ‘ REPORT—1900.

3. The Economical Position of the Agricultural Labourer considered
historically. By Frank P. Waker, B.Sc.

1. Historical sketch of the chief phases in the history of agricultural labour,
noting—

The Black Death, some of its results.

The depreciation of the coinage under Henry VIII. and its effects.

Poor relief and the settlement and allowance systems.

Competition the farmer has now to maintain (i.) in the market for labour
with manufacturing operations, and (ii.) in the produce market with
foreign supplies of food.

2. Three tables derived from replies to a form of questions attached to the
paper and sent to certain farmers of my acquaintance. These show :—

(a) An increase in the amount of land laid down to permanent pasture.

(6) An increase in the wages paid for the several kinds of piecework
concomitant with

(c) An increase in the weekly wages paid for all kinds of agricultural
labour,

3. Notes on these replies, and conclusion.

4. Trade Fluctuations. By Joun B. C. Kersuaw, F.S.8.

The author stated that this subject had attracted in the past the attention of
many minds, especially in times of commercial depression, and that the records of
the Royal Statistical Society and of the Economic Section of the British Association
proved that the members of these two learned bodies had not neglected to under-
take their share in this investigation. But though some of the keenest minds in
the realm of economic science had attempted to discover the laws which govern
trade fluctuations, these phenomena of the industrial and financial world were still
largely unexplained.

The currency, protection, free trade, war, famines, labour disputes, trade
unionism, radical governments, and sun-spots had been advanced at one time or
another as chief causes of the periodic depressions from which British trade suffers.
Each of these explanations had, however, on examination proved unsatisfactory
and insufficient to account for the fluctuations revealed when the trade figures over
along period of years were subjected to scrutiny in the light of the particular
theory.

One theory, however, had seemed to the author worthy of further examination
and inquiry, and for some months he had been collecting statistics bearing upon it.

The theory was that first advanced by Sir William Herschel, and supported in
a qualified manner at a later date by Giffen,! Jevons,” and Binns.’ Briefly
summarised it was as follows:—

Normal trade between any two countries when reduced to its ultimate compo-
nents was seen to be simply an exchange between the commodities which they pro-
duced. The countries of the world might be roughly classified as those in which the
produce is chiefly that of the soil, or in which it is chiefly that of the hand and
brain. The agricultural labourer and the skilled mechanic were therefore the repre-
sentative human units of the two great divisions of employment, and all commerce
was merely the exchange or barter of the products of their activities. The volume of
trade must consequently be dependent upon the volume of crops if this theory of
commerce be correct; and a series of bad harvests, using that term to cover every

1 Journal Royal Statistical Society, vol. xlii. p. 36.
2 Currency and Finance, chap. 1x.
% Journal Manchester Philosophical Society, December 1894.

ae

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 843

product of the soil, must sooner or later have their effect upon the trade in manu-
factured goods.

The trade statistics dealt with related to the value and volume of the exports
of the United Kingdom for a period of forty-three years; and statistics relating to
the total world crops of cotton, wheat, and sugar had been sought, with only par-
tial success, for the same period.

These three agricultural products were selected because they are those upon the
ample provision of which British industrial activity and prosperity appeared most
largely to depend. ‘The period 1856-1898 was selected because during these years
British export trade had experienced most severe fluctuations, and also because the
nearer one approached to the end of the century, the more reliable and complete
were the statistics relating to trade and crops.

The figures collected by the author in the course of his inquiry, with full infor-
mation as to their source, were given in an appendix to the paper; and for the pur-
poses of comparison they had been thrown into diagrammatic form, which was
distributed at the meeting.

* The curve showing the volume of our export trade year by year since 1857 was
marked by dips in 1860-62, 1873, 1876, 1835, 1831-93, and in 1897-98.

The curve showing the volume of the sugar crop of the world was marked by
dips in 1861, 1864, 1868, 1872, 1875-77, 1880, 1886, 1888, 1896, and in 1898.

The curve showing the volume of the cotton crops of the four leading producing
countries since 1870 was marked by dips in 1872-738, 1877-79, 1882, 1884-85,
1889, 1893, and in 1896,

The curve showing the volume of the wheat crops of the world since 1876 was
marked by dips in 1879, 1883, 1885, 1888-89, and in 1895-97.

Finally a compounded curve showing the total crops of cotton, wheat, and
sugar since 1876 was marked by dips in 1879, 1885, 1888-89, 1893, and in
1896-97.

In conclusion the author claimed that the theory of a connection between trade
fluctuations and agricultural prosperity found support in the figures he had pre-
sented. Many causes no doubt combined to produce trade depressions, the mental
mood of bankers and capitalists—so ably discussed by Mr. John Mills before the
Manchester Philosophical Society in 1867—being one of these, and sudden change
in foreign tariffs another. But the cause discussed in the author's paper was not
less important, and when fuller statistics relating to wheat were available he
hoped to continue his investigations.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Municipal Trading. By ARTHUR PRIESTMAN.

_ The recent action of the London Chamber of Commerce and the Royal Com-
mission.

_ The commercial world does not object when the trading helps them in their
private undertakings. The increase and extent of municipal trading in U.S.A
and other countries. Sir Henry Fowler's figures and the Blue-book returns.
Comparison with capital invested in co-operative societies, Reasons urging still

1 The Paper will be published in the Journal of the ‘British Economic
Association.’

844 REPORT—1900.

further municipal enterprise: (a) health and housing; () milk supply; (c) tele=
phones; (d) fire insurance; (e) savings banks; (f/f) drink; (gy) combinations
amongst traders.

Monopoly by combination of private traders in comparison with a municipal
monopoly. ‘General user’ theory. Artificial raising of wages by municipal
standard rate of wages. Can a city councillor undertake so many and increasing
duties? Possibility of reintroduction of cottage industries by cheap municipal
electric power supply. Conclusion. :

2. Municipal Building for the Overcrowded. By AUBERON HERBERT.

We can supply this want either by the system of free trade, which has dore so
much for us, or by enlarging once more the area of compulsion. The real question
is then: Is compulsion a good or a bad thing? Undoubtedly it is easy and con-
venient ; but does it not tend to bring serious evils with it—disagreement, care-
less and expensive management, corruption? does it not make children of us,
spoiling the temper of compeller and compelled ?

Let us see how the land lies. Looking round at Europe to-day we see a
general failure of highly organised systems of compulsion. Writers of different
schools complain that parliamentary institutions are breaking down. Almost
everywhere minorities are in revolt against majorities. They obstruct, prevent
discussion, and lock the machine. Once we hoped great things from the system of
majorities and minorities. The sting was to be extracted from human disagree-
ments, and we were to live side by side in a happy family. Unfortunately men
have discovered that majorities are very keen to pursue their own particular
interests; that to be in a minority means to lose all control, perhaps for many
years, over one’s own mind, body, and property, and that the ingenious precept
that it is the duty of minorities to turn themselves into majorities, and so to
possess the promised land, is rather like the nursery maxim—jam yesterday, jam
to-morrow, but never to-day.

Why has the governing machine failed? Partly because men are not
scrupulous enough to possess this power over each other, and spend the money
of others on their own pet projects; partly because the game of politics accustoms
us to the use of crooked weapons; partly because compulsion destroys competition »
and disfavours difference—‘ Progress is difference,’ said Spencer, condensing a
whole philosophy of life into that short sentence, and packing enough moral
dynamite into it to upset a good many comfortable armchairs—and partly because
the human race, keen to get its business done for it on such easy terms, and
entirely forgetting the narrow limits of brain-power in these days of accumulated
knowledge, has piled such a monstrous amount of work on the governing machines.
The consequence is that Governments, overpowered by details and lost in a flood of
useless paper-work, cannot control their own work; and the people cannot control
their Governments, or even understand what is done in their name. The vastness,
the multifarious character, the ever-extending range of what is undertaken, render
ignorance compulsory on all of us, and we all, representatives and represented, go
stumbling and blundering on together, attempting to do the impossible.

Just as it is with the big central machine, so it is with the smaller local
machines. The same ambition to undertake everything and to play the part of
earthly Providence, to be all-wise and all-directing ; the same strife between parties,
with the same handing over of the minds, the bodies, and the property of all to the
victorious section—are producing the same results. What a chronicle of ex-
travagance and corruption has met our eyes in many cities of other countries!
what violent partisanship in the Paris and Vienna of the present hour! what
organised illegality in New York! what desperate remedies in the suspensions of
the right to govern themselves in the cities of America !

What is the remedy? Let our municipal bodies develop a voluntaryist side to
their work. Instead of always compelling, let them sometimes persuade us to help
them in some of their many duties. In this very matter let them appeal to us to

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 845

form building companies, with shares placed at a low amount, so that all may join.
We cannot go on for ever slipping and sliding against our will into Socialism; we
must learn to meet great wants in better fashion—the fashion of men who are not
compelled. Then the new wants of civilisation will prove to be our best educa-
tors—developing energy and friendliness, and the power to work together. So
long as we satisty every new want by the easy and idle methods of compulsion, we
learn nothing, for compulsion leaves all faculties undeveloped and only deepens
the causes of strife.

3. Recent Changes affecting the Legal and Financial Position of Local
Authorities in England. By F, W. Hirst, B.A.

Changes in our Local Government Law may be produced in four distinct
ways :—-

1. By Act of Parliament, private or public.

2. By decisions of the Courts, z.e. changes of interpretation.

3. By orders and regulations,

4, By bye-laws.

With regard to the third heading it may be pointed out that there are draw-
backs as well as advantages in connection with the central control exercised by
departments like the Local Government Board, Home Office, and Board of Trade
over the Local Authorities. The system of auditors is a good example of a form
of administrative control which is wholly advantageous. But other forms of
control involve administrative law, and both Parliament and the Courts are justly
jealous of interference by bureaucratic boards which sit in London with the
tree play of representative local councils. In the case of Kreese v. Johnson, the
late ord Chief Justice held that Justices should be slow to invalidate a bye-law
made by a local representative body. On the other hand the Private Street
Works Act of 1892 substitutes Magistrates for the Local Government Board in
appeals against apportionment.

Perhaps the development of Local Government by judicial decisions has been
most marked of late years in the spheres of rating and drainage law. In the first,
the recent case of Cartwright v. Sculeoates Union deserves particular attention.
It follows, I think, from the important decision of the House of Lords in that case
that the rent of a tied public-house is legally worthless as evidence of its rateable
value, and that evidence of the business actually done on the premises not only
may be, but ought, in such cases, to be obtained.

As regards public bill legislation there is no more interesting study than
the rules by which Parliamentary Committees are, or ought to be, guided in dealing |
with applications for borough extension. This is a subject well understood and
practised by Bradford, which is also a pioneer municipality in consolidating rating
areas and placing the levying and collection of rates under the control of the
Urban Authority—a reform much to be desired in the interests of good govern-
ment and public economy. Another kindred subject is the extension of
municipal industry by Private Acts. Lastly,it may be well to pass in review
some of the more important measures which have been placed on the Statute-book
during the last ten years, including, besides those already mentioned, the Light
Railways Act of 1897, the Highways and Locomotives Amendment Act of 1898,
the Isolation Hospitals Act of 1893, the Parish Councils Act of 1894, the Agricul-
tural Rates Act of 1896, and the London Government Act of 1899.

4. The Local Incidence of Disease in Bradford : a Comparison between the
Rates and Causes of Mortality in Bradford and those of England
generally. By A. Rapaeuiati, ID.

_ The period dealt with is from 1874, when a Medical Officer of Health was ap-
pointed in Bradford, to 1895, The woollen industry as a whole not unhealthy, al-

846 REPORT—1900.

though, in some details, as ‘gassing’ and the large amount of moisture present in the
air in some of the dyeing processes, it might be improved. The birth-rate in Bradford
exceedingly low. This largely accounts for’a low death-rate and a low zymotic
death-rate. The Bradford marriage-rate exceedingly low, and yet infant mortality
very high; an unsatisfactory combination. Connection between the state of trade
and the marriage-rate. Why the zymotic death-rate has not diminished in the
last ten years. Has any part of the causes of zymotic disease been over-
looked? Why has influenza come apparently to stay? Increase in cancer.
Diminution in consumption. Comparison of mortality in Bradford from con-
vulsions, diarrhcea, and the respiratory diseases, with that of England generally.
General conclusions.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.
The following Papers were read :—

1. American Currency Difficulties in the Eighteenth Century.
By W. Cunnineuam, D.D.

To many Englishmen it is a matter of surprise that currency questions should
be such prominent political issues in the United States at the present time, and
it is instructive to remember that debates about the circulating medium were as
common there in the eighteenth century as they are to-day. There has always
been, as it seems, a considerable body of colonists or citizens who have believed
that existing monetary conditions had been devised in the interest of some par-
ticular class, and that it was right and fair to manipulate the currency so that it
should be more favourable to the interests of their own class or district. These
efforts have generally resulted in depreciation of some kind.

1. The American Colonies in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had
practically no coinage of their own, and there was great difficulty in maintaining
the right standard of weight among the Spanish coins which formed the ordinary
currency. The clipping and sweating of the coin was very common, and was even
connived at by the authorities. In 1782, when Congress obtained a loan from
France, it seemed absurd to let the heavy coins get into circulation, and Mr.
Timothy Pickering was ordered, much against his will, to get ‘a pair of good
shears, a couple of punches, and a Jeaden anvil’ for the work. If he had difficulty
in the business he was referred to the Paymaster-General of the Forces, who was
supposed to know all about it.

2. There have of course been various examples of the depreciation of the
currency by the oyer-issue of paper in Massachusetts in 1740, in 1779, when a
suit of clothes cost $2,000 in Continevtal paper, and in 1786, when attempts to
circulate the bills of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Jersey gave rise to
much trouble.

3. There were few facilities for mining in America, and the issue of debased
coin was impracticable; but the separate colonies, both on the mainland and the
islands, had recourse to the expedient of raising the rating at which the coins in
circulation should be accepted, so as to give each piece of money a greater nominal
value, and temporarily at least a greater purchasing power. This can apparently
be practised with success in a country where business is practically done by barter,
or with commodity money, or where prices are the subject of authoritative assess-
ment, All these conditions were largely present in the colonies in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries. The object of a colony in enhancing the coinage and
thus lowering all prices, was to attract silver from its neighbours, so that there
might be more currency within its own area, and some relief from the inconyeni-
ences of barter. In 1698 Pieces of Eight were suddenly raised in Pennsylvania
from six shillings to pass for seven shillings and eightpence. This involved a loss
of nearly 30 per cent. on the tobacco duty when the cost of collection was defrayed.
The variations were frequent and considerable, and were said to be due to ‘the
contrivance of some designing men in those countries who engross it when at the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 847

lowest, and so make merchandise of it and export it into foreign parts,’ At all
events it gave rise to a sort of currency war between the colonies, each trying to
draw away the circulating medium from others to itself. Thus about 1740
Virginia was attracting money from Maryland, and in 1798 the West Indian
Islands set about establishing what Mr. Chalmers calls‘ retaliatory ratings ’ against
each other on a considerable scale.

It would be interesting to follow out the probable resuits of this method of
manipulating the currency; immediately they would he precisely opposite to the
consequences of debasing the issues from the mint. Debasing the coinage means
a rise of prices; enhancing the coin is a lowering of prices all round; it does not
increase the quantity of money in circulation; and while debasing the currency
renders the exchanges unfavourable, the object of enhancing the coin is to attract
bullion to the country. In so far as quantities of bullion were secured, there would
of course be subsequent readjustments, but the immediate results would be very
different from those of debasing the currency, except in one particular. Both
methods of manipulating the currency would mean that creditors must accept
smaller quantities of silver in satisfaction for existing debts.

This last does not appear to have been the motive of the Governments at the
time; they seem to have been actuated by a reasonable desire to attract currency
or prevent a drain of coinage, and to have pursued their aim by a method of very
questionable honesty, but well calculated, under the circumstances, to attain the
wished-for result. The conditions under which ‘enhancing the coinage’ can be
successfully practised so as to influence internal prices are unlikely to recur in the
business communities of the world; and there is little motive to have recourse to
it, since it yields no immediate gain to a Government; but there is at least a
scientific interest in noting how this method of manipulating the currency
worked in a state of business relations with which many of us are unfamiliar,

2. Some Heconomic Consequences of the South African War. By L. L. Price.

There is a tendency to attach an unreal importance to divisions of time like
those parting one century from another; but the end of the nineteenth century is
accompanied by a series of remarkable events. At the beginning of the century
England was engaged in the Great War with Napoleon, which, in addition to
direct influence on the finances of the country, postponed the progress of fiscal
reform, caused the suspension of cash payments, assisted the alarming growth of
pauperism, aggravated the evils of the early Factory System, and was followed by
prolonged depression. The South African War, with which we have been occu-
pied at the close of the century, is not, so far as its direct financial consequences
are concerned, an economic event of the same magnitude. War is indeed more
costly now, but the duration of the war with the Boers will bear no comparison
with the twenty years of the Napoleonic contest. It may occasion a considerable
permanent increase in military expenditure ; but the sums involved in the two cases,
taken absolutely, are very different, and, measured by the material resources of the
nation, the earlier figure was enormous, while the later is trifling. The increased
military expenditure may be accounted, on a strict interpretation of the term,
‘unproductive,’ and the growing pressure of foreign competition in our own manu-
factures and trade, coupled with the increasing cost of obtaining the coal which is
still the source of much motive power, and the large additions made to local and
municipal indebtedness, may render it desirable to husband resources and avoid
augmentation of the National Debt. ‘The Transvaal, however, will bear part of the
direct expenditure of the war, and, even when the indirect burden is brought into
the account, the total weight may be described as inappreciable, contrasted with
the strain imposed by the Great War. But some of the possible economic effects
of the later contest deserve attention; for it has been a disturbing factor, which
may supply the force needed to move the currents of action from a groove in which
they had settled. Passing by some obvious immediate consequences to the labour
market and to trade, three points demand especial notice.

(1) In the first place, the influence of an increased output from the mines of

848 REPORT—1900.

the Rand should be seen in a rise of gold prices. This is difficult to bring to
quantitative measure, and prediction may prove deceptive. Sir Robert Giffen
foretold, in 1894, that the fall of gold prices was ended; but in 1897 he confessed
that his expectations were not yet realised. By the present time, however, the
evidence of index-numbers, such as that of Mr. Sauerbeck, seems to show a rise
beyond any movement due to credit, in spite of the temporary cessation of supplies
from the ‘I'ransyaal. But past experience enjoins caution in any estimate. The
percentage of increase in the output is at present much less than it was at the
Australian and Californian discoveries in the middle of the century. Predictions
made at that time, even by a competent scientific observer like Jevons, were dis-
appointed; and, although the ‘compensatory action’ of the bimetallic mint at
Paris, which then acted as a ‘ parachute’ to break the fall in the value of gold, is
now absent, yet the normal counteracting causes, such as the increased use of the
metal in the currencies of the world (apart from any special new demands), the
great growth of trade and industry, and the influence of credit, have become more
powerful. A rise of gold prices may be expected; but it is impossible to fix the
point which it will reach. Its consequences will be beneficial, and may assist in
solving unsettled monetary questions.

(2) The aid rendered by the colonies to the mother country in the war is
likely, in the second place, to increase the momentum behind the conception of an
Imperial Zollverein. There are special difficulties attending a Customs Union of
the British Empire, arising from the separate situation of its component parts,
which have not presented themselves in the case of Germany or the United States.
These difficulties may, or may not, be eventually overcome; but some general con-
siderations, apposite to the question, may be submitted to a scientific gathering
like the British Association. Such a Customs Union, while it may conceivably
result in an increase of internal free trade within the limits of the Empire, must,
in all likelihood, involve some differential treatment of foreign goods. It must, so
far, infringe the principles of Free Trade strictly interpreted. Recent theoretical
discussion, especially of the incidence of taxation, has weakened some arguments
for Free Trade, but the practical difficulty of limiting your action to what you
really intend, and the great advantage of an attitude of neutrality on the part of
Government in matters of trade, have not been diminished by recent experience.
Yet an economic sacrifice may be incurred to secure a political end, or a temporary
loss may be risked in the hope of an ultimate gain. The economist will urge that
the step should be taken knowingly, and that its consequences should he seen and
realised. On this ground the more obvious and open action of bounties is to be
preferred to the obscure indirect influence of import duties. Lastly, the economist,
while noting the crude fallaciousness of not a little reasoning, may admit the
weight of some arguments employed against Free Trade. He may reach the con-
clusion that the matter must be decided mainly on practical grounds, and that
theory ends with opening men’s eyes to the results of their action. A non
possumus attitude towards a Customs Union is no longer possible.

(8) A third and last consequence of the South African War, which must be
briefly noted, is its effect on Socialism. The unity of classes at home, which has
resulted from common interest, is not favourable to class dissension. The increased
military expenditure is calculated to prevent or delay the execution of costly social
experiments, although Chancellors of the Exchequer, seeking to broaden the bases
of revenue, may possibly, if improbably, give effect to some socialistic aspirations
of mulcting ‘ unearned increments.’ Yet it may be a sound instinct which draws
a distinction between socialism and militarism.

Finally, it may be remarked that the consequences of the war thus noted are
certainly not unimportant, if they may seem problematic.

3. Colonial Governments as Money-lenders.
By Hon. W. P. REEvEs.
For many years high rates of interest have been almost as much complained of
by farmers and graziers in Australia and New Zealand as in the Western States of

{TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 849

America, Forty years ago 15 per cent. was commonly paid in the year in interest
and commissions by this class of borrowers. By 1898 this had fallen to from 6 to
8} per cent., but the prices of produce had fallen in proportion. In the years
1894-96, the Governments of four colonies—New Zealand, South Australia, Western
Australia, and Victoria—established monev-lending departments for making ad-
vances on mortgage to the smaller class of farmers. In this way over 4,000,000/. has
already beenlent out. Details are givenin the paper of 3,600,000/., of which about
2,200,0002. has been lent in New Zealand, 790,000/. in Victoria, 530,000/. in South
Australia, and 100,000/. in Western Australia. About 450,000/. has already been
repaid. The New Zealand Government raises its loan capital by issuing stock in
London; the others by selling mortgage bonds from time to time locally. In
Victoria, this capital has been obtained at 3 per cent. (from the State Savings
Bank) ; in New Zealand it has cost 3; per cent., and in South Australia 34 per
cent. The rates charged to farmers are in New Zealand 5 per cent.; in the
Australian colonies 43 per cent. The fees charged by all the State lending
offices are very low—lowest of all in South Australia, The management expenses,
are, however, small also, and the lending would seem at present to have been done
prudently, At any rate, balance-sheets to the end of June 1899 and March 1900
show no losses, while of arrears of interest there were none in New Zealand, and but
a few hundreds in Australia. The lending is done by way of first mortgage on
freehold, or on leasehold held from the Crown. The loans are devoted to improving
settlers’ holdings, or to paying off existing mortgages bearing a higher rate of
interest. In Western Australia they are restricted to the former purpose; else-
where more than half the money is applied to the latter. The highest sum which
may be lent to one borrower is 3,000/. The proportion of loan to security
must not exceed 60 per cent. of a freehold, or half the selling value in case
of a lease. An interesting feature is the system of repayment of loans by
instalment. Under this the borrower pays 6 or 7 per cent. annually, of which 44
or 5 represents interest, and the remainder goes to form a sinking fund to
extinguish the debt. In New Zealand every loan must thus be repaid by
seventy-three half-yearly instalments. The mortgagee may, however, hasten
the process by depositing additional sums or paying off the whole principal
whenever he chooses. In 1899 the Government of New South Wales followed
the example of the neighbour colonies and passed an Advances to Settlers Act.

As an example of the effect of these Acts in reducing rates of interest, it may
be remarked that in 1894 almost two-thirds of the money of registered mortgages
in New Zealand bore from 6} per cent. upwards. In 1898 six-sevenths of the mort-
gage money was yielding less than 64 per cent.

4, Variations of Wages in some Co-partnership Workshops, with some
Comparisons with Non-Co-operative Industries. By Ropert HatstEap,
Secretary of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Centre of the Labour
Association.

The difficulty of securing suitable data for the purpose of the paper was con-
siderable, owing to the fact that the kind of information required was very local and
very special. The officials of thirty-four co-operative productive societies furnished
information respecting 4,012 co-operative workers with a total wage of 209,5210.
for the year 1899. Fourteen societies sent replies, the total wages of which
amounted for that year to 122,313/. The average increase of wages in these
co-partnership workshops since 1891 was 9 per cent. Means for comparison with
non-co-operative wages are available for 1899 only, which shows a result in favour
of co-operation of 7 per cent. Co-operative workers also have two hours a week
less than non-co-operative workers. The figures also reveal that a large number of
co-partnership workers were connected with their own trade unions. Particulars
were supplied by ten societies, in which 246 workers were concerned, and in which
last year the total wages were 9,486/. These showed that the workers had wages
in excess of non-co-operative ones in the same trade and district by 11 per cent.,

1900. 31

850 REPORT—1900,

and that they worled one and a half hour a week less, Moreover, the loyalty of
these workers to trade unionism was shown by a high percentage of them being
members of their own trade and district branches.

Five co-partnership societies with a total number of workers of 501, and wages
for 1899 of 23,557/., show an average increase in wages of 17 per cent. since
1891; but there is no means of comparing this with the wages of non-co-operative
workers.

With regard to the five remaining societies little more can be said than that
they paid more than standard or trade union rate of wages in addition to a share
of the profit, and that in some cases they worked fewer hours than non-co-operative
concerns,

The returns also show that in nineteen cases concerned there was an average
increase of 11 per cent. from 1891 to 1899, and that in fourteen cases there was
an average difference in favour of co-operative as against non-co-operative wages of
9 per cent.

This result in favour of co-operation is argued to be due partly to the sources
from which the facts are obtained, but mainly to the high relative efficiency of co-
partnership industries. The causes of this efficiency are held to reside in the fact
that co-partnership brings the workers to more points of contact with the profit-
making aspect of an industry than ordinary forms of production. Workers in
co-partnership concerns have a special incentive to obtain higher wages, because
they share in profits in proportion to their wages, thus absorbing as much as
possible of the results of the extra efficiency due to their special form of
enterprise. The large proportion of the worker being trade unionist is held to
increase in force, inducing co-partnership societies to take the lead in the matter

of wages.

5. Labour Legislation for Women. By Marcaret E, MacDonato.

Certain fundamental differences between men and women engaged in industry
affect the question of legal regulation,

(a) Physical differences, e.g., young mothers need special protection from un-
healthy conditions.

(6) Differences in economic position. Even those women who do not marry are
influenced by the fact that marriage is an event which revolutionises the economic
condition and the industrial outlook of the great majority of women. As the
result, women have a lower standard of pay and work than men. In a large pro-
portion of cases they only need their wages as pocket money, or at most only to
keep themselves, and where they are the breadwinners of the family they are
usually overburdened with household cares and unable to stand out for better con-
ditions. They are comparatively unorganised, e.g., only 116,016 women are re-
turned as members of trade unions, and of these 116,470 are in the textile trades.
They are less ready to complain than men; ¢.g., in the Post Office women only get
half, or less than half, as much pay as men for the same amount and quality of
work ; yet the Tweedmouth Commission, while devoting great attention to the
grievances of the men, made no recommendations with regard to women, naively
explaining that ‘there is a general absence of complaint from them,’

The comparatively low standard of women’s work and pay has an injurious
effect upon men’s labour wherever it comes into competition with it; e.g., the
introduction of light machinery is constantly made the excuse for substituting
women for men workers at lower rates. By setting a legal standard the State
compensates to some extent for the lack of organisation and of a high standard
amongst the women.

We have experience of labour legislation for women in certain classes of em-
ployment from 1842 onwards. By comparing the conditions of workers in these
trades before and after regulation, and also comparing their conditions at the
present time in regulated and unregulated trades, we find that in regulated trades:

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 851

(1) Sanitary conditions have improved relatively.

(2) Wages have risen relatively.

(3) The number of women employed have increased relatively,
(4) Organisation amongst the workers is more general.

This study encourages the further extension of legal regulation. In discussing
the details of fresh legislation the following points are to be considered :—

(1) Classes of workers at present unregulated, or very partially regulated,
e.g., home-workers, shop-assistants, laundry workers, clerks, &c.!

(2) Matters for legislation—e.g., hours of work, sanitation, dangerous pro-
cesses, wages.

(3) Administration, central v. local authorities, women inspectors,

(4) Codification of present law, accompanied by differentiation to meet
special requirements of special trades.

6. The Treatment of the Tramp and the Loafer,
By Witriam Harsurr Dawson.

No time can be more fitting than the present for filling up an important gap
in our penal system and for introducing a reform which became a logical and social
necessity when the Poor Law was placed on its existing basis. The time has
come for transferring the habitual vagrant and the loafer generally from the
province of the Poor Law to that of the Penal Law. To the former they do not
in any sense belong. The failure of centuries of reformers and legislatures to
make the slightest impression upon the tramp population is largely due to the
persistent mistake of treating his case as coming under the law of public charity.
What society is bound to do, as far as possible, is to exterminate the social
parasite of every kind. His existence is a positive injury to the State in every
way. He robs the State not only of the industry which he owes it, but he
consumes the produce of other people’s labour and renders it nugatory, abstracting
from the wealth of society without adding to it. His example scandalises honest
workers ; he is a standing menace to public peace and safety; and for society to
tolerate him is not merely to condone injury done to itself, but absolutely to place a
premium upon social treason of the most insidious and most vicious kind. Think
what we do for the professional idlers!] Take the urban loafer. While honest
men are working we give him the free run of our thoroughfares and set apart for
him the best of our street corners. Should he be a vagrant loafer we make it
possible for him to travel through England from the Tweed to the Channel with-
out doing one hour's serious work, save for the labour tests which are imposed by
some—and only some—of the workhouses at which he may call. Who should
wonder that our past indulgent treatment of the vagrant has had the effect of
eee tuating and multiplying this class of social parasite? The dictum of wise

ir Matthew Hale is still irrefutably true: ‘A man that has been bred up in the
trade of begging will never, unless compelled, fall to industry.’ But that is not
the whole of the truth. Every one of these men creates imitators. On the
highways he is a walking advertisement of the advantages of idleness, while in
the model lodging-house, or wherever else the workhouse-shunning tramp seeks
nightly shelter, he acts the part of recruiting sergeant for the great army of sloth
and vice. What we should do, and shall have to do sooner or later, is
to collect the tramps from the four winds of heaven and try to discipline the
idleness out of their natures. For it is not, in the main at any rate, a dangerous
criminal class with which we have here to do, but for the most part the weak and
aimless characters whose great need is the moral tonic of discipline and compul-
sion. No faith should be placed in any cobbling of the existing Poor Law. No
doubt a good deal more could be done to discourage vagrancy if the separate cell
system were made universal, and if taskwork were rationally imposed ; in a word,
if the régime of the casual ward were made sufficiently rigorous to be deterrent, and

- |! See Factory Inspector's Report, 1899, p. 254.
312

852 REPORT—1900.

if such rigorous action were made uniform throughout the country ; and finally if
magistrates more consistently enforced the laws against begging, sleeping out, and
similar tramp offences. But this would only be a temporary makeshift, and the
true remedy is to hand these parasites over to the Penal Law. In the first place,
vagrancy and loafing generally should be made indictable offences. The right of
free migration in the case of the destitute should be restricted to the extent of
making it dependent on police permission to travel in search of work, after the
principle of the police pedlar’s licence. But, further, the casual ward must be
abolished. This might seem a strong measure, but it is really the fulerum on
which the lever of reformation must rest. If loafing is to be regarded as an
offence to be punished, instead of an innocent weakness to be humoured, the
loafer’s free lodging-house must disappear. The casual ward is entirely incom-
patible with the laws which already exist for the repression of vagrancy. It is
illegal to beg ; it is illegal to wander about without means of subsistence; but
there is no habitual vagrant living who is not guilty of this compound fracture
of the law, and few who have not been punished for it. Nevertheless, we wink at
these misdemeanours, and in housing 10,000 vagrants every night in the casual
wards—which, of course, is but a fraction of the total highway population—we
offer direct encouragement to known law-breakers to persist in breaking the law.
It would, of course, be necessary to meet the case of genuine seekers of work, and
we should meet it considerately and indulgently. They would be expected to
legitimise themselves by means of a police or properly attested private certificate,
asserting their dona fides and destination, and this labour passport should secure
the free right of lodging and food on the way. For them housing might be found
in proper quarters, the workhouse, or any decent house of call, or in night
shelters such as exist in Germany and Switzerland. But the crucial point is,
‘ How to deal with the vagrants and loafers who do not abandon their idle ways
and ‘seek work? After a first warning these should be detained—for a period
sufficiently long for disciplinary purposes—in correctional institutions; the
hardened cases in penitentiaries to be specially provided for in existing houses of
correction whose régime should be modified to their needs, and the more hopeful
ones in some form of labour colony which, besides receiving vagrants who hed
passed under magisterial jurisdiction, should also, as in Germany, Holland, and
Switzerland, offer a temporary home to work-seekers of all kinds. It might be
said that that was to admit the principle of the right to work. Even if that were
so, the right to work is an infinitely better and wiser and safer principle to
concede to the masses than the right to be idle. Early English laws really
proposed in a crude fashion this very treatment of habitual vagrants and idlers,
and Germany and Switzerland—the one aconservative and the other a democratic
country—are treating the problem on these lines.

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers were read :-—

1. The Relation between Spinners and Piecers in the Cotton Industry,
By 8. J. Cuapmay, ILA.

When spinning first became a separate industry for men at the beginning of this
eentury the spinners successfully enforced apprenticeship rules ; and even after the
‘mules’ and ‘jennies’ became longer, cartying more spindles—especially after
power was used for driving the carriage backwards and forwards—and when con-
sequently more piecers were required on some ‘ wheels,’ the old apprenticeship
rules were still enforced, and a distinction was drawn between those piecers who
were ‘learners’ and those who were not. When, however, it became the rule to
have on each machine piecers who were not learners, and when, moreover, im-
Proved machinery was rendering the learning of spinning an easy task, the distinc-

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 853

tion between piecers and ‘learners’ broke down, and the apprenticeship rules could
no longer be maintained. Then the spinners adopted a new policy. They merely
insisted on their existing large share of the total wage paid on the ‘mules,’ op-
posed all increases in piecers’ wages, which they knew would be at their expense,
and limited the quantity of machinery to each spinner. The result is that there
are to-day from two to three times as many piecers as spinners, and that a
great number of the former have been for years as fully qualified as the latter,
though they receive at most only about half a spinner’s wage. Both masters and
piecers have attempted to do away with this arrangement, which is by no means
economical, and which benefits only existing spinners at the expense of the piecers
and all future workers in the industry. But the opposition of the piecers is weak
because they are badly paid, and are ever hoping to become soon highly paid
spinners or something else; and, on the whole, the men have been successful in
resisting the masters’ attempts to introduce the ‘joining,’ ‘ dofling,’ and ‘ appren-
ticeship ’ systems, and the ‘ coupling of wheels’ (double- and treble-decking), which
were all directed against the existing arrangement of hands on the ‘ mules,’

2. Indian Guaranteed Railways ; an Illustration of Laisser Faire Theory
and Practice. By Eruen R. Farapay, M.A.

The dogmatic rigidity of the laisser faire school, and their refusal to recognise
the principle of development in economics, have produced the characteristic weak-
nesses of their policy, its carelessness of detail, its sacrifice of actual to nominal
freedom, its neglect to provide for future possibilities, and its attempt to apply
the same reasoning to different circumstances; all cf which are illustrated in the
later history of the Indian guaranteed railways. The guarantee system, in origin a
purely practical expedient, had outlived its utility before it was revived by the
English Government of 1868-74, apparently as being preferable, from the daisser
faire point of view, to the direct State ownership which was considered by Lord
Lawrence, as by Roscher, advisable in India. In the contracts renewed with three
railways—the Great Indian Peninsula, Bombay, Baroda, and Central India, and
Madras lines—it was agreed that the companies should receive interest at the
guaranteed rate of 5 per cent. and half the surplus profits, no account being taken
of deficits ; that remittances to England should be converted at the rate of 1s. 10d.
the rupee; and that calculations should be made on a half-yearly basis. The
result was that the Indian Government bore all the loss of the unprofitable half-
years and, after 1875, never received its full share of gain in the profitable ones,
since, as the exchange value of the rupee fell below Is. 10d., the shareholders received
a gradually increasing proportion of the surplus profits, while the contract obligation
to pay interest at 5 per cent. deprived the State of advantage from cheaper money
and improved credit, which would lately have enabled it to raise money at 23 or
3 per cent. to pay off loans advanced at a higher rate of interest. On the three
lines in question, taken together, the average proportion of earnings yearly
remitted to England, 1892-7, was 99°70 per cent., and the net annual Joss to
Government amounted to 13,000,000Rs., a tax imposed on the Indian public, for
the benefit of the British shareholder, by that Jaisser faire school which objects to
State railways as taxing one part of the community for the benefit of the other.
Statistics showing the working expenses of railways formerly guaranteed, before
and after their acquisition by the State, indicate that the guarantee system was
uneconomical ; but the fault is less with the companies than with the Jaisser faire
English Government, which gave them the material advantages of liberty, and
freed them from its responsibilities.

3. Price-changes in the Foreign Trade of France.
By Professor A. W. Fiux, IZA.

Some twenty years ago, M. de Foville traced the variations of price-level in
French trade by using for the years 1827 and 1847 to 1862 the values of the

854 REPORT—1900.

trade of each year as ascertained and comparing it with the Official Value, which
expressed its value at the prices fixed for the year 1827. From 1862 onwards
these Official Values are not recorded, but in each year the trade is first valued at
the prices of the preceding year, and, later, a revised valuation, at the prices of the
year itself, is supplied. Thus the price-movements were traced from 1847 to 1878.1

he paper continues the latter series of comparisons to 1898. Taking the price-
level of 1862 as 100, the lowest level subsequently reached was in 1897, when
imports reached 57°2 and exports 57°6. In 1898, neglecting fractions, the level
of price for both imports and exports was 58, In the interval the fall of price-
level for exports was almost unbroken, the elevations of 1864, 1872, 1880, and
1890 being comparatively slight. In the case of imports there was a considerable
and sharp rise from 1869 to 1872, after which the course of the movement has
been similar to that of exports, but so much more rapid has been the decline as to
bring the figures for both sections of trade to approximately the same level in the
last few years.

The piecing together of a record of price-movement before and after 1862 as
ascertained by two different methods gives interest to the comparison of the
measures of the movement from 1887 to 1896 by each of these two methods. ‘The
Tableau Décennal for 1887 to 1896 supplies a valuation of the trade of each year at
1896 prices. The two measures of price-movement give substantially the same
results except in the years most removed from the year with which comparison is
made. The fall of price is greater for exports, less for imports, from 1887 to 1896
as measured by direct evaluation of the trade of each year at the prices of 1896 than
as measured by the index of price-movement previously obtained. The greatest
difference shown falls short of 3 per cent. It is possible that, just as a divergence
between the course of price-movement of imports and exports up to 1872 did not
prevent the substantial identity of price-change in both over the period 1862 to
1898, so the divergence shown over a ten-year period, in the two measures of
price-movement, is no proof that, could the same method have been used for
tracing price-change from 1827 to 1898, instead of two methods linked together at
the date of passing from one to the other, the indication of change of price-level
over the whole period would have differed substantially from that actually
obtained.

It is interesting to note that the difference of price-level in the early sixties and
the late nineties as shown by Sauerbeck'’s Index Number is not far from the same
as that ascertained by the methods used in the paper for French foreign trade.

1 Cf. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, December 1879.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, " §6a

Section G.—_MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Sir ALEXANDER Binnie, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The President delivered the following Address :—

Looxine back at the Addresses of my many distinguished predecessors in this
chair, I find that, devoting their attention as they have done either to the general
progress of engineering knowledge or to those particular parts of it that have
engaged their personal study, the possible field of observation has become some-
what circumscribed. Every one, I think, must by this time be fairly well acquainted
with the progress made in our.work during the present century or during the
reign of Her Majesty the Queen.

But although this detailed examination of progressive advancement may appear
at first sight to be exhausted, yet it may be not altogether unprofitable if we
endeavour for a few minutes to consider how, and under what circumstances, that
advancement has alone become possible.

Living as we do at the end of the nineteenth century, and surrounded as we
have all of us been from our earliest years with a march of progress unequalled
in the world’s annals, we are apt to assume that the circumstances which surround
us, the general attitude of the scientific mind, and our conception of nature and
its phenomena, are things which come to us by nature as our birthright, forgetting
that they are the result of thousands of years of work and thought among some
of the greatest minds that the world has ever produced.

It may not therefore be displeasing to the audience which I see before me if
in an imperfect way I attempt to lay before them some, at all events, of the salient
facts which lead up to our present outlook on the scientific matters with which
our profession deals,

We as civil engineers define our profession as being ‘the art of directing the
great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man.’ Conse-
quently our success or otherwise will depend on the estimate we may form of
nature as a whole, and of those great sources of power which it places at our
disposal. Undoubtedly in the history of the world there has never been a period
when the study of nature has been so open and free from all prejudices of any kind
whatever as it has been during the present century; nor, perhaps, with but few
exceptions, has there ever been in any age or country atime when nature and her
laws have been investigated with so pure and steadfast an aim after actual truth
without the mind being prejudiced by authority or preconceived ideas derived
from those great departments of human thought which deal more particularly
with matters of faith, morals, and religion.

_ This equanimity of mind in which we now approach all subjects relating to
science has not, J need hardly say, been the case in the past. Some persons may

856 REPORT—1900.

ascribe it entirely to the inductive method introduced by Bacon, as opposed to the
too exclusive confinement of the mind to the deductive systems of the older
scholastic philosophy which preceded his time, and to which in a large measure
he was undoubtedly instrumental in giving the death-blow. This view, however,
is not altogether correct, for in the teaching of Socrates and Aristotle we find
continued reference to the impor ance of inquiry, observation, and induction.

And in the cases of Hipparchus and Ptolemy in the best days of the Alexandrian
school of astronomy we find the most laborious observations carried on for
hundreds of years under circumstances and with instruments which we should
now consider totally inadequate; and by their means discoveries were then made
with an accuracy which surprises us; and from these discoveries conclusions were
drawn which for more than a thousand years stood the test and satisfied the
requirements of some of the most acute thinkers of the world.

We should, I think, in the first instance inquire how it came about that the
great mental energies of philosophers of-the ancient world failed to produce that
fruit which we in later ages are gathering in such rich abundance.

To arrive at some idea on this question we must endeavour to picture to our-
selves the inner consciousness of the great minds of antiquity when they first
began to contemplate the circumstances by which they were surrounded, and were
called upon by that inexorable and mysterious longing of the human mind to
answer those great questions of the whence and the whither which are so strangely
rooted in the hearts of all deep-thinking people.

To them were presented for the first time those great phenomena of nature by
which we are always surrounded, many of these being of a character at once to
charm and at other times to terrify the beholder, And in what I may call the
childhood of the human mind, they, like children of a later age, were prone to
ascribe to what they saw around them qualities and properties to which the
phenomena in themselves had no relation.

What I may call the nascent deductive principle, so strong in all our minds,
had given to it by these ancient philosophers the free play of fancy and imagina-
tion which led them to conclusions based on their own ideas and not upon the
facts of unerring nature. Consequently we see in the early age of Greek thought
the natural laws of the universe in smiling morn or darkening night, in raging sea
or the thunderbolts of heaven, ascribed to the immediate action of benevolent or
malevolent powers in the celestial world; and as a consequence the Greek mind
from its earliest period became saturated with the beautiful conceptions of her
poets, and following from this when philosophy first approached the subject,
theories were broached and conclusions were adopted, many of them on an utterly
erroneous basis.

Steeped as the Greek mind was in its lovely ideals of nature, it is not sur-
prising to find that, when their philosophers began to formulate their theories,
these deductions took the place of fact; and celestial observations, when they made
them, as they undoubtedly did, were used, not for the purpose of illustrating the
laws of nature as we interpret them, but as a means, partly religious and partly
philosophical, in support of their preconceived ideas of the universe, the foundations
of which, having been laid in poetry, became crystallised in the wonderful con-
ceptions of the great men who directed their country’s mind.

In looking, therefore, at nature in the earlier ages of scientific thought, we find
that the standpoint from which everything was viewed was narrowed down to a
universe constructed for man alone, the powers of which were governed by the
caprice and whim of the great gods of Olympus, and yet even in this period- we
notice true opinions arising with regard to the structure of the universe. For
instance, Pythagoras—and Aristarchus—conceived the idea that the sun was the
centre of the universe, and that the planets revolved around him.

_ This correct deduction was to a large extent vitiated by bringing it into rela-
tion with another conception, that of harmonics.

Hence we find the true ideas of Pythagoras mixed up, and in a sense confused,
by this theory of the harmony of the spheres.

And even when at a later period, more accurate observation gave the ancients

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 857

still better data on which to reason, they yet continued to ascribe, as the very names
of the planets indicate, connections between them and the gods.

The outcome, however, of the teaching of the Greek schools, culminating as it
did in the splendid work of the Alexandrian philosophers, resulted in the mistaken
formula that the earth was the centre around which all the phenomena of nature
were carried on.

It must not be imagined for one moment that Hipparchus and Ptolemy were
not acute and accurate observers. They at an early period detected some of those
inequalities in the moon’s motion which require all the force of the gravitation
theory to explain.

They defined, by patient observation, the irregular motions of the planets,
sometimes progressing, sometimes retrograding, and with wonderful accuracy they
were able to measure the precession of the equinoxes which carries the equinoctial
points backwards along the line of the ecliptic.

They had a very clear conception of the rotundity of the earth, as we know
from the fact that they made attempts to measure an arc of meridian.

All this wonderful mass of observation and discovery, when taking into con-
sideration the imperfect means at their dispcsal, will ever remain throughout all
ages one of the greatest monuments to perpetuate the fame of the men who pro-

uced it.

The question at once arises, How was it that with their wonderfully accurate
observations and their perfect knowledge of the movements of the heavenly bodies
they did not arrive at some of those revelations which later ages have brought to
light ?

It is difficult to answer this question with any degree of precision, but one can
see clearly that their minds were governed, and the results of their inductions
vitiated, by conceptions such as those of which I have above spoken.

These conceptions were that, seeing that the sun, moon, and planets appeared
to revolve around the earth and return at different. periods into closed orbits,
therefore, as a circle was the most perfect of all figures, they must necessarily
revolve in circular orbits, and that as celestial bodies this motion must be
uniform

Consequently, to unite together the accurate observations that they had made
of all the varying motions of the heavenly bodies, they had to invent circular
orbits and smaller orbits carried by these in which the sun and planets revolved,
and so gradually built up that wonderful and complex system, to which the name
of Ptolemy is always attached, of cycles, epicycles, and deferents, by which in a
most complicated manner they were able at length to reconcile their accurate
observations with their preconceived idea of circular motion. The Ptolemaic
system will always remain a wonderful monument to the skill of the observers and
the acuteness of the thinkers in the ancient world.

Turning now to the domain of mechanics, with which were intimately bound up
their ideas of geometry, we find, as our old friend Euclid has long since taught us,
not only that they were among the most acute reasoners, but that they possessed
logic, which, when applied to such conceptions as these, has remained after 2,000
years the text-book in our schools.

But in their estimate of the uses of geometry and the functions of the conic
sections, the philosophers cf old regarded them mainly as a species of intellectual
athletics by which the mind was trained and perfected, and they believéd that it
was degradation to apply that knowledge to the affairs of mundane life.

In the case of Archimedes we see the master-mind grappling for the first time
with some of the great problems of mass and of force, and solving to a large exten
some of the principal problems placed before him.

But here also Greek notions of mass and of force were mixed up with others,
which ascribe to them properties perfectly ideal, and it was considered, in the
words of our great poet, that the application of these wonderful discoveries to
the affairs of life was ‘ base mechanical.’

No doubt much of this was due to the fact that the teachings of the old Greeks
were held to be exclusively the property of certain schools and academies, and that

858 REPORT—1900.

the culture of the mind was the object in view. On the other hand, all the affairs
of life connected with the mechanical arts were confined for the most part to a
large section of the people who were held in slavery, and who, with but few
exceptions, never rose to intellectual pursuits.

But, above all, as their ideas crystallixed into the form of concrete theories
nearly allied to many supernatural conceptions, these were gradually absorbed by
the priesthood and mingled with the national faith, to differ from which, as in the
case of Socrates, meant recantation or death.

Reviewing, therefore, the above impressions of the ancient world, we find the
most accurate observations combined with the most fanciful theories, worked out
with a logical and a mathematical skill which all the world admires, yet vitiated
by conceptions or theories based on fanciful resemblances, and the whole gradually
consolidated by priestcraft into a mass of superstitious dogma, to differ from which
was to incur the odium of heresy.

We shall see as we proceed that this palsy of the mind was again repeated
after a lapse of 1,500 years.

But even in the century which immediately preceded our era, we have indica-
tions that there were clear theories which had they been followed out to the full
might have led to an earlier gathering in of the fruits of science.

At this point I may perhaps be permitted to read a few passages from the
great Latin poet Lucretius, who in his sweet Pyrrhean verses attempts to lay
before his beloved Memmius, the Roman soldier, the learning of tle Greeks.

T shall use Munro’s translation.

The entire six books are taken up by an attempt on the part of Lucretius to
explain to Memmius the whole realm of nature, starting from the atomic stand-
point of Democritus and Epicurus.

I should explain that in the following passages Lucretius calls the atoms the
first-beginnings of things.

This poem was written in the first century before our era, and gives a good
idea of the attitude of the Roman mind in its admiration of Greek philosophy,
while at the same time attacking the gross superstition of the priests.

‘ When human life to view lay foully prostrate upon earth crushed down under
the weight of religion, who showed her head from the quarters of heaven with
hideous aspect lowering upon mortals, a man of Greece ventured first to lift up his
mortal eyes to her face and first to withstand her to her face. Him neither story
of gods nor thunderbolts nor heaven with threatening roar could quell: they only
chafed the more the eager courage of his soul, filling him with desire to be the
first to burst the fast bars of nature’s portals. Therefore the living force of his
soul gained the day: on he passed far beyond the flaming walls of the world and
traversed throughout in mind and spirit the immeasurable universe; whence he
returns a conqueror to tell us what can, what cannot come into being; in short
on what principle each thing has its powers defined, its deep-set boundary mark.
Therefore religion is put under foot and trampled upon in turn; us his victory
brings level with heaven.’ }

‘This terror then and darkness of mind must be dispelled not by the rays of the
sun and glittering shafts of day, but by the aspect and the law of nature ; the warp
of whose design we shall begin with this first principle, nothing is ever gotten out
of nothing by divine power.’ *

‘We must admit therefore that nothing can come from nothing, since things
require seed before they can severally be born and be brought out into the buxom
fields of air.’$

‘ Moreover nature dissolves everything back into its first bodies and does not
annihilate things.’ *

‘And yet all things are not on all sides jammed together and kept in by body:
there is also void in things.®

‘Time also exists not by itself, but simply from the things which happen the
sense apprehends what has been done in time past, as well as what is present and

} Book I, p, 2, 2 Tbid, p, 4. 3 Ibid. p. 5 4 Thid. p, 6, 5 Thid, p, 8

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 859

what is to follow after. And we must admit that no one feels time by itself
abstracted from the motion and calm rest of things.’ !

Lucretius, speaking as in the following lines of atoms as the first-beginnings,
appears to have the conception, not only of atoms, but also of molecules; for
instance :—

‘Bodies again are partly first-beginnings of things, partly those which are
formed of a union of first-beginnings.’ *

‘ But since I have proved above that nothing can be produced from nothing,
and that what is begotten cannot be recalled to nothing, first-beginnings must be
of an imperishable body, into which all things can be dissolved at their last hour,
that there may be a supply of matter for the reproduction of things.’ ®

From the following quotations it will be seen that Lucretius had a very good
idea of the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest.

‘That also which before was from the earth passes back into the earth, and
that which was sent from the borders of ether is carried back and taken in again
by the quarters of heaven.’ 4

‘ Thus one thing will never cease to rise out of another, and life is granted to
none in fee-simple, to all in usufruct,’ °

‘ And many races of living things must then have died out and been unable to
beget and continue their breed. For in the case of all things which you see
breathing the breath of life, either craft or courage or else speed has from the
beginning of its existence protected and preserved each particular race. And there
are many things which, recommended to us by their useful services, continue to
exist consigned to our protection. In the first place the fierce breed of lions and
the savage races their courage has protected, foxes their craft, and stags their
proneness to flight. But light-sleeping dogs with faithful heart in breast and
every kind which is born of the seed of beasts of burden, and at the same time the
woolly flocks and the horned herds, are all consigned, Memmius, to the protection
of man. For they have ever fled with eagerness from wild beasts, and have
ensued peace and plenty of food obtained without their own labour, as we give it
in requital of their useful services. But those to whom Nature has granted none
of these qualities, so that they could neither live by their own means nor perform
for us any useful service in return for which we should suffer their kind to feed
and be safe under our protection, those, you are to know, would lie exposed as a
prey and booty of others, hampered all in their own death-bringing shackles, until

ature brought that kind to utter destruction.’ ®

I must conclude my quotations from Lucretius with his splendid exordium to
Memmius in the second book.

‘Apply now, we entreat, your mind to true reason. For a new question
struggles earnestly to gain your ears, a new aspect of things to display itself.
But there is nothing so easy as not to be at first more difficult to believe than
afterwards ; and nothing too so great, so marvellous, that all do not gradually
abate their admiration of it. Look up at the bright and unsullied hue of heaven and
the stars which it holds within it, wandering all about, and the moon and the
sun’s light of dazzling brilliancy: if all these things were now for the first time,
if I say they were now suddenly presented to mortals beyond all expectation,
what could have been named that would be more marvellous than these things,
or that nations beforehand would less venture to believe could be? nothing,
methinks: so wondrous strange had heen tnis sight. Yet how little, you know,
wearied as all are to satiety with seeing, any one now cares to look up into heaven’s
glittering quarters! Cease therefore to be dismayed by the mere novelty and so
to reject reason from your mind with loathing: weigh the questions rather with
keen judgment, and if they seem to you to be true, surrender, or if they are a
falsehood, gird yourself to the encounter. For since the sum of space is unlimited
outside beyond these walls of the world, the mind seeks to apprehend what there
is yonder there, to which the spirit ever yearns to look forward, and to which the
mind’s immission reaches in free and unembarrassed flight,’ 7

> Book I., p. 11. 2 Thid. p. 12. 8 Ibid. p. 13. * Book IL., p. 52.
> Book III., p. 80, * Book V., p, 136, 7 Book IL, pp. 52, 6%,

860 ; - REPORT—1900.

In the early centuries of our era, however, a great change was coming over
the human mind. We have seen from the above quotations that, even before the
advent of Christianity, thinking men were beginning to revolt against the super-
stition of the old mythology.

Soon after there arose the Neoplatonic school at Alexandria, which mixed up,
in a way difficult to describe, beautiful conceptions of moral and religious
training through astronomy and the sciences in an inexplicable tangle of pseudo-
Greek philosophy.

At the same time there was gradually stealing over the minds of men an
entirely new feeling, born of a new faith, which taught that things earthly and
appertaining to the earth were of slight importance, and that all the splendid
learning of the Greeks was but vain philosophy, and that the thoughts of man
must be directed, not to the present, but to the future.

Among these conflicting ideas, there was intruded the outer barbaric power
which knew nothing of science or of philosophy, but which, by its virile force and
austere tenacity of moral worth, overran and conquered the Roman Empire.

These untutored peoples were soon attracted by the beautiful simplicity of the
new religion, and were gradually absorbed into the Christian Church.

In the year A.D. 640 a serious blow was struck to advancing science, and for a
thousand years we are parted from all the learning of the ancient world by the
destruction of the Alexandrian Library by the Saracens.

Then followed for nearly a thousand years that period of intellectual torpor
which we generally denominate ‘the dark ages.” To a large extent natural
science became unknown, the astronomy of the Greeks degenerated into astrology,
and when occasional thinkers did inquire into nature’s secrets, it took the form of
alchemy, and a desire to discover the philosopher’s stone, and the transmutation of
metals. Mixed up with these were also a school of magicians, individuals who
revelled in mysteries—always an indication of ignorant superstition.

During this period the ideas of the universe were taught from the books of
Moses; even the learned lost all conception of the rotundity of the earth, and
indeed we have treatises written to prove that we live on a flat world.

Of course, during the period I am speaking of there were some minds, in
isolated cases, which still believed in the teaching of the Ptolemaic system. But
the overruling authority of the Church crushed out all inquiry into the nature of
things, deeming it sufficient that men should either remain ignorant, or devote their
attention to a future existence.

At length, however, after the conquest of Constantinople, in 1453, there came
a period when the literature of the ancient world again claimed attention, and the
logic of Aristotle became the dominant factor in the teaching of the Church.

7 Another element was also contributing to the revival of the human in-
tellect.

The Saracens, after their conquest of Alexandria, had preserved in the univer-
sities of Bagdad and Damascus much of the learning of the philosophers of the
ancient world. This in the course of time followed their conquests along the
northern coast of Africa, and was gradually grafted into the European mind by
the teaching of the doctrines of the school at Salamanca; and it is to this channel,
strange to say, that we are indebted for what we know of the tenets of Hippar-
chus and Ptolemy, as well as to many of the alchemistic sciences which they them-
selves assiduously cultivated.

Thus gradually we see dawning upon the benighted minds of the middle ages
a revival of the learning of the ancient world.

The invention of printing and the lessons of the Reformation at once threw
open the whole question to independent thought, and at the same time afforded a
means of free interchange of opinions throughout the whole world.

About this same time the vexed question of the earth’s rotundity was for ever
set at rest by the discoveries of Columbus in 1492, and the circumnavigation of the
globe in 1522.

I now approach a period when it becomes necessary to show, with somewhat,
more exactitude than that with which I have hitherto treated the subject, how

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 861

gradually there grew up in the minds of men those modern truths to which I have
alluded in the opening passages of my remarks,

To attempt to do justice to this theme in the few minutes at my disposal would
be indeed a vain endeavour ; but for the purpose of showing the lines along which
they ran, and to enable you to carry away with you the sequence of events to
which I am about to allude, I have prepared a chronological chart.

This chart extends from the time of Edward VL, in 1550, to the present year.
Horizontally it is divided, as you will notice, into years, and to the same scale
vertically into years also.

Immediately below are marked off the reigns of the various English sovereigns,
under which are recorded, against their proper dates, some of the principal
political events of the period. At the top of the chart will also be found, against
their appropriate dates, a record of some of the principal social events, voyages, dis-
coveries, inventions, and other data which indicate the progress of science and the
arts, as well as of those social events which mark the increase of civilisation and
the growth of kindlier feelings in the human race. A few statistics are also given
of population, the output of coal and iron, and the progress of railway develop-
ment, to show how rapid has been the advance during the present century.

In the body of the chart are marked off by diagonal lines, commencing at their
births and terminating at their deaths, the names of the great thinkers and workers,
scientific and otherwise, who have done so much for the advancement of the human
mind ; and coming later in the field, and marked in red, are noted those engineers
whose work alone became possible as the study of nature broadened out and bore
fruit. Consequently, by running the eye vertically upwards at any particular
period, it will at once be seen who were the great contemporaries of that period,
to what predecessors they were indebted, and what was the state of science during
their lifetime, and among what political events they carried on their work.

A very brief inspection of this chart will show that to no one man or country
can be ascribed the sole merit of advancement.

Advancement depends on the knowledge we have inherited from our ancestors,
and the opinions of our contemporaries acting on and reacting upon each other, and
together forming what we may call the drift of opinion of any age or period which
we may examine.

At the stage at which we have now arrived it is as well to conceive what must
have been the feelings of men, especially of Englishmen, in the middle part of the
sixteenth century. By the Reformation their minds had been opened to the
exercise of private judgment, and there was presented before them a circumstance
never before experienced, nor which can ever again appeal to the human mind.

By the discovery of the new world the earth space had been practically
doubled. These two great factors, freedom of thought and the enlargement of the
world, aided by printed books, produced fresh fruit in literature and science, and
an enthusiasm, almost amounting to the romantic, which carried men on to enter-
prises of the most daring kind, and filled them with the confidence that a great
and brilliant future was in store for the human race.

The poetry and literature of the Elizabethan period teem with these senti-
ments, and these feelings sank deep into the minds of thinking men when they
contemplated more serious subjects.

Peter Ramus (1515-1572) attacked the Aristotelian philosophy.

Copernicus (1473-1543) revived the idea of Pythagoras and Aristarchus, that
the sun, and not the earth, was the centre around which it revolved in company
with the other planets. He, however, still retained the notion that they revolved
in circles, and had, of course, to resort to epicycles, deferents, and the like, to
account for their apparent irregular motions.

At a little later period, Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) was carrying on a series of
astronomical observations of an accuracy never before attempted; and although he
did not accept the Copernican theory, yet he so far began to lose faith in that of
Ptolemy as to propound a theory of his own to reconcile his more accurate
observations.

About the same time, William Gilbert (1540-1603) published his work on the

862 REPoRT—1900.

magnet, and Sir Francis Drake, led away by that enthusiasm of which I have
already spoken, in his great voyage round the world added new glories to English
navigation.

As conceptions more exact and observations more accurate were made, it
became necessary in some way to shorten the laborious calculations previously
carried on. Hence we get about this time the invention of logarithms by Napier
of Merchiston.

But this evident advancement of the mind was opposed fiercely by the powers
of the Church, resulting in the burning of Giordano Bruno at Venice, in the
year 1600, for upholding the Copernican theory.

There now came upon the scene one of the greatest thinkers of our country, to
whom all Englishmen, if not all Europeans, should feel the deepest gratitude, the
great thinker, Francis Bacon, who, in his various works which he has left behind
him, bequeathed to future ages that system of inductive philosophy which has
done so much for the advancement of learning.

As you will remember, his first doctrine is that we must avoid the errors which
are inherent in the human race, and which he classes under the four heads of
‘Idols of the tribe,’ ‘Idols of the den,’ ‘ Idols of the forum or market,’ and ‘ Idols
of the theatre.’

Having vot rid of erroneous and preconceived opinions, he lays down rules of
right thinking, afforded by scientific facts which have been invaluable in the
investigation of science.

He does not touch upon religious and controversial subjects which engaged
the attention of so large a proportion of his contemporaries, but directs the whole
force of his philosophy to the acquisition of what he calls ‘fruits,’ that is to say,
the pursuit of truth for its own sake.

And as Macaulay says of him, although he is best known by his essays, yet of
his more philosophical works he remarks that ‘they have moved the intellects
which have moved the world.’

We now have to consider for a moment a name which should be highly
honoured among all men of science, but especially among engineers, for to Galileo
we are indebted for the first principles of mechanics. He invented the thermo-
meter about 1602, and the telescope which bears his name in 1609.

In 1586 he composed his first essay on the hydrostatic balance, and his observa-
tions on the swinging of the great bronze lamp in the Cathedral of Pisa, as well
as his experiments on the centre of gravity, and on falling bodies from the leaning
tower, laid the foundation of the exact determination of some of our simplest
mechanical conceptions.

His astronomical observations of the moon, his discovery of Jupiter’s satellites
in 1610, as well as the rings of Saturn and the phases of Venus, gave to the
Copernican theory the basis of fact which was before wanting.

It is needless to say that Galileo advocated most strongly the theory of his
predecessor Copernicus, and for the doctrines which he so taught he was brought
before the Inquisition, imprisoned, and his Jatter days rendered miserable by the
persecution of the Church.

Contemporary with Galileo was his illustrious correspondent Kepler, who in
the most laborious manner, from the observations of Tycho Brahe and other
accurate astronomers, gradually gave to the world thosé laws which bear his name,
and fixed for all time the fact that the planets revolved around the gun, not in
circular, but in elliptical orbits.

These teachings, assisted by the illustrious Gassendi, were gradually forming
tS the minds of men a somewhat more accurate idea of the universe in which we

ive.

We now come to one of those great minds, who, in the realm of philosophy, had
a vast influence in turning the thoughts of men into direct channels. I allude to
that distinguished Frenchman, René Descartes,

I do not propose to inquire into his axiom, ‘I think, therefore I am;’ into his
conception of innate ideas, nor into his theory of vortices, but would merely point
out what may be almost called his great discovery, namely, the application of

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 863

algebraical veasOning to geometrical conceptions and astronomical observa-
tions.

Of course his freedom of thought offended many, both the Jesuits, in whose
school he had been educated, and the pastors of the Reformed Church, among
whom he lived in Holland. And it is well known that he delayed to give to the
world some of his best ideas owing to the way in which Galileo had been treated
by the Church.

The English philosophical writer, Thomas Hobbes, by the publication of his
work called ‘The Leviathan,’ was also educating the minds of Englishmen in the
direction of sound knowledge.

It is interesting, however, to note that the new ideas had not as yet sunk deeply
into the minds of the English people.

Shakespeare remarks: ‘He that is giddy thinks the world turns round’
(‘Taming of the Shrew’). Bacon also naver accepted the Copernican theory, and if
we turn to the eighth book of ‘ Paradise Lost’ we find that although Milton, who
had visited Galileo in Italy, and who was well acquainted with the theory of
Copernicus, founds his whole poem on a Ptolemaic basis, yet he was, apparently
from the words which he puts into the mouth of the archangel Raphael, halting
between two opinions.

We now have to note another of the experimental philosophers in Christian
uygens.

Up to his time, the means of making accurate observations in which time was
concerned wasa most difficult, nay almost an impossible, matter, By his introduction
of the pendulum, as a regulator of clocks, he at once placed in the hands of men
of science one of its most valuable instruments.

His work on the centre of oscillation and the cycloidal curve shows how deeply
he worked out the theory.

His observations on double refraction, and his promulgation of the theory of
an elastic ethereal medium in which the vibrations of light are carried on, place
him in the forefront of the observers of his time.

The sagacious Hooke, Wren, Wallis, and Newton’s great master Barrow, as
well as the distinguished Boyle and the indefatigable Oldenburgh, were all carrying
forward the work which distinguishes this period; and when we look back to
those pleasant meetings at Wadham College, Oxford, during the Commonwealth
‘we contemplate a body of men working for true science who were to be the founders
of that Royal Society which has done so much for the advancement of science
throughout the world.

The labours of all the great men of whom I have yet spoken were at this
period gradually drawing together a vast mass of facts which required some com-
mon explanation. The rudiments of mechanical science were beginning to teach
the truth as to the laws of falling and oscillating bodies.

The Ptolemaic system, with its complex theories, was gradually yielding to the
accumulated evidence in favour of the Copernican system.

The erroneous idea of circular motion had yielded, as the fruit of Kepler's per-
severing work, to the law of elliptical orbits.

But yet the minds of many men were still directed by the idea that the
planets were carried round the sun by some inherent force in themselves, and in
the same very imperfect way they were beginning gradually to think that this
force, be it what it might, acted in inverse ratio to the square of the distance.

Matters were in this state when there arose the greatest genius that the Knglish
race has yet produced, the retiring, the sensitive, and the devout Isaac Newton,
who, acting like an electric spark in a mixed and chaotic mass of vapour, at once

recipitated, as it were, the confusion, and brought to light, with a dazzling bril-
iancy, the gravitation theory, which not only accounted for all the difficulties which
his contemporaries were struggling with, but at one bound elucidated those many
and confusing motions of the heavenly bodies which had hitherto been the stum-
bling block of observers.

By his discoveries, for the first time an accurate scale was given to the universe,

‘and in his statement that every particle of matter in the universe is attracted

864 REPORT—1900.

directly as the mass, and inversely as the square of the distatice, we have laid
before the world once and for all time a sure and certain guide to all the
phenomena of nature.

He reveals to us distances incomprehensible, and magnitudes which transcend
the most fanciful ideas of his predecessors, and flowing from this we have esta-
blished the important conclusion that as far as matter is concerned, whether in the
case of our own planet, in the sun, in the mighty orbs of Jupiter and Saturn, or in
the distant nebule and stellar masses, the whole is governed by exact law, and is
not a fortuitous concourse of atoms, or the result of some unexplained and inex~-
plicable vortex motion.

We may say of him in the words which I have above quoted from Lucretius,
‘the living force of his soul gained the day : on he passed far beyond the flaming
walls of the world and traversed throughout in mind and spirit the immeasurable
universe ; whence he returns a conqueror to tell us what can, what cannot come
into being; in short on what principle each thing has its powers defined, its deep-
set boundary mark.’

We must now turn to the contemplation of a great thinker who, although not
a scientific man, has yet had the most profound influence in the direction of clear
reasoning of perhaps any man in England since the time of Bacon. Lallude to the
illustrious John Locke, the friend of Newton, of Boyle, of Monmouth, of Somers,
of Clarke, of Montagu, of Pembroke, and of Shaftesbury, admired alike by Horace
Walpole and by Voltaire, and the trusted friend and councillorof William of Orange.

Intimately connected with the freedom of the press and the currency of this
country, one of the first commissioners for trade and the colonies, he is princi-
pally distinguished by his charming essay on ‘The Human Understanding.’

Putting aside the metaphysical conception of Descartes, he lays down the law
that all our knowledge must be founded on two principles, experience of the outer
world through our senses, which he calls ‘ sensation,’ and the inner working of the
mind on the experience so gained, which he calls ‘ reflection.’

To his clear and lucid English which appeals to every reader, taken in conjunc-
tion with the simple facts which he enunciates, the English nation is indebted for
much of that common sense and freedom from fanciful speculation for which we
are distinguished among the nations of the world. aa

At the end of the seventeenth century Boyle, Hooke, and many others of their
illustrious contemporaries were, in the early days of the Royal Society, founding
that school of physics and chemistry which, taking the place of the alchemy and
the magic of the middle ages, was being gradually moulded into shape in accord-
ance with true induction and ina scientific spirit. But little had yet been done in
the study of the earth itself.

Pliny mentions the fact that fossil shells had been found; and Leonardo da
Vinci, about the beginning of the sixteenth century, had argued that these fossils
were the remains of extinct beings, and not Zusus natw'e formed by the action of
the stars on the plastic substance of the earth; nor, as taught by the Church,
shells dropped from the hats of pilgrims on their way from the Holy Land.

And even at the end of the eighteenth century Johnson spoke, as it will be
remembered, of people engaged in such a study as ‘ fossilists.’

We are indebted, however, for right thinking on truly scientific lines to
Hutton, to Playfair, to Werner, and to Cuvier, who about the end of the
Signe century began to formulate distinct and clear conceptions on the
subject.

The rocks of which the earth’s crust was composed were gradually being
divided into aqueous, plutonic, and metamorphic.

It was clearly established that among the aqueous deposits the various strata
contained fossils different both in kind and in species from those of living beings.

To our illustrious countryman William Smith we are indebted for the first
geological map of Central and Northern England.

Controversies arose as to how the great succession of events which accurate
inquiry was unfolding to our knowledge was produced: whether upheavals and
depressions in the earth’s crust were due to sudden cataclysms, dividing and

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 865

shutting off, as it were, each successive period from those which preceded or
succeeded it; or whether, as some imagined, they were the result of the Noachian
deluge.

And in the beginning of this century fierce discussions arose as to whether or
not the whole tendency of these investigations was not intensely irreligious, as it
appeared to be at variance with the account of the creation as given by Moses.

In 1830 to 1833, however, by the publication of his ‘Principles of Geology, or
the Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants,’ Sir Charles Lyell, following
on the lines laid down by Hutton and Playfair, in the most philosophic spirit
proved beyond a doubt that all the great changes which geology disclosed were
the outcome of the action of those forces of nature which we see around us,
operating with greater or less energy throughout long ages.

Lyell did not attempt to theorise on how or why the remains of extinct
animals and plants succeeded each other in the rocks, but he pointed out in the
most precise manner that, whether we take the primary, the secondary, or the
tertiary periods, the different series of organisms, of which we find the remains,
were each distinctive of its particular zone; and that as we examine the tertiary
strata their characteristics become more and more similar to the animals and
plants which we see around us at the present day.

Newton had taught us that the sum of space throughout the universe is prac-
tically unlimited, and that the whole is governed by law and not caprice.

The teaching of geology has instructed us in a somewhat similar way that the
time over which the present forces of nature that have tended to form the earth,
as we now see it, have operated, is to be measured, not by 6,000 years, but by
many millions of years.

I do not pretend to enter upon the vexed question of how many millions of
years, but what I wish to direct your attention to is that, as astronomy teaches an
almost infinite space, geology teaches not perhaps an infinite but a vastly extended
period of operation almost beyond the grasp of the human mind.

'_ Ihave spoken above of the action and interaction of the thoughts of our pre-
decessors and our contemporaries in forming and originating new scientific
conceptions in different periods.

A curious example of this is to be found in modern science.

Malthus published his essay on population in 1798, Sir Charles Lyell his

£ Principles of Geology’ in 1830 to 1833.

The great Charles Darwin has told us that it was by the study of these two
books that he was first led to contemplate those changes in nature, and to amass
that vast collection of scientific thought, which resulted in ‘ The Origin of Species,’
published in 1859, coincidently corroborated by the illustrious Wallace.

The co-operation of these two great thinkers, the graceful way in which the
younger gave place to the older observer, marks an advance in the kindlier feelings
of contemporaneous scientific workers, in marked contrast to the virulent and often
acrimonious controversies which characterised the period of Descartes and Newton.
_ 1am not going to enter into a description of the Darwinian hypothesis, but it
is sufficient to say that putting on one side for a moment the details with which it
deals, the teaching of Darwin has produced during the last thirty years an entire
revolution in our ideas, whether we look at them in literature or in science, by
which we begin to understand how, in the long series of past ages, the various
organisms which we find in the fossil state have passed gradually and almost
imperceptibly from a lower to a higher state of organisation. And possibly in the
teachings of our great countryman we see, for the first time, perhaps, in a some-
what dim and distant way, a scientific reason for the origin of those innate ideas
which formed so large a portion of the teaching of that great Frenchman René
Descartes.

And, again, we see in the teachings of science the reiterated lesson that nature
works by slow decrees in an orderly and regular succession, ever advancing, ever
improving, and not by spasmodic jerks; and the train of such ideas naturally leads
the mind to the contemplation of a future more perfect and more beautiful in all
that is good and true.

1900, 3K

866 REPORT—1900.

And in the words of Tennyson we may say—

Yet I doubt not, through the ages one increasing purpose runs,
And the thoughts of men are widened with the process of the suns.

It is not my object to trace the advance of science in all its branches down to
the present time.

I have above indicated the general lines along which the human mind has
advanced in laying the foundations of our modern views; but so intimately are we,
as engineers, connected with all the sciences that I must just refer in the briefest
manner to the development of chemical science as it grew out of the teaching of
Aristotle and Galen, that there were four elements, to the acid and alkaline dis-
coveries of Sylvius, through the teaching of Geoffrey and Stahl of the phlogistic
theory.

We then have the discovery of oxygen by Priestley, and fixed air by Black and
Cavendish, composition of water by Cavendish, Watt, and Lavoisier, followed by
Davy and Dalton, the latter of whom formed our present conception of the atomic
theory and the combination of the elements in their true proportions.

Through Davy, Faraday, and Tyndall we gradually arrive at our electro-
chemical ideas of the present day.

We last year had so lucid an exposition from Professor Fleming, at Dover, of
the march of progress in electrical science during the past century that it would
be presumption on my part to attempt to recapitulate even the names which
extend from William Gilbert, in the sixteenth century, down to the discoveries of
Hertz of the present day. But I may be permitted to point out that from the time
of Volta, Ampére, and Oersted the rapid progress which electrical science has made
has been due in no small measure to the manner in which its experiments have
been treated, on strictly mathematical lines, by the master minds of such men as
Maxwell and Kelvin, until at last we arrive at the demonstration, long foretold,
of the wave theory, which renders wireless telegraphy an accomplished fact.

Light to the engineer has at all times been of supreme importance, and on the
chart we may scan the names of those who have advanced our scientific knowledge
of it from Galileo, Descartes, Huygens, Gregory, Newton, up to Roemer who dis-
covered its velocity, then Halley, Herschel, and the illustrious Thomas Young who
revived and Fresnel who perfected the undulatory theory, until at last we come
to those mysterious Fraunhofer lines, previously noticed by Wollaston, interpreted
by Bunsen and Kirchhoff in 1860, and applied as an aid to chemistry in the analyses
of terrestrial and celestial bodies.

In the theory of heat we have the experiments of Cavendish and Priestley
investigated by Count Rumford, illustrated by Tyndall, and bearing fruit in
Joule’s mechanical equivalent.

Perhaps none of the allied sciences appears so distant from our own profession as
that of physiology,

The discovery of Harvey gives us, however, a beautiful insight into animal
mechanics; and the observations of Leeuwenhoek about the year 1700 first bring
us into contact with those minute organisms which he discovered by means of the
microscope, and which are now found to play so large a part in the economy of
nature.

Up to within the last twenty years it was generally held that dead organic
matter, anima! and vegetable, could but, in the words of Shakespeare, ‘lie in cold
obstruction and rot,’ this process being assisted, it was assumed, by chemical
oxidation; and, until the researches of Pasteur and Koch, we were entirely ignorant
of the fact that nature had at her command countless millions of organisms,
always reducing the effete products of animal and vegetable life back into simpler
elements.

The tendency of later years has clearly been, whether we look at the links
which unite heat and work, chemistry with electricity and magnetism, and light
with both, or physiology with chemistry, to obliterate those boundary lines which
we have been accustomed to regard as fixed, and from the time of the publication

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 867

of Sir W. Grove’s correlation of the physical forces in 1846 we have made con-
tinued advances in the same direction.

What the future may have in store for us we cannot imagine, but clearly if we
compare the facts known at the commencement of the nineteenth century with
those in our possession at the beginning of the twentieth century, we may look
forward to a still richer harvest of what Bacon calls ‘fruits.’

Looking back upon the facts that I have been enabled, and I feel so imperfectly,
to bring before you, I have ‘ to answer’ the question with which we set out.

Modern scientific thought is due to an inquiry into Nature and her works,
irrespective of all preconceived theories, and the breaking away from the authority
which other departments of human thought and faith have in former ages imposed
upon some of the earlier inquirers into science.

Faith in religion has been defined as ‘the substance of things hoped for, the
evidence of things not seen,’ which is altogether apart from the other and wider
faith with which the scientific inquirer contemplates that vast, that stupendous,
that beautiful universe which has been revealed to him by the teaching of his pre-
decessors, and which inspires him with those hopes to which I have just alluded.

On the teaching of the ancients Bacon remarks: ‘The opinion which men
entertain of antiquity is a very idle thing, and almost incongruous to the world ;
for the old age and length of days of the world should in reality be accounted anti-
quity, and ought to be attributed to our own times, not to the youth of the world
which is enjoyed among the ancients, for that age, though with respect to us it be
ancient and greater, yet with regard to the world it was new and less.’

This idea is perhaps more and more beautifully expressed by Tennyson in the
words ‘I, the heir of all the ages in the foremost files of time.’

And in another respect, taking Bacon’s teaching which he so often reiterates, as
being a search after fruits, we must not imagine that the fruits of which he speaks
are necessarily to be gathered in by the worker himself. For the pursuit of true
science is often hindered by the too greedy effort to grasp the sordid rewards of
the present, and, alas! Bacon himself will ever stand as a most painful example
of the depth of degradation to which even the highest minds may fall.

We must learn from Nature what she is continually teaching, that her efforts
are directed, not solely for the benefit of the individual, but for the welfare and
the advancement of the race.

The fruits and the rewards which grow from a study of Nature, and a truly
scientific effort to expound her laws, are of a higher and a wider scope.

And in contemplating the work of the great men of the past with whose names
we have been so freely dealing, looking at the present attitude of the scientific
mind, and our share in the application and directing of those great sources of
power in Nature, we may say :

“No more a wind-borne leaf upon the waves
Of time and chauce, but one to whom is given,
To help the mighty purpose of the world,
To straighten crooked paths, to smooth the hills
Of sin and sorrow, that on some bright day
The great wheels of the world may run their course
Without one jar or check.’

The following Papers were read :—

1. Water Supply, with a Description of the Bradford Waterworks.
By J. Watson, M.Jnst.C.B.+

_ 2. The Disposal of HouseRefuse inBradford. By J.McTaceart,A. MIME.

The author gave particulars as to the quantity of refuse collected, the quantity
destroyed by the destructors, and of the quantity tipped or sold.

1 Published in exténso, Bradford, 1900.
3K 2

:
:
)

&68 REPORT—1900.

Particulars were given as to the number and capacity of refuse destructors in
Bradford, and a complete description of the Hammerton Street destructor, and the
results of a seven days’ test on this destructor were supplied.

The utilisation of the residuum or clinker from the destructors, its use in
mortar making, and the clinker-crushing and screening machinery were described.

A short account was also given of the utilisation of the steam produced by the
destructors, and a description of a new destructor in course of erection at Southtield
Lane.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7.
The following Papers were read :—

1. Resistance of Road Vehicles to Traction.
By Professor Hee Suaw, LL.D., FR.S.

About the time of the general introduction of railways considerable attention
was directed to the nature of the resistances encountered by vehicles upon the
common road, and the researches of Correze, Edgeworth, Coriolis, Morin, Tredgold,
Dupuit, and others must be regarded as having thrown considerable light upon the
subject. From time to time recently others have done work in this direction, but
there is no doubt that the attention directed to traction on railways has thrown
the scientific investigation of the subject of common roads almost entirely into the
background. During the last few years, however, it has been realised that there
was a great field for the development of traction, and particularly by mechanical
means upon the common roads, and the improvement which has been quietly
taking place in the construction and maintenance of roads is a feature of national
importance. Not only is the condition of the pavements in the cities and towns
much improved, but in out-of-the-way districts, such as in the hilly parts of
Cumberland and Westmorland, the use of steam rollers by the County Councils
has effected vast improvement in the state of the roads. Various causes have
contributed to this result, but it is worthy of notice that whereas when the
coaching days became comparatively a thing of the past the roads fell into neglect,
so now the increasing number of cyclists and tourists who visit country places
are an appreciable factor worthy of consideration and encouragement by the
local authorities. The recent remarkable and growing development of motor
vehicles with a legal limit of speed as high as twelve miles an hour, and the
generally increased speeds of tram-cars in cities owing to the introduction of
electricity and steam, give some reason for thinking the general rate of speed on
common roads may reach, or even exceed, the present legal limit applying to motor
vehicles. As showing the mechanical possibilities in this direction, it may be
poe out that quite recently in France between forty and fifty miles an hour
ias been safely maintained for more than 300 miles upon the common road.
Such a speed—or anything approaching to it—would not be allowed in this
country, but the fact remains that it is possible with safety. With heavy traffic
the legal limit for a self-propelled waggon of about two tons tare, capable of carry-
ing several tons, is no less than eight miles an hour, and the heaviest traffic with
a tare limit of vehicle of three tons, probably carrying a load of eight or ten more,
is as high as five miles an hour.

These facts, and the introduction generally of mechanical propulsion, point to
the necessity of having a fairly complete knowledge’ of the resistance of common
roads of various kinds upon different classes of vehicies moving at different speeds.
In the brief historical account given by the author of what has hitherto heen
done in this direction it will be seen that the experimental means of traction has
without exception—as far as the author is aware—been limited to traction by
horses ; ard as at any rate the earlier experiments were made with the view of
horse traction, only two speeds were taken into account, viz., walking and trotting.
Considering the variation in speed of horses under these two conditions, these terms

TRANSACTIONS OF ‘SECTION G. 869

cannot be said to express anything very definite, and certainly afford no guidance
whatever as to the resistance of self-propelled vehicles at various speeds, Again
in recent years large sections of cities have been paved with asphalte and wood,
while the laying of setts or stone pavements has undergone considerable modi-
fication, which is readily seen by an examination of a modern street and one of ten
or fifteen years ago. Another modern development is the introduction of solid
indiarubber and pneumatic tyres, which were at first regarded merely as a luxury,
but have now proved to be an important factor in the life of the vehicle, as well
as of its resistance, this being so much the case that efforts have from time to time
been made to introduce the use of indiarubber tyres upon traction engines.

Beyond the foregoing points, which have not been brought under investigation
in connection with the resistance of vehicles, no attempt appears to have been
made to ascertain the extent to which the various factors of resistance relatively
affect the whole result. Now it is evident that as the higher speeds are used, and
the weights are increased, vibration and shock become more and more important ;
thus the resistance due to the rim of the wheel, and the ways in which it can be
met by mechanical contrivances, must be regarded as quite a different problem from
that of the springs attached to the body of vehicles, and some distinction must be
made between the resistances as affected by each of the foregoing.

Enough has been said to show that there is not only matter for an inquiry
which would be welcomed by makers of road vehicles, especially of self-propelled
road vehicles, but that such an investigation, if it is to be of any real value, must
be thorough, and requires not only some expenditure of money, but cannot well be
undertaken by any single individual. The great interest which was excited by
the paper read by Mr. Thorneycroft at the last meeting at Dover of the British
Association, and the previous communications which have passed between the
author and the President of this Section, who is himself a high authority upon
the question of roads, have led to this matter being brought forward with the
idea of forming a committee of the British Association for the investigation of
road resistance.

In order to facilitate the work of the Committee, a summary of previous investi-
gations in this subject has been prepared, which can be laid before the members, if
it is formed. Some preliminary experiments have also been made with a view to
obtaining some idea of the nature of the apparatus required, and the amount of
expense likely to be entailed.

Preliminary Experiments.

Allusion has been made to the fact that all the previous experiments have been
performed by means of the traction of horses: it seemed with the introduction of
powerful motor cars it might be able to pull steadily any vehicle at any required
speed. This idea really forms the chief feature of the proposed experiments, as it
is evident that if one motor car is not suflicient two or more could be harnessed
to the vehicle which is to be drawn. In order to ascertain how far this idea was
practicable, Mr. J. A. Holder, of Birmingham, who owns a 12 h.p. Daimler car,
was kind enough to visit Liverpool, and on Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday,
July 17, 18, and 19, a series of experiments, in which the author was assisted by
two former students, Mr. Humfrey, B.Sc., and Mr. Cormack, B.Sc., were made,
Mr. Holder's autocar towing the author's New Orleans Voiturette. These
experiments took place over roads of asphalte, wood, setts, and macadam in the
neighbourhood of Liverpool, both level and up the steepest gradients which could
be found, viz., Everton Brow, the details of which were given in a wall diagram.
It will not serve any useful purpose at present to give the detailed results of these
experiments, as they were obviously incomplete, and pointed to the absolute
necessity of more elaborate apparatus of a self-recording nature ; but it may be of
interest to explain the apparatus actually employed, so as to indicate what wiil be
required to insure satisfactory results.

The apparatus consists of two parts, which were illustrated by wall diagrams
(1) a dynamometer, and (2) a speed indicator:

Dynamometer—This consisted of an ordinary spring balance, the back of

870 REPoRT—1900.

‘which was riveted to a cylinder of a small steam engine which acted as 4 dasha
pot. The ports of the steam cylinder were closed up, and a small hole drilled
into the piston was found quite sufficient when the cylinder was filled with oil to
check the free oscillations of the spring.

Speed Indicator.—The speed indicator was a Schaffer and Budenburg tacho-
meter to which a temporary wooden wheel was attached, and a special dial was
made, so that instead of indicating revolutions per minute the miles per hour at
which the vehicle was travelling were at once made visible. The mode of con-
ducting the experiments is shown by a photograph. A rope about 20 feet long
was attached to the Voiturette and connected with the dynamometer, the dial of
which an observer was able to read. At the same time a second observer called
out the actual speed of the vehicle at that instant and the nature of the road
which was being passed over, which were recorded by the first observer in his
notebook, together with the pull on the dynamometer.

The net result of the experiments showed that, even on apparently the
smoothest road, the variation in the pull was so considerable that nothing but
appliances which would record autographically both the pull and yelocity at the
same instant and indicate also the distance travelled, so as to identify the exact
piece of road corresponding to the record, would be of any value. Moreover, it was
evident that some autographic record of the nature of the road, as well as some
instrument for recording the vibration of the vehicle which was being towed, was
necessary in order to form some estimate of the effect of vibration upon the resist-
ance. With such appliances the pull on waggons, lorries, ordinary vehicles with
iron rims, pneumatic and indiarubber tyres, could be investigated for any speed,
and it is not too much to hope that some definite idea of the laws concerning
traction might be found, with the effect of springs, tyres, and the surface of the
road taken into account.

2. The Viagraph. By J. Brown.

The viagraph is an instrument for indicating the degree of unevenness of road
surfaces, and consists in principle of a straight edge to be drawn along the road
surface and provided with a profiling wheel running on the surface, the vertical
motions of which are transmitted to a pencil marking on a paper band, drawn
under its point by a drum revolved by gear connected to the profiling wheel. The
result is a profile of the road surface full size vertically, and 4 inch to 1 foot
horizontally. Means are provided for indicating the sum of the vertical motions
of the profiling wheel, which sum represents numerically the relative unevenness
of the road, and is called the index of unevenness when taken for a unit length of
88 yards of road. This leneth is automatically measured by the iustrument, and
an alarm bell rung when it has been traversed. Speculations as to the causes of
unevenness, the proper make of wheels and springs for a given unevenness, and
calculations of the horse-power absorbed in traction due to unevenness may be
founded on the indications of the instrument.

3. A Self-registering Rain-gauge. By W. J. E. Binnie.

This rain-gauge is constructed so as to register the rate of rainfall at any
moment by means of the drops falling into the interior of the gauge from the
orifice of the collecting funnel.

The weight of each drop depends upon—

1. The surface tension between air and water.
2. The dimensions of the orifice.
3. The interval which separates the fall of the drops.

1. The surface tension varies with the temperature, amounting to about rz
per degree Fahr , giving a probable maximum error of 2} per cent.
3. The influence on the size of the drops of the interval between the fall of

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION G. 71

each is very tnarked when that interval is less than five seconds; biit the telative
dimensions of the funnel and the orifice are so chosen that sufficient interval for
the formation of the drop is allowed even with very heavy rainfalls.

The funnel is so arranged as to discharge into a tube containing the drop
former. From the orifice of the drop former each drop falls and impinges on a
pan carried at one end of a counter-balanced lever. The momentum of the drop
striking the pan causes that end of the lever to be depressed, so that a small
pointer rigidly attached to the lever dips into a cup of mercury, closing the
electric circuit to the receiver. The counter-balance then brings the lever back
to its original position in which the circuit is broken.

The rain, after falling from the pan, passes into a collecting vessel by means
of which the readings can be checked, and which would also obviate the loss of a
record in case of anything going wrong with the instrument,

In this way each drop as it falls sends a current through to the receiver, which
may be placed anywhere.

The receiver consists of a drum driven by clockwork, to which is attached a
diagram in the usual manner. This diagram is divided vertically into time
intervals, and horizontally sv as to read in inches of ‘rainfall,’ the scale being
dependent on the relative dimensions of the collecting funnel and drop former.
Each current transmitted to the receiver works an electro-magnetic escapement
in such a manner as to move a pen on the diagram through a certain space
vertically.

By this means the total rainfall and the variations of rate of rainfall are
registered on the drum.

4, The Coal Fields and Iron Ore Deposits of the Provinces of Shansi and
Honan and Propose’ Railway Construction in China, By J. G. H.
Guass, C.L7.

The general object of this paper was to furnish information respecting the
opening up by British capital of the two large provinces of Shansi and Honan,
and developing the vast and practically unparalleled mineral wealth they contain,
by the construction of a system of railways, starting from the coal-fields of Shansi
and connecting with the Yangtzi River opposite Nanking on the south-east and
the Wei River on the east, at a place called Taokou. At the proposed terminus
pe Nanking, the Yangtzi River is open to sea-going vessels, and at Taokou,
the other terminus, the Wei River is now navigable for barges having a capacity of
from twenty-five to thirty tons as a maximum, and by the expenditure of a
moderate sum in deepening and widening certain parts, navigation would be
eatly improved. The large and commercial town of Tientsin is reached from
aokou by means of the Wei River and the Grand Canal, on both of which there
is free navigation throughout the year, excepting for a short period in the winter
of varying duration, when it is closed by ice. The coal-fields will thus be brought
into communication with the seaboard at Nanking in the south and Tientsin in
the north. The railways will besides connect with numerous waterways inter-
secting the country traversed, most of which are navigable, affording a cheap and
convenient means of conyeying ccal, &c., to the dense population inhabiting the
Great Plain of China.

The paper gave a description of the bituminous and anthracite coal-fields of
Shansi and Honan, visited either by the author or by members of his expedition
last year, and the approximate area of the coal-measures and contents available.
Analyses of specimens of the coal, brought to England for that purpose, were
furnished, and information given on the methods of mining adopted by the
Chinese, the output at the mines visited, and the cost at pit-head. Photographs
of a typical coal-mine, showing the workmen, coal-stacks, and the vehicles used
for transporting the coal, were shown to illustrate the paper, and maps of the
country, showing the proposed railway routes. The paper described the great
deposits of iron ores associated with the coal-fields of Shansi, and the‘r general

Ny

872 REPORT—1900.

distribution and occurrence ; analyses of them were given, and the methods fol-
lowed by the Chinese in their reduction described. Sketches were given of the
furnace employed, the manner of loading it was explained, and details were given
of the results obtained, and an estimate was furnished of the yearly output
gathered from reliable sources, and the cost of production. The description was
illustrated by photographs, The existing means of communication by land and
water was referred to, and information collected by the writer furnished in respect
to the vehicles and pack animals used for carriage on roads, and the cost of trans-
porting the products of the mines under present conditions, A description,
accompanied by photographs, was given of one of the great high roads of China,
the methods of its construction and alignment, and the difficulties which it presents
to vehicular traffic briefly alluded to. Some information was also furnished
regarding wages of skilled and unskilled labour, the general condition of the
people, their food and habits, the effects of the last great famine on them, their
demeanour towards foreigners as experienced by the writer and his staff, and as
gathered from statements received personally from missionaries who have long
resided in the country, and the desire evinced, not only by the workmen them-
selves, but also by officials, to see the natural industries developed whereby regular
employment and good wages would be obtained. The implements used by the
Chinese in mining and other industries, and their methods of agriculture were
alluded to. A general description of the country to be traversed by the proposed
railways, its physical aspects, population, and trade, was given, and also an account
of the rivers and waterways encountered, with special reference to the Yellow
tiver, and the measures to be adopted for bridging it, The gauge on which the
railways are to be built, and the nature of the permanent way and rolling stock
were referred to, and also other matters of interest in connection with construction.
The paper also contained some remarks on existing and projected railways in
China. It concluded with some general remarks on the cost of the lines of railway
referred to, and haulage rates.

5. The Use of Expanded Metal wm Concrete.
Ly Artuur T. Watmistey, I. Jnst.C.£.

The author’s paper began by stating that the subject of the judicious intro-
duction of iron and steel sections into concrete was a leading topic of discussion at
the present time among engineers, and he referred to the paper read at the Liverpool
meeting of the British Association descriptive of the manufacture of expanded
metal by Mr. J. F, Golding, the inventor of the machinery for its production, and
then dealt with its development, with special application to its introduction into
concrete for supplying that tensile element which concrete without metal lacks.
The present machinery is limited to sheets eight feet in length, but larger machines
are in contemplation for the Expanded Metal Company’s works at West Hartle-
pool, to enable sheets of metal long and strong enough for spans of 16-foot
slabs to be supplied. The author assumed that the safe-working unit stress for
concrete in compression is ten times the safe-working unit stress for concrete in
tension, and pointed out that, under these circumstances, with a homogeneous
section of pure concrete having parallel sides the neutral axis must be above the
level of the centre of gravity of a slab laid horizontally or vertically; and that,
assuming—as in the case of a slab supported at the edges—that it is laid flat, the
neutral axis of a section divided the depth into the proportions of 24 and ‘76 re-
spectively in order to create a result equal to a couple in which the compressive
and tensile elements unaided by metal would be in equilibrium. The author then
gave calculations showing the effect of introducing metal into the tensile portion
of the section, whereby the neutral axis under the above conditions of equilibrium
is lowered, the compressive portion is increased, and the neutral axis made to
approach nearer the centre of gravity of the section. Examples were given of a
section containing wires or rods, plates, and inverted tee sections, together with a
comparison of a section containing expanded metal; and the author pointed out
- that the latter provides a uniform distribution of tensile strength in all directions,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 873

‘ample in amount without extravagance, and easily laid without the responsibility
of supervision in placing the material transversely at the specified distances apart,
as would be necessary in the case of separate pieces. The insertion of wires or
individual sections gives strength in the direction of their length, leaving the inter-
mediate concrete comparatively weak. Expanded metal contributes strength
laterally both in the direction ot width and length, as well as giving an effective
keyage in its depth. The coefficients of expansion of the two constituents, iron or
steel and concrete, are considered for all practical purposes to be identical. Results
of experiments made on various-size slabs were next given, the longest span without
intermediate joists being on a slab 12 ft. Gin. by 11 ft. clear span, which was loaded
to 53 ewt. to the foot super, and bore this load for 14 hour before it collapsed, the
fractures occurring at each of the four corners. The gradual increase of the load
and progress of deflection of the slab were related in detail.

The adhesion of iron and concrete was found by Professor Bauschinger, of
Munich, to be about 569 to 668 pounds per square inch, but a case was quoted,
experimenting upon 2 in. diameter anchor bolts set 11} in. in a masonry block, with
lead, sulphur, and cement, from which it was inferred that in suitable setting the
cement joint on a smooth rod might be made to fracture the rod before the adhesion
of the connection failed. The author described the introduction of the aid of
channel arches by the Expanded Metal Company. The spans were enabled to be
increased thereby, the only objection being, in the author’s opinion, the exposure
of the under surface of the channel metal rib; but the surface so exposed is com-
paratively small compared with the various systems of trough flooring that have

been patented. The result of experiments was stated in the paper, the channel

' metal flat arches being firmly held between longitudinal joists spaced at specified
intervals. The author considered that, in order to keep the portion of a slab
containing metal in tension below the neutral axis, the slab should not be fixed at its
bearings ; but he pointed out that probably there is a tendency to form a flat arch
within a concrete beam, which converts a large part of the vertical pressure into
lateral thrust, which in the case of an expanded metal section becomes a tied arch,
and that, in his opinion, a concrete beam should be viewed as a bar, with a hollow
curved soffit. Further developments of the system were reviewed, and diagrams
illustrative of the arguments propounded were exhibited, with a view to elicit
suggestions as to any desired improvement in the size of the meshes employed or
to further experiments needed.

6. Power Generation.—Comparative Cost by the Steam Engine, Water
Turbine, and Gas Engine. By Joun B. C. Kersuaw, £.L.C.

There is no question of greater importance at the present moment to those
engaged in the management of our manufacturing industries than that of power
generation. The supremacy which the steam engine has so long enjoyed is now
assailed from two sides. The water turbine and the gas engine have become
dangerous rivals.

During the past ten years a most remarkable development of hydraulic power
has been taking place on the continent of Europe in France and Germany, and in
America at Niagara.

The aggregate amount of power at the present date generated from falling
water forms no inconsiderable portion of the total power utilised in manufacturing
industries; and two years ago it was estimated by the author to be between
236,000 and 350,000 horse-power.

On the other hand gas engineers have been busily engaged in working out the
problems presented by large gas engines and by the utilisation of the waste gases
of blast furnaces.

Gas engines up to 650 horse-power have been built, and have worked smoothly
and economically ; while at Seraing in Belgium and at other places the blast
furnace gases have been utilised for driving the engines which supply the blast.

The question, therefore, which the engineer now has to settle when deciding
upon the site and locality for a new factory, or when deciding upon the system of

874 REPORT—1900.

power generation to adopt for extensions of the old, is no longer so simple as when
only one method of power generation in large units was open to him.

It is no doubt true that the choice between the three possible sources of power
is one which in many cases will be settled purely by local considerations ; and the
proximity of a large waterfall or of an extensive coalfield to the factory, will be
held to point to the turbine or to the steam engine as the most economical power
generator. Ina great number of cases, however, especially when the decision of
the engineer covers the choice of a site for the factory, the problem is capable of
no such easy solution; and the most economical source of power can only be
determined after an exhaustive study of comparative costs data.

The aim of the writer in the present paper has been to collect and arrange in
comparable form some of the more important figures bearing on the cost of power
generation. Full references are given to all the original articles from which these
figures are drawn.’

Taking the best figures for each of the three sources of power dealt with above,
and bringing them all to a common basis of comparison, namely, the cost of the
E.H.P. year of 8,760 hours, the authcr obtained the figures given below,

Taste VII.—Comparative Costs of Electrical Power.

Lowest Cost per E.H.P. year of 8,760 hours
Source of Power

Estimated Locality | Actual Locality
4s. Sd. le 8. d.
Water. 1 5 5 | Canada | 119 0| Switzerland
Steam . ‘ 418 8 | North England |4 9 7| United States
Gas (Producer) . 56 O O | England — —
Gas(Blast Furnace). | 4 1 7 | Germany | — —

The figures in the table support the opinion, now generally held, that water
when developed without excessive capital expenditure is the cheapest source of
mechanical or electrical energy. When, however, the hydraulic engineering
expenditure has been heavy, or when the power after generation has required to be
transmitted over long distances, the margin between the relative costs of water and
steam power is greatly narrowed, and in some Cases disappears.

Electrical energy generated by falling water is costing more at Rheinfelden, at
Zurich, and at Buffalo than it would cost in South Lancashire if generated by
steam power in large units ; and the margin between the actual charge for power |
. Niagara and the estimated cost of steam power in large generating stations in

‘outh Lancashire is only 12s. 1d. per E.H.P. year.

In this connection it is interesting to note that the charge for electric power
in Buffalo is 13s. 6d. per E.H.P. year higher than at Niagara; and the excessive
charge to small consumers in the same city (25/. 11s. per K.H.P. year) would seem
to indicate that the cost of transmission between Niagara and Butfalo represents at
least 20s. per E.H.P. year on the power sent into that city.

Turning now to a consideration of the relative position of gas power, the ques-
tion of the practicability of large engines may be taken as settled. If they do not
cost excessive sums for maintenance and repairs, large gas engines, in conjunction
with coke ovens and blast furnaces, may entirely alter the present position of
affairs; and the new industries which at present are being established in the
neighbourhood of water-power stations may find themselves in severe competition
with similar manufactures carried on in the coal and iron districts of the older
manufacturing countries,

_ It has been calculated that 2,000,000 H.P. is annually wasted in the gases
issuing from the blast furnaces of the United Kingdom. If these waste gases

1 Tables I. to VI. contain details of sixty-five actual or estimated costs of steam,
water, or gas power per H.P. year of 8,760 hours,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 875

Could be industrially utilised in the manner suggested, we should to a large extent
be compensated for our lack of natural water power.

But blast furnaces demand coke, and coal beds are exhaustible, so that even
if this source of mechanical and electrical energy be tapped it can only postpone,
but not avert, the final triumph of the waterfall and of the turbine.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The Section did not meet.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers were read :—

1. The Automobile for Electric Street Traction, By J.G. W. ALDRIDGE.

2. The Manchester and Liverpool Express Railway.
By Sir W. H. Prrece, /L.S.

A monorail line has been projected by Mr. Behr between Manchester and
Liverpool to accommodate express passenger traffic alone between those two cities.
It is to be worked by electric traction and to attain very high speeds. The train
‘is to consist of only one coach, weighing forty-five tons and seating sixty-four
passengers. Starting at every ten minutes, and travelling at the mean rate of
110 miles an hour, it will do the distance of 34} miles in twenty minutes. The
fares will be slightly lower than those charged at present. There will be no inter-
mediate stations, no points or crossings. There will thus be no necessity for
signals to protect the line during other operations. Signals would be needed
only to secure a perfect block system of working the line. The monorail railway
was projected by Lartigue in 1882.

We have only one example of this system of railway in the United Kingdom,
viz., between Listowel and Ballybunion, in County Kerry, Ireland. This line
was designed and engineered by Mr, Behr. The Act was obtained in 1887, and the
line was opened for traffic in February, 1888, and it has been running ever since.
The line is 94 miles long. It has one intermediate station, Liselton. There
are forty-two level and farm crossings, It is worked by steam. The train
consists of a locomotive and four coaches. It cost 33,000/. to build, or 3,060. per
mile. When I inspected the line in the early part of this year there had never
been a Board of Trade inquiry into any accident. The maintenance of the
structure had been effective. No rail had ever been turned. The mechanical
structure had exhibited no defects, but several breakdowns had occurred in the
locomotive and rolling stock. ‘There are three locomotives, eleven passenger
coaches, and two brake vans. They had, however, continued to work the line
uninterruptedly for twelve years, and there had been no renewals or new stock,
Its main principle is the suspension of the coaches on a single elevated rail so
that their centres of gravity are below the rail. Hach coach sits the rail like a
saddle. The rail is fixed on trestles; which are tied and braced together, the tie
bars being light rails against which guide wheels roll.

The Manchester and Liverpool Express is intended to be more massively and
rigidly built. Derailment on such a structure is impossible, and curves of com-
paratively small radius can be passed with safety at high speeds. Vibrations and
noise will be reduced, and travelling will be conducted with greater comfort than
at present.

It is proposed to fix the generating station midway at Warrington, and to
transmit the electric energy at high pressure (10,000 volts) to each terminal

876 REPORT—1900.

station. There would be sub-stations along the line, at distances apart of four
miles, where the 10,000 volts would be brought down to 1,V00, at which pressure
it would be picked up by the motors on the coach.

The speed which a train can acquire on a railway depends on the power that
can be continuously applied at the thread of the driving wheel. Electricity
enables the engineer to apply instantaneously to light loads a power which steam
cannot supply. Hence speeds are possible with electricity which are unattainable
with steam. A coach weighing forty-five tons can easily and quickly attain 110
miles an hour. 1,600 horse-power will accelerate the coach so as to attain this
speed in 110 seconds, and 500 horse-power will maintain this speed on the level.
Electricity has two advantages over steam. It enables us to obtain an accelera-
tion of 13 feet per second, which is virtually the limit that can be obtained without
causing discomfort to the passengers; and, secondly, it applies a continuous and
constant torque instead of the variable one due to the reciprocating action of the
ordinary steam locomotive. Hence it not only enables us to maintain high speeds
on long through lines like the proposed Manchester and Liverpool Express, but it
enables us to attain high speeds with greater rapidity on short lines having
frequent stoppages, like the Metropolitan railways of London, and thus increase
the capacity of the line for traffic.

The chief causes of accident on ordinary railways, viz., collision, derailment,
points, and the human error of the signalman, will be removed from lines. Hence
travelling will be much safer.

3. Manchester and Liverpool Electrical Lxpress Railway : Brakes
and Signals. By F. B. Brnr.

The questions of brakes and signals are so intimately connected that the one
cannot be treated separately from the other,

The most perfect condition under which a railway could be worked would be
that in which both brakesand signals could be dispensed with ; therefore it follows
that the fewer the occasions for using either, the better.

Now as to brakes, there is a limitation of their application, which depends not
so much on the mechanical appliances themselves as on the endurance of the
passengers. It was stated by an eminent railway official to the Select Committee of
the House of Commons that with the Westinghouse brake a train travelling at 60
miles an hour could be stopped at an emergency, within 360 yards, without
inflicting too great a shock on the passengers. In the same way the proposed
train travelling at 110 miles an hour could be stopped within 500 yards, and
probably in a shorter distance, as in this case electrical means would be at hand,
such as the reversal of the motors, so as to turn them into dynamos. More rapid
stoppages could only be made with great discomfort to the passengers. Now in
the ordinary way of working our railways at present there are many occasions in
which it might be important to stop the train as rapidly as possible; for instance,
if a train should be seen in front, or some shunting operations were not com-
pleted, or in some other cases too many to enumerate. But no brake, however
powerful, would be of the slightest use to-day for avoiding a sudden obstacle,
such as a stone placed on the rail, or a broken rail, for it is impossible for the
driver to be aware of such obstacles until he is practically upon them. In these
a therefore, the power of stopping at 300, or 200, or even 100 yards is quite
useless,

The author then stated that on the proposed high-speed electrical railways,
though it is quite possible to stop the train within less than 500 yards, it never can
be necessary to bring it to a standstill at even a much longer distance.

On the proposed railway there will be no level crossings, no switches, no
shunting operations, and in fact nothing that will require the*train to be
brought to a standstill unless a preceding train should break down. Besides
this. one case, the brakes can only be used for stopping as you approach the
stations. A broken rail produces no danger whatever, for the train would run
over it without any risk or difficulty. ‘This can easily be shown by carefully

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 877

considering the relative position of the wheels of the carriages to the rails over
which they travel.

It remained, therefore, only to explain the manner in which it is arranged
that the driver of each train shall be informed of the possible stoppage of the
train in front of him.

Under normal conditions no second train will leave the station at Manchester
or Liverpool until the first has reached Warrington, a distance of over 17 miles.

The line will be subdivided for the purpose of signalling into eight sections
of 4:3 miles each. As a train leaves Manchester or Liverpool a danger signal is
put up automatically at that station, and a second similar danger signal is put
up in the same way at 4°3 miles off, the first remaining at danger. The train travels
on until it reaches 8°6 miles, when it puts up a third danger signal, and simul-
taneously the signal is lowered at Manchester or Liverpool, so that the second
train can now leave.

Assuming that the first train has met with an accident after passing the point
distant 86 miles, the second train would travel at full speed until it passes point

‘38 miles. The danger signal at that point not having been removed by the first
train, as it never reached point 13 miles, the driver of the second train would be
informed that the first train had met with an accident between 8°6 miles and 13
miles, and therefore that he has to slow down, but that for such lowering of his
speed he has a clear run of over four miles. Therefore, there could be no difficulty
in stopping without using the brake at all by simply cutting off the current.

Whenever a train passes over a point where the danger signal is put up this is
reproduced, either electrically or mechanically, by a very simple and inexpensive
contrivance in the cabin of the driver, so that he would be perfectly able to see it
without difficulty even if there was a thick fog.

Under these conditions of travelling it seems, therefore, superfluous to have any
emergency brakes; and though it will be possible to stop the trains within 500
yards, no ease can be imagined in which it would be useful or necessary to resort
to such a stoppage.

A six minutes’ service of trains could be established without any alteration in
the proposed arrangement, and if a three minutes’ service was required the blocks
would have to be reduced to two-mile sections, giving a clear run of two miles in
case of a breakdown.

4, The Construction of Large Dynamos, as exemplified at the Paris
Exhibition. By Professor 8. P. Toompson, F.R.S.

B. Recent Tramway Construction. By W. Dawson.

6. Measurement of the Tractive Force, Resistance, and Acceleration of
Trains. By A. Mattock.

The author described in the paper some experiments recently made on electric
and other railways, the object of the experiments being to determine the accelera-
tion, tractive force, and running resistance to which the trains are subject.

The appliance used was a short pendulum whose free vibrations are adequately
damped. If this is snspended on the moving body it will hang in the direction
which is the resultant of gravity and the acceleration which the body at the time
experiences; hence the angle which such a pendulum makes with the vertical
gives the measure of the accelerations at each instant.

In the experiments the pendulum was arranged so as to record its position on
uniformly moving paper, on which at the same time seconds were marked by an
electyic clock, and a contact marker, worked from one of the wheels of the carriage,
caused a second pen to record each revolution performed by the wheel, The

878 ‘ REPORT—1900.

diagram thus obtained gives a direct measure of the speed and acceleration of the
carriage.

The author showed that pendulum observations, combined with a record of
speed and power supplied, offer a simple and effective means of determining the
resistance to, and efficiency of, electric or other kinds of motor vehicles.

7. On a Combination integrating Wattmeter and Maximum Demand
Indicator. By T. Barker.

The paper fully sets forth the advantages of the maximum demand system of
charging for the supply of electricity, and describes a new meter—the invention
of Messrs. Barker and Ewing--to be used for this purpose. The paper was illus-
trated by diagrams, and examples of the meter were exhibited.

In charging for the supply of electricity it has become usual to make a dis-
tinction in the prices charged to those consumers who use a few lights for many
hours per day and those who use many lights for an hour or less; for, although at
the end of the year the number of units consumed may be the same in both cases,
the cost to the company or corporation in machinery, mains, and every other charge
will be in the ratio of the number of lamps lighted at one time. The consumer
who uses a few lamps for many hours should be charged at a less rate per unit in
view of the smaller capital expenditure which his supply involves.

The late Dr. Hopkinson advocated a system which takes account of this con-
sideration in arriving at the fair price to be charged for current. In the system in
question, now known as the ‘ Maximum Demand System,’ the total quantity of
electricity consumed in six months is measured in the usual way, and the greatest
rate at which the consumer has been taking current is also recorded. If the con-
sumer in the six months’ period takes a smaller total than would correspond to
one hour a day at the greatest rate of demand, he is charged the full price per
unit, but if the total consumption exceeds this he is charged a reduced rate for
each unit in excess.

The system has been used with marked success in some seventy-two towns,
It has improved the load factor, and has enabled a large number of additional
units to be sold without increase of station plant or mains. Until the introduc-
tion of Barker and Ewing’s Demand Indicator it was necessary to use two meters
—one to record the total number of units taken by the consumer and the other to
show his maximum rate of demand.

The Barker and Ewing Indicator forms an integral part of the ordinary meter,
and absorbs no energy; it further records watts and not amperes. With an alter-
nating supply it shows actual watts and not apparent watts, an important difference
in the case of motors andarc-lamps. It is not affected by any ordinary short circuit,
its time lag being sufficient to prevent 1t coming into action. The Indicator may
be used to show the actual rate of demand at any instant in place of recording the
maximum rate of demand. In this form it is specially useful in switchboard
instruments, showing the attendant the rate at which electric energy is passing
through a feeder or is supplied from a dynamo at any instant. The meter also
serves at the same time to integrate the total amount which has passed through
that particular feeder or machine.

8. The Design and Location of Electric Generating Stations.
By Aurrep H. Grssines, I Inst.£L.

The term ‘central station’ is gradually being supplanted by more comprehen
sive designations,

All design and arrangement in regard to electric works must be with a view
to securing the highest average efficiency together with reliability in operation.
Electric works at present do not fulfil these conditions, but that may excusably
be accounted for because it was impossible to foresee modern’ developments.
Electricity, at first used for lighting only, has now come to be used in the form

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 879

of electric motive power and electric traction. The attempt to supply all these
from one generating station has led to the use of unsuitable plant, to confusion in
the station itself, but at the same time to a reduction in prices charged. It has
also resulted in a large variation in capital cost per kilowatt of plant. Small and
isolated undertakings try to attain equally successful results by other experiments,
but fail. Economical production is only possible where both the generating costs
and the standing charges are reduced together as the load increases and the system
extends. To effect this generating works must in future be constructed and
located with a view to include the supply of energy for motive power, tramways,
and electro-chemical purposes. Details of such construction and location should
embody the following points :—

(1) The machinery must be designed to generate at high voltage, differing
according to the extent of the area and the nature of the system, but it must be
suitable for transformation at sub-stations to meet all possible requirements.

(2) The type of all boilers, engines, electric generators, switchboards, &c., must
be simple and mechanically reliable, even at the sacrifice of some slight maximum
economy.

(3) All complicated gear and fanciful combinations, such as might lead to
possible breakdown, must be avoided throughout the entire arrangement.

(4) As far as possible the different units of the respective types of plant should
be uniform in design and arrangement and made to one standard size, thus econo-
mising in Jabour, avoiding large ‘ stand-by’ plant and spare gear,

(5) The buildings should be devoid of all unnecessary embellishments, nor
should an attempt be made to confine too many departments under one roof.

(6) The location should be such as to ensure a cheap and ready supply and
delivery of fuel, and where condensing can be accomplished efficiently and
inexpensively.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,
The following Report and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Small Screw Gauges. See Reports, p. 436.

2. On Screw Threads used in Cycle Construction, and for Screws subject to
Vibration. By O. P. CLements.

The Chairman of the Screw Gauge Committee of this Association has honoured
me by the request that I would contribute a short paper on screw threads which,
in my experience, have proved to be the most suitable for use in cycle construction
and for screws that are subject to vibration. In complying with this request I
propose to confine myself chiefly to the consideration of what is of most importance
in this connection, namely. the shape of the threads. The time limit allowed for
this paper would be inadequate for dealing exhaustively with such matters as
pitch in relation to diameters, interchangeability, and gauging.

In my opinion it would be impossible to devise a standard thread suitable for all

classes of work and the various conditions of use. At present there are not only
standard threads differing so much in shape as the Whitworth and the American,
but also a large number of bastard threads, differing in shape from either of these,
and which have been adopted in most instances as a matter of expediency and
necessity. A too slavish use of a standard thread has no doubt often been the
cause of much mischief and inconvenience in its adaptation to purposes jor which
it was unsuitable.
» When Sir Joseph Whitworth framed his system of threads and pitches he
had not at his command the superior quality of steel for the manufacture of
screws which we have in the present day. If he had, I venture to think that his
system would have been somewhat modified both in shape of thread and in pitch.

880 REPORT—1900,

I think that the correctness of these views cannot be better demonstrated than
by showing what is the general practice and experience with regard to screws
used in the gun trade. In both sporting guns and military rifles the screws are
subject to severe vibration as well as sudden strains, and ure therefore extremely
liable to work loose. To obviate this the gunmaker uses a thread with a
well rounded top, and care is taken that the whole of the thread fits well, but more
especially the top of the thread, where the frictional contact on the greatest
circumferential portion of the screw will prevent loosening. We have thus a thread
that differs from any recognised standard. It is shallow, with a large angle of
the sides generally about 60°, and is admirably suited for the purpose of resisting
vibration.

I will now refer toa shape of thread which merits consideration, namely, flat-
topped threads, which are very suitable for many purposes. It is also a shape of
thread to which most accurate gauges can be made ; but while admitting their un-
doubted suitability for gauge making, I must remark that gauges for threads with
rounded tops can also be made satisfactorily, for all practical purposes, both as
regards size and form, and so as to be perfectly reversible. Such gauge making,
however, certainly requires a skill and experience which can be attained in but few
tool shops. The flat-topped thread can be most accurately formed with a single
tool on the ordinary screw-cutting lathes, or on machines having a leading
screw or former. The tool can be easily ground to correct shape, and so as to
have the cutting clearance which is necessary for the durability of the tool and
for the production of clean and accurate work.

There are, however, serious objections to the adoption of suck a thread for
screws used in cycle work, and for screws subject to vibration. It is certain
that the flat-topped thread cannot give the frictional resistance to vibration
which is the case with the round top; and in the economical production of
such work it would be very difficult to maintain the correct shape of the
thread. In this production, screwing dies are chiefly used, and these tools show
the first and most rapid wear on the parts forming the sharp edges or corners
of the thread. For this reason it will be found a serious matter to keep up
the screwing tackle, male and female, in the proper working condition necessary to
produce flat-topped threads, especially if they should have a small angle of the
sides. I am regarding this matter from the commercial point of view, that is,
the production of work in quantities to be profitable and accurate, so far as .
accuracy is commercially possible.

In my experience the most favourable shape of thread for production with
screwing dies and taps is a shallow thread with a large angle of the sides.
This will give the best cutting clearance in the screwing tools. All the faults and
errors in screw threads, and the difficulties in manufacture, can generally be
traced to the bad cutting clearance in screwing dies and taps for high threads with
small angles of the sides. Thus, through the strain put on the sides of such
threads, there is a liability to breakage of the threads on the screwing dies
and taps, and it also causes the screw to elongate and produces a fewer number of
threads to the inch than standard pitch requires. This pitch error is a most
serious fault, as the strain which should be distributed over all the threads is
often taken by only one or two of them.

Owing to the rapid wear of dies and taps with a bad cutting clearance, a
faulty shape of thread is produced, especialiy at the sides of the thread. The
angle of the male thread is often different from that of the female thread, and,
in such case, the bearing surface at the sides of the thread is, of course, con-
siderably reduced. This fault is especially serious in long-sided threads.

The spreading or elongation of the thread is another matter which I may here
refer to, [t is found necessary in tapping holes to drill or reamev the hole larger
“than the bottom of the thread on the male screw. In the process of tapping, the
thread elongates so as to fill the cavities between the threads and the tap, and
upon the completion of the operation the hole will be found to be considerably
smaller than when the tap was first inserted. This elongation also occurs in
the male thread, but to a less degree, and if proper allowance for it is neglected,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 881

ripping of the threads will be caused. Much depends, also, on the material to
be operated upon. In mild steel the elongation is more than in hard steel ;
in brass and gun metal rather more than in mild steel; and in cast iron it is
considerably less than in either of the other metals mentioned. Further, in
threads with a small angle of the sides it is considerably more than in those having
a large angle.

The screws used in cycle construction are subject to even more continuous
vibration than gun screws, but owing also to the low margin of safety in cycle
work, it has been found necessary to use shallow threads, so as to give the
greatest possible strength to the core, and to obtain a large angle of the sides
of thread, which especially is important, as a large number of parts are har-
dened, and therefore the greatest possible strength of thread is necessary.
While a few firms use the Whitworth thread exclusively, others use a shallow
thread, as before described, in a portion of their component parts, with Whitworth
‘threads in the remainder. With the exception of two instances, as will be seen
from the attached list, the shallow thread is adopted throughout for B.S.A.
cycle components. Time, however, will not permit me to give the reasons why a
different thread is used in the two exceptions, but they illustrate the necessity
which sometimes arises for the adoption of a different thread to suit altered
conditions.

The ‘B.S.A.’ thread is now extensively adopted as a standard in the cycle
trade, and although the B.S.A. Company make all their own screws, the screw
manufacturers to the trade have found it necessary to make the ‘B.S.A.’ standard
a staple article of their trade, and tool makers have also now a marketable article
in taps, dies, and chasers for the ‘B.S.A.’ thread.

The illustration which was exhibited gave the section of the ‘ B.S.A.’ thread,and
for comparison also sections of the British Association, the Whitworth, and the Seller
threads. A list of the diameters, pitches, &c., of the screws used in the ‘BS.A?
cycle components was also given. It is to be noted that the angle of the ‘B.S A’
thread is 60°, with tops and bottoms rounded to a radius of one-sixth of the pitch,
and this is practically the shape of the thread used for the screws of the Lee-Enfield
Magazine Rifle, which is manufactured for Her Majesty’s Government by the B.S.A.
Company.

3. Lhe Photographic Method of preparing Teatile Designs.
By Professor Roperts Beaumont, II.Mech.E., Yorkshire College, Leeds.

The preparation of designs for the loom has, throughout the history of
weaving, been regarded as a purely manual process controlled by the intelligence,
ingenuity, and skill of the craftsman. It is only natural, therefore, that the
invention of apparatus for this specific purpose should have created much interest
amongst both British and foreign textile experts. Photography, as understood
and practised, appeared as incapable of aiding the artist in the actual painting of
his picture as the designer in the transference and execution of the plain sketch of
the pattern on to the ‘scale’ paper for the loom. Within the wide range of
technical and scientific data in the construction and embellishment of woven
fabrics there is, perhaps, no phase of the work more difficult to assail, by
mechanical devices, than the application and adjustment of the manifold ‘ weave’
units which compose all figured textiles.

Design acquired in the loom is a distinct type of ornamentation involved in.
varied technicalities, It is not the result. of one but of a number of processes, over-
lapping each other, and yet uniting to construct and perfect the same woven effect.
Fabric and design have to be simultaneously obtained. These can only be
divorced by resorting to the arts of printing, embroidery, and painting. Obviously,
in the preparation of the‘ design ’ sketch for weaving, numerous limitations have to
be encountered, whicb, on a first consideration. seem liuble to be increased rather
than diminished by a photographic process of design-development. Much ingenuity
has been exercised by Szczepanik in his solution of these ‘weave’ problems.
Szezepanik’s apparatus is not for the origination of designs either in the

1900, ; 3L

§82 REPORT—1 900.

theoretical or technical form, for in both processes the knowledge of the expert
is demanded ; but its province is to lessen, and, in some instances, dispense with,
the monotonous manual labour necessitated by the present system. There are large
areas of point paper in elaborate designs to which the same weave effect has to be
applied, and where some labour-saving device is much needed, Further, in the
enlargement of the artist’s sketch to scale there is much mechanical work that it
ought to be possible to reduce. The photographic inventions of Szczepanik profess
to accomplish these objects, and the designs submitted prove that there are
possibilities of success in certain styles of pattern. A new field for experiment
has been discovered, the extent of which it is not possible to forecast, but it may
reasonably be anticipated that the genius and temerity of the discoverer will prove
equal to its more complete exploration.

The essential purpose of Szczepanik’s invention is to develop from the ordinary
sketch and enlarge to a prescribed scale the technically prepared design, marked
with the thousands, or may be millions, of dots grouped in different orders and so fitted
together as to impart precise definition to the several portions of the woven figure
or design. ‘The process is threefold, consisting (1) of the preparation of the ruled
paper; (2) the development of the design from an ordinary photographic negative ;
and (3) the application of the weave units to the several parts of the figure.
Primarily the apparatus consists of an optical lantern with a suitable arrangement
of lenses. One important factor is the ‘raster’ or multiplying plate, containing
some 435,600 perforations, through each of which the weave type passes, and is
printed on the enlarged design. In addition there are weave-plates for determin-
ing the details of the pattern, and small metal slides for producing particular
sections in distinct forms of type, so that they may be as readily distinguished
from each other as if sketched in various colours.

The light from the lantern passes through the negative of the design, entering
a pair of lenses between which is fixed the small metal plate of the proper shape
for developing the marks on the sensitised paper. The process consists in dividing
and subdividing the ‘scale’ pattern into rectangular spaces, and of marking each
with the correct weave type. When there is no negative in the lantern this type
is repeated as many times as there are holes in the ‘raster, showing the
feasibility of marking every square photographically on any kind of weaver’s
paper.

Tn the first place, the negative is made of the complete design, and all parts
erased but the ground sections, allowing of these being printed with their supple-
mentary weave elements. Negatives of every part of the pattern are similarly
printed in succession until the entire design has been obtained. For the production
of shaded work, e.g. portraits and pictorial subjects, selecting plates are employed.
These secure an accurate graduation of tones perfectly in harmony with the
photograph from which they are derived. Provision is made for the execution of
patterns in compound as well as in single structure fabrics ; but it follows, the more
complex the build of the texture, the more intricate the process of design produc-
tion. Certain textile designs may evidently be produced photographically by the
Szezepanik system, so that it is now a question for demonstration whether
designs so produced are comparable in legibility and equal for all practical
purposes—as forcible in detail, as vital in execution—to those prepared by the
much slower hand method,

4. Shop Buildings. By E. R, Cuarx, M.Lnst.C.£.

5. The Internal Architecture of Steel. By Professor ARNOLD.

6. A New Form of Calorimeter for measuring the Wetness of Steam.
By Professor J. GOODMAN.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G, 883

7. On the Reheating of Compressed Air.
By Wituiam Georce Waker, 4.IL00.£., MIME.

Considerable economy can be obtained by reheating compressed air before

admitting it to the engine.
Reheating is accomplished by two methods :—

1. By passing the air through hot pipes heated by a furnace fire.
2. By pasaing the compressed air through water in a boiler at a temperature

depending on the pressure in the boiler.

The author and Mr. P. Y. Alexander have investigated these methods.
Generally speaking, the results show that an additional horse-power can be
obtained with an expenditure of one pound of coal, which is more efficient than
the most economical engine and boiler using steam.

The experiments show that in many cases it would prove advantageous to use
compressed air in conjunction with steam in an ordinary engine.

312

884 REPORT—1900.

Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor Joun Ruys, M,.A,, LL.D.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.
The President delivered the following Address:—

Prruars I ought to begin by apologising for my conspicuous lack of qualifica-
tion to fill this ckair, but I prefer, with your permission, to dismiss that as a
subject far too large for me to dispose of this morning. So I would beg to call
your attention back fora moment to the excellent address given to this Section
Jast year. It was full of practical suggestions which are well worth recalling: one
was as to the project of a Bureau of Ethnology for Greater Britain, and the other
turned on the desirability of founding an Imperial Institution to represent our vast
Colonial Empire. I mention these things in the hope that we shall not leave the
Government and others concerned any peace till we have realised those modest
dreams of enlightenment. People’s minds are just now so full of other things that
the interests of knowledge and science are in no little danger of being overlooked.
So it is all the more desirable that the British Association, as our great parliament
of science, should take the necessary steps to prevent that happening, and to keep
steadily before the public the duties which a great and composite nation like ours
owes to the world and to humanity, whether civilised or savage.

The difficulties of the position of the president of this Section arise in a great
measure from the vastness of the field of research which the Science of Man covers.
He is, therefore, constrained to limit his attention as a rule to some small corner
of it; and, with the audacity of ignorance, I have selected that which might be
labelled the early ethnology of the British Isles, but I propose to approach it only
along the precarious paths of folklore and philology, because I know no other.
Here, however, comes a personal difficulty: at any rate I suppose I ought to
pretend that I feel it a difficulty, namely, that I have committed myself to
publicity on that subject already. But as a matter of fact, 1 can hardly bring
myself to confess to any such feeling; and this leads me to mention in passing
the change of attitude which I have lived to notice in the ease of students in my
position. Most of us here present have known men who, when they had
once printed their views on their favourite subjects of study, stuck to those views
through thick and thin, or at most limited themselves to changing the place of a
comma here and there, or replacing an occasional and by a but. The work had then
been made perfect, and not a few great questions affecting no inconsiderable portions
of the universe had been for ever set at rest. That was briefly the process of
getting ready for posterity, but one of its disadvantages was that those who
adopted it had to waste a good deal of time in the daily practice of the art of
fencing and winning verbal victories ; for, metaphorically speaking,

‘With many a whack and many a bang
Rough crabtree and old iron rane.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 885

Now all that, however amusing it may have been, has been changed, and what
now happens is somewhat as follows: AB makes an experiment or propounds
what he calls a working hypothesis; but no sooner has AB done so than CD, who
is engaged in the same sort of research, proceeds to improve on AB. This,
instead of impelling AB to rush after CD with all kinds of epithets, and insinuating
that his character is deficient in all the ordinary virtues of a man and a brother,
only makes him go to work again and see whether he cannot improve on CD's
results; and most likely he succeeds, for one discovery leads to another. So we
have the spectacle not infrequently of a man illustrating the truth of the poet’s
belief,

‘That men may rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves to higher things.’

It is a severe discipline in which all display of feeling is considered bad form. Of
course every now and then a spirit of the ruder kind discards the rules of the game
and attracts attention by having public fits of bad temper ; but generally speaking
the rivalry goes on quietly enough to the verge of monotony, with the net result
that the stock of knowledge is increased. I may be told, however, that while
this kind of exercise may be agreeable to the ass who writes, it is not conducive
to the safety of the publisher’s chickens. To that it might suffice to answer that
the publisher is usually one who is well able to take good care of his chickens;
but, seriously, what it would probably mean is, that in the matter of the more pro-
gressive branches of study, smaller editions of the books dealing with them would be
required, but a more frequent issue of improved editions of them or else new books
altogether, a state of things to which the publisher would probably find ways of
adapting himself without loss of profit, And after all, the interests of know-
ledge must be reckoned uppermost. It is needless to say that I have in view only a
class of books which literary men proper do not admit to be literature at all; and
the book trade has one of its mainstays, beyond all doubt, in books of pure litera-
ture, which are like the angels that neither marry nor give in marriage: they go on
for ever in their serene singleness of purpose to charm and chasten the reader's
mind,

My predecessor last year alluded to an Oxford don said to have given it as his
conviction, that anthropology rests on a foundation of romance. I have no notion
who that Oxford don may have been, but I am well aware that Oxford dons have
sometimes a knack of using very striking language. In this case, however, I
should be inclined to share to a certain extent that Oxford don’s regard for
romance, holding as I do that the facts of history are not the only facts deserving
of careful study by the anthropologist. There are also the facts of fiction, and to
some of those I would now call your attention. Recently, in putting together
a volume on Welsh folklore, I had to try to classify and analyse in my mind the
stories which have been current in Wales about the fairies. Now the mass of
folklore about the fairies is of various origins. Thus with them have been more or
less inseparably confounded certain divinities or demons, especially various kinds
of beings associated with the rivers and lakes of the country. They are creations
introduced from the workshop of the imagination; then there is the dead ancestor,
who also seems to have contributed his share to the sum total of our notions about
the Little People. In far the greater number of cases, however, we seem to have
something historical, or, at any rate, something which may be contemplated as
historical, The key to the fairy idea is that there once was a real race of people
to whom all kinds of attributes, possible and impossible, have been given in the
course of uncounted centuries of story-telling by races endowed with a lively
imagination.

When the mortal midwife has been fetched to attend on a fairy mother in a
fairy palace, she is handed an ointment which she is to apply to the fairy baby’s
eyes, at the same time that she is gravely warned not to touch her own eyes with
it. Of course any one can foresee that when she is engaged in applying the
ointment to the young fairy’s eyes one of her own eyes is certain to itch and have
the benefit of the forbidden salve. When this happens the midwife has two very

886 REPORT—1900,

different views of her surroundings: with the untouched eye she sees that she is
in the finest and grandest place that she has ever beheld in her life, and there she
can see the lady on whom she is attending reposing on a bed, while with the
anointed eye she perceives how she is lying on a bundle of rushes and withered
ferns in a large cave, with big stones all round her and a little fire in one
corner, and she also discovers that the woman is a girl who has once been
her servant. Like the midwife we have also to exercise a sort of double vision,
if we are to understand the fairies and see through the stories about them. An
instance will explain what I mean: Fairy women are pretty generally represented
as fascinating to the last degree and gorgeously dressed: that is how they
appear through the glamour in which they move and have their being. On the
other hand, not only are some tribes of some fairies described as ugly, but fairy
children when left as changelings are pictured invariably as repulsive urchins of a
sallow complexion and mostly deformed about the feet and legs: there we have
the real fairy with the glamour taken off and a certain amount of depreciatory
exaggeration put on.

Now when one approaches the fairy question in this kind of way, one is forced,
it strikes me, to conclude that the fairies, as a real people, consisted of a short,
stumpy, swarthy race, which made its habitations underground or otherwise
cunningly concealed. They were hunters, probably, and fishermen; at any rate
they were not tillers of the ground or eaters of bread. Most likely they had some
of the domestic animals and lived mainly on milk and the produce of the chase,
together with what they got by stealing. They seem to have practised the art
of spinning, though they do not appear to have thought much of clothing. They
had no tools or implements made of metal. They had probably a language
of their own, which would imply a time when they understood no other and
explain why, when they came to a town to do their marketing, they laid down
the exact money without uttering a syllable to anybody by way of bargaining for
their purchases. They counted by fives and only dealt in the simplest of numbers.
They were inordinately fond of music and dancing. They had a marvellously
quick sense of hearing, and they were consummate thieves: but their thieving was
not systematically resented, as their visits were held to bring luck and prosperity.
More powerful races generally feared them as formidable magicians who knew the
future and could cause or cure disease as they pleased. The fairies took pains to
conceal their names no less than their abodes, and when the name happened to be
Giscovered by strangers the bearer of it usually lost heart and considered himself
beaten. Their family relations were of the lowest order: they not only reckoned
no fathers, but it may be that, like certain Australian savages recently described
by Spencer and Gillen, they had no notion of paternity at all. The stage of
civilisation in which fatherhood is of little or no account has left evidence of itself
in Celtic literature, as I shall show presently; but the other and lower stage
anterior to the idea of fatherhood at all comes into sight only in certain bits of
folklore, both Welsh and Irish, to the effect that the fairies were all women and
girls. Where could such an idea have originated? Only, it seems to me, among
@ race once on a level with the native Australians to whom I have alluded, and
of whom Frazer of ‘the Golden Bough’ wrote as follows in last year’s ‘ Fort-
nightly Review:’ ‘Thus, in the opinion of these savages, every conception is
what we are wont to call an immaculate conception, being brought about by the
entrance into the mother of a spirit, apart from any contact with the other sex.
Students of folklore have long been familiar with the notions of this sort occurring
in the stories of the birth of miraculous personages, but this is the first case on
record of a tribe who believe in immaculate conception as the sole cause of the
birth of every human being who comes into the world. A people so ignorant of
the most elementary of natural processes may well rank at the very bottom of the
savage scale.’ Those are Dr. Frazer’s words, and for a people in that stage of
ignorance to have imagined a race all women seems logical and natural enough—
but for no other, The direct conclusion, however, to be drawn from this argu-
ment is that some race—possibly more than one—which has contributed to the
folklore about our fairies, has passed through the stage of ignorance just indicated ;

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 887

but as an indirect inference one would probably be right in supposing this race
to bave been no other than the very primitive one which has been exaggerated
into fairies. At the same time it must be admitted that they could not have been
singular always in this respect among the nations of antiquity, as is amply proved
by the prevalence of legends about virgin mothers, to whom Frazer alludes,
not to mention certain wild stories such as some of those recorded by the naturalist
Pliny concerning certain kinds of animals.

Some help to make out the real history of the Little People may be derived
from the names given them, of which the most common in Welsh is that of
y Tylwyth Teg or the Fair Family. But the word cor, ‘a dwarf, feminine corres,
is also applied to them ; and in Breton we have the same word with such deriva.
tives as horrik, ‘a fairy, a wee little wizard or sorcerer,’ with a feminine korrigan
or korrigez, analogously meaning a she-fairy or a diminutive witch. From cor we
have in Welsh the name of a people called the Corannians figuring in a story in
the fourteenth-century manuscript of the Red Book of Hergest. There one learns
that the Corannians were such consummate magicians that they could hear every
word that reached the wind, as it is put; so they could not be harmed. ‘The name
Corannians of those fairies has suggested to Welsh writers a similar explanation
of the name of a real people of ancient Britain. I refer to the Coritani, whom
Ptolemy located, roughly speaking, between the river Trent and Norfolk, assigning
to them the two towns of Lindum, Lincoln, and Rate, supposed to have been
approximately where Leicester now stands. It looks as if all invaders from
the Continent had avoided the coast from Norfolk up to the neighbourhood of the
Humber, for the good reason, probably, that it afforded very few inviting landing-
places. So here presumably the ancient inhabitants may have survived in suffi-
cient numbers to have been called by their neighbours of a different race ‘the
dwarls’ or Coritani, as late as Ptolemy’s time in the second century. This
harmonises with the fact that the Coritani are not mentioned as doing anything,
all political initiative having long before probably passed out of their hands into
those of a more powerful race. How far inland the Coritanian territory extended
it is impossible to say, but it may have embraced the northern half of North-
amptonshire, where we have a place-name Pytchley, from an earlier Pihtes léa,
meaning ‘ The Pict’s Meadow,’ or else the meadow of a man called Pict. At all
events, their country took in the fen district containing Croyland, where towards
the end of the seventh century St. Guthlac set up his cell on the side of an
ancient tumulus and was disturbed by demons that talked Welsh. Certain portions
of the Coritanian country offered, as one may infer, special advantages as a home
for retreating nationalities: witness as late as the eleventh century the resistance
offered by Hereward in the Isle of Ely to the Norman Conqueror and his mail-
clad warriors.

In reasoning backwards from the stories about the Little People to a race in
somé respects on a level with Australian savages, we come probably in contact
with one of the very earliest populations of these islands, It is needless to say
that we have no data to ascertain how long that occupation may have been
uncontested, if at all, or what progress was made in the course of it: perhaps
archeology will be able some day to help us to form a guess on that subject. But
the question more immediately pressing for answer is, with what race outside
Wales may one compare or identify the ancient stock caricatured in Welsh fairy
tales? Now, in the lowlands of Scotland, together with the Orkneys and Shet-
lands, the place of our fairies is to some extent taken by the Picts, or, as they
are there colloquially called, ‘the Pechts.’ My information about the Pechts
comes mostly from recent writings on the subject by Mr. David MacRitchie, of
Edinburgh, from whom one learns, among other things, that certain underground—
or partially underground—habitations in Scotland are ascribed to the Pechts.
Now one kind of these Pechts’ dwellings appear from the outside like hillocks
covered with grass, so as presumably not to attract attention, an object which was
further helped by making the entrance very low and as inconspicuous as possible.
But one of the most remarkable things about them is the fact that the cells or
apartments into which they are divided are frequently so small that their inmates

888 REPORT—1900.

must have been of very short stature, like our Welsh fairies. Thus, though there
appears to be no reason for regarding the northern Picts themselves as an under-
sized race, there must have been a people of that description in their country.
Perhaps archeologists may succeed in classifying the ancient habitatious in the
WWorth accordingly: that is, to tell us what class of them were built by the Picts
aod what by the Little People whom they may be supposed to have found in posses-
sion of that part of our island.

In Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland the fairies derive their more usual
appellations from a word sid or sith (genitive side), which may perhaps be akin to
the Latin sédes and have meant a seat, settlement, or station; but whatever its
exact meaning may have originally been, it came to be applied to the hillocks or
mounds within which the Little People made their abodes. Thus des Side as a
name for the fairies may be rendered by mound people or hill folk; fer side, ‘a
fairy man,’ by a mound man; and den side by a mound woman or banshee. They
were also called simply sfde, which would seem to be an adjective closely allied
with the simpler word sid.

But to leave this question of their names, let me direct your attention for a
moment to one of the most famous kings of the fairies of ancient Erin: he was
called Mider of Bri Léith, said to be a hill to the west of Ardagh, in the present
county of Longford. There he had his mound, to which he once carried the queen
of Eochaid Airem, monarch of Ireland. It was some time before Eochaid could
discover what had become of her, and he ordered Dalan, his druid, to find it out.
So the druid, when he had been unsuccessiul for a whole year, prepared four twigs
of yew and wrote on them in Ogam. Then it was revealed to him through his
keys of seership and through the Ogam writing, that the queen was in the sid of
Bri Léith, having been taken thither by Mider. By this we are probably to
understand that the druid sent forth the Ogam twigs as letters of enquiry to other
druids in different parts of the country ; but in any case he was at last successful,
and his king hurried at the head of an army to Bri Léith, where they began in
earnest to demolish Mider’s mound. At this Mider was so frightened that he sent
the queen forth to her husband, who then departed, leaving the fairies to digest
their wrath; for it is characteristic cf them that they did not fight, but bided their
time for revenge, which in this case did not come till long after Eochaid’s day.
Now, with regard to the fairy king, one is not told, so far as I can call to mind,
that he was a dwarf, but the dwarfs were not far off; for we read of an Irish
satirist who is represented as notorious for his stinginess, and who, to emphasise the
description of his inhospitable habits, is said to have taken from Mider three of his
dwarfs and stationed them around his own house, in order that their truculent looks
and rude words might repel any of the men of Erin who might come seeking hospita-
lity or bringing any other inconvenient request. The word used for dwarf in this
story is corr, which is usually the Irish for a crane or heron, but here, and in some
other instances, which I cannot now discuss, it seems to have been identical with the
Brythonic cor, ‘a dwarf.’ It is remarkable, moreover, that the réle assigned to
the three Irish corrs is much the same as that of the dwarf of Edern son of
Nudd, in the Welsh story of Geraint and Enid and Chrétien de Troies’ Erec,
which characterises him as fel et de put’eire, ‘treacherous and of an evil kind.’

By way of summarising these notes on the Mound Folk I may say that I
should regard them as isolated and wretched remnants of a widely spread race
possessing no political significance whatsoever. But, with the inconsistency
characteristic of everything connected with the fairies, one has on the other hand
to admit, that this strange people seems to have exercised on the Celts—probably
on other races as well—a sort of permanent spell of mysteriousness and awe
stretching to the verge of adoration. In fact, Irish literature states that the pagan
tribes of Erin before the advent of St. Patrick used to worship the séde or the
fairies. Lastly the Celt’s faculty of exaggeration, combined with his incapacity
to comprehend the weird and uncanny population of the mounds and caves of his
country, has enabled him, in one way or another, to bequeath to the great litera~
tures of Western Europe a motley train of dwarfs and little people, a whole world
of wizardry, and a vast wealth of utopianism, If you subtracted from English

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 889

literature, for example, all that has been contributed to its vast stores from this
native source, you would find that you left a wide and unwelcome void.

But the question must present itself sooner or later, with what race outside
these islands we are to compare or identify our mound-dwellers. Iam not pre-
pared to answer, and I am disposed to ask our archzeologists what they think. In
the meantime, however, I may say that there are several considerations which
would impel me to think of the Lapps of the North of Europe. But even supposing
an identity of origin could be made out as between our ancient mound-inhabiting
race and the Lapps, which, I am told, is craniologically impossible, it would
remain still doubtful whether we could expect any linguistic help from Lapland,
The Lapps now speak a language belonging to the Ugro-Finnic family, but the
Lapps are not of the same race as the Finns; so it is possible that the Lapps have
adopted a Finnish language and that they did so too late for their present language
to help us with regard to any of our linguistic difficulties. One of these lies in
our topography: take for instance only the names of our rivers and brooks—there
is probably no county in the kingdom that would be too small to supply a dozen
or two which would baffle the cleverest Aryan etymologist you could invite to
explain them; and why? Because they belong in all probability to a non-Celtic,
non-Aryan language of some race that had early possession of our islands. Never-
theless it is very desirable that we should have full lists of such names, so as to
see which of them recur and where. It is a subject deserving the attention of
this Section of the British Association,

We have now loitered long enough in the gloom of the Pecht’s house: let us
leave the glamour of the fairies and see whether any other race has had a footing
in these islands before the coming of the Celts. In August 1891 Professor Sayce
and I spent some fine days together in Kerry and other parts of the south-west of
Treland. He was then full of his visits to North Africa, and he repeatedly assured
me that, if a number of Berbers from the mountains had been transferred to a village
in Kerry and clad as Irishmen, he would not have been able to tell them by their
looks from native Irishmen such as we saw in the course of our excursions. This
seemed to me at the time all the more remarkable as his reference was to fairly
tall, blue-eyed persons whose hair was rather brown than black. Evidence to the
same effect might now be cited in detail from Professor Haddon and his friends’
researches among the population of the Arran Islands in Galway Bay. Such is
one side of the question which I have in my mind: the other side consists of
the fact that the Celtic languages of to-day have been subjected to some dis-
turbing influence which has made their syntax unlike that of the other Aryan
languages. I have long been of opinion that the racial interpretation of that fact
must be, that the Celts of our islands have assimilated another race using a
language of its own in which the syntactical peculiarities of Neo-Celtic had their
origin: in fact that some such race clothed its idioms in the vocabulary which
it acquired from the Celts. The problem then was to correlate those two facts.
I am happy to say this has now been undertaken from the language point of view
by Professor J. Morris Jones, of the University College of North Wales. The
results have been made public in a book on The Welsh People recently published
by Mr. Fisher Unwin. The paper is entitled ‘Pre-Celtic Syntax in Insular Celtic,’
and the languages which have therein been compared with Celtic are old Egyptian
and certain dialects of Berber. It is all so recent that we have as yet had no
criticism, but the reasoning is so sound and the arguments are of so cumulative a
nature, that I see no reason to anticipate that the professor’s conclusions are in any
danger of being overthrown.

At the close of his linguistic argument, Professor Morris Jones quotes a French
authority to the effect, that, when a Berber king dies or is deposed, which seems to
happen often enough, it is not his son that is called to succeed him, but the
son of his sister, as appears to have been usual among certain ancient peoples of
this country; but of this more anon. In the next place my attention has been
called by Professor Sayce to the fact that ancient Egyptian monuments represent
the Libyans of North Africa with their bodies tattooed, and that even now some
of the Touaregs and Kabyles do the same, These indications help one to group

890 REPORT—1900.

the ancient peoples of the British Isles to whose influence we are to ascribe the
non-Aryan features of Neo-Celtic. In the first place one cannot avoid fixing on the
Picts, who were so called because of their habit of tattooing themselves. For as
to that fact there seems to be no room for doubt, and Mr. Nicholson justly lays
stress on the testimony of the Greek historian Herodian, who lived in the time of
Severus, and wrote about the latter’s expedition against the natives of North
Britain a long time before the term Picti appears in literature. For Herodian,
after saying that they went naked, writes about them to the following
effect : ‘They puncture their bodies with coloured designs and the figures of ani-
mals of all kinds, and it is for this reason that they do not wear clothes, lest one
should not behold the designs on their bodies,’ This is borne out by the names by
which the Picts have been known to the Celts. That of Pict is itself in point,
and I shall have something to say of it presently ; but one of the other names was
in Irish Cruzthni, and in Welsh we have its etymological equivalent in Prydyn or
Prydain. These vocables are derived respectively from Irish eruwth and Welsh
pryd, both meaning shape, form, or figure, and it is an old surmise that the Picts
were called by those names in allusion to the animal forms pricked on their bodies,
as described by Herodian and others. The earlier attested of these two names
may be said to be Prydyn or Prydain, which the Welsh used to give in the Middle
Ages to the Picts and the Pictland of the North, while the term Ynys Prydain was
retained for Great Britain as a whole, the literal meaning being the Island of the
Picts: that is the only name which we have in Welsh to this day for this island
in which we live— Ynys Prydain, ‘The Picts’ Island.’ Now one detects this word
Prydain in effect in the Greek Hperamxal Njoo given collectively to all the British
Isles by ancient authors. it may be rendered the Pictish Islands, but a confusion
seems to have set in pretty early with the name of the Brittanni or Brittones of
South Britain: that is to say, Pretanic, ‘ Pictish,’ became Brittannic or British ;
and this is, historically speaking, the only known justification we have for includ-
ing Ireland in the comprehensive term ‘The British Isles,’ to which Irishmen are
sometimes found jocularly to object.

In the next place may be mentioned the Tuatha Dé Danann of Irish legend,
who cannot always be distinguished from the Picts, as pointed out by Mr.
MacRitchie. The tradition about them is, that, when they were overcome in war
by Mil and his Milesians, they gave up their life above ground and retired into
the hills like the fairies, a story of little more value than that of the extermination
of the Picts of Scotland. In both countries doubtless the more ancient race
survived to amalgamate with its conquerors. There was probably some amount
of amalgamation between the Tuatha Dé Danann or the Picts and the Little
Moundsmen; but it is necessary not to confound them. The Tuatha shared
with the Little People a great reputation for magic; but they differed from
them in not being dwarfs or of a swarthy complexion: they are usually represented
as fair. In the case of Mider, the fairy king, who comes in some respects near the
description of the heroes of the Tuatha Dé Danann, it is to be noticed that he was
& wizard, not a warrior.

Guided by the kinship of the name of the Tuatha Dé Danann on the Irish side
of the sea and that of the Sons of Dén on this side, 1 may mention that the
Mabinogion place the Sons of Dén on the seaboard of North Wales, in what is
now Carnarvonshire: more precisely their country was the region extending from
the mountains to the sea, especially opposite Anglesey. In that district we have
at least three great prehistoric sites all on the coast. First comes the great
stronghold on the top of Penmaen Mawr; then we have the huge mound of Dinas
Dinlle, eaten into at present by the sea south-west of the western mouth of the
Menai Straits; and lastly there is the extensive fortification of Tre’r Ceiri, over-
looking Dinlle from the heights of the Eifl. By its position Tre’r Ceiri belonged
to the Sons of Dén, and by its name it seems to me to belong to the Picts, which
comes, I believe, to the same thing. Now the name ‘lre’r Ceiri means the town
of the Keiri, and the Welsh word ceirz is used in the district in the sense of
persons who are boastful and ostentatious, especially in the matter of personal
appearance and fine clothing. It is sometimes also confounded with cewri,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION #. 891

' piants,’ but in the name of Tre’r Ceiri it doubtless wafts down to us an echo of
the personal conceit of the ancient Picts with their skins tattooed with decorative
Pictures ; and Welsh literature supplies a parallel to the name Ynys Prydain in
one which is found written Ynys y Ceti, both of which may be rendered equally
the Island of the Picts, but more literally perhaps some such rendering as ‘ the
Island. of the Fine Men’ would more nearly hit the mark. Lastly, with the Sons
of Don must probably be classed the other peoples of the Mabinogion, such as the
families of Llyr, and of Pwyll and Rhiannon.

All these peoples of Britain and Ireland were warlike, and such, so far
as one can see, that the Celts, who arrived later, might with them form one mixed
people with a mixed language, such as Professor Morris Jones has been helping
to account for.

Let us now see for a moment how what we read of the state of society implied
in the stories of the Mabinogion will fit into the hypothesis which I have roughly
sketched. In the first place I ought to explain that the four stories of the
Mabinogion were probably put together originally in the Goidelic of Wales, before
they assumed a Brythonic dress. Further, in the form in which we know them,
they have passed through the hands of a scribe or editor living in Norman
times, who does not always appear to have understood the text on which he
was operating. To make out, therefore, what the original Mabinogion meant,
one has every now and then to read, so to say, between the lines. Let us take
for example the Mabinogi called after Branwen, daughter of Llyr. She was
sister to Bran, king of Prydain, and to Manawyddan, his brother: she was given to
wife to an Irish king named Matholwch, by whom she had a son called Gwern.
In Ireland, however, she was, after a time disgraced, and served in somewhat
the same way as the heroine of the Gudrun Lay; but in the course of the time
which she spent in a menial position, doing the baking for the Court and having a
box on the ear administered to her daily by the cook, she succeeded in rearing a
starling, which one day carried a letter from her to her brother Bran at Harlech.
When the latter realised his sister’s position of disgrace, he headed an expedition
to Ireland, whereupon Matholwch tried to appease him by making a concession,
which was, that he should deliver his kingdom to the boy Gwern. Now the
question is, wherein did the concession consist ? The redactor of the Mabinogi
could, seemingly, not have answered, and he has not made it the easier for any one
else to answer. In the first place, instead of calling Gwern son of Matholwch, he
should have called him Gwern son of Branwen, after his mother, for the key to
the sense is, that, in a society which reckoned birth alone, Gwern was not recog-
nised as any relation to Matholwch at all, whereas, being Bran’s sister’s son, he
was Bran’s rightful heir. No such idea, however, was present to the mind of a
twelfth-century scribe, nor could it be expected.

Let us now turn to Irish literature, to wit, to one of the many stories
associated with the hero Ciichulainn. He belonged to Ulster, and whatever other
race may have been in that part of Ireland, there were Picts there : as a matter of
fact Pictish communities survived there in historical times. Now Citichulainn
was not wholly of the same race as the Ultonians around him, for he and his
father are sharply marked off from all the other Ultonians as being free from the
periodical illness connected with what has been called the couvade, to which the
other adult braves of Ulster succumbed for a time every year. Then I may
mention that Ctichulainn’s baby name was Setanta Beg, or the Little Setantian,
which points to the country whence Ctichulainn’s father had probably come,
namely the district where Ptolemy mentions a harbour of the Setantii, somewhere
near the mouth of the Ribble, in what is now Lancashire. At the time alluded to
in the story I have in view, Ctichulainn was young and single, but he was even
then a great warrior, and the ladies of Ulster readily fell in love with him; so
one day the nobles of that country met to consider what was to be done, and they
agreed that Cuchulainn would cause them less anxiety if they could find him a
woman who should be his fitting and special consort. At the same time also that
they feared he might die young, they were desirous that he should leave an heir, ‘ for,’
as it is put in the story, ‘ they knew that it was from himself his rebirth would be,’

892 REPoRT 1900.

The Ulster men had a belief, you see, in the return of the heroes of previous
generations to be born again ; but we have here also two social systems face to face.
According to the one to which Ctchulainn as a Celt belonged, it was requisite
that he should be the father of recognised offspring, for it was only in the person
of one of them or of their descendants that he was to be expected back. The
story reads as if the distinction was exceptional, and as if the prevailing state of
things was wives more or less in common, with descent reckoned according to birth
alone. Such is my impression of the picture of the society forming the background
to the state of things implied by the conversation attributed to the noblemen of
Ulster. Here again one experiences difficulties arising from the fact, that the
stories have been built up in the form in which we know them by men who
worked from the Christian point of view; and it is only by scrutinising, as it were,
the chinks and cracks that you can faintly realise what the original structure
was like.

Among other aids to that end one must reckon the instances of men being
designated with the help of the mother’s name, not the father’s: witness that of
the king of Ulster in Ctichulainn’s time, namely Conchobar mac Nessa, that is to
say, Conor, son of a mother named Nessa; similarly in Wales with Gwydion son
of Dén. Further we have the help of a considerable number of ancient inscrip-
tions, roughly guessed to date from the fifth or the sixth century of our era, and
commemorating persons traced back to a family group of the kind, perhaps,
which Ceesar mentions in the fourteenth chapter of his fifth book. Within these
groups the wives were, according to him, in common (7nter se communes). Take
for instance an inscription from the barony of Corcaguiny in Kerry, whick com-
memorates a man described as ‘ Mac. Erce, son of Muco Dovvinias, where Muco
Dovvinias meaus the clan or family group of Dovvinis or Dubin (genitive Ducbne),
the ancestress after whom Corcaguiny is called Corco-Duibne in Medieval Irish.
We have the same formula in the rest of Ireland, including Ulster, where as yet very
few Ogams have been found at all. It occurs in South Wales and in Devonshire,
and also on the Ogam stone found at Silchester in Hampshire. The same kind
of family group is evidenced also by an inscription at St. Ninian’s, in Galloway; and,
to go further back—perhaps a good deal further back—we come to the bronze
discovered not long ago at Colchester, and dating from the time of the Emperor
Alexander Severus, who reigned from 222 to 235, This is a votive tablet to a
god Mars Medocius, by a Caledonian Pict, who gives his name as Lossio Veda,
and describes himself further as Nepos Vepogeni Caledc. He alludes to no father,
and Nepos Vepogeni is probably to be rendered Vepogen’s sister’s son, At any
rate, the Irish word corresponding etymologically to the Latin nepos has that
sense in Irish; and, so far as I know, it has never been found meaning a nephew in
the sense of brother’s son. That may serve as an instance how the ideas of
another race penetrated the fabric of Goidelic society ; for here we must suppose
a time to have come when there was no longer any occasion for a word meaning &
brother’s son, which, of course, there never was in the non-Celtic society which
ranked men and women according to their birth alone.

Now this Caledonian Pict was not exceptional among his kinsmen, for they suc-
ceeded in observing a good deal of silence concerning their fathers down, one may
say, to the 12th century. It is historical that the king of the northern Picts was
not wont to be the son of the previous king, In short, when the Celtic elements
there proved strong enough to ensure that the son of a previous king should
succeed, a split usually took place, the purer Picts being led by the rule of succession
by birth to set up a king of their own. The fact is not so well known that the
same succession prevailed also some time or other at Tara in Ireland; it is proved
by a singular piece of indirect evidence, the existence of a tragic story to explain why
‘no son should ever take the lordship of Tara after his father, unless some one
came between them.’ The last clause is due, I should say, to somebody who
could not understand such a prohibition based on the ancient rule that a man’s
heir was his sister’s son, This would be, according to Irish legend, in the lifetime
of Conor mac Nessa.

It is curious to notice hew the stories about the Pictish ménage seem to have

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 898

puzzled ancient authors. I will cite only one instance, to wit, from Golding’s 16th
century translation of what then passed as the production of Solinus, and what
may pass now, even according to Mommsen, as quite old enough for my present
purpose. It runs thus: ‘ Next come the [les called Hebudes, five in number, the
inhabiters whereof know not what corne meaneth, but liue onely by fishe and
milke. They are all vnder the gouernment of one King, For as manie of them
as bee, they are seuered but with a narrowe groope one from another. The King
hath nothing of hys own, but taketh of euery mans. He is bounde to equitie by
certaine lawes: and least he may start from right through couetousnesse, he
learneth Justice by pouertie, as who may have nothing proper or peculiar to
himselfe, but is found at the charges of the Realme. Hee is not suffered to
haue anie woman to himselfe, but whomsoeuer he hath minde ynto, he borroweth
her for a tyme, and so others by turnes, Wherby it commeth to passe that he
hath neither desire nor hope of issue.’

The man who wrote in that way presumably failed to see that the king was
not subject to any special hardship as compared with the other men in his kingdom,
where none of them had any offspring that he could individually call his own.
This, be it noticed, refers to the Hebrides, not, as sometimes happens with such
references, to the more distant island of Thule, where there was also a king, as any
reader of Faust will tell us.

We now come to the Celts, and begin with Pliny’s version of Czsar's words
about the division of Gaul into three parts, as follows: Gallia omnis Comata uno
nomine appellata in tria populorum genera dividitur, amnibus maaxime distincta.
A Scalde ad Sequanam Belgica, ab coad Garunnam Celtica eademque Lugdunensis,
inde ad Pyrenei montis excursum Aquitanica, Aremorica antea dicta. We may
for the present dismiss the third or Aquitanic Gaul from our minds; but Belgic
and Celtican Gaul may be taken as representing the two sets of Celts of our own
islands. The Belgic Gauls began last to come to this country, and their advent
seems to fall between the visits of Pytheas and Julius Cxsar: that is, roughly
speaking, between the middle of the fourth century and that of the first
century B.c. In this country they came to be known collectively as Brittanni or
Brittones, the linguistic ancestors of the peoples who have spoken Brythonic or the
Lingua Brittannica, such as the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Strathclyde Britons.
As to the other Celts, it is much harder to say when or whence exactly they
came—lI mean the linguistic ancestors of the Gaels of Ireland, Man, and Scotland,
that is to say, the peoples whose language has been Goidelic. Some scholars are
of opinion that there were no Goidelic-speaking peoples in Britain till some such
came here from Ireland on sundry occasions, beginning with the second century, in
the time of the Roman occupation ; but how the Goidels would be supposed by
them to have reached Ireland I do not exactly know. My own notion is that the
bulk of them reached that country by way of Britain, and that they arrived in
Britain, like the Belgic Gauls later, from the nearest parts of the Continent; for
this would be previous to the appearance of the Belgic Gauls on the western sea-
board of Europe: that is to say, at a time when Celtica extended not merely to the
Seine, but to the Scheldt or to the Rhine, if not even further. Then as to the time
of the coming of the ancestors of the Goidels, it has been supposed coincident with
a period of great movements among the Celts of the Continent, in particular the
movements which resulted, among other things, in some of them reaching the
shores of the Mediterranean and penetrating to the heart of the Iberic peninsula.
Perhaps one would not be far wrong in fixing on the seventh and the sixth
seniuries B.C. as covering the time of the coming of the earlier Celts to our

ores.

In Britain I should suppose these earlier hordes of Celts to have conquered
most of the southern half of the island; and the Brythonic Celts, when they
arrived, may have overrun much the same area, pushing the Goidelic Celts more and
more towaids the west. Under that pressure it is natural to suppose that some
of the latter made their way to Ireland, but it is quite possible that their
emigration thither had begun before. Some time or other previous to the Roman
occupation the Brythonic people of the Ordovices seem to have penetrated to the

894 REPORT—1900.

sea between the rivers Dovey and Mawddach, displacing probably some Goidels
who may have gone to the opposite coasts of Ireland; but in Ivish story more
traces appear of invasions on the part of the Dumnonii, who possessed the coast
between Galloway and Argyle. These were so situated as to be able to assail
Treland both in front and from behind, and this is countenanced to some extent by
Irish topography, not to mention the long legends extant as to great wars in the
west of Ireland between the Tuatha Dé Danann and invaders including the Fir
Womnann. I suspect also that it was the country of these northern Dumnonians
which was originally meant by Lochlinn, a name interpreted later to mean
Norway.

Such are some of the faint traces of the Goidelic invasions of Ireland from
Britain, but it is possible—perhaps probable—that Ireland received settlers on its
southern coast from the north-west of Gaul at a comparatively late period, at the
time, let us say, when Czesar was engaged in crushing the Veneti and the
Aremoric League. This has been suggested to me by the name of the Usdie,
which probably survives in the first syllable of Ossory, denoting a tract of
country now, roughly speaking, covered by the county of Kilkenny, but which
may have been considerably larger before the Déisi took possession of the baronies
of the two Decies and other districts now constituting the county of Waterford,
not to mention possible encroachments on the part of Munster on a boundary
which seems to have been sometimes contested. Now the Continental name which
invites comparison with that of the Usdiz is that of the Ostizi, who in the time
of Pytheas appear to have occupied the north-western end of what afterwards
came to be called Brittany; they were also called Ostiones, and more commonly
Osismi, I see no reason to suppose that the ships of the Aremoric League could
not make the voyage from Brittany to the principal landing-places on the south of
Tveland from the Harbour of Cork to that of Waterford, and I gather from
Ptolemy’s Geography that Ireland was relatively better known on the Continent
than Britain, although the latter had in a manner been long connected with the
Roman world. This I should explain somewhat as follows:—Czsar, who knew
very little about the west of Britain and less about Ireland, says that in
his time the great druidic centre of Gaul was in the country of the Carnutes,
somewhere, let us say, near the site of the present town of Chartres, that
druidism had been introduced from Britain to Gaul, and that those who wished
to understand it had to go to Britain to study. The authors of antiquity tell us
otherwise nothing about druids in Britain except that Tacitus speaks of such in
the Annals, in his well-known passage as to Suetonius Paulinus landing with his
troops in Anglesey and the scene of slaughter which ensued. Indeed, one may
go further and say that there is no proof that any Belgic or Brythonic people
ever had druids: they belonged to the Celtican Gauls and the Goidelicising Celts
of Britain and Ireland, who had probably accepted the institution from the
Pictish race. At any rate it is significant that the Life of St. Columba intro-
duces the reader to a genuine druid at the court of the Pictish king, near Inver-
ness, where, as well as on Loch Ness, the sainthad to contend with him. In any
case, it is highly probable that druidism was no less a living institution in Ireland
than in the Goidelic and Pictish parts of Britain. Presumably it was more so,
and it may be conjectured that Gaulish students of druidism visited Ireland
no less than Britain; also, vice versa, that Irish druids paid visits to the
Celtican part of Gaul where druidism flourished on the Continent, and in
a word that there was regular intercourse between Gaul and the south of
Treland. If the druids of Ireland, who, among other roles, played that of
schoolmasters and teachers in that country, travelled to Celtica, they must
have spread on the Continent some information about their native country,
while generations of them cannot have returned to Ireland, with their druidic
pupils, without bringing with them some of the arts of civilised life as understood
in Gaul: among these one must rank very decidedly the art of writing, which the
druids practised. Now you know the usual account given of the ordinary Latin
for Ireland, namely Hibernia—to wit, that it was suggested by such native names
as that of one of the greatest tribes of that country, namely the “Iovepvoe

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 895

or Iverni, and that it had its v ousted when Latin began about the 4th
century to write 6 for v, and that an % was then prefixed to make the
word Hibernia properly connote the wintry climate which our sister island had
always been supposed to enjoy. But now comes the question, where did Pom-
ponius Mela, who flourished about the middle of the first century, get his
Luverna, which Juvenal also used? Doubtless from a druid like Dalan, or
some other educated native of Ireland; for what the editors print as Iuverna,
Luuerna, or Juverna, would appear in ancient manuscripts as IVVERNA or
duuerna, in which the first two syllables are spelt correctly with vv according to
a system of spelling well known in Ogmic writing centuries later. But a parti-
cular system of spelling seems to me to imply writing, and thus one is encouraged
to think that the Ogam alphabet may have been invented no later than the first
century, in the intercourse I have conjectured to have been going on between
the north-west of Gaul and the south of Ireland, where the majority of Ogam
inscriptions are now found. But what has archzology to say on the question
of such intercourse ?

After this digression I come back to the two main streams of Ceitie immigra-
tion, from the same parts of the Continent in two different periods of time. he
later of these introduced the Lingua Brittannica, which was practically a dialect
of old Gaulish ; but the affinities of the other Celtic language of these islands,
the Goidelic, are not so easy to determine. I have long thought that I can
identify traces of it on the Continent, and that its principal home was in the
region which Pliny called Celtica, between the Garonne and the Seine. I ven-
tured accordingly to call it Celtican, asthe simpler word Celtic had already been
wedded to a wider signification. Since I did so the existence of that language has
been placed beyond doubt by the discovery of fragments of a calendar engraved
on bronze tablets. This find was made about the end of 1897 at a place called
Coligny, in the department of the Ain, and the pieces are now in the museum at
Lyons. It is difficult to say for certain whether Coligny is within the territory
once occupied by the Sequani, or else by the Ambarri, a people subject to the
Mdui, who were the rivals of the Sequani and Arverni. The name of the Sequani
would seem to have belonged to the Celtican language, and Mr. Nicholson, in his
interpretation of the calendar, has ventured in this instance to call it Sequanian.
But two inscriptions in what appears to be the same language have come to light
also at a place called Rom,in the Deux Sévres and on the Roman road from
Poitiers to Saintes. This Celtican language is to be carefully distinguished
from Gaulish, but it is not exactly what I expected it to be: it is better. For
several of the phonetic changes characteristic of Goidelic had not taken place in
Celtican. Among other things it preserves intact the Aryan consonant p, which
has since mostly disappeared in Goidelic, as it had even then in Gaulish. This
greater conservatism of Celtican enables one to refer to it the national appellation
of the people of the region in question, namely that of the Pictones, from
which it is impossible to sever the name of the Picts of Britain and Ireland,
who are found also called Pictones and Pictanez. Here I may mention that
Mr. Nicholson calls attention to instances of tattooing on some of the faces
on ancient coins belonging to Poitou and other parts of western France.
In the light of the names here in question one sees that pictos was a Celtican
word of the same etymology, and approximately, doubtless, of the same meaning, as
the Latin word pictus, that the Celticans had applied it at an early date to the
Picts on account of their habit of tattooing themselves, and that the Picts had
accepted it (with its derivative Pictones) so generally that by the time when the
Norsemen arrived in the North of Scotland, it was the name which the natives
gave them as that by which they called themselves. That is practically proved
by the Norsemen calling Caithness and Sutherland Petta-land or the Land of the
Picts, and the sea washing its northern shore Pettalunds fiorth, which survives
modified into Pentland Firth.

Another Celtican word of great interest here has by a mere chance come down
in a High German manuscript written before the year 814: itis Chortonicum,
and it occurs among a number of geographical names, several of which refer to Gaul,

896 REPORT—1900.

so that Chortonicum may very well have meant the country of the Pictones. At
all events, the great German philologist Pott at once saw that it was to be ex-
plained by reference to the word Cruithne, ‘a Pict,’ with which it decidedly goes
as distinguished from its Brythonic equivalent Prydyn (or the older Priten)
with an initial p. The Celtican form originally meant was some such vocable as
Qurtonico-n, with the gu which was usual in Celtican and early Goidelic, where it
formed, in fact, one of the most conspicuous distinctions between those languages
and Brythonic or Gaulish, in which gu had been changed into p.

My remarks have again run into tiresome details, but it is only by attending to
such small points that one can hope to force language to yield us any information
in the matter of ethnology. It may perhaps help in some measure if I sum up
what I have been trying to say, thus:

The first race we have found in possession of the British Isles consisted of a
small swarthy population of mound-dwellers, of an unwarlike disposition, much
given to magic and wizardry, and living underground: its attributes have been
exaggerated or otherwise distorted in the evolution of the Little People of our
fairy tales.

The next race consisted of a blue-eyed people, taller and blonder, who tattooed
themselves and fought battles. These tattooed or Pictish people made the Mound
Folk their slaves, and in the long run their language may be supposed to have
been modified by habits of speech introduced by those slaves of theirs from
their own idiom. ‘The affinities of these Picts may he called Libyan, and possibly
Iberian.

Next came the Celts in two great waves of immigration, the first of which may
have arrived as early as the 7th century before our era, and consisted of the
real ancestors of some of our Goidels of the Milesian stock, and the linguistic
ancestors of all the peoples who have spoken Goidelic. That language may be
defined as Celtican so modified by the idioms of the population, which the earlier
Celts found in possession, that its syntax is no longer Aryan.

Then, about the third century B.c., came from Belgica the linguistic ancestors
of the peoples who have spoken Brythonic; but most of our modern Brythons
are to be regarded as descended from Goidels who adopted Brythonic speech, and
in so doing brought into that language their Goidelic idioms, with the result
that the syntax of insular Brythonic is no less non-Aryan than that of Goidelic,
as may be readily seen by comparing the thoroughly Aryan structure of the few
sentences of old Gaulish extant.

Those are the races which have been inferred in the course of these remarks,
in which I have proceeded on the principle that each successive band of conquerors
has its race, language, and institutions eventually more or less modified by contact
with the race, language, and institutions of those whom it has conquered. That
looks simple enough when stated so, but the result which we get proves com-
plicate. At all events I have endeavoured to substitute for the rabble of divinities
and demons, of fairies and phantoms that disport themselves at large in Celtic
legend, a possible succession of peoples, to each of which should be ascribed its
own proper attributes. But that will only be possible if we can enlist the kindly
aid of the Muse of Archeology.

The following Papers and Reports were read :—

1. Some Implements of the Natives of Tasmania. By J. Paxton Morr.

The author gives an account of diggings in native camping grounds in
Tasmania, and of the rude underground stone implements found there, comprising
hand-axes, skinning knives, &c., and especially certain tools of finer make, concave
scrapers, and groovers.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 897

2. The Stone Age in Tasmania as related to the History of Civilisation.
By E. B. Tytor, /.RS.

This paper, with special reference to the previous one, discussed the Paleolithic,
or unground Stone Age in Tasmania, which lasted till superseded by the English
colonisation early in this century, passing directly into the Iron Age without the
intervention of a Neolithic, or ground Stone Age,

3, Report on Mental and Physical Deviations of Children in Schools,
See Reports, p. 461,

4, Report on the Sulchester Hxcavation.—See Reports, p. 466,

5. Writing in Prehistoric Greece. By Antuur J. Evans, U.4., F.S.A

(1) Clay Documents with Hieroglyphic or Conventionalised Pictographie
Script from the Palace of Knossos.

The discovery originally announced by the author in 1894, in this Section,’ of
the existence in prehistoric Crete of a system of conventionalised pictographic or
hieroglyphic writing had received an extraordinary corroboration and supplement
from his recent excavations in the Mycenzan Palace of Knossos. ‘The first indica-
tions had been supplied by groups of signs engraved on early seal-stones, and by its
nature the evidence was limited. But in the great prehistoric building now par-
tially explored at Knossos, the latest elements of which can hardly be brought
down later than the thirteenth century 3B.c., there came to light a series of
deposits of clay archives inscribed both with hieroglyphic and a new system of
linear writing.

Those of the hieroglyphic class, though apparently contemporary with the
other, were less numerous and were found in a separate magazine. They were in
the form of square and three-sided bars, perforated at the end, clay ‘labels’ also
perforated, in shape like bivalve shells, and sealings of clay which also presented
impressions of signets with characters of the same conventionalised pictographic
class. The graflito characters of the clay bars, &c., gave more linearised versions
of the fuller representations of the engraved seals, and thus illustrated a step in the
formation of letters. The tablets showed various new forms of hieroglyphs not as
yet found on the signets, raising the Cretan series to over a hundred. ‘The picto-
graphic signs might be said to form an illustrated history of Oretan culture in
Mycenzan times. Among new characters might be mentioned an eight-stringed
lyre, carpenter's tools such as a kind of plane and perhaps a level, dogs’ heads,
bees, a glove-like object perhaps not unconnected with bee-keeping, and appa-
rently olive sprays. The obviously ‘ ideographic’ or ‘determinative’ character of
some of the hieroglyphs gives a clue to the meaning of many of the tablets. Ships,
ploughs and ox-heads, vessels filled with grain, and the Egyptian palace sign
speak for themselves. A boustrophédon arrangement of the characters is often
traceable. Many of these clay records are accounts, as is shown by the presence
of various numeral signs, the ciphers never exceeding eight in a group. But the
form of numeration still presents points of obscurity.

The hieroglyphic script itself shows a certain parallelism with the ‘ Hittite?
inscriptions of Anatolia and Northern Syria. Its beginnings can, however, be
traced very far back on Cretan soil, and it unquestionably represents the writing
of the indigenous Cretan stock, the Eteocretans of the ‘ Odyssey,’

1 Report Brit. Assoc. (Oxford), 1894, p. 776.
1900, OM

898 REPORT—1900,

(2) Clay Documents inscribed with Linear Script from the Palace of Knossos.

The great bulk of the clay records discovered in the Palace of Knossos exhibited
a linear style of writing fundamentally different from that of the hieroglyphic class,
and far ahead of it in development. The tablets are for the most part elongated slips
of hand-moulded clay, from two to about seven inches in length, and from half an
inch to three inches broad ; others, however, are of a squarer form. They present
some distant analogy to the Babylonian tablets, and the inscription is divided by
horizontal lines. The letters themselves, however, are of a free, upright European
character. Some seventy characters seem to have been in common use, and of them
about ten show resemblances to the later Greek and the same number to the
Cypriote syllabary. About the same number of forms are also common to the
hieroglyphic Cretan series. The letters seem to have been for the most part
syllabic ; lines of division appear between the words, and the writing runs consist-
ently from left to right. The pictorial origin of these letters may be traced in
some cases. Thus, we have the human head and neck, the hand, the crossed arms,
a bird flying, three or four barred gates, a fence, a high-backed throne, a tree,
and a leaf. A certain number are unquestionably ideographic or determinative.
Others represent measures and quantities, and are always associated with numerals.
A good many of these documents evidently refer to Palace accounts, and a clue
to the general purport of the tablet is often supplied by the introduction of a
pictorial figure. We thus find chariots and horses, human figures, perhaps slaves,
axes, ingots, vases of precious metals, others of clay for various liquids, houses or
barns, swine, ears of corn, various kinds of trees and a crocus-like flower, perhaps
used for a dye or perfume.

A decimal system of numeration was employed, somewhat resembling the
Egyptian, The value theoretically arrived at by the author for the numerals was
Bere by an addition sum presented by one tablet, the total of which worked out
correctly,

The ingots depicted on the tablets resembled a Mycenzean copper ingot from
Cyprus and others from Sardinia, They were followed by a balance (the Greek
talanton) and numerals apparently indicating their value in Mycenzan gold talents.
It has thus been possible to make an approximate calculation of their weight.
Objects in precious metals represented were identical with some typical tributary
offerings of the Keft chieftains on the Theban monuments of Thothmes IIT.’s time,
and tended to show that some of these clay documents went back to the first half of
the fifteenth century B.c.

Other tablets, without ciphers or pictorial figures, perhaps refer to contracts or
correspondence, such as the contemporary records of Syria and Babylonia. The
tablets had been originally contained in coffers of wood, clay, and gypsum, and
these in turn secured by clay seals bearing impressions of Mycenzean engraved gems
of the finest style. These impressions had in many cases been countermarked
with a graffito sign by the controlling official while the clay was still wet, and the
back of the clay seal was at the same time endorsed and countersigned with short
inscriptions in the same script as that of the tablets. Such legal precautions were
quite worthy of the ‘Palace of Minos.’

These discoveries not only carry back the existence of written documents on
Greek soil some seven centuries before the first known monuments of Greek writing,
and five before the earliest Phoenician, but they afford a wholly new standpoint
for investigating the origin of the alphabet.

The letter-forms borrowed by the Greeks from the Phcenicians seem to have
been influenced by these pre-existing Aigean scripts. The common elements existing
in the Phoenician alphabet itself are very noteworthy. Out of twenty-two original
letters, some twelve present obvious points of comparison with characters belonging
to one or other of the two Cretan scripts, and to these at least four may be
added as showing possible affinities. In view of such parallelism, which extends
to the meaning as well as the form of the signs, De Rougé’s theory of the
derivation of the Phoenician letters from remote hieratic Egyptian prototypes must
be definitely abandoned, The Phcenician, and with it the Greek, alphabet must

‘TRANSACTIONS OF SEOTION H. 899

be regarded as a selection from a syllabary belonging to the same generic group as
the Cretan. Such a phenomenon on the Syrian coast is perhaps explained by the
settlement there in Mycenzean times of an A‘gean island race, the Philistines,
whose name survives in that of Palestine. Though later Semitised, their biblical
names of Kaphtorim and Kerethim, or Cretans, sufficiently record their Algean
origin,

6. On the System of Writing in Ancient Egypt. By F. Lt. Grirvitd,

Egyptology has now reached a position among the sciences from which it may
contribute trustworthy information for the benefit of kindred researches. Egyptian
writing consists of Ideographic and Phonetic Elements, the signs serving as
—1, Word-signs ; 2, Phonograms; 3, Determinatives. The highest development
shown is an alphabet, which, however, is never used independently of other signs:
it is apparently not acrophonic in origin; it represents consonants and semi-
consonants only, vocalisation not being recorded by Egyptian writing. No
advance can be detected in the system from the beginning of the historic period to
the end, notwithstanding some improvements in practical working which facilitated
the uss of cursive writing. Phonograms derived from word-signs. The end of
the native system was brought about by the gradual adoption of the Greek character
—heginning, perhaps, in the second century a.p. If any radical improvement was
ever made in the Egyptian form of writing that improvement must have taken
place at or after adoption by another people: eg., some have supposed that our
alphabet was derived by the Phoenicians from Egypt; but any such derivations
are at present entirely hypothetical.

Although the Egyptian system of writing may not be actually a stage in the
history of our alphabet, it throws a strong light on the development of the
alphabetic system; and the survival of its pictorial form (for decorative purposes)
enables us to recognise the highly ramified connections between the forms and
meanings of characters to an extent which is impossible at present in any other
system, whether in Mesopotamia, China, or elsewhere.

Results of recent Egyptian philology : Egyptian originally a Semitic language,
though its character changed early. The main lines of the grammar being at
length established, the materials for a complete dictionary are now being collected
and classified.

7. Interim Report on Anthropological Teaching.

8. Report on Anthropological Photographe.—See Reports, p. 568,

PRIDAY, SHPTEMBER 7,

The following Papet's were rend: —
1. The Cave of Psychro in Crete. By D. G. Hocarri.

It has been known for some years that @ large cave above the village cf
Psychré, in the Lasithi district of Crete, was a repository of primitive votive
objects in bronze, terra-cotta, &c. As this cave is situated in the eastern flank of
the mountain which dominates the site of ancient Lyttos, and is the only import-
ant cave known in the neighbourhood, it was conjectured that it was the Lyttian
grotto connected with the story of the birth of Zeus in the legend, whose earliest

3M 2

900 REPORT—1900,

version is preser'ved by Hesiod. A thorough exploration of it, undertaken in May
and June of the current year, by Mr. D. G. Hogarth, on behalf of the British
School at Athens, aided by the Cretan Exploration Fund, has served fully to con-
firm this view. ‘The cave is double. On the north is a shallow grotto, the upper
part of which was cumbered with immense fallen frazments of the roof. The
lower part contained deep black earth, partly ransacked by previous diggers. This
was thoroughly dug out this year, and when the great blocks had been broken up
with blasting powder and removed, the deposit on the higher slope was also
searched. ‘The result was the discovery of a rude altar in the middle of the grotto,
surrounded by strata of ashes, pottery, and other refuse, among which many
votive objects in bronze, terra-cotta, iron, and bone were found, together with
fragments of some thirty libation tables in stone, and an immense number of
earthenware cups used for depositing offerings. The lowest part of the Upper
Grotto was found to be enclosed by a wall partly of rude Cyclopean character,
and partly rock-cut ; and within this Temenos the untouched strata of deposit
ranged from the early Mycenzan Age up to the Geometric period of the ninth cen-
tury B.c. or thereabout. Only very slight traces were found of later offerings. The
earliest votive stratum belongs to the latest period of the pre-Mycenean Age,
that marked by the transition between the ‘Kamaraes’ fabric of pottery and the
earliest Mycensean lustre-painted ware. But below all isa thick bed of yellow
clay, containing scraps of primitive hand-burnished black and brown pottery,
mixed with bones of animals. This bed seems to be water-laid, and to be prior to
the use of the cave as a sanctuary. Probably, when it was in process of formation,
the cave was still a swallow-hole of the lake which once occupied the closed Lasithi
basin; but before the Mycenzean period the present outlet had opened, and the
plain was dry.

The southern or Lower Grotto falls steeply for some 200 feet to a subterranean
pool, out of which rises a forest of stalactite pillars. Traces of a rock-cut stairway
remain. Much earth had been thrown down by the diggers of the Upper Grotto,
and this was found full of small bronze objects. But chance revealed a more
fruitful field, namely, the vertical chinks in the lowest stalactite pillars, a great
many of which were found still to contain toy double axes, knife-blades, needles,
and other objects in bronze, placed there by dedicators, as in niches. The mud
also at the edge of the subterranean pool was rich in similar things, and in statu-
ettes of two types, male and female, and engraved gems. These had probably
been washed out of the niches.

The knife-blades and simudacra of weapons are probably the offerings of men;
the needles and depilatory tweezers of women. The frequent occurrence of the
double axe, not only in bronze, but moulded or painted on pottery, found in the
cave, leaves no doubt that its patron god was the ‘Carian’ Zeus of Labranda, or
the Labyrinth, with whom perhaps his mother, the Nature goddess, was associated,
and the statuettes probably represent the two deities. Here was the primitive
scene of their legend, transferred in classical times to a cave on Mount Ida,

2. On the Japanese Gohei and the Ainw Inao. By W. G. Aston.

The paper illustrates a principle in the history of religion by which the object
which is at first simply an offering has a tendency to become conceived of as the
embodiment of the God, or even as a distinct and independent deity. :

In ancient Japan the offerings to the gods were of the most varied description.
Among them were included hemp and bark fibre, together with cloth made from
these materials. In later times there was substituted a small quantity of paper
made of the same bark fibre and attached to a wand in the form known to us as
gohei, With the change of form the original character of the gohei as offerings
was forgotten. They were looked upon as receptacles or embodiments of the God,
and honour was paid to them accordingly. At festivals the God descended into
the gohet on a certain formula being pronounced by the priest. Hypnotic prac-
titioners also used these objects in their séances, the deity who inspired them in

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 4. 901

their trances being supposed to enter their body by this channel. There are cases
in Japan in which the devotee has gone a step further, and has constituted the
object, which was originally an offering, a distinct and independent deity.

_ The Ainus of Yezo use in their worship whittled sticks called cnao, which have a
general resemblance to an old form of the gohez, and are no doubt a cheaper substi-
tute for them. The znao, like the gohet, are primarily offerings, but in certain
cases they receive direct worship as gods, having become in short genuine fetishes.
Another link between the inao and the gohei is provided by certain whittled
sticks closely resembling znao which were in use in Northern Japan a century ago
for striking women with in order to ensure fertility, as in the Roman Lupercalia.
Similar sticks after consecration by the Shuite priests were formerly used at Kioto
to kindle the household fire afresh on the new year, and so avert possible pestilence.

3. The Textile Patterns of the Sea-Dayaks. By Dr. A. C. Havpon, F.R.S.

The Sea-Dayak women weave short cotton rep petticoats and cotton sleeping
wraps which are covered with beautiful and oftenintricate patterns. The patterns
are made in the following manner: the warp is stretched on a frame, the woman
takes the first fifteen to thirty strands and ties them tightly with strips of leaves
at irregular intervals, according to the design, which she carries in her memory.
The next fifteen to thirty strands are similarly tied, and this process is repeated
until all the threads have been utilised. The warp is then removed from the frame
and dipped in a reddish dye, which colours the free portions of the warp, but the
tied-up portions remain undyed ; thus a light pattern is left on a coloured back-
ground, when the lashing is untied. Ifa three-colour design is required, as is
usually the case, the first lashing is retained, and various portions of the previously
dyed warp are tied up; the whole is immersed in a black dye, and then both sets of
lashing are untied. The pattern is thus entirely produced in the warp, the woof is
self-coloured, and does not obtrude itself in the material.

There are a very large number of designs and patterns, which are remembered
by the women and handed down from mother to daughter. By far the greater
number of these designs are based upon animals, whereas most of the patterns
carved by the men on wooden and bamboo objects are derived from plant motives.
The designs embroidered by the women on jackets and loin-cloths are usually
zoomorphic in character, but the treatment of the motives is quite different from
the decoration of previously described fabrics.

The decorative art of the Sea-~Dayaks of Sarawak differs in character from that
of the Kayans, Kenyahs, and other inland tribes.

4, Relics of the Stone Age of Borneo. By Dr. A. C. Havpon, F.R.S.

Until about eighteen months ago the only authentic example known in this
country of a stone implement from Sarawak was the specimen collected by A. Hart
Everett, which is now in the Pitt Rivers Collection at Oxford. In December,
1898, the Sarawak Museum obtained a specimen of a different type. I discovered
a third type in a Sibop house on the Tinjar River in the Baram District of
Sarawak ; later Dr. C. Hose, the Resident of the Baram District, obtained numerous
examples from various interior tribes in his district; these he has generously
presented to the University of Cambridge. The occurrence of stone implements in
Borneo has been previously noted.

_ The implements are made of various rocks, including fibrolite, impure sand-
stone, arkose, silicified limestone, shale, andesite, and chalcedony. The form, too,
varies greatly ; some are obviously axe heads, others adze blades, while certain
cylindrical forms, with a more or less cup-shaped cutting end, were probably used
to extract the pith from the sago palm. In the collection are several stones of
irregular form; the former use of some of them is problematical, but they have
recently been used as touchstones,

902 REPORT----1900.

The natives have a high regard for these stone implements, which have in their
eyes a sacred character, and it is very difficult to persuade their owners to part
with them. In all cases fowls had to be sacrificed to appease the spirits. The
implements are stored with other sacred objects, and most of them are believed ta
be teeth, or toe-nails, of Baling Go, the Thunder God,

5. Houses and Family Life in Sarawak.
By A. C. Hanpon, Se.D., PRS.

The author exhibited a series of nearly fifty lantern slides taken during his
recent expedition to Sarawak, which were selected to illustrate the type of house
that is common among the settled inland tribes of Borneo and the every-day life
of the people. No attempt was made to distinguish between the various tribes, as
their mode of life is very similar in its main features. The villages are all situated
on or close by the banks of rivers; most of the houses are of large size, and may con-'
tain from half-a-dozen to sixty families. Sometimes a village consists of a single
house or of a string of houses placed endwise to each other.

A house is built on piles some ten to twenty feet from the ground. Along the
side facing the river is a wide verandah, which stretches down the whole length
of the house. Here many of the domestic industries are carried on, and all social
and public business is transacted. The dwelling-rooms of each family open by a
single door on to the verandah. While the common verandah affords every facility
for social intercourse the privacy of the home is thoroughly respected.

In the verandab of nearly every house is at Jeast one trophy of the skulls of
enemies, which are supposed to bring good luck and plenteous harvests. Food is
occasionally offered tc them, and a fire has to be kept burning beneath them, other-
wise the skulls would be uncomfortable and bring misfortunes to the house.
Various industries were illustrated by slides, such as the husking and winnowing
of rice by the women. The houses are often ornamented with carvings or
paintings of a conventional character, the style of decoration varying according
to the tribe.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the Anthropology of West Yorkshire.
By Joun Bepvor, JLD., LLD., F.R.S.

The author discussed the question whether any considerable British or pre-
Anglian element remained in the country around Bradford. Without coming to
any positive conclusion, he was disposed to consider the inhabitants of these parts
as mainly Anglian in type. More British blood remained further north, in Craven.
A prevalent type about Leeds seemed to him to resemble the Burgundian Belair
type of His and Riitimeyer.

2. On the Vagaries of the Kephalic Index. By Joun Beppog,
MD, LL.D, FAS:

Lhe communication is based on a description of two heads, both dolichoid in
pattern, but of which the one, which was most distinctly so, gave a latitudinal
index (living) of 82:3, owing to retarded ossification of the posterior part of the
temporo-parietal suture. But for this the author thought the index would nog
have exceeded 77

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 9038

3. On certain Markings on the Frontal Part of the Human Cranium, and
their Significance. By A. Francis Dixon.

An examination of the frontal region of the cranium shows that, in many cases,
grooves or channels are present on the bone, corresponding to the branches of the
supra-orbital nerves. These grooves vary very much in appearance, as they may
be simple or branched, shallow or deeply cut. They are not infrequently converted
in parts of their course into little tunnels. In some cases they are found on one
side of the cranium only, in others they occur on both sides; their distribution is
very rarely quite symmetrical. Most frequently the grooves occur beneath
the outer branches of the supra-orbital nerve, but in many cases they are found
beneath the inner branches. The grooves never pass from the frontal on to the
parietal bone—across the coronal suture. They often extend upwards from the
supra-orbital notch, or foramen, as far as the coronal suture; in other cases they
begin inferiorly at a little foramen where some branch of the nerve enters the bone.
The openings of these little foramina are directed upwards towards the coronal
suture, just as the openings of the nutrient foramina in the long bones are
directed towards the end of the bone where growth is most active and goes
on longest.

The presence of these grooves indicates a want in proportion between the growth
in length of the nerves and the amount of expansion of the underlying part of the
cranium. The nerves might be looked upon as constricting cords which become
depressed in the developing bone as the cranium expands. The constricting
portions of the nerves are often limited inferiorly at a point where some little
branch enters the bone, and superiorly at the coronal suture, where the deep
layers of scalp are firmly bound down to the cranium. Hence the grooves for the
nerves do not cross the coronal suture and often begin inferiorly at little foramina
whose openings are directed upwards. The grooves appear to indicate in the
skulls in which they occur an excessive development of the frontal part of the
cranial wall. In races in whom the grooves are common, and strongly marked,
we would expect the presence of a tendency towards increased development and
capacity of the frontal part of the cranium; while,on the other hand, in races
in whom the grooves do not occur, or are rare, and but feebly marked, we
would expect to find much uniformity in the shape and size of the cranium,
indicating that none of its various parts are tending towards an increased develop-
ment, In the purer races of mankind, with marked uniformity in the size and
shape of their crania, we would look for the greatest harmony between the growth
in length of the overlying structures and the amount of expansion of the
various parts of the cranial wall; on the other hand, in mixed races we would be
more likely to find individuals exhibiting a want of such correspondence in the
amount of growth of the superficial and deeper structures. In this connection it
is interesting to note that the frontal grooves are almost never found in Australian
and Tasmanian skulls, that they are rare among Melanesians, slightly more common
among Polynesians, while among Bushmen and Negroes, especially in Zulus and
Kaffirs, they are very common, and often extraordinarily well marked. Among
Negroes they are present in over 50 per cent. of the skulls examined. In the
skulls obtained in the dissecting room they are present in about 41 per cent,
of all cases.

4. On the Sacral Index. By Professor D, J. Cunnincuam, I/.D., F.R.S.

Inasmuch as the true length of the sacral portion of the vertebral column is
not indicated by the shortest distance between the apex and base of the sacrum,
but rather by the length of the curve formed by the sacral vertebre, it is proposed
that, in making measurements for the determination of a sacral index, ‘length’
should be measured by using a tape along the concavity of the sacral curve, and
not by calipers, one limb of which is placed upon the base and the other on the
apex of the sacrum, Breadth (measured by calipers in the ordinary manner)

904 REPORT—1900,

multiplied by 100 and divided by length, measured in the manner indicated, gives
the true sacral index.

The curvature of the sacrum may be conveniently plotted by taking a tracing
from a strip of soft metal which has been previously adapted by pressure to the
front of the sacrum along its middle line. The index of curvature may he ex-
pressed by the number derived by multiplying the height of this plotted curve
by 100 and dividing by the number corresponding to the true length of the
sacrum.

5. On the Microcephalic Brain.
By Professor D. J. Cunnineuam, ILD., F.R.S.

The brain of the microcephalic idiot may exhibit features which do not merely
represent a ‘fixed’ embryonic condition. In one specimen the arrangement of
the fissures and sulci is found to approach more closely the ape than the human
type, and in almost every furrow some simian character can be detected. These
simian characters must not be considered mere foetal conditions rendered per-
manent. ‘The ape-like condition existing in this brain does not as a whole
correspond to that of any one ape, or group of apes, but there is a complicated
mixture of features some of which are characteristic of high apes, while others
find a parallel in the brain of low apes. The microcephalic brain may be regarded
as a partial ‘atavism.’ So far as its surface markings are concerned the specimen
noted has reverted in part, or wholly, to an arrangement which, in all probability,
existed in some early stem-form of man.

6. Developmental Changes in the Human Skeletcn from the Point of View
of Anthropology. By Davip Waterston, I.D., PR.CSL.

A series of specimens of the long bones of the extremities at different ages of
embryonic and infantile life has been collected and examined. The methods
employed in the examination were those of anthropometry, namely, osteometry
and osteoscopy.

By the former, the relative lengths of the bones of the limbs at different ages
have been ascertained and compared one with another, and by the latter it has
been found that these bones present some definite and interesting characters.
Without going minutely into the rate of growth of each segment of the upper and
lower limbs, the general character was shown, and the special features of the
bones at different ages were demonstrated by means of lantern slides taken from
photographs of the objects. An attempt has also been made to ascertain the
cause of the special characters found in the bones by investigating the time of
their appearance and of their replacement by adult characters.

A comparison has also been instituted between the bones of the embryo and
those of the lower races of mankind and of the higher apes, both as regards their
relative length and their characters. ‘

As it has been shown that the curvature of the spine in the lumbar region is a
post-natal development, and one adapted to the assumption of the erect attitude
by the infant, it was shown that in a similar way the configuration of the bones
of the lower extremity alters after birth, before the infant can stand erect.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On the Imperfection of our Knowledge of the Black Races of the Trans-
vaal and the Orange River Colony. By E. S. Harruann, £.S.A.

Our information on the customs, institutions, and beliefs of the native races of
the Transvaal and the Orange River Oolony is derived chiefly from fragmentary

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 905

notices by missionaries, an! these are not to be implicitly trusted. The black
peoples of South Africa are Bantus and Bushmen-Hottentots. Though there is
a general similarity of custom among them all, there are also important differences,
of which some examples are given. Inquiries made by the Cape Government.
The difficulty experienced by Europeans, even when long resident among the
natives and intimately acquainted with them, of understanding the real meaning
of their institutions. The practice of dobola supplies a striking example of this
difficulty.

An accurate study of the native customs, institutions, and beliefs is an urgent
necessity both for missionaries and for purposes of government.

2. On a Mould showing the Finger-prints of a Roman Sculptor of
probably the Third Century. By Sir Witi1aM Turver, JLB., FBS.

Sir Wm. Turner exhibited a plaster mould of a head, which had been modelled
by a Roman sculptor in probably the third century A.D., on which the prints
of the lines on the skin of the sculptor’s fingers had been preserved. The mould
belonged to Mr. G. Allis, of the Roman House, Lincoln, who had obtained it
during the excavation of the foundations of his house a few years ago, the site of
which is within the area of a large building of Roman times, several of the
columns of which are preserved in the basement of his house,

3. Report on the Canadian Ethnographic Survey.—See Reports, p. 468.

4. The Paganism of the Civilised Iroquois.
By Davip Bortz, Curator of the Musewm, Toronto.

Notwithstanding the contact of the Iroquois, or Six Nation Indians, with
white people for more than three hundred years, a very considerable number of
the former have retained many of their old-time beliefs, with the forms and
ceremonies appertaining thereto.

Of four thousand Caniengas (Mohawks), Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas,
Oneidas, and Tuscaroras now residing on the Grand Reserve, within sixty miles of
Toronto, Ontario, fully one-fourth continue to observe the ancient feasts or dances
connected with the growth and ingathering of corn and fruits, and for desired
changes in weather, as well as for the cure of disease.

Some modification in the ceremonies was made about a century ago by an
Onondaga named Ska-ne-o-dy’-o, who announced himself as a prophet who had paid
a visit to the abode of the Great Spirit. The changes introduced by him, however,
have not by any means removed the pagan character of the native beliefs,
although he certainly did attempt to imitate some Christian observances.

Still, the addresses of the medicine men retain most of the old-time forms,
although their significance in many cases is lost, and even the meaning of numerous
words is no longer known.

The leading idea in the present form of worship is that of a Great Spirit, but
this has been acquired from missionary sources; and although the Indians have
adopted the idea of a heaven, they do not believe in any hell.

The quoted examples of petitions addressed to Rawen Niyoh (the Creator)
illustrate the lack of assimilation of the old and néw forms.

One of the most characteristic ceremonies connected with Iroquois paganism
is that of the sacrifice or burning of the White Dog at the new year feast during
the February moon, when the spirit of the dog, accompanied by offerings of
tobacco, conveys to Niyoh information respecting the condition of his ‘own
people’ on the Grand River Reserve.

906 REPORT—1900.

5, Notes on Malay Metal-work. By Water Rosennaln, B.A., St. John’s
College, Cambridge ; 1851 Exhibition Commissioners’ Research Scholar,
University of Melbourne.

The paper dealt with some specimens of Malay metal-work submitted to the
author for microscopic and other examination by Mr. W. W. Skeat. Some
Malay processes actually witnessed by Mr. Skeat were described. and the bearings
of the microscopic examination on the explanations of these processes are
discussed.

The first question dealt with is the production of the ‘damask’ pattern on a
Malay kris. Mucrophotographs were given showing that the ‘damask iron’ really
consists of layers of locsely welded’ wrought iron, the only other metal used being
tool steel. ‘The body of the blade is made of steel, and a layer of laminated
‘damask iron’ is welded upon either side of the central layer of steel; a thin
layer of steel is welded on outside the ‘damask iron.’ The author believes that
the striated ‘damask’ effect is due to the opening of the loose welds in the damask
iron during the forging of the blade, steel being driven between the lamine. The
outside layer of steel is entirely ground away, and when the compound surface so
produced is ‘etched’ by the pickling process employed, the more readily corroded
steel is attacked, leaving the edges of the layers of iron as a series of narrow
projecting ridges.

The tools of the Malay goldsmith were next described, and the micro-structure
and composition of Malay bronzes and ‘ white metal’ were described and discussed.

The final section of the paper dealt with the Malay method of producing chains
by casting.

6. Note on the ‘ Kingfisher’ Kriss. By Professor Henry Louis, JA.

This note describes a peculiar pattern of kriss used in a limited area in the
north-east of the Malay Peninsula. The Malay legend of its origin is that a
party of Malays from the Bugis islands invaded this portion of the peninsula
many centuries ago; one of their leaders was known as ‘the Kingfisher’ (pre-
sumably on account of his rapid movements). The invasion was successful, but
the leader fell in one of the last engagements. After his death his followers
carved their kriss handles into shapes resembling the kingfisher’s head and beak.
Under Chinese influence the pattern became more ornate, until it reached the
present fixed type.

The writer discovered in a pawnshop in Bangkok an earlier form of this type
(possibly the only one extant): this kriss seems to have been sold by a Malay
from this region, many of whom are well known to have been deported by the
Siamese between the years 1790 and 1820. Colonies of their descendants still
exist in Siam, and have been visited by the writer. The early type of ‘ King-
fisher’ kriss is much more like the bird’s head than the modern pattern, which is,
however, now the only one seen among or known to the Malays. The region in
question has rarely been visited by Europeans.

7. On some Buddhist Sites. By W. Law Bros.

The author exhibited a photograph of the temple erected on the spot where
Buddha ‘ meditated’ A sample of the sacred ‘Bo’ tree was also shown. The
delicate carvings in these temples were exhibited and explained. What was
described as the ‘Tope’ was a characteristic development in Buddhist sacred
buildings, and sometimes these ‘were treated with elaborate ornamentation. In
addition to the sites a series of views showing the rock-caverns which enter so
largely into Buddhist religious life were exhibited. These rock-caves contain
specimens of the earliest Buddhist sculptures known. The author also showed
views of a number of Jain temples which were among the most richly elaborate in
ornamentation of all Indian sanctuaries, and also views of side-chapels and cloisters
belonging to these temples, in nearly all of which the cross-legged figure of the
Buddha was found, ‘

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 907

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11,
The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. On Permanent Skin-marks, Tattooing, Scarification, &c.
By H. Line Ror.

The author enumerated the various purposes for which these disfigurements
were made. ‘T'hey were connected among other things with beliefs in the future
life, it being supposed that without them one could not find his way about in the
next world. They also served as charms for women at childbirth. The institution
was really divisible into four divisions. The Tahitian method was the one
commonly seen on our sailors. The New Zealand method, which was performed
_ by a pricker, left behind a very deep mark in the skin, and was often performed so
freely as to cover the whole skin. The West African and the Tasmanian methods
differed from the preceding ones, and in the case of the last of these the marks
develop into large continuous scars. They were all variations of skin deformations,
but rubbed in, and they leave a permanent mark The author exhibited pictures
of the various specimens of; hese different methods of tattooing, and accompanied
them with pictures of the different instruments employed. The wounds made
were frequently reopened in order to put in colouring juices, and owing to this
they were a long time in healing, and left behind them permanent scars.

2. Some Peculiar Features of the Animal-cults of the Natives of Sarawak,
and their Bearing on the Problems of Totemism. by Cuaries Hoss,
D.Sc., Resident of the Baram District, and W. McDovueat., IA.

We had observed customs that seemed to indicate the existence of a well-
developed totemism, either at the present time or in recent times, among the
natives of Sarawak. We have therefore collected information bearing on this
subject as diligently as possible, from all the tribes with whom we have come into
intimate contact.

We found a great number and variety of peculiar rites and customs observed
by the people of the different tribes in their dealings with animals and plants.
We confine ourselves in this short paper (1) to giving a general account of the
customs of one of the inland tribes, the Kenyahs; (2) to describing the ‘ Nyarong,’
or spirit-helper of the Sea-Dayaks, and some similar institutions among the other
en and (8) to pointing out the bearing of our observations on the totem

roblem.
+ The Kenyahs are a warlike agricultural people, living as isolated communi-
ties of twenty to fifty or more families, each community inhabiting a single long
house built on the river-bank. Their religion is peculiar, in that they helieve in
a beneficent Supreme Being and a group of departmental deities, while they attri-
bute to every agent that affects their lives a spirit that must be properly respected
and, if necessary, propitiated.

Most important to them of all the animals is the common white-headed hawk.
He brings messages of warning and advice from the Supreme Being to those who
know how to read the signs he gives, and he is consulted before every under-
taking of importance, and sacrifices of fowls and pigs are made to him. A wooden
image of the hawk stands before every house. Several other birds give them
omens of lesser importance, and none of these may be killed or eaten.

The domestic fowl is killed as a sacrifice to the hawk or other powers, and its
blood is sprinkled on the altar-posts of the gods and on the persons taking part in
various ceremonies, especially peace-making ceremonies. The domestic pig is
sacrificed in much the same way. ‘The spirit of a pig is always charged with some
prayer to be carried to the Supreme Being, and the answer is read from the
markings of its liver.

The crocodiles are regarded as a friendly and allied tribe, aad may be killed in

908 REPORT—1900.

retaliation only, No Kenyah will kill a dog, and the dead body of a dog is re-
garded with fear.

Kenyahs will not eat the flesh of deer or horned cattle, and there are many
restrictions on touching or using any parts of them.

Only old or renowned warriors will wear or touch the skin of a tiger.

One house is decorated with carvings of the gibbon on every large beam, and
all Kenyahs have a dread of the Maias and the long-nosed monkey.

There thus seems to be every degree of regard paid to the different beasts,
from the mere uneasy feeling in the presence of the uncanny long-nosed monkey
to the elaborate cult of the hawk, and the nature of the respect paid to any species
seems in nearly every case to be the direct expression of the impression made on
the barbarian’s mind by the behaviour of the beasts.

The Spirit-Helper.—Every Sea-Dayak hopes to be guided and helped all
through his life by a spirit which announces itself to him in dreams and takes up
its abode in some peculiar natural object or in some animal. In the latter case
the Dayak will never kill or eat one of the same species of animal, and will lay
the same prohibition on all his descendants, so that a whole family may come to
pay especial regard to one species of animal for many generations, A similar
institution occurs, though less commonly, among the other tribes. In such cases
we seem to be able to trace sometimes the actual origin and growth of a totem.

3, Report on the Ethnography of the Malay Peninsula.
See Reports, p. 393.

4, On the Present State of our Knowledge of the Modern Population of
Egypt. By D. Ranpari Mactver, JA.

5. Perforate Humeri in Ancient Egyptian Skeletons,
By Professor A. Macauister, 2.8.

In sorting out our Cambridge collection of Egyptian bones I have noted the
frequency of supra-articular perforation of the humerus, especially in the bones
from Libyan graves. I did not begin to count the number of examples until more
than three-fourths of the series had been put away in store-cases, but out of the
last twenty boxes opened I found that out of 682 humeri 390 were perforate and
292 imperforate. The percentage of perforation is therefore 57:2.

This exceeds anything hitherto published. Of ancient North Americans the
percentage of perforate bones out of 300 specimens is 40 percent. In one collection
from the Gila Valley, in Arizona, 48 perforate bones were found out of 89, a per-
centage of 53°9; but this is exceptionally high, and the number of bones is not
large. In our Cambridge collection when I began to count I found out of the
first 115 bones that 65 were perforated ; so, had I none but this series, the pereent-
age would have come out 56°65.

The Libyans may therefore, I think, claim to hold the record. In our dissect-
ing-room there were three instances out of the last hundred bodies examined.
te statistics will be found in Messrs. Matthews and Lamb’s article on the
subject.

The authors just quoted are most probably correct in considering this as an
acquired character. The youngest specimen obtained was in a humerus of a child
probably six yearsold. I have not seen any genuine approach to this condition
among 100 foetal humeri examined for the purpose. As far as I know, it has never
been found in a foetal bone.

It is a perforation of the shaft well above the epiphysial junction line, The

1 Mem, Amer, National Acad, Sci., vi, 217,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 909

distal extremity of the diaphysis thickens below the hole down to the place where
the epiphysis is set upon it. ‘

It is always in the intra-articular part of the olecranon fossa, below the line of
reflexion of the synovial membrane that crosses the middle of the fossa. It is
therefore quite distinct from the vascular holes with which Topinard associates it,
as these are always extra-articular [the vessels are chiefly derived from the inferior
profunda], ‘

Of these perforate humeri 172 were right and 218 were left. As far as could
be determined from size, shape, and from the accompanying pelvic bones, 192 were
male and 198 were female. There is thus the same preponderance of left and
female over right and male bones which was noticed by the describers of the
Hemenway Collection, leading one to speculate as to the nature of the work which
predisposed to the perforation—the mill, the shadoof, or the mattock.

As to the sizes of the holes, they were mostly oval or elliptical, with the long
axis transverse or nearly so, and the distribution of their sizes is shown in the
accompanying table :—

Length of Mate. FEMALE.
Long Axis 7 ia
in mm, Right. Left. Right. Left.
1.4 17 9 12 10
5-9 54 58 52 63
10-12 14 37 22 39
Over 12 1 2 0 0
Total ; : 86 106 86 112

In the few recent examples, which were large, the hole was actually open in the
recent state ; when small it is usually closed by membrane ; 27 were young bones
with un-united upper epiphysis, 5 coexisted with the supracondylar process. The
opening is reniform or bilobed in 33.

This note is only preliminary, as the subject is sufficiently important to require
still further study. I have, however, been able to determine that while in ordinary
extension and flexion the tips of the processes do not press on the humerus, yet
by forced extension and forced flexion contact can be made to take place, especially
when the elbow is forcibly extended, with the hand in the position of pronation,

6. On Anthropological Observations made by Mr. F. Laidlaw in the
Malay Peninsula (Skeat Expedition). By W. L. H. Duckworrs.

The anthropological results of the Skeat Expedition comprise museum
specimens in the form of a skeleton of a native of the Pangan tribe (Kedah), of
samples of native hair, and also a collection of measurements by Mr. Laidlaw.

The skeleton is that of an adult male, whose stature was distinctly small
(about 5 feet). The skull presents a combination of features commonly found in
the skulls of negroes with those which characterise the crania of infants, the
whole constituting evidence of the lowly physical type of the individual. The
bones of the skeleton show signs of widespread disease, possibly of a congenital
nature. Mr. Laidlaw’s measurements and observations relate to members of the
same tribe, and are to be welcomed as affording precise information about a race
of Malayan aborigines hitherto little investigated. Perhaps the most interesting
point to notice is the small average stature of the Pangans (about 5 feet for
adult men). Though dwarfish, they are, however, markedly taller than the African
dwarfs. It is also noteworthy that differences in the colour of the skin (varying
shades of dark brown) and in the character of the hair occur in the different
tribes. It is important to notice that they present comparatively few anatomical
features which can be claimed as evidence of an approximation tu the ape. How-

910 . REPORT—1900

ever primitive in their mode of life, they are anatomically truly terrestrial anid
human. The present communication is only a preliminary account of Mr, Laidlaw’s
results; moreover, there is much information available through the etforts of the
Skeat Expedition regarding the mode of life, language, customs, and religious
belief of these fast-disappearing aborigines. The Association is therefore to be
congratulated on having, by contributing to the Skeat Expedition, assisted
materially in rescuing these records of the Pangan tribe of the Malay Peninsula.

7. On Crania collected by Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner in his Expedition to
Rotuma. By W. lL. H. Duckworrtu.

The subject of this communication is a collection of nine crania from the above-
mentioned locality. The results of a craniological investigation show that while
considerable individual differences exist, there are at least two types of skull to be
met with in the island of Rotuma. These are in the first place a variety of the
form of cranium usually found among Polynesian natives, though possessing certain
characteristics which may almost be described as Mongolian; and in the second
place the type of cranium characteristic of Melanesians occurs in Mr, Gardiner’s
collection. That such different types should be met with in one small island is in
accordance with what would be expected on @ priori grounds when it is considered
that Rotuma is situated at the centre of contact of three important ethnical areas,
viz., the Polynesian to the east, the Melanesian to the south-west, and the
Micronesian (where Mongolian elements are discernible among the natives) to the
north-west.

8. A System of Classification of Finger Impressions. By J. G. Garson,
U.D., Expert Adviser and Instructor on Identification, Home Office.

This system of classification of finger impressions has been devised to be
worked in conjunction with classification of records by measurements of the head
and limbs for the purpose of facilitating search for previous records of criminals.
It is also applicable for the classification of small collections of records without
the concurrent use of measurements.

The objects aimed at in preparing this classification have been to get a moderate
number of divisions under which the various patterns and combinations of patterns
occurring inthe arrangement of the ridges of the skin on the palmar surface of the
terminal phalanges of the digits of the hand may be classified, so that each divi-
sion shall contain approximately an equal percentage of the total number of
records dealt with, using for the purpose the fewest number of digits that will
suftice to get such a distribution, and including only the impressions of those digits
which are taken in all countries where the Bertillon system of identification has been
adopted—namely, the first four digits of the right hand, The patterns which the
ridges form are four in number, and are graphically indicated by the use of the
following signs :—

An arch thus . . < ; ° . puGyoN
A loop which opens on the left . : : ere 4
A loop opening to the right : ; 5 : N
A whorl of any kind . : : : ; O

The representations of the ridge-patterns depicted by these signs from the im-
pressions of the several digits in order of succession constitute the finger formula
of an individual, which should be noted on a prominent part of each record so as
to be readily seen.

It has been found that the patterns and their combinations on the thumb and
three following fingers may be conveniently arranged in ten divisions, The thumb
and forefinger are always required in the classification, but when the divisions
given by these digits are large, the middle finger or the middle and ring finger

TRANSACTIONS Of SECTION H. 911

inipréssions aie also iiedded to equalise the size of each division to as nearly as
possible 10 per cent. of the total number of records.

In the first instance the records are classified into two divisions by the ridge»
pattern on the thumb, according as this happens to be A, an arch or either form
of loop; B, a whorl.

Each of these two groups is broken up into four smaller divisions by the
pattern on the forefinger according as it is (a) an arch; (6) a loop with the mouth
opening to the left; (¢) a loop with the opening to the right ; (d) a whorl.

Of the eight divisions thus obtained no further subdivision is necessary of six
groups—namely, of a,b, and d of the A division, and of a, b, and ¢ of the B
division.

In the A division, further subdivision of the ¢ group by the middle and ring
fingers is necessary. This is done by separating the cases where there are loops on
each of the four digits from those in which there is any other combination of
patterns on the thumb, mid, and ring fingers. Thus we obtain five groups in this
first: division.

Again, in the B division—namely, the cases in which there is a whorl on the
thumb—subdivision has to be resorted to in the d group when there is a whorl on
the forefinger as well as on the thumb. This is done by separating the cases where
the middle finger bears a whorl from those in which there is an arch or either form
of loop. Thus we obtain five groups in this second division.

We have now got ten groups, which are of approximately equal size, except
the @ group of the B division—that in which the thumb bears a whorl and the
forefinger an arch, which is considerably smaller than the others, but this cannot
be obviated. In any given number of individuals there will always be some
in whom one or more of the four fingers used in classification have been damaged
from some cause or other, so that the pattern of the ridges is undecipherable, or
one or more fingers of either hand have been lost partially or completely ; espe-
cially is this the case amongst the labouring classes in manufacturing districts or
towns. In adult criminals such cases amount to about 5°5 per cent. In any system
of classification it is necessary to provide for such cases either by making a separate
group of them or by placing them with some other group as may be found more con-
venient. If the latter course be adopted, and they are added to a of the B group,
it will be brought up to the level of several of the other groups.

The following is the scheme of classification reduced to tabular form, and the
approximate percentage of the records in each of the ten divisions is indicated
by the figures given in the lowest line :—

. A. B.

Right Thumb SRE } O
Right Forefinges “\ y | ba | O | aN |Z | rh O
9-3 13-5 NANSI A109. 33 |
|

. Damaged |
| 12*1 Ca | ‘5 STS) ZN 7 N@
=88 10:7 9-4

With the above ten divisions of the finger impressions worked in conjunction
with and secondary to classification by measurements, sufficient power is available
to enable the records of a large number of criminals to be easi!y manipulated. For
example, if only four measurements be used in the tripartite classification, which
is universally followed, we have 81 divisions; by the employment of this decimal
division by finger-prints, a total of 810 divisions are obtained; while if five
measurements be taken, as adopted in England, which gives 243 divisions, by the

912 REPORT—1900,

combined system, we increase the power of effective classification tenfold, and
obtain no less than 2,430 divisions, and that without straining either source of

classification,

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 12.

The following Papers and Report were read :—

1. The Sense of Effort and the Perception of Force.
By Professor G, J. Stokes, J/.A.

According to the most generally accepted view the idea of force is obtained
from the muscular sense. It has also been attributed to touch. The most
important question is whether the perception is connected with the motor or
sensory nerves. If the latter view be adopted, it has been thought that this sensa-
tion can reveal nothing of the nature of the objective cause. As recent investiga-
tion seems to compel the adoption of the latter view, the objective character of the
perception can only be saved if we admit the presence of an objective character in
all sensation. If Wundt’s theory of the original functional indifference of the
nerves be accepted, we may yet be enabled to remove the difficulties in the way of
admitting such an objective character. The true difference between the perception
of force and other sensations will then lie, not in the process by which the pheno-
menon is apprehended, but in the nature of the phenomenon apprehended. We
may thus have an apprehension of an objective external reality—the same reality
which underlies the phenomena of dynamics. The principle of Least Action
may perhaps explain the directive character of vital and voluntary processes.

2. On Interpolation in Memory.'
By Professor Marcus Hartoe, J.A., D.Se.

Many educational syllabuses that profess to rest on a psychological base assume
that the only guidance for action is a sensation which has been memorised by
frequent repetition. The mind, however, seems to have the power of classifying
the memories of each category apart and in order of magnitude and direction,
completing the records of single memories with what may be compared with an
interpolation-curve, and even extrapolating on either side; so that, if a suitable
response have been learned to a limited number of sensations, a new sensation of
the same category will produce a new appropriate response. This capacity for in-
terpolating has been long recognised in various arts, and is known as ‘ faculty,’
‘feeling,’ &e. It has not, however, been definitely recognised hy the psychologist,
who has asked whether the conseiows memory and judgment can construct inter-
mediate sensations between those he has learned from experience, rather than
whether there is a power in virtue of which it can recognise the appropriate position
of new sensations, or appropriately act on the stimulus of new sensations when
they occur.

Similarly with combinations of intermediate sensations, the mind can simulta-
neously act on them and execute the combined appropriate response in much the
same way as the pencil of a tide-predicting machine is simultaneously acted upon
by the independent wheels. This is shown by the now received fact (finally proved
by Richet) that each mental act takes about the tenth of a second, and any act of
conscious (sit venia verbo) combination and judgment is usually out of the question
from a lack of adequate time.

Illustrations of these views were quoted from the domains of housekeeping, the
plastic arts, cards, billiards, and language. It was urged that @ prior? methods of
instruction based on incomplete premises must be regarded with extreme caution.

1 Published in the Contemporary Review for October 1900.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 8. 913

3. The Defensive Earthworks of Yorkshire. By Mrs. Armirace.

The author describes the various types of earthworks in Yorkshire—Roman
camps, hill forts, and boundary earthworks—and gives a summary of the results
of recent researches regarding these three classes of earthworks.

A fourth class very frequent in Yorkshire is the moated hillock, with moated
court attached. It has been assigned in turn to the Britons, Romans, Saxons, and
Danes. The author gives reasons why none of these views is probable, and shows
the erroneousness of the theory of Mr. G. T. Clark, now so widely accepted, that the
Anglo-Saxon burh was a hillock of this kind, its meaning in Anglo-Saxon literature
being clearly a fortified town. The author produces the following arguments for
the Norman origin of these hillocks (called by the Normans mottes): (a) the
Normans are known to have built such earthworks in Normandy and Ireland,
and are represented in the Bayeux tapestry as throwing up a similar work at
Hastings; (8) the type belongs to the age of feudalism, and answers to the needs
of the Normans in the United Kingdom ; (y) the Norman castles mentioned by the
contemporary chroniclers or by Domesday Book as constructed by the Conqueror
or his followers have nearly all of them mottes.

The evolution of the Castle, the personal fortification of the feudal chieftain,
accompanied the evolution of society from the tribal to the feudal type.

4. On the Prehistoric Antiquities of Rumbald’s Moor.
By Butter Woop.

5. On the Occurrence of Flint Implements of Paleolithic Type on an old
Land-surface in Oxfordshire, near Wolvercote and Pear Tree Hill,
together with a few Implements of various Plateaw Types. By A. M.
Bett, J/.A.

At Wolvercote, near Oxford, there is a large section of a quaternary river-gravel
which has produced the usual fauna, Elephas primigenius &c., and many fine
implements of human workmanship. This gravel cuts into and is consequently
newer than a previous land-surface. A portion of this surface is found at
Wolvercote and another portion at Pear Tree Hill, about half a mile distant.
In both places flint implements of paleolithic type, together with bulbed flakes
and a few implements of plateau type, have been found. In every case the flints
are ochreous, which distinguishes them from those which belong to the river-
gravel at Wolvercote.

The older surface has been previously described as Northern Drift. It is sup-
posed by the author to be a remaniement of the true Northern Drift, but to have
been deposited under semi-frozen conditions. It must be anterior to the river-
valley, and consequently its relics of man are the oldest as yet obtained from the
Thames Valley.

The drift in question most resembles the drifts of Caddington, described by
Mr. G. Worthington Smith, and some sections of the Lower Greensand near
Limpsfield. Both of these drifts are implementiferous, and the author would
correlate the Wolvercote and Pear Tree Hill surface with these drifts.

6. On the Physical Characteristics of the Population of Aberdeenshire.
By J. Gray, B.Sc., and J. F. Tocusr, F.C.

These observations were taken at the Lonach gathering in Strathdon, a district
lying right at the head of the valley of the Don. The district is comparatively
isolated, the nearest railway station being over twelve miles distant.

Our principal object was to ascertain what difference if any existed between
the people in the upper ends of the river valleys and the people on the eastern sea-

1900, 3N

914 REPORT—1900,

board, the anthropological statistics of which have been recently ascertained. The
following results show that a very considerable difference exists; and it being
highly probable that a more primitive stratum of the population is always to be
found in the upper ends of river valleys, the results are of great interest from this
point of view. }

The pigmentation and nose statistics of the whole of the people attending the
gathering, namely, 361 males and 243 females, were taken at the gate by two
observers. Later on the same statistics, with the addition of measurements of the
head and of stature, were taken in a tent in the grounds, about ninety adult males,
natives of the district, being measured. The people observed at the gate contained
a small percentage of visitors from a distance, which may account for the difference
in the results obtained at the gate and in the tent.

Hair Tyes Types of Noses
| |
\Fair,Red iste Dark | Light tea Dark Straight, Roman Wavy Concave! Jew
}
f ‘aes | =
Males : |
W. Aberdeenshire | 10 8 | 42 |. 40 57 48.j.. 14 79 15 3 2 i
(gate) | | | | |
W. Aberdeenshire | 5| 8 40 | 47 38 =| 45) 17 56 | «22 13 6 3
(tent) |
E. Aberdeenshire | 9}| 6| 66 | 19 26 51 | 23 | ey ee rt cy ae od)
(gate) M jerks | | | | |
E. Aberdeenshire | 18 | 2 | 40 40 35 | 46 | 19 66.5020 meee | <r wih
(tent) | | | |
| | | |
Females : | | | | H
W. Aberdeenshire | 8 | 6] 36 50 39 =| 34 | 27 82 9 | ee ea
(gate) | | |
BE. Aberdeenshire-| 10 | 6 | 55 29 | 22 | 39) 39 60 7) aa eee 27 | 1
(gate) | | | | |
| I |

An examination of the above table shows that on the average the hair is much
darker in West than in East Aberdeenshire ; a result which might be accounted for
by the presence of a larger percentage of the North German blonde type on the east
coast. ‘The eyes, however, are lighter in the west than in the east; an anomalous
result which is not so easily explained.

The following table gives an analysis of the measurements of the ninety adult
males taken in the tent and their correlations, with pigmentation and types of
noses, corresponding results obtained from the rural population of EH, Aberdeen-
shire (Mintlaw gathering) being given for the sake of comparison.

at Nigres-
aes Heads Stature eau Types of Noses

Popula- | |
tion Badth.|Lgth.| Ft. In. | Hair| Eyes| S. | R. | W.| C. | J.

W. Aberdeenshire (90 persons )— |
General] Averages A a ° — 157 | 198 5 8% 76 40 | 56 | 22/13] 6/3
Group 1.(158-167). . . 50 161 | 200] 59% | 78| 38 | 55]18}20} 017
» XL. (153-157). ° . 35 155 196 5 8+ 78 42 | 53 | 34] 3]10)0
» LIT. (149-152) . . . 12 151 197 59 67 45 | 64|18|18] 0/0
3) CLVE(iapa1as) eee ee 2 146 | 199] 593 | $3] 50 100] —| —} — |—

E. Aberdeenshire (169 persons)— |
General Averages A ; . — 153 | 195} 5 8} 68 | 41 | 66] 20] 8) 4/1
Group I, (158-167). ‘ F 14 161 199 |, 59 70 39.| 70 | 21 9{ 010
eS TL Gasol nip ane me 44 155 | 195 | 58} | 66| 40/68| 20/11} 0j1
LTT (4921 bapiee he cae 28 150| 193| 5 7% | 67| 45] 61]|22| 4] 6|0
9 LIV. (142-148). 4 é 14 146 192 5 74 69 37 | 71 17} 4| 4/4

1 Blue eyes were taken separately at the Lonach gathering, and were found to
form about 10 per cent, of the light eyes, which in the table includes blue eyes

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H, 915

In the head-breadth frequency curve of the population of E. Aberdeenshire we
found two well-marked peaks at 150 mm. and 155 mm., and two lesser peaks at
145mm. and 160mm. ‘Taking these breadths as centres, we have divided the
people into four groups, the limiting breadths being marked opposite each group in
the above table.

The general averages given in the table show that 11 W. Aberdeenshire the
people have broader and longer heads: they are taller by 3 inch, they are darker in
hair and lighter in eyes, and they have rather higher percentages of Roman, wavy,
and concave noses than in E. Aberdeenshire.

The first column in the table shows approximately the percentage which each
group forms of the population. Group I. is much better represented in the west
than in the east, being 50 per cent. of the population in the former case and only 14
per cent. in the latter case. The average breadths and lengths of the head in this
group come out almost exactly the same in the west and in the east, and the
stature (5 feet 9 inches), which is very high for an average, differs only by + inch in
the two places. The nigrescence, which is calculated by a formula in which therela-
tive value and percentage of all the colours are taken into account,! shows that in both
the east and the west this group is darker in hair and lighter in eyes than the
general average of the population. It is evidently the presence of a larger per-
centage of this group in the west which accounts for its superiority in physique
over the east. Group II. is well represented in both east and west. Groups III.
and IV. are, however, almost completely absent in the west, the total numbers,
eleyen and two, in these groups in the west being so small as to make the averages
for stature, &c., given in the table unreliabie.

It seems reasonable to conclude from these results that, in Aberdeenshire, at
some distant date, an early, tall, broad-headed, light-eyed people have been driven
inland by later immigrants, who were shorter, had narrower heads, and were of the
blonde type.

A frequency curve of breadths of round barrow heads shows that Groups I.
and II. were well represented in the Bronze age in the British Isles. Groups III.
and IV. have the breadths of long barrow heads, which, however, are much longer
(208 mm. on the average). The Rowgrave heads of N, Germany, whose average
length is given as about 200 mm., come much nearer to Group III.; and as these
probably represent the aboriginal blonde race of N. Germany, it is reasonable to
assume that our Group III. represents blonde immigrants from N. Germany, who
when they arrived in Aberdeenshire found the country in possession of a tall, broad-
headed, dark-haired, blue-eyed people, the descendants of the men of the Bronze age.
The resemblance of Group I. to Deniker’s Adriatic type is significant when taken
in conjunction with the fact that bronze first came into the British Isles from S.E.
Europe.

7. Report on the Age of Stone Circles—See Reports, p. 461.

1 See Journ. Anthropological Institute, 1900.

3N2

916 REPORT—1900,

Section K.—BOTANY.

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor Sypnny H. Vines, M.A., D.Sce., F.R.S.

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 6.

In the absence of the President the following Address was read by Dr. D. H.
Scort, F.R.S.:—

Tere has been considerable difference of opinion as to whether the present year
marks the close of the nineteenth or the beginning of the twentieth century. But
whatever may be the right or the wrong of this vexed question, the fact that
the year-date now begins with 19, instead of with 18, suggests the appropriate-
ness of devoting an occasion such as the present to a review of the century which
has closed, as some will have it, or, in the opinion of others, is about to close. I
therefore propose to address you upon the progress of Botany during the nineteenth
century.

I a fully conscious of the magnitude of the task which I am undertaking,
more especially in its relation to the limits of time and space at my disposal. So
eventful has the period been that to give in any detail an account of what has
been accomplished during the last hundred years would mean to write the larger
half of the entire history of Botany, ‘his being so, it might appear almost
hopeless to attempt to deal with so large a subject in a Presidential Address, But
I trust that the very restrictions under which I labour may prove to be rather
advantageous than otherwise, inasmuch as they compel me to confine attention
to what is of primary importance, and thus to give special prominence to the main
lines along which the development of the science has proceeded.

Statistics.

We may well begin with what is, after all, the most fundamental matter, viz.,
the relative numbers of known species of plants at the beginning and at the end of
the century. It might appear that the statistics of plants was a subject susceptible
of very simple treatment, but unfortunately this is not the case. It must be
remembered that a ‘species’ is not an invariable standard unit, like a pound
ora pint, but that it is an idea dependent upon the subjectivity of individual
botanists. For instance, one botanist may regard a certain number of similar
plants as all belonging to a single species, whilst another may find the differences
among them such as to warrant the distinction of as many species as there are
plants. It is this inevitable variation in the estimation of specitic characters which
renders it difficult to deal satisfactorily with plants from the statistical point of
view. However, the following figures may be regarded as giving a fair idea of
the increase in the number of ‘ good’ species of living plants.

It is generally stated that about 10,000 species of plants were known to
Linneus in the latter half of the eighteenth century, of which about one-tenth
were Cryptogams ; but so rapid was the progress in the study of new plants at
that time that the first enumeration of plants published in the nineteenth century,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 917

the ‘Synopsis’ of Persoon (1807), included as many as 20,000 species of Phanerogams
alone. Turning now to the end of the century, we arrive at the following census,
for which I am indebted mainly to Professor Saccardo (1892) and to Professor
de Toni who has kindly given me special information as to the Algze :—

Species of Phanerogams indicated in Bentham and Hooker's ‘ Genera
Plantarum’ (Durand, ‘ Index, 1888).

Dicotyledons : : : : 5 : : . 78,200
Monocotyledons . : : : : : 3 . 19,600
Gymnosperms - : : : ; : : . 2420
100,220

Estimated subsequent additions (Saccardo) : ae Ost:
Total Phanerogams 2 . 105,231

Species of Pteridophyta (indicated in Hooker and Baker's ‘ Synopsis ;’
Baker's ‘ New Ferns’ and ‘ Fern Allies’).

Filicine (including Isoétes), about . ; : 3,000
Lycopodinz, about . : : : : ‘ 432
Equisetine, about : F : : 20
Total Pteridophyta : . 3,452
Species of Bryophyta (Saccardo’s Estimate).
Musci . : ; F é : : : é . 4,609
Hepatic : : < é : ; : . 8,041
Total Bryophyta . : ; 4,600
Species of Thallophyta.
Fungi (including Bacteria) (Saccardo) - : . 39,663
Lichens (Saccardo) . : : : 2 : . 5,600
Algz (incl. 6,000 Diatoms) (de Toni) . : F . 14,000
Total Thallophyta . : . 69,263
Adding these totals together—
Phanerogams : é : : ; : ; - 105,231
Pteridophyta : ; : . : p ; . 3,452
Bryophyta . , : : : : , F ST Ase
Thallophyta . ; : : : : : P . 59,263
we have a grand total of ; ; : : : ; : . 175,596

as the approximate number of recognised species of living plants.

These figures are sufficiently accurate to show how vast have been the additions
to the knowledge of plants in the period under consideration, and they afford much
food for thought. In the first: place, they indicate how closely connected has been
the growth of this branch of Botany with the exploration and opening up of new
countries which has been so characteristic a feature of the century. Again, noone
can consider these figures without being struck by the disparity in the numbers of
species included in the different groups; a most interesting topic, which cannot,
however, be entered upon here. It must suffice to point out in a general way that
the smaller groups represent families of plants which attained their numerical
zenith in long past geological periods, and are now decadent, whilst the existing
flora of the world is characterised by the preponderating Angiosperms and Fungi.

918 REPORT—1900.

We may venture to cast a forward glance upon the possible future develop-
ment of the knowledge of species. Various partial estimates have been made as
to the probable number of existing species of this or that group, but the only com-
prehensive estimate with which I am acquainted is that of Professor Saccardo
(1892). He begins with a somewhat startling calculation to the effect that there
are at least 250,000 existing species of Fungi alone, and he goes on to suggest that
probably the number of species belonging to the various other groups would
amount to 150,000; hence the total number of species now living is to be estimated
at over 400,000, On the basis of this estimate it appears that we have not yet
made the acquaintance of half the contemporary species; so that there remains
plenty of occupation for systematic and descriptive botanists, especially in the de-
partment of Fungology. It is also rather alarming, in view of the predatory
instincts of so many of the Fungi, to learn that they constitute so decided a majority
of the whole vegetable kingdom,

In spite of the great increase in the number of known species, it cannot be said
that any essentially new type of plant has been discovered during the century. So
far as the bounds of the vegetable kingdom have been extended at all, it has been
by the annexation of groups hitherto regarded as within the sphere of influence of
the zoologists. The most notable instance of this has occurred in the case of the
Bacteria, or Schizomycetes, as Naegeli termed them, These organisms, discovered
by Leeuwenhoek 200 years ago, had always been regarded as infusorian animals
until, in 1853, Cohn recognised their vegetable nature and their affinity with the
Fungi. These plants have acquired special importance, partly on account of the
controversy which arose as to their supposed spontaneous generation, but more
especially on account of their remarkable zymogenic and pathogenic properties, so
that Bacteriology has become one of the new sciences of the century.

Classification.

Having gained some idea of the number of species which have been recognised
and described during the century, the next point for consideration is the progress
made in the attempt to reduce this mass of material to such order that it can be
intelligently apprehended; in a word, to convert a mass of facts into a science;
‘Filum ariadneum Botanices est systema, sine quo chaos est Res Herbaria’
(Linnzeus).

The classification of plants is a problem which has engaged attention from the
very earliest times. Without attempting to enter into the history of the matter,
I may just point out that, speaking generally, all the earlier systems of classifica-
tion were more or less artificial, the subdivisions being based upon the distinctive
features of one set of members of the plant. When I say that of all these systems
that proposed by Linnzeus (1735) was the most purely artificial, I do not imply
any reproach: if it was the most artificial, it was at the same time the most
serviceable, and its author was fully aware of its artificiality. This system is
generally regarded as his most remarkable achievement; but the really great
service which Linnzus rendered to science was the clear distinction which he for
the first time drew between systems which are artificial and those which are
natural. Recognising, as he did, his inability to frame at that period a satisfactory
natural system, he also realised that with the increasing number of known plants
some more ready means of determining them was an absolute necessity, and it was
for this purpose that he devised his artificial system, not as an end, but as a means.
The end to be kept in view was the natural classification: ‘Methodus naturalis
est ultimus finis Botanices’ is his clearly expressed position in the ‘ Philosophia
Botanica,’

There is a certain irony in the fact that the enthusiastic acceptance accorded
to his artificial system throughout the greater part of Europe contributed to post-
pone the realisation of Linnzeus’s cherished hopes with regard to the attainment of
a natural classification. It was just in those countries, such as Germany and
England, where the Linnean system was most readily adopted that the develop-
ment of the natural system proceeded most slowly. It was in France, where the
Linnean system never secured a firm hold, that the quest of the natural system was

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 919

pursued ; and it is to French botanists more particularly that our present classi-
fication is due. It may be traced from its first beginnings with Magnol in 1689,
through the bolder attempts of Adanson and of Bernard de Jussieu (1759), to the
relatively complete method propounded by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in his
‘Genera Plantarum,’ just 100 years later.

The nineteenth century opened with the struggle for predominance between
the Jussiean and the Linnean systems. In England the former soon obtained con-
siderable support, notably that of Robert Brown, whose ‘ Prodromus Flore Nove
Hollandiz,’ published in 1810, seems to have been the first English botanical work
in which the natural system was adopted ; but it did not come into general use until
it had been popularised by Lindley in the thirties.

Meantime the Jussiean system had been extended and improved by Auguste
Pyrame de Candolle (1813-24). It is essentially the Candollean classification
which is now most generally in use, and it has been immortalised by its adoption in
Bentham and Hooker’s ‘Genera Plantarum,’ one of the great botanical monu-
ments of the century. In Germany, however, it has been widely departed from,
the system there in vogue being based upon Brongniart’s modification (1828, 1850)
of de Candolle’s method as elaborated successively by Alex. Braun (1864), Eichler
(1876-83), and Professor Engler (1886, 1898). It must be admitted that for
the last fifty years the further evolution of the natural system, at any rate so far
as Phanerogams are concerned, has been confined to Germany.

One of the more important advances in the classification of Phanerogams was
based upon Robert Brown's discovery in 1827 of the gymnospermous nature of the
ovule in Conifers and Cycads, which led Brongniart (1828) to distinguish these
plants as ‘ Phanérogames gymnospermes;’ and although the systematic position of
these plants has since then been the subject of much discussion, the recognition
of the Gymnosperme as a distinct group of archaic Phanerogams is now definitely
accepted.

Moreover, the greatly increased knowledge of the Cryptogams has involved a
considerable reconstruction in the classification of that great sub-kingdom., One of
the most striking discoveries is that first definitely announced by Schwendener (1869)
concerning Lichens, to the effect that the body of a Lichen consists of two distinct
organisms, an Alga and a Fungus, living in symbiosis; a discovery which was so
nearly made by other contemporary botanists, such as de Bary, Berkeley, and
Sachs, and which can be traced back to Haller and Gleditsch in the eighteenth

century.

But the discoveries which most affected the classification of the Cryptogams are
those relating to their reproduction. Whilst it had been recognised, almost from
time immemorial, that Phanerogams reproduce sexually, sexuality was denied to
Cryptogams until the observations on Liverworts and Mosses by Schmidel and by
Hedwig (of whom it was said that he was born to banish Cryptogamy) in the
eighteenth century ; andevenas late as 1828 we find Brongniartclassifying the Fungi
and Algz together as ‘Agames.’ But in the middle thirdof the nineteenth century,
by the labours of such men as Thuret, Pringsheim, Cohn, Hofmeister, Naegeli, and
de Bary, the sexuality of all classes of Cryptogams was clearly established. It is
worthy of note that, although the sexuality of the Phanerogams had been accepted
for centuries, yet the details of sexual reproduction were first investigated in Crypto-
gams. For it was not until 1825 that Amici discovered the pollen-tube, and it was
more than twenty years later (1846) before he completed his discovery by ascer-
taining the true significance of the pollen-tube in relation to the development of the
embryo ; whilst it remained for Strasburger to observe, thirty years later, the actual
process of fertilisation.

The discovery of the reproductive processes in Cryptogams not only facilitated
a natural classification of them, but had the further very important effect of throw-
ing light upon their relation to Phanerogams. Perhaps the most striking botanical
achievement of the nineteenth century has been the demonstration by Hofmeister’s
unrivalled researches (1851) that Phanerogams and Cryptogams are not separated,
as was formerly held, by an impassable gulf, but that the higher Cryptogams and
the lower Phanerogams are connected by many common features.

920 REPORT—1900.

The development of the natural classification, of which an account has now been
given, proceeded for the most part on the assumption of the immutability of species,
As Linneus expressed it in his ‘Fundamenta Botanica,’ ‘ species tot numeramus, quot
diverse forme in principio sunt create.’ It is difficult to understand how, with the
point of view, the idea of affinity between species could have arisen at all; and yet
the establishment of genera and the attempts at a natural system prove that the
idea was operative. ‘lhe nature of the prevalent conception of affinity is well con-
veyed by Linnzeus’s aphorism, ‘ Affines conveniunt habitu, nascendi modo, proprie-
tatibus, viribus, usu.’

But a conviction had been gradually growing that the assumed fixity of species
was not well founded, and that, on the contrary, species are descended from pre-
existent species. This view found clear expression in Lamarck’s ‘ Philosophie Zoo-
logique,’ published early in the century (1809), but it did not strongly affect public
opinion until after the publication of Darwin’s ‘ Origin of Species’ in 1859, Regarded
from this point of view the problems of classification have assumed an altogether
different aspect. Affinity no longer means mere similarity, but blood-relationship
depending upon common descent. Weno longer seek a ‘ system’ of classification ;
we endeavour to determine the mutual relations of plants. The effect of this change
has been to stimulate the investigation of plants in all their parts and in all stages
of their life, so as to attain that complete knowledge of them without which their
affinities cannot be accurately estimated, If the classification of Cryptogams is, at
the present moment, in a more satisfactory position than that of Phanerogams, it is
just because the study of the former group has been, for various reasons, more
thorough and more minute than that of the latter.

Paleophytology.

The stimulating influence of the new doctrine was not, however, confined to the
investigation of existing plants; it also gave aremarkable impulse to the study of
fossil plants, inasmuch as the theory of descent involves the quest of the ancestors
of the forms that we now have around us. Marvellous progress has been made in
this direction during the nineteenth century, by the labours more especially of
Brongniart, Goeppert, Unger, Schimper, Schenck, Saporta, Solms-Laubach,
Renault, on the Continent, and in our own country of Lindley and Hutton, Hooker,
Carruthers, and more especially of Williamson. So far-reaching are the results
obtained that I can only attempt the barest summary of them, I may perhaps
best begin by saying that only a small proportion of existing species have been
found in the fossil state. In illustration I may adduce the statement made by
Mr. Clement Reid in his recent work, ‘The Origin of the British Flora, that
only 270 species, that is, about one-sixth of the total number of British vascular
plants, are knownas fossils. Making all due allowances for the imperfection of the
geological record, for the limited ares, investigated, and for the difficulty of deter-
mination of fragmentary specimens, it may be stated generally that the number of
existing species has been found to rapidly diminish in the floras of successively
older strata ; none, in fact, have been certainly found to persist beyond the Tertiary
period. Certain existing genera, belonging to the Gymnosperms and to the Pteri-
dophyta, have, however, been traced far down into the Mesozoic period. Similarly,
the distribution in time of existing natural orders does not coincide with that of
existing genera; thus the Ferns of the Carboniferous epoch apparently belong, for
the most part, if not altogether, to the order Marattiaceze, but they are not refer-
able to any of the existing genera.

Moreover, altogether new families of fossil plants have been discovered: such
are, among Gymnosperms, the Cordaitaceze and the Bennettitaceze ; among Pteri-
dophyta, the Calamariaces, the Lepidodendraces, the Sphenophyllacez, and the.
Cycadofilices. It is of interest to note that all these newly discovered families can
be included within the main subdivisions of the existing flora; in fact, no fossil
plants have been found which suggest the existence in the past of groups outside
the limits of our Phanerogamia, Pteridophyta, Bryophyta, and Thallophyta.

It cannot be said that the study of Paleobotany has as yet made clear the

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 921

ancestry and the descent of our existing flora. To begin with the angiospermous
flowering plants, it has been ascertained that they make their first appearance in
the Cretaceous epoch, but we have no clue as to their origin. The relatively late
appearance of Angiosperms in geological time suggests that they must have sprung
from an older group, such as the Gymnosperms or the Pteridophyta; but there is
no evidence to definitely establish either of these possible origins. Then as to the
origin of the Gymnosperms, whilst it cannot be doubted that they were derived
from the Pteridophyta, the existing data are insufficient to enable us to trace
their pedigree. The most ancient family of Gymnosperms, the Cordaitacee, can
be traced as far back as any known Pteridophyta, and cannot, therefore, have been
derived from them ; but the fact that the Cordaitacem exhibit certain cycadean
affinities, and the discovery of the Cycadofilices, suggest that what may be termed
the cycadean phylum of Gymnosperms (including the Cordaitacez, Bennettitacez,
Cycadaceze, and perhaps the Ginkgoacez) had its origin in a filicineous ancestry,
of which, it must be admitted, no forms have as yet been recognised.

Turning to the Pteridophyta, the origin of the Ferns is still quite unknown:
the one fact which seems to be clear is that the eusporangiate forms (M. arattiaceze )
are more primitive than the leptosporangiate. With regard to the Equisetine,
the Calamariaceze were no doubt the ancestors of the existing and of the fossil
Equisetums, Similarly, in the Lycopodine, the paleozoic Lepidodendraceze were
the forerunners of the existing Lycopodiums and Selaginellas. The discovery of
the Sphenophyllaceze seems to throw some further light upon the phylogeny of
these two groups, inasmuch as these plants possess characters which indicate affinity
with both the Equisetinse and the Lycopodine, thus suggesting the possibility that
they may have sprung from the same ancestral stock.

To complete the geological survey of the vegetable kingdom I will briefly
allude to the Bryophyta and the Thallophyta. Owing no doubt to their delicate
texture, the records of these plants have been found to be very incomplete. So
much is this the case with the Bryophyta that I forbear to make any statement
concerning them. The chief point of interest with regard to the Fungi is that
most of those which have been discovered in the fossil state were found in the
tissues of woody plants on which they were parasitic. In this way it has been
possible to ascertain, with some probability, the existence of Bacteria and of
mycelial Fungi in the Paleozoic period. The records of the Algz are more satis-
factory: they have been traced far back into the Paleozoic age, where they are
represented by siphonaceous forms and by the somewhat obscure plants known as
Nematophycus and Pachytheca.

In a general way the study of Palzeobotany has proved the development of
higher from lower forms in the successive geological periods, ‘Thus the Tertiary
and Quaternary periods are characterised by the predominance of Angiosperms,
just as the Mesozoic period is characterised by the predominance of Gymnosperms,
and the Paleozoic by the predominance of Pteridophyta. And yet,as I have been
pointing out, we are not able to trace the ancestry of any one of the larger groups
of plants. The chief reason for this is that the geological record, so far as it is
known, has been found to break off with such surprising abruptness that the ear-
lest, and therefore the most interesting, chapters in the evolution of plants are
closed to us. After the wealth of plant-forms in the Carboniferous epoch there is
a striking falling-off in the Devonian, in which, however, plants of high organisa-
tion, such as the Cordaitacez, the Calamariacese, and the Lepidodendracee,
still occur. In the Silurian epoch vascular plants are but sparingly present
—but it is remarkable that any such highly organised plants should be found
there—together with probable Algz, such as Nematophycus and Pachytheca. The
Cambrian rocks present nothing but so-called ‘ Fucoids,’ such as Eophyton, &e.,
some. of which may be Algw. The only known fossil in the oldest strata of all,
the Archwan, is the much-discussed Eozoon canadense, probably of animal origin ;
but the occurrence here of large deposits of graphite seems to indicate the existence
of a considerable flora which has, unfortunately, become quite undeterminable.
Thus, whilst there is some evidence that the primitive plants were Alew, there is
at present no available record of the various stages through which the Silurian and
Devonian vascular plants were evolved from them,

922 REPORT—1900.

Morphology.

If inquiry be made as to the cause of the great advance in the recognition of
the true affinities of plants, and consequently in their classification, which distin-
guishes the nineteenth century, I would refer it to the progress made in the study
of morphology. The earlier botanists regarded all the various parts of plants as
‘organs’ in relation to their supposed function ; hence their description of plants
was simply ‘organography.’ The idea of regarding the parts of the plant-body,
not in connection with their functions, but with reference to their development
and their mutual relations, seems to have originated with Jung in the seventeenth
century (1687): it was revived by C. F. Wolff about seventy years later (1759),
but it did not materially affect the study of plants until well on in the nineteenth
century, after Goethe had repeatedly written on the subject and had devised the
term ‘morphology’ to designate it. For a time this somewhat abstract mode of
treatment led to mere theorising and speculation, so much so that the years
1820-1840 will always be stigmatised as the period of the ‘ Naturphilosophie.’
But fortunately this time of barrenness was succeeded by a veritable renascence.
Robert Brown and Henfrey in England; Brongniart, St. Hilaire, and Tulasne
in France; Mohl, Schleiden, Naegeli, A. Braun, and, above all, Hofmeister in
Germany, led the way back from the pursuit of fantastic will-o’-the-wisps to the
observation of actual fact. Instead of evolving schemes out of their own internal
consciousness as to how plants ought to be constructed, they endeavoured to
discover by the study of development, and more particularly of embryogeny, how
they actually are constructed, with the result that within a decade Hofmeister
discovered the alternation of generations in the higher plants; a discovery which
must ever rank as one of the most brilliant triumphs of morphological research.

With the knowledge thus acquired it became possible to determine the true
relations of the various parts of the plant-body; to distinguish these parts as
‘members’ rather than as ‘organs;’ in a word, to establish homologies where
hitherto only analogies had been traced—which is the essential difference between
morphology and organography. ;

The publication of the ‘ Origin of Species’ profoundly affected the progress of
morphology, as of all branches of biological research: but it did not alter its
trend; it confirmed and extended it. We are not satisfied now with establishing
homologies, but we go on to inquire into the origin and phylogeny of the members
of the body. In illustration I may briefly refer to two problems of this kind
which at the present time are agitating the botanical world. The first is as to
the origin of the alternation of generations. Did it come about by the modifica-
tion of the sexual generation (gametophyte) into an asexual (sporophyte) ; or is the
sporophyte a new formation intercalated into the life-history? In a word, is the
alternation of generations to be regarded as homologous or as antithetic? Iam
rot rash enough to express any opinion on this controversy ; nor is it necessary
that I should do so, since the subject has twice been threshed out at recent
meetings of this Section. The second problem is as to the origin of the sporophylls,
and, indeed, of all the various kinds of leaves of the sporophyte in the higher
plants. It issuggested, on the one hand, that the sporophylls of the Pteridophyta
have arisen by gradual sterilisation and segmentation from an unsegmented and
almost wholly reproductive body, represented in our day by the sporogonium
of the Bryophyta; and that the vegetative leaves have been derived by further
sterilisation from the sporophylls. On the other hand, it is urged that the
vegetative leaves are the more primitive, and that the sporophylls have been derived
from them. It will be at once observed that this second problem is intimately
connected with the first. The sterilisation theory of the origin of leaves is a
necessary consequence of the antithetic view of the alternation of generations ;
whilst the derivation of sporophylls from foliage-leaves is similarly associated with
the homologous view. Here, again, exercising a wise discretion, I will only
venture to express my appreciation of the important work which has been done in
connection with this controversy—work that will be equally valuable, whatever
the issue may eventually be.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 923

I will conclude my remarks on morphology with a few illustrations of the aid
which the advance in this department has given to the progress of classification.
For instance, Linnzeus divided plants into Phanerogams and Cryptogams, on the
ground that in the former the reproductive organs and processes are conspicuous,
whereas in the latter they are obscure. In view of our increased knowledge of
Cryptogams this ground of distinction is no longer tenable; whilst: still recog-
nising the validity of the division, our reasons for doing so are altogether different.
For us, Phanerogams are plants which produce a seed; Cryptogams are plants
which do not produce a seed. Again, we distinguish the Pteridophyta and the
Bryophyta from the Thallophyta, not on account of their more complex structure,
but mainly on the ground that the alternation of generations is regular in the two
former groups, whilst it is irregular or altogether wanting in the latter. Similarly
the essential distinction between the Pteridophyta and the Bryophyta is that in
the former the sporophyte, in the latter the gametophyte, is the preponderating
form. It has enabled us further to correct in many respects the classifications of
our predecessors by altering the systematic position of various genera, and some-
times of larger groups. Thus the Cycadacex have been removed from among the
Monocotyledons, and the Conifer from among the Dicotyledons, where
de Candolle placed them, and have been united with the Gnetaceze into the
sub-class Gymnosperme. The investigation of the development of the flower, in
which Payer led the way, and the elaboration of the floral diagram which we owe
to Eichler, have done much, though by no means all, to determine the affinities of
doubtful Angiosperms, especially among those previously relegated to the lumber-
room of the Apetale.

Anatomy and Histology.

Passing now to the consideration of the progress of knowledge concerning the
structure of plants, the most important result to be chronicled is the discovery that
the plant-body consists of living substance indistinguishable from that of which
the body of animals is composed. The earlier anatomists, whilst recognising the
cellular structure of plants, had confined their attention to the examination of the
cell-walls, and described the contents as a watery or mucilaginous sap, without
determining where or what was the seat of life. In 1831 Robert Brown dis-
covered the nucleus of the cell, but there is no evidence that he regarded it as
living. It was not until the renascence of research in the forties, to which I have
already alluded, that any real progress in this direction was made. The cell-
contents were especially studied by Naegeli and by Mohl, both of whom recognised
the existence of a viscous substance lining the wall of all living cells as a ‘ mucous
layer’ or ‘ primordial utricle,’ but differing chemically from the substance of the
wall by being nitrogenous: this they regarded as the living part of the cell, and
to it Mohl (1846) gave the name ‘protoplasm,’ which it still bears. The full
significance of this discovery became apparent in a somewhat roundabout way.
Dujardin, in 1835, had described a number of lowly organisms, which he termed
Infusoria, as consisting of a living substance, which he called ‘sarcode.’ Fifteen
years later, in aremarkable paper on Protococeus pluvialis, Cohn drew attention to
the similarity in properties between the ‘sarcode’ of the Infusoria and the living
substance of this plant, and arrived at the brilliant generalisation that the ¢ proto-
plasm’ of the botanists and the ‘sarcode’ of the zoologists are identical. Thus
arose the great conception of the essential unity of life in all living things, which,
thanks to the subsequent labours of such men as de Bary, Briicke, and Max
Schultze, in the first instance, has become a fundamental canon of Biology.

A conspicuous monument of this period of activity is the cell-theory pro-
pounded by Schwann in 1839. Briefly stated, Schwann’s theory was that all living
bodies are built up of structural units which are the cells: each cell possesses an
independent vitality, so that nutrition and growth are referable, not to the
organism as a whole, but to the individual cells. This conception of the structure
of plants was accepted for many years, but it has had to give way before the
advance of anatomical knowledge. “The recognition of cell-division as the process

924 REPORT—-1900.

by which the cells are multiplied—in opposition to the Schleidenian theory of free
cell-formation—early suggested doubts as to the propriety of regarding the body as
being built up of cells as a wall is built of bricks, Later the minute study of the
Thallophyta revealed the existence of a number of plants, such as the Myxomycetes,
the phycomycetous Fungi, and the siphonaceous Algz, some of them highly
organised, the vegetative body of which does not consist of cells. It became clear
that cellular structure is not essential to life; that it may be altogether absent or
present in various degree. Thus in the higher plants the protoplasm is segmented
or septated by walls into uninucleate units or ‘energids’ (Sachs), and such plants
are well described as ‘completely septate.’ But in others, such as the higher Fungi
and certain Algze (e.g., Cladophora, Hydrodictyon), the protoplasm is septated, not
into energids, but into groups of energids, so that the body is ‘incompletely
septate.’ Finally there are the Thallophyta already enumerated, in which there is
complete continuity of the protoplasm: these are ‘unseptate.’ Moreover, even
when the body presents the most complete cellular structure, the energids are not
isolated, but are connected by delicate protoplasmic fibrils traversing the inter-
vening walls; a fact which is one of the most striking discoveries in the depart-
ment of histology. This was first recognised in the sieve-tubes by Hartig (1837) ;
then by Naegeli (1846) in the tissues of the Floridee. After a long period of
neglect the matter was taken up once more by Tang] (1880), when it attracted the
attention of many investigators, as the result of whose labours, especially those of
Mr. Gardiner, the general and perhaps universal continuity of the protoplasm in
cellular plants has been established. Hence the body is no longer regarded as an
aggregate of cells, but as a more or less septated mass of protoplasm: the synthetic
standpoint of Schwann has been replaced by one as distinctively analytic.

Time does not permit me to do more than mention the important discoveries
made of late years, mainly on the initiative of Strasburger, with regard to the
details of cytology, and especially to the structure of the nucleus and the intricate
dance of the chromosomes in karyokinesis. Indeed, I can do but scant justice to
those anatomical discoveries which are of more exclusively botanical interest. One
important generalisation which may be drawn is that the histological differentia-
tion of the plant proceeds, not in the protoplasm, as in the animal, but in the cell-
wall. It is remarkable, on the one hand, how similar the protoplasm is, not only
in different parts of the same body, but in plants of widely different affinities ; and,
on the other, what diversity the cell-wall offers in thickness, chemical composition,
and physical properties. In studying the differentiation of the cell-wall the
botanist has received valuable aid from the chemist. Research in this direction
may, in fact, be said to have begun with Payen’s fundamental discovery (1844)
that the characteristic and primary chemical constituent of the cell-wall is the
carbohydrate which he termed cellulose.

The amount of detailed knowledge as to the anatomy of plants which has been
accumulated during the century by countless workers, among whom Mohl, Naegeli,
Unger, and Sanio deserve special mention as pioneers, is very great—so great,
indeed, that it seemed as if it must remain a mere mass of facts in the absence of
any recognisable general principles which might ‘serve to marshal the facts into a
science. The first step towards a morphology of the tissues was Hanstein’s investi-
gation of the growing point of the Phanerogams (1868), and his recognition therein
of the three embryonic tissue-systems. This has lately been further developed by
the promulgation of van Tieghem’s theory of the stele, which is merely the logical
outcome of Hanstein’s distinction of the plerome. It has thus become possible to
determine the homologies of the tissue-systems in different plants and to organise
the facts of structure into a scientific comparative anatomy. It has become appa-
rent that, in many cases, differences of structure are immediately traceable to the
influence of the environment; in fact, the study of physiological or adaptive
anatomy is now a large and important branch of the subject.

The study of Anatomy has contributed in some degree to the progress of
systematic Botany. It is true that some of the more ambiticus attempts to base
classification on Anatomy have not been successful; such, for instance, as de
Candolle’s subdivision of Phanerogams into Exogens and Endogens, or the subdivision

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K, 925

of Cormophyta into Acrobrya, Amphibrya, and Acramphibrya, proposed by Unger
and Endlicher. Still it cannot be denied that anatomical characters have been
found useful, if not absolutely conclusive, in suggesting aflinities, especially in the
determination of fossil remains, A large proportion of our knowledge of extinct
plants, to which I have already alluded, is based solely upon the anatomical
structure of the vegetative organs; and although affinities inferred trom such
evidence cannot be regarded as final, they suffice for a provisional classification
until they are confirmed or disproved by the discovery and investigation of the
reproductive organs.

Physiology.

The last branch of botanical science which I propose to pass in review is that
of physiology. We may well begin with the nutritive processes. At the close of
the eighteenth century there was practically no coherent theory of nutrition ; such
as it was it amounted to little more than the conclusion arrived at by van Helmont
a century and a half earlier, that plants require only water for their food, and are
able to form from it all the different constituents of their bodies. Itis true thatthe
important discovery had been made and pursued by Priestley (1772), Ingen-Housz
(1780), and Sénébier (1782) that green plants exposed to light absorb carbon dioxide
and evolve free oxygen; but this gaseous interchange had not been shown to be the
expression of a nutritive process. At the opening of the nineteenth century (1804)
this connection was established by de Saussure, in his classical ‘Recherches
Chimiques,’ who demonstrated that, whilst absorbing carbon dioxide and evolving
oxygen, green plants gain in dry weight; and he further contributed to the eluci.
dation of the problem of nutrition by showing that, whilst assimilating carbon
dioxide, green plants also assimilate the hydrogen and oxygen of waiter.

Three questions naturally arose in connection with de Saussure’s statement of
the case: What is the nature of the organic substance formed? What is the
function of the chlorophyll? What is the part played by light? It was far on in
the century before answers were forthcoming.

With regard to the first of these questions the researches of Boussingault
(1864) and others established the fact that the volume of carbon dioxide absorbed
and that of oxygen evolved in connection with the process are approximately equal.
Further, the frequent presence of starch in the chloroplastids, to which Mohl first
drew attention (1837), was subsequently found by Sachs (1862) to be closely con-
nected with the assimilation of carbon dioxide. The conclusion drawn from these
facts is that the gain in dry weight accompanying the assimilation of carbon
dioxide is due to the formation, in the first instance, of organic substance having
the composition of a carbohydrate ; a conclusion which may be expressed by the
equation

CO, + H,0 =CH,0+0,.

The questions with regard to chlorophyll and to light are so intimately con-
nected that they must be considered together. The first step towards their
solution was the ‘investigation of the relative activity of light of different colours,
originally undertaken by Sénébier (1782) and subsequently repeated by Daubeny
(1836), with the result that red and orange light was found to promote assimila-
tion in a higher degree than blue or violet light, Shortly afterwards Draper (1848),
experimenting with an actual solar spectrum, concluded that the most active rays
are the orange and yellow; a conclusion which was generally accepted for many
years. But inthe meantime the properties of the green colouring matter of plants
(to which Pelletier and Caventou gave the name ‘ chlorophyll’ in 1817) were being
investigated. Brewster discovered in 1834 that an alcoholic extract of green
leaves presents a characteristic absorption spectrum ; but many years elapsed before
any attempt was made to connect this property with the physiological activity of
chlorophyll. It was not until 1871-72 that Lommel and N. J. C. Miiller pointed
out that the rays of the spectrum which are most completely absorbed by chloro-
phyll are just those wliich are most efficient in the assimilation of carbon dioxide,
Subsequent researches, particularly those of Timiriazeff (1877), and those of Engel-

926 REPORT—1900.

mann (1882-84) based on his ingenious Bacterium-method, have confirmed the
views of Lommel and of Miiller, and have placed it beyond doubt that the import-
ance of light in the assimilatory process is that it is the form of kinetic energy
necessary to effect the chemical changes, and that the function of chlorophyll is
to serve as the means of absorbing this energy and of making it available for the
lant.

A These are perhaps the most striking discoveries in relation to the nutrition of
plants, but there are others of not less importance to which brief allusion must be
made. We owe to de Saussure (1804) the first clear demonstration of the fact
that plants derive an important part of their food from the soil; but the relative
nutritive value of the inorganic salts absorbed in solution was not ascertained until
Sachs (1858) reintroduced the method of water-culture which had originated
centuries before with Woodward (1699) and had been practised by Duhamel
(1768) and de Saussure. Special interest centres around the question of the
nitrogenous nutrition of plants. It was long held, chiefly on the authority of
Priestley and of Ingen-Housz, and in spite of the contrary opinion expressed by
Sénébier, Woodhouse (1803), and de Saussure, that plants absorb the free nitrogen
of the atmosphere by their leaves. This view was not finally abandoned until
1860, when the researches of Boussingault and of Lawes and Gilbert deprived it
of all foundation. Since then we have learned that the free nitrogen of the air
can be made available for nutrition—not indeed directly by green plants themselves,
but, as Berthelot and Winogradsky more especially have shown, by Bacteria in the
soil, or, as apparently in the Leguminosee, by Bacteria actually enclosed in the roots
of the plants with which they live symbiotically.

We turn now from the nutritive or anabolic processes to those which are catabolic.
The discovery of the latter, just as of the former, was arrived at by the investiga-
tion of the gaseous interchange between the plant and the atmosphere. In the
eighteenth century Scheele and Priestley had found that, under certain cireum-
stances, plants deteriorate the quality of air; but it is to Ingen-Housz that we owe
the discovery that plants, like animals, respire, taking in oxygen and giving off
carbon dioxide. And when Sénébier (i800) had ascertained for the inflorescence
of Arum maculatum, and later de Saussure (1822) for other flowers, that active
respiration is associated with an evolution of heat, the connection between respiration
and catabolism was established for plants as it had been long before by Lavoisier
(1777) in the case of animals.

Among the catabolic processes which have been investigated none are of greater
importance than those which are designated by the general term fermentations.
The first of these to be discovered was the alcoholic fermentation ofsugar, Towards
the end of the seventeenth century Leeuwenhoek had detected minute globules in
fermenting wort ; and a century later Lavoisier had ascertained that the chemical
process consists in the decomposition of sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide ; but
it was not until 1837-88 that, almost simultaneously, Cagniard de Latour, Schwann,
and Kiitzing discovered that Leeuwenhoek’s globules were living organisms, and
were the cause of the fermentation. Shortly before, in 1833, Payen and Persoz
extracted from malt a substance named diastase, which they found could convert
the starch of the grain into sugar. These two classes of bodies, causing fermentative
changes, were distinguished respectively as organised and unorganised ferments.
The number of the former was rapidly added to by the investigation more, espe-
cially of the Bacteria, in which Pasteur led the way. The extension of our knowledge
of the unorganised ferments, or enzymes, has been even more remarkable: we now
know that very many of the metabolic processes are effected by various enzymes,
such as those which convert the more complex carbohydrates into others of simpler
constitution (diastase, cytase, glucase, inulase, invertase); those which decompose
glucosides (emulsin, myrosin, &c.); those which act on proteids (trypsins) and on
fats (lipases); the oxidases, which cause the oxidation of various organic substances ;
and the zymase, recently extracted from yeast, which causes alcoholic fermentation.

The old distinction of the micro-organisms as ‘ organised ferments’ is no longer
tenable ; for, on the one hand, certain of the chemical changes which they effect
can be traced to extractable enzymes which they produce; and, on the other, as

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 927

Pasteur has asserted, every living cell may become an ‘organised ferment’ under
appropriate conditions. The distinction now to be drawn is between those pro-
cesses which are due to enzymes and those directly effected by living protoplasm.
Many now definitely included in the former class were, until lately, regarded as
belonging to the latter ; and no doubt future investigation will still further increase
the number of the former at the expense of the latter.

The consideration of the metabolic processes leads naturally to that of the
function of transpiration and of the means by which water and substances in
solution are distributedin the plant. Thisis perhaps the department of physiology
in which progress during the nineteenth century has been least marked. We have
got rid, it is true, of the old idea of an ascending crude sap, and of a descending
elaborated sap, but there have been no fundamental discoveries. With regard to
transpiration itself, we know more of the detail of the process, but that is all that
can be said. As for root-pressure, Hofmeister (1858-62) discovered that ‘ bleed-
ing ’—as the phenomena of root-pressure were termed by the earlier writers—is not
confined, as had hitherto been thought, to treesand shrubs ; but the current theory
of the process, allowing for the discovery of protoplasm and of osmosis, has
advanced but little upon that given by Grew in the third book of his ‘ Anatomy
of Plants’ (1675). Again, the mechanism of the transpiration-current in lofty
trees remains an unsolved problem. To begin with, there is still some doubt as to
the exact channel in which the current travels. Knight (1801-8) first proved that
the current travels in the alburnum of the trunk, but not, he thought, in the
vessels, for he found them to be dry in the summer, when transpiration is most
active; a view in which Dutrochet (1837) subsequently concurred. Meyen (1838)
then suggested that the water must travel, not in the lumina, but in the substance
of the cells of the vessels, and was supported by such eminent physiologists as
Hofmeister (1858), Unger (1864, 1868), and Sachs (1878) ; but it has since been
strongly asserted by Boehm, Elfving, Vesque, Hartig, and Strasburger that the
young vessels always contain water, and that the current travels in the lumina and
not in the walls of the vessels.

Now as to the force by which the water of the transpiration-current is raised
from the roots to the topmost leaf of a lofty tree. From the point of view that
the water travels in the substance of the walls the necessary force need not be great,
and would be amply provided by the transpiration of the leaves, inasmuch as the
weight of the water raised would be supported by the force of imbibition of the walls.
From the point of view that the water travels in the lumina the force required to
. raise and support such long columns of water must be considerable. Dismissing

at once as quite inadequate such purely physical theories as those of capillarity and
gas-pressure, there remain two theories as to the nature of this force which
resemble each other in being essentially vitalistic, but differ in that the one involves
pressure from below, the other suction from above. In the one, suggested by
Godlewski and by Westermaier (1884), the cells of the medullary rays and of the
wood-parenchyma are supposed to absorb liquid from the vascular tissue at one
level and force it back again by a vital act at a higher level: this theory was
disposed of by the fact that the transpiration-current can be maintained through a
considerable length of a stem killed by heat or by poison. In the other, suggested
by Dixon and Joly (1895-99), and also by Askenasy (1895-96), it is assumed that there
are, in the trunk of a transpiring tree, continuous columns of water which are in a
state of tensile stress, the tension being set up by the vital transpiratory activity of
the leaves. Some idea of the enormous tension thus assumed is given by the fol-
lowing simple calculation relating to a tree 120 feet high. Not only has the liquid to
be raised to this height, but in its passage upwards a resistance calculated to be equal
to about five times the height of the tree has to be overcome. Hence the tran-
spiration-force in such a tree must at least equal the weight of a column of water
720 feet in height ; that is, a pressure of about twenty-four atmospheres, or 360 lb. to
the square inch. But there is no evidence to prove that a tension of anything like
twenty atmospheres exists, as a matter of fact, in a transpiring tree; onthe con-
trary, such observations as exist (¢.g., those of Hales and of Boehm) indicate much
lower tensions, Under these circumstances we must regretfully confess that yet

928 REPORT—1900.

one more century has closed without bringing the solution of the secular problem
of the ascent of the sap.

The nineteenth century has been, fortunately, rather more fertile in discovery
concerning the movements and irritability of plants. Butit is surprising how much
knowledge on these points had been accumulated by the beginning of the century:
the facts of plant-movement, such as the curvatures due to the action of light, the
sleep-movements of leaves and flowers, the contact-movements of the leaves of the
sensitives, were all familiar. The nineteenth century opened, then, with a con-
siderable store of facts; but what was lacking was an interpretation of them ; and
whilst it has largely added to the store, its most important work has been done in
the direction of explanation.

The first event of importance was the discovery by Knight, in 1806, of the fact
that the stems and roots of plants are irritable to the action of gravity and respond
to it by assuming definite directions of growth. Many years later the term
‘geotropism’ was introduced by Frank (1868) to designate the phenomena of
growth as affected by gravity, and at the same time Frank announced the import-
ant discovery that dorsiventral members, such as leaves, behave quite differently
from radial members, such as stems and roots, in that they are diageotropic.

It was a long time before the irritability of plants to the action of light was
recognised. Chiefly on the authority of de Candolle (to whom we owe the term
‘heliotropism ’), heliotropic curvature was accounted for by assuming that the one
side received less light than the other, and therefore grew the more rapidly. But
the researches of Sachs (1873) and Miiller-Thurgau (1876) have made it clear that
the direction of the incident rays is the important point, and that a radial stem,
obliquely illuminated, is stimulated to curve until its long axis coincides with the
incident rays. Moreover, the discovery by Knight (1812) of negative heliotropism
in the tendrils of Vitis and Ampelopsis really put the Candollean theory quite out
of court ; and further evidence that heliotropic movements are a response to the
stimulus of the incident rays of light is afforded by Frank’s discovery of the
diaheliotropism of dorsiventral members.

The question of the localisation of irritability has received a good deal of
attention. The fact that the under surface of the pulvinus of Mimosa pudica is
alone sensitive to contact was ascertained by Burnett and Mayo in 1827; and
shortly after (1834) Curtis discovered the sensitiveness of the hairs on the upper
surface of the leaf of Dionea. After a long period of neglect the subject was
taken up by Darwin. The irritability of tendrils to contact had been discovered by
Mohl in 1827; but it was Darwin who ascertained, in 1865, that it is confined to
the concavity near the tip. In 1875 Darwin found that the irritability of the
tentacles of Drosera is localisedin the terminal gland ; and followed this up, in 1880,
by asserting that the sensitiveness of the root is localised in the tip, which acts like
a brain. This assertion led to a great deal of controversy, but the researches of
Pfeffer and Czapek (1894) have finally established the correctness of Darwin’s con-
clusion. It is interesting to recall that Erasmus Darwin had suggested the possible
existence of a brain in plants in his ‘ Phytologia’ (1800). But the word ‘ brain’
is misleading, inasmuch as it might imply sensation and consciousness : it
would be more accurate to speak of centres of ganglionic activity. However,
the fact remains that there exist in plants irritable centres which not only
receive stimuli but transmit impulses to those parts by which the consequent
movement is effected. The transmission of stimuli has been found in the case of
Mimosa pudica to be due to the propagation of a disturbance of hydrostatic
equilibrium along a special tissue ; in other cases, where the distance to be traversed
is small, it is probably effected by means of that continuity of the protoplasm to
which I have already alluded.

Finally, as regards the mechanism of these movements, we find Sénébier and
Rudolphi, the earliest writers on the subject in the nineteenth century, asserting,
as if against some accepted view, that there is no structure in a plant comparable
with the muscle of an animal. Rudolphi (1807) suggested, as an alternative, that
the position of a mobile leaf is determined by the ‘ turgor vitalis’ of the pulvinus,
and thus anticipated the modern theory of the mechanism, But he gives no

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 929

bd

explanation of what he means by ‘turgor;’ and the term is frequently used by
writers in the first half of the century in the same vague way. Some progress was
made in consequence of the discovery of osmosis by Dutrochet (1828), and more
especially by his observation (1837) that the movements of Mimosa are dependent
on the presence of oxygen, and are therefore vital. But it was not, and could not
be, until the existence of living protoplasm in the cells of plants was realised, and
the movements of free-swimming organisms and naked reproductive cells had
become more familiar, that the true nature of the mechanism began to be under-
stood ; and then we find Cohn saying, as long ago as 1860, that ‘the living
protoplasmic substance is the essentially contractile portion of the cell.’ This state-
ment may, perhaps, seem to put the case too bluntly and to savour too much of
animal analogy ; but the study of the conditions of turgidity has shown more and
more clearly that the protoplasm is the predominant factor. The protoplasm of
plant-cells is undoubtedly capable of rapid molecular changes, which alter its
physical properties, more particularly its permeability to the cell-sap. It may be
that these changes cannot be directly compared with those going on in animal
muscle; but if we use the term ‘contractility ’ in its wider sense, as indicating a
general property of which muscular contraction is a special case, then Cohn’s
statement is fully justified. This is borne out by the observations of Sir J. Burdon-
Sanderson (1882-88) on the electrical changes taking place in the stimulated leaf
of Dionea, and by Kunkel’s (1878) corresponding observations on Mimosa pudica :
in both cases the electrical changes were found to be essentially the same as those
observable on the stimulation of muscle. We find, then, that the advances in
Physiology, like those in Anatomy, teach the essential unity of life in all living
things, whether we call them animals or plants. i

With this in our minds we may go on to consider in conclusion, and very
briefly, that department of physiological study which is known as the Bionomics
or CXcology of plants. In the earlier part of the century this subject was studied
more especially with regard to the distribution of plants, and their relation to soil
' and climate: but since the publication of the ‘ Origin of Species’ the purview has
been greatly extended. It then became necessary to study the relation of plants,
not only to inorganic conditions, but to each other and to animals; in a word, to
study all the adaptations of the plant with reference to the struggle for existence.
The result has been the accumulation of a vast amount of most interesting infor-
mation. For instance, we are now fairly well acquainted with the adaptations of
water-plants (hydropbytes) on the one hand and of desert-plants (xerophytes) on
the other; with the adaptations of shade-plants and of those growing in full sun,
especially as regards the protection of the chlorophyll. We have learned a great
dea] as to the relations of plants to each other, such as the peculiarities of parasites,
epiphytes, and climbing plants, and as to those singular symbioses (Mycorhiza) of
the higher plants with Fungi which have been found to be characteristic of sapro-
phytes. Then, again, as to the relations between plants and animals: the adaptation
of flowers to attract the visits of insects, first discovered by Sprengel (1793), has
been widely studied; the protection of the plant against the attacks of animals,
by means of thorns and spines on the surface, as also by the formation in its
tissues of poisonous or distasteful substances, and even by the hiring of an army
of mercenaries in the form of ants, has been elucidated; and finally those cases
in which the plant turns the tables upon the animal, and captures and digests’
him, are now fully understood.

Conclusion.

Imperfect as is the sketch which I have now completed, it will, I think, suffice
to show how remarkable has been the progress of the science during the
nineteenth century, more particularly the latter part of it, and how multifarious
are the directions in which it has developed. In fact Botany can no longer be
regarded as a single science: it has grown and branched into a congeries of
sciences. And as we botanists regard with complacency the flourishing condition

1900, 30

930 REPORT—1900.

of the science whose servants we are, let us not forget, on the one hand, to do
honour to those whose lifework it was to make the way straight for us, and whose
conquests have become our peaceful possession ; nor, on the other, that it lies with
us so to carry on the good work that when this Section meets a hundred years
hence it may be found that the achievements of the twentieth century do not
lag behind those of the nineteenth.

The following Reports and Papers were read :—

1. Report on Experimental Investigation of Assimilation in Plants.
See Reports, p. 569.

2. Report on Fertilisation in the Phaophycee.—See Reports, p. 569.

3. British Sylviculture. By SAMUEL MARGERISON.

Former supplies and high quality of British oak, &e. Recent supplies largely
consist of foreign timber. Native timbers still required in large quantities and
likely to be more in demand, because of lessening of stocks and enlarged home
consumption in the countries now supplying us. The period covered by the life
of a timber-tree fruitful in economic changes. We have much land at present
unproductive, or only slightly productive, suitable for growing a native supply of
timber, but owners and nation comfortably apathetic in the matter, content with
present abundant supply. Sportsmen are groundlessly fearful of their pleasures
being disturbed. It is really a national matter, calling for Government aid and
supervision, or good private ‘working plans,’ which cannot be disturbed by changes
of individual management.

Comparison of results of Continental sylviculture with ours; their crops
treble and quadruple of ours. Natural conditions here not less favourable, but
management generally inferior.

Differences arise in details:

Growing the Crop.—Thick planting and careful thinning (preserving an overhead
canopy and encouraging lengthy growth) ; making sport secondary to sylviculture,
whilst still providing abundance of it.

Harvesting the Crop.—Gradual thinning ; reserving the thriving trees ; partial
conversion on the spot; savings in haulage, again keeping sport secondary ;
reasonable cost of railway carriage. Forestry schools, with opportunities for
detailed research and teaching, with equipment, scientific and practical, worthy of
the subject.

4, The Great Smoke-Cloud of the North of England and its Influence on
Plants. By ALBERT WILSON,

The widespread effect of smoke insufficiently realised. Dwellers in towns
often so hardened to it as to be almost oblivious of its presence. The great smoke-
producing district of the North of England; its extent; miserable condition of
vegetation in some parts of the area. Variation in amount of smoke according to
the season. Effect in reducing air transparency; dimness of sky and landscape.
Distance to which smoke travels. Smoke often mistaken for haze. Red sunsets
in South-east Yorkshire. Atmosphere of the North of England. North of the
smoke area never brilliant with southerly winds. The smoke from Barrow-in-
Furness, an isolated town; long distance at which this is noticeable; comparison
of its volume with that from the great smoke area. The characteristic smell from
certain large works, and the distance at which it can be detected. Discoloration
of rainwater; ‘black rain.’ Influence of smoke on surshine and air temperature
in calm summer weather, and in anticyclonic weather during autumn or winter ;

9

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 931

low day-temperature maxima. Smoke and fog-production. Long-continued smoke
fog of February 1891. Darkness in and around large cities. Effect of smoke on
mosses and hepatics as compared with that on higher plants. Smoke at a maximum
in winter, when many mosses are in a vegetative condition. Great diminution in
their abundance and luxuriousness in the neighbourhood of large towns. Peculiar
exposure of bark-loving species to smoke influence, and the cause. Threatened
extinction of Ulota and Orthotricha.

5. A Gymnosporangiwm from China. By ¥. E. Weiss.

This fungus was first observed by Dr. A. G. Parrott in the spring of 1899 in
Lao-ho-kou, in North Central China (lat. 32° 50’ N., long. 112° E.). Its spore
masses made their appearance in April on the branches of Juniperus chinensis in
the form of bright yellow gelatinous masses after a few days’ continuous rain. The
teleutospore-beds appear singly or in clusters on the leaves of the smaller branches,
usually in more or less flat leaf-like masses. When close together they often
become confluent. The teleutospores are of the usual type, two-celled, tapering
towards both ends and somewhat rounded at the apex. They possess eight germ
pores.

What isin all probability the Reestelia stage of this fungus was observed
during the summer on the leaves of the pear, Pyrus sinensis, Ldl. A tree of this
species growing in proximity to the infected junipers was attacked by a fungus of
the Reestelia type, producing typical eecidiospores.

In the appearance of its teleutospore masses and in the shape and structure of
the teleutospores this fungus appears most nearly related to Gymnosporangium
Sabine (Dicks), a widely distributed form occurring in Europe and in America,
and to Gymnosporangium Cunninghamianum (Barclay), a Himalayan form, both
of which have their Reestelia stage on a pear, the former on Pyrus communis, the
latter on Pyrus Pashia,

6. Demonstration of the Structure and Attachment of the Flagellum in
Euglena viridis. By Harotp WAGER.

The flagellum of Euglena viridis possesses a bifurcate base, which is attached
to the wall of the excretory reservoir at the anterior end of the body.1 As it
passes to the anterior, through the gullet, an enlargement occurs in the region of,
and partly surrounded by, the eye-spot. This structure can be seen in very favour-
able cases in the living condition, but usually only after the action of reagents.
The best reagent for this purpose is either a 1 per cent. solution of osmic acid or
a 2 per cent. solution of bichromate of potash with a 1 per cent. solution of osmic
acid. Good preparations have also been obtained by treating fresh cells with a
solution of iodine.

The structure may be obscured by small grains of paramylon which sometimes
accumulate at the anterior end of the body.

7. On the Structure of the Root-nodules of Alnus glutinosa.
By T. W. WoopHEAD..

Longitudinal sections show that the nodule is traversed by a central strand of
short, thick-walled, prosenchymatous fibres, with transverse pits in the walls,
Surrounding this are four or five layers of cubical cells, rich in protoplasm, followed
by a small-celled bulky cortex. On the outside of this is a phellogen, which pro-
duces a layer of cork several cells deep. The cortical cells are largely occupied
by the organism which produces the nodule. Their distribution is roughly in
parallel layers of cells passing obliquely from the central strand outwards ; between

' See Wager, Journal Linn. Soc. Zoology, vol. xxvii. p. 463.
302

932 REPORT—1900.

these layers are cells filled with starch grains, often in various stages of dis-
organisation, embedded in a very granular protoplasm, much resembling bacteria.

The organism is usually present as a globular sporangium at the end of a short
hypha: these bodies are densely packed within the cells; their life-history, though
as yet obscure, presents several different phases. Towards the base of the nodule
are strands of cells occupied by disorganised contents indicating a previous tract of
growth of the organism: this is succeeded by groups of cells filled with the
organism in various stages. Towards the apex, and immediately behind the
growing point, the cells containing the sporangia are immediately followed by cells
tilled with fine hyphal filaments which may be seen to penetrate the walls of the
young adjacent cells.

These observations, which are as yet in a preliminary stage, were made in the
Botanical Laboratory, Cambridge, through the kindness of Professor H. Marshall
Ward, to whom I am greatly indebted for much help and encouragement.

8. Fungi found in Ceylon growing upon Scale-insects (Coccide and
Aleurodide).! By J. Parkin, ILA., Trinity College, Cambridge.

The author’s attention was called to these fungi by Mr. E. E. Green, Entomo-
logist to the Government of Ceylon. The greater part of the specimens was
supplied by him. A few examples were collected by the author.

Fungi associated with scale-insects have till recently been little studied. A
few species have been mentioned from time to time as growing upon scales of dead
coccids, but, till within the last few years, hardly any attention has been called to
their probable parasitic character or to the capability of their being employed to
check the ravages of scale-pests. Webber? in 1897 points out for the first time
the parasitic habit of certain species—five in all—of Aschersonia on scale-insects
infesting the orange and other plants in Florida. Zimmermann * in the following
year in Java gives a preliminary account of a fungus (Cephalosporium) attacking
the green bug (Lecanium viride), so harmful to the coffee, and describes how it
may be artificially cultivated for infecting experiments. Green is also conducting
such experiments in Ceylon.

The various kinds here brought to notice are referable to the following genera :

Pyrenomycetes-Hypocreales: Nectria, Torruhiella,

Fungi imperfecti: Aschersonia, Cephalosporium, Verticillium, Microcera,
Campsotrichum (°).

Nectria.—The conidial stage belongs to the Fusarium type, with large multi-
septate curved conidia. Two distinct species are perhaps recognisable. One has
been found on several occasions growing on scale-insects, belonging to three
genera of the tribe Diaspidine. It may perhaps be identical with WV. awrantucola,
B. and Br.,* which is mentioned incidentally as growing apparently from some
coccus on orange twigs. The other was found on a scale (Asterolecanium miliaris)
infesting a bamboo.

The only allusions to this habitat for Nectria that the author has found, besides
the above one, are two:° regarding Brazilian species (NV. coccorum, Speg., and
N. coccogena, Speg.), both described as growing on dead cocci on leaves.

Torrubiella—This genus, with thread-like ascospores, consists so far of only

1 The paper was illustrated by dried specimens and coloured drawings by Mr.
Wn. de Alwis, the Sinhalese draughtsman attached to the Royal Botanical Gardens,
Peradeniya.

2 Webher, ‘Sooty Mold of the Orange and its Treatment,’ U.S. Depart. ef Agric. :
Div. of Veg. Physiol. and Pathol., 1897, No. 13.

3 Zimmermann, ‘ Over eene Schimmelepidemie der Groene Luizen,’ Voorloopig
Rapport, 1898. Buitenzorg, Java.

4 Berkeley and Broome, ‘ Fungi of Ceylon,’ Journ. Linn. Soc., xiv. 1875, p. 117.

5 Saccardo’s Sylloge Fungorum, Additamenta to vols. i—iv. 1886, p. 203, and
vol. ix. 1891, p. 959.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION EK. 983

three species: one of these, 7. rubra, Pat. and Lagerh.,! is described as growing
on acoccus. The Ceylon forms, two in number, agree fairly closely with the
description of 7. rubra. One, with deep pink perithecia, was found on a species of
Aleurodes, the other, with pale brown perithecia, on a species of Aspzdiotus.

Aschersonia,—Vhis genus, chiefly tropical, and consisting now of about nineteen
species, has usually been taken to be a leaf-infesting one. Webber* has shown
that it may also be entomogenous. It is quite possible that species hitherto
regarded as growing on leaves and stems are in reality parasitic on scale-insects
occurring on these parts of plants. The Ceylon forms have been formed on species
of Alewrodes and Lecanium.

Along with one of these Aschersonias on the same kind of scale are flattened
circular brown fungous pustules, which are similar in structure to what Webber
names as the ‘brown mealy-wing fungus.’* In neither case has any trace of
spore-formation been found.

Cephalosporium.—The fungus referred to previously as found by Zimmermann
on the green bug has been named by him provisionally as Cephalosporium Lecanit.
Specimens practically identical with this have been obtained in Ceylon on the
same scale on the coffee and other plants, also on two other species of Lecaniwm.

Verticillium.—the species V. heterocladium,* described by Penzig as occurring
on the dead bodies of Lecaniwm hesperidum on leaves of the lemon, is the single
instance found of such a habitat for this genus. The Ceylon member was dis-
covered on the same scale and on the same bamboo as possessed the Nectria,
mentioned above. As a rule the Nectria was confined to the upper and the
Verticillium to the lower surface of the leaves. Possibly the two may be
connected.

Microcera.—This genus, closely related to Fusarium, was established by
Desmaziéres ° in 1848 for a fungus (M. coccophila) discovered on a scale-insect.
Later it was shown to be the conidial stage of Spherostilbe coccophila.® Another
species, M. rectispora, Cooke and Mass.,’ has been found associated with a coccus
on the orange in Australia. The Ceylon types occur on three genera of the
Diaspidine. One of them is probably the conidial stage of a Calonectria.

Campsotrichum.—The fungus referred to this genus was discovered growing
ona scale (Chionaspis Aspidistre) on a palm. It has not yet received a very close
examination, but seems to agree best with this genus of the group Dematiaceze
of the Fungi imperfecti.

Mr. Green has also passed on to the author specimens of this class of fungi
received from other countries, viz., Aschersonia from India, Sumatra, and Jaya, and
Microcera from West Africa and Mauritius.

Thus it seems that fungi infesting scale-insects bave an extensive distribution,
especially in and near the tropics. That they are the true cause of the death of
the insects there seems little doubt.

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 7%.
The following Papers were read :—

1. On the so-called Optimum Strength of CO, for Assimilation.
By Dr. F. F. Buackman,

1 Patouillard et Lagerheim, ‘Sur Champignons de l’Equateur,’ Bull. de la Soe.
Mycol. de France, vol. ix. 1893, p. 154.
2 Webber, Joc. cit.
3 Webber, Joc. cit., p. 27. -
* Saccardo, S.F,, vol. iv. 1886, p. 151.
‘ie bane = ‘Plantes Cryptogames Nouvelles,’ Anz. des Se. Nat., 3rd ser., 1848,
Pp.
® Tulasne, Carpologia, vol. iii. 1865, p. 105.
? Saccardo, §.F"., vol. x. p. 731.

934 REPORT—1900.

2. On the Effect of the Closure of Stomata on Assimilation.
By Dr. F. F. Buackman and Miss Matruat.

3. Formation of Starch from Glycollic Aldehyde by Green Plants.
By Henry Jackson, B.A., B.Sc.

Glycollic aldehyde or diose has recently been isolated in a crystalline state,’
and more recently it has been shown by the author * that this substance, under the
influence of dilute alkalis, very quickly condenses to two synthetic hexoses, one of
which, and acrose, is identical with fructose

80,H,0, = C,H,,0,.

It therefore became a matter of interest to find whether green plants could build
up starch if allowed to remain for a time in a solution of this simple sugar. The
following are the results of a few experiments. Leaves of tropeolum and clover,
which had been depleted of their starch by growing in the dark, were floated in a
3 per cent. aqueous solution of diose, control experiments being made with cane
sugar, glycerine, and distilled water; the whole series being kept in the dark for
six days. They were then tested by Sachs’s method, and it was found that those
floating in pure water were quite starchless, those in glycerine almost so, but those
growing in diose had accumulated starch in the tissues, though not to the same
extent as those placed in cane sugar.

Spirogyra was placed in a 1 per cent. solution of diose in an atmosphere free
from CO,, and after five days in the light had accumulated starch, whilst the
control experiment in distilled water showed only a small quantity of starch. In
the last set of experiments spirogyra was grown in an atmosphere free from OO,,
but kept in the dark. After a week the control specimen, which had been in dis-
tilled water, was starchless, whilst that growing in the sugar had formed large
quantities of starch.

4. On the Effect of Salts on the CO, Assimilation of Ulva latissima, L.
By EH. A. NeweLtt Arser, B.A,

The primary object of these experiments was to obtain a general idea of the
extent to which the power of CO, assimilation is dependent on the absorption of
nutrient salts.

It was found that an inbibition of the CO, assimilation could be caused by the
presence or absence of certain salts in the medium.

Ulva was rendered free from starch, and exposed to light in media containing
known proportions of salts. The amount of CO, assimilation which took place
was gauged by the starch accumulation. In distilled water only a very small
amount of starch was formed, while in tap-water containing traces of nutrient
salts the inhibition was only slight. Distilled water was not found to have any
injurious effect on the plant. The presence of NaCl in the medium was found to
be essential in order to obtain the maximum of CO, assimilation. From indirect
evidence a total or almost total absence of NaCl caused a very marked inhibition
in all cases; and no other salt: could be found to replace NaCl in regard to CO,
assimilation.

The absence of any one of the following salts, MgCl,, MgSO,, CaSO,, or KCl, from
sea water did not inhibit the assimilation, The presence of a nitrate in appreciable
quantity in the medium caused an inhibition. Ammonium nitrate was found to
be fatal. KNO, caused a more marked inhibition than NaNO,; the inhibition
being least marked in the case of Mg(NO,)..

‘ Fenton and Jackson, J. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1899.
* J. Chem. Soc. Trans., 1900.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 935

5. The Sea-weed Ulva latissima and its Relation to the Pollution of Sea-
water by Sewage. By Professor Letts, D.Sc., Ph.D., and JOHN
Hawruorne, B.A., Queen’s College, Belfast.

For a number of years past a very serious nuisance has arisen from the sloblands
of the upper reaches of Belfast Lough during the summer months, the stench at
low tide being quite overpowering, and the air heavily charged with sulphuretted

hydrogen. A precisely similar nuisance, though not of the same magnitude, also
arises from the sloblands in the northern portion of Dublin Bay.

The nuisance is caused by deposits of the green sea-weed, called Ulva latissima,
or sea-lettuce, which in the two localities mentioned grows in abundance, and
during high winds or gales is washed ashore. In Belfast Lough the quantity thus
deposited is enormous, forming banks which are often several feet thick, and
extend for miles along the coast. Once deposited, these layers of sea-weed often
remain more or less stationary for months in the shallow bays or pools of the
neighbourhood, and in warm weather rapid putrefaction occurs, and a perfectly
intolerable stench arises, which is perceptible over a wide area, and seriously affects
not only the comfort of the inhabitants of the district, but the value of their
property also.

The Chemical Changes which occur when Ulva latissima ferments in Sea-
water.—An extended investigation in the laboratory has shown that when the
sea-weed ferments hydrogen and carbonic anhydride are first evolved in about
equal proportions by volume, and fatty acids are produced. Isolation and exami-
nation of these latter show that propionic acid is the chief; butyric acid is also
formed, and probably acetic acid in addition. In a later stage of the fermentation
sulphides are formed, probably by reduction of sulphates present in the sea-water,
and the sea-weed blackens from formation of ferrous sulphide, and this latter
disengages sulphuretted hydrogen by the action of the fatty acids, whence the
nuisance.

Composition of Ulva latissima.—The mean results of the analysis of the dried
sea-weed were as follows :—

Carbon . 35°15

Hydrogen 5:27

Nitrogen 6°25

Oxygen. 37:96 .
Ash 3 3 15°37 containing aa see

100:00

Attempts to isolate any definite principles by the methods of proximate
analysis were not very successful, and no carbohydrate beyond cellulose could be
identified.

Bacteriological Examination—Considerable difficulty was experienced in
attempts to isolate the organisms concerned in the putrefactive processes, and the
ordinary methods failed for the greater part. The evidence at present collected
points to there being two chief species concerned. (1) A spore-forming bacillus
which apparently infests the sea-weed and causes the production of fatty acids from
its tissues ; and (2) a second micro-organism, probably derived from the mud of
the shore, which gives rise to the formation of sulphides by a later fermentative
process.

Ulva latissima in Relation to Sewage Pollution.—The evidence tending to

prove that the occurrence of the sea-weed in quantity in any locality is associated
with sewage pollution is of three kinds.
_ () The Composition of its Tissues.—The amount of nitrogen it contains is far
in excess of that of any other sea-weed of which analyses are recorded. Itcontains
over 6 per cent., and resembles in nitrogen content an animal product rather
than a vegetable. (Dry cheese contains about 7, and dry milk about 5 per cent.,
whereas peas only contain about 4 and meadow hay 2 per cent.)

936 REPORT—1900,

(2) Assimilation Experiments.—A frond of the sea-weed was placed in various
mixtures in succession (a) of polluted sea-water, (5) polluted sea-water plus
sewage, (c) polluted sea-water with sewage and ammonium salt, (d) sea-water
plus nitrates. By determinations of free and albuminoid ammonia, and nitrates in
these mixtures before and after the sea-weed had been in contact with them, the
power of assimilating nitrogen which the weed possesses was ascertained and was
found to be remarkably high. Thus in one experiment it absorbed the whole of
the free ammonia from a polluted sea-water containing 0:050 part per 100:000 in
seventeen hours. Nitrates were also rapidly absorbed, but not albuminoid
matters. The weed remained in perfect health during these experiments and is
still growing, although nine months have elapsed since the experiments were
commenced.

(8) The Localities where Ulva latissima abounds, and from which it is
virtually absent.—As stated above the sea-weed is present in abundance in Belfast
Lough, but it is almost entirely absent from Strangford Lough, which is similar
in area and in many other respects to Belfast Lough, but differs from it in not
being extensively polluted by sewage. In Dublin Bay the sea-weed is found in
quantity in the harbour, which is highly polluted, but not in the southern parts of
the bay, which receive no sewage—except near Kingstown, where a large sewage
tank discharges on the ebb tide. There the weed occurs.

The evidence which the authors have collected tends therefore to the conclu-
sion that the occurrence of Ulva latissima in quantity in a given locality is an
indication of sewage contamination, and there can be no doubt as to the power
which the weed possesses of absorbing nitrogen compounds from polluted sea-
water. While thus acting as scavenger it may itself give rise to a very extensive
nuisance.

6. Germination of the Zoospore in Laminariacee.
By J. Lioyp WILL1AMs.

The zoospore comes to rest and assumes a spherical form. The single chloroplast
divides in two. A tube is produced and the contents pass into it. At the end of the
tube a swelling is formed, into which all the contents migrate, and are shut off from
the empty spore-case and tube by a wall. This has been wrongly regarded by
Areschong, in the case of Dictyosiphon, as a case of sexual fusion. In the en-
largement the chloroplasts multiply and additional eye-spots appear on several,
which, however, disappear after a few days. The newly separated cell now
divides and forms a branched protonema-like structure. ‘4. ). 9é@

7. Professor Percy Groom delivered a Lecture on Plant-form in
Relation to Nutrition.

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 8.

The following Papers were read :—

1. On Double Fertilisation in a Dicotyledon—Caltha palustris.!
By Erne, N. Tuomas.

This research was undertaken at Miss Sargant’s suggestion, because of the
extreme importance of the discovery of double fertilisation in Monocotyledons
by Professor Nawaschin and later by Professor Guignard.

The work was carried out at the Royal College ot Science, South Kensington,
and among other plants Professor Farmer recommended Caltha palustris.

) Published in Annals of Botany, vol. xiv., September 1900.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 937

The polar nuclei of this plant unite before fertilisation, but that there is no
absolutely fixed period is shown by the very different appearance of sacs in which
polar fusion is taking place.

The male generative nuclei, when first set free in the embryo sac, are extremely
small and heavily stained. Their chromatic substance is so densely aggregated as
to render the spermatozoid to all appearance homogeneous.

Of the two spermatozoids one—I believe that which leaves the pollen tube
first—passes to the middle of the sac and there fertilises the definitive nucleus; the
other fertilises the nucleus of the oosphere.

By the time the male generative nucleus or spermatozoid has reached the
definitive nucleus, it has enlarged immensely, and shows a light spongy structure
with scattered chromatin granules. The other spermatozoid, however, increases
very little in size, and always remains dark and dense.

When the spermatozoids leave the pollen tube they are somewhat short and
thick, and only slightly curved, but when the one has approached the definitive
nucleus, it has the typical vermiform shape, with one or several coils.

Professor Nawaschin has recently published an account of double fertilisation
in Delphinium and in two Composites.

2. The Conducting Tissues of Bryophytes. By A. G. TANSLEY.

The most important part of our present knowledge of these tissues is due to
Haherlandt,! who, in the Polytrichacez, distinguished a hadrom (hydrom) or water-
conducting system from a deptom, conducting plastic, especially nitrogenous, sub-
stances. in the lower mosses, only the hydrom is differentiated, and in the
xerophilous and hydrophilous forms, in which water is taken in at any part of
the surface, even this is absent. Localisation of the region of absorption is the
condition on which the evolution of a hydrom depends.

In the present investigation the lignified strand of prosenchyma in the midst of
the thallus of certain Liverworts (Pallavicinia Symphyogyna and Hymenophyton)
was shown to be a hydrom strand, and its development to be correlated to some
extent with the localisation of the absorptive region of the thallus.

The rhizome of four species of Polytrichum was investigated, and in every case
was found to possess with striking completeness the distribution of tissues
characteristic of the root of a vascular plant. The transition to the structure of »
the aérial stem was followed, and while the account of the structure of the latter
given by previous observers was confirmed in mest particulars. some new points in
the structure and course of the leaf-traces were observed, and new light was, it is
hoped, thrown on the constitution of the Polytrichaceous stele, which is thought to
consist of two regions, primitively distinct in function and by descent. Finally,
an attempt has been made to trace out the course of evolution of these conducting
tissues in the Bryophytic series.

3. On a Fourth Type of Transition from Stem to Root-structure occur
ring in certain Monocotyledonous Seedlings. By ErHEL SarGant.

The three types of transition from a stem toa root-structure described by
Professor Ph. van Tieghem (‘ Traité de Botanique,’ 2me édition, 1891, p. 782) are
briefly as follows :—

1. As the n bundles of the hypocotyledonary stele descend into the primary
root, the xylem of each bundle branches to right and left at the same time that
the protoxylem elements become external. The right-hand branch from each
bundle unites with the left-hand branch of the adjacent one, so that we still have
nm xylem groups in the root-stele. Them phloem groups descend in a straight
line without branching or rotation.

) Beitrage zur Anatomie und Physiologie der Laubmoose, 1886.

938 REPORT—1900,.

2. There are 2x bundles in the hypocotyl. As they descend into the root each
bundle rotates on its axis in such a way that the phloem groups are able to unite
in pairs. The xylem groups also unite in pairs, the protoxylem elements becoming
external as they do so. Thus there are m phloem and xylem groups in the
root-stele.

8. There are z bundles in the hypocotyl as in type 1, but in this case each of
the phloem groups divides into two without rotation. The branches from adja-
cent bundles unite in pairs, so that we still have 2 phloem groups in the stele.
Meanwhile each of the xylem groups has rotated on its axis without branching.
Thus the n xylem groups are all external.

It is clear that type 3 is the converse of type 1.

Among the monocotyledonous seedlings which I have examined I find a
fourth type of transition, which is the converse of type 2. The best example is
Anemarrhena asphodeloides, but there are very clear traces of the same structure
in the allied genera Asphodelus and Asphodeline.

The type may be thus detined :—

4, There are x bundles in the hypocotyl. As they descend into the primary
rcot the phloem of each divides into two groups without rotation or subsequent
fusion. Thus there are 2n phloem groups in the root-stele. The xylem of each
bundle branches in two or more directions, while the protoxylem elements become
external. If more than 2x xylem groups have been thus formed, adjacent groups
fuse in pairs, so that only 2n xylem groups enter the root-stele.

In Anemarrhena asphodeloides there are two bundles in the cotyledon which
pass downwards through the hypocotyl into the primary root. During the trans-
ition each phloem group divides into two. Each xylem group branches in three
directions. It sends a group of protoxylem elements to divide its own two phloem
groups from each other. This we may call the median protoxylem group. Two
lateral protoxylem groups are also formed from the xylem of each bundle in the
space dividing the bundles from each other. The four lateral protoxylem groups
thus formed are reduced to two by the fusion of adjacent groups in pairs. In the
end there are four phloem groups and four protoxylem groups in the root-stele,

4. The Origin of Modern Cycads. By W. C. Worsve1u, F.L.S.

The subject is treated from the aspect of the vegetative structure.

An exhaustive study.of the vegetative characters enables one to draw theo-
retical conclusions as to the origin of modern Cycads.

This conclusion is that the latter have descended directly from some Cycado-
filicinean type possessing the structure exhibited especially by such forms as the
Medullose and Lyginodendrex, the chief point being that the collaterally con-
structed one or more vascular cylinders of modern Cycads have been derived from
one or more concentrically constructed cylinders of some Cycado-filicinean form.

Those characters in the modern plants which approximate most nearly to the
primitive ancestral type are found in those parts of the plant where they would
most naturally be expected, viz. :—

Of azial organs: the primary node or transitional region between stem and
root, and the flowering aais; of foliar organs: the cotyledon, the sporophyll, and
the zxtegument of the sporangium.

In the axial organs or stems of modern Cycads the vascular tissue consists of,
in five genera, a single cylinder ; in the four remaining genera, of more than one or
several cylinders, ‘These cylinders are collateral in structure.

In the region of the primary node, however, the structure of the one or more
outer cylinders exhibits a variation in that it approximates to the concentric type,
either by the appearance of an inversely-orientated zone attached to the inner face
of each cylinder, or by the breaking up of the cylinder into a number of concentric
or partially concentric independent strands.

The first of these two types of primary nodal structure is normally charac-
teristic of Medullosa porosa, the second of Medullosa Solmsii.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 939

In the peduncle of the male cone of Stangeria the single cylinder consists in
its lower portion of bundles which, by their irregularly curved, sub-concentric, or
sometimes perfectly concentric contour, betray their derivation from a cylinder of
concentric strands like that of Medullosa Solmsit.

The primitive vascular bundle of the foliar organs from which that in all the
various foliar organs of modern Cycads has been derived is, on the view here set
forth, held to be the type exhibited by the leaf of Zyginodendron (Rachiopteris) :
it consists of a central mass of primary tracheides with several protoxylem-groups
at the periphery, the whole being surrounded by phloem.

In the folkage-leaves of modern Cycads the concentric bundle becomes broken
up into great numbers of collateral bundles, each with a conspicuous mass of
centripetal primary tracheides. This very same character obtains in the foliage-
leaves of all species of Medullosa.

In the cotyledons, sporophylls, and sporangial integuments of recent Cycads
many of the bundles exhibit the primitive concentric type of structure, with the
modification that in the cotyledon of Stangeria, the reduction in size of the
bundle, in the sporophyll, as in Encephalortos, the development of the secondary
centrifugal xylem has caused the disappearance of the central primary xylem; a
modification which has also supervened in the case of the vascular strands of the
stem. Hence the vascular structure of the foliage-leaves of the Medullosee is more
advanced and modified than is that of the cotyledons and sporophylls of recent
Cycads, and @ fortior? than that of the foliage-leaf of Lyginodendron.

The central cylinder of the stem of Lyginodendron Oldhamium has the same
origin as that of modern Cycads, as is shown (1) by the curved contour of the
various strands composing it, betraying the origin of each fyom a concentric strand ;
and (2) by the occurrence of inversely-orientated vascular tissue on the inner side
of the cylinder, abnormally in Z. Oldhamium and normally in L. robustum.

The single stele of Heterangiwm is, homologous with each single concentric stele
once, on this view, composing the eylinder of Lyginodendron, as with each such
stele in Medullosa Solmsit and M. anglica.

Three stages of advancement are, therefore, to be noted in the vascular struc-
ture of this great phylum :—

The Filices possess a vascular system in essentials wholly concentric; in the
Cycado-filices the collateral character first makes its appearance ; in Cycads the
collateral strongly predominates, while the concentric has almost died out.

5, On the Structure of the Stem of Angiopteris evecta, Hoffm.
By BR. F. Snover, Girton College, Cambridge.

This paper deals with the anatomy of the stem and roots of a plant of
Angiopteris evecta from Ceylon. The older part of the obliquely ascending axis
exhibits a distinct dorsiventrality and gives off numerous roots from the lower
surface ; in the younger part of the stem the structure becomes more radial and
the roots are much less abundant.

The mode of origin of the leaf-traces and their connection with the stelar frame-
work in the stem, which has the form of a series of inverted funnel-shaped zones, is
worked out in detail, the result in a few points differing somewhat from those
obtained by Mettenius.

The steles of the stem are both mesarch and endarch in structure, but the
protoxylem groups occupy for the most part a peripheral position. The earliest
protoxylem appears along the inner edge of the steles, while the protophloem arises
on the outer edge of each stele as a discontinuous are of small and rather thick-
walled elements. This are of protophloem is never completed round the stele, but
the next stage in the development of the tissues after the appearance of the pro-
toxylem is the differentiation of large sieve-tubes external to the protophloem.

Air-roots and earth-roots were anatomically investigated, and the origin of the
latter was traced from the vascular lattice-work of the stem. Several initial cells
were recognised in the apical region of the stem,

940 REPORT—1900.

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 10.

1, A Joint Discussion with Section C was held on the Conditions
under which the Plants of the Coal Period grew.—See p. 746.

The following Papers were read :—

2. Further Investigations on the Intumescences of Hibiscus
vitifolius (Zinn.). By ExizapetH Date.

The author previously examined the structure of certain intumescences (out-
growths) on the green parts of Hibiscus vitifolius, and made some preliminary
experiments which pointed to the conclusion that the conditions determining the
formation of outgrowths were moisture, warmth, and light.!

During the present summer (1900) the experiments have been extended. The
effects of moist air and moist soil were tested, and plants were also grown under
glass of various colours, in bright sunlight, in shade, and under whitewashed
glass at different temperatures. The following results were obtained. In a
moist atmosphere, bright sunlight, and a high temperature, large numbers of
intumescences were formed in two or three days. The most striking results were
obtained by isolating a single normal branch (still attached to the plant) in a
bell-jar containing damp air, and exposed to direct sunlight, in very hot weather.

Outgrowths were also formed under red, yellow, and whitewashed glass, but
not under blue or greer glass, nor on plants grown in the openair. ‘The distri-
bution of the outgrowths is dependent upon that of the stomata, both in Hibiscus
and also in other plants. There is no doubt that the checking of transpiration
(which is very active in this plant) by a damp atmosphere is one cause of the
development of outgrowths; but this by itself is not sufficient, as the experiments
under blue and green glass show. It is necessary that assimilation also be active.
There is further evidence (partly furnished by the plants grown under coloured
glass) that an altered course of metabolism is also involved; a conclusion to which
the abnormally abundant development of oil also points. It seems clear that what
occurs is (1) a lack of salts owing to the arrested transpiration ; (2) the assimilated
carbohydrates are therefore being employed in metabolism with a deficiency of
nitrates; and (8) the tissues blocked with water are not respiring normally. That
the abnormal outgrowths and accumulation of oil are indications of the disturbed
metabolism is not surprising.

The formation of outgrowths often begins round the teeth of the leaf. The
structure of the bundle-endings in the teeth of a normal leaf is that which
characterises water-glands; and this fact, taken in connection with the position
and structure of the intumescences, suggests that they may be organs for the
excretion of water.

3. On the Osmotic Properties and their Causes in the Living Plant and
Animal Cell. By Professor E. F. Overton.

A very great number of experiments on the permeability of the living proto-
plasm of plant and animal cells has led to the conclusion that the general osmotic
properties of the cell depend on a phenomenon of elective solubility, certain layers
of protoplasm being impregnated with a mixture of lecithin and cholesterin. All
substances that are soluble in this mixture, and they include by far the greater
number of organic compounds, are able to penetrate into the living cell. The
rapidity of the passage of different compounds into the cell depends on their rela-

| &E. Dale, ‘On certain Outgrowths (Intumescences) on the Green Parts of
Hibiscus vitifolius (Linn.), Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. (1900), vol. x. Pt. IV. p. 192.

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 941

tive solubility in water and in a mixture of cholesterin and lecithin. A know-
ledge of the osmotic properties of the living protoplasm throws much light on the
action of many poisons and other drugs.

4, The Biology and Cytology of a New Species of Pythiwm.
By Professor A. H. Trow.

1. The reproductive organs of this fungus, ‘ conidia’ and oospores, were found
in rotten cress seedlings in July 1899, and the species has been cultivated as a
saprophyte on sterilised potatoes, house-flies, cabbage leaves, &c., up to the
present time (September 1900).

2. The species appears to be a pure saprophyte, all attempts to infect fresh
cress seedlings having hitherto failed.

3. Pure cultures were obtained by infecting sterilised potatoes with materials
obtained from cultures on rhubarb leaves.

4. On potatoes an aérial mycelium is freely developed, which remains sterile
for weeks. Conidia and oospores ultimately develop in numbers, their presence
being readily recognised by their yellow colour.

5. On house-flies or bits of cabbage leaves immersed in water the mycelium is
aquatic, and, as arule, that developed on house-flies produces conidia, that on
cabbage leaves oospores.

6. The life history has been carefully followed under the microscope in moist-
chamber cultures. It is noteworthy—

(a) That De Bary erred in including the greater portion of the periplasm in
the oosphere.

(6) That there is no sharp line of differentiation between periplasm and
gonoplasm in the antheridium.

(c) That most of the periplasm is absorbed by the young oospore, which in
consequence increases in size.

(d) That the conidia and oospores on germination invariably produce germ
tubes, no zoospores being formed under any circumstances.

(e) That the conidia germinate at once in a decoction of cabbage leaves, but
remain at rest in distilled water; that the oospores germinate at once, as soon as
ripe, or after a rest of as much ag seven months.

7. The species is consequently new and ranks as the most highly developed of
the genus.

8. The mycelium ‘conidia,’ oogonia, and antheridia are multinucleate, the
oosphere is uninucleate, the young oospore binucleate, and the ripe oospore uninu-
cleate.

9. The nuclei multiply by indirect division in the mycelium and sexual organs.
No nuclear changes of importance take place in the ‘conidia.’ The only nuclear
fusion is that of the male and female nuclei in fertilisation. The number of
chromosomes is considerable, certainly more than six.

10. The oogonium, as it is formed, receives fifteen or more nuclei, the
autheridium three or more. These invariably divide once, so that the number of
nuclei is doubled. The supernumerary nuclei in the oogonium lie in the periplasm,
the female nucleus passes to and occupies the centre of the oosphere. No similar
distribation of the nuclei takes place in the antheridium.

il. The fertilisation tube penetrates the wall of the oogonium at a spot pre-
pared for it, passes through the periplasm, and penetrates deeply into the egg.
One male nucleus passes down the tube and enters the egg, The oosphere clothes
itself with a delicate cell-wall and increases in size.

12. The fusion of the male and female nuclei is delayed until a thick oospore
wall has developed. No epispore is formed.

13. The fate of the nucleus in the germinating oospore has not yet been
followed. In the conidia nuclear divisions occur as germination proceeds.

942 REPORT—1900.

5. Observations on Pythium. By G. Porrautt and E. J. Bure.

The genus is of wide distribution, being found chiefly in the soil, but also in
water. Seven species were examined, two being undescribed forms. Two others,
P. gracile, Schenk, and P. intermediwm, formed sexual organs hitherto unknown
in these species. They are both parasites, the former in green alge, the latter in
the roots of a number of phanerogams, and are also both capable of saprophytic
life, All forms are able to form sporanges and gonidia, some giving one sort of
spore more readily than the other. Klebs’s results on the dependence of spore-
formation in Saprolegnia on external circumstances were carried a step further,
it being shown that a given spore could be induced to give zoospores or vegetative
hyphe cn appropriate treatment.

The process of zoospore-formation differs considerably from that described by
previous authors, being closely comparable to that of the Saprolegniacee. A
vacuole is formed in the discharging process, probably containing a cellulose-
altering enzyme and some chemiotactic substance whose function it is to draw out
the protoplasm from the sporange into the spore vesicle. The ripe sporange also
contains a motile vacuole which discharges to the exterior just before the escape
of the protoplasm. Septa are formed in all species. Pythiwm represents a stage
in the colonisation of the land by saprolegniaceous ancestors resembling Aphano-
myces. It is closely linked to the Peronosporaces through P. intermedium,
which possesses chains of gonidia, suckers, and a thick-walled resting mycelium.

6. Observations on some Chytridinee. By G. Porrautt and E. J. Bururr.

Four undescribed forms occur parasitic on Pythium. Their life history has
been worked out.

Chytridium gregarium, Nowakowski, was found on the eggs of the rotifer
Metopidia lepadelia. The unknown resting spores were discovered.

Two observations were made on Olpidiopsis saprolegnie. The infection takes
place in the zoospore stage of Saprolegnia, and is often multiple. Penetration
takes place by a fine tube through which the protoplasm of the parasitic zoospore
enters the host, leaving behind an empty capsule.

A sort of diplanetism occurs in Olpidiopsis, the zoospore shedding its two cilia,
altering shape and acquiring two new cilia one after the other.

The work was carried out chiefly at the Villa Thuret, Antibes.

7. On the Azygospores of Entomophthora gleospora.
By Professor P. VUILLEMIN.

The genus Entomophthora, as seen in the two species Z. Delpiniana and £, glao-
spora, shows an intermediate condition between Basidiobolus, with its uninucleated
segments, and Empusa, with its continuous hyphe with scattered nuclei; for in
Entomophthora the nuclei are large, and arranged at regular intervals in a single
row. This state of things had led me to regard the non-septate condition as
arising from the failure to develop septa for the delimitation of the cytoplasmic
areas of the individual nuclei resulting from the division of a parent nucleus, and
to describe the condition as ‘apocytial, and the multinucleate mass of protoplasm
so formed as an ‘apocyte’ or ‘apocytium.’ An examination of the resting-spores
alone found in Extomophthora has revealed the following history of their formation.
They may be terminal, lateral, or intercalary, and in the limbs of Mycetophila these
spores may be found of all ages, and arranged in basipetal succession of age, as
shown by the increasing thickening of the wall from 0:75 to 4, or even 5:6.

The youngest spores contain a single nucleus, which undergoes a series of four
successive binary divisions until there are 16 ; however, there may be irregularities
so that the number may fall as low as 12, and in one case I have counted
as many as 17. In the next stage the nuclei approach so as to form eight pairs,
and the two nuclei of each pair then fuse: this fusion is repeated until at length

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 943

there are only two left. These last two may then fuse at once, 80 as to leave the
now maturing zygospore with a single nucleus, or they may remain apart. The
last stages of maturation are accompanied by the appearance of oil drops in the
cytoplasm, which fuse towards its centre into a single large drop, reducing the
protoplasmic contents of the spore to a peripheral envelope, with one or two
parietal nuclei, as the case may be.

I can only interpret this formation as a case of true apogamy, and attribute
to the process a value corresponding with the sexual process of Basidiobolus, since
they both have ths same starting-point, the same intermediate stage of nuclear
division, and the same final nuclear fusion.

8. On the Life History of Acrospeira mirabilis (Berk. and Br.).
By R. H. Birren.

Loose brown masses of the spores of this fungus are occasionally found in
Spanish chestnuts. These spores are developed from the apices of hyphae coiled
into a spiral of, at the most, two turns, which becomes septate into three cells;
the cell next below the apical one swells and becomes thick-walled, thus forming
a chlamydospore. The coiled hypha may also develop into a spiral resembling
the ascogonium of Ewrotiwm, which, after investment by branches arising from
its apex, breaks down into cblamydospores. In this way bodies very suggestive
of the spore-masses of some of the ustilagines are formed. Endoconidia are found
in old cultures. Some evidence has also been obtained for the existence of an
ascigerous stage,

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 11.

The following Papers were read :—

1. Embryonic Tissues. By Professor MarsHatt Warp, F.2.S.

I would submit for discussion whether we could not improve our terminology
and teaching regarding the nature and growth of the tissues termed embryonic.
As is well known, Sachs and those whom he has influenced term all the tissues
of the growing points, cambium, pericycle, &c., embryonic tissues; but I want to
point out that this term in its simple form should be reserved for the embryo alone.
Only while the embryo consists of a few cells can we regard these cells as
embryonic tissues in the sense that all are nearly alike; at a later stage the
tissues of the growing points of stem and root have been derived from this
embryonic tissue, and in any case differ normally from it in that instead of being
capable of developing all or any parts of the plant, they are more and more
restricted to the power of developing only shoots, leaves, &c., or only roots. Still
more limited is the power of the cambium: it is normally confined to developing
new xylem and phloem— not even new organs—and similarly with other so-called
embryonic tissues of subsequent derivation. In view of such facts, and of others
which we can all supply, I would suggest that we restrict the term embryonic tissue,
or primary embryonic tissue, to that of the embryo only, before the desmogen
strands are laid down, and speak of all other tissues as derived or secondary tissues.
Thus the derived tissues of the growing points—capable of initiating organs as well
as tissues—might be termed secondary embryonic tissue, and the cambium, &c.,
restricted embryonic tissues.

The fact that such tissues retain sufficient of their primary properties to
develop whole organs, shoots, roots, &c., under modified or abnormal conditions
does not invalidate the distinctions referred to, and further classification and sub-
divisions along these lines could be made to meet the necessities of such cases as
desmogen (capable of laying down proto-xylem, &c.) and cambiwm (capable of

944 REPORT—1900.

forming secondary xylem and phloem only), which seem to me still too vaguely de-
fined in our text-books.

Such a classification would also apply to lower organisms. Indeed, my atten-
tion was first drawn to the matter by the observation that some algz and schizo-
mycetes appear to be always in the embryonic stage.

This brings us to a second point. Attention is now always drawn to the
differences between the slow dimensional growth of the so-called embryonic tissues
of the growing points and the stretching phase which Sachs called to our notice.
But it seems to me we ought to recognise that we have two fundamentally
different things here. It is, I think, hopeless to restrict the meaning of the word
‘srowth ‘(as understood by botanists) cnly to that mode of dimensional increase by the
intersusception of solid particles in the non-vacuolated protoplasm of the true
embryonic tissue of an embryo, and which implies a real gain in substance by the
assimilation—in the sense of the word employed by animal physiologists—of food-
materials. Yet this is real growth. The word ‘ growth,’ as understood by botanists,
refers almost exclusively to the possibly totally different dimensional increase
implied in the extension of cells under pressure of vacuoles, and, taking into
account the respiratory activity which prevails, is attended by loss of substance.

I would therefore suggest that we should distinguish the asstmilatory growth of
true embryonic tissue from the vacuolar growth of the derived tissues. This can
easily be done now that we are beginning to discard the misleading phrase ‘ carbon
dioxide assimilation ’ in favour of some such term as ‘ photo-synthesis.”

Here, again, clearness is, I think, attained by the change in the consideration of
those alga and schizophytes in which no vacuoles can be detected. It would be
absurd to say they do not grow; but it seems pretty clear that they grow by
assimilatory growth and not by vacuolar growth or extension. At the same
time we must not forget that invisible vacuoles may exist in the meshes of proto-
plasm, though even if this be so it is difficult to see how the protoplasm in the
trabeculs between grows if not by the intercalation of solid molecular units,

2. The Behaviour of the Nucleolus during Karyokinesis in the Root
Apex of Phaseolus. By Haroup WAGER.

From a study of the changes undergone by the nucleolus during karyokinesis
in cells of the root apex of Phaseolus multiflorus the following chief results have
been obtained.

1. The nucleolus is the most conspicuous object in the nucleus of the young
meristematic cells. The nuclear network forms a delicate peripheral layer only
in the resting nucleus.

2. The nucleolus stains deeply in hematoxylin, the nuclear network slightly ;
in safranin and gentian violet the nucleolus stains red, the nuclear network light
blue; in gentian violet the nucleolus often shows a more deeply stained central
portion.

3. In the resting condition of the nucleus the nucleolus is suspended to the
delicate nuclear network by delicate filaments.

4, The nucleolus often shows a vacuolar structure, especially in the stage just
previous to division.

5. In the process of nuclear division the nucleolus first of all becomes irregular
in shape, and the nucleolar substance appears to pass, by means of the connecting
strands, into the nuclear network, which thereby becomes more prominent.

6. As the chromosomes are formed the nucleolus disappears, but a portion of
the nucleolus is often visible in the equatorial plate.

7. The chromatic substance of the chromosomes appears to be derived almost
entirely from the nucleolus, but a part of the nucleolus may possibly be used up in
the formation of the spindle fibres.

8. As the daughter nuclei are being formed the chromatic substance of the
chromosomes runs together into small spheres, which ultimately fuse together to’
form the single large nucleolus,

TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION K. 945

3. On the Presence of Seed-like Organs in certain Paleozoic Lycopods.
By D. H. Scort, F.R.S.

Specimens discovered by Messrs. Wild and Lomax in the Ganister beds of the
Lower Coal-measures of Lancashire prove that the seed-like bodies described by
Williamson under the name of Cardiocarpon anomalum were borne on strobili,
agreeing completely in morphology and anatomy with Lepidostrobus.

Each megasporangium, which, as usual in Lepidodendres, was seated on the
upper surface of the sporophyll, became enclosed, when mature, in an integument
springing from the tissue of the sporophyll-pedicel. The integument closed in over
the top of the sporangium, leaving only a narrow crevice or micropyle, which
differed in its elongated, slit-like form from the more or less tubular micropyle of
an ordinary seed.

Within the megasporangium four megaspores were produced, one of which
occupied almost the whole of the sporangial cavity, while the other three remained
small, and were evidently abortive.

The integumented megasporangium, containing the single functional megaspore
or embryo-sac, became detached, together with the remains of its sporophyll, from
the cone. It appears to have been indehiscent, and presents close analogies with a
true seed.

In a specimen from Burntisland, practically identical with the Coal-measure
form, though presumably of a different species, the prothallus was found fairly
preserved. It formed a large-celled tissue, occupying the interior of the functional
megaspore.

In a male strobilus, probably of the same species as the Coal-measure specimens
above described, the microsporangia were found to be provided with integuments,
resembling those of the megasporangia but more widely open.

It is proposed to give the generic name Lepidocarpon to the Lepidostroboid
fructification now described.1_ Though its seed-like reproductive bodies were
referred to Cardiocarpon by Williamson, they have no affinity with the Cordaitean
seeds constituting the genus Cardiocarpon of Brongniart, to which the true
C. anomalum of Carruthers belongs.

4. The Primary Structure of certain Paleozoic Stems referred to
Araucarioxylon. By D. H. Scorr, 7.2.9.

The chief object of the present communication is to exhibit some illustrations
of facts already briefly recorded elsewhere.?

The genus Araucarioaylon is an artificial one, founded to include fossil speci-
mens with secondary wood resembling that of a recent Araucaria. The Paleeo-
zoic forms of Araucartoxylon have been shown to belong in most cases to the
stems of the extinct Gymnospermous order Cordaiteze, which was in some respects
intermediate between Cycadales and Conifere.

The Cordaitean stems hitherto investigated appear to have resembled Conifers
in the development of their wood, for the spiral tirst-formed tracheides are found
in contact with the pith, the whole of the wood, primary as well as secondary,
having thus been developed in centrifugal order,

The specimens now illustrated are peculiar in possessing distinct strands of
primary wood in the pith. They belong to two species, both from the Lower Car-
boniferous rocks of Scotland and the North of England.

In one, Araucarioxylon fasciculare, sp. nov., the pith is small, but the primary
strands of xylem are of large size, attaining their maximum diameter when about
to pass out towards a leaf. Their structure is mesarch, and they closely

‘A somewhat fuller account of Zepidocarpon has been communicated to the
Royal Society, and a complete illustrated description is in preparation.

* Scott, ‘On the Primary Wood of certain Araucarioxylons,’ Annals of Bolany,
December 1899,

1900. 3P

946 REPORT—1900.

resemble the corresponding strands in Lyginodendron Oldhammium. The secondary
wood has narrow medullary rays, and quite resembles that of an araucarian
Conifer,

The other species is identical with the Araucariorylon antiquum described by
Witham. Here the pith is of large size, nearly an inch in diameter in the specimen
illustrated, and is surrounded by a ring of forty or fifty small primary xylem
bundles, mesarch in structure, which appear to have passed out into the leaves in
pairs. In this form the secondary wood has somewhat broad medullary rays, and
is so far less Coniferous in character than that of A. fasciculare.

The interest of the two species described consists in their affording a link, so
far as the primary structure of the wood is concerned, between certain of the
Cycadofilices and the Cordaiter.

The author is indebted to Mr. R. Kidston, F.G.S., for the loan of the specimens
on which the investigation is based.

5. On the Structure and Affinities of Dipteris conjugata, Reinw., with Notes
on the Geological History of the Dipteridine. By A.C. Sewarp, £.2.S.,
and EvizaBeta DALE.

For the material used in the anatomical investigation of Dipteris conjugata the
authors are indebted to Mr. Shelford, of the Sarawak Museum, Borneo, and to
Mr. Yapp, of Caius College, Cambridge. The genus Dzpteris is represented by
four recent species: D. conjugata, Reinw. [ = Polypodium (Dipteris) Horsfieldia,
R. Br.], D. Wallichii, R. Br., D. Lobbiana, Hk., and D. quinquefurcata, Baker ;
of these D. Wallichit occurs in the subtropical regions of Northern India, the
other three species being characteristic of the Malayan region. Among Mesozoic
ferns the genera Protorhipis, Dictyophyllum, Camptopteris atford examples of extinct
types closely allied to Dzpteris, and widely spread geographically during the
Jurassic epoch.

The authors propose to separate the recent genus and the fossil forms from the
Polypodiacez and place them ina distinct family—the Dipteridinze. The sporangial
characters of Dipteris do not conform precisely to those typical of the Polypodiacez,
and the anatomical features afford additional evidence in favour of placing Dipteris
in a special subdivision of the Leptosporangiate ferns.

The stem of Dipteris conjugata possesses a single annular stele in which
the protoxylem strands occupy a central (mesarch) position. The proto-
phloem elements are sharply marked off from the rest of the phloem, which
is succeeded by a pericycle 3-4 cells in width ; a distinct endodermis encloses the
stele both internally and externally. Immediately behind each leaf the annular
stele of the stem becomes elongated ina vertical direction, and gives off aninverted
U-shaped branch which ascends obliquely upwards into the leaf-stalk. The foliar
gap, left after the passing off of the meristele, closes up in front of the leaf, and the
stele resumes its normal tubular form.

The paper deals also with the structure of the roots, leaves, and sporangia of
Dipteris conjugata, the comparison of the anatomical features with those of the
Cyatheaceze and other ferns, and concludes with an account of the geological and
geovraphical range of such fossil ferns as may reasonably be placed in the family
Dipteridinee.

6, Lilustrations of Sand-binding Plants. By Professor F. O, Bowsr, /.R.S.

INDEX.

References to reports and papers printed in extenso are given in Italics.
An Asterisk * indicates that the title only of the communication is given.
The mark + indicates the same, but a reference is given to the Journal or Newspaper

where the paper is published in extenso.

BJECTS and rules of the Association,
XXVii.

List of Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and
Local Secretaries, 1831-1900, xxxviii.

List of Trustees and General Officers,
1831-1900, 1.

List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of Sections, li.

List of evening Discourses from 1842,
Ixix.

Lectures to the Operative Classes, Ixxiii.

Officers of Sections present at Bradford,
Ixxiv.

Committee of Recommendations at
Bradford, lxxv.

Treasurer’s account, Ixxvi.

Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, xxviii.

Officers and Council for 1900-1901, lxxx.

Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Bradford, lxxxi.

Resolutions passed by the General
Committee at Bradford :

(1) Committees receiving grants of
money, Ixxxviii.

(2) Committees not receiving grants
of money, xciii.

(3) Papers ordered to be printed in
extenso, XCVi.

(4) Alteration of title of Section
G, xcvi.

(5) Women to be eligible for ad-
mission to Committees, xcvi.

(6) Resolutions referred to the Coun-
cil for consideration, and ac-
tion if desirable, xcvi.

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes in 1900, xcvii.

Places of meeting in 1901 and 1902, xcviii.

General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, xcix.

General meetings, cxvi.

~

Address by the President, Sir William
Turner, FBS, 3.

ABBOTT (G.) on the concretionary types
in the cellular Magnesian Limestone
of Durham, 737.

Aberdeenshire, physical characteristics
of the population of, J. Gray and J.
F. Tocher on the, 913.

ABNEY (Capt. Sir W. de W.) on solar
radiation, 36.

—— on nave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 193.
ACKROYD (Wm.) on the distribution of

‘chlorine in West Yorkshire, 694.

—— on a limiting standard of acidity
for moorland waters, 695.

ACWORTH (W. M.) on state monopolies
in other countries, 436.

Acids, a simple method for comparing
the affinities of certain, H. J. H. Fen-
ton and H. Owen Jones on, 701.

ADAMS (Prof. F.) on the meteorological
Observatory at Montreal, 33.

—— (Prof. W.G.) on practical electrical
standards, 53.

ADENEY (Dr. W. E.) on radiation from a
source of light in a magnetic field, 52.
Africa, the climatology of, Ninth report

on, 413.

, tropical, the commercial resources
of, Edward Heawood on, 815.

Age of the earth, Professor J. Joly on the,
369.

Agricultural labourer, the economical
position of the, considered histori-
cally, Frank P. Walker on, 842.

Agriculture in Canada, results of experi-
mental work in, under Government
organisation, Dr. W. Saunders on, 840.

*ALDRIDGE (J. G. W.) on.the automo-
bile for electric street traction, 875.

3P2

948

Alloys, chemical compounds contained in,
Report by F. H. Neville on the, 131.

* , Interim report on the nature of,
698.

——., Volta-electromotive force of, Dr.
G. Gore on, 641.

Alnus glutinosa, the structure of the
root-nodules, T. W. Woodhead on, 931.

*Aluminium powder, the action of, on
some phenols and acids, W. R.
Hodgkirson on, 702.

American currency difficulties in the
eighteenth century, Dr. W. Cunning-
ham on, 846.

Amt (Dr. H.) on Canadian Pleistocene
flora and fauna, 328.

Ampere-and volt-metre for lecture-rooms,
F. G. Baily on, 643.

ANDBRSON (Prof. R. J.) on the dentition
of the seal, 790.

—— (Dr. Tempest) on the collection
of photographs of geological interest
in the United Kingdom, 377.

Anglesey and Carnarvonshire, ancient
plateaux in, E. Greenly on, 737. :

, rock-bosses in, the form of, E.
Greenly on, 737.

Animal-cults of the natives of Sarawak,
some peculiar features of the, and
their bearing on the problems of
totemism, C. Hose and W. McDougall
on, 907.

ANNANDALE (Nelson) on photographs
of some Malayan insects, 792.

Anthropological interest, photographs of,
Report on, 568.

—— characteristics of population of
Aberdeenshire, J. Gray and J. F.
Tocher on, 913.

observations made by Mr. F. Laid-
law in the Malay Peninsula, W. L. H.
Duckworth on, 909.

Anthropology, Address by Prof. John Rhys
to the Section of, 884.

——- of West Yorkshire, Dr. J. Beddoe
on the, 902.

ANTONIADI (E. M.) on the ‘square-
shouldered’ aspect of Saturn, 675.

Araucarioxylon, the primary structure
of certain Palzozoic stems referred
to, Dr. D. H. Scott on, 945.

ARBBHR (KE. A Newell) on the effects of
salts on the CO, assimilation of Ulva
latissima, 934.

ARMITAGE (Mrs. E.) on the defensive
works of Yorkshire, 913.

ARMSTRONG (Prof. H. E.) on isomorphous
derivatives of benzene, 167.

on the teaching of science in ele-

mentary schools, 187.

on the investigation of isomeric
naphthalene derivatives, 297.

*ARNOLD (Prof. J. O.) on the internal
architecture of steel, 882.

REPORT—1900.

*Articulations between the occipital
bone and atlas and axis in the Mam-
malia, Prof. J. Symington on the, 789.

*ASCHAN (Prof. Ossian) on the camphor
question, 702.

Ascidians, Compound, Observations by
Prof. W. A. Herdman on, 384.

Asia, Central, journeys in, Capt. H. H.P,
Deasy on, 812.

Assimilation in plants, Report on an
experimental investigation of, 569.

Aston (W. G.) on the Japanese gohei
and the Ainu inao, 900.

Astronomy, Address by Dr. A. A. Com-
mon to the Department of, 659.

Atlantic, North, charts illustrating the
weather of the, in the winter of 1898-
99, Capt. Camphell-Hepworth on, 651.

Atmosphere, amount of carbonic anhy-
dride in the, a new and accurate
method of determining, suitable for
scientific expeditions, Prof. Letts and
R. F. Blake on, 693.

Atomic weights and the periodic law,
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and G. Gladstone
on, 706.

*Automobile for electric street traction,
J. G. W. Aldridge on, 875.

AvEBURY (Lord) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 187.

AYRTON (Prof. W. E.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 53.

Azygospores of Entomophthora glaospora,
Prof. P. Vuillemin on, 942.

BAILy (Prof. F. G.) on a lecture-room
volt- and ampere-meter, 643. :

BALFOUR (H.) on photographs of anthro-
pological interest, 568.

— on the age of stone circles, 461.

BARKER (T.) on a combination in-
tegrating wattmeter and maximum
demand indicator, 878. 7

—— (W. R.) on the excavation of caves
at Uphill, 342.

*Barometer, a novel form of, A. 8. Davis
on, 652.

*BARRETT (Prof. W. F.) on the electric
conductivity of the alloys of iron,
699.

BARRETT-HAMILTON (Capt. G. E. H.)
on skulls of antarctic seals, 792.

BARRINGTON (R. M.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 403.

BAssET (A. B.), A quintic curve cannot
have more than fifteen real points of
inflexion, by, 647.

BATHER (F. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animalium, 392.

Beach formation in the Thirlmere Re-
servoir, R. D. Oldham on, 763.

INDEX.

BEAUCHEMIN (Dr. Merée) on an ethno-
logical survey of Canada, 468.

BEAuMONT (Prof. Roberts) on the
photographic method of preparing
textile designs, 881.

BEAZLEY (C. Raymond) on the Siberian
railway, 814.

BEDDO# (Dr. John) on the anthropology
of West Yorkshire, 902.

—on the vagaries of the kephalic
index, 902.

BEuHR (F. B.) on brakes and signals for
the Manchester and Liverpool elec-
trical express railway, 876.

BEL (A. M.) on flint implements found
at Wolvercote, Oxfordshire, 913.

—— (C.N.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 468.

Ben Nevis, meteorological observations on,
Report on, 46.

Benzene, isomorphous derivatives of, Re-
port on, 167.

Benzo-y-pyrone, the synthesis of, Dr. S.
Ruhemann and H. E. Stapleton on,
703.

BEVAN (E. J.), C. F. Cross, and J. F.
BRIGGS on interaction of furfuralde-
hyde and Caro’s reagent, 702.

BEVAN (Rey. J. O.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 570.

Bibliography of spectroscopy, Interim
report onthe, 150.

*BICKERTON (A. W.) on cosmic evolu-
tion, 679.

BIFFEN (R. H.) on the life history of
Acrospeira mirabilis, 943.

BINGLEY (Godfrey) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 350.

BINNIE (Sir A. R.), Address to the Sec-
tion of Mechanical Science by, 855.
—(W. J. E.) on a self-registering

rain-gauge, 870.

Biological Association at Plymouth, the
Marine, Report on investigations made
at the laboratory of, 399.

Bird migration, a digest of observations
on, Third report on making, 403.

Birth-rate and population, viewed from
the historico-statistical standpoint,
Marcus Rubin on, 838.

* BLACKMAN (Dr. F. F.) on the so-called
optimum strength of CO, for assimila-
tion by plants, 933.

*—__ and Miss MarTH #1 on the effect
of the closure of stomata on assimila-
tion by plants, 934.

BLAKE (Rey. J. F.) on the registration
of type-fossils, 744.

—— (R. F.) and Prof, LeTts on a new
and accurate method for determining
the amount of carbonic anhydride in
the atmosphere, suitable for scientific
expeditions, 693,

949

BLAKE (R. F.) ona method for estimating
the dissolved oxygen in water, sewage,
&e., 708.

BLANFORD (Dr. W. T.) on the zoology of
the Sandwich Islands, 398.

Blood, Report on the physiological effects
of peptone when introduced into the
circulating, 457.

Bouton (H.) on the excavation of caves at
Uphill, 342.

*BoMPAS (E. C.) on stationary meteor
radiants, 679.

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on seismological
investigation, 59.

on the erratic blocks of the British
Tsles, 343.

— on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 350.

——on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

BORCHGREVINCK (C. E.) on the British
Antarctic expedition, 1899-1900, 814.

Borneo, relics of the Stone age of, Dr.
A. O: Haddon on, 901.

Boss (J. Chunder) on the similarity of
effect of electrical stimulus on in-
organic and living substances, 637.

Botany, Address by Prof. 8. H. Vines to
the Section of, 916.

BoTrTroMLey (J. T.) on practical electri-
cal standards, 53.

—— (Prof. W. B.) on the utilisation of
sewage sludge, 709.

Boulders of E. Yorkshire, the source and
distribution of the far-travelled, J. W.
Stather on, 759.

BOuURINOT (Sir J. G.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

BouRnNE (G. C.) on investigations made at
the Marine Biological Association
laboratory at Plymouth, 399.

—— on the micro-chemistry of cells, 449.

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 569.

= on illustrations of sand-binding
plants, 946.

Boyce (Prof. R.) on the physiological
effects of peptone and its precursors
when introduced into the circulation,
457.

BOYLE (David) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 468.

—— on the paganism of the civilised
Troquois, 905.

Boys (C. Vernon) on determining magnetic
Sorce at sea, 45.

—— on seismological investigation, 59.

—— on the B.A. screm gauge, 436.

BRABROOK (E. W.) on the physical and
mental defects of children in schools, 461.

—— on the Silchester excavation, 466.

—— on an ethnological survey of Canada
468,

950

Bradford sewage and its treatment,
F. W. Richardson on, 707.

——, the glacial Drift in, some recent
excavations in, Jas. Monckton on,
754.

—— Beck, a glacial
lake occupying the
J. E. Wilson on, 755.

—— district and Keighley, the glacia-
tion of the, A. Jowett and H. B. Muff
on, 756.

——., the local incidence of disease in,
Dr. A. Rabagliati on, 845.

+—— water-works, J. Watson on the,
867.

——, the disposal of house refuse in, J.
McTaggart on, 867.

BRADLEY (C. S.) on some new compounds
discovered by the use of the electric
furnace, 699.

Brain, microcephalic, Prof. D. J. Cun-
ningham on the, 904.

BRAMWELL (Sir F. J.) on seismological
investigation, 59.

on the B.A. screw gauge, 436.

Bray (G.) on the movements of wnder-
ground waters of Craven, 346.

*BREDT (Julius) on the degradation of
camphor, 702.

Briaces (J. F.), C. F. Cross, and E. J.
BEVAN on interaction of furfuralde-
hyde and Caro’s reagent, 702.

Bros (W. Law) on some Buddhist sites
in India, 906.

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on metcoro-
logical observations on Ben Nevis, 46.

* (Dr. Horace T.) on some recent
work on the diffusion of gases and
liquids, 704.

—— on the mork of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

— (J.) on the viagraph, 870.

BRYAN (Prof. G. H.) on the uniformity of
sizeof pages of Scientific Societies’ pub-
lications, 45.

on the partition of energy, 634.

Bryophytes, conducting tissues of, A. G.
Tansley on, 937.

BUCHAN (Dr. A.) on meteorological ebser-
vations on Ben Nevis, 46.

BUCHANAN (J. Y.) on the revision of the
physical and chemical constants of sea-
water, 421.

Buddhist sites in India, W. Law Bros
on some, 906.

BULLER (A. H. RB.) on the fertilisation
processin Echinoidea, 387.

Buncnu (J. L.) on the effect of chorda
stimulation on the volume of the sub-
maxillary gland, 458.

Bursury (S. H.) on the vector potential
of electric currents in a field where
disturbances are propagated with
finite velocity, 635.

extra-morainic
valley of the,

REPORT—1900.

Burcu (G. J.) on an experiment on
simultaneous contrast, 629.

*BURCKHARDT (Prof. R.) on some cases
of brain-configuration in the brain of
Selachians, 785.

*____ on the systematic value of the
brain in Selachians, 785.

*____ on the anatomy and systematic
position of the Lemargide, 790.

on the nestling of &hinochetus,
790.

BURKE (J. B. B.) on the phosphorescent
glow in gases, 643.

Burton (C. V.) on the uniformity of size
of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica-
tions, 45.

(FE. M.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 343.

Busz (Prof. K.) on a granophyre-dyke
intrusive in the gabbro of Ardna-
murchan, Scotland, 751.

BUTLER (E. J.) and G. POIRAULT, Obser-
vations on Pythiwm by, 942.

——, Observations on some Chytri-

dinez by, 942.

CALLENDAR (Prof. H. L.) on the Meteoro-
logical Observatory at Montreal, 33.

on solar radiation, 36.

on practical electrical standards, 53.

*Calorimeter, a new form of, for measur-
ing the wetness of steam, Prof. J.
Goodman on, 882.

Cambrian beds of Malvern, the igneous
rocks associated with the, T. Groom
on, 739.

—— palxogeography, the bearing of the
Holybush conglomerates on, T. Groom
on, 738.

*Cambridge Observatory, the new photo-
graphic equatorial at the, A. R.
Hinks on, 677.

CAMPBELL-HEPWORTH (Capt.) on charts
illustrating the weather of the North
Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 1898—
99, 651.

Camphor, the constitution of, Dr. A.
Lapworth on, 299.

*____ the degradation of, Julius Bredt
on, 702.

*_____ question, Prof, Ossian Aschan on
the, 702.

Canada, ethnological survey of, Fourth
report on an, 468.

Canadian Pleistocene flora and fauna,
Final report on, 328.

Carbonic anhydride in the atmosphere,
a new and accurate method for deter-
mining the amount of, Prof. Letts and
R. F. Blake on, 693.

* —, the so-called optimum
strength of, for assimilation by plants,
Dr. F. F, Blackman on, 933.

INDEX.

Carbonic anhydride, assimilation by Ulva
latissima, the effects of salts on the,
E. A. N. Arber on, 934.

Carboniferous rocks, Report on life-zones
in the British, 340,

CARSLAW (H. 8.) on the use of multiple
space in applied mechanics, 644.

CARTER (Rev. W. Lower) on the move-
ments of underground waters of Craven,
346.

-— on the underground waters of North-
west Yorkshire, 735.

Cathode rays, the apparent emission of,
from an electrode at zero potential,
C. E. S. Phillips on, 639.

Cave of Psychro in Crete, D. G. Hogarth
on the, 899.

Caves in Ireland, Interim report on the
exploration of, 340.

— at Uphill, Weston-super-Mare,
Report on the excavation of, 342.

—— and pot-holes of Ingleborough and
district, S. W. Cuttriss on, 735.

Cell, the living plant and animal, the
osmotic properties and their causes in,
Prof. E. F. Overton on, 940.

Cells, Report on the micro-chemistry of,
449,

Cerebral cortex, Report on the compara-
tive histology of the, 453.

*Cetacean flipper, the development of
the, Prof. J. Symington on, 789.

CHAPMAN (8S. J.) on the relation between
Spinners and Piecers in the cotton
industry, 852.

Characteristic symbolic determinant of
m quantics in m variables, a property
of the, Major P. A. MacMahon on, 644.

Chemical constitution and absorption
spectra of organic bodies, Report on the
relation between, 151.

union, a test for, Dr. G. Gore on,
641.

Chemistry, Address by Prof. W. H.
Perkin to the Section of, 659.

Children in schools, the physical and
mental defects of, Report on, 461.

CHISHOLM (Geo. G.) on some conse-
quences that may be anticipated from
the development of China by modern
methods, 815.

China, the development by modern
methods of, some consequences that
may be anticipated from, G. G. Chis-
holm on, 815.

——.,, the coalfields and iron ore deposits
of the Provinces of Shansi and Honan,
and proposed railway construction in,
J. G. H. Glass on, 871.

Chlorine, the distribution of, in West
Yorkshire, W. Ackroyd on, 694.

CHREE (Dr. C.) on solar radiation, 36.

Chytridinez, Observations on, by G.
Poirault and E. J. Butler, 942.

951

Circulation, the physiological effects of
peptone and its precursors when intro-
duced into the, Fourth interim report
on, 457. :

*CLARK (HE. R.) on shop buildings, 882.

CLARKE (W. Eagle) on the migration of
birds ; Song- Thrush (Turdus musicus),
and White Wagtail (Motacilla alba),
403.

CLAYDEN (A. W.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 56.

CLEMENTS (O. P.) on screw threads used
in cycle construction, and for screws
subject to vibration, 879.

Climatology of Africa, Ninth report on
the, 413.

CLOWES (Prof. F.) on electrolytic methods
of chemical analysis, 171.

Coal, the origin of, A. Strahan on, 746.

J. KE. Marr on, 749.

Coalfield in the London basin, a possible,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 739.

Coalfields and iron ore deposits of Shansi
and Honan in China, J. G. H. Glass
on, 871.

Coal-formation, climatic and other phy-
sical conditions of botanical evidence
bearing on, A. C. Seward on, 748.

Coal-gas, the heating and lighting power
of, T. Fairley on, 707.

Coal-measures of North Staffordshire,
rapid changes in the thickness and
character of the, W. Gibson on, 743.

, the flora of the, R. Kidston on,
746.

CoATES (H.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 350.

Celenterate plankton, and certain Celen-
terata of the Bay of Naples, R. T.
Giinther on the, 386.

COFFEY (G.) on the exploration of caves
in Ireland, 340.

*COHEN (Dr. J. B.) on smoke, 707.

*____ and H. D. DAKIN on chlorination

of aromatic hydrocarbons, 704.

CoLz (Prof. Grenville) on the explora-
tion of caves in Ireland, 340.

COLEMAN (Prof. A. P.) on Canadian
Pleistocene flora and fauna, 328.

—— on a ferriferous horizon in the
Huronian, porth of Lake Superior,
762.

Colonial governments as money-lenders,
Hon. W. P. Reeves on, 848.

*Colour-physiology of Hippolyte varians,
F. W, Gamble and F. W. Keeble on
197.

Common (Dr. A. A.), Address to the
Department of Astronomy by, 659.

Compressed air, the reheating of, W. G.
Walker on, 883.

Concrete, the use of expanded metal in,
A. T, Walmisley on, 872,

952

Concretionary types in the cellular
Magnesian Limestone of Durham, G.
Abbott on, 737.

Conducting tissues of Bryophytes, A. G.
Tansley on, 937.

Conglomerate, the basal (Carboniferous),
of Ulswater and its mode of origin,
R. D. Oldham on, 764.

Contrast, simultaneous, G. J. Burch on
an experiment on, 629.

COPELAND (Prof. R.) on meteorological
observations on Ben Nevis, 46.

Copper, the effect of, on the human body,
T. W. Hime on, 696.

Copyright Bill introduced into Parlia-
ment in 1900, Discussion on, 578.

Coral reefs of the Indian regions, Interim
report on, 400.

Corallian limestone of Elsworth and St.
Ives, the outcrop of the, C. B. Wedd
on, 745.

CORNISH (Vaughan) on tidal sand
ripples above low-water mark, 733.

on snow ripples, 816.

Corresponding Societies :
Report of Committee, 570.
Conference at Bradford, 573.
List of Corresponding Socicties, 588.
Papers published by Local Societies,
591.

CorTIE (Rev. A. L.) on the types of
sun-spot disturbances, 675,

*Cosmic evolution, A. W. Bickerton on,
679.

Cotton industry, the relation between
Spinners and Piecers in the, S. J.
Chapman on, 852.

COURTNEY (Right Hon. L. H.) on state
monopolies in other countries, 436.

Cranium, human, certain internal grooves
on the frontal part of the, A. F. Dixon
on, 903.

CRAIGIE (Maj. P. G.) on future dealings
m raw produce, 421.

, Address to the Section of Economic
Science and Statistics by, 820.

Crania collected by Mr. J. Stanley
Gardiner in his expedition to Rotuma,
W. L. H. Duckworth on, 910.

Craven underground mater movements,
Report on, 346.

CREAK (Capt. E. W.) on determining
magnetic force at sea, 45.

*Creeping of liquids, Dr. F, T. Trouton
on, 628.

Cremieu’s experiment,
FitzGerald on, 628.
Crete, prehistoric, writing in, A. J. Evans

on, 897.

——, the cave of Psychré in, D. G.
Hogarth on, 899.

CRICK (G. C.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

Progs © IG. at.

REPORT—1900.

Croc-na-Sroine, the plutonic complex of,
and its bearing on current hypotheses
as to the genesis of igneous rocks,
J.J. H. Teall on, 750.

Crorts (W. H.) on sections at the
Alexandra Dock extension, Hull, 764.

CROMPTON (R. E.) on the B.A. screw
qauge, 436.

CROOK (C. V.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest, 350.

CROOKE (W.) on the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay Penin-
sula, 393.

Cross (C. F.), E. J. BEVAN, and J. F.
BRIGGS on interaction of furfuralde-
hyde and Caro’s reagent, 702.

Crystalline structure of metals, Prof.
J. A, Ewine and W. ROSENHAIN on
the, 698.

* Orystals, Interim report on the struc-
ture of, 752.

CUNNINGHAM (Lt.-Col. Allan) on tables
of certain mathematical functions, 46.
——- and H. J. WooDALL on the deter-
mination of successive high primes,

646.

—— (Prof. D. J.) on the exploration of
caves in Ireland, 340.

— on the sacral index, 903.

—— on the microcephalic brain, 904.

(Prof. W.) on future dealings in raw
produce, 421,

—— on American currency difficulties in
the eighteenth century, 846.

Cu0Qg (Abbé) on an ethnological survey of
Canadé, 468.

Currency difficulties, American, in the
eighteenth century, Dr. W. Cunning-
ham on, 846.

CurTRiss (S. W.) on the caves and pot-
holes of Ingleborough and district, 735,

Cycads, modern, the origin of, W. C.
Worsdell on, 938.

Cyclopia in osseous fishes, James F,
Gemmill on, 784.

* DAKIN, H. D., and J. B. COHEN on
chlorination of aromatic hydrocarbons,
704.

DAKYNS (J. R.) on glacial phenomena at
Rhyd-ddu, Carnarvon, 763.

DALE (Elizabeth) on the intumescences
of Mibiscus vitifolius, 940.

—— and A.C. SEWARD on the structure
and affinities of Dipteris conjugatu,
and on the geological history of the
Dipteridinz, 946.

DARBYSHIRE (A. D.) on the development
and natural history of Pinnotheres,
399.

—— (B. V.) on military maps, 811.

DARWIN (F.) on assimilation in plants,
569.

INDEX.

DARWIN (Prof. G.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 59.

—— (Horace) on seismological investi-
gation, 59.

—— on the relative movement of strata
at the Ridgeway fault, 119.

—— (Maj. L.) on seismological investiga-
tion, 59.

*Davis (A. S.) on a novel form of
barometer, 652.

DAWKINS (Prof. Boyd) on the excavation
of caves at Uphill, 342.

—— on Trish clk remains in the Isle of
Man, 349.

———- on the age of stone circles, 461.

Dawson (Dr. G. M.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

—— (H. M.) on the influence of pressure |

on the formation of oceanic salt
deposits, 705.

— (The late Sir J. W.) on Canadian
Pleistocene fauna and flora, 328.

*—___ (W.) on recent tramway construc-
tion, 877.

—— (W. Harbutt) on the treatment of |

the tramp and the loafer, 851.

DEAsy (Capt. H. H. P.) on journeys in
Central Asia, 812.

Dendrocometes, the nuclei of, Prof. S. J.
Hickson on, 784.

Dentition of the seal, Prof. R. J. Anderson
on the, 790.

Denudation in fresh and salt water, some
experiments on, Prof J. Joly on, 731.
Dp RAncnh (C. E.) on the erratic blocks

of the British Isles, 343.

Dew-ponds, Prof, L. C. Miall on, 579.

DEWAR (Prof. J.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 193.

Dickson (H. N.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 56.

— on the plankton and physical condi-
tions of the English Channel during
1899, 379.

on the climatology of Africa, 413.

on the revision of the physical and
chemical constants of sea water, 421.

* Diffusion of gases and liquids, H. T.
Brown on some recent work on the, 704.

Dipteridinz, the geological history of,
A. C. Seward and E. Dale on, 946.

Dipteris conjugata, the structure and
affinities of, A.C. Seward and E. Dale
on, 946.

Discussions:
* On ions, 654,
On the conditions under which the
ak of the Coal Period grew,
746,

Disease, the local incidence of, in Brad-
ford, Dr, A. Rabagliati on, 845,

953

Dixon (A. Francis) on certain markings
on the frontal part of the human
cranium and their significance, 903.

-~—, (Prof. H. B.) and R. W. Rixon
on the specific heat of gases at tem-
peratures up to 400° C., 697.

DOBBIE (Prof. J. J.) on absorption spec-
tra and chemical composition of or-
ganic bodies, 151.

Doublet, a quartz-calcite symmetrical,
J. W. Gifford on, 630.

DuckwortTH (W. L. H.) on anthropo-
logical observations made by Mr. F.
Laidlaw in the Malay Peninsula
(Skeat expedition), 909.

| —— oncrania collected by Mr. J. Stanley

Gardiner in his expedition to Rotuma,
910.

DUFTON (Arthur) and W. M. GARDNER
on the production of an artificial light
of the same character as daylight, 631.

DuNSTAN (Prof. W. R.) on the teach- ©
ing of science in elementary schools,
187.

DWERRYHOUSE (A. R.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 343.

—— on the movements of underground
waters of Craven, 34€.

Dynamics of gas theory, the statistical,
as illustrated by meteor swarms and
optical rays, Dr. J. Larmor on, 632.

*Dynamos, the construction of large, as
exemplified at the Paris Exhibition,
Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 877.

Earthquakes, large, recorded in 1899,
J. Milne on, 812.

See Seismological Investigation.

Earthworks of Yorkshire, the defensive,
Mrs. E. Armitage on, 913.

Echinoidea, the fertilisation process in,
A. H. R. Buller on, 387.

Eclipse instruments, the operation of,
automatically, Prof. D. P. Todd on,
673.

——- research, the application of the
electric telegraph to the furtherance
of, Prof. D. P. 'fodd on, 673.

*—_, solar, the duration of annularity
in a, C. T. Whitmell on, 680.

, total, of May 28, 1900, a compari-

gon of prominence and corona photo-

graphs taken in Spain and North

Carolina, Dr. W. J. S. Lockyer on,

676,

, total, of May 28, 1900, the dura-
tion of totality of the, C. T. Whitmell
on, 680.

Eclipses, photographing total, the adap-
tation of the principle of the wedge
photometer to the biograph camera in,
Prof. D. P. Todd on, 674.

954

Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
dress by Major P. G. Craigie to the
Section of, 820.

EpaEwortH (Prof. F. Y.) on future
dealings in raw produce, 421.

Eggs, the incubation of, the mechanical
and chemical changes which take
place during, R. Irvine on, 787.

*Egypt, the modern population of, the
present state of our knowledge of,
D. Randall Maclver on, 908.

—_—.,, the system of writing in ancient,
F. Ll. Griffith on, 899.

Egyptian skeletons, perforate humeri in,
Prof, A. Macalister on, 908.

Electric currents, the vector potential of,
in a field where disturbances are pro-
pagated with finite velocity, S. H.
Burbury on, 635.

—— discharges in gases, the phosphor-
escent glow in, J. B. B. Burke on, 643.

—— furnace, new compounds discovered
by the use of the, C. S. Bradley on,
699.

—— generating stations, the design and
location of, A. H. Gibbings on, 878.
—— waves, the propagation of, along
parallel wires, W. B. Morton on, 635.
Electrical changes in mammalian nerve,

Report on, 455.

measurements, experiments for im-
proving the construction of practical
standards for, Report on, 53.

Appendix : on an improved resist-
ance coil, by R. S. Whipple, 55.

—— stimulus, the similarity of effect of,
on inorganic and living substances,
J. Chunder Bose on, 637.

Electrolysis and electro-chemistry, Re-
port on, 34.

Electrolytic methods of quantitative ana-
lysis, Siwth report on, 171.

Elk remains, Irish, in the Isle of Man,
Report on the, 349.

ELPHINSTONE (G. K. B.).on the B.A.
serem gauge, 436.

Embryonic tissues, Prof. Marshall Ward,
on, 943.

Embryos, young, a peptic zymase in,
Prof. M. Hartog on, 786.

Energy, the partition of, Dr. G. H.
Bryan on, 634.

English Channel, plankton and physical
conditions in 1899 of the, Second report
on the, 379.

*Eros at the opposition of 1900-1, a
diagram for planning observations of,
A. R. Hinks on, 677.

Prratic blocks of the British Isles, Report
on the, 343.

Ethnography and Natural History of the
Malay Peninsula, Report on the, 393.
Ethnological Survey of Canada, Fourth

report on an, 468.

REPORT—1900.

Euglena viridis, Demonstration of the
structure and attachment of the fla-
gellum in, by Harold Wager, 931.

EVANS (A. H.) on making a digest of the
observations on the migration of birds,
403.

—— (A. J.) on the Silchester excavation,
466.

—— on writing in prehistoric Greece,
897.

—— (Sir J.) on the age of stone circles,
461.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

EVERETT (Prof. J. D.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 53.

—— onacentral-difference interpolation
formula, 648.

on Newton’s contributions to
central-difference interpolation, 650.

Ewine (Prof. J. A.) on seismological
investigation, 59. ;

—— and W. RoOsENHAIN on the crystal-
line structure of metals, 698.

Expanded metal in concrete, the use of,
A, T. Walmisley on, 872.

Explosive gaseous mixtures,
Petavel on, 655.

J. &E.

FAIRLEY (T.) on the movements of under-
ground naters of Craven, 346.

—— on the heating and lighting power
of coal gas, 707.

FARADAY (Ethel R.) on Indian guaran-
teed railways: an illustration of laisser
faire theory and practice, 853.

FARMER (Prof. J. B.) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 569.

Fault, the selection of a, suitable for
observations on earth-movements, C.
Reid on, 108.

, relative movement of strata at the

Ridgeway, Horace Darwin on the,

119

Fenton (H. J. H.) and MILDRED
GosTLING on derivatives of methy]-
furfural, 701.

__— and H. OwEN JONES on a simple
method for comparing the affinities of
certain acids, 701.

Fertilisation, double, in a dicotyledon— ~
Caitha palustris, E, N, Thomas on,
936.

| Finger-prints, a system of classification,

Dr. J. G. Garson on, 910.
——of a Roman sculptor of probably
the third century, a mould showing,
Sir W. Turner on, 905.
Fish fauna of the Yorkshire coal-fields,
E. D. Wellburn on the, 749.
—— fossils from the Millstone Grit
rocks, E. D. Wellburn on some, 750.

INDEX.

Fishes, littoral, some points in the life-
history of the, Prof. W. C. McIntosh
on, 785.

——, osseous, cyclopia in, James F.
Gemmill on, 784.

FITZGERALD (Prof. G. F'.) on solar radia-
tion, 36.

—— on radiation from a source of light
in a magnetic field, 52.

—— on practical electrical standards,
53.

on M. Cremieu’s experiment, 628.

*___ on ions, 654.

FITZPATRICK (Rev. T. C.) on electrolysis
and electro-chemistry, 34.

— on practical electrical standards,
53.

Flagellum in Zuglena viridis, Demon-
stration of the structure and attach-
ment of the, by Harold Wager, 931.

Flatfishes (Heterosomata), the anatomy
of the, H, M. Kyle on, 383.

FLEMING (Dr. J. A.) on practical elec-
trical standards, 53.

FLETCHER (A. E.) on electrolytic methods
of chemical analysis, 171.

Flint implements found at Wolvercote,
Oxfordshire, A. M. Bell on, 913.

Fuiux (Prof. A. W.) on future dealings in
raw produce, 421.

— on price-changes in the foreign
trade of France, 853.

Food, the effect of copper in, on the
human body, T. W. Hime on, 696.

Foorp (A. H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

FORBEs (H. O.) on a digest of ubservations
on the migration of birds, 403.

Force, the perception of, and the sense
of effort, Prof, G. J. Stokes on, 912.
Fossils, type specimens of, Report on the

registration of, 342.

Foster (A. Le Neve) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 436.

— (Prof. G. C.) on practical electrical
standards, 53.

Fox (H.) on life-zones im the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

FOXWELL (Prof. H. 8.) on state monopo-
lies in other countries, 436.

France, the foreign trade of, price-
changes in, Prof. A. W. Flux on, 853.
FRANKLAND (Prof. P.) on electrolytic
methods of quantitative analysis, 171.
Fungi in Ceylon growing on scale-insects
(Coccidz and Aleurodidz), J. Perkin

on, 932.

Fungus, Acrospeira mirabilis, the life-
history of the, R. H. Biffen on, 943.
Furfuraldehyde and Caro’s reagent, inter-
action of, C. F. Cross, E. J. Bevan, and

J. F, Briggs on, 702.

Future dealings in ram produce, Report

on, 421,

955

Gabbro of Ardnamurchan, Scotland, a
granophyre-dyke intrusive in the, Prof.
K. Busz on, 751.

GALTON (Francis) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 570.

*GAMBLE (F. W.) and F. W. KEEBLE on
the colour-physiology of Hippolyte
varians, 797.

GANONG (Dr. W. F.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

GARDNER (Walter M.) and A. Durron
on the production of an artificial light
of the same character as daylight, 631.

GARSON (Dr. J. G.) on the age of stone
circles, 461.

on the physical and mental defects
of children in schools, 461.

—— on photographs of anthropological
interest, 568.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

on a system of classification of
finger-prints, 910.

GARSTANG (W.) on the plankton and
physical conditions of the English
Channel during 1899, 379.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
399.

GARWOOD (E. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 350.

Gas theory, the statistical dynamics of,
as illustrated by meteor swarms and
optical rays, Dr. J. Larmor on, 632.

Gases, the specific heat of, at tempera-
tures up to 400° C., Prof. H. B. Dixon
and R. W. Rixon on, 697.

Gauge for small screws, the British
Association, Report on proposed modifi-
cations of the thread of, 436. :

GEIKIE (Prof. J.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 350.

GEMMILL (James F.) on cyclopia in
osseous fishes, 784.

Geography, Address by Sir George Robert
son to the Section of, 800.

» commercial, in education, E. R.
Wethey on, 810.

—— in élementary schools, attempts to
improve the teaching of, especially in
the West Riding of Yorkshire, T. G.
Rooper on, 809.

—, regional, the treatment of, Dr.
H. R. Mill on, 810.

Geologica: age of the earth, Prof. J. Joly
on the, 369.

—— photographs of interest in the United
Kingdom, 350.

Geology, Address by Prof, W. J. Sollas to
the Section of, 711.

956

Geology and palzontology of Patagonia,
W. B. Scott on, 730.

Geometry, projective, the relations be-
tween mechanics and, Cyparissos
Stéphanos on, 644.

GERIN (Léon) on the Hurons of Lorette,
549.

GiBBiInGs (Alfred H.) on the design and
location of electric generating stations,
878.

GiBson (Prof. Harvey) on fertilisation in
Pheophycee, 569.

Gipss (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 193.

—— (W.) on rapid changes in the thick-
ness and character of the Coal-Measures
of North Staffordshire, 743.

GILL (The late Deemster) on Irish Elk
remains in the Isle of Man, 349.

GiFFoRD (J. W.) on a quartz-calcite
symmetrical doublet, 630.

Glacial Drift in Bradford, some recent
excavations in the, Jas. Monckton on,
754.

—— extra-morainic lake occupying the
valley of the Bradford Beck, J. E.
Wilson on a, 755.

—— phenomena of the north-east corner
of the Yorkshire wolds, J. W. Stather
on the, 760.

——— phenomena at Rhyd-ddu, Carnar-
von, J. R. Dakyns on, 763.

Glaciation of the Keighley and Bradford
district, A. Jowett and H. B. Muff on
the, 756.

GLADSTONE (G.) on the teaching of
science in elementary schools, 187.

—— and Dr. J, H. GLADSTONE on atomic
weights and the periodic law, 706.

(Dr. J. H.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 187.

— and G. GLADSTONE on atomic
weights and the periodic law, 706.

GLAISHER (Dr. J. W. L.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 46.

Guass (J. G. H.) on the coalfields and
iron ore deposits of the Provinces of
Shansi and Honan and proposed rail-
way construction in China, 871.

GLAZEBROOK (R. I.) on the uniformity
of size of pages of Scientific Societics’
publications, 45.

— on practical electrical standards,
53.

Gland, the submazillary, the effect of
chorda stimulation on the volume of the,
Report on, 458.

GOoDMAN (F. Du Cane) on the zoology of
the Sandnich Islands, 398.

Gohei and inao, Japanese, W. G. Aston
on the, 900.

GONNER (Prof. E. C. K.) on future deal-
ings in raw produce, 421.

REPORT—1900. :

GOODCHILD (J. G.), on the collection
of photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 350.

*GOODMAN (Prof. J.) on a new form of
calorimeter for measuring the wetness
of steam, 882.

GoopRicH (EK. S.) on the structure of
certain Polychete worms, 384.

*Gooseberry Sawfly, the structure and
life-history of the, N. Walker on, 790.

GORE (Dr. G.) on Volta-electromotive
force of alloys, and a test for chemical
union, 641.

GORHAM (J. Marshall) on the B.A. serew
gauge, 436.

--—- and W. A. PRICE on experiments on
screw threads, 444.

GorcH (Prof. F.) on the comparative
histology of the cerebral cortex, 453.

on electrical changes in mammalian
nerve, 455.

*_____ on the physiological effect of local
injury in nerve, 788.

GRAHAM KERR (J.) on the coral reefs of
the Indian region, 400.

Granophyre-dyke intrusive in the gabbro
of Ardnamurchan, Scotland, Prof. K.
Busz on a, 751.

Gray (J.) and J. F. TocHER on the
physical characteristics of the popula-
tion of Aberdeenshire, 913,

——(W.) on the collection of photographs
of geological interest in the United
Kingdom, 350.

Greece, writing in prehistoric, A. J.
Evans on, 897.

GREEN (Prof. J. R.) on assimilation in
plants, 569.

GREENHILL (Prof. A. G.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 46.

GREENLY (E.) on ancient plateaux in
Anglesey and Carnarvonshire, 737.

—— on the form of some rock bosses in
Anglesey, 737.

GRIFFITH (F. Ll.) on the system of
writing in ancient Egypt, 899.

GRIFFITHS (E. H.) on electrolysis and
electro-chemistry, 34.

on practical electrical standards,

53.

*____ on a form of Wheatstone’s bridge,
655.

*Groom (Prof. Percy) on plant form in
relation to nutrition, 936.

-_— (Theodore) on the pebbles of the
Holybush conglomerate, and their
bearing on Lower and Cambrian palzo-
geography, 638. d

—— onthe igneous rocks associated with
the Cambrian beds of Malvern, 739.

Guaiacoljand thiophenol, the combination
of, with the esters of the acids of the
acetylene series, Dr. S. Ruhemann and
H, E, Stapleton on, 704,

INDEX, 957

GinrHER (R. T.) on the anatomy of
Phyllirhoé, the Celenterate plankton,
and certain Coelenterata of the Bay of
Naples, 386.

~—— on Mnestra parasites, Krohn, 789.

*____ on the possibility of obtaining
more reliable measurements of the
changes of the land-level of the
Phlegrean Fields, 814.

Gymnosporangium from China, F. E.
Weiss on a, 931.

HAppown (Prof. A. C.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

—— on the textile patterns of the Sea-
Dayaks, 901.

—— on relics of the Stone age of Borneo,
901.

—-on houses and family
Sarawak, 902.

Haut (A. D.) on the economic possi-
bilities of the growth of sugar beet in
England, 841.

HALLIBURTON (Prof. W. D.) on the
micro-chemistry of cells, 449.

HALM (J.) on the connection between
latitude-variation and terrestrial mag-
netism, 680.

HALSTEAD (Robert) on variations of
wages in some co-partnership work-
shops, with some comparison with
non-co-operative industries, 849.

HARDCASTLE (Frances), Report on the
present state of the theory of point-
groups by (Part I.), 121.

HARMER (F. W.) on the influence of the
winds upon climate during past geo-
logical epochs, 753.

—— (8. F.) on the coral reefs of the
Indian region, 400.

HARRISON (Rey. 8. N.) on the erratic
blocks of the British Isles, 343.

HARTLAND (E. 8S.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

on photographs of anthropological
interest, 568.

—— on the imperfection of our know-
ledge of the Black Races of the
Transvaal and the Orange River
Colony, 904.

HARTLEY (Prof. W. N.) on absorption
spectra and chemical constitution of
organic bodies, 151.

on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 193.

HARTOG (Prof. Marcus) on a peptic
zymase in young embryos, 786.

— on interpolation in memory, 912.

HARVIE-BROWN (J. A.) on making a
digest of the observations on the migra-
tion of birds, 403.

HAWTHORNE (J.) and Prof. LETTS on
Ulwa latissima and its relation to the
pollution of sea-water by sewage, 935.

life in

Heat, specific, of gases at temperatures
up to 400° C., Prof. H. B. Dixon and
R. W. Rixon on the, 697.

Heating and lighting power of coal gas,
T’. Fairley on the, 707.

HEAWOOD (Edward) on the commercial
resources of tropical Africa, 815.

HELE SHAW (Prof. H. S.) on resistance
of road vehicles to traction, 868.

HERBERT (Auberon) on municipal build-
ing for the overcrowded, 844.

HERDMAN (Prof. W. A.) on the plankton
and physical conditions of the English
Channel during 1899, 379.

—— on the occupation of a table at
the Zoological Station at Naples, 380,
381,

——, Observations on Compound Asci-
dians by, 384.

HERSCHEL (J. C. W.) on needle-hole
maps for meteor observation, 678.

Hewitt (C. J.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
436.

Hibiscus vitifolius, the intumescences of,
Elizabeth Dale on, 940.

Hicks (Prof. W. M.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 46,

Hickson (Prof. S. J.) on the occupation
of a table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 380.

—— on thenucleiof Dendrocometes, 784.

HiaGs (H.) on State monopolies in vther
countries, 436.

HILu-Tour (C.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 468, 472.

Hime (T. Whiteside) on the effect of
copper on the human body, 696.

HIND (Dr. Wheelton) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

HINDE (Dr. G. J.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

*Hinks (A. R.) on the new photographic
equatorial at the Cambridge Ob-
servatory, 677. .

* — on a diagram for planning ob-
servations of Eros at the opposition of
1900-1, 677.

* Hippolytevarians, the colour-physiology
of, F. W. Gamble and F. W. Keeble
on, 797.

Hirst (F, W.) on recent changes affect-
ing the legal and financial position of
Local Authorities in England, 845.

*HODGKINSON (W. R.) on the action of
aluminium powder on some phenols
and acids, 702.

— and Dr. L. LIMPAcH on the direct
preparation of B-naphthylamine, 702.
HOGARTH (D.G.) on the cave of Psychré

in Crete, 899.

HoupicH (Col. Sir T. H.) on railway
connection with India, 813.

Hoitmzrs (T. V.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee, 570.

958

HOooKER (R. H.) on future dealings in
ram produce, 421.

HOPKINSON (J.) on the application of
photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 56.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

——on the rainfall of the northern
counties of England, 652.

Horne (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 343.

Horsey (Victor) on the histology of the
suprarenal capsules, 452.

Hoss (Charles) and W. McDoUGALL on
some peculiar features of the animal-
cults of the natives of Sarawak, and
their bearing on the problems of to-
temism, 907.

House refuse, the disposal of, in Bradford,
J. McTaggart on, 867.

Howes (Prof. G. B.) on the occupation
of a table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 380.

HoyLE (W. E.) on the compilation of

an index generum et specierwm
animalium, 392.
Humidity, relative, the geographical

distribution of, E. G. Ravenstein on,
817.

Hurons of Lorette, Léon Gérin on the,
549.

Hull, sections at the Alexandra Dock
Extension, W. H. Crofts on, 764.

Huu (Prof. E.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 343.

HUNTER (A. F.) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 468.

*Hydrocarbons, chlorination of aromatic,
H. D. Dakin and J. B. Cohen on, 704.

Hynes (C. J. Cutliffe) on a journey
through Arctic Lapland, 815.

Igneous rocks associated with the Cam-
brian beds of Malvern, T. Groom on,
739.

——, the genesis of, J. J. H. Teall on,
750.

——., the order of the formation of the
silicates in, Prof. J. Joly on, 730.

Incubation of eggs, the mechanical and
chemical changes which take place
during the, R. Irvine on, 787.

Index generum et specierum animalium,
Report on the compilation by C. Davies
Sherborn of an, 392.

India, railway connection with, Colonel
Sir T. H. Holdich on, 813.

Indian guaranteed railways, an illustra-
tion of laisserfaire theory and practice,
Ethel R. Faraday on, 853.

*Insects, aquatic, the respiration of,
Prof. L, C. Miall on, 790.

——, Malayan, photographs of some,
N, Annandale on, 792,

REPORT—1900.

Insects, mimicry in S. Africa, observa- '
tions by G. A. K. Marshall on, Prof.
E. B. Poulton on, 793.

-_—, mimicry in Bornean, observations
by R. Shelford on, Prof. E. B. Poulton
on, 795.

*. , mimicry and protective resem-
blance in, Mark L. Sykes on, 797.

Interpolation formula, a central differ-
ence, Prof. J. D. Everett on, 648.

*Ions, A discussion on, opened by Prof.
G. F. FitzGerald, 654. .

*Tron alloys, the electric conductivity of,
Prof. W. F. Barrett on, 699.

* and steel, the mutual relations of
iron, phosphorus, and carbon when
together in, J. H. Stead on, 698.

Iron-bearing sandstone in the Huronian,
north of Lake Superior, Prof. A. P.
Coleman on an, 762.

Iroquois, the civilised, the paganism of,
David Boyle on, 905.

IRVINE (R.) on the mechanical and
chemical changes which take place
during the incubation of eggs, 787.

Isle of Man, Trish elk remains in the,
Report on the, 349.

Isomeric naphthalene derivatives, Thir-
teenth report on the investigation of,
297.

JACKSON (Henry) on the formation of
starch from glycollic aldehyde (diose)
by green plants, 934.

Japanese gohei and inao, W. G. Aston on
the, 900.

JAPP(Prof. F. R.) on absorption spectra
and chemical constitution of organic
bodies, 151.

JoLy (Prof. J.) on the geological age of
the earth, 369.

on the order of the formation of the
silicates in igneous rocks, 730.

—— on some experiments on denudation
in fresh and salt water, 731.

—— on the inner mechanism of sedimen-
tation, 732.

JONES (Rev. EH.) on the movements of
underground waters of Craven, 346.
—— (H. Owen) and H. J. H. FENTON on
a simple method for comparing the

affinities of certain acids, 701.

(Prof. J. Viriamu) on practical elec-
trical standards, 53.

JOWETT (Albert) and H. B. MUFF on
the glaciation of the Keighley and
Bradford district, 756.

JuDD (Prof. J. W.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 59.

on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 400.

Jurassic flora of East Yorkshire, A, C.
Seward on the, 765.

INDEX,

*nnsie (F. W.) and F. W. GAMBLE
on the colour-physiology of Hippolyte
varians, 797.

KELYIN (Lord) on determining magnetic
force at sea, 45.

—— on tables of certain mathematical
Functions, 46.

——on practical electrical standards,
53.

—— on seismological investigation, 59.

—— on the B.A. screw gauge, 436.

KENDALL (Prof. P. F.) on life-zones in
the British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

—— on the erratic blocks of the British
Isles, 343.

—— on the movements of underground
waters of Craven, 346.

Kephalic index, the vagaries of the, Dr.
J. Beddoe on, 902.

KERMODE (P. M. C.) on Irish elk remains
in the Isle of Man, 349.

KERSHAW (J. B.C.) on trade fluctuations,
842,

—— on power generation.—Comparative
cost by the steam engine, water-tur-
bine, and gas engine, 873.

KrIpsTon (R.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

—— on the registration of type specimens
of British fossils, 342.

on the collection of photographs of
geological interest in the United King-
dom, 350.

—— on the flora of the Coal-measures,
746.

KieK (Sir John) on the climatology of
Africa, 413.

KiRKBY (J. W.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

Knolls, the formation of reef, R. H.
Tiddeman on, 740.

Knorr (Prof. C. G.) on seismological
investigation, 59.

KNUBLEY (Rev. E. P.) on making a digest
of the observations on the migration of
birds, 403.

KOHN (Dr. C. A.) on electrolytic methods
of quantitative analysis, 171.

Kriss, the ‘ Kingfisher,’ Prof. H. Louis
on, 906.

KYLE (H. M.) on the anatomy of the
Flatyishes (Heterosomata), 383.

Labour legislation for women, Margaret
E. MacDonald on, 850.

*Lemargide, the anatomy and syste-
matic position of the, Prof. R. Burck-
hardt on, 790.

Lake, a glacial extra-morainic, occupying
the valley of the Bradford Beck, J. E.
Wilson on, 755.

LANKESTER (Prof. EH. Ray) on the plank-
ton and physical conditions of the
English Channel during 1899, 379.

959

LANKESTER (Prof. E. Ray) on the occu-
pation of a table at the Zoological
Station at Naples, 380.

—- on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,
399.

—— on the micro-chemistry of cells, 449.

Lapland, a journey through Arctic, C. J.
Cutliffe Hyne on, 815. ;

LAPwortH (Dr. A.) on the constitution
of camphor, 299.

LARMOR (Dr. J.), Address to the Section
of Mathematical and Physical Science
by, 613.

—— on the statistical dynamics of gas
theory as illustrated by meteor swarms
and optical rays, 632.

—— on the relations of radiation to
temperature, 657,

LAMPLUGH (G. W.) on Canadian Pleis-
tocene flora and fauna, 328.

—— on life-zones in the British Car-
boniferous rocks, 340.

on Irish elk remains in the Isle of
Man, 349,

—— on the age of the English Wealden
Series, 766.

Latitude-variation and terrestrial mag-
netism, the connection between, J.
Halm on, 680.

*LEACH (W.) on the treatment of wool-
combers’ effluents, 708.

LEBOUR (Prof. G. A.) on life-zones in the
British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

LEES (Dr. C. H.) on determining magnetic
Jorce at sea, 45.

Lens, a _ quartz-calcite symmetrical
doublet, J. W. Gifford on, 630.

LETTS (Prof. E. A.) and R. ¥. BLAKE on
a new and accurate method for deter-
mining the amount of carbonic anhy-
dride in the atmosphere, suitable for
scientific expeditions, 693.

-—— ona method for estimating the dis-
solved oxygen in water, sewage, &c.,
708.

and J. HAWTHORNE on Ulva latis-
sima and its relation to the pollution
of sea-water by sewage, 935.

*LIEBMANN (Dr. A.) on some recent de-
velopments in the textile industries,
705.

LTife-zones in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 340.

Light, an artificial, of the same character
as daylight, A. Dufton and W. M.
Gardner on the production of, 631.

——, the sensitiveness of silver to, Maj -
Gen. J. Waterhouse on, 706.

LimpacH (Dr. Leonard) and W. R.
HODGKINSON on the direct preparation
of B-naphthylamine, 702.

LinG RorH (H.) on photographsof anthro-
pological interest, 568,

960

ListER (J. J.) on the coral reefs of the
Indian region, 400.

LivEING (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 193.

Liverpool and Manchester express rail-
way, Sir W. H. Preece on the, 875.

—— electrical express railway, brakes
and signals for the, F. B. Behr on, 876.

Luoyp-MorGAN (Prof. C.) on the excava-
tion of caves at Uphill, 342.

*____ on an experiment supporting the
general principle of ‘ Miullerian’ mimi-
cry, 797.

Local Authoritiesin England, the legal
and financial position of, recent
changes affecting the, F. W. Hirst on,
845.

Lockyer (Sir J. N.) on wave-length tables
of the spectra of the elements and com-
pounds, 193.

——(W. J. 8.) on the comparison of
prominence and corona photographs
taken at Santa Pola, Spain, and
Wadesboro, North Carolina, during the
total solar eclipse of May 28, 1900,
676.

Locust plague, and its suppression, Dr.
/fneas Munro on, 798.

LopGE (Prof. A.) on tables of certain
mathematical functions, 46,

— (Dr. 0. J) on radiation from a
source of light in a magnetic field, 52.
—— on practical electrical standards,

53.

Lomas (J.) on the erratic blocks of the
British Isles, 343.

on the construction and use of
strike maps, 742.

London basin, a possible coalfield in the,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 739.

Louis (Prof. H.) onthe ‘Kingfisher’
Kriss, 9C6.

Lycopods, Palzozoic, the presence of
seed-like organs in certain, Dr. D. H.
Scott on, 945.

MACALISTER (Prof. A.) on the Natural
History and Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula, 393.

on perforate humeri in ancient
Egyptian skeletons, 908.

MAcALLUM (Prof. A. B.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 449,452.

MACDONALD (J. 8.) on electrical changes
in mammalian nerve, 455.

MACDONALD (Margaret E.) on labour
legislation for women, 850.

McDouGALL (W.) and C. HosE on some
peculiar features of the animal-cults
of the natives of Sarawak, and their
Soe on the problems of totemism,

7.

REPORT—1900.

McHenry (A.) on the eaploration af
caves in Ireland, 340.

MoIntosH (Prof. W. C.) on the occupa-
tion of a table at the Zoolo ical Station
at Naples, 380.

—— on some points in the life-history
of the littonal fishes, 785.

*MACIVER (D. Randall) on the present
state of our knowledge of the modern
population of Egypt, 908.

McLACHLAN (R.) on the compilation of
an index generum et specierum anima-
lium, 392.

McLAREN (Lord) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 46.

MACLEAN (Rev. John) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

McLe£op (Prof. C. H.) on the meteorolo-
gical observatory at Montreal, 33.

—— (Prof. H.) on solar radiation, 36.

—— on the bibliography of spectroscopy,
150.

MAcMAHON (Maj. P. A.) on tables of
certain mathematical functions, 46.

—— ona property of the characteristic
symbolic determinant of any m quan-
tics in variables, 644.

on the asyzygetic and perpetuant
covariants of systems of binary quan-
tics, 646.

—— on the symbolism appropriate to the
study of orthogonal and Boolian in-
variant systems which appertain to
binary and other quantics, 647.

McTAGGART (John) on the disposal of
house refuse in Bradford, 867.

MADAN (H. G.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 150.

* Magic squares, the construction of, Dr.
J. Willis on, 646.

Magnetic force at sea, Interim report on
determining, 45.

field, radiation from @ sowrce of
light in a, Report on, 52.

MAGNUS (Sir P.) on the teaching of science
in elementary schools, 187.

*Malaria and mosquitoes. Major Ronald
Ross on, 784.

Malay Kriss, the ‘ Kingfisher,’ Prof. H.
Louis on, 906.

_—— metal-work, WalterRosenhain on,906.
— Peninsula, Report on the Natural
History and Ethnography of the, 393.
Peninsula, F. Laidlaw’s anthropo-
logical observations in the, W. L. H.

Duckworth on, 909.

Malayan insects, photographs of some,
N. Annandale on, 792.

MALLocK (A.) on the measurement of
the tractive force, resistance, and
acceleration of trains, 877.

Malvern, the igneous rocks associated
with the Cambrian beds of, T. Groom
on, 739.

INDEX,

Manchester and Liverpool express rail-
way, Sir W. H. Preece on the, 875.

—— electrical express railway, brakes
and signals for the, F. B. Behr on, 876.

Maps, military, B. V. Darbishire on, 811.

——— strike, the construction and use of,
J. Lomas on, 742.

MANN (Dr. G.) on the comparative histo-
logy of the cerebral cortex, 451.

MARGERISON (Samuel) on British sylvi-
culture, 930.

MARR (J. E.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

—— on the movements of underground
waters of Craven, 346.

—— on the origin of coal, 749.

—— on the origin of moels, and their
subsequent dissection, 818.

MARSHALL (G. A. K.), observations on
mimicry in South African insects by,
Prof. E. B. Poulton on, 793.

— (Dr. Hugh) on electrolytic methods of
chemical analysis, 171.

Mathematical functions, Report on tables
of certain, 46.

and Physical Science, Address by
Dr. J. Larmor to the Section of, 613.

*MATTH ZI (Miss) and Dr. F. F. BLACK-
MAN on the effect of the closure of
stomata on assimilation by plants, 934.

MATTHEY (G.) on practical electrical stan-
dards, 53.

MAVor (Prof. J.) on an _ ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

Mechanical Science, Address by Sir A.
R. Binnie to the Section of, 855.

Mechanics, applied, the use of multiple
space in, H. 8. Carslaw on, 644.

—— and projective geometry, the rela-
tions between, Cyparissos Stéphanos
on, 644,

MELDOLA (Prof. R.) on the application
of photography to the elucidation of
meteorological phenomena, 56.

—— on seismological investigation, 59.

—— on the age of stone circles, 461.

—— on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

Memory, interpolation in, Prof. Marcus
Hartog on, 912.

Mental and physical defects of children
in schools, Report on the, 461.

Metals, the crystalline structure of, Prof.
J. A. Ewing and W. Rosenhain on, 698.

Meteor observation, needle-hole maps for,
J.C. W. Herschel on, 678.

*_____ radiants, stationary, E. C. Bompas
on, 679.

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis,
Report on, 46.

—— observations by means of kites at
Blue Hill, U.S.A., A. L. Rotch on, 650.

—— Observatory at Montreal, Report on
the, 33.

1900,

964

Meteorological phenomena, the application
of photography to the elucidation of,
Ninth report on, 56.

Methyl-furfural derivatives, H. J. H.
Fenton and Mildred Gostling on, 701.

MIALL (Prof. L. C.) on dew-ponds, 579..

*____ on the respiration of aquatic
insects, 790.

Microcephalic brain, Prof. D. J. Cunning-
ham on the, 904.

Micro-chemistry of cells, Report on the,
449.

Micrometer for determining positions of
stars in photographs, H. H. Turner on
a, 676.

Miers (Prof. H. A.) on isomorphous de-
rivatives of benzene, 167.

Migration of birds, Third reporton making
@ digest of observations on the, 403.

Muu (Dr. H.R.) on the climatology of
Africa, 403.

—— on the revision of the physical and
chemical constants of sea-water, 421.
—— on the treatment of regional geo-

graphy, 810.

—— on the Pettersson-Nansen insulating
water-bottle, 819.

MILNE (Prof. J.) on seismological investi-
gation, 59.

—— on large earthquakes recorded in
1899, 812.

*Mimicry, ‘Miillerian,’ an experiment
supporting the general principle of,
Prof. Lloyd-Morgan on, 790.

— —— in South African insects, ohserva-
fions by Mr. A. K. Marshall on, Prof.
E. B. Poulton on, 793.

—— in Bornean insects, observations by
Mr. R. Shelford on, Prof. E. B. Poulton
on, 795.

*___ and protective resemblance in
insects, Mark L. Sykes on, 797.

*Miocene fauna of Patagonia, Prof. W.
B. Scott on the, 784.

Mnestra parasites, R. T. Giinther on, 789.

Moels, the origin of, and their subsequent
dissection, J. E. Marr on, 818.

Morr (J. Paxton) on some implements of
the natives of Tasmania, 896.

Moutoy (Dr. Gerald) on radiation from
a source of light in a magnetic field, 52.

MONCKMAN (Jas.) on some recent ex-
cavations in the glacial drift in Brad-
ford, 754.

Monopolies, state,in other countries, In-
terim Report on, 436.
Montreal Meteorological

Report on the, 33.

MoRRISON (Walter) on the movements of
underground waters of Craven, 346.

MorTON (The late G. H.) on life-zones
in the British Carboniferous rocks, 340.

._— (W. B.) on the propagation of elec-
tric waves along parallel wires, 635.

3.Q

Observatory,

962

*Mosquitoes and malaria, Major Ronald
Ross on, 784.

Murr (Herbert B.) and A. JOwETT on
the glaciation of the Keighley and
Bradford district, 756.

MUIRHEAD (Dr. A.) on practical electrical
standards, 53.

Municipal building for the overcrowded,
Auberon Herbert on, 844.

—— trading, Arthur Priestman on, 843.

Munro (Dr. Aineas) on the locust plague
and its suppression, 798.

—— (Dr. R.) on the age of stone circles,
461.

Murpgay (Sir John) on meteorological ob-
servations on Ben Nevis, 46.

—— on the revision of the physical and
chemical constants of sea-water, 421.
Myrzs (J. L.) on the Silchester excava-

tion, 466.

— on photographs of anthropological

interest, 568.

NAGEL (D. H.) on the bibliography of
spectroscopy, 150

Naiadita from the Upper Rhetic of Red-
land, near Bristol, I. B. J. Sollas on,
752.

Naphthalene derivatives, Thirteenth report
on the investigation of isomeric, 297.

B-Naphthylamine, the direct preparation
of, W. R. Hodgkinson and Dr. L.
Limpach on, 702.

Naples Zoological Station, Report on the
occupation of a table at the, 380.

Natwral History and Ethnography of the
Malay Peninsula, Report on the, 393.

*Nerve, local injury in, the physiological
effect of, Prof. F. Gotch on, 788.

——, electrical changes in mammalian,
Report on, 455.

NEVILLE (F. H.) on the chemical com-
pounts contained in alloys, 131.

NEWTON (Prof. A.) on the present state of
our knowledge of the zoology of the
Sandwich Islands, 398.

on making a digest of the observa-

tions on the migration of birds, 403.

(KE. T.) on the excavation of caves at
Uphill, 342.

Newton’s contributions to central-differ-
ence interpolation, Prof. J. D. Everett
on, 650.

Nucleolus during karyokinesis, the be-
haviour of the, in the root apex of

hascolus, H. Wager on, 944.

Oceanic salt deposits, the influence of
pressure on the formation of, H. M.
Dawson on, 705.

OLDHAM (R. D.) on seismological in-
vestigation, 59,

REPORT—1900.

OLDHAM (R. D.) on beach formation
in the Thirlmere Reservoir, 763.

—— on the basal (Carboniferous) con-
glomerate of Ulswater and its mode
of origin, 764.

* Ornithorhynchus, the nesting habits of,
Dr, Gregg Wilson on, 784.

Osmotic properties of living cells and
their causes, Prof. E. F. Overton on
the, 940.

OVERTON (Prof. E. F.) on the osmotic
properties and their causes in the
living plant and animal cell, 940.

Oxygen dissolved in water, sewage, &c.,
a method for estimating the, Prof.
E. A. Letts and R. F. Blake on, 708.

Paganism of the civilised Iroquois, David
Boyle on the, 905.

Pages of Scientific Societies’ publications,
Report on the uniformity of size of,
45.

PARKIN (J.) on fungi found in Ceylon
growing upon scale-insects (Coccidse
and Aleurodide), 932.

Patagonia, the geology and paleontology
of, Prof. W. B. Scott on, 730.

i , the Miocene fauna of, Prof. W. B.
Scott on, 784.

PEACH (B.N.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

Pebbles of the Holybush conglomerates,
and their bearing on Lower and Cam-
brian palzogeography, 738.

PEEK (Sir Cuthbert E.) on the work of
the Corresponding Societies Committee,
570.

PENHALLOW (Prof. D. P.) on Canadian
Pleistocene flora and fauna, 328, 334.
— on an ethnological survey of Canada,

468.

Peptic zymase in young embryos, Prof.
M. Hartog on a, 786.

Peptone and its precursors, the physio-
logical effects of, when introduced into
the circulation, Fourth interim report
on, 457.

Periodic law and atomic weights, Dr.
J. H. Gladstone and G. Gladstone on
the, 706.

PERKIN (Prof. W. H.), Address to the
Section of Chemistry by, 664.

PERRY (Prof. J.) ox practical electrical
standards, 53.

—— on seismological investigation, 59.

PETAVEL (J. E.) on explosive gaseous
mixtures, 655.

PETRIE (Prof. Flinders) on photographs
of anthropological interest, 568.

Pettersson-Nansen insulating water-
bottle, Dr. H. R. Mill on the, 819.

Pheophycee, fertilisation in, Fourth
interim report on, 569,

INDEX,

*Pharynx of Hristalis, J. J. Wilkinson
on the, 790.

PHILLIPS (C. E. 8.) on the apparent
emission of cathode rays from an
electrode at zero potential, 639.

-—— (Prof. R. W.) on fertilisation in
‘Pheophycea, 569.

Phosphorescent glow in gases, J. B. B.
Burke on the, 643.

Photographs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, Eleventh report on,
350.

—— of anthropological interest, Report
on, 568.

Photography, the application of, to the
elucidation of meteorological pheno-
mena, Ninth report on, 56.

—— of a moving object, some points in
connection with the, W. E. Plummer
on, 677.

*Phlegrean Fields, the land-level of the,
the possibility of obtaining more re-
liable measurements of the changes of,
R. T. Giinther on, 814.

Phyllirhoé, the anatomy of, R. T. Giinther
on, 386.

Physical and Mathematical Science, Ad-
dress by Dr. J. Larmor to the Section
of, 613.

Pinnotheres, the development and natural
history of, A. D. Darbishire on, 399.
Plankton and physical conditions of the
English Channel in 1899, Second report

on the, 379.

*Plant-form in relation to nutrition,
Prof. P. Groom on, 936.

Plants, assimilation in, Report on an
experimental investigation of, 569.

——, the influence of smoke on, in the
north of England, A. Wilson on, 930.

Plateaux, ancient, in Anglesey and Car-
narvonshire, E. Greenly on, 737.

Pleistocene Canadian flora and fauna,

“inal report on, 328.

PLUMMER (W.E.) on seismological investi-

gation, 59.

—— on some points in connection with |

the photography of a moving object,
677.

Plymouth, Report on the occupation of a
table at the Marine Biological Labora-
tory, 399.

POCKLINGTON (H. C.) on the radiation

of a black body on the electro-magnetic
theory, 654.

Point-groups, the present state of the
theory of, Frances Hardcastle on,
121.

POIRAULT (G.) and E. J. BuTLuR, Obser-
vations on Pythium by, 942.

, Observations on Chytridinez
by, 942.

Polychete worms, the structure of certain,
ES. Goodrich on, 384,

|

963

*PoPE (W. J.) on recent development
in stereochemistry, 701.

PouLton (Prof. E. B.) on observations
by A. K. Marshall on mimicry in
South African insects, 793.

—— on observations by R. Shelford on
mimicry in Bornean insects, 795.

Power generation, the comparative cost
of, by the steam engine, water turbine
aa gas engine, J. B. C. Kershaw on,

73.

PoyNTING (Prof. J. H.) on seismological
investigation, 59.

PRAEGER (R. Lloyd) on the exploration
of caves in Treland, 340.

PREECE (Sir W. H.) on practical electrical
standards, 53.

on the B.A. screw gauge, 436.

—— on wireless telephony, 638.

—— on the Manchester and Liverpool
Express Railway, 875.

Preservation of specimens, the methods of,
used at the Naples Zoological Station,
Prof... Ramsay Wright on, 388.

Presidential Address at Bradford by Sir
William Turner, 3.

PRESTON (the late Prof. T.) on radiation
from a source of light in a magnetic
Jield, 52.

PRIESTMAN (Arthur) on municipal trad-
ing, 843.

PRIcE (L. L.) on future dealings in
raw produce, 421.

—— on some economic consequences of
the South African War, 847.

=a (W. A.) on the B.A. screw gauge

6.

and J. MARSHALL GORHAM on ea-
periments on screw threads, 444.

Price-changes in the foreign trade of
France, Prof. A. W. Flux on, 853.

Primes, the determination of successive
high, Lieut.-Col. A. Cunningham and
H. J. Woodall on, 646.

Pythium, anew species of, the biology
and cytology of, Prof. A. H. Trow on,
941.

——, Observations on, by G. Poirault and
KE. J. Butler, 941.

Quantics, binary, the asyzygetic and
perpetuant covariants of systems of,
Maj. P. A. MACMAHON on, 646.

—— binary and other, the symbolism
appropriate to the study of orthogonal
ard Boolian invariant systems which
appertain to, Maj. P. A. MAcMAHON
on, 647.

—— in » variables, the characteristie
symbolic determinant of », a property
of the, Maj. P. A. MACMAHON on, 644,

Quintic curve, A, cannot have more than
fifteen real points of inflexion, by
A. B. Basset, 647,

3Q2

964

RABAGLIATI (Dr. A.) on the local inci-
dence of disease in Bradford, 845.

Radiation, the relations of, to tempera-
ture, Dr. J. Larmor on, 657.

— from a source of light in a magnetic
field, Report on, 52. :

—— of a black body on the electro-
magnetic theory, H. C. Pocklington
on the, 654.

Railway connection with India, Col.
Sir T. H. Holdich on, 813.

—— construction in Shansi and Honan
in China, J. G. H. Glass on, 871.

——, monorail, between Manchester and
Liverpool, Sir W. H. Preece on the,
875.

—___ __, F.B. Behr on brake and signals
for the, 876.

__— the Siberian, C. R. Beazley on, 814.

trains, the measurement of the
tractive force, resistance, and accelera-
tion of, A. Mallock on, 877.

Rainfall of the northern counties of
England, J. Hopkinson on the, 652.
Rain-gauge, a self-registering, W. J. B.

Binnie on, 870.

Raised beach of Southern Britain as seen
in Gower, the age of the, R. H. Tidde-
man on, 760.

RAMAGE (Hugh) on a method of com-
paring correspondences between
spectra, 628.

RAMBAUT (A. A.) on solar radiation, 36.

RAMSAY WRIGHT (Prof. R.) on the
methods of preservation of specimens
used at the Naples Zoological Station,
388. ‘

RATHBONE (H. R.) on future dealings
in raw produce, 421.

RAVENSTEIN (BE. G.) on the climatology
of Africa, 413.

* on foreign and colonial surveys, 811.

——— on the geographical distribution of
relative humidity, 817.

RAYLEIGH (Lord) on practical electrical
standards, 53.

READ (C. H.) on the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay Penin-
sula, 393.

—— on the age of stone circles, 461.

-.— on photographs of anthropological
interest, 568.

REEVES (Hon. W. P.) on Colonial Govern-
ments as money-lenders, 848.

REID (A. S.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 350.

(Clement) on seismological investiga-

tion, 59.

on the selection of a fault, a locality
suitable for observations on earth-move-
ments, 108.

RENNIE (J.) on practical
standards, 53.

electrical

Py

REPORT—1900.

*Respiration of aquatic insects, Prof.
L. C. Miall on, 790.

REYNOLDS (Prof. J. Emerson) on electro-
lytic methods of quantitative analysis,
171.

— (S. H.) on the excavation of caves at
Ophill, 342.

*Rhinochetus, the nestling of, Prof. R.
Burckhardt on, 790.

Rauys (Prof. John), Address to the Section
of Anthropology by, 884.

RICHARDSON (F’, W.) on Bradford sewage
and its treatment, 707. :
(Nelson) on seismological investiga-

tion, 59.

RIDGEWAY (Prof. W.) on the Natural
History and Ethnography of the Malay
Peninsula, 393.

Rice (E.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 436.

RIVERS (Dr.) on the physical and mental
defects of children in schools, 461.

Rrxon (R. W.) and Prof. H. B. Dixon
on the specific heat of gases at tempera-
tures up to 400° C., 697.

ROBERTS-AUSTEN (Sir W.C.) on practical
electrical standards, 53.

on the bibliography of spectroscopy,

150.

| ROBERTSON (Sir George), Address to the

Section of Geography by, 800.

| Rock-bosses, the form of some, in Angle-

sey, E. Greenly on, 737.

Roman sculptor’s finger-prints of pro-
bably the third century, a mould ~
showing, Sir W. Turner on, 905.

Rooper (T. G.) on attempts to improve
the teaching of geography in ele-
mentary schools, especially in the
West Riding of Yorkshire, 809.

Root-nodules of Alnus glutinosa, the
structure, T. W. Woodhead on, 931.

Rosco (Sir H. E.) on solar radiation,
36.

on the teaching of science im ele-

mentary schools, 187.

on wave-length tables of the spectra
of the elements and compounds, 193.

ROSENHAIN (Walter) on Malay metal-
work, 906.

and Prof. J. A. Ewine on the
crystalline structure of metals, 698.

Ross (Hon. G.) on an ethnological sur-
vey of Canada, 468.

*Ross (Major Ronald) on malaria and
mosquitoes, 784.

RotcH (A. Lawrence) on the use of
kites to obtain meteorological obser-
vations at Blue Hill Observatory,
U.S.A., 650.

RotH (H. Ling) on permanent skin-marks,
tattooing, scarification, &c., 907.

Rotuma, crania collected by Mr. J.
Stanley Gardiner in his expedition to,
W. L. H. Duckworth on, 910.

INDEX.

RUBIN (Marcus) on population and birth-
rate viewed from the historico-sta-
tistical standpoint, 838.

Ricxmr (Prof. A. W.) on the uniformity
of size of pages of Scientific Societies’
publications, 45.

— on determining magnetic force at
sea, 45.

— on practical electrical standards,
53.

RUHEMANN (Dr. 8.) and H. EH. STAPLE-
TON on the synthesis of benzo-y-
pyrone, 703.

—— on the combination of thiophenol
and guaiacol with the esters of the
acids of the acetylene series, 704.

*Rumbald’s Moor, the prehistoric anti-
quities of, Butler Wood on, 913.

Sacral index, Prof. D. J. Cunningham on
the, 903.

Salt, ocean deposits of, the influence of
pressure on the formation of, H. M.
Dawson on, 705.

*Sand-binding plants, Prof. F.O. Bower
on, 946.

Sand ripples, tidal, above low-water mark,
Vaughan Cornish on, 733.

Sandwich Islands, the zoology of the,
Tenth report on, 398 .

Sarawak, textile patterns of the Sea-
Dayaks of, Dr. A. C. Haddon on, 901.
-——, houses and family life in, Dr. A. C.

Haddon on, 902.

——, some peculiar features of the
animal-cults of the natives of, and
their bearing on the problems of to-
temism, C. Hose and W. McDougall
on, 907.

SaARGaNnT (Ethel) on a fourth type of
transition from stem to root-structure
occurring in certain monocotyledonous
seedlings, 937.

Saturn, the ‘square-shouldered’ aspect
of, E. M. Antoniadi on, 675.

SAUNDERS (Dr. William) on results of
experimental work in agriculture in
Canada under Government organisa-
tion, 840.

SAVAGE (Rev. HE. B.) on Irish elk re-
mains in the Isle of Man, 349.

SCADDING (Rey. Dr.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

ScHAFER (Prof. E. A.) on the micro-
chemistry of cells, 449.

on the histology of the suprarenal
capsules, 452.

—— on the physiological effects of pep-
tone and its precursors when introduced
into the circulation, 457.

ScHarrr (Dr. R. F.) on the exploration
of caves in Ireland, 340.

965

Schools, the physical and mental defects of
children in, Report on, 461.

ScHusTHR (Prof. A.) on solar radiation,
36.

on determining magnetic force at
sea, 45.

—— on radiation from a source of light
in a magnetic field, 52.

——-onpractical electrical standards, 53.

_—— on wave-length tables of the spectra

of the elements and compounds, 193.

| Science, the teaching of, in elementary

schools, Report on, 187.

ScLATER (Dr. P. L.) on the compilation
of an index generum et specierum ani-
malium, 392.

on the present state of owr knowledge
of the zoology of the Sandwich Islands,
398.

Scorr (Dr. D. H.) on the presence of
seed-like organs in certain Paleozoic
lycopods, 945.

—— on the primary structure of certain
Paleozoic stems referred to Arau-
cariveylon, 945.

(Dr. F. H.) on the micro-chemistry

of nerve cells, 451.

(Prof. W. B.) on the geology and
paleontology of Patagonia, 730.

- on the Miocene fauna of Patagonia,
784.

Serew gauge, The British Association,
Report on suggested. modification of the
thread, 436.

threads used in cycle construction,
and for screws subject to vibration,
O. P. Clements on, 879.

Sea-Dayaks of Sarawak, the textile pat-
terns of the, Dr. A. C. Haddon on, 901.

Seal, the dentition of the, Prof. R. J.
Anderson on, 790.

Seals, antarctic, skulls of, Capt. Barrett-
Hamilton on, 792.

Sea-nater, the physical and chemical con-
stants of, Report on the revision by Dr.
Martin Knudsen of, 421.

SEDGWICK (A.) on the occupation of a
table at the Zoological Station at
Naples, 380.

on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Laboratory at Plymouth,399.

—— on the coral reefs of the Indian
region, 400.

Sedimentation, the inner mechanism of,
Prof. J. Joly on, 732.

SEELEY (Prof. H. G.) on the registration
of type specimens of British fossils, 342.

Seismological investigation, Fifth report
on, 59.

*Selachians, the brain of, some causes of
brain-configuration in, Prof. R. Burck-
hardt on, 785.

*____ the systematic value of the brain
in, Prof. R. Burckhardt on, 785.

966

ewage, Bradford, and its treatment,
F. W. Richardson on, 707.

——, the pollution of sea-water by, the
relation of Ulva latissima to, Prof.
Letts and J. Hawthorne on, 935.

—— sludge, the utilisation of, Prof.
W. B. Bottomley on, 709.

SEWARD (A. C.) on botanical evidence
bearing on the climatic and other
physical conditions under which coal
was formed, 748.

—— on the Jurassic flora of East York-
shire, 765.

—— and ELIZABETH DALE on the |

structure and affinities of Diptevis
conjugata, and on the geological history
of the Dipteridinz, 946.

SHARP (D.) on the zoology of the Sand-
wich Islands, 398.

SHAW (W. N.) on electrolysis and electro-
chemistry, 34.

-——on practical electrical standards, 53.

SHELFORD (R.), observations on mimicry
in Bornean insects by, Prof. E. B.
Poulton on, 795.

SHERRINGTON (Prof. C. 8.) on
physiological effects of peptone and its
precursors when introduced into the
circulation, 457.

*Shop buildings, E. R. Clark on, 882.

SHORE (L. E.) on the effect of chorda
stimulation on the volume of the sub-
maxillary gland, 458. :

SHOVE (R. F.) on the structure of the
stem and root of Angiopteris evecta,
939.

Siberian railway, C. R. Beazley on the,
814.

SIDGWICK (The late Prof. H.) on state
monopolies in other countries, 436.

Silchester excavation, Report on the, 466.

Silicates in igneous rocks, the order of
the formation of the, Prof. J. Joly on,
730.

Silicides of the alkaline earths and silico-
acetylene discovered by the use of the
electric furnace, C. 8. Bradley on, 699.

Silver, the sensitiveness of, to light,
Maj.-Gen. J. Waterhouse on, 706.

SKEAT (W. W.) on the Natural History
and Ethnography of the Malay Penin-
sula, 393.

Skeleton, human, developmental changes
in the, from the point of view of An-
thropology, Dr. D. Waterston on, 904.

Skeletons, ancient Egyptian, perforate
humeri in, Prof. A. Macalister on, 908.

Skin-marks, tattooing, &c., H. Ling Roth
on, 907.

SKINNER (S.) on electrolysis and electro-
chemistry, 34.

SMITH (E. A.) on the present state of our

knowledge of the zovlogy of the Sandwich
Islands, 398.

‘ :

the | Spectra, absorption, and chemicalconstitu-

| Space, multiple, the

REPORT—1900.

SMITHELLS (Prof. A.) on the teaching of
Science in Elementary Schools, 187.

on the movements of underground
waters of Craven, 346.

*Smoke, Dr. J. B. Cohen on, 707.

in the north of England, the in-
fluence of, on plants, A. Wilson on, 930.

Snow ripples, Vaughan Cornish on, 816.

Solar radiation, Interim report on, 36,

_ SOLLAS (Igerna B. J.) on .Vaiadita from

the Upper Rheetic of Redland, near
Bristol, 752.

— (Prof. W. J.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Tsles, 343.

| -_—, Address to the Section of Geology

by, 711.

——— on a possible coalfield in the London
basin, 739.

Song-thrush (Turdus musicus) and White
Wagtail (Motacilla alba), the magratory
habits of the, W. Hagle Clarke en, 403.

South African war, some economic con- ©
sequences of the, L. L. Price on, 847.

use in applied

mechanics of, H. 8. Carslaw on, 644.

tion of organic bodies, Report on the
relation between, 151.
of the elements and compounds, wave-
length tables of the, Report on, 193.
a method of comparing correspon-
dences between, H. Ramage on, 628.
Spectroscopy, the biblineraphy of, Interim
report on, 150.

*Spectrum, solar, the infra-red of the,
Dr. 8. P. Langley on, 659.

Staffordshire, North, rapid changes in the
thickness and character of the Coal-
Measures of, W. Gibson on, 743.

STAPLETON (H. EH.) and Dr. 8: RUHE-
MANN on the synthesis of benzo-y-
pyrone, 703.

— on the combination of thiophenol
and guaiacol with the esters of the
acetylene series, 704.

| Star positions on photographic plates, a

cheap form of micrometer for deter-

mining, Prof. H. H. Turner on, 676.
Starch, the formation of, from glycollic

aldehyde (diose), H. Jackson on, 934.

STARLING (Prof, EH. H.) on the compara-
tive histology of the cerebral cortex, 453.

on electrical changes in mammalian
nerve, 455.

——on the eff ct of chorda stimulation
on the volume of the submaxillary gland,
458.

State monupolies in other countries, In-
terim report on, 436.

STATHER (J. W.):on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 343.

—— on the source and distribution of
the far-travelled boulders of Hast
Yorkshire, 759,

INDEX.

STATHER (J. W.) on the glacial pheno-
mena of the north-east corner of
the Yorkshire Wolds, 760.

*STEAD (J. E.) on the mutual relations
of iron, phosphorus, and carbon, when
together in cast iron and steel, 698.

*Steam, the wetness of, a new form of
calorimeter for measuring, Prof. J.
Goodman on, 882.

STEBBING (Rev. T. R. R.) on the compila-
tion of an index generwm et specierum
animalium, 392.

—— on the nork of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

*Steel, the internal architecture of, Prof.
Arnold on, 882.

Stem and root of Angiopteris evecta, the
structure of the, R. F. Shove on, 939.
—— to root-structure, a fourth type of
transition, occurring in certain mono-
cotyledonous seedlings, Ethel Sargant

on, 937.

Stems referred to Araucarioxylon, the
primary structure of certain, Dr. D. H.
Scott on, 945.

STEPHANOS (Cyparissos) on the relations
between projective geometry and
mechanics, 644.

*Stereochemistry, recent developments
in, W. J. Pope on, 701.

STOKES (Sir G. G.) on solar radiation,
36.

(Prof. G. J.) on the sense of effort
and the perception of force, 912.

*Stomata, the etfect of the closure of, on
the assimilation of plants, Dr. F. F.
Blackman and Miss Matthei on, 934.

Stone age in Tasmania as related to the
history of civilisation, E. B. Tylor on,
897.

— age of Borneo, relics of the, Dr.
A. C, Haddon on, 901.

Circles, Interim report on investi-
gations of the age of, 461.

— implements of the natives of Tas-
mania, J. P. Moir on some, 896.

STONEY (Dr. G. Johnstone) on solar
radiation, 36.
— on practical electrical standards, 53.
— on the uniformity of size of pages of
Scientific Societies’ publications, 45.
STRAHAN (A.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

on the origin of coal, 746.

*Strata, a table of, Dr. H. Woodward on,
735.

STROH (A.) on the B.A. screw gauge, 436.

STROUD (Prof. W.) on determining mag-
netic force at sea, 45.

STUPART (R. F.) on the Meteorological
Observatory at Montreal, 33.

Submawillary gland, Report on the ect
of chorda stimulation on the vol e of
the, 458.

967

Sugar beet in England, the economic
possibilities of the growth of, A. D.
Hall on, 841.

SULTE (B.) on an ethnological survey of
Canada, 468, 470.

Sun-spot disturbances, the types of, Rev.
A. L. Cortie on, 675.

Suprarenal capsules, Interim report on the
histology of the, 452.

*Surface tension of mixtures and the
creeping of liquids, Dr. F. T, Trouton
on, 628.

*Surveys, foreign and colonial, E. G.
Ravenstein on, 811.

SWINBURNE (J.) on the uniformity of size
of pages of Scientific Societies’ publica-
tions, 45.

*SYKES (Mark L.) on mimicry and pro-
tective resemblance in insects, 797.

Sylviculture, British, 8. Margerison on,
930.

*“SYMINGTON (Prof. Johnson) on the
Ee ae of the cetacean flipper,
789.

*—__ on the articulations between the
occipital bone and atlas and axis in
the Mammalia, 789.

Symons (The late G. J.) on seismological
investigation, 59.

on the climatology of Africa, 413.

on the work of the Corresponding

Societies Committee, 570.

Lables, Report on mathematical (A new
Canon Arithmeticus), 461.

TANGUAY (Abbé) on an ethnological survey
of Canada, 468.

TANSLEY (A. G.) on conducting tissues
of Bryophytes, 937.

Tasmania, implements of the natives of,
J. P. Moir on some, 896.

-—— the Stone age in, as related to the
history of civilisation, E. B. Tylor on,
899.

Tattooing and other skin-marks, H. Ling
Roth on, 907.

*Taylor (T. H.) on the tracheal system
of Simuliwm, a problem in respiration,
790.

THALL (J. J. H.) om the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 350.

—— on the plutonic complex of Croc-
na-Sroine and its bearing on current
hypotheses as to the genesis of igneous
rocks, 750.

Telephony, wireless, Sir W. H. Preece on,
638.

Temperature, the relations of radiation
to, Dr. J. Larmor on, 657.

Terrestrial magnetism and latitude-
variation, the connection between,
J. Halm on, 680.

968

Textile designs, the photographic method
of preparing, Prof. Roberts Beaumont
on, 881.

Sab industries, some recent develop-
ments in the, Dr. A. Liebmann on,
705.

patterns of the Sea-Dayaks of
Sarawak, Dr. A C. Haddon on, 901.

‘'hiophenoland guaiacol, the combination
of, with the esters of the acids of the
acetylene series, Dr. 8. Ruhemann and
H. E. Stapleton on, 704.

Thirlmere Reservoir, beach formation in
the, R. D. Oldham on, 763.

THOMAS (Ethel M.) on double fertilisa-
tion in a dicotyledon— Caltha palustris,
936.

* (J. W.) on the physical effects of
winds in towns, and their influence on
ventilation, 652.

THOMPSON (Prof. S. P.) on the uniformity
of size of pages of Scientific Societies’
publications, 45.

on radiation from a source of light

in a magnetic field, 52.

on practical electrical standards,

52.

on the teaching of science in elemen-
tary schools, 187.

s on the construction of large
dynamos, as exemplified at the Paris
Exhibition, 877.

(Prof. W. H.) on the physiological
effects of peptone and its precursors
mhen introduced into the circulation,
457.

THOMSON (Prof. J. J.) on practical
electrical standards, 53.

TIDDEMAN (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of the British Isles, 343.

——_— on the formation of reef-knolls,
740.

—— on the age of the raised beach of
Southern Britain as seen in Gower,
760.

TILDEN (Prof. W. A.) on the investiga-
tion of isomeric naphthalene deriva-
tives, 297.

Tissues, embryonic, Prof. Marshall Ward
on, 943.

TocumrR (J. F.) and J. GRAY on the
physical characteristics of the popula-
tion of Aberdeenshire, 913.

Topp (Prof. David P.) on the application
of the electric telegraph to the further-
ance of eclipse research, 673.

— on the operation of eclipse instru-
ments automatically, 673.

on the adaptation of the principle
of the wedge photometer to the bio-
graph camera in photographing total
eclipses, 674.

*Tracheal system of Simuliwm, T. H.
Taylor on the, 790.

REPOR'T—1900.

Traction, the resistance of road vehicles
to, Prof. Hele Shaw on, 868.

Tractive force, resistance, and accelera-
tion of trains, the measurement of, A.
Mallock on, 877.

Trade fluctuations, J. B. C. Kershaw on,
842,

Tramp and the loafer, the treatment of
the, W. H. Dawson on, 851.

*Tramway construction, recent, W. Daw-
son on, 877.

Transyaal and the Orange River Colony,
the imperfection of our knowledge of
the Black Races of the, E. 8. Hartland
on, 904.

TRAQUAIR (Dr. R. H.), Address to the
Section of Zoology by, 768.

*TROUTON on the creeping of liquids
and the surface tension of mixtures,
628.

Trow (Prof. A. H.) on the biology and
cytology of a new species of Pythiwm,
941.

TUCKER (W. T.) on the erratic blocks of
the British Isles, 343.

TURNER (Sir William), Presidential Ad-
dress at Bradford by, 3.

— on a mould showing the finger-
prints of a Roman sculptor of probably
the third century, 905.

TURNER (Prof. H. H.) on seismological
investigation, 59.

on a cheap form of micrometer for
determining star positions on photo-
graphic plates, 676.

TYLOR (Prof. E. B.) on an ethnological
survey of Canada, 468.

—— on the Stone age in Tasmania as
related to the history of civilisation,
897.

Type-fossils, the registration of, Rev. J.
F. Blake on, 744.

Type specimens of British fossils, Report
on the registration of, 342.

Ulva latissima, the effects of salts on the
CO, assimilation of, E. A. N. Arber
on, 934.

—— and its relation to the pollution of
sea-water by sewage, Prof. Letts and
J. Hawthorne on, 935.

Underground waters cf Craven, Report
on the movements of, 346.

of North-west Yorkshire,
Rev. W. Lower Carter on the, 735.

Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, Report on
the excavation of caves at, 342.

UssHpr (R. J.) on the exploration of
caves in Ireland, 340.

Vascular supply of secreting glands, Re-
port on the; the effect of chorda stimu-
lation on the volume of the submaxillary
gland, 458.

INDEX,

Vector potential of electric currents in a
field where disturbances are propa-
gated with finite velocity, S. H. Bur-
bury on the, 635.

Vehicles, the resistance of road, to trac-
tion, Prof. Hele Shaw on, 868.

Viagraph, J. Brown on the, 870.

VINCENT (Swale) on the histology of the
suprarenal capsules, 452.

VINES (Prof. 8. H.) on investigations

made at the Marine Biological Asso- |

ciation Laboratory at Plymouth, 399.

, Address to the Section of Botany
by, 916.

Vision, an experiment on simultaneous
contrast, G. J. Burch on, 629.

Volt-and ampere-meter forlecture-rooms, |

F. G. Baily on a, 643.
VUILLEMIN (Prof. P.) on the azygospores
of Entomophthora gleosnora, 942.

WAGER (Harold), Demonstration of the
structure and attachment of the fla-
gellum in Euglena viridis by, 931.

—— on the behaviour of the nucleolus
during karyokinesis in the root apex
of Phaseolus, 944.

Wages, variations of, insome co-partner-
ship workshops, with some comparisons
with non-co-operative industries, R.
Halstead on, 849.

WALKER (Frank P.) on the economical
position of the agricultural labourer
considered historically, 842.

*____ (N.) on the structure and life-
history of the Gooseberry Sawfly, 790.

— (W.G.) on the reheating of com-
pressed air, 883.

WALLIS (E. White) on the mental and
physical defects of children in schools,
461.

WALMISLEY (A. T.) on the use of ex-
panded metal in concrete, 872.

WARD (Prof. Marshall) on assimilation
in plants, 569.

— on embryonic tissues, 943.

WARNER (Dr. Francis) on the physical
and mental defects of children in schools,
461.

Water-bottle, the Pettersson-Nansen
insulating, Dr. H. R. Mill on, 819.

tWater-supply, with a description of the
Bradford Waterworks, J. Watson on,
867.

WATERHOUSE (Major-Gen. J.) on the
sensitiveness of metallic silver to light,
706.

Waters, moorland, a limiting standard
of acidity for, W. Ackroyd on, 695.
WATERSTON (Dr. David) on develop-
mental changes in the human skeleton
from the point of view of Anthropo-

logy, 904.

969

WATKIN (Col.) on the B.A. screw gauge,
436.

Wattmeter, a combination integrating,
and maximum demand indicator, T.
Barker on, 878.

Watts (Dr. Marshall) on wave-length
tables of the spectra of the elements and
compounds, 193.

——- (Prof. W. W.) on the movements of
underground waters of Craven, 346.

on the collection of photographs of

geological interest in the United King-

dom, 350.

on the work of the Corresponding
Societies Committee, 570.

TWATsON (J.) on water supply, with a
description of the Bradford Water-
works, 867.

-—— (W.) on
force at sea, 45.

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the
elements and compounds, Report on,
193.

Wave-lengths, Indea to the tables of, in
the Reports from 1884 to 1900, 193.
Waves, electric, the propagation of,
along parallel wires, W. B. Morton on,

635.

Wealden Series in England, the age of
the, G. W. Lamplugh on, 766.

WEBBER (Maj.-Gen.) on the B.A. serew
gauge, 436.

WEDD (C. B.) on the outcrop of the
corallian limestones of Elsworth and
St. Ives, 745.

WEIss (F. E.) on a gymnosporangium
from China, 931.

WELCH (R.) on the collection of photo-
graphs of geological interest in the
United Kingdom, 350.

WELDON (Prof. W. F. RB.) on the occu-
pation of a table at the Zoological
Station at Naples, 380.

—— on investigations made at the Marine
Biological Association Laboratory at
Plymouth, 399.

WELLEBURN (Edgar D.) on the fish fauna
of the Yorkshire coalfields, 749.

-——on some fossil fish from the Mill-
stone Grit rocks, 750.

WETHEY (E. R.) on commercial geo-
graphy in education, 810.

*Wheatstone’s bridge, a form of, E. H.
Griffiths on, 655.

WHETHAM (W.C. D.) on electrolysis and
* electro-chemistry, 34.

WHIDBORNE (Rev. G. F.) on the regis-
tration of type specimens of British
Sossils, 342.

WHIPPLE (Robert 8.) on an improved
standard resistance coil, 55.

WHITAKER (W.) on the work of the
Corresponding Societies Committee,
570.

determining magnetic

970

WHITMELL (C. T.) on the duration of
totality of the solar eclipse of May 28,
1900, 680.

*____ on the duration of annularity in
a solar eclipse, 680.

*WILKINSON (J. J:) on the pharynx of
Eristalis, 790.

WILLIAMS (J. Lloyd) on germination of
the zoospore in Laminariacez, 936.569

—— (Prof. W. Carleton) on electrolytic
methods of chemical analysis, 171.

*WILLIS (Dr. J.) on the construction of
magic squares, 646.

Witson (Albert) on the great smoke
cloud of the north of England and its
influence on plants, 930.

*____ (Dr. Gregg) on the nesting habits
of Ornithorhynchus, 784.

— (QU. E.) ona glacial extra-morainic
lake occupying the valley of the Brad-
ford Beck, 755.

(W. E.) on solar radiation, 36.

WINDS, the influence of the, during past
geological epochs, F. W. Harmer on, 753.

*____in towns, the physical effects of,
and their influence on ventilation, J.
W. Thomas on, 652.

Women, labour legislation for, Margaret
E. MacDonald on, 850.

*WooD (Butler) on the prehistoric anti-
quities of Rumbald’s Moor, 913.

—— (Sir H. T.) on the B.A. screw
gauge, 436.

WoopaLt (H. J.) and Lieut.-Col. A.
CUNNINGHAM on the determination of
successive high primes, 646.

WooDHEAD (T. W.) on the structure of
the root-nodules of Alnus glutinosa,
931.

Woops (H.) on the registration of type
specimens of British fossils, 342.

WooDWARD (A. 8.) on the registration of
type specimens of British fossils, 342.

—— (Dr. H.) on life-zones in the British
Carboniferous rocks, 340.

on the registration of type specimens

of British fossils, 342.

on the compilation of an index
generum et specierum animaliwm, 392.

*____ on a table of strata, 735.

REPORT—1900.

WOODWARD (H. B.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in
the United Kingdom, 350.

*Woolcombers’ effluents, the treatment
of, W. Leach on, 708. r

WooLnouGH (F.) on the collection of
photographs of geological interest in the
Onited Kingdom, 350.

WORSDELL (W. C.) on the origin of
modern Cycads, 938.

Writing in ancient Egypt, the system of,
F. Ll. Griffith on, 899.

—— in prehistoric Greece, A. J. Evans
on, 897.

WYNNE (Dr. W. P.) on the isomorphous
derivatives of benzene, 167.

YORKSHIRE, the defensive earthworks of,
Mrs. E. Armitage on, 913.

——, North-west, the underground waters
of, Rev. W. Lower Carter on, 735.

—_, West, the anthropology of, Dr. J.
Beddoe on, 902.

Zones, life-, in the British Carboniferous
rocks, Report on, 340.
Zoological Station at Naples, Report on
the occupation of a table at the, 380.
Appendix:

I. Note by the Chairman, 381.

Il. Reports on the occupation of the
table, 383.

ILI. List of naturalists who have worked
at the Station from July 1, 1899, to
June 30, 1900, 389.

IV. List of papers published in 1899
by naturalists who have occupied
tables at the Station, 390.

V. List of Publications of the Station
Sor the year ending June 30,1900, 392.

Zoology of the Sandwich Islands, Tenth
report on the, 398.

——, Address by Dr. R. H. TRAQUAIR
to the Section of, 768.

Zoospore, the germination of the, in
Laminariacexz, J. Lloyd Williams on,
936.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, Burlington
House, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1881 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.

Associates for the Meeting in 1900 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.

REPORT or tur SIXTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Bristol,
September, 1898, Published at £1 4s.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Grants of Money, &c. é XXiX-CXVi.
Address by the President, Sir William Crookes . ; ‘ : : 7 3
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee . 41

Report of the Committee for the Establishment of a Meteorological Observa-
tory at Montreal . 79
Report on the Comparison and Reduction of Magnetic Observations . 80

Stream-line Motion of a Viscous Film. By Professor HELE SHAW and
SirG. Strokes. : . 136
Report on the Calculation of Tables of certain Mathematical Functions . . 145
Report on Electrical Standards . . és : : . 145
Interim Report on Electrolysis and Electro- ‘chemistry 5 : : ‘i . 158
On the Use of Logarithmic Co-ordinates. By J. H. VINCENT . : : . 169
Third Report on Seismological Investigation . ‘ : ; « LTS
Report on Meteorological ‘Observations on Ben Nevis 277

Eighth Report on the Application of Photography to ‘the Elucidation of
Meteorological Phenomena . F 283
Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours. : : é ; . 285
Third Report on the Carbohydrates of the Cereal Straws . - : . 293
Fifth Report on the Electrolytic Methods of Quantitative Analysis ; : . 294

Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives . . eres 2 okk

972

PAGE
Interim Report on the Promotion of Agriculture 3 312
Report on the Preparation of a New Series of Carat ‘Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds . - 313
Report on the Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools . ° : : . 433
Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy _. : . 439
Fourteenth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks. - . 6519
Report on Canadian Pleistocene Floraand Fauna . é ° * . 522
Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks 5 -.- 629
Ninth Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom . 530
First Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in Canada . 5 . 546
Report on the Remains of the Irish Elk found in the Isleof Man. 5 . 548
Third Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles. ; 5 - . 552
Report on the Structure of a Coral Reef. - . 556
Final Report of the Eurypterid-bearing Rocks of the Pentland Hills : . 557
Eighth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands. ; A : . 558
Interim Report on Zoological Bibliography and Publication . 558
Third Report on the Elucidation of the Life Conditions of the Oyster under
Normal and Abnormal Environment, including the Effect of Sewage Matters
and Pathogenic Organisms . 559
Interim Report on the Working out of the Details of the ‘Observations of the
Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 ; ; . 569
Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium . : : . 570
Report on certain Caves in the Malay Peninsula ; eeey el!
First Report on the Establishment of a Biological Station in the Gulf of St.
Lawrence . 582
Report on Investigations "made at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth . 583
Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at N aples . 2) Dei
Photographic Records of Pedigree Stock. By FRANCIS GALTON A ; . 597
Seventh Report on the Climatology of Africa . : : . 603
The Mechanical and Economic Problem of the Coal Question. ‘By T. FORSTER
Brown. ; 611
A New Instrument for ‘Drawi ing Envelopes, and its Application ‘to the Teeth of
Wheels and for other Purposes. By Professor H.S. HELE-SHAW . 619
Third Report on the Means by which Practical Effect can be given to the
Introduction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 . 627
Twelfth and Final Report on the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of
Canada. . 3 . 628
Interim Report on the ‘Anthropology and Natural History of Torres Straits . 688
Report on the Silchester Excavation . 689
Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations ‘from the ‘Normal among
Children in Public Elementary and other Schools 5 : 3 . ., 691
Third Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury. - : ; 2 . 694
Second Report on an Ethnological Survey of Canada . : : : . 696
Sixth Report on an Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom : 712
Second Report on the Changes which are associated with the Functional
Activity of Nerve Cells and their Peripheral Extensions . 714
Second Interim Report on the Physiological Effects of =F Saeed and its Pre-
cursors when introduced into the Circulation . : SMA
Report on Fertilisation in Pheophycee 729
International Conference on Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity 733
The Transactions of the Sections ; : : : : ‘ : ; seat
Index . ‘ ‘ : ; a 3 ; : 4 : : : . 1071
List of Publications : s . , : : : ; : : : . 1094

(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-112.)

978

REPORT or tHE SIXTY-NINTH MEETING, at Dover,

September, 1899, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS.

PAGE
Rules of the Association, Lists of Officers, Report of the Te List of Com-
mittees, Grants of Money, &c. - 2 Xx1X-CKXxiyv.
Address by the President, Sir Michael Foster 3
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee 27
Preliminary Report on Radiation from a Source of Light i ina Magnetic Field . 63
Report on the Method of determining Magnetic Force at Sea . 64
Report of the Committee for the Establishment of a a Meteorological Observa-
tory at Montreal . : ; . 65
Report on Tables of the G (7, v)- Integrals 5 65
Report on the Progress of the Solution of the Problem of Three Bodies. By
E. T. WHITTAKER : 12]
Report on the best methods of recording the Direct ‘Intensity of Solar
Radiation 159
Report on the present State of our ‘Knowledge in ‘Electrolysis and Electro-
chemistry . : : . 160
Report on the Calculation of certain Mathematical Functions - 160
Fourth Report on Seismological Investigations . 16L
Report on the Application of a ea to the Elucidation of Meteorological
Phenomena - : c - 238
Report on Electrical Standards . 240
Report on the Heat of Combination of Metals in the Formation of Alloys . 246
Report on Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis . : 250
Report on the Establishment of a Uniform System of recording the Results of
the Chemical and Bacterial Examination of Water and Sewage . 255
Interim Report on the Bibliography of Spectroscopy . 256
Report on the Preparation of a New Series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra
of the Elements and Compounds . . 257
Report on the Relation between the Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitu-
tion of Organic Substances . : . 316
Report on the Teaching of Science in ‘Elementary Schools 359
Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives 7 : 362
Report on the Action of Light upon Dyed Colours 363
Report on the Life-zones in the British Carboniferous Rocks 371
Report on the Conditions under which Remains of the Irish Elk are found in
the Isle of Man 376
Tenth Report on Photographs of Geological Interest in the United Kingdom 377
Report on the Erratic Blocks of the British Isles 398
Report on the Ossiferous Caves at Uphill, near Weston 402
Fifteenth Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Palzeozoic Rocks 403
Report on the Registration of Type Specimens of British Fossils 405
Report on the Ty Newydd Caves, Tremeirchion, North Wales 406
Report on the Canadian Pleistocene Flora and Fauna : 411
Report of the Committee appointed to make Photographic and other Records
of the Disappearing Drift Section at Moel Tryfaen . 414
Report of the Committee appointed to promote the Systematic Collection of
Photographic and other Records of Pedigree Stock - é . 424
Report on the Compilation of an Index Animalium 429
Report on the Construction of a Circulatory Apparatus for keeping Aquatic
Organisms under definite Physical Conditions . : 431
Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples 431
Ninth Report on the Zoology of the Sandwich Islands 436
Report on Investigations made at the Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth 437
Final Report on the present ‘State of our Knowledge of the Zoology and Botany
of the West India Islands, and on the steps taken to investigate ascer-
tained Deficiencies in the Fauna and Flora. . . : . . 441
Report on Zoological and Botanical Publication . : 5 . 3 ’ 444

974

PAGE

First Report on the Plankton and Physical Conditions of the English Channel
during 1899 . : 2 3 > “ : : - 2 : di . 444
Second Interim Report on the Working out of the Details of the Observations
of the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightships, 1880-87 . - 447
Eighth Report on the Climatology of Africa : c ‘ : “ ‘ . 448
Report on the Exploration of the Island of Sokotra- . . . . 3 . 460
Report on the Means by which Practical Effect can be given to the Intro-
duction of the Screw Gauge proposed by the Association in 1884 ; . 464
On the Erection of Alexander III. Bridge in Paris. By M.AMEDBEALBY . 469

Dover Harbour Works. By J. C. CoopE and W. MATTHEWS : ; . 470
Report on the Mental and Physical Deviations from the Normal among
Children in Public Elementary and other Schools 489

Seventh and Final Report on an Ethnographical Survey of the United Kingdom 493
Report on the Silchester Excavation . : ; . . : c : « 495

Report on an Ethnological Survey of Canada : ; : : 5 497

Report on the Anthropology and Natural History of Torres Straits . 5 . 585

Report on the Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photo-
graphs of Anthropological Interest 592

Fourth Report on the Lake Village at Glastonbury ‘ ; ; : , ey!

Report on the Histology of the Suprarenal Capsules ; : : ; . 598
Report on Electrical Changes accompanying the discharge of the Respiratory
Organs . c : 5 : : : é : : 5 : 2 eee)
Report on the Comparative Histology of the Cerebral Cortex - ; - 603
Third Report on the Physiological Effects of Peptone and its Precursors when
introduced into the Circulation : A - : : - : . 605
Report on the Influence of Drugs upon the Vascular Nervous System : . 608
Interim Report on the Micro-chemistry of Cells . : . : 5 : . 609
Report on Fertilisation in Pheophycez ‘ ; : : 3 : . 610
Interim Report on Assimilation in Plants . : . : 5 : : . 611
The Transactions of the Sections : : = ; : 4 0 : .6L5
Index . : : : ; 5 cl c - : é : ; . 933
List of Publications . c 4 edo

(Appendix, List of Members, pp. 1-112.)

Publications on sale at the Office of the Association.

Lithographed Signatures of the Members who met at Cambridge in 1833, with the
Proceedings of the Public Meetings, 4to, 4s.

Index to the Reports, 1831-1860, 12s. (carriage included).

Index to the Reports, 1861-1890, 15s. (carriage, 4}d.).

Lalande’s Catalogue of Stars, £1 1s.

Rules of Zoological Nomenclature, 1s.

On the Regulation of Wages by means of Lists in the Cotton Industry :—Spin-
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Report on the best means for promoting Scientific Education in Schools, 1867, 6d.

Second Report on the present Methods of teaching Chemistry, 1889, 6d.

Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing Practical Standards for use
in Electrical Measurements, 1892, 6d.; Report, 1894, 1s.

Second Report on the Development of Graphic Methods in Mechanical Science,
1892, 1s.

Report of the Ethnographical Survey Committee, 1893, 6d.

The Action of Magnetism on Light, by J. Larmor, F.RB.S., 1893, 1s.

Table of Electro-chemical Properties of Aqueous Solutions, compiled by Rev. T. C.
Fitzpatrick, 1898, 1s. 6d.

Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Part II., by
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Report on Planimeters, by Prof, 0. Henrici, F.R,S., 1894, 1s,

975

Discussion on Agriculture and Science, Ipswich, 1895, 3d.

Reports on the North-Western Tribes of Canada, 1s. or 1s. 6d. each.
Fourth Report on the Erosion of the Sea Coast, 1895, 9d.

Second Report on a Gauge for Small Screws, 1884, reprinted 1895, 6d.

First Report on giving practical effect to the Introduction of the British Association
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Report on Proposed Modification ofthe Thread of the B.A. Screw, 1900, 6d.

Digest of Observations on the Migration of Birds made at Lighthouses, by W. Eagle
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Report on the Migratory Habits of the Song-thrush and the White Wagtail, by W.
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Tables of F (7, v) and H (7, v) Functions, 1899, 1s.

The Problem of the Three Bodies, by E. T. Whittaker, 1899, 1s.

' Report on the Ethnological Survey of Canada, 1899, 1s. 6d. ; 1900, 1s. 6d.

The Chemical Compounds contained in Alloys, Report by F. H. Neville, F.R.S.,
1900, 1s.

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1897, 1899, 1900, each 1s.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.

bES-E

OF

OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,

1900.

Office of the Association:
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1900-1901.

PRESIDENT.
Proressor SIR WILLIAM TURNER, K.C.B., M.B., D.Sc., D.0.L., LL.D., F.B.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS.

The Right Hon. the Hart or ScArBROUGH, Lord-
Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire.

His Grace the DUKE OF DEVoNsHIRE, K.G., D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.

The Most Hon. the Marquis or Ripon, K.G.,
G.O.S.1., D.O.L., F.R.S.

‘The Right Rev. the LorpD Bisnop or Ripon, D.D.

‘The Right Hon. Lornp Masham.

His Worship the Mayor or BRADFoRD.

The tat’ H.E. Boturn, Lord of the Manor, Brad-
ora,

Sir ALEXANDER BINNIF, M.Inst.0.E., F.G.S,

Professor A. W. Ricker, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S.

Dr. T. E. THoRPS, Sce.D., F.R.S., Pres.C.S.

Principal N. BopinG'ron, Litt.D., Vice-Chancellor
of tbe Victoria University.

Professor L. C. MIALL, F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT.
Professor A. W. Ricker, M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.

The Right Hon. the EARL or GLAscow, K.0.M.G.

‘The Right Hon. the Lorp BLyTHswoop.

The Right Hon. the Lorp KEtvin, G.C.V.0O., D.O.L.,
LL.D., F.B.S.

‘The Hon, the Lorp Provost or GLASGOW.

‘The Principat of the University of Glasgow.

Sir JOHN MAXWELL STIRLING-MAXWELL,Bart., M.P.

Sir ANDREW NoBLgE, K.O.B., D.C.L., F.R.¢.
S r ARCHIBALD GRIKIE, D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS.

Sir W. T. THISELTON-DyeEr, K.C.M.G., C.1.E., F.R.S,
JAMES PARKER SMITH, Esq., M.P,

JOHN INGLIS, Esq., LL.D.

ANDREW STEWART, Esq., LL.D.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Professor Sir William 0. Roperts-AUSTEN, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scorr, F.R.S.

ASSISTANT GENERAL SECRETARY.
G. GrirrirH, Esq., M.A., Harrow, Middlesex,

GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor G, Caney Foster, B.A., F.R.S., Burlington House, London, W.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW,

Sir J. D. Marwick, LL.D.,F.RS.E. |

Prof. JOHN YouNG, M.D. |

Prof. Magnus MAcLEAN, D.Se

LOCAL TREASURERS FOR THE MEETING AT GLASGOW.

ROBERT GOURLAY, Esq.

| JAMES NICOL, Esq., City Chamberlain,

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

ARMSTRONG, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Bonar, J., Esq., LL.D.

Bowen, Professor F. O., F.R.S.
OALLENDAR, Professor H.L, FR.S,
CrEAK, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S.
DARWIN, F., Esq., F.R.S.

Darwin, Major L., Sec.R.G.S.
FREMANTLE, Hon. Sir OC, W., K.C.B.
GASKELL, Dr. W. H., F.R.S.
HALLIBURTON, Professor W. D., F.R.S.
Harcourt, Professor L. F. VERNON, M.A.
Kettim, J. Scorr, Esq., LL.D.
LANKESTER, Professor E. Ray, F.R.S.

Lockyer, Sir J. NorMAN, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Loner, Professor O. J., F.R.S.
MAcMAHON, Major P. A., F.R.S.
Marr, J. E., Esq., F.R.S.

Poutton, Professor E. B., F R.S.
PREECE, Sir W. H., K.C.B., F.RS.

| Price,. L. L., Esq., M.A.

| SOLAS, Professor W. J.. F.R.S.
THOMSON, Professor J. M., F.R.S.
TILDEN, Professor W. A., F.R.S.

Ty Lor, Professor E. B., F.R.S.
WoLre-Barky, Sir J., K.C.B., F.B.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL,
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

The Right Hon. Lord AveBoury, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
The Right Hon. Lord RayirieH. M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S,
Professor A. W. RijckER, M.A., D.Sc., Sec. R.S.

PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1., | Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.R.S. | The Marquis of Salisbury, K.G.
PRS. ar Sir F. J. Bramwell, Bart., F.R.S. ¥.R.S. ,
Sir F. A. Abel, Bart., K.0.B., P.R.S. | Lord Lister, D.C.L., F.R.S.

Sir Wm. Huggins, K.0.B., P.R.S. | Sir John Evans, K.C
SirArchibald Geikie, LL.D..F.R.8. | Sir William Crookes
Lord Avebury, F.R.S. Prof. Sir J.S. Burdon Sanderson, | Sir Michael
Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., F.R.S. Bart., F.R.S. M.P., Sec.R.S.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS,

F. Galton, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F-R.S. | Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc. See R.Se
Prof. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., | Prof. T.G. Bonney, D.Se., F.R.S. | Prof. E. A. Schiifer, F.R.S,
M.P., Sec. R.S. Prof. A. W. Williamson, #.R.S.
G. Griffith, Esq., M.A. A. Vernon Harcourt, Esq., F.R.S,
AUDITORS.
Dr. Horace Brown, F.R.S. |

A 2

Sir G. G. Stokes, Bart., F.R.S.
Lord Kelvin, G.0.V.0., F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.

E. W. Brabrook, E:q., C.B,

ie ee ‘4
Wik Sart, $- ri

at SP oo

LIST OF MEMBERS

OF THE

BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.

1900.

* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report,
§s indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Annual
Report if their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1900.
{ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members, elected
before 1845, not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL CoMMI?TrEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.

Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Assistant
General Secretary, G. Griffith, Esq., Burlington House, W.

Year of
Glection.

1887. *AnBE, Professor CLrveranp. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, U.S.A.

1897. t{Abbott, A. H. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

1898. §Abbott, George, M.R.C.S. 33 Upper Grosvenor-road, Tunbridge
Wells. Fe

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Whitley House, Malton.

1887, tAbbott,T.C. Eastleigh, Queen’s-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

1863. *AseEL, Sir Freprrick Aveustus, Bart., K.0.B., D.C.L., D.Se.,
F.R.S., V.P.C.S., President of the Government Committee on
Explosives. The Imperial Institute, Imperial Institute-road,
and 2 Whitehall-court, S.W.

1885, *AnERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Haddo
House, Aberdeen.

1885. tAberdeen, The Countess of. Haddo House, Aberdeen.

1885. { Abernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen.

1885, tAbernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen.

1873, *Asney, Captain Sir W. pz W., K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., FLR.A.S
Rathmore Lodge, Bolton-gardens Sevth, Earl’s Court, S.W.

6

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1886,
1884.
1875.
1900.
1882.
1869.
1877.

1873.
1894,
1877,
1898.
1887,

1892.
1884.
1871.
1879.
1869.

1879.
1896.

1898.

1890.
1890.

1899.
1883.
1896.
1884.
1887.
1864.
1871.
1871.
1895.
1891.
1871.
1898.
1884.
1886.
1900.
1896.

1894,
1891.
1883.
1858.
1896.
1891.
1883.

1883.
1883.

1867,

fAbraham, Harry. 147 High-street, Southampton.

tAcheson, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada.

tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

§Ackroyd, William, Borough Laboratory, Crossley Street, Halifax.

*Acland, Alfred Dyke. 38 Pont-street, Chelsea, S.W.

tAcland, Sir C. T. Dyke, Bart., M.A. Killerton, Exeter.

*Acland, Captain Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Woodmansterne Rectory,
Banstead, Surrey.

*Acland, Rey. H. D., M.A. Luccombe Rectory, Taunton.

*Acland, Henry Dyke, F.G.S. The Old Bank, Great Malvern.

*Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 74 Brook-street, W.

tAcworth, W.M. 47 St. George’s-square, 8. W.

tAvaaa, J. G., M.A., M.D., Professor of Pathology in the University,

Montreal, Canada.

tAdams, David. Rockville, North Queensferry.

tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

§Adams, John R. 2 Nutley-terrace, Hampstead, N.W.

*Apams, Rev. THomas, M.A., D.C.L., Paignton, South Devon.

*Apams, WILLIAM GryLts, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Pro-
fessor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College,
London. 43 Campden Hill-square, W.

tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic in the Uni-
versity of Glasgow.

tAdamson, W. Sunnyside House, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

§Addison, William L. T. Byng Inlet, Ontario, Canada.

t{Addyman, James Wilson, B.A. Belmont, Starbeck, Harrogate.

tApengy, W. E., F.C.S. Royal University of Ireland, Earlsfort-
terrace, Dublin.

§Adie, R. H., M.A., B.Sc. 8 Richmond-road, Cambridge,

tAdshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield.

tAffieck, W. H. 28 Onslow Road, Fairfield, Liverpool.

tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-avenue, New York, U.S.A.

tAgnew, William. Summer Hill, Pendleton, Manchester.

*Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

* Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Gosforth, Cumberland.

t{Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.

*Airy, Hubert, M.D. Stoke House, Woodbridge, Suffolk.

*Aisbitt, M. W. Mountstuart-square, Cardiff.

§AITKEN, JOHN, F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Ardenlea, Falkirk, N.B.

{Axnrs-Dovetas, Right Hon. A., M.P. 106 Mount-street, W.

*Alabaster, H. Lytton, Mulgrave-road, Sutton, Surrey.

*Albright, G.S. The Elms, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§ Aldred, Francis J.. M.A. The Lizans, Malvern Link.

§Aldridge, J. G. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.k. 9 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

tAlexander, A. W. Blackwall Lodge, Halifax.

tAlexander, D.'T. Dynas Powis, Cardiff.

tAlexander, George. JKildare-street Club, Dublin.

*Alexander, Patrick Y. Experimental Works, Bath.

tAlexander, William. 45 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

*Alford, Charles J., £.G.S. 15 Great St. Helens, E.C.

tAlger, Miss Ethel. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlger, W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South Devon.

tAlger, Mrs. W. H. The Manor House, Stoke Damerel, South
Devon.

tAlison, George L. C. Dundee.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 7

Year of

Election.

1885, {Allan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen.

1871. {Allan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10 Austin Friars, E.O.

1871. {Axten, Atrrep H.,F.C.S. 67 Surrey-street, Sheffield.

1879, *Allen, Rev. A. J.C. The Librarian, Peterhouse, Cambridge.
1898. §Allen, E. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1888.

1884.
1891.
1887.
1878.
1891.
1889.
1889.
1886.
1896.
1882.

1887.
1873.
1891.

1883.
1883.
1884.
1883,
1885.
1874.
1892.
1899,
1888.
1887.

1889.
1880.
1883,
1895.
1891.
1880.
1886.
1883.
1877.

1886.
1900.
1896.
1886.
1878.
1890.
. §Arber, E. A. N., B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

. {Archer,G, W. 11 All Saints’-road, Clifton, Bristol.

. §Archibald, A. The Bank House, Ventnor,

. “Archibald, E. Douglas. Constitutional Club, Northumberland

tAxten, F. J.,M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology, Mason University
College, Birmingham.

fAllen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham,

fAllen, Henry A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, S.W.

fAllen, John. Kilgrimol School, St. Anne’s-on-the-Sea, via. Preston.

tAllen, John Romilly. 28 Great Ormond-street, W.C.

tAllen, W. H. 24 Glenroy Street, Roath, Cardiff.

tAllhusen, Alfred. Low Fell, Gateshead.

tAllhusen, Frank E. The School, Harrow.

tAllport, Samuel, F.G.S. Mason University College, Birmingham,

TAlsop, J. W. 16 Bidston-road, Oxton.

*Alverstone, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.M.G., LL.D. Hornton
Lodge, Hornton Street, Kensington, S.W.

fAlward, G. L. 11 Hamilton-street, Grimsby, Yorkshire,

tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

fAmbrose, D. R. Care of Messrs. J. Evans & Co., Bute Docks,
Cardiff.

§Amery, John Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

§Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid, Ashburton, Devon.

tAmi, Henry, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York.

*ANnDERSON, HucH Kerr. Caius College, Cambridge.

tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.

fAnderson, Joseph, LL.D. 8 Great King-street, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, Miss Mary K. 13 Napier-road, Edinburgh.

*Anderson, R. Bruce. 354 Great George-street, S.W.

fAnderson, Professor R. J.. M.D. Queen’s College, and Atlantic
Lodge, Salthill, Galway.

tAnderson, R. Simpson. Elswick Collieries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*ANDERSON, TempEst, M.D., B.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Stonegate, York.

tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter.

tAndrews, Charles W. British Museum (Natural History), S.W,

tAndrews, Thomas, 163 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea,

§Andrews, William, F.G.S. Steeple Croft, Coventry.

fAnelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge.

§AneELL, Jonny, F.C.S., FIC. 6 SBeacons-field, Derby-road,
Withington, Manchester,

tAnnan, John, J.P. Whitmore Reans, Wolverhampton.

§Annandale, Nelson. 84 Charlotte Square, Edinburgh.

fAnnett, R. C.F. 11 Greenhey-road, Liverpool.

fAnsell, Joseph. 38 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

tAnson, Frederick H. 15 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.

§Antrobus, J. Coutts. Eaton Hall, Congleton.

Avenue, W.C.

. §Armistead, Richard. Chambres House, Southport.

*Armistead, William. Hillcrest, Oaken, Wolverhampton,

. Armitage, Benjamin. Chomlea, Pendleton, Manchester.

8 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1857. *Anmstronc, The Right Hon. Lord, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Cragside, Rothbury.

1873. *Armstronc, Henry E., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemis-
try in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Central
Institution, Exhibition-road, S.W. 55 Granville Park,
Lewisham, S.E.

1876. {Armstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A.

1889. t Armstrong, John A, 32 Eldon-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1889. +O EERE) Thomas John. 14 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-upon-

ne,

1893. eae oem H., M.A., F.G.8. 56 Friar-gate, Derby.

1870. *Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Penroses, Holsworthy, North Devon.

1874. tAshe, Isaac, M.3. Dundrum, Co. Dublin.

1889, tAshley, Howard M. Airedale, Ferrybridge, Yorkshire.

1887. tAshton, Thomas Gair, M.A. 36 Charlotte-street, Manchester.

*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors,
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.

1888. *Ashworth, J. Jackson. Haslen House, Handforth, Cheshire.

1890. {Ashworth, J. Reginald, B.Sc. 105 Freehold-street, Rochdale,

1887. tAshworth, John Wallwork, F.G.8. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor,
Stockport.

1887. tAshworth, Mrs. J. W. Thorne Bank, Heaton Moor, Stockport.

1887. tAspland, Arthur P. Werneth Lodge, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

1875. *Aspland, W. Gaskell. Tuplins, Newton Abbot.

1861. {Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.

1896. *Assheton, Richard. Grantchester, Cambridge.

1861. {Aston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1896. §Atkin, George, J.P. Egerton Park, Birkenhead.

1887. §Atkinson, Rev. C. Chetwynd, D.D. Ingestre, Ashton-on-Mersey.

1884. ae Edward, PhD., LL.D. Brookline, Massachusetts,

S.A

1898. *Atkinson, E. Cuthbert. Temple Observatory, Rugby.

1894, tAtkinson, George M. 28 St. Oswald’s-road, 8. W.

1894, *Atkinson, Harold W. Rossall School, Fleetwood, Lancashire,

1861. {Athinson, Rev. J. A. The Vicarage, Bolton.

1881. {Atkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire.

1881. tArxinson, Ropert WittiAM, F.C.S. 44 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

1894, §Atkinson, William. Erwood, Beckenham, Kent.

1863. *ArrriIELD, J., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 111 Temple-chambers,
K.C.

1884, tAuchincloss, W.S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

1853. *AveBuRY, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L, F.R.S. High Elms,
Farnborough, Kent.

1877, *Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City
and Guilds of London Institute, Central Institution, Exhibition-
road, S.W. 41 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

1884. {Baby, The Hon. G. Montreal, Canada.
1900. §Baccuvus, RamspEN. 15 Welbury Drive, Bradford.
1883. *Bach, Madame Henri. 12 Rue Fénélon, Lyons,
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington.
1863. {Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
1883. *Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s, Wolsingham, R.S.0., Durham.
1387. *Bacon, Thomas Walter. Ramsden Hall, Billericay, Essex.
1887. {Baddeley, John. 1 Charlotte-street, Manchester.
1883. {Baildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport.
1892. {Baildon, H. Bellyse. Duncliffe, Murrayfield, Edinburgh.

Year of
Election

1883.
1895.
1870.

1887,
1865.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 9

*Bailey, Charles, F.L.S, Ashfield, Cullege-road, Whalley Range,
Manchester.

§Bartey, Colonel F., Sec. R.Scot.G.8., F.R.G.S. 7 Drummond-place,
Edinburgh.

{Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool.

*Bailey, G. H., D.Sc., Ph.D. Marple Cottage, Marple, Cheshire.

tBailey, Samuel, F.G.S. Ashley House, Calthorpe-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1899.§§ Bailey, T. Lewis. 85 Wawarden-avenue, Liverpool.

1855.
1887.
1894.
1878.
1885.
1897.
1885.
1882.

1898.
1898.
1891.
1881.
1875.
1881.
1884.
1871.

1894.
1875.
1885.
1878.
1866.
1885.
1886.
1869.
1890,

1899.

{Bailey, W. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.

tBailey, W. H. Summerfield, Eccles Old-road, Manchester.

*Baily, Francis Gibson, M.A. 11 Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

{Baity, Watrpr. 4 Roslyn-hill, Hampstead, N.W.

{Bary, Atexanprr, M.A., LL.D. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen.

§Bain, Jamas, jun. Toronto.

{Bain, William N. Collingwood, Pollokshields, Glascow.

*Baker, Sir Bensamrn, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E.
2 Queen Square-place, Westminster, S.W.

{Baker, Herbert M. Wallcroft, Durdham Park, Clifton, Bristol,

{Baker, Hiatt C. Mary-le-Port-street, Bristol.

{Baker, J. W. 50 Stacey-road, Cardiff.

{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York.

{Baxer, W. Proctor. Bristol.

{Baldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York.

{Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada.

{Balfour, The Right Hon. G. W., M.P. 24 Addison-road, Ken-
sington, W.

§Balfour, Henry, M.A. 11 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

{Batrovr, Isaac Baytry,M.A.,D.S8c.,M.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E., F.L.S.,
Professor of Botany in the University of Edinburgh. Inverleith
House, Edinburgh.

tBalfour, Mrs. I. Bayley. Inverleith House, Edinburgh.

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D., Regius Professor of Surgery in the
University of Dublin. 24 Merrion-square, Dublin.

*Batz, Sir Ropert Srawert, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Lowndean
Professor of Astronomy and Geometry in the University of
Cambridge. The Observatory, Uambridge. ;

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Ballantyne, J. W., M.B. 24 Melville-street, Edinburgh.

{Bamber, Henry K., F.0.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S. W.

Bamford, Professor Harry, B.Sc. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

§Bampton, Mrs. 42 Marine-parade, Dover.

1882. {Bance, Colonel Edward, J.P. Oak Mount, Highfield, Southampton.
1898.§§Bannerman, W. Bruce, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. The Lindens, Sydenham-

1884,
1866,
1884.
1890.
1861.
1894.§
1871.

road, Croydon,
{Barbeau, EK. J. Montreal, Canada.
{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
tBarber, Rev. 8. F. West Raynham Rectory, Swaffham, Norfolk.
*Barber-Starkey, W. J.S. Aldenham Park, Bridgnorth, Salop.
*Barbour, George. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
§Barclay, Arthur. 29 Gloucester-road, South Kensington, S.W.
{Barclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.

1860. *Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
1887. *Barclay, Robert. Sedgley New Hall, Prestwich, Manchester.

1886.

{Barclay, Thomas. 17 Bull-street, Birmingham,

10 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1881. {Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester.

1882. {Barford, J. D. Above Bar, Southampton.

1886. {Barham, F. F. Bank of England, Birmingham.

1890. {Barker, Alfred, M.A., B.Sc. Aske’s Hatcham School, New Cross, S.E,

1899. §Barker, John H. 26 Park-parade, Cambridge.

1882. *Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham.

1879. *Barker, Rey. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Priddy Vicarage, Wells,
Somerset.

1898. §Barker, W. R. 106 Redland-road, Bristol.

1886. {Barling, Gilbert. 85 Edmund-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1873. {Barlow, Crawford, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. Deene, Tooting Bec-road,
Streatham, S.W.

1889. §Barlow, H. W. L., M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Holly Bank, Croftstank-
road, Urmston, near Manchester.

1883. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport.

1878. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col-
lege, Glasgow.

1883. {Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton.

1885. *Bartow, WitiiAM, F.G.8. The Red House, Great Stanmore.

1873. {Bartow, Wixi1am Henry, F.R.S., M.inst.C.E. High Combe, Old
Charlton, Kent.

1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Cheltenham,

1881. {Barnard, William, LL.B. 38 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1889. {Barnes, J. W. Bank, Durham.

1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset.

1899.§§Barnes, Robert. 9 Kildare Gardens, Bayswater, W.

1884. {Barnett, J. D. Port Hope, Ontario, Canada.

1899.§§Barnett, W. D. 41 Threadneedle-street, H.C.

1881. {Barr, ARCHIBALD, D.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. The University, Glasgow.

1890. {Barr, Frederick H. 4 South-parade, Leeds.

1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.

1891. §Barrell, Frank R., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University
College, Bristol.

1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J. C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport.

1872. *Barrert, W. F., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.R.1.A., Professor of Physics
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1883. {Barrett, William Scott. Abbotsgate, Huyton, near Liverpool.

1899. §Barrert-Hamitton, Capt. G. E. H. Kilmarnock, Arthurstown,
Waterford, Ireland.

1887. {Barrington, Miss Amy. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.

1874. *Barrineton, R. M., M.A., LL.B., F.L.S. Fassaroe, Bray, Co.
Wicklow.

1874. *Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester.

1885. *Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. Nervion, Beckenham-
erove, Shortlands, Kent.

1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.

1898, *Barrow, GuoreE, F.G.S. ‘Geological Survey Office, 28 Jermyn-
street, S.W.

1886. {Barrow, George William. Baldraud, Lancaster.

1886, {Barrow, Richard Bradbury. Lawn House, 13 Ampton-road, Edg-
baston, Birmingham.

1896. §Barrowman, James. Staneacre, Hamilton, N.B.

1886. {Barrows, Joseph. The Poplars, Yardley, near Birmingham.

1886. {Barrows, Joseph, jun. Ferndale, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham,

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS. 11

Election.

1858.
1883.
1881.
1884,
1890.
1890.
1892.

1858.

1884.
1873.
1892.
1893.

1884.
1852.

1899.

1892.
1887.

1898.

1876.
1876.

1888.
1891.
1866.

1889.

1869.
1871.

1889.

1883.

1868.

1889.
1884.
1881.

1863.
1867.
1892,
1875.
1876.

1887.

1883.

1886.

1886,
1860.
1882.
1884.
1872.

tBarry, Right Rev. Atrrep, D.D., D.C.L. The Cloisters, Windsor.

{Barry, Charles E. 1 Victoria-street, 8. W.

{Barry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York.

*Barstow, Miss Frances A. Garrow Hill, near York.

*Barstow, J. J. Jackson. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

*Barstow, Mrs. The Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.

tBartholomew, John George, F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 12 Blacket-place,
Edinburgh.

*Bartholomew, William Hamond, M.Inst.C.E. Ridgeway House,
Cumberland-road, Hyde Park, Leeds.

{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bartley,G.C.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, S.W.

tBarton, Miss. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{Barton, Edwin H., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin.

tBarton, James. Farndree, Dundalk.

*Barton, Miss Ethel 8. 7 Brechin Place, South Kensington, 8.W.

tBarton, William. 4 Glenorchy-terrace, Mayfield, Edinburgh.

{Bartrum, John 8S. 13 Gay-street, Bath.

*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.

tBason, Vernon Millward. 7 Princess-buildings, Clifton, Bristol.

{Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, W.

{Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.

*Basser, A. B., M.A., F.R.S. Fledborough Hall, Holyport, Berkshire.

{Bassett, A. B. Cheverell, Llandaff.

*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, N.

{BasrasiE, Professor C. F., M.A., F.S.S. 6 Treyelyan-terrace,
Rathgar, Co. Dublin.

{Bastard, 8.8. Summerland-place, Exeter.

{Bastran, H. Cuarzuron, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
the Principles and Practice of Medicine in University College,
London. 84 Manchester-square, W.

{Batalha-Reis, J. Portuguese Consulate, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Barrman, Sir A. E., K.C.M.G., Gontroller General, Statistical

Department. Board of Trade, 7 Whitehall Gardens, S.W.
tBateman, Sir F., M.D., LL.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

{Bates, C. J. Heddon, Wylam, Northumberland.

tBareson, Witt1am, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*BaTHER, Francis ARtHuR, M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. British Museum
(Natural History), S.W.

§BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 14 Cavendish-road, Balham, 8. W.

{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.

§Bayly, F. W. 8 Royal Mint, E.

*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.

*Baynus, Rospert K., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Baynes, Mrs. R. E. 2 Norham-gardens, Oxford.

*Bazley, Gardner 8. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire. _

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Winterdyne, Chine
Crescent-road, Bournemouth.

{Beale, C. Calle Progress No. 83, Rosario de Santa Fé, Argentine
Republic.

{Beale, Charles G. Maple Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Bratz, Lionet S., M.B., F.R.S. 61 Grosvenor-street, W.

§Beamish, Lieut.-Colonel A. W., R.E. 27 Philbeach-gardens, S.W.

{tBeamish, G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool.

ee Edward, F C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley,
Kent.

12 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of

Election.

1883. t{Beard, Mrs. Oxford. +

1889. §Buarn, Prof. T. Hupson, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. University
College, W.C., and Park House, King’s Road, Richmond.

1842. *Beatson, William. 2 Ash Mount, Rotherham.

1889. {Beattie, John. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1855. *Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picea-
dilly, W.

1886. {Beaugrand, M.H. Montreal. }

1900. §Beaumont, Prof. Roberts, M.I.Mech.E. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1861. *Beaumont, Rev. Thomas George. Oakley Lodge, Leamington.

1887. *Beaumont, W. J. The Laboratory, Citadel Hill, Plymouth.

1885. *Beaumont, W. W., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Outer Temple, 222 Strand,

W.C.

1896. {Beazer, C. Hindley, near Wigan.

1887. *Brcxerr, Joan Hamppen. Corbar Hall. Buxton, Derbyshire.

1885, {Bepparp, Frank E., M.A, F.RS., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoo=
logical Society of London, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1870. §Beppoz, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S. The Chantry, Bradford-on-Avon.

1896, §Bedford, F. P. 326 Camden Road, N.

1858. §Bedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds.

1890. {Bedford, James E., F.G.S. Shireoak-road, Leeds.

1891, §Bedlington, Richard. Gadlys House, Aberdare.

1878. {Brpson, P. Puitiies, D.Sc., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
College of Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1884. {Beers, W.G., M.D. 84 Beaver Hull-terrace, Montreal, Canada,

1873. {Behrens, Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York-
shire.

1874. {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.

1891. *Belinfante, L. L., M.Se., Assist.-Sec. G.S. Burlington House, W.

1892. {Bell, A. Beatson. 143 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

1871. {Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.

1884. {Bell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada.

1894, {Bynt, F. Jerrrey, M.A., F.Z.S. 35 Cambridge-street, Hyde
Park, W. :

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Tssex.

1860. {Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1900. *Bell, H. Wilkinson. Holmehurst, Rawdon, near Leeds.

1862. *BxExt, Sir Issac Lowrmran, Bart., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.0.E.
Rountou Grange, Northallerton.

1875, {Brtt, Jamrs, C.B., D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. Howell Hill Lodge,
Ewell, Surrey.

1896. {Bell, James. Care of the Liverpool Steam Tug Co., Limited,
Chapel-chambers, 28 Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1891. {Bell, James. Bangor Villa, Clive-road, Cardiff.

1871. *Brrt, J. Carrer, F.C.S, Bankfield, The Clitf, Higher Broughton,
Manchester.

1883. *Bell, John Henry. 100 Leyland-road, Southport.

1864. {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.

1888, *Bell, Walter George, M.A. ‘Trinity Hall, Cambridge.

1893. {BEnpEr, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.M. Kingston, Nottinghamshire.

1884. {Bemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada.

1886. §Benger, Frederick Baden, F.LC., F.C.S. The Grange, Knutsford.

1885, {BenHam, WiLLIAM Braxtanp, D.Sc., Professor of Biology in the
University of Otago, New Zealand.

1891. {Bennett, Alfred Rosling. 44 Manor Park-road, Harlesden, N.W.

1870. {Bennert, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East,

Regent’s Park, N.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 18

Year of
Election.

1896. §Bennett, George W. West Ridge, Oxton, Cheshire.

1881. §Bennett, John Ryan. 5 Upper Belgrave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1883. *Bennett, Laurence Henry. The Elms, Paignton, South Devon,

1896. {Bennett, Richard. 19 Brunswicl-street, Liverpool.

1881. {Bennett, Rev. 8S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Bishopshill Junior,
York.

1889. {Benson, John G. 12 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1887. *Benson, Mrs. W. J. Care of Standard Bank of South Africa, Stel-
lenbosch, South Africa.

1863. {Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1898. *Bent, Mrs. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

1884. {Bentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

1897. {Bently, R. R. 97 Dowling-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

1896. *Bergin, William, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s
College, Cork.

1894. §Berkeley, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Foxcombe, Boarshill, near
Abingdon.

1863. {Berkley,C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.

1886. {Bernard, W. Leigh. Calgary, Canada.

1898. §Berridge, Miss C. EK. Wellscot, Hayward’s Lane, Cheltenham.

1894. §Berridge, Douglas, M.A., F.C.S. The College, Malvern.

1862. {Busant, WittrAM Heyry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College,
Cambridge.

1882. *Bessemer, Henry. Town Hill Park,West End, Southampton.

1890. {Best, William Woodham, 31 Lyddon-terrace, Leeds.

1880. *Brvan, Rev. James Ortver, M.A.,F.G.S. 55 Gunterstone-road, W.

1885. {Beveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen.

1884. *Beverley, Michael, M.D. 54 Prince of Wales-road, Norwich.

1870. {Bickerton, A.W. Newland Terrace, Queen’s Road, Battersea, S.W.

1888. *Bidder, George Parker. Savile Club, Piccadilly, W.

1885. *BripwELL, SHELForD, Sc.D., LL.B., F.R.S. Riverstone Lodge, .
Southfields, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8.W.

1882. §Biges, C. H. W., F.C.S. Glebe Lodge, Champion Hill, S.E.

1898. §Billington, Charles. Studleigh, Longport, Staffordshire.

1886. {Bindloss, G.F. Carnforth, Brondesbury Park, N.W.

1887. *Bindloss, James B. Elm Bank, Eccles, Manchester.

1884, *Bingham, Lieut.-Colonel John E., J.P. West Lea, Ranmoor,
Sheffield.

1881. {Brnnie, Sir ALExanpER R., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. London County
Council, Spring-gardens, 8. W.

1873. {Binns, J. Arthur. 31 Manor Row, Manningham, Bradford, York-
shire.

1899. §Bird, F. J. Norton House, Midsomer Norton, Bath.

1880. {Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down House, Millbrook, near

Devonport.

1888. *Birley, Miss Caroline. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, W.

1887. *Birley, H. K. Hospital, Chorley, Lancashire.

1871. *Biscnor, Gustav. 19 Ladbroke-gardens, W.

1894, {Bisset, James. 5 East India-avenue, F.C,

1885. {Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B.

1886, *Bixby, Major W. H. Engineer's Office, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

1889. {Black, W. 1 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1889. { Black, William. 12 Romulus-terrace, Gateshead.

1881. {Black, Surgeon-Major William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United
Service Club, Edinburgh.

1869. { Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Eveter.

1876, {Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshyen, Fort William, N.B,

14 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1884, {Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada.
1900. §Blackburn, W. Owen. 3 Mount Royd, Bradford.
1877. {Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

1855.

1896.
1884,
1883.
1896.
1886.

1895.
1883.
1892.
1892.
1883.
1846.
1891.

1894.
1900.
1881.
1895.
1884.
1869,

1887.

1887.
1887.
1884,
1880.
1888.

1870.
1859.

1885.

1867.
1887.
1870.
1887.
1900.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1898.
1876.
1894.
1898.
1898.
1883.
1871.

1888,
1893.

*Brackre, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 1 Belhaven-terrace, Kelvinside,
Glasgow.

§Blackie, Walter W., B.Sc. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.

+Blacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Blacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport.

{Blackwood, J. M. 16 Oil-street, Liverpool.

ae John, F.L.S. The Bridge House, Newcastle, Stafford-
shire.

{Blaikie, W. B. 6 Belgrave-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley.

{Blair, Alexander. 35 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Blair, John. 9 Ettrick-road, Edinburgh.

*Brake, Rev. J. F., M.A., F.G.8._ 69 Comeragh-road, W.

*Blake, William. Bridge, South Petherton, Somerset.

{BraxesLpy, THomas H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E. Royal Naval College
Greenwich, 8.E. —

{Blakiston, Rev. C.D. Exwick Vicarage, Exeter.

*Blamires, Joseph. Bradley Lodge, Huddersfield.

{Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield.

{Blamires, William. Oak House, Taylor Hill, Huddersfield.

*Blandy, William Charles, M.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading.

tBranrorp, W. T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford-

ardens, Campden Hill, W.

*Bles, Be J. S. Palm House, Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.

*Bles, Edward J., B.Sc. Newnham Lea, Grange-road, Cambridge.

{Bles, Marcus S. The Beeches, Broughton Park, Manchester. i

*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Bloxram, G. W., M.A. 11 Presburg Street, Clapton, N.E.

§Bloxsom, Martin, B.A., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Hazelwood, Crumpsall
Green, Manchester.

{Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby,

t{Blunt, Captain Richard, Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.

Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.

{Buyta, James, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in
Anderson’s College, Glasgow.

*Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.

{Blythe, William S. 65 Mosley-street, Manchester.

tBoardman, Edward. Oak House, Eaton, Norwich.

*Boddingtcn, Henry. Pownall Hall, Wilmslow, Manchester.

§BoprneTon, Principal N., M.A. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

+Bodmer, G. R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. 80 Walbrook, E.C.

{Body, Rey. OC. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

*Boissevain, Gideon Maria. 4 Tesselschade-straat, Amsterdam.

§Bolton, H. The Museum, Queen’s-road, Bristol.

tBolton, J. C. Carbrook, Stirling.

§Bolton, John. 15 Clifton-road, Crouch End, N.

tBolton, J. W. Baldwin-street, Bristol.

§Bonar, J., M.A., LL.D. 1 Redington-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tBonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Colton House, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

*Bonney, Rev. Tuomas Guroren, D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.
F.G.S. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W,

tBoon, William. Coventry.

{Boot, Jesse. Carlyle House, 18 Burns-street, Nottingham,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 15

Year of
Election.

1890,

1883.
1883.
1876.
1883.
1900.
1876.
1882.

1876.
1896,

*Bootu, Cuartus, D.Sc., F.RS., F.S.S. 24 Great Cumberland
Place, W.

{Booth, James. Hazelhurst, Turton.

{Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

{Booth, Rev. William H. Mount Nod-road, Streatham, S.W.

{Boothroyd, Benjamin. Solihull, Birmingham.

§Borchgrevinck, C, E. Douglas Lodge, Bromley, Kent.

*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.

ee Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 19 Alexandra-road, Wimbledon,

urrey.

*Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Castillo Zamora,
Realejo-Alto, Tenerife.

tBose, Dr. J. C. Calcutta, India.

*Bossey, Francis, M.D, Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.

1881. §BotHaminy, Cuartes H., F.1C., F.C.S., Director of Technical
Instruction, Somerset County Education Committee, Otter-
wood, Beaconsfield-road, Weston-super-Mare.

1887. {Bott, Dr. Owens College, Manchester.

1872. {Bottle, Alexander. 4 Godwyne-road, Dover.

1868. {Bottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.

1887. ney, James, D.Se., B.A. 220 Lower Broughton-road, Man-
chester.

1871. *Borrominy, James Tuomson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S.
13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1884, *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1892. {Bottomley, W. B., B.A., Professor of Botany, King’s College, W.C.

1876. {Bottomley, William, jun. 15 University-gardens, Glasgow.

1890. {Boulnois, Henry Percy, M.Inst.C.E. 44 Campden House Court
Kensington, W. :

1883. {Bourdas, Isaiah. Dunoon House, Clapham Common, S8.W.

1883, {Bourns, A. G., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Biology in the
Presidency College, Madras. ;

1893. *Bourne, G. C., M.A., F.L.S. Savile House, Mansfield-road, Oxford.

1889. {Bourne, R. H. Fox. 41 Priory-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

1866. §BouRNE, StepHEN. 5 Lansdown-road, Lee, S.E.

1890. {Bousfield, C. E. 55 Clarendon-road, Leeds,

1898.§§Bovey, Edward P., jun. Clifton Grove, Torquay.
1884, {Bovey, Henry T., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Civil Engineer-

1888.
1881.

1898.

1856.
1898.
1880,
1887.
1865.
1899.

1899.

1887.
1895.

1871

ing and Applied Mechanics in McGill University, Montreal.
Ontario-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
{Bowden, Rey. G. New Kingswood School, Lansdown, Bath.
*Bower, F. O., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Glasgow.
“Bowker, Arthur Frank, F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Royai Societies Club
St. James’s-street, S.W. ;
*Bowlby, Miss F. HE. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
§Bowley, A. L., M.A. Waldeck House, Southern Hill, Readine.
tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester. 2
{Bowly, Mrs. Christopher. Cirencester.
§Bowman, F., H., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Mayfield, Knutsford, Cheshire.
*Bowman, Herbert Lister, M.A. 13 Sheffield-gardens, Kensington We
*Bowman, John Herbert. 13 Sheffield Gardens, Kensington, Ww.
§Box, Alfred Marshall. Care of Cooper, Box & Co., 69 Alderman-
bury, E.C.
*Boycs, Rupert, M.B., Professor of Pathology, University College
Liverpool. 4
» [Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh,

16

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1865

1884,

1892.
1872.
1869.

1894.
1895.
1899.
1892.
1863.

1880.
1864.
1888.
1898.
1865.

1867.
1861.
1885.
1890.
1868.
1877.
1898.
1882.
1866.
1891.

{Boytz, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A. The Deanery, Salisbury.

*Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 50
Parliament-street, 5. W.

§Boys, CHaRLes VERNON, F.R.S. 27 The Grove, Boltons, S.W.

*Braproox, E, W., C.B., F.S.A. 178 Bedford-hill, Balham, S.W.

*Braby, Frederick, F.GS., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington,
Middlesex.

*Braby, Ivon. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, Middlesex.

§Bradley, F. L. Bel Air, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Bradley, J. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Town Hall, Wolverhampton.

§Bradshaw, W. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham.

{Brapy, Guorce S., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
History in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
2 Mowbray-villas, Sunderland.

*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Rainham Hall, Rainham, 8.0., Essex.

Braham, Philip. 3 Cobden-mansions, Stockwell-road, S.E.

§Braikenridge, W. J., J.P. 16 Royal-crescent, Bath.

§Bramble, James R. Seafield, Weston-super-Mare.

§BRAMWELL, Sir FREDERICK J., Bart., D.C.L., LL.D. F.BS.,
M. Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, S.W.

tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.

*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. 72 Hills Road, Cambridge.

*Bratby, William, J.P. Alton Lodge, Hale, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Bray, George. Belmont, Headingley, Leeds.

{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, W.C.

{Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.

§Brereton, Cuthbert A., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, S.W.

*Bretherton, C. E. 26 Old Broad Street, E.C.

{Brettell, Thomas. Dudley.

{Brice, Arthur Montefiore, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 159 Strand, W.C.

_ 1886.§§Briven, T. W., M.A,, D.Se., Professor of Zoology in the Mason

1870.
1887.
1870.
1886.
1879.
1870.
1890.
18938.
1868.

1893.

1884,
1898.

1879.
1878.

1884.

University College, Birmingham.
*Bridson, Joseph R. Bryerswood, Windermere.
Brierley, John, J.P. The Clough, Whitefield, Manchester.
{Brierley, Joseph. New Market-street, Blackburn.
{Brierley, Leonard. Somerset-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tBrierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
*Brice, Jonn, M.P. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Brigg, W. A. Kildwick Hall, Keighley, Yorkshire.
{Bright, Joseph. Western-terrace, The Park, Nottingham.
{Brine, Admiral Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall

Briscoe, Albert E., B.Sc. ,A.R.C.Se. Municipal Technical Tustitute,
Romford-road, West Ham, E.

{Brisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Bristox, the Right Rev. G. F. Browns, Lord Bishop of, D.D. 17

The Avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

*Brirrain, W. H., J.P., FE.R.G.S. Storth Oaks, Sheffield.

{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
S8.W

“Brittle, John R., MInst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 9 Vanbrugh-hill, Black-
heath, 8.E.

1899.§§ Broadwood, Miss Bertha M. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.
1899.§§ Broadwood, James H. E. Pleystowe, Capel, Surrey.
1897. {Brock, W. R. Toronto.

1896.
1883.

*Brocklehurst, §. Olinda, Sefton Park, Liverpool.
*Brodie, David, M.D. Care of Bernard Hollander, 61 Chancery-lane,
WECE

LIST OF MEMBERS. Uy

Year of
Election.

1884, ee William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan,
U.S.A

1883. *Brodie-Hall, Miss W.L. 5 Devonsbire-place, Eastbourne.

1881. Po, Robert G. Wolverhampton House, St. Helens, Lanca-
shire.

1864, *Brooke, Ven. Archdeacon J. Ingham. The Vicarage, Halifax.

1887. §Brooks, James Howard. Elm Hirst, Wilmslow, near Man-
chester.

1863. {Brooks, John Crosse. 14 Lovaine-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1887. {Brooks,S. H. Slade House, Levenshulme, Manchester.

1883. *Brotherton, E. A. Arthington Hall, Wharfedale, vii Leeds.

1883. *Brough, Mrs. Charles 8. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, S.E.

1886. {Brough, Professor Joseph, LL.M., Professor of Logic and Philosophy
in University College, Aberystwith.

1885. *Browett, Alfred. 29 Wheeley’s-road, Birmingham.

1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER ORvM, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. , V.P.C.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Bel-
grave-crescent, Edinburgh.

1892, {Brown, Andrew, M.Inst.C.E. Messrs. Wm. Simons & Co., Renfrew,
near Glasgow.

1896. {Brown, A. T. The Nunnery, St. Michael’s Hamlet, Liverpool.

1867. {Brown, Sir Charles Gage, M.D., K.C.M.G. 88 Sloane-street, S.W.

1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.

1871. {Brown, David. Willowbrae House, Midlothian.

1863, *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.

1883. tBrown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

1881. {Brown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford.

1883. {Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex, W.

1883. “Brown, Mrs. H. Bienz. Fochabers, Morayshire.

1883. {Brown, Mrs. Helen. Canaan-grove, Newbattle-terrace, Edinburgh.

1870. §Brown, Horace T., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 52 Nevern-square, S.W.

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
1883. {Brown, Miss Isabella Spring. Canaan-grove, Ni ewbattle-terrace,

Edinburgh.

1895. {Brown, J. Auten, J.P., F.R.GS. FGS. 7 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W.

1870. *Brown, Professor J. Campsett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College,
Liverpool.

1876. §Brown, John. Longhurst, Dunmurry, Belfast.

1881. *Brown, John, M.D. Stockbridge House, Padisham, Lancashire,

1882. *Brown, John. 7 Second-avenue, Nottingham,

1895. *Brown, John Charles. 2 Baker-street, Nottingham.

1894, {Brown, J. H. 6 Cambridge-road, Brighton.

1882. *Brown, Mrs. Mary. Stockbridge House, Padisham, Lancashire.

1898. §Brown, Nicol, F.G.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, N.

1897. {Brown, Price, M.B. 37 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

1886, §Brown, R., R.N. Laurel Bank, Barnhill, Perth.

1863, {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle~upon-Tyne.

1897. {Brown, Richard. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Brown, Stewart H. Quarry Bank, Allerton, Liverpool.

1891. §Brown, aie Forstar, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Guild Hall Chambers,
Cardiff.

1865. {Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.

1885. {Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen.

1884, {Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Oo., Virginia, U.S.A.

1863. {Browne, Sir Benjamin Chapman, M.Inst.C.E. Westacres, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

1900, B

18

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1900. §Browne, Frank Balfour. Goldielea, Dumfries, Scotland.

1892. t Browne, Harold Crichton. Crindon, Dumfries.

1895. *Browne, H. T. Doughty. 10 Hyde Park-terrace, W.

1879, {Browne, Sir J. Cricuton, M.D.,LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.S.E. 61 Carlisle-

1891.
1862.
1872.
1887.
1865.
1885.

place-mansions, Victoria-street, S.W.
{Browne, Monracu, F.G.S. Town Museum, Leicester.
*Browne, Robert Clayton, M.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland.
tBrowne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, Kent.
tBrownell, T. W. 6 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, W.C.
t{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge.

1855. { Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.

1892.

{Bruce, James. 10 Hill-street, Edinburgh.

1893. {Bruce, William S. 11 Mount Pleasant, Joppa, Edinburgh.
1900. *Brumm, Charles. Lismara, Grosvenor Road, Birkdale, Southport.

1863. *Brunel, H. M., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.

1863. {Brunel, I. 15 Devonshire-terrace, W.

1875. {Brunlees, John, M.Inst.C.E. 12 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1896. *Brunner, Sir J.T., Bart., M.P. Druid’s Cross, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1868. {Brunton, Sir T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Stratford-place,
Oxford-street, W.

1897. *Brush, Charles F. Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A.

1878.§§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.

1886

1894,
1884.
1897.

. *Bryan, G. HH D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in
University College, Bangor.

{Bryan, Mrs. R. P. Plas Gwyn, Bangor.

{Brycz, Rev. Professor GeorcE. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Bryce, Right Hon. James, D.C.L., M.P., F.R.S. 54 Portland-
place,

1894. {Brydone, R. M. Petworth, Sussex.

1890.
1871.

1867.
1881.
1871.

1884.
1883,
1886.
1865.

1886
1884

1851

1887.

1875.
1883.
1893.
1871.
1885.
1895.
1886.
1842.
1869,

§Bubb, Henry. Ullenwood, near Cheltenham.

§Bucwan, ALEXANDER, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish
Meteorological Society. 42 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

{Buchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.

*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk.

t{Bucwanan, Joun Youns, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S., F.C.8,
10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.

{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Buckland, Miss A. W. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

*Buckle, Edmund W. 238 Bedford-row, W.C.

* Buckley, Henry. 18 Princes-street, Cavendish-square, W.

.§§Buckley, Samuel. Merlewood, Beaver Park, Didsbury.

. *Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.0.8. 16 Heathfield-road,

Mill Hill Park, W.

. *Bucxron, Grorce Bowpter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.

{Budenberg, C. F., B.Sc. Buckau Villa, Demesne-road, Whalley
Range, Manchester.

tBudgett, Samuel. Penryn, Beckenham, Kent.

{Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland,

§BuLLerp, ARTHUR, F.S.A. Glastonbury.

{Bulloch, Matthew. 48 Prince’s-gate, S.W

{Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport.

{Bunte, Dr. Hans. Karlsruhe, Baden.

§Bursury, 8. H., M.A., F.R.S. 1 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

*Burd, John. Glen Lodge, Knocknerea, Sligo.

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 19

Year of
Election.

1881. {Burdett-Coutts, W.L.A.B., M.P. 1Stratton-street, Piccadilly, W.

1891. {Burge, Very Rev. T. A. Ampleforth Cottage, near York.

1894. {Burxn, Jonny, B. B. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1884. *Burland, Lieut.-Col. Jeffrey H. 824 Sherbrook-street, Montreal,
Canada.

1899. §Burls, Herbert T. 206 Lewisham High-road, 8.E.

1888. {Burne, H. Holland. 28 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.

1883. *Burne, Major-General Sir Owen Tudor, G.C.LE., K.C.S8.L,F.R.G.S.
132 Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, W.

1876. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1885. *Burnett, W. Kendall, M.A. 11 Belmont-street, Aberdeen.

1877. {Burns, David. Alston, Carlisle.

1884, {Burns, Professor James Austin. Southern Medical College, Atlanta,
Georgia, U.S.A.

1899.§§Burr, Malcolm. Dorman’s Park, East Grinstead.

1887. {Burroughs, Eggleston, M.D. Snow Hill-buildings, E.C.

1883. *Burrows, Abraham. Russell House, Rhyl, North Wales.

1860, {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford,

1894. {Burstall, H. F. W. 76 King’s-road, Camden-road, N. W.

1891. tBurt, J. J. 103 Roath-road, Cardiff.

1888. {Burt, John Mowlem. 3St.John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

1888. {Burt, Mrs. 3 St. John’s-gardens, Kensington, W.

1894. {Burton, Charles V. 24 Wimpole-street, W.

1866. *Burron, Frepericx M., F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfield, Gainsborough,

1889. ¢Burton, Rev. R. Lingen. Little Aston, Sutton Coldfield.

1897. {Burton, 8. H., M.B. 50 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.

1892. {Burton-Brown, Colonel Alexander, R.A., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 11
Union Crescent, Margate.

1897. {Burwash, Rev. N., LL.D., Principal of Victoria University,
Toronto, Canada.

1887. *Bury, Henry. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1899. §Bush, Anthony. 48 Portland-road, Nottingham.

1895. §Bushe, Colonel C. K., F.G.S. 19 Cromwell-road, S. W.

1878. {Burcusr, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, 8. W.

1884. *Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Holyrood, 5 Cleveland-
road, Ealing, W.

1884. {Butler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

1884, *Butterworth, W. Park Avenue, Temperley, near Manchester.

1872. {Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.

1883. {Buaxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1887. *Buxton, J. H. Clumber Cottage, Montague-road, Felixstowe.

1881. {Buxton, Sydney. 15 Eaton-place, S.W.

1868. {Buxton, S. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.

1872. {Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Warlies,
Waltham Abbey, Hssex.

1854, {ByErtey, Isaac, F.L.S. 22 Dingle-lane, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.

1899. §Byles, Arthur R. ‘Bradford Observer,’ Bradford, Yorkshire.

1885. {Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen.

1852. {Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.

1883. {Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester.

1889. {Cackett, James Thoburn. 60 Larkspur-terrace, Newcastle-upon-
'yne.
1892. {Cadell, Henry M., B.Sc., F.R.S.E. Grange, Bo’ness, N.B. ,

1894, {Caillard, Miss E. M. Wingfield House, near Trowbridge, Wilts.
1863, {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire,
B2

20 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Roseangle, Dundee.

1886. *Caldwell, William Hay. Cambridge.

1868. {Caley, A. J. Norwich.

1887. {Cartaway, CuartEs, M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. 35 Huskisson-street,
Liverpool.

1897. §CaLLENDAR, Prof. Hueu L.,M.A.,F.R.S. University College, Gower
Street, W.C., and 2 Chester Place, Regent’s Park, N.W.

1892. {Calvert, A. F., F.R.G.S, Royston, Eton-avenue, N.W.

1884. {Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1876. {Cameron, Sir Charles, Bart., M.D., LL.D. 1 Huntly-gardens,
Glasgow.

1857. Se Sir Cuarters A., C.B., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road,
Dublin

1896. §Cameron, Irving H. 307 Sherbourne-street, Toronto, Canada.

1884. {Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada.

1870. {Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1884, {Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada.

1876. oa Nich dre Hon. James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House,

rechin.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place,

Edinburgh.

1897. {Campbell, Major J. C. L. New Club, Edinburgh.

1898.§§Camphell, Mrs. Napier. 81 Ashley-gardens, S.W.

1897, {Campion, B. W. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

1882. {Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton.

1890. {Cannan, Epwin, M.A., F.S.8. 1 Wellington Square, Oxford.

1897. §Cannon, Herbert. Woodbank, Erith, Kent.

1898, {CawreRBuRY, Right Hon. and Most Rev. F. Tempre, Lord Archbishop
of. Lambeth Palace, S.E.

1888. {Cappel, Sir Albert J. L., K.C.LE, 27 Kensington Court-gardens,
London, W.

1894, §Capper, D. S., M.A., Professor of Mechanical Engineering in King’s
College, W.C.

1883. {Capper, Mrs. R. 9 Bridge-street, Westminster, S.W.

1887. {Capstick, John Walton. University College, Dundee.

1873. *Carpurt, Sir Epwarp Hamer, Bart., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Hyde Park-
gardens, W.

1896, *Carden, H. V. Balinveney, Bookham, Surrey.

1877. {Carkeet, John. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.

1898, {Carlile, George M. 7 Upper Belgrave-road, Bristol.

1867. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.

1897, {Carmichael, Norman R. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,
Canada.

1884. {Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada.

1884. Tiare Louis G. Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado,
USA

1897. {Carpenter, R. C. Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

1889. {Carr, Cuthbert Ellison. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

1893. {Carr, J. Wustny, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Nottingham.

1889. {Carr-Ellison, John Ralph. Hedgeley, Alnwick.

1867. {CarrurHEeRs, WiutiraM, F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S. 14 Vermont-
road, Norwood, 8.E.

1886. {CarstaKe, J. BarnaM. 3O Westfield-road, Birmingham.

1899. §Carslaw, H.8., D.Sc. The University, Glasgow.

1883. {Carson, John. 51 Royal-avenue, Belfast.

1868. *Carteiche, Michael, I°.C.S., F.L.C. 180 New Bond-street, W.

a

LIST OF MEMBERS. 21

Year of
Election.

1897.§§Carter, E. Tremlett. ‘The Electrician, Salisbury Court, Fleet

1866.
1870.
1885.
1900,
1883.
1896.

1878.
1870,

1862.
1894.
1884.

1884.
1887.
1897.
1896.
1871.
1873.
1900.

1897.

1888.
1874,
1859.
1886,

1883.
1859.
1883.

1884.
1883.
1881.
1865.
1865.
1865.
1888,
1861.

1897.
1889.
1900.
1884.
1899.
1877.
1874.

1874,
1866.

Street, E.C.

{Oarter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.

{Carter, Dr. William. 78 Rodney Street, Liverpool.

{Carter, W. C. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

*Carter, Rev. W. Lower, F.G.S. Hopton, Mirfield.

tCarter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport.

§Cartwright, Miss Edith G. 21 York Street Chambers, Bryanston
Square, W.

*Cartwright, Ernest H., M.A., M.D. Bower Terrace, Maidstone.

§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., F.S.I., Borough and Water
Engineer. Albion-place, Bury, Lancashire.

tCarulla, F. J. R. 84 Argyll-terrace, Derby.

{Carus, Paul. La Salle, Illinois, U.S.A.

*Carver, Rey. Canon Alfred J., D.D.,F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham
Common, 8.W.

{Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, S.W.

{Casartelli, Rev. L. C., M.A., Ph.D. St. Bede’s College, Manchester.

*Case, Willard E. Auburn, New York, U.S,A.

*Casey, James. 10 Philpot-lane, H.C.

{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.

*Cash, William, F.G.S. 35 Commercial-street, Halifax.

*Cassie, W., M.A. Professor of Physics in the Royal Holloway
College, Brantwood, Englefield Green.

{Caston, Harry Edmonds Featherston. 340 Brunswick-avenue,
Toronto, Canada.

{ Cater, R. B. Avondale, Henrietta Park, Bath.

{Caton, Richard, M.D. Lea Hall, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tCatto, Robert. 44 Kine-street, Aberdeen.

*Cave-Moyles, Mrs. Isabella. Lancaster House, 102 Palace-road,
Tulse Hill, S.W.

Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborouch.

Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Weydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
{Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tChalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.

{Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park,
Southport.

{Chamberlain, Montague. St. John, New Brunswick, Canada.

{Chambers, Mrs. Bombay.

*Champney, John EK. 27 Hans Place, S.W.

{Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Chance, Sir James T., Bart. 1 Grand-avenue, Brighton.

tChance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Chandler, S. Whitty, B.A. Sherborne, Dorset.

*Chapman, Edward, M.A., M.P., F.L.S., F.C.S. Hill End, Mottram,
Manchester...

{Chapman, Edward Henry. 17 St. Hilda’s-terrate, Whitby.

JChapman, L. H. 147 Park-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Chapman, L. J. 79 St. Bees Street, Moss Lane East, Manchester.

Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada.

§Chapman, Sydney John. University College, Cardiff.

f{Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. 17 Wesley-avenue, Liscard, Cheshire.

tCharles, J. J.,. M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology in
Queen’s College, Cork. Newmarket, Co. Cork.

{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.

t Charnock, Richard Stephen, Ph.D., FSA. Crichton Club, Adelphi-
terrace, W.C.

22 LIST OF MEMBERS,

‘Year of
Election.

1886. {Chate, Robert W. Southfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1884, *Chatterton, George, M.A., M.Inst.0.E. 6 The Sanctuary, West-
minster, S. W. p. ahe)

1886. *Chattock, A. P., M.A., Professor of Experimental Physics in
University College, Bristol.

1867. *Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S. High Lawn, Broad Oak Park,
Worsley, Manchester.

1884, {CHAuvEAv, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada.

1883. {Chawner, W., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge.

1864, {CHEaptE, W. B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 19 Portman-street,
Portman-square, W.

1900. §Cheesman, W. Norwood. The Crescent, Selby.

1887. {Cheetham, I’, W. Limefield House, Hyde.

1887. {Cheetham, John. Limefield House, Hyde.

1896, tChenie, John. Charlotte-street, Edinburgh.

1874. *Chermside, Major-General Sir H. C., R.E., G.C.M.G.,0.B. Care of
Messrs. Cox & Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, 8. W.

1884, {Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada.

1896. {Cherry, R. B. 92 Stephen’s Green, Dublin.

1879. *Chesterman, W. Belmayne, Sheffield.

1883. {Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington.

1884. {Chipman, W. W. L. 957 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

1889. {Chirney, J. W. Morpeth.

1894. {Chisholm, G. G., M.A., B.Sc, F.R.G.S. 59 Drakefield Road, Upper
Tooting, 8. W.

1899. §Chitty, Edward. Suffolk House, London-road, Dover.

1899, §Chitty, Mrs. Edward. Suffolk House, London-road, Dover.

1899. §Chitty,G. W. Mildura, Park-avenue, Dover.

1882. {Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex.

1887. tChorlton, J. Clayton. New Holme, Withington, Manchester.

1895. *CurEn, Cuartns, D.Sc., F.R.S., Superintendent of the Kew
Observatory, Richmond, Surrey.

1900. *Christie, R. J. Duke Street, Toronto, Canada.

1884, *Christie, William. 29 Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

1875. *Christopher, George, F.C.S. May Villa, Lucien-road, Tooting
Common, 8. W.

1876. *Curystat, Grorer, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathe-
matics in the University of Edinburgh. 5 Belerave-crescent,
Edinburgh,

1870, §Cauron, A. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., Professor of Chemistry in the
Royal Academy of Arts. Shelsley, Hnnerdale-road, Kew.

1898. §CHuRcH, Colonel G. Eart, F.R.G.S. 216 Cromwell-road, 8. W.

1860. {CHuRcH, Sir WrrrraAm Supy, Bart., M.D. St. Bartholomew’s
Hospital, E.C.

1896. §Clague, Daniel, F.G.S. 5 Sandstone-road, Stoneycroft, Liverpool.

1890. {Clark, E. K. 13 Wellclose-place, Leeds.

1877. *Clark, F. J., J.P., F.L.S. Netherleigh, Street, Somerset.

Clark, George T. 44 Berkeley-square, W.

1876. {Clark, George W. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow.

1892. {Clark, James, M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Agriculture in the York-
shire College, Leeds.

1892. {Clark, James. Chapel House, Paisley.

1876, {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glaseow.

1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc. 112 Wool Exchange, E.C.

1855, {Clark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.

1887. §Clarke, C. Goddard, J.P. Fairlawn, 157 Peckham-rye, S.E.

1875, {Clarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 23

f

Hleotion.

1886. {Olarke, David. Langley-road, Small Heath, Birmingham.

1886. {Clarke, Rev. H. J. Great Barr Vicarage, Birmingham.

1875. {CxarKxn, Joun Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1897. §Clarke, Colonel S. C., R.E. Parklands, Caversham, near Reading.

1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport.

1896, §Clarke, W. W. Albert Dock Office, Liverpool.

1884. {Claxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada,

1889. §CraypeEn, A. W., M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s, Polsloe-road, Exeter.

1866, {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, W.C.

1890, *Clayton, William Wikely. Gipton Lodge, Leeds.

1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick.

1875. {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire.

1861. §CreLanp, Jonny, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Glasgow. 2 The University, Glasgow.

1861. *Oxrrron, R. Betamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. 3 Bardwell-
road, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898. {Clissold, H. 30 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893. {Clofford, William. 36 Mansfield-road, Nottingham.

Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.

1878. §Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 38 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.

1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.

1892. tClouston, T. S., M.D. Tipperlinn House, Edinburgh.

1883. *Crowns, Franx, D.Sc., F.C.S. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, S.W., and 17 Bedford Court-mansions, W.C.

1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.

1881. *Clutton, William James. The Mount, York.

1885. {Clyne, James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen.

1891. *Coates, Henry. Pitcullen House, Perth.

. 1897. {Coates, J., M.Inst.C.E. 99 Queen-street, Melbourne, Australia.

1884, §Cobb, John. Westfield, Ilkley, Yorkshire.

1895. *Cossorp, Fenix T., M.A. The Lodge, Felixstowe, Suffolk.

1889. {Cochrane, Cecil A. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1864. *Cochrane, James Henry. Burston House, Pittville, Cheltenham.

1889. {Cochrane, William. Oakfield House, Gosforth, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1892. {Cockburn, John. Glencorse House, Milton Bridge, Edinburgh.

1883. {Cockshott, J. J. 24 Queen’s-road, Southport.

1861. *Coe, Rev. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Whinsbridge, Grosvenor-road,
Bournemouth.

1898.§§Coffey, George. 5 Harcourt-terrace, Dublin.

1881. *Corrin, Watter Harris, F.C.8S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South
Kensington, 8.W.

1896. *Coghill, Perey de G. 4 Sunnyside, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1884. *Cohen, B. L., M.P. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, W

1887. tCohen, Julius B. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1894. *Colby, Miss E. L., B.A. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

1895. *Colby, James George Ernest, M.A., F.R.C.S, Malton, Yorkshire,

1895. *Colby William Henry. Carregwen, Aberystwyth.

1803. tCole, Prof. Grenville A. J., F.G.S. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1879, {Cole, Skelton. 387 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

1864. {Colefax, H. Arthur, Ph.D., F.C.S. 14 Chester-terrace, Chester-
square, S.W.

1897. §Coteman, Dr. A. P. 476 Huron-street, Toronto, Canada.

1893. tColeman, J. B., F.C.S., A.R.C.S. University College, Nottingham,

1899. §Coleman, William. The Shrubbery, Buckland, Dover.

1878. {Coles, John. 1 Savile-row, W.

1854. *Colfox, William, B,A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.

24

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS.

of

Election.

1899

. §Collard, George. The Gables, Canterbury.

1892. {Collet, Miss Clara E. 7 Coleridge-road, N.

1892.
1887.

1869.
1895.
1854.

1861.

1876.
1865.
1882.

1884,

1897,
1896.
1888.
1884.
1891.
1900.
1892.
1884.
1896.
1890.
1871.
1893.

1899.

1898.
1900.
1882.

1876.
1881.
1868.
1895.
1868.
1884.
1878.
1881.
1865.
1896.
1888.
1899,
1895,

1893.
1883.
1868.

{Collie, Alexander. Harlaw House, Inverurie.

{Cottre, J. Norman, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry to the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain. 16 Campden-grove, W.

{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.

{Collinge, Walter E. Mason College, Birmingham.

{Cottinewoop, Curuperr, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 69 Great Russell-
street, W.C.

*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. 5 Irene-road, Parson’s Green,

tCottins, J. H., F.G.S. 162 Barry-road, S.E.

*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Colmer, Joseph G.,C.M.G. Office of the High Commissioner for
Canada, 17 Victoria-street, S.W.

t{Colomb, Sir J.C. R., M.P., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry,
Treland; and Junior United Service Club, S.W.

{Colquhoun, A. H. U., B.A. 39 Borden-street, Toronto, Canada,

*Comber, Thomas, F.L.S. Leighton, Parkgate, Chester.

{Commans, R. D. Macaulay-buildings, Bath.

tCommon, A. A., LL.D.,F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, W.

tCommon, J. F. F. 21 Park-place, Cardiff.

§Common, T. A., B.A. 63 Eaton Rise, Ealing, W.

t+Comyns, Frank, M.A., F.C.S. The Grammar School, Durham.

{Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A.

t{Connacher, W.S. Birkenhead Institute, Birkenhead.

{Connon, J. W. Park-row, Leeds.

*Connor, Charles C, 4 Queen’s Elms, Belfast.

{Conway, Sir W. M., M.A., F.R.G.8S. The Red House, Hornton-
street, W.

§Coopz, J. Cuartes, M.Inst.C.E. Westminster-chambers, 9 Vic-
toria-street, S. W.

§Cook, Ernest H. 27 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

§Cook, Walter. 98 St. Mary’s Street, Cardiff.

{Cooxr, Major-General A. C., R.E., O.B., F.R.G.S. Palace-chambers,
Ryder-street, 8. W.

*CooKE, ConrAD W. 28 Victoria-street, 8. W.

{Cooke, F. Bishopshill, York.

{Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.

{Cooke, Miss Janette E. Holmwood, Thorpe, Norwich.

tCooxn, M.C.,M.A. 53 Castle Road, Kentish Town, N.W.

{Cooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

{Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.

{Cooke, Thomas. Bishopshill, York.

{Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.

t{Cookson, E. H. Kiln Hey, West Derby.

TCooley, George Parkin. Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, Nottingham.

*Coomara Swamy, A. K. Walden, Worplesdon, Guildford,

tCooper, Charles Friend, M.I.E.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W

{Cooper, F.W. 14 Hamilton-road, Sherwood Rise, Nottingham,
{Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, W.C.
tCooper, W. J. New Malden, Surrey.

1889. {Coote, Arthur. The Minories, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1878.
1871.

tCope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
{CopeLann, Ratpn, Ph.D., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for Scotland
and Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh.

— a

LIST OF MEMBERS, 25

Year of
Election.

1885.
1881.
1891.
1887.
1894.

1883.
1870.

1893.
1889.

1884.
1885.
1888.
1900.
1891.
1891,

1883.
1891.

1874.
1864,

1869.
1876.
1876.
1889.
1896.
1890.
1896,

1863.
1868.
1872.

1900.
1895.
1871.
1899.
1867.
1867.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1867.
1883.
1890.
1892.
1884,
1876.
1884,

{Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B.

{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York.

Corbett, E. W.M. Y Fron, Pwllypant, Cardiff.

*Corcoran, Bryan. Fairlight, Oliver Grove, South Norwood, S.E.

§Corcoran, Miss Jessie R. The Chestnuts, Mulgrave-road, Sutton,
Surrey.

*Core, Professor Thomas H., M.A. Fallowfield, Manchester.

*CorrieLD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiene
and Public Health in University College, London. 19 Savile-
row, W.

*Corner, Samuel, B.A., B.Sc. 95 Forest-road West, Nottingham.

{Cornish, Vaughan, M.Sc., F.R.G.S. Branksome Cliff, Branksome
Park, Bournemouth.

*Cornwallis, F. 8. W., M.P., F.L.S. Linton Park, Maidstone.

tCorry, John. Rosenheim, Park Hill-road, Croydon.

tCorser, Rey. Richard K. 57 Park Hill-road, Croydon.

§Cortie, Rev. A. L., F.R.A.S. Stonyhurst College, Blackburn.

tCory, John, J.P. Vaindre Hall, near Cardiff.

tCory, Frain: Richard, J.P. Oscar House, Newport-road, Car-

‘ti

iff,

{Costelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, W.C.

*Cotsworth, Haldane Gwilt. The Cedars, Cobham Road, Norbiton,
S.W

*Correritt, J.H., M.A., F.R.S. 15 St. Alban’s-mansions, Kensing-
ton Court-gardens, W.

{Corron, General FrepErick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, 8. W.

tCorroy, Wiitram. Pennsylvania, Exeter.

Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

{Courtney, F. S. 77 Redcliffe-square, South Kensington, S.W.

{Courtyey, Right Hon. Leonarp. 15 Cheyne Walk, Chelsea, S.W.

tCousins, John James. Allerton Park, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

{Coventry, J. 19 Sweeting-street, Liverpool.

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.

{tCowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.

{tCowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.L.S., F.G.8, 17 King William-street,
Strand, W.C.

§Cowburn, Henry. Dingle Head, Westleigh, Leigh, Lancashire.

*CowE LL, Puitie H., M.A. Royal Observatory, Greenwich, S.E.

{Cowper, C. E. 6 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.

§Cowper-Coles, Sherard. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

*Cox, Edward. Cardean, Meigle, N.B.

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.

tCox, Robert. 84 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

tCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-
street, S.W.

tCox, Thomas W. B. The Chestnuts, Lansdowne, Bath.

$Cox, William. JF oggley, Lochee, by Dundee.

{Crabtree, William. 126 Manchester-road, Southport.

tCradock, George. Wakefield.

*Craig, George A. 66 Idge-lane, Liverpool.

§Craicre, Major P. G.,F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.

${Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B,

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

26

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1887.
1887.
1871.

1871.

1846.
1890.
1883.
1870.
1885.

1896.
1879.
1876,
1887.
1896.
1880.

1890.
1878.

1857.
1885.
1885.
1885.
1887.
1898.
» 1865.

1879.
1897.

1870.
1894.
1870.
1890.

{Craven, John. Smedley Lodge, Cheetham, Manchester.

*Craven, Thomas, J.P. Woodheyes Park, Ashton-upon-Mersey.

*CRAWFORD AND BatcaRREs, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen.

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Craig-
lockhart, Edinburgh.

*Crawshaw, The Right Hon. Lord. Whatton, Loughborough.

§Crawshaw, Charles B. Rufford Lodge, Dewsbury.

*Crawshaw, Edward, F.R.G.S. 25 Tollington-park, N,

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Caversham Park, Reading.

§Creax, Captain E. W., R.N., F.R.S. 9 Hervey-road, Black-
heath, S.E.

{Cregeen, A.C. 21 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

{Creswick, Nathaniel. Chantry Grange, near Sheffield.

*Crewdson, Rev. Canon George. St. Mary’s Vicarage, Windermere.

*Crewdson, Theodore. Norcliffe Hall, Handforth, Manchester.

§Crichton, Hugh. 6 Rockield-road, Anfield, Liverpool.

*Orisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.LS., F.G.8. 5 Lansdowne-road,
Notting Hill, W.

*Croft, W. B., M.A. Winchester College, Hampshire.

{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. Clouneagh, Ballingarry-Lacy, co,
Limerick.

tOrolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.

tCrombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

{Cromsrg, J. W., M.A., M.P. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen.

{Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

§Croox, Hnnry T. 9 Albert-square, Manchester.

§Crooke, William. Langton House, Charlton Kings, Cheltenham.

§Crooxss, Sir Wri1iam, F.R.S., V.P.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-
gardens, W.

{Crookes, Lady. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, W.

*CrooxsHaNK, E. M., M.B., Professor of Bacteriology in King’s
College, London, W.C.

tCrosfield, C. J. Gledhill, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

*Crosfield, Miss Margaret C, Undercroft, Reigate.

*CROSFIELD, WitLIAM. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.

{Cross, E. Richard, LL.B. Harwood House, New Parks-crescent,
Scarborough.

1887.§§Cross, John. Beaucliffe, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

1861.

1853.
1887.
1894.

1897.
1894,
1883.
1882.
1890.
1863.
1885.

1888.

1898,
1888.
1883.

tCross, Rev. John Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Halecote, Giange-over=
Sands.

tCrosskill, William. Beverley, Yorkshire.

*Crossley, William J. Glenfield, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Crosweller, William Thomas, F.Z.S., F.L.Inst. Kent Lodge, Sidcup,
Kent.

*Crosweller, Mrs, W. T. Kent Lodge, Sidcup, Kent.

{Crow, C. F. Home Lea, Woodstock Road, Oxford.

{Crowder, Robert. Stanwix, Carlisle.

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire.

*Crowley, Ralph Henry, M.D. 116 Manningham Lane, Bradford.

tCruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Oruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen.

ie tas William J. London and Brazilian Bank, Rio de Janeiro,

razil.

{tCroUNDALL, Sir Wittiam H. Dover.

{Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.

*CULVERWELL, EpwaRD P., M,A. 40 Trinity College, Dublin.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 27

Year of
Election.

1878.
1883.
1897,
1898.
1861.

1861.
1882.

1877.

1891.
1852.
1885.
1869.

1883,
1892.

1900.
1892.

1884,
1898.
1878.
1884,
1883.
1881.

1889.

1854.
1883.

1898.
1889.
1863.
1867.
1870,

1862.
1876.
1896,

1849,

tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.

{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol.

tCumberland, Barlow. Toronto, Canada.

§Cundall, J. Tudor. 1 Dean Park-crescent, Edinburgh.

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Man-
chester.

*Ounliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester.

*CuNNINGHAM, Lieut.-Colonel AntAN, R.E., A.LC.E. 20 Essex-
villas, Kensington, W.

*CunnineHAM, D. J., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Anatomy in Trinity College, Dublin.

tCunningham, J. H. 4 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.

{Cunnivenam, J. T., B.A. Biological Laboratory, Plymouth.

f¢CunnineHam, Rozserr O., M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural History in Queen’s College, Belfast.

*Cunninenam, Rev. W., D.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge.

§Cunningham-Craig, E. H., B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

*Cunnington, W. Alfred. 13 The Chase, Clapham Common, S.W.

*Currie, James, jun, M.A., F.R.S.E. Larkfield, Golden Acre,
Edinburgh.

{Currier, John McNab. Newport, Vermont, U.S.A.

{Curtis, John. 1 Christchurch-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.

{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A.

TCushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey.

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depdt, Belyedere-road,
Lambeth, S.W.

tDagger, John H., F.I.C. Victoria Villa, Lorne-street, Fairfield,
Liverpool.

{Daglish, Robert. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.

{Dihne, F'. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place,
Swansea.

§Dalby, Prof. W. E. 6 Coleridge-road, Crouch End, N.

*Dale, Miss Elizabeth. 2 Trumpington Street, Cambridge.

{Dale, J. B. South Shields.

{Dalgleish, W. Dundee.

{Dattrnerr, Rev. W. H., D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Ingleside,
Newstead-road, Lee, S.E.

Dalton, Edward, LL.D. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.

{Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. The Crouch, Seaford, Sussex.

§Dansken, John, F.R.A.S. 2 Hillside Gardens, Partickhill, Glasgow.

§Danson, F. C. Liverpool and London Chambers, Dale-street,
Liverpool.

*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.

1894, {Darbishire, B. V., M.A., F.R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, W.

1897. {Darbishire,C. W. Elm Lodge, Elm-row, Hampstead, N.W.

1897.§§Darbishire, F. V., Ph.D, Hopefield, Denison Road, Victoria Park,
Manchester.

1861. *DarsisHirE, Ropert DuxinrrenD, B.A. 26 George-street, Man-
chester.

1896. {Darbishire, W. A. Penybryn, Carnarvon, North Wales.

1899.
1882,

*Darwin, Erasmus. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
{Darwin, Francis, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wychfield, Hun-
tingdon-road, Cambridge,

28

Year
Electi

1881

1878.

LIST OF MEMBERS,

of
on.

. *Darwiy, Grorer Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge.

*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.

1894. *Darwin, Major Lzonarp, Hon. Sec. R.G.S. 12 Egerton-place, South

1882.
1888.
1872.
1880.

1898.
1884.
1870.
1885.
1891.
1870.
1887.
1896.
1893.
1898.
1887.
1878.
1870.
1864.
1882.
1896.

1885.
1891.
1886.
1886.
1864.
1857.
1869.
1869.

Kensington, S.W.
{Darwin, W. E., M.A., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton.
{Daubeny, William M. 11 St. James’s-square, Bath.
{Davenport, John T. 64 Marine-parade, Brighton.
*Davey, Henry, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 3 Prince’s-street, West-
minster, S.W.
§Davey, William John. 6 Water-street, Liverpool.
tDavid, A. J., B.A., LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, E.C.
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
tDavidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen.
{Davies, Andrew, M.D. Cefn Parc, Newport, Monmouthshire.
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
*Davies, H. Rees. Treborth, Bangor, North Wales.
*Davies, Thomas Wilberforce, F.G.S. 41 Park-place, Cardiff.
*Davies, Rev. T. Witton, B.A., Ph.D. Baptist College, Bangor.
§Davies, Wm. Howell, J.P. Down House, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{Davies-Colley, T. C. Hopedene, Kersal, Manchester.
*Davis, Alfred. 37 Ladbroke Grove, W.
*Davis, A. S. St. George’s School, Roundhay, near Leeds.
tDavis, Cuartes E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
{Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton.
*Davis, John Henry Grant. Balcombe Road, Hayward’s Heath,
Sussex. .
*Davis, Rev. Rudolf. Hopefield, Evesham.
tDavis, W. 48 Richmond-road, Cardiff.
{Davis, W. H. Hazeldean, Pershore-road, Birmingham.
{Davison, CHartEs, D.Sc. 16 Manor-road, Birmingham.
*Davison, Richard. Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Davy, E. W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter.
{Daw, R. R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

1860. *Dawes, John T. The Lilacs, Prestatyn, North Wales.

1864.

{Dawxrns, W. Boyn, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Professor of
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1886. {Dawson, Bernard, The Laurels, Malvern Link.

1891

. {Dawson, Edward. 2 Windsor-place, Cardiff.

1897.§§ Dawson, G. M., O.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Geological

1885.
1884,
1859.
1892.

Survey of Canada. Ottawa, Canada.
*Dawson, Lieut.-Colonel H. P., R.A. Hartlington, Burnsall, Skipton.
{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada.
*Dawson, Captain William G. The Links, Plumstead Common, Kent.
{Day, T.C., F.C.S. 36 Hillside-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. *Dzacon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. 19 Warwick-square, 8.W.
1900. §Deacon, M. Whittington House, near Chesterfield.

1887.
1861.

{Deakin, H.T. Egremont House, Belmont, near Bolton.
tDean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.

1884. *Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 1 Fitzjohn’s-ayenue, N.W.

1866.

tDrsvus, Hetricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 4 Schlangenweg, Cassel,
Hessen.

1884, {Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge.
1893. {Deeley, R. M. 38 Charnwood-street, Derby.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 29

Year of
Election.

1878,
1884.
1870.

1896.
1889.
1897.
1896.
1889.

1874,
1896.

1874.
1894,
1899.

{Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.

*De Laune, C. De L. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne.

{De Meschin, Thomas, B.A., LL.D. 2 Dr. Johnson’s Buildings,
Temple, E.C.

§Dempster, John. Tynron, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

fDendy, Frederick Walter. 3 Mardale-parade, Gateshead.

§Denison, F. Napier. Meteorological Office, Victoria, B.C., Canada.

{Denison, Miss Louisa E. 16 Chesham-place, S.W.

§Drnny, ALFRED, F.L.S., Professor of Biology in University College,
Sheffield.

Dent, William Yerbury. 5 Caithness-road, Brook Green, W.

{De Rance, Cuarres H., F.G.S. 33 Carshalton Road, Blackpool.

{Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.B. Knowsley, Prescot,
Lancashire.

*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, W.

*Deverell, F. H. 7 Grote’s-place, Blackheath, 8.E.

{DrvonsuHrRE, The Duke of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. 78 Piccadilly, W.

1899.§§Dewar, A. Redcote. Redcote, Leven, Fife.
1868. {DEewar, Jamus, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., V.P.C.S., Fullerian

1881.
1883,

1884.
1872.
1887.

1884,
1873.
1896.
1897.
1889.
1863.
1887.
1884,
1881.
1887.

1885.
1883.
1862.
1877.
1869.
1900.
1898.
1899

1874,
1900.

1883.

Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and
Jacksonian Professor of Natural. and Experimental Philosophy
in the University of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cam-
bridge.
{tDewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge.
{Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E, Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains,
Midlothian, N.B.
*Dewar, William, M.A. Horton House, Rugby.
{Dewick, Rev. E.S., M.A., F.G.S. 26 Oxford-square, W.
{Dz Winton, Major-General Sir F., G.C.M.G., C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W.
tDe Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A.
*Dew-SuitH, A. G., M.A. Chesterton Hall, Cambridge.
tD’Hemry, P. 186 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
{Dick, D. B. Toronto, Canada.
{Dickinson, A. H. The Wood, Maybury, Surrey.
tDickinson, G. T. Lily-avenue, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Dickinson, Joseph, F.G.S. South Bank, Pendleton.
tDickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada.
tDickson, Edmund, M.A., F.G.S. 2 Starkie-street, Preston.
§Dicxson, H. N., B.Sc., F.RS.E., F.R.G.S. 2 St. Margaret’s-road,
Oxford.
{Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen.
{Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston.
*DitkE, The Right Hon. Sir Coartes WeEntwortu, Bart., M.P.,
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, S.W.
{Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin.
Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
§Divers, Dr. Epwarp, F.R.S. 9 Rugby Mansions, Kensington, W.
*Dix, John William 8. Hampton Lodge, Durdham Park, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Dixon, A. C., D.Sc., Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College,
Galway.
*Dixoy, A. E., M.D., Professor of Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork,
Mentone Villa, Sunday’s Well, Cork.
§Dixon, A. Francis, D.Sc., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Cardiff.
tDixon, Miss E. 2 Cliff-terrace, Kendal.

30

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Blection.

1888.

1900.
1879.

1885.
1896.
1887.
1885,
1890.
1885.
1860.
1897.
1892.
1891.
1898.
1875.
1870.
1876.
1897.

1889.
1898.
1895.
1885.

1869.
1877.
1889.
1896.
1861.

1881.
1867.
1863.
1884.

1890.
1883.
1884.
1876.
1884.
1865.
1881.
1887.
1894.
1883.
1892.

1868.
1890.
1892.

18953.
1889.
1897.
1892,

§Dixon, Edward T. Messrs. Lloyds, Barnetts, & Bosanquets’ Bank,
54 St. James’s-street, S. W.

*Dixon, George, M.A. St. Bees, Cumberland.

*Drxon, Harorp B., M.A., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of Chemistry in
the Owens College, Manchester.

{Dixon, John Henry. Inveran, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B.

§Dixon-Nuttall, F. R. Ingleholme, Ecclestone Park, Prescot.

{Dixon, Thomas. Buttershaw, near Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’s-road, Aberdeen.

tDobbie, James J., D.Sc. University College, Bangor, North Wales.

§Dobbin, Leonard, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh.

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. Hartley Manor, Longfield, Kent.

{Doberck, William. The Observatory, Hong Kong.

{Dobie, W. Fraser. 47 Grange-road, Edinburgh.

{Dobson, G. Alkali and Ammonia Works, Cardiff.

{Dobson, W. E., J.P. Lenton-road, The Park, Nottingham.

*Docwra, George. 19 Clarence Street, Gloucester,

*Dodd, John. Nunthorpe-avenue, York.

{Dodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge,

{Dodge, Richard E. Teachers’ College, Columbia University, New
York, U.S.A.

{Dodson, George, B.A. Downing College, Cambridge.

tDole, James. Redland House, Bristol.

{Donald, Charles W. Kinsgarth, Braid-road, Edinburgh.

{Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Senior Principal of
the University of St. Andrews, N.B.

{Donisthorpe,G. T. St. Dayid’s Hill, Exeter.

*Donxin, Bryan, M.Inst.C.E. The Mount, Wray Park, Reigate.

{Donkin, R. 8., M.P. Campville, North Shields.

{Donnan, F. E. Ardenmore-terrace, Holywood, Ireland.

{Donnelly, Major-General Sir J. F. D., R.E., K.C.B. 59 Onslow-
gardens, S. W.

{Dorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud.

{Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.

*Doughty, Charles Montagu. Illawara House, Tunbridge Wells.

tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com-
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Dovaston, John. West Felton, Oswestry.

{Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York.

{Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B.

Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Golland, by Kinross, N.B.

*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent.

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk,

*Dowson, J. Emerson, M.Inst.C.E. 91 Cheyne-walk, S.W.

{Doxey, R. A. Slade Honse, Levenshulme, Manchester.

{Doyne, R. W., F.R.C.S. 28 Beaumont-street, Oxford,

{Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York.

*Dreghorn, David, J.P. 188 Nethersdale Drive, Pollokshields, Glas-
gow.

{DrusseR, Henry E., F.Z.S. 110 Cannon-street, H.C.

tDrew, John. 12 Harringay-park, Crouch End, Middlesex, N.

{Dreyer, J ee L. E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.A.S. The Observatory,
Armagh.

§Druce, G. Craripen, M.A., F.L.S. 118 High-street, Oxford.

{Drummond, Dr. 6 Saville-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{Drynan, Miss. Northwold, Queen’s Park, Toronto, Canada.

{Du Bois, Dr. H. Mittelstrasse, 39, Berlin,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 31

Year of
Election.

1856. *Ducre, The Right. Hon. Henry Jomn Reyryotps Moreton, Earl
of, F.R.S., F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, W.; and Tortworth
Court, Falfield, Gloucestershire.

1870. {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S8. Christchurch Vicarage, Chester.

1900. *Duckworth, W. L. H. Jesus College, Cambridge.

1895. *Duddell, William. 47 Hans-place, 8. W.

1867. *Durr, The Right Hon. Sir Mounrsruarr ExpHiystone GRANT-,
G.C.8.L, F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 11 Chelsea-embankment, S.W.

1852. {DurreRin and Ava, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.P., G.C.B.,
G.C.M.G., G.C.8.L., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clande-
boye, near Belfast, Ireland.

1877. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.

1875. {Duffin, W. EH. L’Estrange. Waterford.

1890. {Dufton, 8. F. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1884, {Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, W.

1883. {Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings.

1892. {Dulier, Colonel E.,C.B. 27 Sloane-gardens, 8. W.

1866. *Duncan, James. 9 Mincing-lane, E.C.

1891. *Duncan, John, J.P. ‘South Wales Daily News’ Office, Cardiff.

1880. {Duncan, William S. 143 Queen’s-road, Bayswater, W.

1896. {Duncanson, Thomas. 16 Deane-road, Liverpool.

1881. tDuncombe, The Hon. Cecil, F.G.S. Nawton Grange, York.

1893. *Dunell, George Robert. 7 Spencer-road, Grove Park, Chiswick,
Middlesex.

1892, {Dunham, Miss Helen Bliss. Messrs. Morton, Rose, & Co., Bartholo-
mew House, E.C.

1896. *DuNKERLEY, S., M.Sc., Professor of Applied Mechanics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.

1882. {Dunn, J. T., M.Se., F.C.S. Northern Polytechnic Institute
Holloway-road, N.

1883. {Dunn, Mrs. Northern Polytechnic Institute, Holloway-road, N.

1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

1878. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logie in the Catholic Uni-
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.

1884. §Dunnington, Prof. F. P. University of Virginia, Charlottesville,
Virginia, U.S.A.

1859. {Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.

1893. *Dunstan, M. J. R. Newcastle-circus, Nottingham.

1891. {Dunstan, Mrs. Neweastle-circus, Nottingham.

1885. *Dunstan, WynpHAM R., M.A., F.R.S., Sec.C.S8., Director of the
Scientific Department of the Imperial Institute, S.W.

1869. {D’Urban, W.S. M., F.L.S. Newport House, near Exeter.

1898.§§Durrant, R. G. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1895. *Dwerryhouse, Arthur R. 5 Oakfield-terrace, Headingley, Leeds.

1887. {Dyason, John Sanford. Outhbert Street, W.

1884, {Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich.

1885. *Dyer, Henry, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.

1869. *Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Bletchley.

1895, §Dymond, Thos.S.,F.C.S. County Technical Laboratory, Chelmsford.

1868. {Eade, Sir Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
1895, {Harle, Hardman A. 29 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S,W.
1877. tHarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A, West Alvington, Deyon,

32

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1874.
1899.

1871.
1863.
1876.
1883.
1898.
1884.
1861.
1870.
1899.

1887.
1884.

1887.

1870.
1883.
1888.
1884.
1885.
1867.
1899.
1884.
1887.
1896.
1876,
1890.
1885.

1883.
1891.
1883.

1886.

1898.
1877.
1875.
1880.
1891.
1884.

1869.

1887.
1862.

1899.
1897.
18838,

{Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
§East, W. H. Municipal School of Art, Science, and Technology,
Dover.
*Easton, Epwarp. 11 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
{Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
{Easton, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B.
{Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby.
*Ebbs, Alfred B. Northumberland-alley, Fenchurch-street, E.C.
{Eckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. The Lodge, Adel, Leeds.
tEddowes, Alfred, M.D. 28 Wimpole-street, W.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S._ The Grange, Carleton, Skipton.
{Ede, Francis J., F.G.S. Silchar, Cachar, India.
*Edgell, Rev. R. Arnold, M.A., F.C.S, The College House,
Leamington.
§EpeewortH, F. Y., M.A., D.C.L., F.S.8., Professor of Political
Economy in the University of Oxford. All Souls College,Oxford.
*Edmonds, F. B. 6 Clement’s Inn, W.C.
{Edmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Colyton, Devon.
*Edmunds, Henry. Antron, 71 Upper Tulse-hill, S.W.
*Edmunds, James, M.D. 26 Manchester-square, W,
t{Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B., F.G.S. 1 Garden-court, Temple, E.C.
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
§Edwards, E. J. 33 Newland-terrace, Queen’s-road, Battersea, 8.W.
t{Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A.
*Egerton of Tatton, The Right Hon. Lord. Tatton Park, Knutsford.
tEkkert, Miss Dorothea. 95 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
§Elford, Percy. St. John’s College, Oxford.
*Exear, Francis, UL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 113 Cannon-
street, E.C.
{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridges
street, Westminster, S.W.
{Elliott, A. C.,D.Sec., Professor of Engineering in University College,
Cardiff. 2 Plasturton-avenue, Cardiff,
*Exziorr, Epwin Bartey, M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S., Waynflete
Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University of Oxford.
4 Bardwell-road, Oxford.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
tEtnior, Tuomas Henry, C.B., F.S.S. Board of Agriculture,
4 Whitehall-place, S.W.
tElliott, W. J. 14 Buckingham Place, Clifton, Bristol.
{Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, H. D. 12 Gloucester-terrace, Hyde Park, W.
*Exuis, Joan Henry. Woodhaye, Ivy Bridge, Devon,
§Ellis, Miss M. A. 1] Canterbury-road, Oxford.
Ellis, Professor W. Hodgson, M.A., M.B. 74 St. Alban’s-street,
Toronto, Canada.
{Ellis, William Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElmy, Ben. Oongleton, Cheshire.
{Elphinstone, Sir H. W., Bart., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings,
Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.
*Elvery, Miss Amelia. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.
§Elvery, Mrs. Elizabeth. The Cedars, Maison Dieu-road, Dover.
{Elwes, Captain George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth.

LIS! OF MEMBERS. 33

Election.

1887. §EtwortHy, Freperick T. Foxdown, Wellington, Somerset.

1870. *Exy, The Right Rev. Lord Atwynr Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop
of. ‘The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1897.§§Ely, Robert E. 744 Massachusetts-avenue, Cambridge, Massa- .
chusetts, U.S.A,

1891. {Emerton, Wolseley, D.C.L. Banwell Castle, Somerset,

1884, {Emery, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A.

1863, {Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1890. {Emsley, Alderman W. Richmond House, Richmond-road, Head-
ingley, Leeds.

1894. {Emtage, W. T. A. University College, Nottingham.

1866, {Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.

1884, {England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada.

1853. {English, E. Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, Hull.

1883. {Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport.

1869, *Enys, John Davis. Enys, Penryn, Cornwall.

1894, {Erskine-Murray, James. Callander, Scotland.

1862. *Esson, WitiraM, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Savilian Professor of
Geometry in the University of Oxford. 183 Bradmore-road,

Oxford.

1878. {Estcourt, Charles. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street, Man-
chester.

1887. *Estcourt, Charles. Hayesleigh, Montague-road, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.

1887. *Estcourt, P. A., F.C.S., F.1.C. Seymour House, Seymour Street,

Manchester.

1869. {Eruerines, R., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

1888. {Etheridge, Mrs. 14 Carlyle-square, S.W.

1883, {Eunson, Henry J., F.G.S., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E, Vizianagram, Madras.

1881. {Evans, Alfred, M.A., M.B. Pontypridd.

1889. *Evans, A. H., M.A. 9 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

1887. *Evans, Mrs, Alfred W. A. Lyndhurst, Upper Chorlton-road,
Whalley Range, Manchester.

1870, *Evans, Artuur Jouy, M.A., F.S.A. Youlbury, Abingdon.

1865. *Evans, Rev. Cuartes, M.A. 41 Lancaster-gate, W.

1896.§§Evans, Edward, jun. Spital Old Hall, Bromborough, Cheshire,

1891. {Hyvans, Franklen. Llwynarthen, Castleton, Cardiff,

1889. {Evans, Henry Jones, Greenhill, Whitchurch, Cardiff,

1883. *Evans, James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.

1883. *Evans, Mrs. James C. 175 Lord-street, Southport.

1861, *Evans, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Se., F.R.S., F.S.A,,
F.L.S., F.G.S, Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1897. *Evans, Lady. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead.

1898, {Evans, Jonathan L. 4 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

1881. {Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach, R.S.0., Pembrokeshize.

1885. *Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1865. {Evans, Srpastran, M.A., LL.D. 15 Waterloo-crescent, Dover.

1899.§§Evans, Mrs. 15 Waterloo-crescent, Dover.

1875. tEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1865, *Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth.

1891. tEvans, William Llewellin. Guildhall-chambers, Cardiff:

1891. {Evan-Thomas, C., J.P. The Gnoll, Neath, Glamorganshire,

1886, {Eve, A.S. Marlborough College, Wilts.

1871. {Eve, H. Weston, M.A. 37 Gordon Square, W.C.

1868, *Evernrr, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.B.S., FR.S.E. 11 Leopold Road,
Ealing, W.

et fiiverett, W. H., B.A. University College, Notlingham,

900. ©

34 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1863. *Eyeritt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire.
1886. {Everitt, William H. Finstall Park, Bromsgrove.
1883. {Eves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge. ;
. 1881, {Ewarr, J. Cossar, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
the University of Edinburgh.
1874. {Ewarz, Sir W. Quartus, Bart. Glenmachan, Belfast. :
1876. *Ewine, Jamus Atrrep, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.
C.E., Professor of Mechanism and Applied Mechanics in the
University of Cambridge. Langdale Lodge, Cambridge.
1883. {Ewing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh.
1884. *Eyerman, John, F.Z.8. Oakhurst, Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
1882, tEyre,G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.

1890. {Fanpr, MpMuND Beroxerr. Straylea, Harrogate.

1896. §Fairbrother, Thomas. 46 Lethbridge-road, Southport.

1865, *Farrtzy, Tuomas, I.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds,

1886. {Fairley, William. Beau Desert, Rugeley, Staffordshire.

1896. §Falk, Herman John, M.A. Thorshill, West Kirby, Liverpool.

1883. {Fallon, Rev. W. 8S. 9 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.

1898. §Faraday, Miss Ethel R., M.A. Ramsay Lodge, Levenshulme, near
Manchester.

1877. §Farapay, FP. J., F.L.S., F.S.S. College-chambers, 17 Brazenose-
street, Manchester.

1891. {Fards, G. Penarth.

1892, *F'armer, J. Breriann, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
Royal College of Science, Exhibition-road, 8.W.

1886. {Farncombe, Joseph, J.P. Saltwood, Spencer-road, Hastbourne.

1897. *Farnworth, Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

1897. *Farnworth, Mrs. Ernest. Rosslyn, Goldthorn Hill, Wolverhampton.

1883. {Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

1883. {Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn.

1885, {Farquhar, Admiral. Carlogie, Aberdeen.

1886. {FarauuArson, Colonel Sir J., K.C.B., R.E. Corrachee, Tarland,
Aberdeen.

1859. [Farquharson, Robert F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

1885. *Farquharson, Mrs. R. F.O. Haughton, Aberdeen.

1866. *Farrar, The Very Rev. Freperic Witiiam, D.D., F.R.S. The
Deanery, Canterbury.

1883, {Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland.

1897. {Farthing, Rey. J. C., M.A. The Rectory, Woodstock, Ontario,
Canada.

1869. *Fauldine, Joseph. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

1883. {Faulding, Mrs. Boxley House, Tenterden, Kent.

1887. §Faulkner, John. 15 Great Ducie-street, Strangeways, Manchester.

1890. *Faweett, f. B. University College, Bristol.

1900. §Fawenrg, J. E., J.P. Low Royd, Apperley Bridge, Bradford.

1886.§§Felkin, Robert W., M.D., F.R.G.S. 6 Crouch Hall-road, N,

Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.

1900. *Fennell, W. John. Kileoroon, Stockman’s Lane, Belfast.

1883. {Fenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, W.

1890, {Fenwick, T. Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

1876. {Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

1885, |{Ferguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.

1871, *Furevson, Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A., F.C.8., Professor

of Chemistry in the University of Glaseow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 35

Year of -
Election.

1896, *Ferguson, John. Colombo, Ceylon.

1867. {Ferguson, Robert M., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Learmouth-terrace
Edinburgh. :

1883, {Fernald, H. P. Clarence House, Promenade, Cheltenham.

1883. *Fernie, John. Box No.2, Hutchinson, Kansas, U.S.A.

1862. {Ferrers, Rev. Norman Macrxop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College
Lodge, Cambridge.

1873. {Furrier, Davip, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Neuro-
Pathology in King’s College, London, 34 Cavendish-square, W.

1892, {Ferrier, Robert M., B.Sc. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1897. {Ferrier, W. F. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

1897.§§Fessenden, Reginald <A., Professor of Electrical Engineering,
University, Alleghany, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. “ r

1882. §Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. King Edward VI. Grammar School,
Southampton.

1887. {Fiddes, Thomas, M.D. Penwood, Urmston, near Manchester,

1875. {Fiddes, Walter, Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.

1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.

1897.§§Field, George Wilton, Ph.D, Experimental Station, Kingston
Rhode Island, U.S.A. “iS

1886. {Field, H.C. 4 Oarpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1882. {Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset,

1883. *Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 1 St. Peter’s-terrace, Cambridge.

1878, *Findlater, Sir William. 22 F itzwilliam-square, Dublin,

1884, {Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

1887. recs pe J.,M.A., Pb.D., F.G.S. 88 Upper Hanover-street,

effield.

1881. {Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike,

1895. §Fish, Frederick J. Spursholt, Park-road, Ipswich.

1891. {Fisher, Major H.O. The Highlands, Llandough, near Cardiff,

1884. *Fisher, L. OC. Galveston, Texas, U.S.A.

1869. {Fisuer, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlton Rectory, near
Cambridge. ‘

1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford,

1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale,

1887. *Fison, Alfred H., D.Sc. 25 Blenheim-gardens, Willesden Green, N.W

1885. {Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich. 5 f

1871. *Fison, Freprrick W.,M.A., M.P.,F.C.8. Greenhol -in-
Wharfedale, near Leeds. A Pits Burley-in

1871. {Fircu, Sir J. G., MA., LL.D. Atheneum Club, S. Ww.

1883, {Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport.

1878, {Fitzgerald, 0. E.,M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.

1878. §FirzGrraLp, GnorcEe Francis, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Naturaland Experimental Philosophy in Trinity Collece, Dublin.

1885. *FitzGerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 32 Eglantine-avenue, Belfast

1894. {Vitzmaurice, M., M.Inst.C.. Nile Reservoir, Assuan, Egypt.

1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Bagot-street, Dublin.

1888, *Frrzparrick, Rev. ToomAs C. Christ?s College, Cambridge,

1897, {Flavelle, J. W. 565 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada, i

1881. {Fleming, Rev. Canon J., B.D. St. Michael's Vicarage Ebury-
square, S.W. °

1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, Glaseow.

1876. {Fleming, Sir Sandford, K.C.M.G., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada,

1867. {FtrrcHur, Atrrep E., F.C.S. Delmore, Caterham, Surrey.

1870, {Fletcher, B, Edgington. Norwich.

1890. {Fletcher, B. Morley. 7 Victoria-street, S.W.

1892, {Fletcher, George, F.G.S8. 60 Connaught-avenue, Plymouth,

c2

36 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of

Election.

1888, *FietcuerR, Lazarus, M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.S., Keeper of
Minerals, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-road,
S.W. 386 Woodyille-road, Ealing, W.

1889, tFlower, Lady. 26 Stanhope-gardens, S.W.

1877. *Floyer, Ernest A. Green Hill, Worcester.

1890. *Frux, A. W., M.A., Professor of Political Hconomy in the Owens
College, Manchester.

1887. {Foale, William. 8% Meadfoot Terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth. °

1883. {Foale, Mrs. William. 3 Meadfoot Terrace, Mannamead, Plymouth.

1891. {Foldvary, William. Museum Ring, 10, Buda Pesth.

1880. {Foote, R. Bruce, F.G.S. Care of Messrs. H. S. King & Co., 65
Cornhill, E.C.

1873. *Forses, Gzrorer, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 34 Great
George-street, S. W.

1883. {Forses, Heyy O., LL.D., F.Z.S., Director of Museums for the Cor-
poration of Liverpool. The Museum, Liverpool.

1897. {Forbes, J.,Q.C. Hazeldean, Putney-hill, S.W.

1885. tForbes, The Right Hon. Lord. CastleForbes, Aberdeenshire.

1890. {Forp, J. Rawiryson. Quarry Dene, Weetwood-lane, Leeds.

1875. *ForpHaM, H. Gzorcr. Odsey, Ashwell, Baldock, Herts,

1894, {Forrest, Frederick. Beechwood, Castle Hill, Hastings.

1887. {Forrest, The Right Hon. Sir Jonny, G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S., F.G.S,
Perth, Western Australia. :

1883, {Forsytu, A. R., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Sadlerian Professor of Pure
Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

1900. §Forsyth, D.. Central Higher Grade School, Leeds.

1884. {Fort,George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada.

1877. {Fortescug, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.

1882. { Forward, Henry. 10 Marine-avenue, Southend.

1896. {Forwoop, Sir Wrtt1Am B., J.P. Ramleh, Blundellsands, Liverpool.

1875. {Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, S.W.

1865.
1865,

t¥Foster, Sir B. Walter, M.D., M.P. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Fostrer, CLement Lu Neve, B-A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mining in the Royal College of Science, London. Llandudno.

1883. {Foster, Mrs, C. Le Neve. Llandudno.
1857. *FostrrR, Grorce Oarery, B.A., F.RS., V.P.C.S. (Generar

1896,

1877.
1859.

1865.

1896.
1866.
1868.
1892.
1885.
1883.

1896
1883
1847
1900

YREASURER.) Ladywalk, Rickmansworth.

{Foster, Miss Harriet. Cambridge Training College, Wollaston-road,
Cambridge.

§ Foster, Joseph B. 4 Cambridge-street, Plymouth.

*Fosrer, Sir Micwart, K.C.B., M.P., M.A., M.D., LL.D., D.C.L.,
Sec.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Physiology in the University
of Cambridge. Great Shelford, Cambridge.

{Foster, Robert. The Quarries, Grainger Park-road, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne.

}{Fowkes, F. Hawkshead, Ambleside.

{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham,

{Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffoll.

{Fowler, Miss Jessie A. 4 & 5 Imperial-buildings, Ludgate-cireus, E.C.

*Fox, Charles. The Chestnuts, Warlingham, Surrey.

§Fox, Sir Cuartes Dovetas, M.Inst.C.E. 28 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

. {Fox, Henry J. Bank’s Dale, Bromborough, near Liverpool.

. {Fox, Howard, F.G.S. Rosehill, Falmouth.

. *Fox, Joseph Hoyland. The Clive, Wellington, Somerset.

. *Fox, Thomas. Pyles Thorne House, Wellington, Somerset.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 37

Year of
Election.

1881.
1889.

1887.
1894,
1895.
1882,
1885.
1865.
1871.
1871.
1884,
1884.

1877.
1884.

1869,
1886.

1887.
1887.

1892.

1882,

1887.

*FoxweEtL, Hersert §., M.A., F.S.S., Professor of Political Economy
in University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
{Frain, Joseph, M.D. Grosvenor-place, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-

Tyne.
etic, Win, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S8., F.R.A.S. Red Lion-court,

Fleet-street, E.C. ; and Manor House, Richmond, Surrey.

*FRANKLAND, Percy F., Ph.D., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry
in the Mason College, Birmingham.

§Franklin, Mrs. E. L. 50 Porchester-terrace, W.

§Fraser, Alexander. 63 Church-street, Inverness.

*Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Professor of Anatomy in the Royal
College of Surgeons, Dublin.

{Fraspr, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 232 Union-street, Aber-
deen.

*Fraser, JoHn, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.

{Frasrr, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Materia
Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
13 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.

*Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Sc. (Univ. de France). Room 1042,
Drexel Building, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

*Fream, W., LL.D., B.Sc, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.S. The Vinery,
Downton, Salisbury.

§Freeman, Francis Ford. Abbotsfield, Tavistock, South Devon.

*FREMANTLE, The Hon. Sir C. W., K.C.B. 4 Lower Sloane-street,
S.W.

tFrere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bitton, near Bristol.

{FRESHFIELD, Dovetas W., F.R.G.S. 1 Airlie-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

{Fries, Harold H., Ph.D. 92 Reade-street, New York, U.S.A.

{ Froehlich, The Cavaliere. Grosvenor Terrace, Withington, Man-
chester’,

*Frost, Edmund, M.B. Chesterfield, Meads, Eastbourne.

§Frost, Edward P. J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire.

*Frost, Robert, B.Sc. 53 Victoria-road, W.

1899.§§Fry, Edward W. Cannon-street, Dover.

1898.

1898

1875.
1898,
1884.
1895.

1872.
1859.
1869.
1884,
1891.

1881.
1887.

1836,
1863.
1896.
1850,

{Fry, The Right Hon, Sir Epwarp, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A.
Failand House, Failand, near Bristol.

tFry, Francis J. Leigh Woods, Clifton, Bristol.

*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 17 Upper Belerave-road, Clifton, Bristol.

{Fryer, Alfred C., Ph.D, 13 Eaton-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.

tFryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co. Durham.

{Furtarton, Dr. J. H. Fishery Board for Scotland, George-street,
Edinburgh.

*Fuller, Rev. A. 7 Sydenham-hill, Sydenham, S.F.

tFurter, Frepericx, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton.

{Furter, G., M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, W.

{Fuller, William, M.B. Oswestry.

fFulton, Andrew. 23 Park-place, Cardiff.

tGabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, Yorkshire,
tGaddum, G. H. Adria House, Toy-lane, Withington, Manchestey.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey,
*Gainsford, W. D. Skendleby Hall, Spilsby.

tGair, H. W. 21 Water-street, Liverpool.

{GarrpyeER, Sir W. T., K,C.B., M.D., LL,D,, F.R,S. Glasgow.

38

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1876,
1885.
1861.
1889.
1875.
1887.

1899.
1860.

1869.

1870.
1889.
1870.
1888,

1877.
1868.

1889.
1899.
1898.
1900.
1887.

1882.
1896.
1894.
1882.
1884.
1887.

1882.

1873.

1883.
1894.

1874.

1882.
1892.
1889.
1870.
1870.
1896.

1896.
1862,

1890.
1875.
1892.
1871.
1883,

{Gale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giascow.

*Gallaway, Alexander. Dirgarve, Aberfeldy, N.B.

tGalloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.

tGalloway, Walter. Eighton Banks, Gateshead.

tGattoway, W. Cardiff.

*Galloway, W. J., M.P. The Cottage, Seymour-grove, Old Trafford,
Manchester.

§Galton, Lady Douglas. Himbleton Manor, Droitwich.

*Gatton, Francois, M.A., D.C.L., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
42 Rutland-gate, Knightsbridge, 8. W.

tGatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S8. New University Club, St.
James’s-street, 5. W.

§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel Sir D., Bart., C.B. St. Helens, Lancashire.

tGamble, Dayid. Ratonagh, Colwyn Bay.

tGamble, J.C. St. Helens, Lancashire.

*GamB_E, J. Syxus, C.1.E.,F.R.S., MA., F.L.S. Highfield, Kast
Liss, Hants.

{tGamble, William. St. Helens, Lancashire.

{Gamern, AntHUR, M.D., F.R.S. 8 Avenue du Kursaal, Montreux,
Switzerland.

{Gamgee, John. 6 Lingfield Road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

*Garcke, EK. Sunnyside, Bedford Park, Chiswick, W.

§Garde, Rev. C. L. Skenfrith Vicarage, near Monmouth.

§Gardiner, J. Stanley, M.A. Dunstall, Newton Road, Cambridge.

{Garpinpr, Water, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 45 Hills-road, Cam-
bridge.

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. Fairmead, 46 The Goffs, Eastbourne.

{Gardner, James. The Groves, Grassendale, Liverpool.

tGardner, J. Addyman. 5 Bath-place, Oxford.

tGarpner, JOHN StaRKIn. 29 Albert Embankment, S.E.

{Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*Garnett, Jeremiah. The Grange, Bromley Cross, near Bolton,

Lancashire.

tGarnett, William, D.C.L. London County Council, Spring-
gardens, S. W.

tGarnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley,
Kent, S.E.

{Garson, J.G.,M.D. 14 Stratford Place, W.

*GARSTANG, WALTER, M.A., F.Z.8.. Marine Biological Laboratory,
Plymouth,

*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A.. LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Iveland.

tGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton.

§Garvie, James. Bolton’s Park, Potter’s Bar.

tGarwood, EH. J., B.A., F.G.8. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tGaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool. —

*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool. |

*GASKELL, WALTER Horproox, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. The
Uplands, Great Shelford, near Cambridge.

§Gatehouse, Charles. Westwood, Noctorum, Birkenhead.

*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.LS., F.G.S. Fel-
bridge Place, East Grinstead, Sussex.

{Gaunt, Sir Edwin. Carlton Lodge, Leeds.

{Gavey, J. Hollydale, Hampton Wick, Middlesex.

{Geddes, George H. 8 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh.

{Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

tGeddes, John. 38 Portland-street, Southport.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 39

Year of
Election.

1885.
1887.
1867.

1871.

1898.
1882,
1875.

1885.
1884.
1884,
1865.
1874,
1892.

1876.

1896.

1884.
1889.
1893,
1887.

1888,
1898.
1884,
1842.

1883.
1857.
1884.
1895.
1896.

1878.
1271.

1884.
1896.
1892,

1867.
1893.

1900,
1867.
1884,

{Geppzs, Professor Parrick. Ramsay-garden, Edinburgh.

tGee, W. W. Haldane. Owens College, Manchester.

{Germir, Sir Arcurparp, LL.D., D.Sc., FBS, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom. 10 Chester-terrace, Regent’s-park, N.W.

{GerxtE, JAMES, LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Murchison
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of
Edinburgh. LKilmorie, Colinton-road, Edinburgh.

§Gemmill, James F., M.A., M.B. 16 Dargavel-avenue, Dumbreck,
Glasgow.

*GrneEsE, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col-
lege, Aberystwyth.

“George, Rev. Hereford Brooke, M.A., F.R.G.S. Holywell Lodge,
Oxford.

{Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen.

*Gerrans, Henry T., M.A. 20 St. John-street, Oxford.

{Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada.

{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,

{Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward,Q.C. 28 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.

{Gibson, Francis Maitland. Care of Professor Gibson, 20 George-
square, Edinburgh.

*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Secretary to the
Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. , 17 Alva-street,
Edinburzh.

{Gibson, Harvey, M.A., Professor of Botany, University College,
Liverpool.

{Gibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

*Gibson, T. G. Lesbury House, Lesbury, R.S.0O., Northumberland.

{Gibson, Walcot, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Gurren, Sir Ropert, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.S.S. Athenzeum
Club, 8. W.

*Gifford, H. J. Lyston Court, Tram Inn, Hereford.

*Gitford, J. William. Chard.

{Gilbert E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal. Canada.

GisBeErt, Sir JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. Har-
penden, near St. Albans.

§Gilbert, Lady. Harpenden, near St. Albans.

tGilbert, J. T., M.R.I.A. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin,

*Gilbert, Philip H. 68 Tupper-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Gilchrist, J. D. F. Carvenon Anstruther, Scotland.

*Gincarist, Percy C., F.R.S.,M,Inst.C.E. Frognal Bank, Finchley-
road, Hampstead, N.W.

{Giles, Oliver. Brynteg, The Crescent, Bromsgrove.

*Gitz, Sir Davin, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Royal Ob-
servatory, Cape Town.

{Gillman, Henry. 130 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A.

{Gilmour, H. B. Underlea, Aigburth, Liverpool.

*Gilmour, Matthew A. B.,1.ZS. Saffronhall House, Windmill-road,
Hamilton, N.B.

tGilroy, Robert. Oraigie, by Dundee.

*Gimingham, Edward. Stamford House, Northumberland Park,
Tottenham.

§Ginsburg, Benedict W., M.A., LL.D. Royal Statistical Society,
9 Adelphi Terrace, W.C.

{Ginspurc, Rev. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water
Station, Chertsey.

tGirdwood, Dr. G@. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada.

40

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1886.

1850.
1849.

1883.
1861.

1871.

1897.
18835.
1881.

1881.
1859.
1867.
1874,

1870.
1872.
1899.
1886.
1887.
1878.
1880,

1883.
1852.
1879.

1876.
1898.
1881.
1886,

*Gisborne, Hartley, M.Can.8.C.E. Caragana Lodge, Ladysmith,
Vancouver Island, Canada.

*Gladstone, George, F. R.GS8. 34 Denmark-villas, Hove, Brighton.

*GLADSTONE, Joun Hatt, Ph.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., V.P.C.S. 17 Pem-
bridge-square, W.

*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, W.

*QLAISHER, Janus, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. The Shola, Heathfield-road,
South Croydon.

*QLAIsHER, J. W.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.

{Glashan, J. C., LL.D. Ottawa, Canada.

{Glasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith.

*GiazEBRook, R. T., M.A., F.R.S., Director of the National Physical
Laboratory. 23 Queen’ 8 Road, Richmond.

*Gleadow, Frederic. 38 Ladbr oke-grove, W.

tGlennie, J. S. Stuart, M.A. Verandah Cottage, Haslemere, Surrey.

{Gloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith Place, Edinburgh.

}Glover, George 1. Corby, Hoylake.

Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport.

t¢Glynn, Thomas R., M.D. 62 Rodney -street, Liverpool.

{GopDARD, Ricuarp. 16 Booth-street, Br adford, Yorkshire,

§Godfrey, Ingram F. Brook House, Ash, Dover.

{Godlee, Arthur. ‘The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

tGodlee, Francis. 8 Minshall-street, Manchester.

*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 Clarence-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.

{Gopmayn, F. Du Cann, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. 10 Chandos-
street, Cavendish-square, W.

t+Godson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire.

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.

{Gopywin-AvstEn, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.Z.S. Shalford House, Guildford.

{Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.

§Goldney, F. B. Goodnestone Park, Dover.

{GoLtpscumipt, Epwarp, J.P. Nottingham.

TGoxtpsmip, Major-General Sir F. J.. K.C.S.1, C.B., F.R.GS.
Godfrey House, Hollingbourne.

1899.§§Gomme, G. L., F.S.A. 24 Dorset-square, N.W.

1890.

1834,
1852,
1878.

1884,

1885.

1884.
1884.

1885.

1871,

1898.
1884,

1899.
1885,
1887,

*Gonner, H. C. K., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in Univer-
sity College, Liverpool.

tGood, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada,

tGoodhbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.

TGoodbody, Jonathan, jun. 50 Dame-street, Dublin.

tGoodbody, Robert. Fairy Hill, Blackrock, Co, Dublin.

tGoopmay, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

*Goodridge, Richard E. W. Lupton, ‘Michigan, U.S.A.

oe Professor W.L. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario,

anada.

Gordon, Rey. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Chetwynd Rectory,
Newport, Salop.

*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West-
minster, 8S. W.

tGordon, Mrs, M.M., D.Sc. 1 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

*Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Ferndale, Babington
Road, Streatham, S.W.

§Gordon, T, Kirkman. 15 Hampden ae Nottingham,

tGordon, Rev. William. Braemar, N.B

tGordon, William John. 3 Lavender- “gar dens, S.W.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 41

Year of
Election.

1865. {Gorz, Gnorcr, LL.D., F.R.S. 20 Easy-row, Birmingham.

1875. *Gotcu, Francts, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
the University of Oxford. The Lawn, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1873. {Gott, Charles, M.Inst.0.E. Parkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1849. tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.

1881. {Gough, Rev. Thomas, B.Sc. King Edward’s School, Retford.

1894. {Gould, G. M., M.D. 119 South 17th-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

1888. {Gouraud, Colonel. Gwydyr Mansions, Hove, Sussex.

1901. §Gourtay, Ropnrr. (Locan Treasurer.) Glasgow. .

1867. {Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee.

1876. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

1883. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill Gardens, Glasgow.

1873. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.

1886. {Grabham, Michael C., M.D. Madeira,

1875. {GRawamE, Jamus. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1892. {Grange, C. Ernest. 57 Berners-street, Ipswich.

1893. {Granger, Professor F, S., M.A., D.Litt. 2 Cranmer-street,
Nottingham.

1896. {Grant, Sir James, K.C.M.G. Ottawa, Canada,

1892. {Grant, W. B. 10 Ann-street, Edinburgh.

1864, {Grantham, Richard F., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland-cham-
bers, Northumberland-avenue, W.C.

1881. {Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

1899.§§Gray, Albert Alexander. 16 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.

1890. {Gray, Anprew, M.A., LL.D., F.RS,, F.R.S.E., Professur of
Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow.

1899.§$Gray, Charles. 11 Portland-place, W.

1864, *Gray, Rev. Canon Charles. West Retford Rectory, Retford.

1876. {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.

1881. {Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York.

1893. Gray, J. C., General Secretary of the Co-operative Union, Limited,
Long Millgate, Manchester.

1892. *Gray, James Hunter, M.A., B.Sc. 141 Hopton Road, Streatham,
S.W.

1870. tGray, J. Macfarlane. 4 Ladbroke-crescent, W.

1892. §Gray, John, B.Sc, 351 Coldharbour-lane, Brixton, S.W.

1887. {Gray, Joseph W., F.G.S. St. Elmo, Leckhampton-road, Cheltenham.

1887. {Gray, M. H., F.G.S. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

1886. *Gray, Robert Kaye. Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, Kent.

1881. {Gray, Thomas, Professor of Engineering in the Rane Technical In-
stitute, Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

1873. {Gray, William, M-R.LA. Glenburn Park, Belfast.

*Gray, Colonel WiittaM. Farley Hall, near Reading.

1883. {Gray, William Lewis. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

1883. {Gray, Mrs. W. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

1886. {Greaney, Rev. William. Bishop’s House, Bath-street, Birmingham.

1866. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 84 Friar-gate, Derby.

1893. *Greaves, Mrs. Elizabeth. Station-street, Nottingham.

1869. {Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.

1872. {Greaves, William. 33 Marlborough-place, N.W.

1872. *Grece, Clair J., LL.D. 94 Station Road, Redhill, Surrey.

1888. §GReEN, J. Reynotps, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.
Arncliffe, Grange-road, Cambridge.

1887, {Greene, Friese. 162 Sloane-street, S. WA

42 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election. ;

1882. {Gremnaitt, A. G., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Artillery College, Woolwich. 10 New Inn, W.C.

1881. {Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire.

1884. {Greenish, Thomas, F.C.8. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, N.W.

1898. *GREENLY, Epwarp. -Achnashean, near Bangor, North Wales.

1884. {Greenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada.

1884. {Greenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada.

1887. {Greenwell, G. C., jun. Driffield, near Derby.

1863. {Greenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire.

1890. {Greenwood, Arthur. Cavendish-road, Leeds.

1875. {Greenwood, F., M.B. Brampton, Chesterfield.

1877. {Greenwood, Holmes. 78 King Street, Accrington.

T887. {Greenwood, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Adderley Park Rolling Mills,
Birmingham.

1887. *Greg, Arthur. Eagley, near Bolton, Lancashire.

1861. *Grec, Roprrt Purrres, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.

1894, *Grueory, J. WATER, D.Sc., F.G.S. 3 Aubrey-road, Kensington, W.

1896. §Gregory, R. A. The Homestead, Westover-road, Wandsworth
Common, 8.W.

1883. {Gregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston.

1881. {Gregson, William, F.G.S. Baldersby, 8.0., Yorkshire.

1859. {Grrerson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.

1878. {Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.

1836. Griffin, S. F. Albion Tin Works, York-road, N.

1894, *Griffith, C. L. 'T., Assoc. M.Inst.C.E. College-road, Harrow,
Middlesex.

1859. *GrirritH, G. (Assistant GENERAL SECRETARY.) College-road,
Harrow, Middlesex.

1884. {Grirrirus, KE. H., M.A., F.R.S. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

1884. tGriffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge.

1891. {Griffiths, P. Rhys, B.Sc., M.B. 71 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1847. {Griffiths, Thomas. The Elms, Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1870. tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. Hoylake, Liverpool.

1888. *Grimshaw, James Walter, M.Inst.C.E. Australian Club, Sydney,
New South Wales.

1884. {Grinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

1894, {Groom, Professor P., M.A., F.L.8. Hollywood, Egham, Surrey.

1894, §Groom, T. T., D.Sc. The Poplars, Hereford.

1896. {Grossmann, Dr. Karl. 70 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

1892. {Grove, Mrs. Lilly, F.R.G.S. Mason College, Birmingham.

1891, {Grover, Henry Llewellin. Clydach Court, Pontypridd.

1863. *Groves, THomas B. Broadley, Westerhall-road, Weymouth.

1869. {Gruss, Sir Howarp, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 51 Kenilworth-square,
Rathgar, Dublin.

1897, {Griinbaum, A. S., M.A., M.D. 45 Ladbroke Grove, W.

1897. §Griinbaum, O. F. F., B.A., D.Se. 45 Ladbroke Grove, W.

1886, {Grundy, John. 17 Private-road, Mapperley, Nottingham.

1891. {Grylls, W. London and Provincial Bank, Cardiff.

1887. {GutttemarD, F.H.H. Eltham, Kent.

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-creen, Dublin.

1842, Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.

1891. {Gunn, Sir John. Llandaff House, Llandaff.

1877. {Gunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot-
land, Sherift’s Court House, Edinburgh.

1866, {GUnrner, Atbert C. L. G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Pres.L.8.,
F.Z.S, 22 Lichfield-road, Kew, Surrey.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 43

Year of
Election.

1894.
1880.
1885.
1896.

1876,

1884,

1884,

1881.

1842,

1888.

1892.
1870.

1879.

1885.
1899.

1879.
1881.
1854.

1898.
1887.
1899,
1885.
1900.

1896.

1884,

1896.
1891.

1891.
1875.
1888.

1858.

1883.

1885.

1881.
1899.
1892.

{Giinther, R. T. Magdalen College, Oxford.

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea,

{Guthrie, Malcolm. Prince’ s-road, Liverpool.

{Guthrie, Tom, B.Sc. Yorkshire College, Leeds,

{Gwyruer, R. F., M.A. Owens College and 83 Heaton Road,
Withington, Manchester.

{Haanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada.

tHadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich.

*Happon, ALFRED Corr, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S. Inisfail, Hills-road,
Cambridge.

Hadfield, George. Victoria Park, Manchester.

*Hadfield, Lay Az, M.Inst.C.E. The Grove, Endcliffe Vale-road,
Sheffield.

tHaigh, E., M.A. Longton, Staffordshire.

tHaigh, George. 27 Highfield South, Rockferry, Cheshire.

tHaxe, H. Witson, Ph.D. pa O.8: Queenwood College, Hants,

{Hatizurtoy, R. G., Q. ay 13 Pall Mall, S.W.

§Hall, A. D. South- Eastern Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.

{Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

*Hatt, Huen Ferrers, F.G.S. Cowley House, Headington Hill,
Oxford.

§Hall, J.P. The ‘ Tribune,’ New York, U.S.A.

{ Hall, John. Springbank, Leftwich, Northw uch.

§Hall, John, M.D. National Bank of Scotland, 87 Nicholas-lane, E.C.

§Hall, Samuel, F.LC., F.C.S. 19 A lendegsnouk, Highbury, N.

§Hall, T. Farmer, F.RGS. 39 Gloucester Square, Hyde Park, W.

§Hall, Thomas B. Larch W ood, Rockferry, Cheshire.

{Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto,
Canada.

{Hall-Dare, Mrs. Caroline. 13 Great Cumberland-place, W.

*Hallett, George. Cranford, Victoria-road, Penarth, Glamorganshire.

§Hallett, J. H., M.Inst.C.E. Maindy Lodge, Cardiff.

*Hattert, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.

SHALLIBURTON, W. Dz, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
King’s College, London. Church Cottage, 17 Marylebone-road, W.

Halsall, ‘Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.

*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, FGS. F airley, Weston, Bath.

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Middleton ‘Hall, Tamworth.

{Hamilton, David James. 41 Queen’ s-road, Aberdeen.

*Hammond, Robert. 64 Victoria-street, Westminster We

*Hanbury, Daniel. La Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

{Hanbury, Thomas, F.L.S. La "Mortola, Ventimiglia, Italy.

1878.§§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. Municipal Offices, Liverpool.

1875.
1897.
1861.
1890.
1882.
1884.

1894,
1886.
1859,

tHancock, C. F., M. ‘A, 125 Queen’s-gate, 8. W.

tHancccx, Harris. University of Chicago, U.S.A.

f{Hancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, H.C.

{Hankin, Ernest Hanbury. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{Hankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton.

{Hannaford, E. P., M.Inst.C.E. 25738 St. Catherine-street, Montreal,
Canada.

§Hannah, Robert, F.G.S. 82 Addison-road, W.

§Hansford, Charles, J.P. Englefield House, Dorchester.

*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A,, D.C.L., LL.D, F.RS., F.C.S,
Cowley Grange, Oxford.

44 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890. *Harcovrt, L. F. Vernon, M.A., M.Inst.C.E. 6 Queen Anne’s-gate,
WwW

1900. §Harcourt, Hon. R., Q.C., Minister of Education for the Province of
Ontario, Toronto, Canada.

1886, *Hardcastle, Basil W., F.S.S. 12 Gainsborough-gardens, Hampstead,
N.W.

1892. *Harden, Arthur, Ph.D., M.Sc. Jenner Institute of Preventive

Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Grosvenor Road, S. W.

1877. {Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.

1869. {Harding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk.

1894. {Hardman, 8. C. 225 Lord-street, Southport.

1897. {Harpy, Hon. Arrnur §., Toronto, Canada.

i894. {Hare, A. T., M.A. Neston Lodge, Kast Twickenham, Middlesex.

1894. {Hare, Mrs. Neston Lodge, East Twickenham, Middlesex.

1898. {Harford, W. H. Oldown House, Almondsbury.

1858. tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.

1883. {Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1883. {Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.

1890. {Hargrove, Rev. Charles. 10 De Grey-terrace, Leeds.

1881. {Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York.

1890. §Harxcer, AtFrepD, M.A.,F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1896. {Harker, Dr. John Allen. Springfield House, Stockport.

1887. tHarker, T. H. Brook House, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1878. *Harkness, H. W., M.D. Galifornia Academy of Sciences, San
Francisco, California, U.S.A.

1871. {Harkness, William, F.C.S8. 1 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

1875, *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.8., F.S.A. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.

1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. 8 Arundel-terrace, Brighton.

1883. *Harley, Miss Clara. Rosslyn, Westbourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.

1883. *Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, W.C.

1862. *Haritny, Rev. Ropert, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Rosslyn, West-
bourne-road, Forest Hill, 8.E.

1899. §Harman, Dr. N. Bishop. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1868, *Harmer, F. W., F.G.8. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.

1881. *Harmer, Sipnny F., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S. King’s College, Cam-
bridge.

1882, t Harper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton.

1872. tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton.

1884, {Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Minéralogy in McGill University, Montreal. University-street,
Montreal, Canada.

1872. *Harris, Alfred. Warfenden, Farnborough, Hants.

1888. {Harris,C.T. 4 Kilburn Priory, N.W.

1842. *Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Millicent, South Australia.

1889. §Harris, H. Granam, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.

1898, {Harrison, A. J.. M.D. Failand Lodge, Guthrie-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1888. tHarrison, Charles. 20 Lennox-gardens, 8. W.

1860, {Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. North Wraxall, Chippenham.

1864, { Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1889.§§Harrison, J.C. Oxford House, Castle-road, Scarborough.

1858. *Harrison, J. Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, W.

1892. tHarrison, Joun. Rockville, Napier-road, Edinburgh.

1870. {Harrison, Reamvanp, F.R.C.S. 6 Lower Berkeley-street, Port-
man-square, W.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 45

Year of
Election.

1853.
1892.
1895.
1886.

1876.
1876.
1895.
1897.

1871.

1896.
1886.
1887.
1897.
1898.

1885.

1862.

1884,

1898.
1875.

1889.
1893.
1887.
1872.
1864.

1897.
1884,
1889.
1887.
1887.
1886.
1890.
1877.
1861.

1885,
1891,

1900,
1894.

1896.

1896.
1873.

1898.

1858.

1896,

1879.
1883.
1883.

1883.
1883.
1883,
1885,
1882,

tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.

tHarrison, Rey.S. N. Ramsey, Isle of Man.

tHarrison, Thomas. 48 High-street, Ipswich.

tHarrison, W. Jerome, F.G.S. Board School, Icknield-street, Bir-
mingham.

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn.

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.

*HarrLanp, E. Srpney, F.S.A. Highgarth, Gloucester,

tHartley, E.G.S. Wheaton Astley Hall, Stafford.

*Harriey, Watrer Noet, F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 36 Water-
loo-road, Dublin.

tHartley, W. P., J.P. Aintree, Liverpool.

*Hartoe, Professor M. M., D.Se. Queen’s College, Cork.

tHartog, P. J., D.Sc. Owens College, Manchester.

tHarvey, Arthur. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

tHarvey, Eddie. 10 The Paragon, Clifton, Bristol.

§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B.

*Harwood, John. Woodside Mills, Bolton-ie-Moors.

tHaslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada.

§Haslam, Lewis. 44 Evelyn-gardens, S.W.

*Hastrnes, G. W. Elm Lodge, Dartford Heath, Bexley, Kent.

tHatch, F. H., Ph.D., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

tHatton, John L. 8. People’s Palace, Mile End-road, E.

*Hawkins, William, Earlston House, Broughton Park, Manchester.

*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, 8.W.

*HawksHaw, JoHN Crarke, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8S. 2 Down-
street, W., and 33 Great George-street, S.W.

§Hawksley, Charles, 60 Porchester-terrace, W.

*Haworth, Abraham. Hilston House, Altrincham,

tHaworth, George C. Ordsal, Salford.

*Haworth, Jesse. Woodside, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tHaworth, 8. E. Warsley-road, Swinton, Manchester,

ft Haworth, Rev. T. J. Albert Cottage, Saltley, Birminghan.

tHawtin, J.N. Sturdie House, Roundhay-road, Leeds.

tHay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Jonn C. D. Bart., K.C.B.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, S.W.

*Haycrart, Joun Berry, M.D., B.Sc., l.R.S.E., Professor of Physi-
ology, University College, Cardiff.

tHayde, Rev. J. St. Peter’s, Cardiff.

§Hayden, H. H. The Oaks, Londonderry,

tHayes, Edward Harold. 5 Rawlinson-road, Oxford.

{tHayes, Rey. F. C. The Rectory, Raheny, Dublin. -

tHayes, William, Fernyhurst, Rathgar, Dublin.

*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland.

tHayman, C. A. Kingston Villa, Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.

*Harywarp, R. B., M.A., F.R.S. Ashcombe, Shanklin, Isle of Wight.

*Haywood, A. G. Rearsby, Merrilocks-road, Blundellsands, ‘3

*Hazelhurst, George S. The Grange, Rockferry.

{Headley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W.

{Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, 8. W.

tHeadley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W,

*Heap, Ralph. 1 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.

tHeape, Charles. Tovrak, Oxton, Cheshire.

{Heape, Joseph R. Glebe House, Rochdale,

*Heape, Walter, M.A. Heyroun, Chaucer-road, Cuwbridge.

46

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1877.
1877.
1883.
1898.
1898.
1884,
1883.
1865.
1892.

1889,
1884,

1888.
1888.

1855,
1887.
1881.

1887.
1897.
1899.
1867.
1875.
1883.
1891.

1892.
1885.
1880.

1896.
1856,

1873.

1892.
1855.

1855.
1890.
1890.
1892.

1887.

{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.

{Hearder, William Keep. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.

tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport.

*Heath, Arthur J. 10 Grove Road, Redland, Bristol.

tHeath, R.S., M.A., D.Sc. Mason University College, Birmingham.

{Heath, Thomas, B.A. Royal Observatory, Edinburgh.

tHeaton, Charles, Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport.

tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, Birmingham.

*Heaton, WititAM H., M.A., Professor of Physics in University
College, Nottingham.

*Heaviside, Arthur West. 7 Grafton-road, Whitley, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

eEisaviaite Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.R.Hist.S. 7 Grosvenor-
street, Coventry.

*Heawood, Edward, M.A. 8 Underhill-road, Lordship-lane, 8.E.

*Heawood, Percy J., Lecturer in Mathematics at Durham University.
41 Old Elvet, Durham.

Hector, Sir Jamus, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.S8., F.G.S., Director of the

Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.

*Hepens, KittryewortH, M.Inst.C.E, Wootton Lodge, 39 Streat-
ham-hill, S.W.

*Hetp-Suaw, H. 8., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engi-
neering in University College, Liverpool. 27 Ullet-road,
Liverpool.

§Hembry, Frederick William, F.R.M.S. Langford, Sideup, Kent.

§Hemming, G. W., Q.C. 2 Earl’s Court-square, 8.W

§Hemsalech, G. A. Faculté des Sciences, Paris.

tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.

*Henderson, A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

tHenderson, Mrs. A. L. Westmoor Hall, Brimsdown, Middlesex.

*Henperson, G.G., D.Se., M.A., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of Chemistry
in the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. 204
George-street, Glasgow.

{Henderson, John. 38 St. Catherine-place, Grange, Edinburgh.

t{Henderson, Sir William. Devanha House, Aberdeen.

*Henderson, Captain W. H., R.N. 21 Albert Hall-mansions, Ken-
sington, S. W.

tHenderson, W. Saville, B.Sc. Beech Hill, Fairfield, Liverpool.

tHennussy, Henry G., F.RS., M.R.LA. Palazzo Ferruzzi,
Zattere, Venice.

*Henricr, Oraus M. I. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute,
Central Institution, Exhibition-road, 8.W. 34 Clarendon-
road, Notting Hiil, W.

Henry, Franklin. Portland-stveet, Manchester,

Henry, Mitchell. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, W.

{Hursurn, Davin, M.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Mdinburgh.

*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Oakfield Cottage, Dartford
Heath. Kent.

tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, W.

tHepper, J. 45 Cardigan-road, Headingley, Leeds,

{Hepworth, Joseph. 25 Wellington-street, Leeds.

*HERBERTSON, ANDREW J., Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 25 Norham
Road, Oxford.

*Herpman, Witt1AM A., D.Se., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in University College, Liverpool. Croxteth
Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool. ty

LIST OF MEMBERS, 47

Year of
Election.

1893.
1891.
1871.

1874,

1900.
1900,

1895.

1894.
1894,

1896.
1893.
1883.
1882.
1883.

1866.
1897.
1861.
1879.

*Herdman, Mrs. Croxteth Lodge, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

tHern, 8. South Cliff, Marine Parade, Penarth.

*HurscHEL, ALEXANDER §., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Honorary
Professor of Physics and Experimental Philosophy in the Uni-
versity of Durham. Observatory House, Slough, Bucks.

§Herscuet, Colonel Jonn, R.E., E.R.S., F.R.A.S. Observatory
House, Slough, Bucks.

*Herschel, J.C. W. Littlemore, Oxford.

*Herschel, Sir W. J., Bart. Littlemore, Oxford.

§Hesketh, James. Scarisbrick Avenue-buildings, 107 Lord-street
Southport. ;

{Hewerson, G. H. 89 Henley-road, Ipswich.

tHewins, W. A.S., M.A., F.S.S. Professor of Political Keonomy in

Kine’s College, Strand, W.C.

§Hewitt, David Basil. Oakleigh, Northwich, Cheshire.

tHewitt, Thomas P. Eccleston Park, Prescot, Lancashire.

{Hewson, Thomas. Junior Constitutional Club, Piccadilly, W.

{Hurcock, Onartus T., M.A., B.RS. King’s College, Cambridge.

Sager John Frederick, M.A., F.R.G.S. 90 Arkwricht Street,

olton. i

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.

tHeys, Thomas. 180 King-street West, Toronto, Canada.

*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere.

tHeywood, Sir A. Percival, Bart. Duffield Bank, Derby.

1886.§§ Haywoop, Henry, J.P., F.C.S. Witla Court, near Cardiff.

1887.
1888.

1898.

1877.

1886.
1884.
1887.

1864,
1891.
1894,
1885.
1898.

1881.

1887.
1884,

1886.

1885.
1898.
1888.
1876.
1885.

1886.
1865,

tHeywood, Robert. Mayfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
ae : ames Harvey, M.A., F.G.S. The School House, Wolver-
ampton.
ae wae B. ae Na rong iv Clifton, Bristol.
iexs, Professor. W. M., M.A.; D.Se., ERIS.) Princi
University College, Sheffield.” j etn iaae
{Hicks, Mrs. W. M. Dunheved, Endclitfe-crescent, Sheffield.
as ae J el as gi eaepeosen hit Montreal, Canada.
tcxson, Sypnuy J., M.A., D.Sc.,. F.R.S., Professor of Z i
Owens College, Manchester. piesa: te
“Hiern, W. P., M.A. The Castle, Barnstaple.
§Hices, Henry, LL.B.,F.S.S. 12 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, N.W.
§Hill, Rev. A. Du Boulay. East Bridgford Rectory, N ottingham,
*Hitt, Avexanpnr, M.A., M.D. Downing College, Cambridge.
tHill, Charles. Clevedon. ?
ange = Canon Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory,
arlow.
Ree Her ae] M.A., F.G.S. The Rectory, Cockfield, Bury
. damunds.
{Hi, G. W., F.G.8. Albert-chambers, Albert-square, Manchester
{HLIL, Kev. Tames Edgar, MA. B.D, 2488 St. Ohthovine wired
ontreal, Canada.
tHint, M. J. M., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Pure M th i
vie in University College, W.C. it ag te
bor ey. rpm seri tore Bristol.
i omas Sidney. Langford House, Laneford, Bristol.
tHill, William. Hitchin, Herts. oll sb avata
oo Cae - ey ee Shettleston, N.B.
LLHOUSE, WILLIAM, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in M
__ Seience College. 16 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Tireiawten
§ Hillier, Rey. E. J. ¢ ardington Vicarage, near Bedford,
THills, F.C, Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S,E,

48

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1887.
1870.

1883.
1888.
1898,
1886.

1881.
1884.

1900.
1884.
1899.
1879.

1887.

1883.
1883.
1883.
1877.
1876.
1865.
1887.

1896.
1880.

1884.
1865.
1863.
1898,
1896.
1894,

{Hilton, Edwin. Oak Bank, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tHinvz, G. J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ivythorn, Avondale-road,
South Croydon, Surrey.

*Hindle, James Henry. 8 Cobham-street, Accrington.

*Hindmarsh, William Thomas, F.L.S. Alnbank, Alnwick.

§Hinds, Henry. 57 Queen-street, Ramsgate.

tHingley, Sir Benjamin, Bart. Hatherton Lodge, Cradley, Wor-
cestershire.

tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York.

{Hinestoy, Sir Wittiam Hates, M.D., D.O.L. 87 Union-avenue,
Montreal, Canada.

§Hinks, Arthur R., M.A. 10 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge.

{Hirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada.

§Hobday, Henry. Hazelwood, Crabble Hill, Dover.

t{Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. The Headlands, Scotland-lane, Hors-
forth, near Leeds.

*Hobson, Bernard, B.Sc., F.G.8. Thornton, Parkfield Road,
Didsbury.

tHobson, Mrs. Carey. 5 Beaumont-crescent, West Kensington, W.

tHobson, Rev. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport.

t Hocking, Rev. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport.

{Hodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 58 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.

tHodges, Frederick W. Queen's College, Belfast.

*Hopexrn,THomas, B.A.,D.C.L. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Hodgkinson, Alexander, M.B., B.Sc., Lecturer on Laryngology at
Owens College, Manchester. 18 St. John-street, Manchester.

tHodgkinson, Arnold. 16 Albert-road, Southport.

§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor cf
Chemistry and Physics in the Royal Artillery College, Woolwich.
18 Glencoe-road, Blackheath, 8.E.

tHodgson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada.

tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.

tHodgson, R. W. 7 Sandhill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Hodgson, T, V. Municipal Musenm and Art Gallery, Plymouth.

tHodgson, Dr. Wm., J.P. Helensville, Crewe.

tHogg, A. F., M.A. 18 Victoria-road, Darlington.

1894.§§Holah, Ernest. 5 Crown-court, Cheapside, E.C,

1883.
1885.
1885,
1884.
1887.
1896.
1900.

1887.
1891.
1879.
1896,
1898.
1889.
1886.
1883.
1883.
1866.
1892,
1882.

{ Holden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire.

tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport.

tHolden, John J. 23 Duke-street, Southport.

tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada.

*Holder, Henry William, M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

tHolder, Thomas. 2 Tithebarn-street, Liverpool.

§Holdich, Col. Sir Thomas H., R.E., K.0.I.E, Army and Navy Club,
36 Pall Mall, S.W.

*Holdsworth, C.J. Hill Top, near Kendal, Westmoreland.

§Holgate, Benj., F.G.8. The Briars, North Park Avenue, Roundhay.

{Holland, Calvert Bernard. Hazel Villa, Thicket-road, Anerley, 5.1.

§Holland, Mrs. Lowfields House, Hooton.

JHolland, Thomas H., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Calcutta.

{Holliinder, Bernard. King’s College, Strand, W.C.

{Holliday, J. R. 101 Harborne-road, Birmingham.

{Hollingsworth, Dr. T. 8. Elford Lodge, Spring Grove, Isleworth,

*Holmes, Mrs. Basil. 5 Freeland-road, Haling, Middlesex, W.

*Holmes, Charles. 24 Aberdare-gardens, West Hampstead, N.W.

tHolmes, Matthew. Netherby, Lenzie, Scotland.

*Houmes, THomas Vincent, F.G.8. 28 Croom’s-bill, Greenwich, $.E.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 49

Year of
Election.

1896. {Holt, William Henry. 11 Ashville-road, Birkenhead.
1897. {Holterman, R. F. Brantford, Ontario, Canada.
1891. *Hood, Archibald, M.Inst.C.E, Sherwood, Cardiff,
1875. *Hood, John. Chesterton, Cirencester.
1847. {Hooxer, Sir Joseru Darron, G.O.S.1., O.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,
ERS. F.LS., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale,
Berkshire.
1892. {Hooxur, Recinatp H.,M.A. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.
1865. *Hooper, John P. Deepdene, Rutford-road, Streatham, 8.W.
1877. *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. Lydlinch Rectory, Sturminster
Newton, Dorset.
1856. {Hooton, Jonathan. 116 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
1884, *Hopxinson, Cuartes. The Limes, Didsbury, near Manchester,
1882. *Hopkinson, Edward, M.A., D.Sc. Oakleigh, Timperley, Cheshire.
1871. *Hopxrinson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.Met.Soc. 84 New Bond
Street, W.; and Westwood, St. Albans.
1858. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
1891. {Horder, T. Garrett. 10 Windsor-place, Cardiff.
1898. *Hornby, R., M.A. The High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1885, {Horns, Joun, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff
Court-buildings, Edinburgh.
1875. *Horniman, F. J., M.P., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Falmouth House, 20
Hyde Park-terrace, W.
1884, *Horsfall, Richard. Stoodley House, Halifax.
1887. {Horsfall, T. C. Swanscoe Park, near Macclesfield.
1893. *Horstry, oe A. H., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 25 Cavendish-
square, W.
1884. *Hotblack, G.8. Brundall, Norwich.
1899.§§Hotblack, J.T. 45 Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1859. {Hough, Joseph, M.A., F.R.A.S, Codsall Wood, Wolverhampton,
1896. *Hough, 8S. S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town,
1886. {Houghton, F.T.S., M.A., F.G.S. 188 Hagley-road, Edebaston
Birmingham. i '
1887. {Houldsworth, Sir W. H., Bart., M.P. Norbury Booths, Knutsford.
1896. {Hoult, J. South Castle-street, Liverpool.
1884. {Houston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada.
1888, *Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S, Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road
West Dulwich, Surrey, S.E. :
1893. {Howard, F. T., M.A., F.G.S. University College, Cardiff.
1883. {Howard, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Sandycroft, Shaw.
1887. *Howard, 8.8. 58 Albemarle-road, Beckenham, Kent.
1899. §Howard-Hayward, H. Harbledown, 120 Queen’s-road, Richmond,
Surrey.
1886, {Howatt, David. 3 Birmingham-road, Dudley.
1876. {Howatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1899.§§Howden, Ian D.C. 6 Cambridge-terrace, Dover.
1889. {Howden, Robert, M.B., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Durham College of Medicine, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.
1857. {Howell, Henry H., I'.G.8., Late Director of the Geological Survey
of Great Britain.
1898. tHowell, J. H. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1891. {Howell, Rey. William Charles, M.A. Holy Trinity Parsonage, High
Cross, Tottenham, Middlesex.
1886.§ Howszs, G. B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8. Professor of Zoology in the
Royal College of Science, South Kensington, S.W.
1884. t{Howland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 413-street, Washington, U.S.A,
ae 7 tHowland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada. ;
D

50

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Blection.

1865.
1863.
1883.

1883,

1887.
1888.
1898.
1888.

1894.
1867.

1858.

1887.
1883.
1871.

1887.
1896.
1870.
1891.
1868.

1891.
1867.

1897.
1887.

1890
1878.

1880.

1877.
1891.
1886.
1891.

1875.
1881.
1889.
1881.
1884.
1879.

1885.

1863.
1898.
1869.
1882.
1861.

OS ape Freperick, F.R.A.S. 7 Prince’s Buildings, Clifton,

ristol.

{Howortn, Sir H. H., KC.LE., M.P., D.C.L., F.BS., F.S.A.
30 Collingham-place, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

+Howorth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tHoyle, James. Blackburn.

§Hoyis, Writ E., M.A. Owens College, Manchester.

{Hudd, Alfred E., FSA. 94 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

§Hupsston, W. H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. 8 Stanhope-gardens, 5. W.

{Hupson, C. T., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Briar Knoll, Lake, Sandown,
Isle of Wight.

§Hudson, John E. 125 Milk-street, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

*fLupson, Wiitram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s
aoe London. 15 Altenberg-gardens, Clapham Common,

*Hueerns, Sir Wit1M, K.C.B., D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb.-
Pres.R.S., F.R.A.S. 90 Upper Tulse-hill, 8. W.

{Hughes, E. G. ‘4 Roman-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester,

{Hughes, Miss E. P. Cambridge Teachers’ College, Cambridge.

*Hughes, George Pringle, J .P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.

{Hughes, John Taylor. Thorleymoor, Ashley-road, Altrincham.

+Hughes, John W. New Heys, Allerton, Liverpool.

* Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-chambers, Liverpool.

{Hughes, Thomas, F.C.S. 31 Loudoun-square, Cardiff.

§Hueuss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor
of Geology in the University of Cambridge. 18 Hills-road
Cambridge.

{Hughes, Rey. W. Hawker. Jesus College, Oxford.

§Huit, EpwarD, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Arundel-gardens

Notting Hill, W.

Hume, J. &., M.A., Ph.D. 650 Church-street, Toronto, Canada,

*Hummew, Protessor J. J. 152 Woodsley-road, Leeds.

{Humphrey, Frank W. 63 Prince’s-gate, 5. W.

{Humphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.

+Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.8S. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.

*Hount, ARTHUR Roope, M.A., F.G.S. Southwood, Torquay.

*Hunt, Cecil Arthur. Southwood, Torquay.

tHunt, Charles. The Gas Works, Windsor-street, Birmingham.

ey be de Vere, M.D. Westbourne-crescent, Sophia-gardens,

ardiff.

*Hunt, William. North Cote, Westbury-on-Trym, Bristol.

tHunter, F. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

{Hunter, Mrs. F’. W. Newbottle, Fence Houses, Co. Durham.

{Hunter, Rev. John. University-gardens, Glasgow.

*Hunter, Michael. Greystones, Sheflield.

{HUNTINGION, A.K.,F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College,

W.C.

{Huntly, The Most Hon. the Marquess of. Aboyne Castle, Aber-
deenshire.

{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.

{Hurle, J. Cooke. Southfield House, Brislington, Bristol.

+Hurst, George. Bedford.

*Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. Kirkgate, Tadcaster, Yorkshire.

*Hurst, AES John. Drumaness,, Ballynahinch, Co. Down,
Treland. at Fis

LIST OF MEMBERS, 61

Year of
Election.

1887.
1882.
1894.
1896.

1864,
1887.
1883.
1871.

1900.

1883.

1884.
1885.
1888.

1858.
1895.
1876.
1891.
1852.

1885,
1886.
1898.
1892.
1892.
1892.
1882.

1888.
1883.
1881.
1886,

1859.
1884.
1876.

1883.

1883.
1874.

18853.
18838.
1899.
1885.
1866.
1897.
1898.
1869,
1887.

tHusband, W. E. 56 Bury New-road, Manchester.

t Hussey, Major E. R., RE. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton.
*Hutchinson, A. Pembroke College, Cambridge.
tHutchinson, W. B. 4 West-street, Southport.

Hutton, Crompton. Harescombe Grange, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
*Hutton, J. Arthur. The Woodlands, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport.

*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Painswick, Stroud, Glouces-
tershire.
*Hyndman, H.H., Francis. Physical Laboratory, Leiden, Netherlands,

§Idris, T. H. W. Pratt-street, Camden Town, N.W.
Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.

*Tles, George. 5 Brunswick-street, Montreal, Canada.

tim-Thurn, Everard F., C.B., C.M.G., M.A. British Guiana,

*Ince, Surgeon-Lieut.-Col. John, M.D. Montague House, Swanley,
Kent.

{Incham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.

{Ingle, Herbert. Pool, Leeds.

fInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

tIngram, Lieut.-Colonel C. W. Bradford-place, Penarth.

tIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Senior Lecturer in the Univer-
sity of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.

fIngram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff.

tInnes, John. The Limes, Alcester Road, Moseley, Birmingham.

{tInskip, James. Clifton Park, Clifton, Bristol.

tIreland, D. W. 10 South Gray Street, Edinburgh.

{Irvine, James. Devonshire-road, Birkenhead.

tIrvine, Robert, F.R.S.E. Royston, Granton, Edinburgh.

§Irvine, Rev. A., B.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Hockerill Vicarage, Bishop's
Stortford, Herts.

*Tsaac, J. F. V., B.A. Royal York Hotel, Brighton.

{Isherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square, W.

{Izod, William. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

{Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.

tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

*Jack, Witt1aM, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow.

*Jackson, Professor A. H., B.Sc. 358 Collins-street, Melbourne,
Australia.

tJackson, Frank. 11 Park-crescent, Southport.

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Penalva Ranche, Millarville, Alberta,
Calgary, N.W.T., Canada.

*Jackson, F. J. 42 Whitworth-street, Manchester.

{[Jackson, Mrs. F. J. 42 Whitworth-street, Manchester.

§Jackson, Geotlrey A. 51 Harrington-gardens, Kensington, 8.W,

tJackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen,

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S. 67 Upgate, Louth, Lincolnshire.

§Jackson, James, F.R.Met.Soc. 34 Lonsdale-square, N.

*Jackson, Sir John. 3 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Jackson, Moses, J.P. The Orchards, Whitchurch, Hants.

§Jacobson, Nathaniel. Olive Mount, Cheetham Hill-road, Man-
chester.

D2

52 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Wisotion.

1874, *Jaffe, John. Villa Jaffe, 38 Prom. des Anglais, Nice, France.

1865. *Jaffray, Sir John, Bart. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1891. {James, Arthur P. Grove House, Park-crove, Cardiff.

1891. *James, Charles Henry. 64 Park-place, Cardiff.

1891. *James, Charles Russell. 6 New-court, Lincoln’s Inn, W.C.

1860. tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.

1886. {James, Frank. Portland House, Aldridge, near Walsall.

1891. {James, Ivor. University College, Cardiff.

1891. {James, John Herbert. Howard House, Arundel-street, Strand, W.C.

1891. tJames, J. R., L.R.C.P. 158 Cowbridge-road, Canton, Cardiff.

1896. {James,O. 8. 192 Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada.

1858. {James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.

1896. *Jameson, H. Lyster. Killencoole, Castlebellingham, Ireland.

1884. {Jameson, W. C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, W.

1881. tJamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts,
Glasgow.

1887. tJ amieson, G. Auldjo. 37 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh.

1885. {Jamieson, Thomas. 173 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., LL.D., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.

1889, *Japp, F. R., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Aberdeen.

1896, *Jarmay, Gustav. Hartford Lodge, Hartford, Cheshire.

1870, {Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.

1891. {Jefferies, Henry. Plas Newydd, Park-road, Penarth.

1855, *Jeffray, John. 9 Winton-drive, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

1897. {Jeffrey, E. C., B.A. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1867. {Jeffreys, Howel, M.A. 61 Bedford-gardens, Kensington, W.

1894. {Jelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain.

1891. §Jenkins, Henry C., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F'.C.8. Royal College of
Science, South Kensington, S.W.

1873. §Jenkins, Major-General J. J. 16 St. James’s-square, S.W.

1880. *JzenxKins, Sir Joun Jonus. The Grange, Swansea.

1895. §Jenkins, Colonel T. M. Glan Tivy, Westwood-road, Southampton.

1852. tJennings, Francis M., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.

1893. §Jennings, G. E. Glen Helen, Narborough Road, Leicester.

1897.§§Jennings, W. T., M.Iust.CE. Molson’s Bank Buildings, Toronto,
Canada.

1878. {Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary's Office, The Castle, Dublin.

1899.§§ Jepson, Thomas. Evington, Northumberland-street, Higher Brough-
ton, Manchester.

1887, {Jurvis-Smitg, Rey. F. J., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Oxford,

Jessop, William. Overton Hall, Ashover, Chesterfield.

1889. {Jevons, F. B., M.A. The Castle, Durham.

1900, “Jevons, H. Stanley. 95 Victoria Road, Cambridge.

1884, {Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

1891. {John, £. Cowbridge, Cardiff.

1884. {Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1884. {Jomnson, ALExanDpR, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics ix
McGill University, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Mont-
real, Canada.

1885. {Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

1883. {Johnson, Ben. Micklegzate, York.

TREY AS % Hi) ra David, F.0.8., F.G.S. 1 Victoria-road, Clapham Common,

1883. [Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert Road, Southport.
1865, *Johnson, G. J, 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham,

Year

LIST OF MEMBERS, 58

of

Election.

1888. {Johnson, J. G. Southwood Court, Highgate, N.

1870. {Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 46 Jermyn-street, Liverpool.

1868. {Johnson, R. 8S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.

1881. {Johnson, Sir Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham.

1890. *Jonnson, THomas, D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the Royal

College of Science, Dublin.

1898. *Johnson, W. Claude, M.Inst.C.E. The Dignaries, Blackheath, S.E.

1887. {Johnson, W. H. Woodleigh, Altrincham, Cheshire.
1883. {Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge.

1883. {Johnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport.

1861.

{Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham,
Cheshire.

1899. §Johnston, Colonel Duncan A., R.E. Ordnance Survey, Southampton.

1888.

1859.
1864,
1884.
1883,
1884.
1884.
1885,

1886.
1864.
1871.

1888.
1896.
1888,

1898.
1881.
1887,

1890.
1891.
1896.
1887.

1891.
1883.

1895.
1877.

1881.

1873.
1880.
1860.

1896.
1885.
1891.
1875.

{Jonnston, Sir H. H., K.C.B., F.R.G.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions,
S.W.

{Johnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B.

{Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, N.W.

{Johnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks.

{Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appelle, N.W. Territory, Canada,

*Johnston, W. H. County Offices, Preston, Lancashire.

{Jounston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Beaulieu, Alpes Maritimes,
France.

{Johnstone, G. H. Northampton-street, Birmingham.

JJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath.

{Jotty, Witiram, F.RS.E., F.G.S. St. Andrew’s-road, Pollok-
shields, Glasgow.

tJolly, W.C. Home Lea, Lansdowne, Bath.

*Jory, C. J.. M.A. The Observatory, Dunsink, Co. Dublin.

{Joty, Joun, M.A., D.Se., F.R.S., Professor of Geology and
Mineralogy in the University of Dublin.

{Jones, Alfred L. Care of Messrs. Elder, Dempster, & Co., Liverpool.

tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Cardigan Villa, Harrogate.

{Jones, D. E., B.Sc., H.M. Inspector of Schools, Science and Art
Department, South Kensington, S.W.

§Jongs, Rev. Epwarp, F.G.S. Primrose Cottage, Embsay, Skipton.

tJones, Dr. Evan. Aberdare.

tJones, E. Taylor. University College, Bangor.

{Jones, Francis, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Beaufort House, Alexandra Park,
Manchester.

*Jonus, Rev. G. Hartwett, M.A. Nutfield Rectory, Redhill, Surrey.

*Jones, George Oliver, M.A. Inchyra House, 21 Cambridge Road,
Waterloo, Liverpool.

tJones, Harry. Engineer’s Office, Great Eastern Railway, Ipswich.

{Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. Royal Coliege of Science, South Kensing-
ton, 8. W.

*Jonzs, J. VirtAMv, M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., Principal of the University
College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff.

tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, E.C.

{Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.

{Jonzs, THomas Rurert, F.R.S., F.G.S8. 17 Parson’s Green, Ful-
ham, 8. W.

§Jones, W. Hope Bank, Lancaster-road, Pendleton, Manchester,

tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport.

tJones, William Lester. 22 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*Jose, J. HE. 49 Whitechapel, Liverpool.

1884, {Joseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada,

54

Year of
Election

1891.
1891.
1879.
1890.
1872.
1883.
1886.
1896.
i891.

1848.
1870.

1883.

1888,

1884.
1875.
1886.
1894.
1894,

1892.

1878.
1884.
1864,
1885.
1847.

1877.
1887.

1898.
1884,
1890.
1891.
1875.
1897,
1884,
1876.
1884.
1884.
1897.
1886,
18958.

1886,

LIST OF MEMBERS

.

{Jotham, F. H. Penarth.

tJotham, T. W. Penylan, Cardiff.

{Jowitt, A. Scotia Works, Sheffield.

tJowitt, Benson R. Elmhurst, Newton-road, Leeds.

tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James's, S.W.

tJoyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester.

tJoyce, The Hon. Mrs. St. John’s Croft, Winchester,

{Joyce, Joshua. 151 Walton-street, Oxford.

{Joynes, John J. Great Western Colliery, near Coleford, Gloucester-
shire.

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.

{Jupp, Joun Westey, C.B., F.R.S., F.G.S8., Professor of Geology in
the Royal College of Science, London. 22 Cumberland-road,

Kew.
{Justice, Philip Middleton, 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-

lane, W.C,

{Kapp, Gishert, M.Inst.C.E., M.Inst.E.E, 8 Lindenallee, Westend,
Berlin.

tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada.

{Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.

{Keen, Arthur, J.P. Sandyford, Augustus-road, Birmingham,

{ Keene, Captain C. T. P., F.ZS8. 11 Queen’s-gate, SW.

{Keightley, Rev. G. W. Great Stambridge Rectory, Rochford,
Essex.

{Keiller, Alevander, M.D., LL.D., F RSE, 54 Northumberland-
street, Edinburgh.

*Kelland, W. H. North Street, Exeter.

{Kellogg, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A.

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. Ermington, Taunton, Somerset.

§Ketrin, J. Scorr, LL.D., Sec. R.G.5., F'.8.8. 1 Savile-row, W.
*Kutvin, The Right Hon. Lord, G.C.V.0., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F-R.A.S. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire.

*Kelvin, Lady. Netherhall, Largs, Ayrshire.

{Kemp, Harry. 55 Wilbraham-road, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Man-
chester.

*Kemp, John T., M.A. 61 Cotham Brow, Bristol.

{Kemper, Andrew O.,A.M., M.D. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A.

§Kempson, Augustus. Kildare, 17 Arundel-road, Eastbourne.

§KEnpALL, Percy F., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

{Kennepy, ALExanpER B. W., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Victoria-
street, S.W., and 1 Queen Anne-street, Cavendish-square, W.

§Kennedy, George, M.A., LL.D. Crown Lands Department, Toronto,
Canada.

{Kemnedy, George T., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada,

{Kennedy, Hugh. 20 Mirkland-street, Glasgow.

{Kennedy, John. 118 University-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

{ Kenrick, Frank B. Knesebeckstr. diti., Charlottenburg, Berlin.

{Kenrick, George Hamilton. Whetstone, Somerset-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Kent, A. F. Sranzey, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Physio-
logy in University College, Bristol.

§Kenwarp, James, F\S,A. 43 Streatham High-road, 8.W,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 55

Year of
Election.

1857.
1876.
1881.
1884.
1887.
1883.

1892.
1889,
1887.
1869.
1869.

1883.
1876.
1886.
1897,
1885.
1896.

1890.
1878.

1860.
1875.

1888.
1888.
1883.
1875.
1899,

1871.
1855.
1883.
1870,

1883.
1860.

1875.
1870.
1889.
1897.
1875.
1867.
1892.
1900.

1899.
1899,
1870.
1890.
1886.

1886.

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.

{KermopE, Purire M. C. Hillside, Ramsey, Isle of Man.

TKerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada.

{Kerr, James. Dunkenhalgh, Accrington.

turer, Rev. Jonny, LL.D., F.R.S. Free Church Training College,
Glasgow.

tKerr, J. Graham. Christ’s College, Cambridge.

{Kerry, W. H. R. The Sycamores, Windermere.

{Kershaw, James. Holly House, Bury New-road, Manchester.

*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. Rose Villa, Vale-road, Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Rivington View, Hale Road,
Bowdon, Cheshire.

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge.

{Kidston, J. B. 50 West Regent-street, Glasgow.

§Kipston, Roserr, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 12 Clarendon-place, Stirling.

{Kiekelly, Dr. John, LL.D. 46 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen.

*Killey, George Deane. Bentuther, 11 Victoria-road, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

{Kimmins, C. W., M.A., D.Sc. Downing College, Cambridge.

{Kinahan, Sir Edward Hudson, Bart. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.

{Krnanan, G. Henry, M.R.LA. Dublin.

*Kiycu, Epwarp, F.0.8. Royal Agricultural College, Ciren-
cester.

{King, Austin J. Winsley Hill, Limpley Stoke, Bath.

*King, E. Powell. Wainsford, Lymington, Hants.

*King, Francis. Alabama, Penrith.

*King, F, Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.

{K1ne, Sir Grores, K.C.LE., F.R.S. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Oo.,

55 Parliament-street, S. W.

*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. The Rectory, Stourton, Bath.

{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.

*King, John Godwin. Stonelands, West Hoathley.

{King, John Thomson. 4 Ciayton-square, Lixerpool.

*King, Joseph. Lower Birtley, Witley, Godalming.

*King, Mervyn Kersteman. Merchants’ Hall, Bristol.

*King, Percy L. 2 Worcester-avenue, Clifton, Bristol.

{King, William. 5 Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.

{King, Sir William. Stratford Lodge, Southsea.

tKingsmill, Nichol. Toronto, Canada.

{Kinezerr, Cuartzs T., F.C.S. Elmstead Knoll, Chislehurst.

fKinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.

{Kinnear, The Hon, Lord, F.R.S.E. 2 Moray Place, Edinburgh.

*Kippina, Professor F. Srantey, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S. University
College, Nottingham.

*Kirby, Miss O. F. 74 Kensington Park-road, W.

*Kirby, Miss M. A. Field House, Richmond Road, Montpelier, Bristol.

{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire.

*Kirson, Sir Jamus, Bart., M.P. Gledhow Hall, Leeds.

tKlein, Rev. kL. M. de Beaumont, D.Se., F.L.S. 6 Devonshire-road,
Liverpool.

{Knight, J. MeK., F.G.S. Bushwood, Wanstead, Essex.

1898.§§KNooxrr, Sir E. Wortaston, K.C.B. Castle Hill House, Dover.
1888, {Knott, Professor Cargill G., D.Sc, F.R.S.E. 42 Upper Gray-street,

Edinburgh.

56

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1887. *Knott, Herbert. Aingarth, Stalybridge, Cheshire.

1887. *Knott, John F. Glan-y-Coed, Conway.

1887. {Knott, Mrs. Glan-y-Coed, Conway.

1874. {Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co, Antrim.
1897. {Knowlton, W.H. 36 King-street Hast, Toronto, Canada.

1883.
18838.
1876.
1875.
1883,
1892.
1898.

1890.
1888,

1870.

1858.
1884.
1885.
1897.
1877.
1859.
1889.
1887.

1887.
1885.
1883.
1896.
1893.
1884,
1893.

1890.
1884.
1871.
1886.
1877,

1883.
1859.
1898.
1886.
1870.
1865,

1880.
1884,

1878.
1885,

{Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.

{Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport.

{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 24 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.

*Knubley, Rev. E. P., M.A. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

{Knubley, Mrs. Steeple Ashton Vicarage, Trowbridge.

{Koun, Cuartes A., Ph.D. 20 Mulgrave-street, Liverpool.

tKrauss, A. Hawthornden, Priory-road, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton,
Bristol.

*Krauss, John Samuel, B.A. Hodnet, Salop.

*Kunz, G. F. Care of Messrs. Tiffany & Co., 11 Union-square, New
York City, U.S.A.

{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. 3 Oal-terrace, Beech-street, Liverpool,

tLace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.

tLaflamme, Rev. Professor J.C. K. Laval University, Quebec.

“Laing, J. Gerard. 111 Church-street, Chelsea, 8.W.

tLaird, Professor G. J. Wesley College, Winnipeg, Canada.

tLake, W.C.,M.D. Teignmouth.

{Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin.

*Lamb, Edmund, M.A. Borden Wood, Liphook, Hants.

{Lams, Horacs, M.A., F.R.8., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the
Owens College, Manchester. 6 Wilbraham-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester. :

tLamb, James. Kenwood, Bowdon, Cheshire.

tLamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{LaMBERT, Rev. Brooxn, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, S.E,

§Lambert, Frederick Samuel. Balgowarn, Newland, Lincoln.

JLambert, J. W., J.P. Lenton Firs, Nottingham.

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada.

gee G. W.,F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Jermyn-street,

{tLamport, Edward Parke. Greenfield Well, Lancaster,

tLancaster, Alfred. Fern Bank, Burnley, Lancashire.

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.

tLancaster, W. J., F.G.8. Colmore-row, Birmingham.

tLandon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 59 Tresillian-road, St.
John’s, 8.E.

tLang, Rev. Gavin. Mayfield, Inverness.

tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. The University, Aberdeen.

“Lang, William H. 10 Jedburgh-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

*Lanetey, J. N., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.

{LanxesterR, HE. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Director of the Natural
History Museum, Cromwell-road, 8. W.

*LANSDELL, Rev. Huyry, D.D., F.R.A.S.,F.R.G.S. Morden College,
Blackheath, London, S.E.

§Lanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston,

{Lapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.

{LapwortH, Cuartes, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.8., Professor of Geology
and Physiography in the Mason University College, Birmingham,
28 Duchess-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. :

LIST OF MEMBERS. 57

Year of
Election.

1887. {Larmor, Alexander. Clare College, Cambridge.

1881. {Larwor, JosppH, M.A.,D.Se., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge,

1883. §Lascelles, B. P., M.A. Longridge, Harrow.

1896. *Last, William J. South Kensington Museum, London, 8.W.

1870, *Laruam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 7 Westminster-chambers,
Westminster, 8. W.

1900. §Lauder, Alexander. University College, Bangor.

1870. t{Laughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.G.S. 5 Pepy’s-road, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1891. {Laurie, A. P. Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh.

1892. §Laurie, Malcolm, B.A., B.Sc., F.L.8., Professor of Zoology in St.
Mungo’s College, Glasgow.

1888. {Laurie, Colonel R. P., C.B. 79 Farringdon-street, E.C.

1883. {Laurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1870, *Law, Channel]. Isham Dene, Torquay.

1878. {Law, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-chambers, S.W.

1884. §Law, Robert, F.G.S. Fennyroyd Hall, Hipperholme, near Halifax,
Yorkshire.

1870. {Lawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.

1881. {Lawrence, Rey. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York.

1900. §Lawrence, W. Trevor, Ph.D. 57 Prince’s Gate, S.W.

1889. §Laws, W. G., M.Inst.C.E. 65 Osborne-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

1885. {Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B.

1888. {Layard, Miss Nina F. 2 Park-place, Fonnereau-road, Ipswich.

1856. {Lea, Henry. 388 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.

1883. *Leach, Charles Catterall. Seghill, Northumberland.

1875. {Leach, Colonel Sir G., K.0.B., R.E. 6 Wetherby-gardens, S.W.

1894, *Leahy, A. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Firth College.
92 Ashdell-road, Sheffield.

1884. *Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland.

1884, {Learmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada.

1884, *Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 2 Central-square, Cambridgeport, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

1872. {Lesour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col-
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1884, {Leckie, k.G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada.

1895. *Ledger, Rev. Edmund. Proted, Woods-road, Reigate.

1898. §Luz, ArtHUR, J.P. 10 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

1861. {Lee, Henry. Sedgeley Park, Manchester.

1896. §Lee, Rev. H. J. Barton, 14 Higher Park View, Heavitree, Exeter.

1891. jLee, Mark. The Cedars, Llandaff-road, Cardiff.

1894. *Lee, Mrs. W. Ashdown House, Forest Row, Sussex.

1884, *Leech, Sir Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

1896. *Leech, Lady. Oak Mount, Timperley, Cheshire.

1892. *Lers, Cuartrs H.,D.Se. Osborne, Belgrave-road, Oldham.

1886. *Lees, Lawrence W. Old Ivy House, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton.

1882. tZLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton.

1859. {Lees, William, M.A. 12 Morningside-place, Edinburgh.

1896. tLees, William. 10 Norfolk-street, Manchester.

*Leese, Joseph. 3 Lord-street West, Southport.

1889, *Leeson, John Rudd, M.D., O.M., F.L.S., F.G.8. Clifden House,
Twickenham, Middlesex.

1881. {Lz Fevvrr, J. E. Southampton.

1872. {Lerrvre, The Right Hon. G. SHaw. 18 Bryanston-square, W.

1869. {Le Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.

1892. {Lehfeldt, Robert A. 28 South Molton-street, W.

1868, {Lercester, The Right Hon, the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk,

58 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1856. t{Lzren, The Right Hon. Lord. Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth,

1891. {Leigh, W. W. Treharris, R.S.O., Glamorganshire.

1867. {Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.

1859. {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.

1882. §Lemon, James, M.inst.C.E., F.G.S. Lansdowne House, Southampton.

1867. {Leng, Sir John, M.P. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.

1878. {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.

1887. *Leon, John T. 38 Portland-place, W.

1871. {Luonarp, Hven, M.R.1.A, 24 Mount Merrion-avenue, Blackrock,
Co. Dublin.

1874, {Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.

1884, Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada.

1890. *Lester, Joseph Henry. Royal Exchange, Manchester.

1883. §Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith.

1880. {LercuEer, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea,

1894. tLeudesdorf, Charles. Pembroke College, Oxford.

1896. §Lever, W. H. Port Sunlight, Cheshire.

1887. *Levinstein, Ivan. Hawkesmoor, Fallowfield, Manchester.

1890. §Levy, J.H. 11 Abbeville-road, Clapham Park, S.W.

1893. *Lnwes, Vrvian B., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E.

1879, {Lewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank-
ment, 5. W.

1870. t{Lewis, Atrrep LioneL. 54 Highbury-hill, N.

1891. {Lewis, D., J.P. 44 Park-place, Cardiff.

1891. §Lewis, Professor D. Morgan, M.A. University College, Aberystwyth.

1899.§ Lewis, Professor E. P. University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A.

1897. §Lewis, Rev. J. Pitt, M.A. Rossin House, Toronto, Canada.

1899,§§Lewis, Thomas. 9 Hubert-terrace, Dover.

1891. tLewis, W. Lyncombe Villa, Cowbridge-road, Cardiff.

1891. t{Lewis, W. 22 Duke-street, Cardiff.

1891. {Lewis, W. Henry. Bryn Rhos, Llanishen, Cardiff.

1884, *Lewis, Sir W. T., Bart. The Mardy, Aberdare.

1878. {Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.

1871. {Lindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.

1898, §Lippincott, R. C. Cann. Over Court, near Bristol.

1883. {Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich.

1895, *Lisrer, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.C.S., D.C.L., F.R.S. 12 Park-
crescent, Portland-place, W.

1888, {Lisrer, J. J., M.A., F.R.S. Leytonstone, Essex, N.E.

1861. *Lrvere, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Newnham, Cambridge.

1876, *LivErsipeE, ARCHIBALD, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Sydney, N.S.W.

1880, {LiEweExyn, Sir Joun T. D., Bart., M.P. Penllegare, Swansea.

1865. {Lloyd, G. B., J.P. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.

1865. {Lloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.

1886. {Lloyd, J. Henry. Ferndale, Oarpenter-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1891. *Lloyd, R. J., M.A., D.Litt., F.R.S.E 49a Grove-street, Liverpool.

1886. t{Lloyd, Samuel. Farm, Sparkbrook, Birmingham.

1865. *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Park Lane House, Woodgreen, Wed-
nesbury.

1897. §Lloyd-Verney, J. H. 14 Hinde-street, Manchester-square, W.

1854. *Lozrzy, James Logan, F.G.S. City of London College, Moorgater
street, H.C.

1892. §Loch, C.8., B.A. 154 Buckingham-street, W.C.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 59

Year of
Election,

1867. *Locke, John. 144 St. Olaf’s-road, Fulham, S.W.

1892. t{Lockhart, Robert Arthur. 10 Polwarth-terrace, Edinburgh.

1863. {LocxyeR, Sir J. Norman, K.C.B., F.R.S. Royal College of Science,
South Kensington, 5. W.

1900. §Lockyer, W. J.S. 16 Penywern Road, South Kensington, 8. W.

1886. *Lopen, Atrrup, M.A., Professor of Pure Mathematics in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineermg College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

1875. *Lopex, Ortver J., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Principal of the University
of Birmingham.

1894. *Lodge, Oliver W. F. 225 Ilagley Road, Birmingham,

1889. {Logan, William. Langley Park, Durham.

1896. §Lomas, J., F.G.8. 138 Moss Grove, Birkenhead.

1899. §Loneq, Emile. 6 Rue de la Plaine, Laon, Aisne, France.

1876. tLong, H. A. Brisbane, Queensland.

1883. *Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1883. {Long, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington.

1866. {Longden, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.

1883. {Longe, Francis D. Lowestoft.

1898. *Lonefield, Miss Gertrude. High Halston Rectory, Rochester.

1883. {Longmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport.

1875. *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.S.8. Highlands,
Putney Heath, S.W.

1872. *Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,
Surrey.

1881. SDoniciate Mug Li. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey.

1899. *Longstaff, Tom G., B.A., F.R.Met.Soc. Ridgelands, Wimbledon,

Surrey.

1883. *Longton, H. J.. M.D. Brown House, Blawith, vd Ulverston.

1861. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.

1894, {Lord, Edwin C. E., Ph.D. 247 Washington-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.

1889. {Lord, Riley. 75 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1897. {Lovpon, James, LL.D., President of the University of Toronto,
Canada.

1883. *Lovis, D. A., F.C.S. 77 Shirland-gardens, W.

1896. §Louis, Henry, Professor of Mining, Durham College of Science,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.

1887. *Love, Professor A. EK. H., M.A., F.R.S. 34 St. Margaret’s Road,
Oxford.

1886. *Love, E. F. J., M.A. The University, Melbourne, Australia.

1876, *Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.8S., F.Z.S. 33 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

1883. f{Love, James Allen. 8 Easthourne-road West, Southport.

1892. §Lovibond, J. W. Salisbury, Wiltshire.

1889. {Low, Charles W. 84 Westhourne-terrace, W.

1867. *Low, James F. Seaview, Monifieth, by Dundee.

1885. §Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwin’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex,

1891.§§Lowdon, John. St. Hilda’s, Barry, Glamorgan.

1885, *Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex.

1892. {Lowe, D. T. Heriot’s Hospital, Edinburgh.

1886. *Lowe, John Landor, B:Sc., M.Inst.C.E, Strathavon, Kedleston Road,
Derby.

1894. ihowinthal, Miss Nellie. 60 New North-road, Huddersfield.

1881. {Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe, High Elms, Farnborough, R.S8.O., Kent.

1881. {Lubbock, John B. 14 Berkeley-street, W.

1870. {Lubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, W.

1889. {Lucas, John. 1 Carlton-terrace, Low Fell, Gateshead.

1878, {Lucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, 8.W.

60

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889.
1891.
1881.
1897.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1892.

1853.
1885.

1874.
1900.
1864.
1898.
1871.

tLuckley, George. The Grove, Jesmond, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,

*Lucovich, Count A. The Rise, Llandaff.

tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York.

tLumsden, George E., F.R.A.S. 57 Eim-avenue, Toronto, Canada,

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.

*Lundie, Cornelius. 32 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tLunn, Robert. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court House,
Edinburgh.

tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull,

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Professor of Coal Mining in
Yorkshire College, Leeds. 6 De Grey-road, Leeds.

*Lupton, Sypney, M.A. 102 Park Street, Grosvenor Square, W.

§Lupron, William C. Mayor of Bradford.

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.

§Luxmoore, Dr. C. M. Reading College, Reading.

tLyell, Sir Leonard, Bart., MP. , EGS. 48 Eaton-place, 8.W.

1899.§§Lyle, Professor Thoma S R. The University, Melbourne.

1884,
1884.
1874.
1885.
1896.
1862.

1854,

1876.
1868.
1878.

1896.
1897.
1896.

1879,
1883.
1883.
1866.
1896,
1884,
1896.
1834,
1896.

1884.

1886.
1887.
1884,
1884,
1891.

tLyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLlyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada.
tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland.

tlyon, Alexander, jun. 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

{lyster, A. G. Dockyard Coburg Dock, Liverpool.

*Lyts, I’, Maxwntt, M.A., F.C.S. 60 Finborough-road, S.W.

*Macapam, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.LC., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh; and Brighton House,
Portobello, Edinburgh.

*Macapam, Wiittam Ivison, F.R.S.E., F.1.C., F.C.S8. Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh.

{Macatister, ALEXANDER, M.A., M.D.,F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Torrisdale, Cambridge.

{MacAuisrer, Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam-

bridge.

{Macalister, N. A. S. 2 Gordon-street, W.C.

tMcAllister, Samuel. 99 Wilcox-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Macatium, Professor A. B., Ph.D. 59 St. George Street, Toronto,

Canada.

§MacAndrew, James J., F.L.S. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

{MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon.

§MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester.

*M‘Arthur, Alexander. 79 Holland-park, W.

{McArthur, Charles. Villa Marina, New Brighton, Cheshire.

{Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada.

*Macaulay, F.8., M.A. 19 Dewhurst-road, W.

Macavray, James, A.M., M.D. 4 Wynnstay-gardens, W.

{MacBripz, Professor E. W., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

{tMcCabe, T., Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa,
Canada.

tMacCarthy, Rev. E. F. M., M.A. 93 Hagley-road, Birmingham.

*McCarthy, James. Bangkok, Siam,

*McCarthy, J. J., M.D. 83 Wellineton-road, Dublin.

tMcCausland, Orr. Belfast.

*McCiean, Frawx, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E, Rusthall
House, Tunbridge Wells,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 61

Year of
Election.

1876.
1868.

1872.
1878.
1892,

1892.
1883,

*M‘CLELLAND, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

{M‘Crintock, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., K.C.B., F.RS.,
F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, S.W.

*McClure, J. H., F.R.GS. Whiston, Prescot.

*M‘Comas, Henry. Pembroke House, Pembroke Road, Dublin.

ea John, M.A., D.Sc. Henderson Street, Bridge of Allan,

Abt
tMcCrae, George. 8 Dick-place, Edinburgh.
{MeCrossan, James. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

1899.§§McDiarmid, Jabez. ‘lhe Elms, Stanmore, Middlesex.

1900.

1890.
1886.
1884.
1884,
1884,

1883,
1884.
1897.
1881.

1885,

1897.
1879,
1867.
1897.
1888
1884,
1884.

1885.
1884,

1885.
1867.

1884,
1883.
1884.

1885.

1897.
1896.
1878.

1883.
1897.
1884,
1884.
1883,

§Macdonald, J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

*MacDonald, Mrs. J. R. 3 Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

{McDonald, John Allen. Hillsboro’ House, Derby.

{MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness.

*McDonald, Sir W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

{MacDonnell, Mrs. F'. H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada.

MacDonnell, Hercules H.G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.

{MacDonnell, Rev, Canon J. C.,D.D. Misterton Rectory, Lutterworth.

tMcDougall, John. 35 St. Frangois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada.

{McEwen, William C. 9 South Charlotte-street, Edinburgh,

{Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

{Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor of Biology in the
University of Pennsylvania, Lansdowne, Delaware Oo., Penn-
sylvania, U.S.A.

tMcFarlane, Murray, M.D. 82 Carlton-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow.

*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.

{McGaw, Thomas. Queen’s Hotel, Toronto, Canada.

{MacGeorge, James. 67 Marloes-road, Kensington, W.

{MacGillivray, James. 42 Cathcart-street, Montreal, Canada,

tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. Dunavon, Westmount,
Montreal, Canada.

{Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen.

*MacGreGor, James Gorpon, M.A.,D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.

pclae eagle J.,M.A., M.B. 26 Buchanan-street, Hillhead,

asgow.

*McIntosu, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., F.L.S., Professor
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, 2 Abbotse
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B.

tMclIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants,

{tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle.

§MacKay, A. H., B.Sc., LL.D., Superintendent of Education,
Education Office, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada,

§Macxay, Jonn Yutz, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Dundee.

tMcKay, T. W.G., M.D. Oshawa, Ontario, Canada.

*McKechnie, Duncan. LKccleston Grange, Preston.

t{McKenpricx, Jonn G., M.D., LL.D., F.B.S., F.R.S.E., Professor
of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. 2 Florentine+
gardens, Glasgow.

tMcKendrick, Mrs. 2 Florentine-gardens, Glasgow.

tMcKenzie, John J. 61 Madison-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

{McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-circus, E.C,

{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canadas

tMackeson, Henry, Hythe, Kent.

62

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1872.
1867.
1884,
1887.
1867.
1891.
1850.
1872.

1896,
1892.
1892.
1878.

1885,

1860.
1897.
1875.
1897.

1892.

1884.
1884.
1884.
1868.

1892.
1861.

1885.
1888.

1878.
1874. {
1884.

1867.
1878.
1887.
1883.

1887. {
1885.
1883.
1868.
1875.
1896.
1878.
1887.
18838.

*Mackey, J. A. 175 Grange-road, 8.E.

{Macxis, SamurL JosrrH. 17 Howley-place, W.

{McKilligan, John B. 387 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada,

{Macxinper, H. J., M.A., F.R.G.S. Christ Church, Oxford.

*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.

+Mackintosh, A. ©. 88 Plymouth Road, Penarth.

tMacknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh.

*McLacuian, Ropert, F.R.S., F.L.8. West View, Clarendon-road
Lewisham, 8.E. ;

tMaclagan, Miss Christian. Ravenscroft, Stirling.

tMaclagan, Philip R. D. St. Catherine’s, Liberton, Midlothian.

tMaclagan, R. Craig, M.D., F.R.S.E. 5 Coates-creseent, Edinburgh.

t{McLandsborough, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manningham, Bradford
Yorkshire. ?

*M‘Laren, The Hon. Lord, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. 46 Moray-place
Edinburgh. ;

tMaclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.

tMacLaren, J. F. 380 Victoria-street, Toronto, Canada.

t+MacLaren, Walter 8. B. Newington House, Edinburgh,

{MacLaren, Rev. Wm., D.D. 57 St. George-street, Toronto
Canada. 4

*Mactean, Maenus, M.A., D.Se, F.R.S.E., (Locat SEcrerary.)
Professor of Electrical Engineering, Technical College, Glasgow.

t{McLennan, Frank. 817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada. 3

t{MecLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

{McLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada,

§McLrop, Herserrt, F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Staines,

{Macleod, W. Bowman. 16 George-square, Edinburgh,

*Maclure, Sir John William, Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S.,F.S.S. Whalley
Range, Manchester.

*McManon, Lieut.-General C. A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 20 Nevern-square
South Kensington, S. W. :

t{MacManon, Major Percy A., R.A., F.R.S. 52 Shaftesbury-
avenue, W

*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Rathmines, Ireland.

ie ed fe ee 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.

McMurrick, J. Playfair. University of Michiga y, ,
re Mahia D- : saegmny
{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth.

{Macnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.

tMaconochie, A. W. Care of Messrs. Maconochie Bros., Lowestoft.
{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 19 Pembridge-square, W.

Macy, Jesse. Grinnell, Lowa, U.S.A.

{Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts.

+{Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.8. 56 Clarendon-villas, West Brighton.
{Magnay, I’. A. Drayton, near Norwich. .
*Macnus, Sir Puittp, B.Sc. 16 Gloucester-terrace, yde Park, W.
{Maguire, Thomas Philip. Iastfield, Lodge-lane, Liverpool. ‘
{Mahony, W. A. 84 College-green, Dublin.

{Mainprice, W. 8. Longcroft, Altrincham, Cheshire,

{Maitland, P.C. 186 Great Portland-street, W.

1899.§§ Makarius, Saleem. ‘Al Mokattam,’ Cairo.
1881. {Malcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York.

1874.
1889.

{Malcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
{Maling, C. T, 14 Ellison-place, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 63

Year of
Election.

1857.

1896.
1897.
1887.

1870.
1885.
1888.
1894,
1864,
1888.

1891.
1887.

1870.
1898.
1900.
1887.
1883.
1887.
1864.

1894.
1863.
1888.
1888.
1881.
1887.
1884.

1892.
1883.
1887.
1864.
1889.

1889.
1892.

1890,
1881.
1886.

1849,

1865,
1899.
1891.
1887.
1884.

1889,

tMatzer, Jonn Wit114M, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.0.S., Professor of
oe in the University of Virginia, Albemarle Co.,
U.S.A.

“Manbré, Alexandre. 15 Alexandra-drive, Liverpool.

t{Mancz, Sir H.C. 382 Earl’s Court-square, 8. W.

t{MancuestER, The Right Rev. the Lord Bishop of, D.D. Bishop's
Court, Manchester.

tManifold, W. H., M.D. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.

{Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen,

{Mann, W. J. Rodney House, Trowbridge.

{Manning, Percy, M.A., F.S.A. Watford, Herts.

tMansel-Pleydell, J. C., F.G.S._ Whatcombe, Blandford.

tMansercu, James, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. 5 Victoria-street, West-
minster, S.W.

{Manuel, James. 175 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*March, Henry Colley, M.D., F.S.A. Portesham, Dorchester, Dorset-

shire.

tMarcoartu, His Excellency Don Arturo de. Madrid.

*Mardon, Heber. 2 Litfield-place, Clifton, Bristol.

§Margerison, Samuel. Calverley Lodge; near Leeds.

tMargetson, J. Charles. The Rocks, Limpley, Stoke.

{Marginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire.

{Markham, Christopher A., F.R.Met.Soe. Spratton, N orthampton.

{MarkHam, Sir Cremenrs R., K.0.B., F-R.S., Pres.R.G.S., F.S.A,
21 Eccleston-square, 5. W.

{Markoff, Dr. Anatolius. 44 Museuwm-street, W.C,

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington,

tMarling, W. J. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire,

tMarling, Lady. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucestershire.

*Marr, J. E., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

{tMarsden, Benjamin. Westleigh, Heaton Mersey, Manchester, —

*Marsden, Samuel. 1015 North Leflingwell-avenue, St. Louis,
Missouri, U.S.A.

*Marsden-Smedley, J. B. Lea Green, Cromford, Derbyshire.

*Marsh, Henry. 5 Ladywood-road, Roundhay, Leeds.

{Marsh, J. E., M.A. The Museum, Oxford.

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 87 Grosyenor-place, Bath.

*Marsuatt, AtFrepD, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Political Heonomy
in the University of Cambridge. Balliol Croft, Madingley-road,
Cambridge.

{Marshall, Frank, B.A, 31 Grosvenor-place, Neweastle-upon- Tyne.

§Marshall, Hugh, D.Se., F.R.S.E. 151 Warrender Park-road,
Edinburgh.

tMarshall, John. Derwent Island, Keswick.

{ Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York.

*MarsHatt, Witr1AM Bayer, M.Inst.C.E. Richmond Hill, Edgbas-
ton, Birmingham.

*Marsnart, Wittiam P., M.Inst.C.e, Richmond Hill, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

§Marren, Epwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge,

§Martin, Miss A. M. Park View, Bayham-road, Seye

*Martin, Edward P., J.P. Dowlais, Glamorgan.

*Martin, Rev. H. A. Grosvenor Club, London, 8. W.

§Martin, N. H., J.P., F.L.S. Ravenswood, Low Fell, Gateshead-on-

Tyne.
*Martin, Thomas Henry, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Northdene, New
Barnet, Herts. !

64

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1890.

1865.
1883.
1891.
1878.
1847.

1886,
1879.
1896.
1898.
1891.
1885.
1898.
1883.
1887.
1890.
1865.

1898

1894,
1865,
1889.
1861.

1881.
1883.
1858.
1885.
1885.
1899,
1898.
1865.
1894.
1876.
1887.

1883.
1888.
1884.
1878.
1871.
1879.
1887.

1881,

1867.

1883.
1879,
1866.
1885,
1896.
1881.
1887.

§Martindale, William, F.L.S. 19 Devonshire-street, Portland-
place, W.

{Martineau, R. F. 18 Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

t{Marwick, Sir J. D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. (Locat Secretary.) Glasgow.

{Marychurch, J.G. 46 Park-street, Cardiff.

*Masuam, Lord. Swinton Park, Swinton.

{Masxetyne, Nevin Srory, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Basset Down
House, Swindon.

{Mason, Hon. J. E. Fiji.

tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield.

tMason, Philip B., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Burton-on-Trent.

*Mason, Thomas. Endersleigh, Alexandra Park, Nottingham.

*Massey, William H., M.Inst.C.E. Twyford, R.S.0., Berkshire.

{Masson, Orme, D.Sc. University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.

tMasterman, A. T. University of St. Andrews, N.B.

{Mather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport.

*Mather, William, M.P.,M.Inst.C.E. Salford Iron Works, Manchester.

{Mathers, J.S. 1 Hanover-square, Leeds.

{Mathews, C. E. _ Waterloo-street, Birmingham.

{Mathews, E. R. Norris. Cotham-road, Cotham, Bristol.

{Maruews, G. B., M.A., F.R.S. 10 Menai View. Bangor.

*Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

tMathews, John Hitchcock. 1 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, W.

*Maruews, WILLIAM, M.A., F.G.S. 21 Augustus-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham,

{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport.

{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire.

{Marruews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen.

{Matthews, J. Duncan. Springhill, Aberdeen.

§Marruews, Witt1aM, C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. 9 Victoria-street, S.W.

{Mavor, Professor James,M.A.,LL.D. University of Toronto,Canada,

*Maw, Grore®, F.L.S., F.G.8., F.S.A. Benthall, Kenley, Surrey.

§Maxim, Sir Hiram S. 18 Queen’s Gate-place, Kensington, 8. W.

tMaxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.

t{ Maxwell, James. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick.

§May, William, F.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Cray, Kent.

tMayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport.

*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, W.C,

*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.

{Meikle, James, F.S.8. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.

§Meiklejohn, John W.S., M.D. 105 Holland-road, W.

{Meischke-Smith, W. Rivala Lumpore, Salengore, Straits Settle-
ments.

*Murpora, RapHart, F.RS., F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of
Chemistry in the Finsbury Technical College, City and Guilds
of London Institute. 6 Brunswick-square, W.C.

{Metprum, CuaruEs, C.M.G., LL.D., F.R.S.,F.R.A.S. University

Hall, Riddle’s Court, Edinburgh.

tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport.

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worlsop.

{Mertxo, Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. Mapteciey Vicarage, Derby.

§Mello, Mrs. J. M. Mapperley Vicarage, Derby.

§Mellor, G@. H. Weston, Blundell Sands, Liverpool.

§Melrose, James. Clifton Croft, York.

tMelvill, J. Cosmo, M.A. Kersal Cottage, Prestwich, Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 65

Year of
Election.

1847. {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen's College
Galway. ;

1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.

1896. ea R.R. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament-street,

1862, aa Henry T. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street,

1879. {MeRIvALE, Jounn Herman, M.A. Togston Hall, Acklington.

1899. *Merrett, William H, Royal Mint, Tower Hill, E.

1880. {Merry, Alfred S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.

1899. §Merryweather, J.C. 4 Whitehall-court, S.W.

1889. *Merz, John Theodore. The Quarries, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1863. {Messent, P.T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.

1896. §Metzler, W. H., Professor of Mathematics in Syracuse University.

Syracuse, New York, U.S.A. c

1869, {Miatt, Louis C., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in
the Yorkshire College, Leeds.

1886. {Middlemore, Thomas. Holloway Head, Birmingham.

1865. {Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham,

1881. *Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of.
Middlesbrough.

1893. §Middleton, A. 25 Lister-gate, Nottingham.

1881. {Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.8., F.Z.S. 46 Windsor-road, Ealing, W.

1894. *Mizrs, H. A., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in the
University of Oxford. Magdalen College, Oxford.

1889. {Milburn, John D. Queen-street, Newecastle-upon-Tyne,

1886. {Miles, Charles Albert. Buenos Ayres.

1881. {Mrtxs, Morris. Warbourne, Hill-lane, Southampton.

1885. §Mrr1, Hue Roperrt, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S. 22 Gloucester-

place, Portman-square, W.

1889, *Millar, Robert Cockburn. 30 York-place, Edinburgh.

Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.

1875. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol,

1895. {Miller, Henry, M.Inst.C.. Bosmere House, Norwich-road, Ipswich,

1888. {Miller, J. Bruce. Rubislaw Den North, Aberdeen.

1885. {Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

1886, {Miller, Rey. John, B.D. The College, Weymouth.

1861. *Miller, Robert. Totteridge House, Hertfordshire, N.

1895. §Miller, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 9 Thoroughfare, Ipswich.

1884. {Miller, T. F., BAp.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada.

1876. {Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B.

1897. {Miller, Willet G., Professor of Geology in Queen's University
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. :

1868. *Mitts, Epwunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in the Glasgow and West of Scotlana
Technical College, Glasgow. 60 John-street, Glasgow.

1880. {Mills, Mansfeldt H., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Sherwood Hall, Mans-
field.

1885. {Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

1882. *Mrinz, Jon, F.R.S.,F.G.S, Shide Hill House, Shide, Isle of Wicht

1885. {Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. eg

1898. *Milner, S. Roslington, B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

1882. {Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.S. 22a Goldhurst-terrace, South Hamp-
stead, N.W.

1880. {Mincurn, G. M., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics in the
Royal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill, Surrey,

1855, {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.

1900, B

++

66 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
lection.

1859. tMitchell, Alexander, M.D, Old Rain, Aberdeen.

1876. {Mitehell, Andrew. 20 Woodside Place, Glasgow.

1883. {Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
Ww

1883. {Mitchell, Mrs. Charles T. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington,
W

1885. { Mitchell, Rev. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s Terrace, Aberdeen.

1885. tMitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford.

1895. *Moat, William, M.A. Johnson, Eccleshall, Staffordshire.

1885. {Moffat, William. 7 Queen’s-gardens, Aberdeen,

1885. {Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen.

1883. {Mollison, W. L., M.A. Clare College, Cambridge.

1878. {Molloy, Constantine, Q.C. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin.

1877. *Molloy, Right Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

1884. tMonaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 317), Nova Scotia, Canada.

1900. §Monekton, H. W., V.P.G.S. 3 Harcourt Buildings, Temple, E.C.

1887. *Monp, Lupwic, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Avenue-road, Regent's
Park, N.W.

1891. *Mond, Robert Ludwig, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 20 Ayenue-road,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

1882, *Montagu, Sir Samuel, Bart., M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, W.

1892. tMontgomery, Very Rey. J. F. 17 Athole-crescent, Edinburgh.

1872. t{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Edgware-road, W.

1872. t{Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.

1896. tMoore, A. W., M.A. Woodbourne House, Douglas, Isle of Man,

1894. §Moore, Harold E, 41 Bedford-row, W.C.

1891. {Moore, John. Lindenwood, Park Place, Cardiff:

1890. {Moore, Major, R.E. School of Military Engineering, Chatham,

1857. *Moore, Rev. William Prior. Carrickmore, Galway, Ireland.

1896. *Mordey, W. M. Prince’s-mansions, Victoria-street, 8. W.

1891. {Morel, P. Layernock House, near Cardiff.

1881. ere Atrrep. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida,

)

1895. {Morean, C. Lroyp, F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of University College,
Bristol. 16 Canynge-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar, F.R.G.S. 15 Roland-gardens, South
Kensington, 5.W.

1891. {Morgan, F. Forest Lodge, Ruspidge, Gloucestershire,

1896. §Morgan, George. 61 Hope-street, Liverpool.

1887. {Morgan, John Gray. 38 Lloyd-street, Manchester.

1882.§§Morgan, Thomas, J.P. Cross House, Southampton.

1892. tMorison, John, M.D.,.F.G.S. Victoria-street, St. Albans.

1889, §Morison, J. Rutherford, M.D. 14 Saville-row, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

1893. {Morland, John, J.P. Glastonbury.

1891. {Morley, H. The Gas Works, Cardiff.

1883. *Moripy, Henry Forsrnr, M.A.,D.8c., F.C.8. 47 Broadhurst-gar-
dens, South Hampstead, N.W.

1889, t{Mortry, The Right Hon. Jony, M.A., LL.D, M.P., FBS.
95 Elm Park-gardens, 8.W.

1896. {Morrell, R. 8S. Caius College, Cambridge.

1881. {Morrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York.

1883. {Morris, C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales.

1892, paca Danret, C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Barbados, West

ndies.

4899. §Morris, G. Harris, Ph:D., F.1.0. 18 Gwendwr-road, West Ken-

sington, ‘V -

LIST OF MEMBERS.

—,
Oo
a7

Year of
Election.

1883

1888

1880.
1883.
1896.

tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea.
§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea.
{Morris, John. 4 The Elms, Liverpool.

*Morris, J. T. 18 Somers-place, W.

tMorris, J. W., F.L.S. 27 Green Park, Bath.

Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.

1874.§§Morrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. Shanghai, China.

1899.

1865.
1869.
1858.
1887.
1886,
1896,

1883.
1878.
1876,

1864,
1892.
1878.
‘1892.
1866,
1856.
1878.

1863.
1861.

1877,

1899.
1887.
1888.
1884.

1884.
1899.
1894,
1876.
1874,

1872.
1876.

1883.
1884,

1880,
1897.
1898.

1876.

§Morrow, Captain John, M.Se. 7 Rockleaze-avenue, Sneyd Park,

Bristol.

tMortimer, J. R. St. Tohn’s-villas, Driftield.

tMortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.

“Morton, Henry JosepH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough,

tMorton, Percy, M.A. Illtyd House, Brecon, South Wales.

*Morton, P. F. Hocklitte Grange, Leighton Buzzard.

*Morton, William B., M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in

Queen’s College, Belfast.

tMoseley, Mrs. Firwood, Clevedon, Somerset.

*Moss, Jonn Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield.

§Moss, RicHarp Jackson, F.1.C., MR.EA. Royal Dublin Society,

and St. Aubyn’s, Ballybrack, Co, Dublin.

*Mosse, J. R. 5 Chiswick-place, Eastbourne.

{Mossman, R. 0., F.R.S.E. 10 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

{Mossman, William. St. Hilda’s, Frizinghall, Bradford.

*Mostyn, S. G., M.A. 19 Peak-hill, Sydenham, S.E.

tMorrt, FrEpErIcK T., F.R.G.S. Crescent House, Leicester,

{Mould, Rev. J.G.,B.D. Roseland, Meadfoot, Torquay.

*Moutton, J. Frercuer, M.A., Q.C., M.P., F.R.S. 57 Onslow-
square, 8. W.

{tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.

*Mountcastle, William Robert. The Wigwam, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.

t{Movunt-Epecumse, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount
Edgcumbe, Devonport.

§Mowll, Martyn. Chaldercot, Leyburne-road, Dover.

tMoxon, Thomas B. County Bank, Manchester.

tMoyle, R. E., M.A., F.C.S. Heightley, Chudleigh, Devon.

{Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature

in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal,

Canada.

tMoyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada.

*Mutt, Herbert B. Aston Mount, Heaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tMugliston, Rev. J..M.A. Newick House, Cheltenham.

*Muir, Sir John, Bart. Demster House, Perthshire.

{Murr, M. M. Parrison, M.A. Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge.

*Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 2 Prince’s-street, Storey’s-gate,
Westminster, S.W.

“Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. 24 Kersland-street,
Hillhead, Glasgow.

Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. Fancourt, Balbriggan, Co. Dublin.

*Mutter, Hvco, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 18 Park-square East,
Regent’s Park, N.W.

Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna,

{Mullins, W. E. Preshute House, Marlborough, Wilts.

§§Mumford, C. E. Bury St. Edmunds.

Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, E.C.
{Munro, Donald, M.D., F.C.S, The University, Glasgow.
B2

68

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election,

1898.

1885,
1858.
1890.
1889.
1884.
1887.
1891.

1859.
1884.

1884,

1872.
1892.
1863.
1874.
1897.
1870.
1891.

1890.

1886.
1892.
1890.
1876.
1872.

1887.
1896.
1887.
1885.
1887.
1887.
1855.
1897.
1868.
1898.

1866.
1889.
1869.
1889.
1886.
1889.

1860.

1892.

t{Munro, John, Professor of Mechanical Engineering in the Merchant
Venturers’ Technical College, Bristol.

*Muwro, Ropert, M.A., M.D. 48 Manor-place, Edinburgh.

{Murdoch, James Barclay. Capelrig, Mearns, Renfrewshire.

tMurphy, A. J. Preston House, Leeds.

tMurphy, James, M.A., M.D. Holly House, Sunderland.

§Murphy, Patrick. Marcus-square, Newry, Ireland.

tMurray, A. Hazeldean, Kersal, Manchester.

t{Murray, G. R. M, F.RS., F.RS.E., F.LS. British Museum

(Natural History), South Kensington, 8. W.

tMurray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.

{Mourray, Sir Joun, K.C.B., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E. Chal-

lenger Lodge, Wardie, Edinburgh.

{Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral

Philosophy in McGill University, Montreal. 111 McKay-street,

Montreal, Canada.

{Murray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.8.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.

tMurray, T.S. 1 Nelson-street, Dundee.

{Murray, William, M.D. 9 Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.

§Musgrave, Sir James, Bart., J.P. Drumeglass House, Belfast.

{Muserave, James, M.D. 511 Bloor-street West, Toronto, Canada.

*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.

tMuybridge, Eadweard. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A

*Myres, Jonny L., M.A., F.S.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

t{Nacet, D. H., M.A. Trinity College, Oxford.

*Nairn, Michael B. Kirkaldy, N B.

§Nalder, Francis Henry. 34 Queen-street, I.C.

tNapier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

{Narrs, Admiral Sir G. S., K.C.B., RN, F.RS., F.R.GS.
11 Claremont-road, Surbiton.

tNason, Professor Henry B., Ph.D. Troy, New York, U.S.A.

{Neal, James E., U.S. Consul. 26 Chapel-street, Liverpool,

§Neild, Charles. 19 Chapel Walks, Manchester.

*Neild, Theodore, B.A. ‘The Vista, Leominster.

{Nerll, Joseph S. Claremont, Broughton Park, Manchester.

{Neill, Robert, jun. Beech Mount, Higher Broughton, Manchester,

{Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glascow.

tNesbitt, Beattie S. A., M.D. 71 Grosvenor-street, Toronto, Canada.

{Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.

§Nevill, Rev. J. H. N., M.A. The Vicarage, Stoke Gabriel, South

Devon. ;

*Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of
Dunedin, New Zealand.

{Nevitre, F. H., M.A., F.R.S. Sidney College, Cambridge.

{Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.

*Newall, H. Frank. Madingley Rise, Cambridge.

tNewbolt, F.G. Oakley Lodge, Weybridge, Surrey.

§ Newstead, A. H. L., B.A. Rose Villa, Prospect-road, Woodford
Green.

*Newron, AtrreD, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalene College, Cambridge.

aa E. T., F.RS., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 6Y

Year of
Election.

1867.
1866.

1887.
1884,

1883.
1887.
1893.
1887.
1901.
1885.
1896.
1878.

1877.
1874.
1863.

1879.
1887.
1870.
1863.

1888,
1865.
1872.
1888.

1886,
1894,

1896.
1887.

1898.

1878.
1883.
1858.

1884,
1857.

1894.
1896.
1885.
1876.
1885.

tNicholl, Thomas. Dundee.

t{Nicnotson, Sir CuHartes, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D, F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S, The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.

*Nicholson, John Carr. Moorfield House, Headingley, Leeds.

{NicHotson, JosprH §., M.A., D.Se., Professor of Political Economy in
the University of Edinburgh. Eden Lodge, Newbattle-terrace,
Edinburgh,

tNicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Parl, Southport.

{Nicholson, Robert H. Bourchier. 21 Albion-street, Hull.

tNickolls, John B., F.C.S. The Laboratory, Guernsey.

{Nickson, William. Shelton, Sibson-road, Sale, Manchester.

§Nicot, Jamns (Locan TREASURER), City Chamberlain. Glasgow.

tNicol, W. W. J., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 15 Blacket-place, Edinburgh.

tNisbet, J. Tawse. 175 Lodge-lane, Liverpool.

{Niven, Cuarzes, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. 6 Chanonry, Old
Aberdeen.

{Niven, Professor James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.

{Nixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, Belfast.

*Nosie, Sir Anprew, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick
Works, and Jesmond Dene House, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tNoble, T.S. Lendal, York.

{Nodal, John H. The Grange, Heaton Moor, near Stockport.

tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.

§Norman, Rey. Canon ALFRED Mzrtz, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.L.S. The Red House, Berkhamsted.

{Norman, George. 12 Brock-street, Bath.

{Norris, Ricnarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.

tNorris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.

*Norris, William G. Dale House, Coalbrookdale, R.S.O., Shropshire.

Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, 8.W.;
and Hamshall, Birmingham.

tNorton, Lady. 55 Haton-place,S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham.

§Norcuzr, 8. A., LL.M., B.A., B.Sc. 98 Anglesea-road, Ipswich.

Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.

tNugent, the Right Rev. Monsignor. 18 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo,
Liverpool.

tNursey, Perry Fairfax. 2 Trafalgar-buildings, Northumberland-
avenue, London, W.C,

*O’Brien, Neville Forth. Queen Anne’s-mansions, S.W.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.

tO’Conor Don, The. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.

tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, H.C,

*Opiine, WILLIAM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.

tOdlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada.

tO’Donnayan, William John. 654 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.

§Ogden, James. (Kilner Deyne, Rochdale.

tOgden, Thomas. 4 Prince’s-avenue, Liverpool.

tOgilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen.

tOgilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk.

fOcinvin, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc., F.RS.E. Meriot Watt College,
Edinburgh.

70

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1859.
1884.

1881.
1887.
1896.
1892.

1853.
1885.
1895.

1892.
1863.

1887.

1883.
1889.
1882.
1860.

1880.

1872.
1883.
1867.
1885.

{Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldan House, Dundee.

*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.

fO’Halloran, J. S.,C.M.G. Royal Colonial Institute, Northumber-
land-ayenue, W.C.

tOldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York.

Oldham, Charles. Romiley, Cheshire.

Oldham, G. 8. Town Hall, Birkenhead.

fOldham, H. Yule, M.A., F.R.G.S., Lecturer in Geography in the
University of Cambridge. King’s College, Cambridge.

tOtpHAM, JAmEs, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull.

fOldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video.

“Oldham, R. D., F.G.S., Geological Survey of India. Care of Messrs.
HS. King & Co., Cornhill, E.C.

{Oliphant, James. 50 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.

fOriver, Danio, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.L8., Emeritus Professor of Botany
in University College, London. 10 Kew Gardens-road, Kew,
Surrey.

fOriver, F. W., D.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University
College, London. The Tower House, Tite-street, Chelsea, S.W.

§Oliver, Samuel A. Bellingham House, Wigan, Lancashire.

§Oliver, Professor T., M.D. 7 Ellison-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Olsen, O. T., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 116 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby.

*Ommanniy, Admiral Sir Erasmus, 0.B., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.S. 29 Connaught-square, Hyde Park, W.

*“Ommanney, Rev. E. A. St. Michael’s and All Angels, Portsea,
Hants.

tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, S.W.

{Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskvit in the University of Berlin.

TOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.

tOrd, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport.

1899.§§Orling, Axel. Moorgate Station-chambers, E.C.

1858.
1883.
1884.

1884.
1838.

fOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
*Orpen, Lieut.-Colonel R. T., R.E. Care of G. H. Orpen, Esq.,
Erpingham, Bedford Park, Chiswick.
*Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Binnbrooke, Cambridge.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.

1899.§§Osborn, Dr. F. A. The Chalet, Dover.

1897,
1887.

1897.
1865.

1884.
1884.

1882.
1881.
1896,
1882.
1889.
1896.

1889,

{Osborne, James K. 40 St. Joseph-street, Toronto, Canada.

§O’Shea, L. T., B.Sc. University College, Sheffield.

*OstER, A. Fotrerr, F.R.S, South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham,

{Osler, E. B., M.-P. Rosedale, Toronto, Canada.

*Osler, Henry F. Coppy Hill, Linthurst, near Bromsgrove,
Birmingham.

{OstER, Professor Wiri1aM, M.D., F.R.S. Johns Hopkins University,
Baltimore, U.S.A.

fO’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on-
Trent.

*Oswald, T. R. Castle Hall, Milford Haven.

*Ottewell, Alfred D, 14 Mill Hill-road, Derby.

fOulton, W. Hillside, Gateacre, Liverpool.

tOwen, Rev. C. M., M.A. St. George’s, Edebaston, Birmingham.

*Owen, Alderman H.C. Compton, Wolverhampton.

§Owen, Peter. The Elms, Capenhurst, Chester, and 2 Dale Street,

Liverpool.

tPage, Dr. F. i Saville-place, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 71

Year of
Election.

1883. {Page, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk.

1883. {Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport.

1894. {Paget, Octavius. 158 Fenchurch-street, E.C.

A ie Right Hon. Sir R. H., Bart. Cranmore Hall, Shepton
Mallet.

1884. {Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A.

1875. {Paine, William Henry, M.D. Stroud, Gloucestershire.

1870. *PateRAvE, Rovert Harry Inetis, F.R.S., F.S.8. Belton, Great
Yarmouth.

1896. {Pallis, Alexander. Tatoi, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

1889, [PatmER, Sir CHartes Mark, Bart., M.P. Grinkle Park, York-
shire.

1878. *Palmer, Joseph Edward. Rose Lawn, Ballybrack, Co. Dublin.

1866. §Palmer, William. Waverley House, Waverley-street, Nottingham.

1872. *Palmer, W. R. 49 Tierney-road, Streatham Hill, 8S. W.

1883. {Pant, F. J. Van der. Clifton Lodge, Ringston-on- Thames.

1886, {Panton, George A., F.R.S.E. 73 Westfield-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.

1883. {Park, Henry. Wigan.

1883. {Park, Mrs. Wigan.

1880. *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. St. John’s, Wakefield,
Yorkshire.

1898. {Parker,G., M.D. 14 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1863. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1886. {Parker, Lawley. Chad Lodge, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1899.§§Parker, Mark. 30 Upper Fant-road, Maidstone.

1891. {Parker, William Newton, Ph.D., F.Z.S., Professor of Biology in
University College, Cardiff.

1899. *Parkin, John. Blaithwaite, Carlisle.

1879. {Parkin, William. The Mount, Sheffield.

1887.§§Parkinson, James. Greystones, Langho, Blackburn.

1859. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. Yewbarrow House, Grange-over-Sands.

1883. tParson, T. Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol.

1878. {PArsons, Hon. C. A., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Holeyn Hall, Wylam-
on-T'yne.

1885. t Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts.

1898. *Partridge, Miss Josephine M. Girton College, Cambridge.

1898. {Pass, Alfred ©. Clifton Down, Bristol.

1881]. {Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham.

1887. {Parerson, A. M., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in University College,
Liverpool.

1897. {Paterson, John A. 23 Walmer-road, Toronto, Canada.

1896. {Paton, A. A. Greenbank-drive, Wavertree, Liverpool.

1897. {Paron, D. Noil, M.D. 33 George-square, Edinburgh.

1883. *Paton, Rev. Henry, M.A. 120 Polwarth Terrace, Edinburgh.

1884. *Paton, Hugh. Box 2400, Montreal, Canada,

1871. *Patterson, A. Henry. 16 Ashburn-place, S.W.

1876. {Patterson,T. L. Maybank, Greenock.

1874. {Patterson, W. H., M.R.LA. 26 High-street, Belfast.

1863. {Parrrson, Jonn, F.C.S. 75 The Sidé, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1879. *Patzer, F. R. Clayton Lodge, Newcastle, Staffordshire.

1863. {Paul, Benjamin H., Ph.D. 1 Vietoria-street, Westminster, S.W.

1883. {Paul, George. 10 St. Mary’s Avenue, Harrogate.

1892. {Paul, J. Balfour. 30 Heriot-row, Edinburgh.

1863. {Pavy, Frepprick WIttrAM, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, W.

1887. *Paxman, James. Stisted Hall, near Braintree, Hssex.

1887. *Payne, Miss Edith Annie. Hatchlands, Cuckfield, Hayward’s Heath.

Wa)
fa

Year of

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Election.

1881.
1877.
1881.
1866,
1888.
1886,
1876.
1879.
1885.

1875.
1886.
1884.
1886.
1883.
1891.
1893.
1898.
1885.
1881.
1885.
1872.
1892.
1881.
1889.
1863.
1865.

1888.
1885.
1884.
1883.

1878.
1881.
1861.
1878.
1887.

1894.
1894,
1897,

1896.
1898.
1881.
1875.
1889.

1898.

{Payne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Payne, J. C. Charles. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
tPayne, Mrs. 1 Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast.
{Payne, Joseph F., M.D. 78 Wimpole-street, W.
*Paynter, J. B. Hendford Manor House, Yeovil.
{Payton, Henry. Wellington-road, Birmingham.
{Peace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester.
{tPeace, William K. Moor Lodge, Sheffield.
}Pracu, B.N., F.BS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office,
Edinburgh.

{Peacock,Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, W.C.
*Pearce, Mrs. Horace. The Limes, Stourbridge.
tPearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada.
{Pearsall, Howard D. 19 Willow-road, Hampstead, N.W.
tPearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, 8. W.
{Pearson, B. Dowlais Hotel, Cardiff.
*Pearson, Charles E. Chilwell House, Nottinghamshire.
§Pearson, George. Bank Chambers, Baldwin-street, Bristol.
{Pearson, Miss Helen KE. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport.
tPearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
{Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York.
*Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada.
{Pearson, J. M. John Dickie-street, Kilmarnock.
{Pearson, Richard. 57 Bootham, York.
{Pease, Howard. Enfield Lodge, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough.
{Pease, J. W. Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
*Peckover, Alexander, LL.D., F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank

_ House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
{Peckover, Miss Alexandrina. Bank House, Wisbech, Cambridgeshire.
{Peddie, William, D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 2 Cameron-park, Edinburgh.
tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin.
{Pxrex, Sir Curnzerr E., Bart., M.A., F.S.A. 22 Belgrave-square,
S. W

*Peek, William. The Manor House, Kemp Town, Brighton.

{Peggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, S.W.

*Peile, George. Greenwood, Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.

{Pemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln's Inn-fields, W.C.

§PenDLEBURY Wiriam H., M.A., F.C.S. 6 Gladstone-terrace,
Priory Hill, Dover.

§Pengelly, Miss. Lamorna, Torquay.

§Pengelly, Miss Hester, Lamorna, Torquay.

{PENHALLOW, Professor D. P., M.A. McGill University, Montreal,
Canada.

{Pennant, P. P. Nantlys, St. Asaph.

{Pentecost, Harold, B.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Penty, W. G. Melbourne-street, York.

{Perceval, Rev. Canon John, M.A., LL.D. Rugby.

Percival, Archibald Stanley, M.A., M.B. 16 Ellison-place, New-
castle-upon-Tyne.

{Percival, Francis W., M.A., F.R.G.S._ 2 Southwick-place, W.

1895.§§Percival, John, M.A., Professor of Botany in the South-Eastern

1894,

Agricultural College, Wye, Kent.

*Perigal, Frederick. Lower Kingswood, Reigate.

§Perkin, A. G, F.RS.E., F.C.S., F.C. 8 Montpelier-terrace,
Hyde Park, Leeds,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 73

Year of

Election.

1868. *PERKIN, WitL1am Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.C.S. The
Chestnuts, Sudbury, Harrow, Middlesex.

1884, {Perxin, Witt1amM Henry, jun., LL.D., Ph.D., F.RS., FCS,
Professor of Organic Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
Fairview, Wilbraham Road, F'allowfield, Manchester.

1864, *Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire.

1898. *Perman, E. P. University College, Cardiff.

1885. {Perrin, Miss Emily. 381 St John’s Wood Park, N.W.

1886, {Perrin, Henry 8S. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, N. W.

1886. {Perrin, Mrs. 381 St. John’s Wood Park, N.W.

1874, *Perry, Joun, M.E., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics and
Mathematics in the Royal College of Science, S.W.

1883. {Perry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire.

1883. {Perry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton,

1900. §Petavel, G. E. 84 Abingdon Mansions, Kensington, W.

1897. {Peters, Dr. George A. 171 College-street, Toronto, Canada.

1898. {Pethick, William. Woodside, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.

1883. {Petrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale.

1895.§§Prrriz, W. M. Frinpers, D.C.L., Professor of Egyptology in Uni-
versity College, W.C.

1871. *Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 13 Fourth-avenue, Hove,

Brighton.
1886. {Phelps, Major-General A. 23 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.

1863, *PHenf, Joun Samvet, LL.D.,F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, 8S. W.

1896.§ §Philip, George, jun. Weldon, Bidston, Cheshire.

1892. {Philip, R. W., M.D. 4 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.

1870. {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.

1853. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.

1853, *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield.

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. Elizabeth Lodge, George-lane, Woodford, Essex.

1863. {Philipson, Sir G. H. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1899, §Phillips, Charles E. 8. Castle House. Shooter’s Hill, Kent.

1894, § Phillips, Staff-Commander E. C. D., R.N., F.R.G.S. 14 Hargreaves-
buildings, Chapel-street, Liverpool.

1887, {Phillips, H. Harcourt, F.C.S. 183 Moss-lane East, Manchester.

1890. §Phillips, R. W., M.A., D.Sc., Professor of Biology in University
College, Bangor.

1883. {Phillips, 8. Rees. Wonford House, Exeter,

1881. {Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York.

1898. {Philps, Captain Lambe. 7 Royal-terrace, Weston-super-Mare.

1884. *Pickard, Rev. H. Adair, M.A. Airedale, Oxford.

1883. *Pickard, Joseph William. Oatlands, Lancaster,

1894, {PickarD-CampBrinGe, Rey. O., M.A., F.R.S. Bloxworth Rectory,
Wareham.

1885. *PickErine, SpencrR P. U., M.A., F.R.S. Harpenden, Herts.

1884, *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Maysville, Mason Co., Kentucky, U.S.A.

1896. {Picton, W. H. College-avenue, Crosby, Liverpool.

1888. *Pidgeon, W. R. 42 Porchester-square, W.

1871. {Pigot, Thomas F., M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin.

1884. {Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, E.C.

1865, {Pixn, L.Owrn. 44 Marlborough-gate, Hyde Park, W.

1878. {Pike, W. H., M.A., Ph.D. Toronto, Canada.

1896. *Pilkington, A.C. The Hazels, Prescot, Lancashire.

1896. *Pilling, William. Rosario, Heene-road, West Worthing,

74 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.

1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.

1876, {Prrix, Rey. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of
Aberdeen. 33 Colleze Bounds, Old Aberdeen,

1887. {Pitkin, James. 56 Red Lion-street, Clerkenwell, E.C.

1875, {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.

1883. {Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 24 St. Thomas-street, Borough,
S.E

1864. {Prtt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.

1883, {Pitt, Sydney. 16 St. Andrew’s-street, Holborn-cireus, E.C.

1893. *Pirr, Watrpr, M.Inst.0.E. South Stoke House, near Bath.

1900, *Platts, Walter. Fairmount, Bingley.

1884, *Playfair, W. 8., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s
College, London. 38 Grosvenor-street, W.

1898.§§Playne, H.C, 28 College-road, Clifton, Bristol.

1893. {Plowright, Henry J. Brampton Foundries, Chesterfield.

1897. {Plummer, J. H. Bank of Commerce, Toronto, Canada.

1898. §Plummer, W. E. ‘The Observatory, Bidston, Birkenhead.

1899.§§Plumptre, Fitzwalter. Goodnestone, Dover.

1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Queen’s

’ Co., Ireland.

1900, *Pocklington, H. Cabourn. 41 Virginia Road, Leeds.

1881. §Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds.

1888. {Pocock, Rev. Francis. 4 Brunswick-place, Bath.

1896. {Pollard, James. High Down, Hitchin, Herts.

1898.§§PotnEen, Rev. G. C. H., F.G.S. Ancienne Abbaye, Tronchiennes,
Ghent, Belgium.

1896. *Pollex, Albert. Dale End, Cavendish Park, Rockferry.

1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.

1891. {Pomeroy, Captain Ralph. 201 Newport-road, Cardiff.

1900. §Pope, W. J. 5 Hillingdon Mansions, Elephant and Castle, S.E.

1892. §Popplewell, W. C., M.Sc., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Yorkshire College,
Leeds.

1868. {PorraL, Sir WrnpHam 8. Bart. Malshanger, Basingstoke.

1883. *Porter, Rev. C. T., LL.D., D.D. All Saints’ Vicarage, Southport.

1883. {Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. University College, Gower Street,
W.C

1887. {Potter, Edmund P. Hollinhurst, Bolton.

1883, {Potter, M. C., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the College of
Science, Neweastle-upsu-Tyne. 14 Highbury, Neweastle-upon-
Tyne.

1886. *Pourron, Epwarp B., M.A., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.Z.8., Pro-
fessor of Zoology in the University of Oxford. Wykeham House,
Banbury-road, Oxford.

1898. *Poulton, Edward Palmer. Wykeham House, Banbury-road, Oxford.

1873. *Powell, Sir Francis §., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall,
Yorkshire ; and 1 Cambridge-square, W.

1887. *Powell, Horatio Gibbs. Wood Villa, Tettenhall Wood, Wolver-
hampton.

1883. {Powell, John. Brynmill-crescent, Swansea.

1894, *Powell, Sir Richard Douglas, Bart., M.D. 62 Wimpole Street,
Cavendish Square, W.

1875. {Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.

1887. §Pownall, George H. Manchester and Salford Bank, St. Ann-street,
Manchester.

LIST OF MEMBERS.

~]

o

Year of
Election.

1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.

1883

1884
1869

1888

. [Porntine, J. H., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Mason
University College, Birmincham.

. *Prankerd, A. A., D.C.L. 66 Banbury-road, Oxford.

. *PREECE, Sir WiLLtAmM Henry, K.C.B., F.R.S.,M.Inst.C.E. Gothic
Lodge, Wimbledon Common, Surrey; and 13 Queen Anne’s
Gate, S.W.

. *Preece, W. Llewellyn. Tan-y-bryn, Rusholme-road, Putney Heath,

5S. W.

1892. §Prentice, Thomas. Willow Park, Greenock.

1889,

. §Preston, Alfred Eley, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 14 The Exchange, Brad-

ford, Yorkshire.

1894, {Preston, Arthur E. Piccadilly, Abingdon, Berkshire.

1898.

1884

1888
1875
1891
1897

1897.
1892.

*Preston, Martin Inett. 48 Ropewalk, Nottingham.
. *Prevost, Major L. de T., 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland
Highlanders.
Price, J.T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
. {Pricr, L. L. F. R., M.A., F.S.S. Oriel College, Oxford.
. *Price, Rees. 165 Bath-street, Glasgow.
. {Price, William. 40 Park-place, Cardiff.
. “Price, W. A., M.A. 11 Waterloo Square, Bognor.
{Primrose, Dr, Alexander. 196 Simcoe-street, Toronto, Canada.
{Prince, Professor Edward E., B.A. Ottawa, Canada.

1864, *Prior, R.C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, N.W.
1889. *Pritchard, Eric Law, M.D., M.R.C.S. 70 Fairhazel Gardens, South

1876

1888.

Hampstead, N.W.
. “PRITCHARD, URBAN, M.D., F.R.C.S. 26 Wimpole-street, W.
{Probyn, Leslie C. Onslow-square, S. W.

1881. §Procter, John William. Ashcroft, York.

1865

1884
1879

1872.
1871.

1873
1899
1867

1883.
1891.
1842.

. {Proctor, R.S. Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
. *Proudfoot, Alexander, M.D. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada.
. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.S. Alvington, Slade-road, Ilfracombe.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Park, Stevenage, Herts.
*Puckle, Rev. T. J. Chestnut House, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge.
. {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
-§§Pullar, Frederick P. The Lea, Bridge of Allan, N.B.
. *Pullar, Sir Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth.
*Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Brahan, Perth.
{Pullen, W. W. I’. University College, Cardiff.
*Pumphrey, Charles. Castlewood, Park-road, Moseley, Birmingham.

1887. §Pumpuruey, WituAM. 2 Oakland-road, Redland, Bristol.

1885.

1852.
1881.

1874,
1866.
1878.
1884.
1860.
1898.
1885.
1883.
1868.

{Purpre, Tomas, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of St. Andrews. 14 South-street, St. Andrews, N.B.

tPurdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.

fPurey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The
Deanery, York.

{Purser, Frepericx, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.

{Pursmr, Professor Jonn, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast.

{Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.

*Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stratford-place, Oxford-street, W.

*Pusey, 5S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon:

*Pye, Miss E. St. Mary’s Hall, Rochester.

§Pye-Smith, Arnold. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

§Pye-Smith, Mrs. Willesley, Park Hill Rise, Croydon.

{Pyz-Smiru, P. H., M.D.,F.R.S, 48 Brook-street, W.; and Guy’s
Hospital, 8.5,

76

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1879.

1896.
1893.
1894.

1870.
1870.
1896.
1855.
1887.
1864.
1898.

1896.
1894.

1863,

1884,

1884,
1861.

1885.

1889.
1876.

1885.
1869.

1868.
1893.

1863.
1861.

1889.

1864.
1892.
1870.
1895.
1874.

1889.
1870.
1866.

1887.
1886.

tPye-Smith, R. J. 350 Glossop-road, Sheffield.

{Quaill, Edward. 5 Palm-grove, Claughton.
tQuick, James. University College, Bristol.
tQuick, Professor W. J. University of Missouri, Columbia, U.S.A.

tRabbits, W. T. 6 Cadogan-gardens, 8.W.

TRadclifie, D. R. Phoenix Sate Works, Windsor, Liverpool.

§Radcliffe, Herbert. Balderstone Hall, Rochdale.

*Radstock, The Right Hon. Lord, Mayfield, Woolston, Southampton.

*Ragdale, John Rowland. The Beeches, Strand, near Manchester.

{Rainey, James T. 35 Kent-gardens, Ealing, W.

*Raisin, Miss Catherine A., D.Sc. Bedford College, York-place,

Baker-street, W.

*Ramage, Hugh. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

*RaMBAUT, ARTHUR A., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., MRA.
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.

tRamsay, ALEXANDER. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W.

{Ramsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University
of Glaszow. 6 The College, Glascow.

{tRamsay, Mrs. G. G. 6 The College, Glasgow.

tRamsay, John. Kaldalton, Argyllshire.

tRamsay, Major. Straloch, N.b.

tRamsay, Major R. G. W. Bonnyrige, Edinburgh.

*Ramsay, WiItLIAM, Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in Uni-
versity College, London. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.

tRamsay, Mrs. 12 Arundel-gardens, W.

*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken-
sington, W.

*Ransom, Kdwin, F.R.G.S. 24 Ashburnham-road, Bedford.

{Ransom, W. B., M.D. The Pavement, Nottingham.

{Ransom, WitL1am Hoyry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.

tRansomz, ArrHurR, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. Sunnyhurst, Deane Park,
Bournemouth.

Ransome, Thomas. Hest Bank, near Lancaster.
§Rapkin, J. B. Sidcup, Kent.
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumpberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, N. W.

{tRate, Rey. John, M.A. Fairfield, East Twickenham.

*Rathbone, Miss May. Backwood, Neston, Cheshire.

§Rathbone, R. R. Glan y Menai, Anglesey.

{Raruponn, W., LL.D. Green Bank, Liverpool.

{Ravenstery, E. G., F.R.G.S., I°.5.8. 2 York-mansions, Battersea
Park, S.W.

{Rawlings, Edward. Richmond House, Wimbledon Common, Surrey.

{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhill, Liverpool.

*Rawiinson, Rey. Canon Guorer, M.A. ‘The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.

tRawson, Harry. Earlswood, Ellesmere Park, Eccles, Manchester.

{Rawson, W. Stepney, M.A. 68 Cornwall-gardens, Queen’s-gate,
S.W.

. *Rayreren, The Bight Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., FERS,

F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the
Royal Institution. Terling Place, Witham, Essex.

. {Raynbird, Hugh, jun. Garrison Gateway Cottage, Old Basing,

Basingstoke.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 77

Year of
Election.

1883.
1897.
1896.
1870.

*Rayne, Charles A., M.D., M.R.C.S. St. Mary’s Gate, Lancaster,
*Rayner, Edwin Hartree. Teviot Dale, Stockport.

*Roavd, CHARLES H., F.\S.A, British Museum, W.C.

{Reavg, THomas Metrarp, F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.

1884, §Readman, J. B., D.Sc.,F.R.S.E. 4 Lindsay-place, Edinburgh.
1899.§§Reaster, James William. 68 Linden-grove, Nunhead, 8.1.

1852.
1892.

1889.
1889.
1890.

1861.

1889.
1891.
1894.
1891.
1888.
1875.
1897.
1881.
1883.
1892.

1889.
1876,
1897.
1892.
1887.
1893.
1875.

1863.
1894.
1891.

1885.
1889.
1867.
1883.
1871.

1900.

1870.

1896,
1896.
1858.
1877.
1888.

1890.
1884,

*REDFERN, Professor Peter, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.

fRedgrave, Gilbert R., Assoc.Inst.C.E. The Elms, Westgate-road,
Beckenham, Kent.

tRedmayne, J. M. Harewood, Gateshead.

f¢Redmayne, Norman. 26 Grey-street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Redwood, Boverton, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Glen Wathen, Church
End, Finchley, N.

{Reep, Sir Epwarp James, K.C.B., F.R.S. Broadway-chambers,
Westminster, S. W. :

tReed, Rev. George. Bellingham Vicarage, Bardon Mill, Carlisle,

*Reed, Thomas A. Bute Docks, Cardiff.

*Rees, Edmund 8. G. 15 Merridale-lane, Wolverhampton.

*Rees, I. Treharne, M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Penarth.

tRees, W. L. 11 North-crescent, Bedford-square, W.C.

{Rees-Mogg, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.

tReeve, Richard A. 22 Shuter-street, Toronto, Canada.

§Reid, Arthur 8., M.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B.

*Rer, Crement, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S, 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

t{Rem, E. Wayrwmovrs, B.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, Dundee.

fReid, G., Belgian Consul. Leazes House, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.

§Reid, T. Whitehead, M.D. St. George’s House, Canterbury.

tReid, Thomas. University College, Dundee.

*Reid, Walter Francis. Fieldside, Addlestone, Surrey.

fReinach, Baron Albert von. Frankfort s. M., Prussia.

§Retvotp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E. ‘

tRenats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.

tRenDALL, Rev. G. H., M.A. Charterhouse, Godalming.

*Rendell, Rev. James Robson, B.A. Whinside, Whalley-road,
Accrington.

{Rennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen.

*Rennie, George B. 20 Lowndes-street, S.W.

tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.

*Reynolds, A. H. Bank House, 135 Lord-street, Southport.

{Reynops, James Emurson, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.1A.
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Labora-
tory, Trinity College, Dublin.

*Reynolds, Miss K. M. 4 Colinette Road, Putney, S.W.

*Reynotps, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor
of Engineering in Owens College, Manchester. 19 Lady Barn-
road, Fallowfield, Manchester.

tReynolds, Richard S. 73 Smithdown-lane, Liverpool.

§Rhodes, Albert. Fieldhurst, Liversidge, Yorkshire,

*Rhodes, John. Potternewton House, Chapel Allerton, Leeds.

*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.

{Rhodes, John George. Warwick House, 46 St. George's-road,
S.W.

Rhodes, J. M., M.D. Ivy Lodge, Didsbury.
{Rhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Oanada.

78

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Tlection.

1899.
1877.

1891.

1891.
1889,

1888.

1869.
1882.
1884,

1889.

1884,
1896.

1870,
1889.
1881.
1876,
1891.
1891.

*Ruys, Professor Joun, M.A. Jesus College, Oxford.

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists, Riya
Muro, 14, Modena, Italy. ;

{Richards, D. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

{tRichards, H. M. 1 St. Andrew’s-crescent, Cardiff.

{Richards, Professor T. W., Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

*RicHarpson, ARTHUR, M.D.

*Richardson, Charles. 6 The Avenue, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

§ Richardson, Rev, George, M.A. Walcote, Winchester.

*Richardson, George Straker. Isthmian Club, Piccadilly, W.

{Richardson, Hugh., M.A. Bootham School, York.

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea.

*Richardson, Nelson Moore, B.A., F.E.S, Montevideo, Chickerell,
near Weymouth.

tRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinburgh.

{Richardson, Thomas, J.P. 7 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

{tRichardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York.

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow.

tRiches, Carlton H. 21 Dumfries-place, Cardiff.

§Riches, T. Harry. 8 Park-grove, Cardiff.

1886.§§ Richmond, Robert. Heathwood, Leighton Buzzard.

1868.

1883.
1894.
1861.
1889.
1884.
1881.
1883.
1892.
1873.

1892.
1867.
1889.
1900.
1898.
1869.

1887.
1859.
1870.

1894.
1881.

1879.
1879.

1896.
1868.

{Ricxnrrs, Coaries, M.D.,F.G.S. 19 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead.

*RIDDELL, Major-General Cuartes J. Bucuanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.

*RIDEAL, SAMUEL, D.Sc., F.C.S. 28 Victoria-street, S.W.

§Ripiey, HK. P. Burwood, Westerfield Road, Ipswich.

{Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, N. W.

tRidley, Thomas D. Coatham, Redcar.

{Ridout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada.

*Rige, Arthur. 15 Westbourne Park Villas, W.

*Riee, Epwarp, M.A. Royal Mint, E.

tRintoul, D., M.A. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.

*Rrpon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, K.G., G.C.S.1., C.LE.,
D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 9 Chelsea Embankment, S.W.

{Ritchie, R. Peel, M.D., F.R.S.E. 1 Melyville-crescent, Edinburgh.

{ Ritchie, Wiliam. Emslea, Dundee. ;

tRitson, U. A. 1 Jesmond-gardens, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

§Rixon, F. W., B.Sc. 79 Green Lane, Heywood, Lancashire,

§Robb, Alfred A. Lisnabreeny House, Belfast.

*Roppins, Joun, F.C.S. 57. Warrington-crescent, Maida Yale,
London, W.

*Roberts, Evan. 30 St. George’s-square, Regent’s Park, N.W.

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.

*Roserts, Isaac, D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Starfield, Crow-
borough, Sussex.

*Roberts, Miss Janora. 14 Alexandra Road, Southport.

{Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. 17 Charterhouse-square, E.C.

tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.

{Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.

§Roberts, Thomas J. 33 Serpentine-road, Egremont, Cheshire.

*ROBERTS-A USTEN, Sir W. CuanpigEp, K.C.B.,D.C.L.,F.R.S.,V.P.C.S.,
Chemist to the Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the
Royal College of Science, London, (GENERAL SECRETARY.)
Royal Mint, E.

1883, {Robertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 79

Year of
FEtection.

1884,
1883.
1883.
1897.
1897.

1892.
1888,

1886.
1898.

1861.
1897.
1887.
1888.
1865.
1878,
1895.
1876.
1899.

fRobertson, I. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin.

TRobertson, George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

{Robertson, Mrs. George H. Plas Newydd, Llangollen.

§Ropertson, Sir Gore 8., K.C.S.I. 1 Pump Court, Temple, E.C.

§Robertson, Professor J. W. Department of Agriculture, Ottawa,
Canada.

tRobertson, W. W. 3 Parliament-square, Ndinburgh.

*Robins, Edward Cookworthy, F.S.A. 8 Marlborough-road, St.
John’s Wood, N.W.

*Robinson, C. R. 27 Elyetham-road, Birmingham.

§Robinson, Charles E., M.Inst.C.E. Selborne, Ashburton, South
Devon.

{Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.

tRobinson, Haynes. St. Giles’s Plain, Norwich.

§Robinson, Henry, M.Inst.C.E. 13 Victoria-street, S.W.

tRobinson, John. 8 Vicarage-terrace, Kendal.

{Robinson, J. H. 6 Montallo-terrace, Barnard Castle.

tRobinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.

*Robinson, Joseph Johnson. 8 Trafalgar-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tRobinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.

*Robinson, Mark, M.Inst.0.E. Overslade, Bilton, near Rugby.

1887.§§Robinson, Richard. Bellfield Mill, Rochdale.

1881.
1875.
1884,
1865.
1891.

1888.
1870.

1872.
1890.

{Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, S.W.

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Beechwood, Darlington,

{Robinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A.

{Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.

{Robinson, William, Assoc. M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, Nottingham.

{Robottom, Arthur. 3 St. Alban’s-villas, Highgate-road, N.W.

“Robson, E. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street, Westminster,
S.W.

“Robson, William. 5 Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edinburgh.

{Rochester, The Right Rev. E. 8S. Talbot, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Kennington Park, 8.E.

1896.§§Roeck, W. H. 73 Park-road East, Birkenhead.

1896.
1885,
1885.

1866.
1898.
1867.
1890.

1883.
1882,
1884.
1889.
1897.
1876.

1892.
1891.
1894.
1881.
1855,

tRodger, Alexander M. The Museum, Tay Street, Perth.

*Rodger, Edward. 1 Clairmont-gardens, Glasgow.

*Rodriguez, Hpifanio. New Adelphi Chambers, 6 Robert Street,
Adelphi, W.C.

TRoe, Sir Thomas. Grove-yillas, Litchurch.

tRocers, Berrram, M.D. 11 York-place, Clifton, Bristol.

tRogers, James 8. Rosemill, by Dundee.

*Rogers, L. J., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in Yorkshire College,
Leeds. 13 Beech Grove-terrace, Leeds.

tRogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham.

§Rogers, Rev. Canon Saltren, M.A. Tresleigh, St. Austell, Cornwall.

*Rogers, Walter. Hill House, St. Leonards.

tRogerson, John. Croxdale Hall, Durham.

tRogerson, John. Barrie, Ontario, Canada.

tRortrir, Sir A. K., M.P., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon,
Fellow K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire,

*Romanes, John. 3 Oswald-road, Edinburgh.

{Ronnfeldt, W. 43 Park-place, Cardiff.

*Rooper, T. Godolphin. 12 Cumberland-place, Southampton.

“Roper, W.O. Bank-buildings, Lancaster.

*Roscoz, Sir Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S,
10 Bramham-gardens, 8, W.

80 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1883. *Rose, J. Holland, M.A. 11 Endlesham-road, Balham, 8. W.

1894. *Rose, T. K., D.Sc. 9 Royal Mint, E.

1900. §Rosenhain, Walter, B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

1885. tRoss, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness.

1887. {Ross, Edward. Marple, Cheshire.

1859. *Ross, Rev. James Coulman. Wadworth Hall, Doncaster.

1869, *Rossr, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., B.A., D.C.L., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown,
Treland.

1891. §Roth, H. Ling. 32 Prescot-street, Halifax, Yorkshire.

1893. {Rothera, G. B. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

1865. *Rothera, George Bell. Hazlewood, Forest Grove, Nottingham.

1876. {Rottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.

1899. *Round, J. C., M.R.C.S. 19 Crescent-road, Sydenham Hill, 8.1.

1884. *Rouse, M.L. Hollybank, Hayne Road, Beckenham.

1861. {Rourn, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc. F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.G.S. St.
Peter’s College, Cambridge.

1861. {Rowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasgow.

1888. {Rowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.

1881. {Rowe, Rev. G. Lord Mayor's Walk, York.

1865. {Rowe, Rev. John. 13 Hampton-road, Forest Gate, Essex.

1877. {Rowz, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Ply-
mouth.

1890. tRowley, Walter, F.S.A. Alderhill, Meanwood, Leeds.

1881. *RowntrReE, Joun 8. Mount Villas, York.

1881. *Rowntree, Joseph. 38 St. Mary’s, York.

1876. t{Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.

1885. {Roy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen.

1899.§§Rubie, G. 8. Belgrave House, Folkestone-road, Dover.

1875. *RicKxer, A. W., M.A., D.Sc., Sec.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
Royal College of Science, London. (PRESIDENT - ELECT.)
19 Gledhow-gardens. South Kensington, 8. W.

1892. §Riicker, Mrs. Levetleigh, Dane-road, St. Leonards-on-Sea.

1869. §RupiEr, f. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, 8. W.

1882. {Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 1 Victoria Villas, Brondesbury,
N.W.

1896. *Rundell, T. W., F.R.Met.Soc. 25 Castle-street, Liverpool.

1887. {Ruscoe, John. Ferndale, Gee Cross, near Manchester.

1889. {Russell, The Right Hon. Earl. Amberley Cottage, Maidenhead,

1875. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Dunrozel, Haslemere,

1884, {Russell, George. 13 Church-road, Upper Norwood, 8.E,

Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.

1890. {Russell, J. A., M.B. Woodville, Canaan-lane, Edinburgh.

1883, *Russell, J. W. 16 Bardwell-road, Oxford.

1852. *Russell, Norman Scott. Arts Club, Hanover-square, W.

1876. {Russell, Robert, F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.

1886. tRussell, Thomas H. 3 Newhall-street, Birmingham.

1852. *RussEtL, Witiiam J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 34 Upper Hamilton-
terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.

1886. {Rust, Arthur. Eversleigh, Leicester.

1897. {Rutherford, A. Toronto, Canada.

1891.§§Rutherford, George. Dulwich House, Pencisely-road, Cardiff.

1887. {Rutherford, William. 7 Vine-grove, Chapman-street, Hulme, Man-
chester.

1879. {Ruaton, Vice-Admiral, Fitzherbert R.N. 41 Cromwell-gardens, 8. W.

1875. {Ryalls, Charles Wagner, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, E.C.

1889. {Ryder, W. J. H. 52 Jesmond-road, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

——— a

LIST OF MEMBERS. 81

Year of
Election.

1897.
1898.
1865.

1883.
1871,
1886.
1893.

1881.
1857.

1873.
1887.
1861.
1894.

1878.
1883.

1893.
1872.

1883.

1896.
1896.
1892.
1886.
1896.
1896.
1886.
1886.
1900.
1868.
1886.
1881.
1883.
1846.

1884.
1891.
1884,

fRyerson, G.S., M.D. Toronto, Canada.
§Ryland, C. J. Southerndon House, Clifton, Bristol.
tRyland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.

tSadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport.

tSadler, Samuel Champernowne. 186 Aldersgate-street, E.C.

|St. Clair, George, F.G.S. 225 Castle Road, Cardiff.

JSaisBuRy, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.
20 Arlington Street, S.W.

tSalkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington.

{Satmon, Rev. Grorex, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Provost o
Trinity College, Dublin.

*Salomons, Sir David, Bart., F.G.S. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.

t{Samson, C. L. Carmona, Kersal, Manchester.

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.

{Samuntson, The Right Hon. Sir Brernwarp, Bart., F.RS.,
M.Inst.C.E. 56 Prince’s-gate, S.W.

tSanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.

{Sanderson, Deputy Surgeon-General Alfred. East India United
Service Club, St. James’s-square, 8. W.

{Sanderson, F. W., M.A. The School, Oundle.

§SanDerson, Sir J. S. Burpon, Bart., M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of Medicine in the University
of Oxford. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

{Sanderson, Lady Burdon. 64 Banbury-road, Oxford.

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.

§Saner, John Arthur, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Highfield, Northwich,

tSaner, Mrs. Highfield, Northwich.

§Sang, William D. Tylehurst, Kirkcaldy, Fife.

§Sankey, Percy E. 44 Russell Square, W.C.

*Sargant, Miss Ethel. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

tSargant, W. L. Quarry Hill, Reigate.

{Sauborn, John Wentworth. Albion, New York, U.S.A.

{Saundby, Robert, M.D. 834 Edmund street, Birmingham.

*Saunder, 8. A. Fir Holt, Crowthorne, Berks.

{Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E. King’s Lynn.

{Saunders, C. T. Temple-row, Birmingham.

{Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.S. 7 Radnor-place, W.

{Saunders, Rev. J. C. Cambridge.

{Saunvers, TRELAWNEY W., F.R.G.S. 3 Elmfield on the Knowles
Newton Abbot, Devon.

{Saunpers, Dr. Witt1am. Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada.

jSaunders, W.H. R. Llanishen, Cardiff.

{Saunderson, 0. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada.

1887.§§Savage, Rev. Canon E. B., M.A., F.S.A. St. Thomas’ Vicarage,

1871.
1883.
1883.
1887.

1884.
1883.
1884,
1879.

1900.

Douglas, Isle of Man.
tSavage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
jSavage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton.
tSavery,G. M., M.A. The College, Harrogate.
§Saycr, Rev. A. H., M.A., D.D., Professor of Assyriology in the
University of Oxford. Queen’s College, Oxford.
tSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
*Scarborough, George. Whinney Field, Halifax, Yorkshire.
{Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Oanada.
*Scuarer, E. A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology
in the University of Edinburgh.
rf

82

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1888
1880.

1892.
1842.
1887.
1883.
1885.

1878,
1847.
18838.

1867.
1881.

1878.
1881.
1889.

1885.
1897.
1857.

1884.
1895.
1881.
1883.
1895.

1890.
1859.
1880.

1861.

1891.

1895.
1855.
1879.
1897.
1884,
1886.
1888,

1888.

1870.
1892,

*ScHarrr, Ropert F., Ph.D., B.Sc., Keeper of the Natural History
Department, Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.

*Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)

{Schloss, David F. 1 Knaresborough-place, 8.W.

Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
{Schofield, T. Thornfield, Talbot-road, Old Trattord, Manchester,
tSchofield, William. Alma-road, Birkdale, Southport.

§Scholes, L. lvy Dene, Oak-road, Sale, Cheshire.

Scuuncx, EpwarD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersal Moor,

Manchester.

*Scuuster, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Physics
in the Owens College, Manchester.

*Scuater, Parie Luriny, M.A., Ph.D., F.BS., F.LS., F.G8.,
F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, W.

erage W. Lurtry, M.A., F.Z.S. South African Museum, Cape

own.

{Scort, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.

*Scort, AnpxanppR, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Royal Institution, Albe-
marle-street, W.

*Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter.

{Scott, Miss Charlotte Angas, D.Sc. Bryn Mawr College, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A.

*Scort, D. H., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.,F.L.S. (GENERAL SECRETARY.)
The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.

{Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen.

{Scott, James. 173 Jameson-avenue, Toronto, Canada.

eee ee H., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.Met.S. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
S.W.

*Scott, Sydney C. 28 The Avenue, Gipsy Hill, S.E.

tScott-Elliot, G. F., M.A., B.Se., F.L.S Newton, Dumfries,

*Scrivener, A. P. Haglis House, Wendover.

{Serivener, Mrs. Haglis House, Wendover.

§Scull, Miss E. M. L. The Pines, 10 Langland-gardens, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

§Searle, G. F. C., M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge.

tSeaton, John Love. The Park, Hull.

{Srpewick, Apam, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College and 4 Craven-road,
Cambridge.

*Sruptzy, Harry Govimr, F.RS., F.LS., F.GS., F.R.GS., F.Z.5.,
Professor of Geology in King’s College, Londen. 25 Palace
Gardens-terrace, Kensington, W.

{Selby, Arthur L., M.A., Assistant Professor of Physics in University
College, Cardiff.

{Surpy-Bieen, L. A., M.A. Charity Commission, Whitehall, S.W.

{Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow. '

{Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, E.C.

{Selous, F. C., F.R.G.S. Alpine Lodge, Worplesden, Surrey.

{Senwyn, A. R. C., O.MLG., F.R.S., F.G.S. Ottawa, Canada.

{Semple, Dr. A. United Service Club, Edinburgh.

*Srnter, ALFRED, M.D., Ph.D., F.0.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College, Galway.

*Sennett, Alfred R., A.M.Inst.C.i. The Chalet, Portinscale-
road, Putney, 8. W.

*Sephton, Rev. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.

{Seton, Miss Jane. 37 Candlemaker-row, Edinburgh.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 83

Year of
Election.

1895.

1892.

1891.
1868,
1899.
1891.
1888.
1883.

1871.
1867.
1881.
1878.

1896.

1886.
1883.
1870.
1896.
1865.
1870.
1891.
1889.
1887.
1883.

1883.
1891.
1878.

1865.
1881.
1885.
1890.

1883.
1900.
1883.
1883.
1883.
1896.

1888.
1886,
1892.
1883.
1867.

1887.
1889.
1885.
1883.
1870.
1888,
1897.

*Seton-Karr, H. W. 31 Lingfield Road, Wimbledon, Surrey.

§Sewarp, A. C., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Westfield, Huntingdon-roud,
Cambridge.

{Seward, Edwin. 55 Newport-road, Cardiff.

tSewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.

§Seymour, Henry, J. 16 Wellington-road, Dublin.

tShackell, E. W. 191 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Shackles, Charles F. Hornsea, near Hull.

LS aileng eoee Lancelot. 30 St. Charles-square, Ladbroke Grove-
road, W.

*Shand, James. Parkholme, Elm Park-gardens, S.W.

{Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.

{Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York.

{Suarp, Davin, M.A., M.B., "ER. S., F.L.S. Museum of Zoology,

Cambridge. .
{Sharp, Mrs. KE. 65 Sankey-street, Warrington.
‘Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.

{Sharp, T. B. French Walls, Birmingham.

{Sharples, CharlesH. 7 Fishergate, Preston.

{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.

{Shaw, Frank. Ellerslie, Aigburth-drive, Liverpool.

{Shaw, George, Cannon-street, Birmingham.

{Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool.

{Shaw, Joseph. 1 Temple-gardens, E.C.

*Shaw, Mrs. M.8., B.Sc. Halberton, near Tiverton, Devon.

tShaw, Saville, F. CS. College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

*Suaw, W.N., M.A., F.R.S. Meteorological Office, Victoria-street,
S.W.

{Shaw, Mrs. W. N. Meteorological Office, Victoria-street, S.W.

tSheen, Dr. Alfred. 23 Newport-road, Cardiff.

{Shelford, William, M.Inst.C.E. 35a Great George-street, West-
minster, S.W.

{Shenstone, Frederick 8. Sutton Hall, Barcombe, Lewes.

{Suenstonzs, W. A., F.R.S. Clifton College, Bristol.

{Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Ecclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh.

tShepherd, J. Care of J. Redmayne, Esq., Grove House, Heading-

ley, Leeds.

{Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport.

§Sheppard, Thomas, F.G.S. 4382 Holderness Road, Hull.

{Sherlock, David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

tSherlock, Mrs. David. Rahan Lodge, Tullamore, Dublin.

tSherlock, Rev. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, vd Lancaster.

§SueRRineton, C.S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni-
versity Callens Liverpool. 16 Grove-park, Liverpool.

*Shickle, Rev. C. W., M.A. 5 Cavendish Crescent, Bath.

{Shield, Arthur H. 35a Great George-street, S. w.

{Shields, John, D.Sc., Ph.D. Dolphingston, Tranent, Seat.

*Shillitoe, Buxton, FEROS. 2 Frederick-place, Old “i ewry, E.C.

{Shinn, William C. 39 Varden’s-road, Clapham J unction, Surrey
Ss. W.

*Saipiey, ArtHur E., M.A. Christ’s College, Gaxdaridgs!
{Shipley, as A.D. Saltwell Park, Gateshead.
tShirras, G. F. 16 Carden-place, ’A berdeen.
tShone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham.
*SHOOLBRED, J. N., M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.
{Shoppee, C. H. 22 John-street, Bedford-row, W.C,
{Shore, Dr. Lewis E. St. John’s College, Cambridge.

‘ F2

84 LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election

1875. {SHorz, THomas W., F.G.S. 105 Ritherdon-road, Upper Tooting,
S.W

1882. {SHorz, T. W., M.D., B.Sc., Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at
St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Heathfield, Alleyn Park, Dul-
wich, S.E.

1897. tShortt, Professor Adam, M.A. Queen’s University, Kingston,
Ontario, Canada.

1889. {Sibley, ee K., B.A.,M.B. 8 Duke Street-mansions, Grosvenor-
square, W.

1883. {Sibly, Miss Martha Agnes. Flook House, Taunton.

1883. *Sidebotham, Edward John. LErlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Parkfield, Altrincham, Cheshire.

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Merlewood, Bowdon, Oheshire.

Sidney, M. J. F. Oowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1873, *STEMENS, a TARUEE, M.Inst.C.E. 7 Airlie-gardens, Campden
Hill, W.

1878. {Stcerson, Professor Guoren, M.D.,; F.LS., MRA. 3 Clare:
street, Dublin.

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.

1871. {Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.

1898. {Simmons, Henry. Kingsland House, Whiteladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.

1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, E.C.

1874, {Simms, William. Upper Queen-street, Belfast.

1876. tSimon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, W.

1847. {Simon, Sir Jonny, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 40 Kensington
square, W.

1893. {Simpson, A. H., F.R.Met.Soc. Attenborough, Nottinghamshire.
1871. *Srupson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.

1883. {Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

1887. ¢{Simpson, F. Estacion Central, Buenos Ayres.

1859. {Simpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.

1863. {Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne,

1857. {Smrpson, MaxweEx1, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 9 Barton-street,
West Kensington, W.

1894, §Simpson, Thomas, F.R.G.S. Fennymere, Castle Bar, Ealing, W.

1883. {Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport,

1896. *Simpson, W., F.G.S. The Gables, Halifax.

1887. {Sinclair, Dr. 268 Oxford-street, Manchester,

1874. {Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.

1870, *Sinclair, W. P. Rivelyn, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

1897.§§Sinnott, James. Bank of England-chambers, 12 Broad-street,
Bristol.

1864, *Sircar, The Hon. Mahendra Lal, M.D., C,I.E. 51 Sankaritola, Cal-
cutta.

1892. {Sisley, Richard, M.D. 11 York-street, Portman-square, W.

1879. tSkertchly, Sydney B. J. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshalton,
Surrey.

1883. {Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham.

1885. {Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B.

Lee ee Sidney. Cromwell House, Trumpington, Cambridge-
shire.

1892. {Skinner, William. 35 George-square, Edinburgh.

1888. §Sxrinz, H. D., J.P., D.L. Claverton Manor, Bath,

1889, §Slater, Matthew B., F.L.S. Malton, Yorkshire,

1884. {Slattery, James W, 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.

‘LIST OF MEMBERS. 85

Year of
Election.

1877. pease Rey. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S. 65 Pembroke-road, Clifton,
ristol.
1891. §Slocombe, James. Redland House, Fitzalan, Cardiff.
1884, {Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada.
1849, {Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
ee idem W., M.A., B.Sc., F.G.S. The Mount, Radbourne-street,
erby.
1887. §Small, William. Lincoln-circus, The Park, Nottingham.
1885, {Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B.
1889, *Smart, William, LL.D. Nunholme, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1898. {Smeeth, W. F., M.A., F.G.S, Mysore, India.
1876. {Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1877. {Smelt, fas Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S, Heath Lodge, Chel-
tenham.
1890. {Smethurst, Charles. Palace House, Harpurhey, Manchester.
1876. {Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1867. {Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1892. {Smith, Adam Gillies, F.R.S.E. 35 Drumsheugh-gardens, Edinburgh,
1892. {Smith, Alexander, B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. The University, Chicago,
Illinois, U.S.A.
1897. {Smith, Andrew, Principal of the Veterinary College, Toronto,
Canada.
1872. *SmirH, Bast Woopp, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, N.W.
1874, *Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. Oxford and Cambridge Club,
Pall Mall, S.W.
1887. {Smith, Bryce. Rye Bank, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Manchester.
1873, {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1887. *Smith, Charles. 739 Rochdale-road, Manchester.
1889, *Smith, Professor C. Michie, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S. The Ob-
servatory, Madras,
1865. {Smith, David, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett's-hill, Birmingham.
1886. {Smith, Edwin. 33 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1886, *Smith, Mrs. Emma. Hencotes House, Hexham.
1886, {Smith, E. Fisher, J.P. The Priory, Dudley.
1900. §Smith, E. J. Grange House, Westgate Hill, Bradford.
1886. {Smith, E. 0. Council House, Birmingham,
1892, {Smith, E, Wythe. 66 Oollege-street, Chelsea, S.W.
1866, *Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham.
1897. {Smith, Sir Frank. 54 King-street East, Toronto, Canada.
1885, {Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A, 21 Sardinia-terrace, Glasgow.
1897. {Smith, G. Elliot, M.D. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1860. *Smith, Heywood, M.A.,M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square, W.
1870, {Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
1889. *Smith, H. Llewellyn, B.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 4 Harcourt- buildings,
Inner Temple, E.C.
1888. {Smith, H. W. Owens College, Manchester.
1885. {Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B.
1876. *Smith, J. Guthrie. 5 Kirklee-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, Coalport, Iron Bridge,
Shropshire,
1883. {Smith, M. Holroyd. Royal Insurance Buildings, Crossley-street,
Halifax

1837. Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.

1885. {Smirn, Rosert H., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E. 53 Victoria-street, S.W.
1870. {Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.

1873, {Smith, Sir Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkah

86 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Hlection.

1867, {Smith, Thomas. Dundee.

1867, {Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.

1859, {Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York-
shire.

1894. §Smith, T. Walrond. 14 Calverley-park, Tunbridge Wells.

1884. {Smith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada.

1892. {Smith, Walter A. 120 Princes-street, Edinburgh.

1885, *Smith, Watson. University College, Gower-street, W.C.

1896. *Smith, Rev. W. Hodson. 31 Esplanade-gardens, Scarborough.

1852. {Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.

1875. *Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton Down, Bristol.

1876. {Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.

1883, {SmirHELLts, ARTHUR, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorke
shire College, Leeds.

1883. tSmithson, Edward Walter. 13 Lendal, York,

1883. {Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York.

1882. tSmithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale.

1874. {Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.

1883. {Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Firwood, Chalford, Stroud.

1857. *Suyru, Jonny, M.A., F.C.S., F.R.M.S., M.Inst.C.E.I. Milltown,
Banbridge, Ireland.

1888. *Snarz, H. Luoyp, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in
University College, Aberystwith.

1888. {Snell, Albion T. Brightside, Salusbury Road, Brondesbury, N.W.

1878. §Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, W.O.

1889, {Snell, W. H. Lancaster Lodge, Amersham Road, Putney, S.W.

1898. §Snook, Miss L. B. V. 13 Clare-road, Cotham, Bristol.

1879, *Sotzas, W. J., M.A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor
of Geology in the University of Oxford. 169 Woodstock-road,
Oxford.

1892. *SomprvatL, ALEXANDER. The Museum, Torquay.

1900. §Somerville, Professor W. 3 Adams Road, Cambridge.

1859, *Sorpy, H. Currron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.

1879. *Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Ranmoor, Sheffield.

1892. {Sorley, James, F.R.S.E. 18 Magdala-crescent, Edinburgh.

1888. {Sorley, Professor W. R. The University, Cambridge.

1886. tSouthall, Alfred. Carrick House, Richmond Hill-road, Birming-
ham.

1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.

1887. §Sowerbutts, Eli, F.R.G.S.. 16 St. Mary’s Parsonage, Manchester.

1883. {Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley,

Staffordshire.

1890. {Spark, F. R. 29 Hyde-terrace, Leeds.

1893. *Speak, John. Kirton Grange, Kirton, near Boston.

1887. {Spencer, F. M. Fernhill, Knutsford.

1884, {Spencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury.

1889. *Spencer, John. Newhiggin House, Kenton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

1891. *Spencer, Richard Evans. The Old House, Llandaff.

1863, *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham,

1864, bapre Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High-

,N.

1894. {Spiers, A. H. Newton College, South Devon.

1864, *Spriter, Jonn, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, N.

1864, *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh, F.C.S. 107 Sloane-street, 8.W.

1854, *Spracur, Tuomas Bonn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, 29 Buckingham-
terrace, Edinburgh.

Year of
Election.

1883.
1888.

1884,
1897.

1888.

1897.

1884.
1892.

1883.
1881.
1883.
1894.
1900

1899.

1876,
1899,
1898.

1894.

1873.
1900.
1881.
1881.
1884,
1892.

1896.
1891.
1873.
1884.
1884.
1884,
1879.
1880.
1900.
1892.

1863.
1890.

1885.
1864,

1892.
1885.

1886.

1875,

LIST OF MEMBERS. 87

tSpratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 74 Wickham-road,
Brockley, S.E.

tSpreat, John Henry. Care of Messrs. Vines & Froom, 75 Alders-
gate-street, E.C.

*Spruce, Samuel, F.G.S. Beech House, Albert Road, Tamworth.

§Squire, W. Stevens, Ph.D. Clarendon House, 30 St. John’s Wood
Park, N.W.

*Stacy, J. Sargeant. Hemel Hempstead.

{Stafford, Joseph. Morrisburg, Ontario, Canada.

{Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Stanfield, Richard, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., Professor of
Engineering in the Heriot Watt College, Edinburgh. 49
Mayfield-road, Edinburgh.

*Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. Thornbury, Bromley, Kent.

*Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood, S.E.

{Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, 8.E.

*STANSFIELD, ALFRED, D.Sc. Royal College of Science, S.W.

§Stansfield, H., B.Sc. Municipal Technical School, Blackburn,

Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.

tSrartine, E. H., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, London. 8 Park-square West, N.W.

{Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. 32 Craven-street, Strand, W.C

§Statham, William. The Redings, Totteridge, Herts.

{Stather, J. W., F.G.S. 16 Louis-street, Hull.

Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.

{Stavert, Rev. W. J., M.A. Burnsall Rectory, Skipton-in-Craven,
Yorkshire.

*Stead, Charles. Red Barns, Freshfield, Liverpool.

*Stead, J. EK. Laboratory and Assay Office, Middlesborough.

{Stead, W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

tStead, Mrs. W. H. Orchard-place, Blackwall, E.

{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada.

*Sreppine, Rev. Tomas R. R., M.A., F.R.S. Ephraim Lodge, The
Common, Tunbridge Wells.

*Stebbing, W. P. D., F.G.S. 169 Gloucester-terrace, W.

TSteeds, A. P. 15 St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.

{Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.

{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Stephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada,

*Stephens, W. Hudson. Low- Ville, Lewis County, New York, U.S.A.

*STEPHENSON, Sir Henry, J.P. The Glen, Sheffield.

*Stevens, J. Edward, LL.B. Le Mayals, Blackpyl, R.S.O.

§Srrvens, FREDERICK. Town Olerk’s Office, Bradford,

fStevenson, D. A., B.Sc., F.R.S.E., M.Inst.C.E. 84 George-street,
Edinburgh.

*STEVENSON, JAMES C. Westoe, South Shields,

*Steward, Rev. Charles J., F.R.M.S. The Cedars, Anglesea-rvad,
Ipswich. ;

*Stewart, Rev. Alexander, M.D., LL.D. Murtle, Aberdeen.

{Srewarr, Cuartus, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Hunterian Professor of
Anatomy and Conservator of the Museum, Royal College of
Surgeons, Lincoln’s Inn Fields, W.C.

{Stewart, C. Hunter. 3% Carlton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Stewart, David. Banchory House, Aberdeen.

*Stewart, Duncan. 14 Windsor-terrace, Kelvinside, Glasgow.

“Stewart, James, B.A., F.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near

Clifton, Gloucestershire.

88

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Eleotion.

1892.
1876.
1867.
1876.

1867.
1865,
1890,
1883.

1898.
1845.

1898.

1887,
1899.
1888.
1886.
1386.
1874,

76.
1857.

895.
1878.

4861.

1876,
1883.
1887.
1884.
1888.
1874,
1871.

1881.

1876,
1863.
1889.
1882.
1898.

1881

1889.
1879.
1884,
1883,
1898.
1887,

tStewart, Samuel, Knocknairn, Bagston, Greenock.

{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.

{Srrrtine, Witr1aM, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in the Owens College, Manchester,

*Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. Stamford-road, Bowdon, Cheshire,

*Stock, Joseph S. St. Mildred’s, Walmer.

tStockdale, R. The Grammar School, Leeds.

*Srocker, W. N., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Royal Indian
Engineering College. Cooper’s Hill, Staines.

{Stoddart, F. Wallis, F.1.C. Grafton Lodge, Sneyd Park, Bristol.

*Stoxss, Sir Grorer GaBRieL, Bart., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., D.Sc,
F.R.S., Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University
of Cambridge. Lensfield Cottage, Cambridge.

*Stokes, Professor George J., M.A. Riversdale, Sunday’s Well,
Cork.

{Stone, E. D., F.C.S. Rose Lea, Alderley Edge, Cheshire.

*Stone, F. J. Radley College, Abingdon.

{Stonz, Joun. 15 Royal-crescent, Bath.

{Stone, Sir J. Benjamin, M.P. The Grange, Erdington, Birmingham.

{Stone, J. H. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

tStone, J. Harris, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 3 Dr. Johnson’s-buildings,
Temple, E.C.

{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Rothbury House, Westcliff-gardens,
Bournemouth.

{Srongy, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin.

*Stoney, Miss Edith A. 8 Upper Hornsey Rise, N. ;

*Stoney, G. Gerald. 7 Roxburgh-place, Heaton, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

*Stongy, Guorcre Jonnstonz, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., MRA. 8
Upper Hornsey Rise, N.

§Stopes, Henry. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

tStopes, Mrs. 25 Denning-road, Hampstead, N.W.

*Storey, H. L. Lancaster.

§Storrs, George H. Gorse Hall, Stalybridge.

*Stothert, Perey K. Keynsham Manor, Saltford, Bristol.

{Stott, William. Scar Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.

*SrracuEy, Lieut.-General Str Ricwarp, R.E., G.C.S.1., LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde
Park, W.

{Srraman, Avprey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, S.W.

tStrain, John. 143 West Regent Street, Glasgow.

tStraker, John. Wellington House, Durham.

TStraker, Captain Joseph. Dilston House, Riding Mili-on-Tyne.

{Strange, Rey. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham,

tStrangeways, O. Fox. Leicester.

beers Y C. Fox, F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,

WwW

{Streatfeild, H.S., F.G.S. Ryhope, near Sunderland.

{Strickland, Sir Charles W., Bart., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.

tStringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A.

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Colonnade House, The Steyne, Worthing.

*Strong, W.M. 3 Champion Park, Denmark Hill, S.E.

*Stroud, H., M.A.. D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Oollege of
Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 89

Year of
Election.

1887.

1878.
1876.
1872.
1892.
1884.
1893.
1896.
1885.
1897.
1879.
1891.
1898.

1884,
1887.
1888.
1883.
1873.
1863.

1886.
1892.

1884

1863.
1889.
1898,
1891.

1881.
1881.
1897.
1879.

1887.
1870.

1887.
1890.
1891.
1873.
1895.
1887.

1896.
1887.
1893.
1870.

1885.
1881.
1855.
1886,

1896.
1898,

*Stroup, Witt1aM, D.Sc., Professor of Physics in the Yorkshire Col-
lege, Leeds.

{Strype, W.G. Wicklow.

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. St. Dunstan’s College, Catford, S.E.

*Stuart, Rev. Edward A:,M.A. 65 Prince’s-square, W.

tStuart, Hon. Morton Gray, M.A.,F.G.S, 2 Belford Park, Edinburgh.

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-ayenue, Toronto, Canada,

{Stubbs, Arthur G. Sherwood Rise, Nottingham.

{Stubbs, Miss. Torrisholme, Aigburth-drive, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

{Stump, EdwardC. 16 Herbert-street, Moss Side, Manchester,

{Stupart, R. F. The Observatory, Toronto, Canada.

*Styring, Robert. 64 Crescent-road, Sheffield.

*Sudborough, J. J., Ph.D., B.Sc. University College, Nottingham.

§Sully, T. N. Avalon House, Priory-road, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton,
Bristol.

{Sumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

{Sumpner, W. E. 37 Pennyfields, Poplar, E.

{Sunderland, John FE. Bark House, Hatherlow, Stockport.

{Sutcliffe, J. 8., J.P. Beech House, Bacup.

Sutcliffe, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.

{Sutherland, Benjamin John. Thurso House, Newcastle-upon-
Tyne.

{Sutherland, Hugh. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.

{Sutherland, James B, 10 Windsor-street, Edinburgh,

{Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada.

{Surron, Franors, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.

{Sutton, William. Esbank, Jesmond, Neweastle-upon-Tyne.

§Sutton, William, M.D. 6 Camden-crescent, Dover.

{Swainson, George, F.L.S. North Drive, St. Anne’s-on-Sea, Lan-
cashire.

tSwales, William. Ashville, Holgate Hill, York.

§Swan, JosppH Witson, M.A., F.R.S, 58 Holland-park, W.

§Swanston, William, F.G.S. Mount Collyer Factory, Belfast.

{Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.

§SwINBURNE, James, M.Inst.C.E. 82 Victoria-street, S.W.

ia mtg. Sir John, Bart. Capheaton Hall, Newcastle-upon-

'yne.

*Swindells, Rupert, F.R.G.S. 22 Oxford Road, Birkdale, Southport.

{Swiynog, Colonel 0., F.L.S. Avenue House, Oxford.

tSwinnerton, R. W., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. Bolarum, Dekkan, India.

{Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. St. John’s House, Cleckheaton.

{Sykes, E.R. 3 Gray’s Inn-place, W.C.

*Sykes, George H., M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.S.A. Glencoe, 64 Elmbourne-
road, Tooting Common, S.W.

“Sykes, Mark L., F.R.M.S. 19 Manor-street, Ardwick, Manchester,

*Sykes, T. H. Cringle House, Cheadle, Cheshire,

{Symes, Rev. J. E., M.A. 70 Redcliffe-crescent, N. ottingham.

{Symus, Rrcnarp Grascorr, M.A., F.G.S., Geological Survey of
Scotland. Sheriff Court-buildings, Edinburgh.

{Symineton, Jounson, M.D. Queen’s College, Belfast.

“Symington, Thomas. Wardie House, Edinburgh.

“Symons, Wint1AM. Dragon House, Bilbrook, Washford, Taunton.

Homies, Wz. H.; MCD; ((Grox.)) MB.OP) HEC; Guildhall,

ath.

§Tabor, J. M. Holmwood, Haringay Park, Crouch End, N.
fTagart, Francis. 199 Queen’s-gate, S.W,

90

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1865.
1871.

1894.
1893.

1891.
1890.

1897,
1892.
1883.

1878.
1861.
1857.
1893.
1858.
1884.
1887.

fTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, Forfar-
shire.

tTarr, Perer Gururin, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.

tTakakusu, Jyun, B.A. 17 Worcester-terrace, Oxford.

tTalbot, Herbert, M.ILE.E. 19 Addison-villas, Addison-street, Not-
tingham.

tTamblyn, James. Glan Llynvi, Maesteg, Bridgend.

{Tanner, H. W. Luoyp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathematics
and Astronomy in University College, Cardiff.

{Tanner, Professor J. H. Ithaca, New York, U.S.A.

*Tausley, Arthur G. University College, W.C.

*Tapscott, R. Lethbridge, Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., F.R.A.S,
62 Croxteth-road, Liverpool.

tTarery, Hvuen. Dublin.

*Tarratt, Henry W. Broadhayes, Dean Park, Bournemouth.

*Tate, Alexander. Rantalard, Whitehouse, Belfast.

tTate, George, Ph.D, College of Chemistry, Duke-street, Liverpool.

*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.

*Taylor, Rey. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge.

§Taylor,G. H. Holly House, 235 Eccles New-road, Salford.

1898.§§Taylor, Lieut.-Colonel G. L. Le M. 6 College-lawn, Cheltenham,

1874.
1887.
1881.
1884,
1882.
1887.
1861.
1881.
1865.
1876.

tTaylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.

tTaylor, George Spratt. 13 Queen’s-terrace, St. John’s Wood, N.W.
*Taylor, H. A. 69 Addison-road, Kensington, W.

*Taytor, H. M., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge.
*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. Oxford-street, Nottingham.
tTaytor, Rey. Canon Isaac, D.D. Settrington Rectory, York.
*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 32 Bruton-street, W.

*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York.

taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham.

tTaylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glascow.

1899.§§Taylor, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Maison Dieu-road, Dover.

1884.
1881,
1883.
1900.
1870.
1887.
1883.
1895.

1893.
1894,
1884.
1858.
1885.
1898.
1879.
1880.

1863.
1889.
1894,
1882.
1896.

*Taylor, Miss S. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham.

tTaylor, Rev. S. BB. M.A. Whiley Hall, York.

tTaylor, S. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport,

§Taylor, T. H. Yorkshire College, Leeds.

tTaylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.

tTaylor, Tom. Grove House, Sale, Manchester.

tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff.

tTaylor, W. A., M.A., F.R.S.E. Royal Scottish Geographical
Society, Edinburgh.

{Taylor, W. F. Bhootan, Whitehorse-road, Croydon, Surrey,

*Taylor, W. W. 30 Banbury-road, Oxford.

tTaylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell.

{TEaLzE, THomas Privain, M.A., F.R.S. 88 Cookridge-street, Leeds,

jTuatt, J. J. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

§Tebb, Robert Palmer. Enderfield, Chislehurst, Kent.

tTemple, Lieutenant G. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near Worcester.

{Trmpie, The Right Hon. Sir Ricwarp, Bart., G.O.S.L, C.LE.,
D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, S.W.

tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.

tTennant, James. Saltwell, Gateshead.

tTerras, J. A.. B.Sc. 40 Findhorn-place, Edinburgh,

fTerrill, William. 42 St. George’s-terrace, Swansea.

“Terry, Rey. T. R., M.A.,F.R.A.S, The Rectory, East Isley, New-
bury, Berkshire,

-

LIST OF MEMBERS, 91

Year of
Election.

1892. *Tesla, Nikola. 45 West 27th-street, New York, U.S.A.

1883. {Tetley,C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

1883. {Tetley, Mrs.C. F. The Brewery, Leeds.

1882, *T'Hanr, Grorce Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University
College, Gower-street, W.C. Hemmet, St. John’s Road, Harrow.

1889. {Thetford, The Right Rev. A. T. Lloyd, Bishop of, D.D. North
Creake Rectory, Fakenham, Norfolk.

1885. {Thin, Dr. George. 22 Queen Anne-street, W.

1871. {Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.

1871. {TutseLron-Dyer, Sir W. T., K.C.M.G.,C.LE., M.A., B.Se., Ph.D.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.8. Royal Gardens, Kew.

1870. {Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire,

1891. {Thomas, Alfred, M.P. Pen-y-lan, Cardiff.

1891. Thomas, A. Garrod, M.D., J.P. Clytha Park, Newport, Mon-
mouthshire.

1891. *Thomas, Miss Clara. Penurrig, Builth.

1891. {Thomas, Edward. 282 Bute-street, Cardiff.

1891. {Thomas, EK. Franklin. Dan-y-Bryn, Radyr, near Cardiff.

1869. {Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.

1875. {Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redland, Bristol

_ 1881. {THomas, J, Brount. Southampton.

1869. {Thomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S8. 86 Breakspear’s-road, Brockley,

S.E.
1880, *Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions,
N.W.

1899. *Thomas, Mrs. J. W. 2 Hampstead Hill-mansions, N.W.

1883. {Thomas, Thomas H. 45 The Walk, Carditf.

1898. {Thomas, Rey. U. Bristol School Board, Guildhall, Bristol.

1883. {Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea.

1886, {Thomas, William, 109 Tettenhall-road, Wolverhampton.

1886. {Thomason, Yeoville. 9 Observatory-gardens, Kensington, W.

1875, {Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.

1891. *Thompson, Beeby, F.C.S8., F.G.S. 55 Victoria-road, Northampton,

1883. {Thompson, Miss C. E. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester.

1891. {Thompson, Charles F. Penhill Close, near Cardiff.

1882. {Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A.

1888. *Thompson, Claude M., M.A., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Cardiff.

1885, {Thompson, D’Arcy W., B,A.,C.B., Professor of Zoology in University
College, Dundee.

1896. *Thompson, Edward P. Whitchurch, Salop.

1888, *Thompson, Francis. Lynton, Haling Park-road, Croydon.

1891. {Thompson, G. Carslake, Park-road, Penarth.

1893. *Thompson, Harry J., M.Inst.C.E., Madras. Care of Messrs. Grindlay
& Co., Parliament-street, S.W.

1870, {THomrson, Sir Henry, Bart. 35 Wimpole-street, W.

1883. *Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 86 Lower Addiscombe-road, Croy-
don.

1891. {Thompson, Herbert M. Whitley Batch, Llandaff.

1891. {Thompson, H. Wolcott. 9 Park-place, Cardiff.

1883. *Tnompson, Isaac Cooxz, F.L.S., F.R.M.S. 63 Croxteth-road,
Liverpool.

1897, {Thompson, J. Barclay. 37 St. Giles’s, Oxford.

1891, {Thompson, J. Tatham, M.B. 23 Charles-street, Cardiff.

1861. *THompson, JosrpH. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Cheshire.

1876, *Thompson, Richard. Dringcote, The Mount, York.

1883. {Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire.

92

Year
Electi

1876

1883

LIST OF MEMBERS,

of
on.

. {THompson, Sizvanus Puizies, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.,
Principal and Professor of Physics in the City and Guilds of
London Technical College, Finsbury, E.C.

. *Thompson, T. H. Redlynch House, Green Walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.

1896. *TnHompson, W. H., M.D., Professor of Physiology in Queen's

1896

College, Belfast.
. {Thompson, W. P. 6 Lord-street, Liverpool.

1867. {Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
1894, {THomson, ArrHuR, M.A., M.D., Professor of Human Anatomy in

the University of Oxford. Exeter College, Oxford.

1889. *Thomson, James, M.A. 22 Wentworth-place, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1876. t{Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow.

1891

. {Thomson, John. 70a Grosvenor-street, W.

1896. {Thomson, John, 3 Derwent-square, Stonycroft, Liverpool.

1890.
1883.

§THomson, Professor J. ARTHUR, M.A.,F.R.S.E. Castleton House,
Old Aberdeen.

{Tuomson, J. J.. M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental
Physics in the University of Cambridge. 6 Scrope-terrace,
Cambridge.

1871. *T'Homson, Joun Mittar, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S., Professor of

1874.
1880.
1897.
1871.
1887.
1867.
1898.

1883.
1881,
1881.
1898.
1898.
1871.

1883.
1899,
1896,
1868.

1889,
1870.

1873.
1874.

1878.
1883.

Chemistry in King’s College, London. 85 Addison-road, W.
§THomson, WILLIAM,F.R.S.E., F.0.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.
§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helens.

{Thorburn, James, M.D. Toronto, Canada.

{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.

tThornton, John. 3 Park-street, Bolton.

tThornton, Sir Thomas. Dundee.

es hse W.M. The Durham College of Science, Newcastle-on-
e.

iihoxe seach Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton.

tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York.

*Thorp, Josiah. Undercliffe, Holmfirth.

§Thorp, Thomas. Moss Bank, Whitefield, Manchester.

§Thorpe, Jocelyn Field, Ph.D. Owens College, Manchester,

{THorpez,T. E.,C.B.,Ph.D.,LL.D.,F.R.S.,F.R.S.E.,Pres.0.S.,Principal

of the Government Laboratories, Clement’s Inn-passage, W.C.
§Threlfall, Henry Singleton, J.P. 1 London-street, Southport.
§THRELFALL, Ricuarp, M.A.,F.R.S, 259 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
§Thrift, Paes Edward. 80 Grosvenor-square, Rathmines,

Dublin.

}Tuvurm.ime, General Sir H. E, L., R.A., 0.5.1, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.

Tudor House, Richmond Green, Surrey.
tThys, Captain Albert. 9 Rue Briderode, Brussels.
tTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M.R.I.A. Apothecaries’

Hall of Ireland, Dublin.

*Trppeman, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28

Jermyn-street, S.W.
tTinpey, Witram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry

in the Royal College of Science, South Kensington, London.

9 Ladbroke-gardens, W.
tTilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A.

{Tillyard, A.I.,M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1883. {Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge.

1865.

{Timmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Spring Hill, Arley, Coventry.

1896. §Timmis, Thomas Sutton. Oleveley, Allerton, Yorkshire.
1899. §Tims, H. W. Marett, M.D., F.L.S. 19 Lyndewode Road, Cam-

bridge.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 98

Hlection.

1900. §Tocher, J. F., F.1.C. 5 Chapel Street, Peterhead, N.B.
1876. {Todd, Rev. Dr, Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, S.E.

1891. {Todd, Richard Rees. Portuguese Consulate, Cardiff.

1897.
1889.
1857.
1888.
1896.

1887.

1865,

1873.
1875.

1884,

1873.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1876.

1883.
1870.

1868,

1891,
1884.
1868.
1891.

(1887.
1883.
1884,
1884.

1879.
1871.

1860.

1884.
1885.
1891.
1887.
1898.
1896.

1886.
1847,
1888.
1871.
1887.
1883.

1892,

tTodhunter, James. 85 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.
§Toll, John M. 49 Newsham-drive, Liverpool.
}Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
{Tomkins, Rev. Henry George. Park Lodge, Weston-super-Mare.
{Toms, Frederick. 1 Ambleside-avenue, Streatham, S.W.
tTonge, James, F.G.S. Woodbine House, West Houghton, Bolton.
oe Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal Schoo] of Mines, Jermyn-street, S.W.
{Torr, Oharles Hawley. St. Alban’s Tower, Mansfield-road, Sher-
wood, Nottingham.
“Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada.
}{Townend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Townsend, Charles. St. Mary’s, Stoke Bishop, Bristol.
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
{Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
*Trait, J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Regius Professor of
Botany in the University of Aberdeen.
{TRaILt, A., M.D., LL.D. Ballylough, Bushmills, Ireland.
{Trait, Wiii1aM A. Giant’s Causeway Electric Tramway,
Portrush, Ireland.
tTraquarr, Ramsay H., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the
Natural History Collections, Museum of Science and Art,
Edinburgh.
{Trayes, Valentine. Maindell Hall, Newport, Monmouthshire,
{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool.
tTrehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
{Treharne, J. Ll. 92 Newport-road, Cardiff.
Trench, F, A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
*Trench-Gascoigne, Mrs. F. R. Parlington, Aberford, Leeds,
{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks,
{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada.
a Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York,
S.A,

{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.

{Trmen, Roranp, M.A, ERS. F.LS., F.Z.S. Water Hall,

St. Aldate’s, Oxford.
§TRIsTRAM, Rev. Henry Baxer, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Durham. The College, Durham.

*Trotter Alexander Pelham. 8 Richmond Terrace, Whitehall, S.W.

§TRorTER, Courts, F.G.S.,F.R.G.S. 10 Randolph-crescent, Edinburgh,

tTrounce, W. J. 67 Newport-road, Cardiff.

*TROUTON, FREDERICK T., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.

§Trow, Albert Howard., Glanhafren, Penarth.

§Truell, Henry Pomeroy, M.B., F.R.C.S.I. Clonmannon, Ashford,
Co, Wicklow.

*Tubby, A. H., F.R.C.S. 25 Weymouth-street, Portland-place, W.

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol.

tTuckett, William Fothergill, M.D. 18 Daniel-street, Bath,

{Tuke, Sir J. Batty, M.D., M.P. Cupar, Fifeshire.

{Tuke, W.C. 29 Princess-street, Manchester.

;TuprER, The Hon. Sir Cuarus, Bart., G.C.M.G., C.B. Ottawa
Canada.

tTurnbull, Alexander R. Ormiston House, Hawick.

94 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election!
1855, {Turnbull, John. 87 West George-street, Glasgow.
1896. {Turner, Alfred. Elmswood Hall, Aigburgh, Liverpool.
1893. §TurNeR, Dawson, M.B. 37 George-square, Edinburgh.
1882. ¢Turner, G.S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.
1883. {Turner, Mrs. G. 8S. Pitcombe, Winchester-road, Southampton.
1894. *Turner, H. H., M.A., B.Sc. F.R.S, F.R.A.S., Professor of Astro-
nomy in the University of Oxford. The Observatory, Oxford.
1886. *TurNER, THomas, A.R.S.M., F.C.S., F.C. Ravenhurst, Rowley
Park, Stafford.
1863. *Turver, Sir Writram, K.C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F-R.S.E.,
Professor of Anatomy in the University of Edinburgh. (Prusi-
DENT.) 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
1893. {TuRney, Sir Joun, J.P. Alexandra Park, Nottingham.
1890. *Turpin, G. S., M.A., D.Sc. School House, Swansea.
1886. *T'wigg, G. H. 56 Claremont-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.

1898.§§Twiggs, H. W. 65 Victoria-street, Bristol.
1899. §Twisden, John R., M.A. 14 Gray’s Inn-square, W.C.

1888.
1882.
1865.

1883,

1897.
1861.

1884.
1888.
1886.
1885.
1883.
1876.

1887.
1872.
1876.
1866.
1898.
1880.

1885.
1896.
1887.
1888.
1884.

1883.

1886.
1868.

1865.
1870.
1869.

‘{Tyack, Llewelyn Newton. University College, Bristol.

{Tyer, Edward. Horneck, 16 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, N.W.

§TyLor, Epwarp Burnerr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of
Anthropology, and Keeper of the University Museum, Oxford.

{Tyrer, Thomas, F.C.S. Stirlmg Chemical Works, Abbey-lane,
Stratford, E.

{Tyrrell, J. B., M.A., B.Sc. Ottawa, Canada.

*Tysoe, John. Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.

*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.

tUnderhill, H. M. 7 High-street, Oxford.

tUnderhill, Thomas; M.D. West Bromwich.

§Unwin, Howard. 1 Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick.

§Unwin, John. LEastcliffe Lodge, Southport.

*Unwin, W. C., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering at
the Central Institution of the City and Guilds of London In-
stitute. 7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, W.

{Upton, Francis R. Orange, New Jersey, U.S.A.

tUpward, Alfred. 150 Holland-road, W.

tUre, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.

{Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee,

{Usher, Thomas. 3 Elmgrove-road, Cotham, Bristol.

tUssuer,. W. A. E., F.G.S8. 28 Jermyn-street, S.W.

{Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. 58 Charles-street, Cardiff.

{Vacher, Francis. 7 Shrewsbury-road, Birkenhead.

*Valentine, Miss Anne. The Elms, Hale, near Altrincham.

{Vallentin, Rupert. 18 Kimberley-road, Falmouth.

{Van aoe Sir W.C., K.C.M.G. Dorchester-street West, Montreal,

anada.

*Vansittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. Haywood House, Oaklands-road,
Bromley, Kent.

t¢Varpy, Rev A.R., M.A. King Edward’s School, Birmingham.

tVarley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, N.

*Vartey, S. ALFRED. Arrow Works, Jackson Road, Holloway, N.

{Varley, Mrs.8. A. 5 Gayton-road, Hampstead, N. W.

tVarwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 95

Year of
Election.

1884,
1895.
1887.

1875.
1883.
1881.
1873.

1885.
1885.
1896.
1896.
1864,
1890.

1899.
1883.
1891.

1886.
1860.
1900.

1890.
1888.
1890.
1900.

1896.
1891.
1884,

1886.
1870.
1892.
1884.
1891.
1891.
1894,
1882.
1885.
1893.
1890.
1897.
1883.
1883.
1891.
1897.
1894.
1866.
1896.
1890.
1894.

{Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-gardens, W.

§Vaughan, D. T. Gwynne. Howry Hall, Llandrindod, Radnorshire.

“VaueHaNn, His Eminence Cardinal. Carlisle-place, Westminster,
S.W

{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.

tVaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport.

§Vetery, V. H., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S. 20 Bradmore-road, Oxford.

oe Sir Epuunp H., Bart., F.R.G.S. Claydon House, Winslow,

ucks.

*Verney, Lady. Claydon House, Winslow, Bucks.

{Vernon, H.H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport.

“Vernon, Thomas T. Wyborne Gate, Birkdale, Southport.

*Vernon, William. Tean Hurst, Tean, Stoke-upon-Trent.

*Vicary, WILLIAM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.

*Villamil, Lieut.-Colonel R. de, R.E. Care of Messrs, Cox & Co.,
16 Charing Cross, S.W.

“Vincent, Swartz, M.B. Physiological Laboratory, University
College, Cardiff.

*Vinus, SypNey Howaprp, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of
Botany in the University of Oxford. Headington Hill, Oxford.

{Vivian, Stephen. Llantrisant.

*Wackrill, Samuel Thomas, J.P. 58 Portland Street, Leamington.

tWaddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucestershire.

OY es Dr. C, E. 2 Marlborough Road, Manningham, Brad-

ord.

{Wadsworth,G.H. 5 Southfield-square, Bradford, Yorkshire.

tWadworth, H. A. Breinton Court, near Hereford.

§Waczr, Harotp W. T. Arnold House, Bass Street, Derby.

§ Wagstaff, C. J. L., B.A. 8 Highfield Place, Manningham, Brad-
ford.

t Wailes, Miss Ellen. Woodmead, Groombridge, Sussex.

tWailes, T. W. 23 Richmond-road, Cardiff.

{Wait, Charles E., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Ten-
nessee. Knoxville, Tennessee, U.S.A.

{Waite, J. W. The Cedars, Bestcot, Walsall.

{ Wake, CHARLES STANILAND. Welton, near Brough, East Yorkshire.

{ Walcot, John. 50 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.

{Waldstein, Professor C., M.A., Ph.D, King's College, Cambridge.

{Wales, H. T. Pontypridd.

{Walford, Edward, M.D. Thanet House, Cathedral-road, Cardiff.

{tWatrorpD, Epwin A., F.G.S. West Bar, Banbury.

*Walkden, Samuel. Downside, Whitchurch, Tavistock.

t Walker, Mr. Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen.

§ Walker, Alfred O., F.L.S. Ulcombe-place, Maidstone, Kent.

§Walker, A. Vannett. The Elms, Weetwood, Leeds.

*WaLrer, B. E., F.G.S, Canadian Bank of Commerce, Toronto.

tWalker, Mrs. Emma. 13 Lendal, York.

t{ Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan.

§ Walker, Frederick W. Tannett. Carr Manor, Meanwood, Leeds.

§Walker, George Blake. Tankersley Grange, near Barnsley.

*Watker, G. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

tWalker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.

Walker, Horace. Belvidere-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.

{Walker, Dr. James. 8 Windsor-terrace, Dundee.

*Walker, James, M.A. 80 Norham-gardens, Oxford,

96

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1866.
1886.

1866.
1884,
1888.
1887.
1883.

1895.
1896.
1896.
1883,

1863.

1897.

1892.

1887.

1889.

1895.

1883.
1884,
1886.

1894.

1887.

1891,
1883.
1895.

1881.
1884.
1887.
1881

1879.
1890,

1874.
1887.
1857.

1880.

1884,
1887.

1882.
1867.
1858.
1884,
1887.

1878.

1882.
1884.
1896,
1896.

*WaALKER, J. Francis, M.A., F.G.8., F.L.S. 45 Bootham, York.
*Walker, Major Philip Billingsley. 16 Llandaff Street, Waverley,
Sydney, New South Wales.
{Walker, 8. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
}Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, S.E.
{Walker, Sydney F. 195 Severn-road, Cardiff.
tWalker, T. A. 15 Great George-street, S.W.
}Walker, Thomas A. 66 Leyland-road, Southport.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
§WatxkerR, WittIAM G., A.M.Inst.C.E. 47 Victoria-street, S.W.
§ Walker, Colonel William Hall, M.P. Gateacre, Liverpool.
{Walker, W.J.D. Lawrencetown, Co. Down, Ireland.
{Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport.
{Watzace, ALFRED RousszL, D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Corfe
View, Parkstone, Dorset.
{Wallace, Chancellor. Victoria University, Toronto, Canada.
{ Wallace, Robert W. 14 Frederick-street, Edinburgh.
*WattER, Aucustus D., M.D., F.R.S. Weston Lodge, 16 Grove
End-road, N.W.
*Wallis, Arnold J.. M.A. 5 Belvoir-terrace, Cambridge.
{Wattis, E. Waurrez, F.S.S. Sanitary Institute, Parkes Museum,
Margaret-street, W.
{ Wallis, Rev. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge.
Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada.
Wallis, Whitworth, F.S.A. Chevening, Montague-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
*WatmistEy, A. T., M.Inst.C.E. Engineer’s Office, Dover Harbour.
tWalmsley, J. Monton Lodge, Eccles, Manchester.
§ Walmsley, R. M., D.Sc. Northampton Institute, Clerkenwell, E.C.
t Walmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton.
§WatsincHaM, The Right Hon. Lord, LL.D., F.R.S. Merton Hall,
Thetford.
{ Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver’s Mount School, Scarborough.
tWanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada.
{Warp, A. W., M.A., Litt.D. Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge.
§Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds,
tWarp, H. Marswatt, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany,
University of Cambridge. New Museums, Cambridge.
{ Ward, Alderman John. Moor Allerton House, Leeds.
§ Ward, John, J.P., F.S.A. Lenoxvale, Belfast.
tWarp, Joun, F.G.S. 28 Stafford-street, Longton, Staffordshire.
tWard, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
*Ward, J. Wesney. Red House, Ravensbourne Park, Catford, S.E.
*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax.
tWard, Thomas. Brookfield House, Northwich.
{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane, Southampton.
{ Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee.
t Wardle, Sir Thomas, F.G.S. St. Edward-street, Leek, Staffordshire.
{Wardwell, George J. 31 Grove-street, Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A.
*Waring, Richard 8. Standard Underground Cable Co., 16th-street,
Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
§ WaRIneTON, Rosert, F.R.S., F.C.S. High Bank, Harpenden, St.
Albans, Herts.
{ Warner, F. I., F.L.S. 20 Hyde Street, Winchester.
*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A.
t Warr, A. F. 4 Invingstone-drive North, Liverpool.
tWarrand, Major-General, R.E. Westhorpe, Southwell, Middlesex.

"=.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 97

Year of
Election.

1875,
1887.

1900.

{ Warren, Algernon. Downgate, Portishead.
{Warren, Major-General Sir Cuartzs, R.E., K.C.B., G.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Athenzum Club, 8.W.

. {Warrington, Arthur W. University College, Aberystwith.
. {Warwick, W. D. Balderton House, Newark-on-Trent.
. *Waterhouse, Major-General J. Oak Lodge, Court-road, Eltham,

Kent.

. { Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 60 Bedford-street, Liverpool.

. §Waterston, David. 16 Merchison Terrace, Edinburgh.

. {Waterston, James H. 37 Lutton-place, Edinburgh.

. [Watherston, Rev. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar

School, Hinckley, Leicestershire.

. { Watkin, F. W. 46 Auriol-road, West Kensington, W.
. [Watson, A. G.,D.C.L. Uplands, Wadhurst, Sussex.
. *Watson, C. J. Alton Oottage, Botteville Road, Acock’s Green,

Birmingham.
Watson, C. Knight, M.A. 49 Bedford-square, W.C.

», § Watson, G., Assoc.M.Inst.0.E, 21 Springfield-mount, Leeds.
. { Watson, Deputy Surgeon-General G. A. Hendre, Overton Park,

Cheltenham.

. {Wartson, Rev. Henry W., D.Sc., F.R.S. The Rectory, Berkeswell,

Coventry.

. {Watson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

. {Watson, John, F.1.C. P.O. Box 317, Johannesburg, South Africa.
. { Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.

. { Watson, R. Spence, LL.D., F.R.G.S. Bensham-grove, Gateshead.
. tWatson, Thomas Donald. 16 St. Mary’s-road, Bayswater, W.

. *Warson, W., B.Sc. 7 Upper Cheyne-row, S.W.

2. §Watson, William, M.D. Waverley House, Slateford, Midlothian.

. *Wartson, Witt1aMHenry,F.C.S., F.G.S. Steelfield Hall, Gosforth,

Cumberland.

. t Watt, Alexander. 19 Brompton-avenue, Sefton Park, Liverpool.

. {Watt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada.

. {Watt, Robert B. E. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.

. tWarts, B.H. 10 Rivers-street, Bath.

. *Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford.

. *Watts, Rev. Canon Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford,

. §Watts, William, F.G.S. Little Don Waterworks, Langsett, near

Penistone.

. {Watts, W. H. Elm Hall, Wavertree, Liverpool.
. *Warts, W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, and

Carrholme, Stackhouse, near Settle.

*Warts, W. W., M.A., Sec. G.S., Assistant Professor of Geology in
the Mason University Oollege, Birmingham; Holm Wood,
Bracebridge Road, Sutton Coldfield.

. [Waugh, James. Higher Grade School, 110 Newport-road,

Cardiff.

. {Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.

. tWebb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire.

. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton.

. t Webb, Sidney. 4 Park-village East, N.W.

. {WepsER, Major-General C. E., O.B., M.Inst.C.E. 17 Egerton-

gardens, S.W.

. §Webber, Thomas. Kensington Villa, 6 Salisbury-road, Cardiff.

. { Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen.
. *Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe.

48 Westendstrasse, Karlsruhe.
G

98 LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1889. {Weeks, John G. Bedlington.

1890. *Weiss, F. Ernest, B.Sc., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in Owens
College, Manchester.

1886. {Weiss, Henry. Westbourne-road, Birmingham.

1865. ee ee M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall

ast, 5. W.

1894.§§Weld, Miss. Conal More, Norham-gardens, Oxford.

1876. Wau, fou W.F.R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. The Museum

xford.

1880. *Weldon, Mrs. Merton Lea, Oxford.

1897. Welford, A. B., M.B. Woodstock, Ontario, Canada.

1881, § Wellcome, Henry S, Snow Hill Buildings, E.C.

1879. §Wetts, CHartzs A., A.I.E.E. 219 High-street, Lewes.

1881. § Wells, Rev. Edward, M.A. West Dean Rectory, Salisbury.

1894. tWells, J. G. Selwood House, Shobnall-street, Burton-on-Trent.

1883. {Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge.

1881. *Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. Escrick Park, Yorkshire.

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire.

1864. *Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland.

1886. *Wertheimer, Julius, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S., Principal of and Professor
of Chemistry in the Merchant Venturers’ Technical College,
Bristol.

1865. { Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, W.

1853. {West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.

1898. {West, Charles D. Imperial University, Tokyo, Japan.

1853, {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.

1900. §West, William, F.L.S. 26 Woodville Terrace, Horton Lane,
Bradford.

1897. {Western, Alfred E. 36 Lancaster-gate, W.

1882. *Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Vale Lodge, Vale of Health, Hamp-
stead, N.W.

1882. { Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southampton.

1882. 1 ey Epwarp B.,F.G.S. 4 St. Margaret’s-terrace, Chelten-

am.

1900. §Wethey, E. R., M.A., F.R.G.S. 5 Cunliffe Villas, Manningham,
Bradford.

1885. *Wuarron, Admiral Sir W. J. L., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.RAS.,
F.R.G.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. Florys, Prince’s-
road, Wimbledon Park, Surrey.

1853. { Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.

1884. We Claude L., M.D. 251 West 52nd-street, New York City,

1878. *Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Wyncote, Boston, Lincolnshire.

1888, §Whelen, John Leman. 18 Frognal, Hampstead, N.W.

1883. {Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge.

1893. *Wuernam, W.C.D.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

1888, *Whidborne, Miss Alice Maria. Charanté, Torquay.

1888. *Whidborne, Miss Constance Mary. Charanté, Torquay.

1879. *WuipporNE, Rev. Grorce Ferris, M.A., F.G.8S. The Priory,
Westbury-on-Trym, near Bristol.

1898. *Whipple, Robert S. Scientific Instrument Company, Cambridge.

1874. { Whitaker, Henry, M.D. Fortwilliam Terrace, Belfast.

1883. *Whitaker, T. Walton House, Burley-in- Wharfedale.

1859, wea ten WitiaM, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. Freda, Campden-road,

roydon,.

LIST OF MEMBERS, 99

Ficotion.

1884. Wee Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg,
anada.

1886, { Whitcombe, E. B. Borough Asylum, Winson Green, Birmingham.

1897. § Whitcombe, George. The Wotton Elms, Wotton, Gloucester.

1886. { White, Alderman, J.P. Sir Harry’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

1876, {White, Angus. Easdale, Argyllshire.

1886.
1883.
1898.
1882.

1885.
1873.
1859.
1885.
1865.
1895.

1884,
1898.
1859.
1877.
1883.
1886.
1897.
1885.
1898.

1881.
1852.
1900.
1891.
1896.
1897.
1867.

1887

1874.
1883.
1870.
1892.
1897.
1888.
1865.
1886.
1896.
1883.
1878.
1889.

1887.
1887.
1896.
1887.

1900.
1892,

1886,

tWhite, A. Silva. 47 Clanricarde-gardens, W.

f{White, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport.

{White, George. Clare-street House, Bristol.

tWhite, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. Nutshalling Rectory, South-
ampton.

*White, J. Martin. Balruddery, Dundee.

White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.

t White, John Forbes. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen.

{White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood.

{tWhite, Joseph. 6 Southwell-gardens, S.W.

fWhite, Philip J., M.B., Professor of Zoology in University College,
Bangor, North Wales.

tWhite, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada.

tWhite, Samuel. Clare-street House, Bristol.

{tWhite, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.

*White, William. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

*White, Mrs. 66 Cambridge-gardens, Notting Hill, W.

*White, William. The Ruskin Museum, Sheffield.

*Wuirz, Sir W.H., K.C.B.,F.R.S. The Admiralty, Whitehall, S.W.

ft Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport.

§Whiteley, R. Lloyd, F.C.S., FIC. 80 Beeches-road, West
Bromwich.

tWhitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough.

tWhitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.

§ Whitley, K. N. Heath Royde, Halifax.

§ Whitmell, Charles T., M.A., B.Sc. Invermay, Headingley, Leeds.

§ Whitney, Colonel C, A. The Grange, Fulwood Park, Liverpool.

§Wuitraker, E. T., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.

*Wuirty, Rev. Joun Irwiye, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 11 Poplar-
road, Ramsgate.

{Whitwoll, William. Overdene, Salthurn-by-the-Sea.

*Whitwill, Mark. 1 Berkeley-square, Clifton, Bristol.

tWhitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport.

tWhitworth, Rev. W. Allen, M.A. 7 Margaret-street, W.

§ Whyte, Peter, M.Inst.C.E. 3 Clifton-terrace, Edinburgh.

{Wickett, M., Ph.D. 3839 Berkeley-street, Toronto, Canada.

tWickham, Rev. F. D.C. Horsington Rectory, Bath.

{Wiggin, Sir H., Bart. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham.

tWiggin, Henry A. The Lea, Harborne, Birmingham.

{ Wigglesworth, J. County Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool.

Wigglesworth, Mrs. 23 Westbourne-grove, Scarborough.

t~Wigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.

*Wilberforce, Professor L. R., M.A. University College, Liverpool.

t{Wild, George. Bardsley Colliery, Ashton-under-Lyne.

*Witpe, Henry, D.Sc., F.R.S. The Hurst, Alderley Edge, Cheshire,

}Wildermann, Meyer. 22 Park-crescent, Oxford.

t{ Wilkinson, C. H. Slaithwaite, near Huddersfield.

§ Wilkinson, J. B. Dudley Hill, Bradford.

{Wilkinson, Rev. J. Frome., M.A. Barley Rectory, Royston,
Herts.

*Wilkinson, J. H. Elmburst Hall, Lichfield,

G2

00

LIST OF MEMBERS.

Year of
Election.

1879.
1887.
1872.
1890,
1872.
1894,
1891.
1861.

1887.
1883.
1861.
1875.

1883.
1888.
1891.

1883.
1887.
1888.

1875.
1891.
1886.
1883.

1883.
1877.
1883.
1850.

1857.

1876.
1863.
1895.
1895.

{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York.

* Wilkinson, Thomas Read. Vale Bank, Knutsford, Cheshire.

tWilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.

tWillans, J. W. Kirkstall, Leeds.

{Wuert, Henry. Arnold House, Brighton.

{Willey, Arthur. New Museums, Cambridge.

{Williams, Arthur J., M.P. Coedymwstwr, near Bridgend.

*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 2 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, W.

{ Williams, Sir E. Leader, M.Inst.C.E. The Oaks, Altrincham.

*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea.

* Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 6 Heathfield, Swansea,

*Williams, Rev. Herbert Addams. Llangibby Rectory, near New-
port, Monmouthshire.

}Williams, Rev. H. Alban, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.

{Williams, James. Bladud Villa, Entry Hill, Bath.

§Williams, J. A. B., M.Inst.C.E. Lingfield Grange, Branksome
Park, Bournemouth.

*Williams, Mrs. J. Davies. 3 Lord Street West, Southport.

{Williams, J. Francis, Ph.D. Salem, New York, U.S.A.

*Williams, Miss Katharine T. Llandaff House, Pembroke Vale,
Clifton, Bristol.

*Williams, M. B. Killay House, Killay, R.S.O.

{Williams, Morgan. 5 Park-place, Cardiff.

{Williams, Richard, J.P. Brunswick House, Wednesbury.

{Williams, R. Price. 28 Compayne-gardens, West Hampstead,
London, N.W.

tWilliams, T. H. 21 Strand-street, Liverpool.

*Wirtiams, W. CaRteton, F.C.S. University College, Sheffield.

{ Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire.

*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.S.,
High Pitfold, Haslemere.

t{WittraMsoy, Bensamuin, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Trinity College,
Dublin.

{ Williamson, Rev. F. J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.

{Williamson, John. South Shields.

tWitimwk, W. 14 Castle-street, Liverpool.

{ Willis, John C., M.A., Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens,
Ceylon.

1896.§§ WiILLIson, J. 8. Toronto, Canada.

1882.
1859.
1886,
1898.
1899.
1899.
1886.
1885.
1878.

1876.
1894.

1874.

1876.
1900.

tWillmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. Chelsea Lodge, Tite-street, SW.

{Wills, A. W. Wylde Green, Erdington, Birmingham,

§Wills, H. H. Barley Wood, Wrington, R.S.O., Somerset.

§ Willson, George. The Rosary, Wendover, Tring.

§ Willson, Mrs. George. The Rosary, Wendover, Tring.

{Wilson, Alexander B. Holywood, Belfast.

{Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.

{ Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. Free Church Manse,
North Queensferry.

tWilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.

*Wilson, — J., F.LC., F.C.S. 14 Old Queen-street, Westmin-
ster, S.W.

tWutson, Major-General Sir C. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L.,
E.R.S., F.R.G.S. The Atheneum Club, 8. W.

Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.

*Wilson, Duncan Rt. Menethorpe, Malton,

LIST OF MEMBERS, 101

Year of
Election.

1890.
1863.

1847.

1875.

1874.
1863.
1895.
1883.

1879.
1885.
1890.
1865.

1884.
1896.

1879.
1876,
1847.
1883,
1861.
1892.
1887.
1871.

1861.

1877.
1886.

1887.
1863,
1888.
1875.

1883.
1898,
2884.

1883.
1863.
1883.
1875.
1878,

1883,
1893.

1883.
1864,

1871.
1899,

Wilson, Edmund. Denison Hall, Leeds.

{ Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.

*Wilson, Frederick. 99 Albany-street, N.W.

{Witson, GzorcE Fereusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.

*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.

t Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.

tWilson, Gregg. The University, Edinburgh,

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Farnborough Lodge, Farnborough, R.S.O.,
Kent.

Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.

{Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen.

fWilson, J. Mitchell, M.D. 51 Hall Gate, Doncaster.

fWrtson, Ven. Archdeacon Jamuus M., M.A., F.G.S. The Vicarage,
Rochdale.

tWilson, James S. Grant. Geological Survey Office, Sheriff Court-
buildings, Edinburgh.

t Wilson, John H., D.Sc., F.RS.E., Professor of Botany, Yorkshire
College, Leeds.

tWilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield.

TWilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S.W.

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke.

{Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire.

t Wilson, Thos. Bright. 4 Hope View, Fallowfield, Manchester.

§ Wilson, T. Stacey, M.D, Wyddrington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.

§ Wilson, W., jun. © Hillocks of Terpersie, by Alford, Aberdeenshire.

*Witson, Wituiam E., F.R.S. Daramona House, Streete, Rath-
owen, Ireland.

*WILTsHIRE, Rey. Toomas, M.A., D.Sc, F.G.S., F.L.3., F.R.A.S,
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, S8.E,

tWindeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.

tWrnptz, Berrram C, A., M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of
Anatomy in Mason College, Birmingham.

1 Windsor, William Tessimond. Sandiway, Ashton-on-Mersey.

*Winwoop, Rev. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.

{Wopznovsg, Right Hon. E. R., M.P. 56 Chester-square, S. W.

{Worre-Barry, Sir Jonn, K.C.B., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 21 Delahay-
street, Westminster, S. W.

tWolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helens, Lancashire.

tWollaston, G. H Clifton College, Bristol.

f{Womack, Frederick, M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Physics and Applied
Mathematics at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. Bedford College,
Baker-street, W. F

{Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey.

“Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B.

tWood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire.

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.

tWoop, Sir H. Trueman, M.A. Society of Arts, John Street,
Adelphi, W.C., and 16 Leinster Square, Bayswater, W.

*Wood, J. H. 21 Westbourne Road, Birkdale.

fWood, Joseph T. 29 Muster’s-road, West Bridgeford, Nottingham-
shire.

tWood, Mrs. Mary. Care of E. P. Sherwood, Esq. Holmes Villa,
Rotherham.

tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.

tWood, Provost T. Baileyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh,

*Wood, W. Hoffman. Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire,

102

LIST OF MEMBERS,

Year of
Election,

1872.
1845.

1863.
1884.
1885.
1884.
1896.
1888,
1872.
1887.

1869.
1886.
1866.
1870.
1894.

1884.
1890,

1877.
1883,

1856.
1874.

tWood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rev. William Spicer, M.A.,D.D. Waldington, Combe Park,
Bath.
*WoopaLL, Jonn Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. 5 Queen’s-mansions,
Victoria-street, S. W.
tWoodbury, C.J. H. 31 Milk-street, Boston, U.S.A.
tWoodeock, Herbert 8. The Elms, Wigan.
tWoodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, N.W.
§WoopHEAD, Professor G. Suus, M.D. Pathological Laboratory,
Cambridge.
*Woodiwiss, Mrs. Alfred. Weston Manor, Birkdale, Lancashire.
t Woodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
*Woops, EpwarpD, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
Woops, Samvet. 1 Drapers’-gardens, Throgmorton-street, E.C.
*WoopwakD, Arruur Surru, LL.D.,F.L.S., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper
of the Department of Geology, British Museum (Natural
History), Cromwell-road, 8S. W.
*Woopwarp, C. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham.
tWoodward, Harry Page, F.G.8. 129 Beaufort-street, S.W.
tWoopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart-
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell-
road, S.W.
tWoopwarp, Horace B., F.RS., F.G.S. Geological Museum,
Jermyn-street, 8. W.
*Woodward, John Harold. 13 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster,
S.W.
*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees.
*Woollcombe, Robert Lloyd, M.A., LL.D., F.LInst., F.S.S., M.R.L.A.,
F.R.S.A. (Ireland), 14 Waterloo-road, Dublin,
}Woollcombe, Surgeon-Major Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke,
Devonport.
*Woolley, George Stephen. Victoria Bridge, Manchester.
tWoolley, Thomas Smith. South Collingham, Newark.
t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.

1899.§§ Workman, Thomas. Oraigdarragh, Co. Down.

1878.

1863.
1855.
1856,

1884.
1896.
1879.
1883.
1883.
1890.
1857.

1886.
1884,
1876.
1865.
1884.

1876,

tWormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford-
shire.

*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.

*Worthington, Rey. Alfred William, B.A. Old Swinford, Stourbridge.

t Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington Terrace, Mornington Crescent,
Hampstead Road, N.W.

tWragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada.

t Wrench, Edward M., F.R.C.S. Park Lodge, Bastow.

{Wrentmore, Francis. 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, S.W.

*Wright, Rey. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge.

*Wright, Rey. Benjamin, M.A. Sandon Rectory, Chelmsford.

Wright, Dr. C. J. Virginia-road, Leeds.

tWrieut, KE. Percevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor
of Botany and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.

{ Wright, Frederick William. 4 Full-street, Derby.

t{Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

{Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow.

tWeight, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham,

tWricur, Professor R, Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College
Toronto, Canada.

tWright, William, 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow.

LIST OF MEMBERS. 103

Year of
Election.

1871. {WrieHtson, Sir THomas, Bart.,M.P., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Neasham
Hall, Darlington.

1898. {Wrong, Professor George M. The University, Toronto, Canada.

1897. {Wyld, Frederick. 127 St. George-street, Toronto, Canada.

1883.§§ Wyllie, Andrew. Sandown, Southport.

1885. {Wyness, James D., M.D. 349 Union-street, Aberdeen.

1871. { Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Plas-yn-Cefn, St. Asaph.

1862. {Wynnz, Artour Beevor, F'.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.

1899.§§Wrnnz, W. P., D.Sc., F.R.S. 10 Selwood-terrace, South Ken-
sington, S. W.

1875. {Yabbicom, Thomas Henry. 23 Oakfield-road, Clifton, Bristol.
; *Yarborough, George Cook. Camp’s Mount, Doncaster,
1894, *Yarrow, A. F. Poplar, E.

1883.{Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds.

1896. {Yates, Rev.S. A. Thompson. 43 Phillimore-gardens, 8.W.

1887. tYeats, Dr. Chepstow.

1884. tYee, Fung. Care of R. E. C. Fittock, Esq., Shanghai, China.

1877. {Yonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.

1891. {Yorath, Alderman T. V. Cardiff.

1884. {York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, W.

1891. §Young, Alfred C., F.C.S. 64 Tyrwhitt-road, St. John’s, §.E.

1886. *Youne, A. H., M.B., F.R.C.S., Professor of Anatomy in Owens
College, Manchester.

1884, { Young, Sir Frederick, K.C.M.G. 5 Queensberry-place, S.W.

1894, *Young, George, Ph.D. University College, Sheftield.

1884, { Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada.

1876. {Youne, Joun, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glaszow.

1896. tYoung, J. Denholm, 88 Canning-street, Liverpool.

1885. {Young, R. Bruce. 8 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.

1886. §Young, R. Fisher. New Barnet, Herts.

1883. *Youne, Sypyey, D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol. 10 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.

1887. {Young, Sydney. 29 Mark-lane, E.C.

1890, {Young, T. Graham, F.R.S.E. Westfield, West Calder, Scotland,

1868. {Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich.

1886. {Zair, George. Arden Grange, Solihull, Birmingham,
1886, {Zair, John. Merle Lodge, Moseley, Bumingham.

104

Year of
Election

1887.
1892.
1881.

1897.
1894.
1894,
1887.
1892.
1894,

1893,
1880.
1887.

1884,

1890.
1893.

1887.
1884,

1894,

1897.
1887,
1887.
1894.
1861.
1894,
1887.

1873.
1880.
1870.
1876.
1889.

1872.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Cleveland Abbe. Weather Bureau, Department of Agri-
culture, Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

Professor Svante Arrhenius, The University, Stockholm. (Bergs-
gatan 18). :

Professor G. F'. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
U.S.A. (8909, Locust-street).

Professor Carl Barus. Brown University, Providence, R.1., U.S.A.

Professor F, Beilstein. 8th Line, No. 17, St. Petersburg.

Professor E. van Beneden. 50 quai des Pécheurs, Liége, Belgium.

Professor A. Bernthsen, Ph.D. Mannheim, L 11, 4, Germany.

Professor M. Bertrand. 75 rue de Vaugirard, Paris.

Deputy Surgeon-General J. 8. Billings. 40 Lafayette Place, New
York, U.S.A.

Professor Christian Bohr. Bredgade 62, Copenhagen, Denmark,

Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. IX/I. Tiirkenstrasse 3, Vienna.

aires Lewis Boss, Dudley’ Observatory, Albany, New York,
U.S.A

Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Harvard Medical School, Boston,
Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor Dr. L. Brentano. Maximilian-platz 1, Miinchen.

Professor Dr. W. C. Brégger. Universitets Mineralogske Institute,
Kristiania, Norway.

Professor J. W, Briihl. Heidelberg.

Professor George J. Brush. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
USA

Professor D. H. Campbell. Stanford University, Palo Alto, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A.

M. C. de Candolle. 3 Cour de St. Pierre, Geneva, Switzerland.

Professor G, Capellini. 65 Via Zamboni, Bologna.

Hofrath Dr. H. Caro. C. 8, No. 9, Mannheim.

Emile Cartailhac. 5 Rue de la Chaine, Toulouse, France.

Professor Dr. J. Victor Carus. Universitiitstrasse 165, Leipzig.

Dr. A. Chauveau. Rue Cuvier 7, Paris,

F, ye Sere United States Geological Survey, Washington,

SA.

Professor Guido Cora. Via Goito 2, Rome.

Professor Cornu. Rue de Grenelle 9, Paris.

J. M. Crafts, M.D, L’Ecole des Mines, Paris,

Professor Luigi Cremona. 5 Piazza S. Pietro in Vincoli, Rome.

W. ABs United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,

Professor G. Dewalque. 17 rue de la Paix, Liége, Belgium.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 105

Year of
Election,

1870.
1890.
1876.
1894.
1892.
1894.

1892.
1874.
1886.
1887.
1894.
1872.
1894,
1887.
1892.
1881,
1866.
1884.

1884,
1889.

1892.
1870.
1889.
1889.
1884,

1892.

1876.
1881.
1895.

1887.
1893.
1894.
18938.

1893.
1897.
1887.
1881,
1887.
1884,

1867.
1876,

1881.
1887.

1876.
1884,

Dr. Anton Dohrn, D.C.L. Naples.

Professor V. Dwelshauvers-Dery. 5 Quai Marcellis, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence.

Professor Dr. W. Einthoven. Leiden, Netherlands.

Professor F. Elfving. Helsingfors, Finland.

Professor T. W. W. Engelmann, D.C.L. Neue Wilhelmstrasse 15,
Berlin, N.W.

Professor Léo Errera. 88 Rue de la Loi, Brussels,

Dr. W. Feddersen. Carolinenstrasse 9, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto Finsch. Leiden, Netherlands,

Professor Dr. R. Fittig. Strassburg.

Professor Wilhelm Foerster, D.C.L. Encke Platz 3a, Berlin, S. W. 48.

W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris.

Professor Léon Fredericq. Rue de Pitteurs 20, Liége, Belgium.

Professor Dr. Anton Fritsch. 66 Wenzelsplatz, Prague.

Professor Dr. Gustav Fritsch. Dorotheen Strasse 35, Berlin.

Professor C. M. Gariel. 6 rue Edouard Détaille, Paris.

Dr. Gaudry. 7 bis rue des Saints Péres, Paris.

Freer J. Willard Gibbs. Yale University, New Haven, Conn.,
U.S.A

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A.

G. K. eae United States Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A. S48

Daniel C. Gilman. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

William Gilpin. Denver, Colorado, U.S.A.

Professor Gustave Gilson. l'Université, Louvain.

A. Gobert. 222 Chaussée de Charleroi, Brussels.

Gente A. W. Greely, LL.D. War Department, Washington, D.C.,

SA.

Dr. C. E. Guillaume. Bureau International des Poids et Mesures,
Pavillon de Breteuil, Sévres.

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena.

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. 387 Gorham-street, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.

Professor Dr. Emil Chr. Hansen. Carlsberg Laboratorium, Copen-
hagen, Denmark.

Fr. von Hefner-Alteneck. Berlin.

Professor Paul Heger. Rue de Drapiers 35, Brussels.

Professor Ludimar Hermann. The University, Kénigsberg, Prussia.

Professor Richard Hertwig. Zoologisches Institut, Alte Akademie,
Munich.

Professor Hildebrand. Stockholm.

Dr. G. W. Hill. West Nyack, N.Y., U.S.A.

Professor W. His. Kénigstrasse 22, Leipzig.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, LL.D., C.M.Z.S. The University,
Utrecht, Netherlands,

Dr. hail W. Huntington. Oloyne House, Newport, Rhode Island,

A

Professor C. Loring Jackson. 6 Boylston Hall, Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts, U.S.A.

Dr. J. Janssen, LL.D. L’Observatoire, Meudon, Seine-et-Oise.

Dr. ae . Janssen, Villa Frisia, Aroza, Graubiinden, Switzer-
and,

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States
Naval Academy. 82 East Preston Street, Baltimore, U.S.A.

Professor C. Julin. 151 rue de Frognée, Liége.

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 9 Via Borgonuovo, Milan.

Professor Dairoku Kikuchi, M.A, Imperial University, Toky6, Japan.

106

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1873.
1894.
1896.

1856.
1894.
1887,

1894.
1887.

1877,

1887.
1887.
1882.

1887.

1872.
1887,
1883.
1877.
1837.
1871.

1871.
1894,
1887.
1867.
1887.
1890.

1887.
1887.
1884.
1887.
1894,
1893.
1877.

1894.
1897.
1864.
1897.

1887.
1889.
1894.

1864.
1884.

1887.
1894,
1894.
1890,

Professor Dr, Felix Klein. Wilhelm-Weberstrasse 3, Géttingen,

Professor Dr. L, Kny, Kaiser-Allee 92, Wilmersdorf, bei Berlin.

Dr. Kohlrausch, Physikalisch-technische Reichsanstalt, Charlot-
tenburg, Berlin.

Professor A. von Kélliker. Wiirzburg, Bavaria.

Professor J. Kollmann, St. Johann 88, Basel, Switzerland.

Professor Dr. Arthur Konig. Physiological Institute, The Uni-
versity, Berlin, N.W.

Maxime Kovalevsky. Beaulieu-sur-Mer, Alpes-Maritimes.

Professor W, Krause. Knesebeckstrasse, 17/I, Charlottenburg, bei
Berlin.

Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. The University, Bern,
Switzerland.

Professor A. Ladenburg. Kaiser Wilhelm Str. 108, Breslau.

Professor J. W. Langley. 77 Cornell Street, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A,

Dr. 8. P. Langley, D.C.L., Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
Washington, U.S.A.

Dr. Leeds, Professor of Chemistry at the Stevens Institute, Hoboken,
New Jersey, U.S.A.

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue Notre Dame des Changes, Paris.

Professor A. Lieben. IX. Wasagasse 9, Vienna.

Dr. F. Lindemann. Franz-Josefstrasse 12/I, Munich.

Dr. M. Lindemann. Dresden.

Professor Dr. Georg Lunge. The University, Zurich.

Professor Jacob Liiroth, The University, Freiburg-in-Breisgau,
Germany.

Professor Dr. Liitken. Gothersgade 14/I, Copenhagen, Denmark,

Dr. Otto Maas. Wurzerstrasse 1b, Munich.

Dr. Henry C. McCook. 3,700 Chestnut-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A.

Professor Mannheim. 1 Boulevard Beauséjour, Paris.

Dr. C. A. Martius. Voss Strasse 8, Berlin, W.

Professor E, Mascart, Membre de l'Institut. 176 rue de l'Université,
Paris. ‘

Professor D. I. Mendeléeff, D.C.L. St. Petersburg.

Professor N. Menschutkin. St. Petersburg.

Professor Albert A. Michelson, The University, Chicago, U.S.A.

Dr. Charles Sedgwick Minot. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.

Professor G, Mittag-Leffler. Djuvsholm, Stockholm.

Professor H. Moissan. The Sorbonne, Paris (7 Rue Vauquelin).

Professor V. L. Moissenet. 4 Boulevard Gambetta, Chaumont, Hte.

Marne, France.

Dr. Edmund von Mojsisovics. Strohgasse 26, Vienna, III/3.

Professor Oskar Montelius. St. Paulsgatan 11, Stockholm, Sweden.

Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia.

Professor HK. W. Morley, LL.D. Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio,
U.S.A.

E. 8. Morse. Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass., U.S.A.

Dr. F. Nansen. _ Lysaker, Norway.

Professor R. Nasini. Istituto Chimico dell’ Universita, Padova,
Italy.

Dr. G. Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.

Professor Simon Newcomb. 1620 P.-street, Washington, D.C.,
U.S.A.

Professor Emilio Noelting. Miihlhausen, Elsass, Germany.

Professor H. F. Osborn. Columbia College, New York, U.S.A.

Baron Osten-Sacken. Heidelberg.

Professor W. Ostwald. Linnéstrasse 2, Leipzig,

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 107

Year of
Election

1889. Professor A. S. Packard. Brown . University, Providence, Rhode
Island, U.S.A.

1890. Maffeo Pantaleoni. 20 Route de Malagnou, Geneva.

1895. Professor F, Paschen. Scheffelstrasse 2, Hannover.

1887. Dr. Pauli. Feldbergstrasse 49, Frankfurt a. M., Germany.

1890. Professor Otto Pettersson. Stockhoms Hogskola, Stockholm,

1894, Professor W. Pfeffer, D.C.L. Linnéstrasse 11, Leipzig.

1870. Professor Felix Plateau, 152 Chaussée de Courtrai, Gand, Belgium.

1884, Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the
United States. 1333 F. Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., U.S.A.

1886, Professor Putnam. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

1887. Professor Georg Quincke. Hauptstrasse 47, Friederichsbau, Heidel-
berg.

1868. L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich.
Sonnenstrasse 7.

1895. Professor Ira Remsen. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, U.S.A.

1886. Rev. A. Renard. 6 Rue du Roger, Gand, Belgium.

1897. Professor Dr. C. Richet. 15 Rue de l'Université, Paris, France.

1873. Professor Baron von Richthofen, Kurfiirstenstrasse 117, Berlin, W.

1896. Dr. van Rijckevorsel. Parklaan 7, Rotterdam, Netherlands.

1892. Professor Rosenthal, M.D. Erlangen, Bavaria.

1890, A. Lawrence Rotch. Blue Hill Observatory, Readville, Massachusetts,
U.S.A.

1881. Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, U.S.A.

1895. Professsr Karl Runge. (Kaiser Wilhelmstrasse 5, Kirchrode, bei
Hannover.

1894, Professor P. H. Schoute. The University, Groningen, Netherlands.

1883. Dr. Ernst Schréder. Gottesanerstrasse 9, Karlsruhe in Baden.

1874, Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Potsdamerstrasse 754, Berlin.

1897. Professor W. B. Scott. Princeton, N.J., U.S.A.

1873. Dr. A. Shafarik. Vinohrady 422, Prague.

1892. Dr. Maurits Snellen, Chief Director of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands, de Bilt, near Utrecht.

1887. Professor H. Graf Solms. Bot. Garten, Strassburg.

1887. Ernest Solvay. 25 Rue du Prince Albert, Brussels.

1888. Dr. Alfred Springer. 312 East 2nd St., Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.A.

1889. Professor G. Stefanescu. Strada Verde 8, Bucharest, Roumania.

1881. Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. ‘lhe University, Athens.

1894, Professor I. Strasburger. The University, Bonn.

1881. Professor Dr, Rudolf Sturm. Friinkelplatz 9, Breslau.

1884, Professor Robert H. Thurston. Cornell University, Ithaca, New
York, U.S.A.

1864, Dr. Otto Porell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Charlottendal, Siljeholmen, Sweden.

1887. Dr. T. M. Treub. Buitenzorg, Java.

1887. Professor John Trowbridge. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massa-
chusetts, U.S.A.

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University

of Pesth, Hungary.

1890. Professor Dr. J. H. van’t Hoff Ubhlandstrasse 2, Charlottenburg,
Berlin.

1889. Wladimir Vernadsky. Mineratozical Museum, Moscow.

1886. Professor Jules Vuylsteke. 21 rue Belliard, Brussels, Belgium.

1887. Professor H. F. Weber. Zurich.

1887. Professor Dr. Leonhard Weber. Moltke Strasse 60, Kiel.

1887, Professor August Weismann. Freiburg-in-Breisgau, Baden.

108

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,

Year of
Election.

1887.
1881.
1887.

1887.

1887.
1887.
1876.
1887.
1896,
1887.

Dr. H. C. White. Athens, Georgia, U.S.A.

Professor H. M. Whitney. Branford, Conn., U.S.A.

Professor E. Wiedemann. Erlangen. [C/o T. A. Barth, Johannis-

gasse, Leipzig. |

Professor Dr. R. Wiedersheim. Hansastrasse 3, Freiburg-im-Breisgau,
Baden.

Professor Dr. J. Wislicenus. Liebigstrasse 18, Leipzig.

Dr. Otto N. Witt. 21 Siegmundshof, Berlin, N.W. 23.

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aureliusstrasse 9, Aachen,

Professor C. A. Young. Princeton College, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Professor E. Zacharias. Botanischer Garten, Hamburg.

Professor F. Zirkel. Thalstrasse 33, Leipzig.

109

LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS

TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Belfast, Queen’s College.

Birmingham, Midland Institute.

Brighton Public Library.

Bristol Naturalists’ Society.

——, The Museum.

Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Cardiff, University College.

Cornwall, Royal Geological Socjety of.

Dublin, Geological Survey of Ireland.

——, Royal College of Surgeons in
Treland.

, Royal Geological Society of
Treland.

——, Royal Irish Academy.

——, Royal Society of.

Dundee, University College.

Edinburgh, Royal Society of.

——, Royal Medical Society of.

, Scottish Society of Arts.

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum.

Glasgow Philosophical Society.

——, Institution of Engineers and
Shipbuilders in Scotland.

Leeds, Institute of Science. __

——, Philosophical and Literary
Society of. f

Liverpool, Free Public Library.

, Royal Institution.

London, Admiralty, Library of the.

——, Anthropological Institute.

——, Arts, Society of.

——,Chemical Society.

——, Civil Engineers, Institution of.

——, East India Library.

——., Geological Society. ’

, Geology, Museum of Practical,

28 Jermyn Street.

, Greenwich, Royal Obstzvatory.

——, Guildhall, Library.

, Kew Observatory.

——, King’s College.

——, Linnean Society.

London, London Institution.

——-, Mechanical Engineers, Institu-
tion of.

——, Physical Society.

——, Meteorological Office.

——, Royal Asiatic Society.

——, Royal Astronomical Society.

——, Royal College of Physicians.

——, Royal College of Surgeons.

——, Royal Engineers’ Institute,
Chatham.

——, Royal Geographical Society.

——, Royal Institution. :

——, Royal Meteorological Society.

——, Royal Society.

, Royal Statistical Society.

——, Sanitary Institute.

——,, United Service Institution.

——, University College.

——, War Office, Library.

——.,, Zoological Society.

Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.

» Mechanics’ Institute.

Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Literary and
Philosophical Society.

——, Public Library.

Norwich, The Free Library.

Nottingham, The Free Library.

Oxford, Ashmolean Society.

——,, Radcliffe Observatory.

Plymouth Institution.

——, Marine Biological Association.

Salford, Royal Museum and Library.

Sheffield, University College.

Southampton, Hartley Institution.

Stonyhurst College Observatory.

Swansea, Royal Institution of South
Wales.

Yorkshire Philosophical Society.

The Corresponding Societies.

110

EUROPE.

Berlinesecscasee Die Kaiserliche Aka- | Milan ............ The Institute.

demie der Wissen- | Modena ......... Royal Academy.

schaften. Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists.
Bonteecnecsss sas University Library. et ) Ty ceanens University Library.
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of |} Munich ......... University Library.

Sciences. Naples cares tencee Royal Academy of
Charkow ......... University Library. Sciences.
Coimbra ......... Meteorological Ob- | Nicolaieff......... University Library.

servatory. RaNIS tesencesssece Association Frangaise
Copenhagen ...Royal Society of pour l’Avancement

Sciences. des Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia... University Library, al es cheneeores Geographical Society.
Dresden ......... Royal Museum. —$—seseeveseees Geological Society.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | —— ............ Royal. Academy of

ciety. Sciences,
Geneva..........+. Natural History So- | —— ............ School of Mines.

ciety. Tequlliie\2y docecase- Imperial Observatory.
Gottingen ...... University Library. DERG ecerecreares Accademia dei Lincei.
(GT AIZee ecco omen on Naturwissenschaft- ys csidveeates Collegio Romano.

licher Verein. = receseeceees Italian Geographical
ET ae ies 9e: seerees Leopoldinisch-Caro- Society.

linische Akademie. | —— ............ Italian Society of
Harlem) \.<<.cona. Société Hollandaise Sciences.

des Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
Heidelberg ...... University Library. | —— ............ Imperial Observatory.
Helsingfors...... University Library. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Jengass.cecocapaees University Library. Aiiot escansoe ee Royal Academy of
Kazan, Russia ... University Library. Sciences. _
UGE Sen asodo stance Royal Observatory. Utrecht” .<.5..-.. University Library.
IKG OViase sees teceee University Library. Wien vaearase ss: The Imperial Library.
Lausanne......... The University, = | —— ......esee Central Anstalt fur
Leyden ......... University Library. Meteorologie und
TIE 26 ae senecnees University Library. Erdmagnetismus.
Lisbon ............ Academia Real des | Zurich............ General Swiss Society.

Sciences.

ASIA.

NOTA 7s. stesdeeens The College. | Calcutta ......... Medical College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institue | ——- —.......... Presidency College.

tion. Coaylonris cee The Museum,Colombo.
——seveevers Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observator 'y

lepolmvoel seen heh Y\i=—— "J... acta University Library.
Calcutta ......... Asiatic Society. TOKYO. \.<50cseuen Imperial University.
—ees Ip eleea de om Hooghly College.

AFRICA.

Cape of Good Hope. .

« The Royal Observatory.

lil

AMERICA.
Albany .....,... The Institute. New York....../ American Society of
Amherst ......... The Observatory. Civil Engineers.
Boston............ American Academy of | —— ......... Lyceum of Natural
Arts and Sciences. History.
California ...... The University. Ottawa ......... Geological Survey of
——— hese Lick Observatory. Canada.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | Philadelphia... American Philosophical
Library. Society.
Chicazo ......... American Medical} —— .......... Franklin Institute.
Association. Toronto ~...... The Observatory.
=== ieee Field Columbian Mu- | —— ......... The Canadian Insti-
seum. tute.
Kingston ......... Queen’s University. | —— _......... The University.
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | Washington ...Bureau of Ethnology.
tific Society. | —— ........ Smithsonian Institu-
IMGRICO: ..cessc0s Sociedad Cientifica tion.
‘Antonio Alzate,” | —— ......... The Naval Observatory.
Missouri ......... Botanical Garden. | —— ......... United States Geolo-
Montreal ......... Council of Arts and | gical Survey of the
Manufactures. Territories,
—- sseeeeeee McGill University.
AUSTRALIA,

Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government.

Brisbane . . «+ . Queensland Museum,

Sydney . . . . Public Works Department.

Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.

NEW ZEALAND.

Canterbury Museum,

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SPOTTISWOODE AND CO. LTD., NEW-STREET SQUARE
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- . « The Royal Geographical Society.

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